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Achieving the dream: undocumented Central American Latinas in college

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ACHIEVING THE DREAM:
UNDOCUMENTED CENTRAL AMERICAN LATINAS IN COLLEGE

by

Maruth Figueroa

______________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2013

Copyright 2013
Maruth Figueroa

ii

Dedication
I dedicate my dissertation to the women who shared their life stories with me. It was my
honor to be allowed in and learn from your experiences, struggles, and triumphs. It is through
your stories that I find the courage to speak out and be an advocate of social justice in higher
education.
To my parents, who courageously crossed two borders from Guatemala to the U.S. in
search of a better life for my sister and I. If not for your sacrifices I would not have
accomplished this milestone.
And finally to all the immigrants of this great nation, it is our shared experiences that
built and continue to add to the fabric of our communities.

iii

Acknowledgements
The culmination of my doctoral journey would not have been possible without the faith,
love, and support of many individuals. First, I would like to thank my family. Miguel (papito) y
Clara (mamita) – you are my rock, you have taught me to be a woman of conviction, courage and
faith. Gracias por dejarme soñar y creer en mi todos estos años. You have taught me many
valuable lessons from learning to pray, ride a bike, to having a strong sense of self. Thank you
for asking me every chance you got how school was going and for helping me in the last stretch
of my writing. For this and much more I’m grateful to you. To my sister- Karin, thank you for
inspiring me every day to be a compassionate educator. You teach me to be a better person every
day. You were my first best friend and will always be. You make me proud to be your sister.
Thank you for listening to me when I called in a panic and for reading, proofing, and editing my
work. ¡Los quiero mucho!
I am grateful to my dissertation committee. It was a true honor to have been guided and
mentored by individuals committed to access, equity and social justice. To my chair, Dr. Kristan
Venegas, you are an example to follow for Latina women in academia. Thank you for your
guidance through this journey, your input, and thought-provoking questions that pushed me to be
a better researcher and writer. Dr. William Perez, thank you for being a pioneer and giving
voices to the many undocumented students across our nation. Your work inspired me to take on
this journey of my own. And thank you for sharing your background with me, at the time I
needed it most, it allowed me to see myself at the finish line. Dr. Rey Baca, thank you for your
support during the first part of my journey. Your valuable insight and feedback pushed my
thinking beyond where I alone would have gone. Dr. Zoe Corwin, thank you for stepping in on
such short notice. Your enthusiasm and support to see this study published, made me see the

iv

value of my own work in a different light and thus challenging me to see myself as a scholar-
thank you.
I would like to express my gratitude to my community and extended familia of friends,
classmates and colleagues. To my cousin and best friend- Monica, thank you for always being
you. We have shared so many life experiences and I am truly blessed to have you as part of my
life. Thank you for listening and allowing me to cry when I was stressed. To my cousin Janet-
thank you for allowing me to pull you in as my editor. You have no idea how much I appreciate
you. To my girls- Angela, Griselda and Olivia – ladies thank your for distracting me from my
dissertation in times of much need. Without you I would have not survived. Thank you for
asking how things were and for checking-in when I was dissertating. I always looked forward to
our dinners that would bring sanity to my madness. You all are an important part of my life; I’m
grateful for your friendship and look forward to celebrating life post-dissertation with you.
Cheers! To my OC writing group- Carla, Christiane, Chelvi and Peggy- if it were not for our
weekend writings I would have never finished the proposal- thank you. To my thematic group
members, it was an honor to be part of such a great team- thank you for the support and
encouragement. Cecilia- thank you for helping me get to the finish line. To all my USC peers,
thank you for allowing me to share in your journey. I learned so much from you and I am a better
educator because of it. To my community at Cal State Fullerton, thank you for the support and
encouragement. Bridget- thank you for always believing in me, you are a great friend and
mentor. You truly lead by example and your commitment to student success inspires me every
day to do the same. Thank you to Kandy, Lea, Liz and Rochelle for taking the time to share your
dissertation journey with me.

v

And last but not least, I thank God for his love, compassion and the many blessing he has
bestowed upon me. This dissertation is living proof that I can do all things through him- Todo lo
puedo en Cristo que me fortalece (Filipenses 4:13).

vi

Table of Contents

Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Figures vii
List of Tables viii
Abstract ix
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review 13
Chapter 3: Methodology 32
Chapter 4: Findings 41
Chapter 5: Discussion and Implications 100
References 120
Appendices:
Appendix A: Participant information sheet and criteria rubric 130
Appendix B: General recruitment email 131
Appendix C: Interview protocol 132

vii

List
of
Figures

Figure
1:
The
data
analysis
spiral
adapted
from
Creswell

35

Figure
2:
Torres’
Bicultural
Orientation
Model

106

viii

List
of
Tables

Table
4.1:
Profile
of
students
interviewed
for
the
study

43

ix

Abstract
The increase in the U.S. Latino population and its diversity has gained much local and
national attention of the need to learn more about their experiences in college (Torres, 2003).
And although this body of research is growing, the work is limited to a segment of the Latino
population. The literature has mainly focused on the Mexican American or immigrant
experience, by far the largest segment of the Latino population. Lopez and Dockterman (2011)
reported that the largest growing sub-segment in the Los Angeles-Long Beach metro was the
Guatemalan and Salvadorian community. And as the immigration debate continues in both the
political and educational arenas it is critical to understand the diverse experiences within the U.S.
Latino population.
This study provides context on how the immigration and socialization experiences of
undocumented Central American Latinas affect their persistence in college. It suggests that it is
important to look at this sub-segment separately due to their different immigration experience.
As a result of civil wars, many of them entered the U.S. with temporary protective status (TPS)
that afford them limited benefits yet it creates a contradiction within individuals as they grapple
with their multiple identities.
The themes that emerged from the study include: 1) resiliency; 2) sense of responsibility;
3) multiple identities; and 4) social justice. And as the push to change legislation for the
undocumented college student population continues, these themes will help practitioners
understand the experiences of students at our institution who are facing challenges that may be
different from the traditional undocumented experience and provide them with the resources
necessary to help them persist towards graduation.

1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
What I treasure most in life is being able to dream. During my most difficult moments and
complex situations I have been able to dream of a more beautiful future.
~ Rigoberta Menchu

Latinos constitute a growing market segment in population with economic implications.
They are projected to become the largest ethnic minority in the U.S. representing 30 percent of
the nation’s total population with 132.8 million Latinos by 2050 (U.S. Census, 2008). According
to the U.S. Census 37, percent of the 44 million Latino U.S. residents are under the age of 20. By
2020 Latinos will make up 22 percent of the nations’ college aged population. Traditionally,
future generations of immigrants are expected to have higher levels of education than previous
generations. This has not been the reality for Latino immigrants. According to the Tomas Rivera
Policy Institute (2004), the Latino community still continues to have lower levels of retention
and graduation rates from higher education institutions. In 2007, Latinos represented about 15
percent of the American population and about 12 percent of full-time college students (Kelly,
Schneider, & Carey, 2010). Despite these statistics and higher expectations Latinos still continue
to graduate at much lower rates from higher education, 46 percent compared to 67 percent of the
general population (Melguizo, 2008). The disproportion in population size and Latino college
degree attainment clearly reflects an achievement gap in the current American educational
system. The focus of this study will be to understand issues of college persistence for
undocumented Latinas from Central America at urban public colleges and universities in
California.

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Diversity of Latino U.S. Population
Although Latinos of Mexican, Cuban, and Puerto Rican descent continue to represent the
largest segments of the Latino population in the U.S., four other sub-segments of the Latino
population have grown at a faster pace in the last decade (Lopez & Dockterman, 2011). The four
sub-segments with the greatest growth since 2000 are: Guatemalans (180%), Salvadorians
(152%), Colombians (93%) and Dominicans (85%) (Lopez & Dockterman, 2011). Furthermore,
Lopez and Dockterman (2011) reported that Mexicans are not the dominant group in many
metropolitan areas. In the Miami metropolitan area of the 1.5 million Latinos, Cubans make up
half at 50.9% (Lopez & Dockterman, 2011). In the New York-Northeastern New Jersey
metropolitan area, 29.4% are of Puerto Rican origin and 19.7% are of Dominican origin.
According to the report by Pew Hispanic (Lopez & Dockterman, 2011), Latinos of Mexican
origin still dominate some major metropolitan areas such as San Antonio, TX (91.3%), Los
Angeles-Long Beach, CA (79.3), Chicago (79.2%), and Atlanta, GA (58.1%).
Although Latinos of Mexican origin dominate the Los Angeles-Long Beach metro area, it
is home to two of the largest growing sub-segments of this population, Guatemalans and
Salvadorians (Lopez & Dockterman, 2011). Four in ten of Guatemalans live in the west (39%);
of these 32% reside in California, while two-thirds of Salvadorans (35%) live in California
(Lopez & Dockterman, 2011). Unlike Mexicans (36%), the majority of Guatemalans (68%) and
Salvadorans (63%) are foreign born, compared to 37% of all U.S. Latinos (Lopez &
Dockterman, 2011). Additionally, Guatemalans and Salvadorans are younger and live in poverty
when compared to the general U.S. population. Additionally, they report-speaking English less
than very well and have lower levels of education when compared to the U.S. general population
(Lopez & Dockterman, 2011).

3

A significant sub-segment of the Latino population that is usually ignored in the literature
and national statistics is the undocumented population. The Pew Latino Center reported the
number of undocumented residents reached an estimated 10.3 million in March 2004 with 81
percent originating from Latin America (Passel, 2005). About 80 to 85 percent of migration from
Mexico is undocumented and they make up 5.9 million or 57 percent of the total undocumented
residents (Passel, 2005). Although much of the undocumented migrants are young adults, there
are a significant number of young children representing approximately 1.7 million or 16.7
percent (Passel, 2005). Recent data suggests that the undocumented population is moving into
states that typically did not attract them. The share of the unauthorized population in those states
has tripled from 12% to 39% from 1990 to 2004 (Passel & Cohn, 2011; Passel, 2005). Some of
the new settlement states include Arizona, North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee (Passel,
2005). Almost two-thirds are spread out between eight states, of these states California leads
with 26 percent of the undocumented population (Passel, 2005). These numbers make it
increasingly important for higher education in California to understand the experiences of this
segment of the student population.
Within the Latino population, Cubans have the highest percentage of high school
graduates enroll in college (45%), followed by 40 percent of Central and South Americans (Fry,
2002). On the other end, 30 percent of Puerto Rican and 33 percent of Mexican origin students
enroll in college (Fry, 2002). The patterns in college enrollment among Latino college students
match up with their socioeconomic profile (Fry, 2002). Cubans, as well as Central and South
Americans, tend to be better-off households with average incomes above $40,000 (Fry, 2002).
By contrast Mexican and Puerto Rican households are among the less well off, with average

4

incomes of less than $37,000 (Fry, 2002). As with the U.S. population, Latino students from
higher income households are more successful in attaining a college degree (Fry, 2002).
The 1.5 Generation
Children of the 1.5-generation were born abroad and brought by their parents at a very
early age to live in the United States (Gonzales, 2009). Unlike first generation immigrants, these
children did not elect to migrate and are not second generation because they were born and raised
for a significant part of their childhood outside of the U.S. thus making them fall in between
(Gonzales, 2009). According to Passel (2003), the number of undocumented students who
graduate from high school after living at least five years in the U.S. is estimated at 65,000. This
1.5-generation has received much of their education in the K-12 public school system in the U.S.
(Gonzales, 2009). This unique generation often straddles two worlds- growing up in the
American culture they share similar values as their American-born peers yet have strong cultural
ties to their family value systems (Gonzales, 2009). Many undocumented students of the 1.5-
generation have excelled in high school as honor students, class valedictorians, and active
community members (Oliverez, 2005). Furthermore, Perez (2010) asserts that college-aged
undocumented students exhibit high levels of academic achievement, leadership participation,
and civic engagement behaviors well above their U.S. citizen peers.
An analysis on the number of eligible students for non-resident tuition waiver
demonstrated that 3,500 students were enrolled in the California State University (CSU) and the
California Community College (CCC) system (Passel, 2003). However, the number reported by
the state of California is not entirely of undocumented immigrants and excluded students at the
University of California (UC) (Passel, 2003). Passel (2003) used this data along with the Current
Population Surveys (CPS) to provide a best estimation to the population of undocumented

5

students higher education system nationally. Accordingly, Passel (2003) reports that nearly 40%
of students at all grade levels are of undocumented status. Passel (2003) also notes that
California has one of the most open and accessible college systems in the nation. Using these
estimations, Passel demonstrates that nationally the number of undocumented college students
enrolled in college after living in the states for at least five years is approximately between 7,000
and 13,000 (Passel, 2003). The growth scale of the Latino population makes it of great economic
importance to ensure their educational attainment (Gonzales, 2009). Giving undocumented
students the opportunity to pursue higher education and achieve careers will have not only
improve the economic well-being of this population, but of the U.S. overall (Gonzales, 2009).
Historical and Political Context on Educational Access
Various works of popular and scholarly literature have explored the marginalization of
communities and the impact it has on society. The United States has a long history of segregating
and marginalizing groups of people, especially in tough economic times (Massey, D.S., Charles,
C.Z., Lundy, G., & Fischer, M.J., 2006; Zinn, H., 2005; Bowen, W.G., 2000). The history is also
rich with groups of people and individuals advocating for the rights of all human beings. These
advocacy efforts have made lasting impacts to our society by generating new policies. In this
section of the chapter, I highlight court cases that have impacted educational access for the
Latino/a undocumented populations in the U.S.
Plyler v. Doe.
Plyler v. Doe (1982) was a landmark case that secured the educational rights of
undocumented children in the United States. In this case, the court ruled that undocumented
children were “persons” under the Constitution and therefore afforded equal protection under the
law according to the 14
th
amendment (Gonzales, 2009). The events that preceded the case began

6

in the mid-1970s when the state of Texas enacted a law that prohibited school districts to receive
funds for educating undocumented students (Petronicolos & New, 1999). In Plyler v. Doe (1982)
the courts stated that undocumented children had the same right to public free education as U.S.
citizens and residents. The court additionally ruled that law mandates all undocumented children,
as are all children, to attend school until they reach the age mandated by state law (Plyler v. Doe,
1982).
Under Plyler v. Doe (1982) the law prohibits public schools and personnel to deny
students access to education based on immigration status. Furthermore, Justice Brennan noted
that although education is not a fundamental right, denying undocumented children access to K-
12 education created a “lifetime of hardship” and permanent “underclass” of individuals (Frum,
2007). The case ruling and Justice Brennan’s remarks made a clear connection between
education and social mobility (Gonzales, 2009). Due to this ruling most undocumented children
attend public elementary and secondary education in the United States. Many of these
undocumented children work hard and are highly motivated to graduate from high school and
have dreams of attending college. However, the Plyler v. Doe (1982) did not address higher
education. Each year, tens of thousand undocumented children graduate from high school ready
to start college only to find an uncertain path (Gonzales, 2009).
California and Assembly Bill (AB) 540.
The debate on regulations that governed access of higher education by undocumented
immigrants emerged soon after the Plyler v. Doe case. This controversial debate is situated in the
context of immigration sentiment against the current state of economy. On October 12, 2001
Governor Gray Davis signed into law Assembly Bill (AB) 540 that added a new section to the
California Education Code, which allowed specified nonresidents to meet state residency

7

requirements for the purpose of establishing tuition levels in California’s colleges and
universities. AB 540 permits nonresidents, regardless of immigration status, to resident tuition.
This law still prohibits undocumented students from receiving any federal or state financial aid,
however it lowers the tuition they pay that amounts to six to seven times that of their
documented peers (Abrego, 2008). Since then comparable bills have also passed in the following
states: Texas, Utah, Washington, New York, Oklahoma, Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska, and New
Mexico (Abrego, 2008). As in California, these bills do not qualify undocumented students to
receive federal or state financial aid.
Undocumented students that have been raised in the U.S. consider themselves in all
aspects Americans. Their educational dreams are similar to many of their peers and have the
motivation and drive to pursue a college degree. Their educational dreams, motivation and drive
are similar to that of their peers. Many, however, encounter economic barriers that make the
dream of higher education challenging. Although policies such as AB 540 alleviate some
economic challenges, it is not enough for many undocumented students who live in low socio-
economic status households. In addition, these students live in fear of being arrested and
deported due to their legal status in the states. Undocumented students have organized across the
nation to raise awareness of the situation and to resolve for a better immigration policy.
DREAM Act.
Beginning in 2001 bipartisan immigration policies have been introduced and debated in
Congress (Gonzales, 2009). The Development Relief and Education for Alien Minors (DREAM)
Act is a bill that would give undocumented children a path toward legal status in the U.S. if they
attend college or serve in the military (Retrieved from the National Immigration Law Center,
www.nilc.org/immlawpolicy/DREAM/index.htm). This policy would allow undocumented

8

children to give back to their communities and country, which they consider their home. The
DREAM Act is a limited remedy to the immigration debate and would apply only to
undocumented students who can prove several key elements: good moral character, graduated
with a high school diploma or received a GED in the U.S., and attend college or join the military
service (Retrieved from the National Immigration Law Center,
www.nilc.org/immlawpolicy/DREAM/index.htm). According to the National Immigration Law
Center, the DREAM Act would benefit approximately 755,000 undocumented students, those
primarily in elementary and secondary education. In addition to those key elements
undocumented students must meet other criteria to be eligible for the DREAM Act.
Undocumented students must have entered the U.S. at age 16 or younger and must have been
living in the states for at least 5 years before the act passes.
There are many benefits associated with the DREAM Act that go beyond the individual
undocumented student. The economic implications are many including: more taxable income
from greater number of professionals, investment opportunities taken by new legalized
immigrants that would stimulate the economy, savings in public health and benefits, lower drop-
out rates, and nurturing of domestic talent (Retrieved from the Immigration Policy Center at,
www.immigrationpolicy.org). The condition of these undocumented youth in the U.S. reflects
the complexities of current state of immigration policy. By no fault of their own, these children
are caught in a system that allows no clear solution to their legal status in the U.S. By providing
them with limited access to education many of the undocumented students set high educational
hopes only to find uncertainty and various obstacles to pursing these dreams. The DREAM Act
offers a limited solution to the current immigration concern by allowing undocumented youth a
path to legalization. However, under this act each state will determine if it will offer in-state

9

tuition to undocumented students by choosing to pass state legislation similar to CA AB 540.
One of the critical barriers for undocumented colleges students is financing of their education.
The DREAM Act will not allow these youth to apply for federal grants; however, undocumented
students will be eligible for work-study and federal loans (Retrieved from the Immigration
Policy Center at, www.immigrationpolicy.org). Under this act, each state will determine state
tuition financial aid eligibility for undocumented students. In California, undocumented students
and community organizations have been advocating for the CA Dream Act since 2006.
CA Dream Act.
California Assembly Bill (AB) 130 would allow undocumented students that meet the in-
state tuition requirements to apply for and receive specified financial aid programs funded by the
states’ public colleges and universities. In addition, AB 131 would allow these same students to
apply and receive Cal Grants. This bill limits the amount of financial aid by not allowing
undocumented students to apply for or receive Competitive Cal Grant unless funding is available
after all resident students have received these awards (Retrieved from the California Dream Act,
www.californiadreamact.org)
Purpose of the Study
As examined in the literature, college enrollment data reveals that Latino families’ value
higher education and are willing to invest the time and resources to help children achieve their
dreams (Villenas & Deyhle, 1999; Valencia & Black, 2002; Riojas-Cortez & Flores, 2009).
Additionally, the data suggests that Latino students have access to information regarding
opportunities in higher education (Oliva, 2008). The limited work that has been done with
undocumented students has focused on the largest segment of the Latino/a population, Mexicans.
However, research suggests that there is substantial diversity within the Latino/a college

10

students. The purpose of this study was to understand issues of college persistence for
undocumented Latinas from Central America attending public institutions in Southern
California. The following question guided this study:
• How does the immigration and socialization experience of undocumented Latinas from
Central American affect their college persistence?
Significance of the Study
Immigration continues to be a national debate in the political and educational arenas. The
research continues to demonstrate the increasing numbers of undocumented Latino/a population
in the country, especially in the state of California (Passel, 2003; Lopez & Dockterman, 2011).
California’s employment of wage and salary is expected to increase by 36% between 2005 and
2025 (Reed & Johnson, 2008). Reed and Johnson (2008) also reported that during the same time
period employment would shift from manufacturing to service-related industries. The shift in
industries will require more college-educated employees. As this trend increases, the share of the
population with bachelor’s degree will increase from 28% in 2000 to 33% in 2020, falling short
of the projected employment demand for college-educated workers of 39% in 2020 (Reed &
Johnson, 2008). Additionally, research reveals that the Latino/a population continues to diversify
and is no longer composed mainly of Mexican, Cubans and Puerto Ricans (Lopez &
Dockterman, 2011). The state of California has experienced the greatest growth from the Central
American population therefore, pointing out the significance of understanding and supporting the
college aspiration of these young people in the nation, specifically in California (Lopez &
Dockterman, 2011). This study provided a cultural and national perspective for examining
college retention for Latino/as by looking through the lenses of Central American undocumented

11

students. To my knowledge, no study has investigated issues of college persistence for
undocumented immigrant women from Central America.
Conceptual Frameworks
This study employed a multidimensional analytical approach in order to understand
issues of persistence among Central American undocumented Latinas in college. The research
was grounded on foundational theories, themes, and critiques associated with the research on
college persistence. In addition, the study focused on how Latinas negotiate their multiple
socially constructed identities and how these multiple dimensions that include race, gender,
social class, culture, and immigration status influence degree attainment in higher education
(Jones, 2009). Finally, the research employed the social capital framework to understand how
Latinas capitalize on the various forms social capital to persist in college.
Concepts Defined
Latino/a: a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other
Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.
Immigrant: a person who comes to a country to take up permanent residence.
First-generation: born outside of the U.S., including those born in Puerto Rico. Same as
foreign-born.
First-generation college student: A student who is first in his/her family to attend
college/university.
Foreign national: a person not born in the U.S. and is not a U.S. citizen or legal resident.
Institution of higher education: a four-year post-secondary institution.
Access: is the ability of people to attain a quality, affordable college education.

12

Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE): the principal investigative arm of the U.S.
Department of Homeland Security (DHS). ICE's primary mission is to promote homeland
security and public safety through the criminal and civil enforcement of federal laws
governing border control, customs, trade, and immigration.
Central American: an individual whose immediate country of origin or ancestral lineage
is from Central America which includes Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.
Hispanic-Serving Institution: are defined as colleges, universities, or systems/districts
where total Hispanic enrollment constitutes a minimum of 25% of the total enrollment

13

CHAPTER
2

LITERATURE
REVIEW

The increase in the Latino/a population and its diversity has garnered much attention of
the need to understand the experiences of Latino/a students in higher education (Torres, 2003).
The purpose of this study is to understand the issues of college persistence for undocumented
Latinas from Central America at public institutions in Southern California. In this chapter, I
review the literature associated with Latina women and college persistence. As such, I start this
chapter with a review of the foundational theories, themes, and critiques associated with the
research on college persistence. This will result in an overview of minority and Latino/a
persistence literature. The second section will focus on how Latinas negotiate their multiple
socially constructed identities and how these multiple dimensions that include race, gender,
social class, culture, and immigration status influence degree attainment in higher education
(Jones, 2009). Next, I examine the research on social capital; institutional agents as “cultural
translators” and Latina college persistence.
College Persistence Theories
Research suggests that students’ involvement and integration to the university
environment is critical to their retention in higher education (Astin, 1985; Tinto, 1975). Astin’s
(1985) theory of involvement states that the more students are involved the more they learn and
suggests that the degree to which students become involved in college affects their potential and
willingness to persist (Metz, 2004; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). The “theory of involvement”
provides a midpoint between psychosocial and sociological frameworks (Pascarella & Terenzini,
2005). According to Astin (1985), the institution plays a critical role in providing students with
an opportunity to be involved with new ideas, people, and experiences. In this framework, the
students’ role is equally important to the extent that the student takes full advantage of the

14

opportunities and resources offered by the institution (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). According
to Astin’s (1985) framework, college persistence is a function of student effort and the
institutions ability to provide the appropriate resources.
Like Astin (1985), Tinto’s (1975) theory of student departure is another interactional
model that helps to understand the college withdrawal process (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Adapting Durkheim’s (1961) theory of suicide and building on Spady’s (1970) work, Tinto
(1975) argues that the higher degree to which students integrate into the structure of the
institution, the less likely they are to “commit suicide” by leaving the institution. He explains
that students come into college with certain personal and family patterns, academic
characteristics and skills, and expectations of college (Tinto, 1975). Integration is the extent to
which the individual shares the attitudes and values of peers and faculty in the institution and
abides by the formal and informal norms of the community to ensure membership (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Positive interactions increase integration therefore strengthening the student’s
commitment to achieving their personal goals. While negative interactions impede integration
and increase the distance between student and the academic community. These negative
interactions reduce the individual’s commitment to their personal goals and to the institution and
promote isolation and ultimate withdrawal (Pascarella & Terenznini, 2005). According to
Pascarella and Terenzini (2005), Tinto’s (1975) model places great importance on the interaction
and relationships between student and institutional members. Both Astin (1985) and Tinto’s
(1975) theories are concerned with the extent to which the environment or sociological origins
change students. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) argue that Astin’s involvement theory places a
critical role on the institutions to provide students with a wide variety of academic and social
opportunities. Unlike Tinto (1975), Astin (1985) assumes that change and development is not

15

only a consequence of college impact, but also a function of the quality of effort and
involvement (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
According to Tierney (1992), Tinto’s (1975) framework makes the assumption that it is
the individual’s responsibility to adjust to the uniform set of values and attitudes set by the
institution. Tierney (1992) contends that Tinto’s (1975) theoretical framework excludes minority
students because it assumes that all college students have a shared culture experience prior to
college. The assumption being that each student enters college with the same knowledge and
understanding of the values and norms of the institution. As our country’s population changes so
does the landscape of our institutions, students entering college today are not all middle- or
upper-class and universities are becoming less homogenous. State universities systems, such as
the ones in California, have a mission to provide access to underrepresented students; therefore,
it is increasingly important to understand the persistence of minority students (Retrieved from
Master Plan for Higher Education in California
http://www.ucop.edu/acadinit/masterplan/mp.htm).
Perspectives of Minority Student Persistence
Imperative to understanding the academic success of minority students is to acknowledge
the constructs of academic and social integration privilege middle- and upper class students
(Tierney, 1992; Rendon, 2006). Tierney (1992) argues that Tinto’s (1975) framework views
college participation as a “rites of passage” where the students must integrate both academically
and socially into the dominant culture. However, this framework is problematic because it
assumes that all individuals enter college with the same set of attitudes, experiences, and values.
Gloria and Rodriguez (2000) argue that at institutions where the student population is more
diversified, minority students still encounter incongruency because the structure in higher

16

education was set up for “white male orientation”. Minority students from lower socioeconomic
statuses are often immersed into White middle-class university environments and many feel the
need to reject their cultural identity in order to assimilate (Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000). This
incongruity also occurs when minority students are unable to fully function in an academic
environment due to the lack of role models and the Euro-centered curriculum (Rendon, 2006).
Another term in Tinto’s (1975) model that scholars have questioned is that of integration
(Tierney, 1992; Nora & Rendon, 1990, Hurtado & Carter, 1997). Tierney (1992) argues that
Tinto approaches students’ college experience from an individualistic perspective. In Tinto’s
(1975) framework the individual goes to college, integrates or not, and finally graduates or drops
out (Tierney, 1992). Researchers have argued that “integration” assumes that in order for
students to be successful they must give up their own culture and adopt the values of the new
culture (Tierney, 1992; Rendon, Jalomo, & Nora, 2000; Hurtado & Carter, 1997). In addition,
Tinto’s (1975) framework is absent of any discussion on collectivist cultures, the role of family,
or the formations of cultural groups some of which can be important aspect in the life of minority
students (Tierney, 1992). Tierney (1992) argued that in the case of Native American student’s
assimilation to the new cultural group would have negative impact at the individual level. In
response to this criticism, Tinto (1975) revised the term “integration” to “membership.”
According to Tinto, the term “membership” acknowledges the variety of ways that individuals
participate in college. In addition, membership gives the students the ability to negotiate multiple
communities without forcing them to adopt certain values and norms (Hurtado & Carter, 1997).
In sum, the research demonstrates that the ethnic minority experience is much different
from that of the dominant experience. Although Tinto (1975) provides a general framework for

17

understanding persistence it is not a one-size fits all. In the next section, I focus on the college
persistence issues as they pertain to Latino/as.
Latinos/as College Persistence
Jones, Castellanos, and Cole (2000) argue that Latino/a students not only share the
challenges and stresses that come with transition to college and being a minority student, but also
face other barriers to their success. Researchers have found that Latino students work longer
hours while in college to help support their education and in many cases to meet family financial
obligations (Jones, et al., 2000). A consistent finding in the literature is that Latinos tend to stress
more about finances and family obligations when compared to non-Latino students. In the
following section I will review the literature with regards to the above mentioned and persistence
of Latino college students.
Finances.
Researchers have found that financial aid has a significant impact in student outcomes
such as academic achievement, engagement, persistence, and graduation (Nora, Barlow, & Crisp,
2006). The findings indicate that regardless of race and ethnicity, all types of financial aid have a
positive impact in college enrollment and choice of college (Nora, et al., 2006). For low-income
students once in college, financial aid continues to be critical in influencing their intent to remain
enrolled. The type of financial aid and how much it covers of tuition also reduces the stress
associated with funding their college education. Furthermore, a complete financial aid package
allows the student to be fully integrated academically and socially in college (Nora, et al., 2006).
In addition, for Latino students this means not taking additional hours of work to support their
education. Since many of our Latino students come from the working class they are more

18

sensitive to tuition increases and unexpected costs of attending college. Financial aid can help
lower the stresses associated with financing college.
Nora, Barlow, and Crisp (2006) assert that financial aid offers intangible components that
positively affect students’ psychosocial well-being and behaviors. Nora, Barlow, and Crisp
(2006) assert that financial aid offers intangible components that positively affect students’
psychosocial well-being and behaviors. According to Nora, et al. (2006) financial aid decreases
the need for students to find employment while enrolled, therefore, allowing students to spend
more time to fully engage in social activities on the college campus with peers, faculty, and staff.
Due to students being on campus more, they are able to engage in more academic activities
outside of the classroom such as forming study groups, seeking tutoring assistance, or meeting
with professors during office hours (Nora, et al., 2006). The types of financial aid also may have
additional positive impacts on students such as work-study programs and scholarships. While
working on campus through work-study programs, students are put into close contact with
faculty and staff and are exposed to university practices and policies. Similarly, students may
perceive academic scholarships as a reward for their academic performance therefore increasing
motivation (Nora, et al., 2006). According to Pearson and Rosenbaum (2006), Latino/a students
mention social contacts as a high priority such as interactions with faculty. Much of the research
concludes that faculty interactions impact educational satisfaction, learning, and academic
success for African American and Latino/a students (Cole, 2008). Financial aid allows Latino/a
students to have these meaningful social contacts that will help them persist in college.
Nora, Barlow, and Crisp (2006) demonstrated that financial aid for African American and
Latino students had an equalizing effect. Their research confirmed that African American and

19

Latino students who received aid were more likely to persist than their peers who did not receive
aid due to both the tangible and intangible benefits (Nora, et al., 2002).
Familialism.
Latinos/as, regardless of their national origins (i.e. Mexican American, Cuban American,
Central American, South American, Puerto Rican, etc.), demonstrate a strong commitment to
family (Zambrana, 1995). Regardless of acculturation levels, Latinos perceive a high level of
family support and desire geographical closeness to their families (Zambrana, 1995). Gloria,
Castellanos, Lopez, and Rosales (2005) identified that family support directly affects educational
motivation and persistence of Latino/a students. A critical source of emotional support and
motivation comes from the family or “familia.” Familialism, therefore, has been recognized as a
core value of the Latino culture by which individuals strongly identify with their nuclear and
extended family and feelings of loyalty and solidarity (Rodriguez, Mira, & Myers, 2003). Unlike
other minority groups, Latino/a college students have this natural support system that promotes
healthy adjustments and growth (Rodriguez et al., 2003). For Latino students attending college,
their families are a source of support and motivation to persist in college.
Undoubtedly family plays an important role not only in setting the expectations to
achieve educational success but also by providing support throughout the experience. Much of
the research focuses on the results that family plays as an integral function in the retention of
Latino/a students in college (Hernandez, 2000; Rodriguez, Mira, & Myers, 2003; Torres &
Solberg, 2001). However, other research has found that Latino/a students struggle with the
pressures put on by their families. These pressures included a high level of commitment to
family obligations while maintaining academic excellence (Rodriguez et. al., 2003). Many first-
generation Latinos attending college carry the burden of “making it” in this country. Their

20

parents have instilled in them the idea of the “American Dream” which translates into working
hard will help you achieve a better life than the generation before you. Gender plays a key role
within Latino families and is important in discussing college persistence.
Gender issues.
Although the number of Latinas outnumbers their male counterparts in college attendance
and degree completion, Latina students encounter unique challenges that impact their
persistence. Gloria, Castellano, and Orozco (2005) assert that there are two types of barriers that
affect Latinas in college: pre-college and as they enter college. The pre-college barriers include
low socioeconomics, cultural and gender stereotypes; while the challenges Latinas encounter as
they enter college include lack of preparation, social and family obligations, and alienation
(Gloria, et al., 2005). Many Latinas are first in their family to attend college and lack the social
and cultural capital to gain the knowledge necessary to ease the transition (Gloria, et al., 2005).
In addition, Latinas find themselves struggling with institutional and family values that often
times contradict each other (Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000). While the institutions encourage
students to stay on-campus and engage in activities, Latinas often times are expected to return
home promptly to help out with younger siblings which has various implications. The first
implication is that Latina students are expected to contribute to the family while both parents are
at work. This expectation also reinforces the gender role imposed by Latino culture in which the
woman is the primary family caretaker (Sy and Romero, 2008).
The second implication for Latinas in college is the competing demands between the
university and family that may at times force Latinas to feel alienated. American higher
education has an underlying expectation that students will leave their home to fully participate in
college life (Sy and Romero, 2008). However, Latinas are expected to live with their parents and

21

contribute to the family until they are married (Sy and Romero, 2008). In an attempt to navigate
the two cultures, Latinas may find themselves lost and helpless. The lack of Latina role models at
university campuses and the contradicting expectations between family and institution add
additional stress for Latina students and can adversely affect college persistence (Sy and
Romero, 2008)
Identity and Negotiation
The research on ethnic identity development is plentiful as it relates to the White and
Black perspective, but very little research has examined the development of Latino ethnic
identity development (Torres & Baxter Magolda, 2004). And the research that has been done on
Latino ethnic identity development has focused broadly on this population not accounting for the
diversity within this group. Research suggests that the formation of identity is based on one’s
own self as part of a larger ethnic group (Torres & Baxter Magolda, 2004). Torres and Baxter
Magolda (2003) argue that self-identification for a Latino student is a negotiation of choices
between the American and Latino culture.
Torres (1993) utilized Phinney’s model of ethnic identity development to validate the
Bicultural Orientation Model (BOM), which attempts to understand the nuances of choices that
Latino students make between cultures. Torres’ (1993) model has four cultural orientations:
Bicultural Orientation, Latino/Hispanic Orientation, Anglo Orientation, and Marginal
Orientation. In the Bicultural Orientation individuals feel comfortable in both cultures (Torres,
2003). In the Latino/Hispanic Orientation individuals feel more comfortable with their culture of
origin (Torres, 2003). The Anglo Orientation individuals feel more comfortable with the majority
culture and finally in the Marginal Orientation individuals feel discomfort with both cultures
(Torres, 2003). According to the research, recent immigrants at college entry tend to identify

22

themselves strongly with their culture of origin (Sears, Fu, Henry, & Bui, 2003). Sears, et al.
(2003) also found that U.S. born children of immigrants identify themselves also as Americans
or in the Bicultural Orientation.
Furthermore, researchers argue Latino/a college students with high ethnic identity are
more likely to participate in Latino culture and be more sensitive to incongruencies between
Latino and university culture (Castillo, L.G., Conoley, C.W., Choi-Pearson, C., Archuleta, D.J.,
Phoummarath, M.J., & Van Landingham, A., 2006). On the other hand, Latino/a students with
low ethnic identity are more likely to share beliefs and values with American culture. As a result,
they experience no incongruence, which results in positive experiences at the institution
(Castillo, et al., 2006; Torres, 2003). Therefore, ethnic identity is a critical factor in investigating
college persistence (Castillo, et al., 2006).
Latina Identity
The influences of ethnic identity for Latina college students may be different from Latino
college students (Sy and Romero, 2008). In addition to negotiating the culture, they have to
negotiate gender roles as well. Many studies demonstrate that it is prominent in working-class
students to resist schooling (Valenzuela, 1999). However, Cammarota (2004) among other
researchers have found that Latina youth value educational achievement, which may be a result
of the various power struggles they face. Like male Latino youth, Latinas find that educational
institutions stereotype them by class and race in and out of the classroom (Rodriguez, Guido-
DiBrito, Torres & Talbot, 2000; Cammarota, 2004). In addition, Latinas have to struggle with
the added stress of gender discrimination (Cammarota, 2004). Barajas and Pierce (2002) find that
educational success of Latinas is largely determined by their ability to maintain a positive sense
of racial/ethnic identity.

23

Ginorio and Houston (2001) found that all Latinas, regardless of status, are treated as
immigrants. They suggest that the interaction between Latinas social context and their perceived
“future selves” is strongly gendered and is especially focused on relations at school (Ginorio &
Houston, 2001). They further argue that the centrality of family and religion for Latinas conflicts
with school and peer expectations resulting in “bifurcated self” (Ginorio & Houston, 2001). As
mentioned earlier, family plays a critical role in the persistence of Latinas in college and many
Latino cultures view the woman’s role as the caretaker (Cammarota, 2004). Latina women are
expected to be family oriented and place priority on taking care of the needs of parents and
siblings. According to Cammarota (2004), the Latino cultural value of “marianismo”, the
submissive nature of women, is reflected in mainstream U.S. society and many Latina college
students must negotiate this value as part of their identity.
Undocumented Identity
Commonly referred to as “illegal” and “aliens,” undocumented immigrants become a
disenfranchised group in our society (Abrego, 2008). Due to their lack of documentation,
undocumented immigrants are limited in accessing social services and many times viewed by
society as illegitimate and not worthy of any legal rights (Abrego, 2008). For undocumented
students this becomes a greater issue because, as discussed in chapter one, many of these
students are unaware of their legal status in the U.S. Brought to the U.S. by their parents, these
students referred to as the 1.5 generation, have grown up as Americans and with every year the
distance grows greater between them and their native country (Gonzales, 2009). Abrego (2008)
argues that unlike their parents, the 1.5 generation speak the language, absorb the customs, and
make the culture their own in ways that the previous generation cannot. Furthermore, others
argue that these students are indistinguishable to their peers and can easily manipulate

24

assumptions about their legal status (Abrego, 2008; Gonzales, 2006; Fernandez-Kelly and
Curran, 2001; Olivas, 1995). In many ways the ability to be in-and-out creates a sense of
inclusivity and exclusivity for these students (Abrego, 2008).
As mentioned in the previous chapter undocumented students have been given access to
public education throughout their formative years, being encouraged to dream and have high
aspirations. It is not until they begin the college process that they become aware that they do not
belong and begin to question their inclusion into U.S. society. Gonzales (2006) argues that they
begin to straddle their legal and illegal identity, and between inclusion and exclusion, which
gives them a unique college experience. Therefore, it is critical to view identity as fluid, dynamic
and social (Ek, 2009). From this perspective, identity is derived from group membership and
mediated through institutions (Ek, 2009). Researchers have argued that identity is a social
practice and is a product of activity and lived experiences (Ek, 2009). Furthermore, Gee (2000)
asserts identity is ambiguous because individuals change from moment to moment depending on
the social context of structure and relationships. Gee (2000) argues that youth have various types
of identities such as an institutional and a discourse identity. Institutional identity is that which
students express in a legitimate space such as schools (Gee, 2000). While, discourse identity is
that which students construct outside of the legitimate space (Gee, 2000).
These constructs are useful in understanding the many dimensions of identity that
undocumented students move in- and out- of as they experience college. In addition, it brings
light to how undocumented students may navigate and negotiate their legitimate and illegitimate
sense of self. Huber and Malagon (2007) using Latino/a Critical Race Theory (LatCrit),
examined critically the experiences of Latino/a undocumented college students in California
public institutions. The researchers selected to use the LatCrit framework because it brings to

25

light the multiple levels of oppression that undocumented college students experience as a result
of the intersectionality of race, class, gender, language, and immigration status (Huber &
Malagon, 2007). For Latinas, gender interconnects with race and class dynamics, often referred
as intersectionality (Williams, Alvarez, & Hauck, 2002; Collins, 1998; Rothenberg, 1990; West
& Fenstermaker, 1995). Barajas and Pierce (2002) found that girls’ success is largely dependent
of relationships with “cultural translators” or formal sponsors helping to bridge the two cultures
(Barajas & Pierce, 2002). As such, it is important to analyze the literature on social capital as it
relates to minority students.
Social Capital and Institutional Agents
Social capital has been defined as the relations between networks, norms, and social trust
among individuals (O’Connor, Hammack, & Scott, 2010). The literature has demonstrated that
social capital plays a key role in determining access to higher education for students from
various ethnic groups (O’Connor, et al., 2010). Undocumented students are usually first-
generation and come from low socioeconomic backgrounds; therefore, researchers would argue
that they do not have the social networks to help facilitate information about higher education
(O’Connor, et al., 2010). For undocumented Latinas, it is critical to their academic success to
establish positive relationships to people and the university.
Defining Social Capital: Bourdieu and Coleman
Although controversial, social capital is one of the most popular concepts in sociology
that educational researchers haven taken an interest in and its relationship to educational
development and attainment (Dika & Singh, 2002). The initial theoretical development of social
capital originated with Bourdieu and Coleman in the early 20
th
century. Bourdieu (1986)
analyzed the interaction of three sources of capital: economic, cultural, and social. According to

26

Bourdieu, social capital is an aggregate accumulation of the three resources linked together to
create a network of relationships (Dika & Singh, 2002). Belonging to a group gives individual’s
collective power and access to each other’s resources. These relationships can be converted into
tangible resources or economic capital (Dika & Singh, 2002). Individuals with access to more
affluent social groups have the benefit of accessing those more valuable resources. Researchers
thus argue that Bourdieu sees social capital as the tool with which the dominant group maintains
the status quo (Lin, 2001).
Coleman (1988) on the other hand wrote about the role of social capital in creating
human capital. According to Dika and Singh (2002) Coleman proposes that social capital is
intangible and takes three forms: level of trust, information channels, and norms and sanctions
that promote the common good over self. Coleman’s definition leads to an interrelation between
individual and the environment or as he puts it “actor and structure” (Dika & Singh, 2002). The
structure is created by the level of trust that the actors hold for each other, the type of
information and willingness to share within the structure, and certain norms are established to
maintain the structure along with sanctions being placed on those who violate them. Coleman
elaborates on the role of parents on the social network of their children therefore, making him the
most widely used in education with regards to this topic (Dika & Singh, 2002).
Differences in Schools of Thoughts
Both definitions share some common ground they are both intrinsically relational. Social
capital resides in the types relationships people hold within their network. Second, both view
these relationships as having emotional and perceptual consequences for individuals. And
finally, both view social capital as having an economic impact. Social capital is tangible and can
be accumulated, traded, and used as currency (AERS, 2005). However, there are two major

27

differences among the works of Bourdieu (1985) and Coleman (1992, 1988). One difference
emerges from how social capital is obtained; Bourdieu makes the distinction between resources
and the ability to obtain them (Dika & Singh, 2002). Second, Bourdieu views social capital as a
tool of reproduction for the dominant class whereas Coleman sees it as a positive social control
(Dika & Singh, 2002). Coleman makes the argument that parents need to develop a structure of
trust and adopt certain norms that will help advance their children’s life circumstances (Dika &
Singh, 2002). Despite their differences, Bourdieu and Coleman attempt to explain the
relationship between cultural, economic, human, and social capital and the impact on individuals
and communities (AERS, 2005). Therefore, institutions such as education can influence and
shape the resources that undocumented students use to construct their identities as well as the
opportunities they are afforded to perform (Ek, 2009).
Role of Social Capital in Educational Organizations
Schools serve as a bridge to the outer community and help build horizontal ties within the
structure. They argue that as schools move away from homogenous to heterogeneous settings
vertical ties are hard to establish for students (Monkman, Ronald, & Theramene, 2005). This
difficulty leads to an increased importance to the teacher parent relationship. Due to this
functionality schools serve a special role in building or destroying social capital for immigrant
families (Monkman, et al., 2005). Immigrant families do not understand the norms or
expectations of schools and teachers and have difficulty with communication due to the language
barrier. When immigrant parents are viewed as non-caring for their child’s education the
opposite might be true; however, the lack of knowledge may lead others to this assumption.
Teachers can assist immigrant student by introducing them to the norms and expectations set by
this new structure. By acting as “cultural translators” teachers and schools are increasing the

28

social capital for these immigrant families. The opposite can also be true where the teacher and
schools ignore immigrant families and do not make an effort to bridge the cultural capital gap;
therefore, leading to the destruction of any social capital gain. For the purpose of this study, the
definition for social capital provided by Stanton-Salazar (1997) will be used “as consisting of
resources and key forms of social support embedded in one’s network or associations, and
accessible through direct or indirect ties with institutional agents.” This definition draws from the
common ground offered by the works of Bourdieu (1986) and Coleman (1992, 1988)
Institutional Agents
Research has focused on analyzing the relationships that students’ form in school with
teachers, counselors, and peers and the impact those have on educational attainment. More
specifically, this concept has been examined closely for students from underrepresented
communities. Stanton-Salazar’s (2011) framework suggests that minority students participate in
multiple sociocultural worlds and have access to nonfamily adult agents who aid their social
development and educational attainment across class and race. Stanton-Salazar (2011) defines
institutional agents as individuals who occupy one or more hierarchical positions of relatively
higher status and authority. Institutional agents have the capacity to and commitment to transmit
directly or negotiate the transmission of institutional resources and opportunities (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). Furthermore, Bensimon (2007) identifies institutional agents as those individuals
who have the expertise to be responsive to the needs of marginalized students. These individuals
are knowledgeable in their area of expertise and hold positions of power, but more importantly
respond to students with sensitivity and make them feel validated, valued, and respected
(Bensimon, 2007). These individuals act as an institutional agent when they advocate, negotiate
or transmit highly valued resources for the student (Stanton-Salazar, 2011).

29

Through relationships with institutional agents, segments of society advance their
economic and political power (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Stanton-Salazar (1997) argues that
through these relationships and social networks in our society, the reproduction of exclusivity
and subordination of people on the basis of race, class, and gender continues. Stanton-Salazar
(1997) utilizes the social freeways to middle-class networks metaphor, pathways that allow
people to move through complex mainstreams with relative speed and ease. Accordingly these
networks provide a pathway for privilege and power (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Stanton-Salazar
(1997) contends that a strong link exists between schooling, social networks, and adult
attainment. This link suggests that consistent and predictable structural variations to these social
networks of people from different social classes will translate into variations of access to highly
regarded institutional resources and opportunities (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Stanton-Salazar
(1997) argues that although these social networks act as freeways of privilege and power, they
also function as lifelines to resource for low-status individuals to overcome social, economic,
and structural barriers.
Institutional agents play a critical role in socializing low-status students into the
educational organizations (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). Stanton-Salazar (2011) argues that in order
for low-status students to succeed academically and socially they must build resourceful
relationships with individuals who will facilitate the transmission of institutional and academic
support, cultural capital, access of key funds of knowledge, and provide guidance and advice.
However, forming these relationship can be challenging and complex.
Stanton-Salazar (2011) presents three barriers that underrepresented students encounter in
developing institutional support. The first barrier is that of class and social segregation that exists
within the larger societies that filter into the universities and colleges (Stanton-Salazar, 2011).

30

The social structure of power and influence set outside of the institutions privilege interactions
among the dominant groups and isolates others from accessing those resources (Stanton-Salazar,
2011). In essence, it is like a perpetual cycle of privilege and exclusion that does not allow the
working-class group infiltrate and access those highly needed resources. The second barrier
suggests that for low-status youth to establish connections to institutional agents, a culture of
trust and shared meaning must be established (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). The dominant culture has
a strong socialization function where schools serve as the venue for the norms, values, behaviors,
and rules are transmitted (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). Institutions of higher education adhere to the
dominant culture therefore passing on the status quo and low-status students must struggle to
assimilate or reject. This socialization agenda not only presents a challenge to the youth, but also
to those institutional agents willing to support these students (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). Finally, the
third barrier that Stanton-Salazar (2011) presents is the challenge faced by the eligible agents
who are well positioned in the organizations. These potential institutional agents are faced with
bureaucratic and personal agendas that are not geared towards creating supportive relations
between eligible agents of the organization and students (Stanton-Salazar, 2011).
Rationale for the Study
This literature review has explored a number of pertinent issues necessary for our
understanding factors of persistence for undocumented Latina students, how they navigate and
negotiate their multiple identities, and the role of social capital in assisting them. The chapter
covered Astin and Tinto’s foundational theories of college persistence as well as critiques. I then
reviewed the literature that incorporates the minority college student experience and looks at
factors that affect their persistence. From there, I covered the intersectionality of identities for

31

undocumented college students. Finally, this led to the discussion of social capital and Stanton-
Salazar’s institutional agents.
By reviewing these three areas of research, it is clear that the foundational theories of
persistence ignore the unique experiences of undocumented students. Although much research
exists on the experiences of minority students, very little is still known on the factors related to
college persistence of undocumented students. In addition, undocumented students have unique
circumstances that force them to develop multiple identities that are situated in time and place
and are fluid to adapt to the context in which they may find themselves. A complex set of
negotiations that are learned through social structures such as their families, communities, and
educational institutions. As such, it institutional agents are critical in that they become “cultural
translators” for undocumented students. The ability to negotiate their identities in the right
context and gather tangible and intangible resources from institutional agents can be integral to
the college persistence for undocumented students.
However, the literature is limited in truly understanding the many dimensions of identity
for undocumented students. Although research has continued to grow in this arena, it is still
limited in that it does not take into account the diversity within the U.S. Latino/a population. In
Southern California, the second largest Latino/a sub-segment, is composed of Salvadoreans and
Guatemalans as stated in chapter one. Although a smaller segment, it is significant enough in the
state of California that it merits an analysis that would yield new knowledge and practical
implications to higher education.

32

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Research presented in the previous chapter revealed that many undocumented students
excel in high school as honor students, class valedictorians, and active community members
(Perez, 2010). In addition, it reviewed theories and terms that were used for this study. This
chapter details the methodological approach, assumptions, the research approach, information on
the participants and sites, data collection and analysis procedure, trustworthiness of the data, and
limitations. To review, the purpose of this study is to understand issues of college persistence for
undocumented Latinas from Central America attending public institutions in Southern
California. The following question will guide this study:
• How does the immigration and socialization experience of undocumented Latinas from
Central American affect their college persistence?
Methodological Approach
A qualitative research method was employed to address the proposed study question.
Creswell (2007) states that qualitative research begins with assumptions, or worldviews, and the
possible use of a theoretical lens, and defines it as:
…inquiring (process) into the meaning of individuals or groups ascribe to a social or
human problem. To study the problem…researchers use an emerging qualitative
approach to inquiry, the collection of data in a natural setting sensitive to the people and
places under study, and data analysis that is inductive an includes the voices of
participants, the reflexivity of the researcher, and a complex description and
interpretation of the problem, an it extends the literature or signals a call for action. (p.
37)

This approach allowed the researcher to capture the voices of the individuals and how
they make meaning of those experiences without being constrained by predetermined categories
(Patton, 2002; Merriam, 1998). In the true spirit of qualitative inquiry, it helped the researcher

33

understand the unique situations of the participants and how they piece all the parts of their
world together (Creswell, 2007). Furthermore, this study was informed by a constructivist
paradigm. By using this paradigm, the researcher sought to understand how the subjective
meanings are negotiated socially and historically (Creswell, 2007). Finally, this study utilized a
critical theoretical lens to look at the overlap of race, ethnicity, gender, class, immigration and
legal status impact persistence of Central American women in college.
Theoretical Framework
As discussed in chapter 2, this study aimed to create a new understanding on the factors
that assist undocumented Central American Latinas persist in higher education. The study is
framed by Tinto’s (1975) theoretical framework on persistence. It will specifically looked at how
undocumented Central American Latinas negotiate their multiple identities and the role of social
capital to help them persist in college (Torres, 2003; Ginorio & Houston, 2001; Stanton-Salazar,
1997). This study attempts to develop grounded theory of persistence for undocumented
students.
Research Design
In order to understand the lived experiences of undocumented Central American college
women a case study approach was employed. The case study approach allowed the researcher to
explore in depth the lived experiences of the participants while binding the study by time and
place (Creswell, 2003). Finally, this approach provides multidimensional data collection that
helped provide a detailed description of the study (Creswell, 2003). The case study approach has
three characteristics: particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic (Merriam, 2009). In this research,
the case study will focus on the particular situation of the participants- undocumented status
(Merriam, 2009). The case study offered a rich, “thick” description for each of the students and

34

heuristic in that it helped the research understand the phenomenon under study (Merriam, 2009).
Although there are various types of case studies, a multi-case study was used to conduct this
research. This type of study is referred to as collective case studies and it involves collecting and
analyzing data from several cases that may have subunits (Merriam, 2009).
Participant Selection
The selection process involved recruitment and identification of potential participants,
invitation to participate, and finally the selection of participants. Fundamental to the study is the
security and privacy guarantee of the participants due to the sensitive nature of the topic. The
following criteria was used for participant selection: a) females over the age of 18, b) self-
identified as undocumented, c) from Central American (born outside the U.S.), d) enrolled as an
undergraduate in one of the identified research sites for this study and e) completed at least one
semester of college coursework (12-15 units). To yield such a pool of participants, the researcher
engaged in the following steps:
• Emails were sent to colleagues at the researcher’s home institution and student
organization such as MeCha, AB 540 clubs, etc. explaining the research study and asking
for assistance in identifying participants that meet the criteria listed.
• Once participants were identified, a similar email was sent to each individual with the
researcher’s contact information.
• Once contact was established with willing participant the researcher ascertained that the
she met all established criteria by the rubric in Appendix A.
• Finally, the researcher requested assistance from the participants that met all criteria to
find additional participants.

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Sampling Method
With the final step, the researcher engaged in purposeful sampling to find 10 eligible
participants for the study. According to Patton (2002), the logic and power of purposeful
sampling is selecting information-rich cases to study in depth. Patton (2002) asserts that
snowball or chain sampling is helpful in “identifying cases of interest from sampling people who
know people who know what cases are information rich, that is, good examples for study, good
interview participants” (p. 243). This sampling method proved to be the most accurate because
institutions of higher education do not have a tracking system for legal status of students.
Research Sites
This study focused on the experiences of undocumented students at urban institutions in
Southern California. Selecting campuses in the University of California (UC), California State
University (CSU) and California Community College (CCC) system employed a purposeful
sampling technique. The researcher began outreach at the CSU system level which is composed
of 23 campuses, serves nearly 412,000 students, 43,000 faculty and staff, and is considered the
largest and most affordable university system in the nation. It is assumed that most campuses in
the CSU system have some sort of taskforce or committee that seeks to improve the conditions
for undocumented students, most commonly known as AB 540 students, student organizations
and advisors for AB 540 students. By approaching key individuals at one campus and
establishing rapport and trust the researcher gained access to students’ at other campuses.

36

Data Collection Procedures
Interview Procedure
The nature of this study is sensitive because it deals with the issue of undocumented
immigration. It was paramount that the researcher established a trusting environment. To build
rapport and trust, multiple points of contact would need to be established in a short amount of
time. Interviews with study participants were unstructured and more like informal conversations
with open-ended questions (Patton, 2002). This type of structure offered flexibility so that the
researcher may pursue issues that may emerge from the interviews. More importantly, it allowed
each student to feel comfortable in disclosing as much information as she wanted and it
demonstrated that the researcher was interested in their life story. According to Patton (2002),
the strengths of using the ethnographic interview structure is that it allows flexibility,
spontaneity, and responsiveness to individual differences and changes in situation. Because of its
flexibility questions can be changed for each individual to gain a deeper insight into their life
story. On the other hand, the weakness of this method is that it takes a greater amount of time to
collect systematic information because it takes several conversations to get to the same set of
questions for each individual (Patton, 2002). However, this structure offered the greatest insight
into the experiences of undocumented students.
Individual interviews and protocol.
Individual interviews were conducted with each participant. An important aspect of the
individual interviews is the ability of the researcher to establish rapport between her and the
participants. In order to achieve this goal the researcher self-disclosed some of her own
educational experience as a Central American immigrant and first generation. Due to the

37

sensitive nature of this study, it was critical that students felt comfortable with the researcher and
were able to disclose their experiences freely and in a trusting environment.
University structure and document analysis
In order to understand the experiences of the participants, the structure of the university
was reviewed. It was critical to evaluate the accessibility of programs, services, information, and
other resources for undocumented students. The university faculty and staff are of great
importance in serving this population. As such the university structure was analyzed for training
and/or workshops that assist faculty and staff in working with the undocumented student
population on their campuses. In addition, documents and resources were also reviewed to gain a
better understanding of the university context.

University and department websites were reviewed to assess whether information is
accessible to current and prospective undocumented students. Finally, department websites were
reviewed to evaluate accessibility of resources for undocumented students.
Reflexive field notes
Qualitative research requires the researcher to systematically reflect on the inquiry and
personal beliefs and values (Creswell, 2003). One of the key characteristics of qualitative
research is that it acknowledges that “the personal-self can be inseparable from the researcher
self” (p. 182); however, this openness brings honesty in the research because the researcher
becomes more self-aware (Creswell, 2003). Reflexive field notes were included in the study
these will include thoughts and feelings that come up for the researcher during interviews and
other observations. It also allowed the researcher to remain grounded on the differences in
experiences between her and the participants.

38

Data Analysis
All interviews will be transcribed and translated if necessary. The researcher engaged in a
data analysis spiral as described by Creswell (2007) who argues that this process is interrelated
and often simultaneous in the research process. The data analysis spiral begins with the data of
text and exits with an account or narrative (Creswell, 2007). In the process, the researcher moved
in analytical circles through the data identifying commonalities and themes that relate back to the
study’s frameworks as illustrated in Figure 1 (Creswell, 2007).

Trustworthiness Criteria
Using a qualitative approach to this study brings up the question of validity. The concept
of validity is complex; however, it is seen as the strength of qualitative research. Validity is used
to suggest determining whether the findings are accurate from the standpoint of the researcher
(Creswell, 2003). Terms are abundant in the literature that speaks to this idea, such as
“trustworthiness, authenticity, and credibility” (Creswell, 2003, p. 196). Adapting from
Creswell’s (2003) suggested strategies, this study will use the following to establish validity -
triangulation, use rich, thick description to convey the findings, clarification of research bias,
present any negative or discrepant information that runs counter to the themes, and prolonged
time in the field.
• Data

Collection

(text,
images)

Files,
units,

organizing

• Data
managing

ReSlecting,
writing

notes,
across

questions

• Reading

• Memoing

Context,
categories,

comparisons

• Representing,

visualizing

Matrix,
trees,

propositions

• Account

1
Figure 1. The Data Analysis Spiral adapted from Creswell (2007).
2

39

Creswell (2003) states that, examining evidence from different data sources and using it
to build coherent justification for themes helps to establish validity. This triangulation was
accomplished by the individual interviews and observations. The researcher after the interview
took detailed notes with in-depth descriptions of the language and visual images used.
Additionally, the participants selected the location for the interview thus ensuring a trusting
environment and allowing them to be more open. The literature states that in order to establish
validity and reliability researcher bias must be removed (Creswell, 2003). This was achieved by
allowing some time to pass between each interview analysis. This allowed the researcher to
analyze the language and visuals to draw conclusions with a fresh look.
Limitations
A few limitations of this study should be noted. First, time constraints and available
resources limited the number and length of interviews with each participant. Although this study
informs our understanding of the experiences of undocumented Central American Latina
immigrants, generalizing these findings is not recommended. This study examined only the
experiences of Central American immigrant women; men were not discussed. The focus was on
race specifically, although there were some gendered issues; however, these were secondary to
the present study.
Second, this study focused only on urban public institutions in Southern California. It
would be beneficial to extend this study to examine the experiences of undocumented students at
large and small private and/or HSI compared to non-HSI institutions within Southern California.
In addition, the study did not specifically address the transfer experiences for students who
transfer from a community college to those four-year state public institutions.

40

Lastly, since the focus of this study was to understand the how undocumented Central
American Latinas negotiate their multiple identities and social capital to persist in college,
students who did not persist were excluded. Still, the findings from this study have theoretical
implications on research of persistence. In addition, it has implications that could provide
guidance to institutions of higher education as they continue to serve more students from this
population.
Researcher Bias
During a naturalistic inquiry, inevitably the findings are influenced by the researcher’s
point of view (Patton, 2002). I acknowledge that I brought to this study my own set of values,
beliefs, views of the world that cannot be removed entirely from the research. As a first-
generation college graduate and immigrant from Central America, I expected to share some of
the participant’s life stories. However, a basic premise of qualitative researcher is to both detach
and get involved in the study (Patton, 2002). Finally, because this study required that the
researcher and participants share sentiments within the context of the study; undoubtedly, the
researcher changed in unpredictable manners as a result (Patton, 2002).
As a student affairs practitioner, I value the idea of access from pre-college to graduation
for all students regardless of background. I am committed to ensuring the success of every
student by working as an advocate, resource, and a social justice practitioner. I acknowledge that
this impacted the research in some way. However, I committed to follow the inductive process of
qualitative research, using reflexive notes, and reminding myself of my own perspective and
acknowledging how these may have affected the process.

41

CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings of this qualitative study in order to
address the research question. First, a profile for each student participant interviewed for this
study will be presented. Within each profile themes that emerged from the individual interview
will be identified. Second, through a taxonomic analysis of the interviews common themes will
emerge. These themes will help to understand the overlap of the socialization of race, ethnicity,
gender, class, immigration, legal status and the impact on college persistence for the student
participants interviewed.
Purpose of the Research
The purpose of this study was to understand issues of college persistence for
undocumented Central American Latinas in Southern California. This study will add to the
limited work that has been done with undocumented students by looking at a sub-segment of the
Latino population that has often been ignored in the literature. Additionally, it hopes to provide a
wider cultural and national perspective for examining college retention for Latino/as by looking
through the lenses of Central American undocumented students.
Research Participants
As noted in chapter three, this study employed a purposeful sampling method to identify
qualified participants. Essential to the study was the confidentiality and privacy of each
participant due to the current political and sensitive nature of the immigration topic. As such,
each student was guaranteed anonymity and was assigned a pseudonym. Cities, colleges,
universities, students and community organizations were renamed or generalized to ensure
confidentiality.

42

To identify potential students the researcher reached out to high schools and community
organizations in the Pico-Union area of Los Angeles, an area with a concentrated Central
American population. In addition, the researcher contacted AB 540, Central American clubs and
other organizations at the colleges and universities in Southern California near to the Pico-Union
area. From these efforts, contacts were established at a local high school and a community
organization, of which provided the researcher with names, telephone numbers, and email
addresses for seven students. After numerous and carefully considered emails six students
responded and were interviewed. See Appendix B for a copy of the initial email sent to students.
Additionally, the researcher was able to connect with AB 540 and Central American
clubs and organizations at various campuses. These organizations invited the researcher to meet
with them, present the study, and recruit participants at their monthly meetings. The additional
two students become known through this outreach. The researcher received a number of positive
emails from students interested in the study in addition to demonstrating the much-needed voice
for this Latino sub-population. For example some emails read:
It was very nice to meet you and know that a fellow Guatemalteca is doing great things! I
would be very happy to participate but I was born here is the states.

This is really interesting and what you are doing will be a great help for others. I’d love
to participate but I am Mexican.

I was pleased to have met you yesterday at the CASA meeting. It was motivating to hear
you share your experience as a Central American woman. Furthermore, I am currently a
fifth year and I am also interested in studying the experience of Central Americans in
higher education for my graduate school studies…with time I would like to focus more
on the unique experiences Central American students have as they make their way toward
higher education.

The students that responded selected the day, time and location of where they wanted the
interview to take place. The interviews were conducted in a variety of locations. The majority
took place in homes of the participant’s home or on the researchers’ campus. One interview was

43

conducted over the phone and one nearby to a participants’ home. Each interview lasted about
one and a half to two hours. Table 4.1 lists the eight participants of this study. The table provides
information about the type of institution the student attends, their class standing, major, country
of origin and the age at which they entered the U.S. This information is key to providing context
to the participant profiles that follow.
Table 4.1: Profile of students interviewed for the study
Participant Type of
Institution
Class Standing Major Country of
Origin
Age when
entered the
U.S.
Isabel CSU Senior Psychology El Salvador 11

Maria CSU Senior Central
American
Studies
Guatemala 12
Paola UC Sophomore Political
Science
El Salvador 9

Rosa CCC Sophomore Undeclared El Salvador 7

Yesenia CCC Sophomore Psychology Guatemala 15

Betty CCC Sophomore Biology El Salvador 14

Juana UC Sophomore Biology &
Spanish/Pre-
Med
Guatemala 11
Estrella CCC Freshman Human
Resources
Management
Honduras 12

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Student Profiles
Isabel
Isabel is a senior majoring in Psychology. Her parents migrated from El Salvador due to
the overwhelming financial challenges they were experiencing and in search of better
opportunities leaving her and her sister behind. Her parents sent for her and her younger sister
when she was 11. She recalls that the hardest challenge for her was the absence of her
grandmother when she arrived to Los Angeles. Her grandmother had taken custody of her and
her younger sister when her parents migrated to the U.S. She first realized that she was not in El
Salvador anymore when her grandmother was not with her when her parents picked her up from
the airport. Isabel also attributes her biggest life lesson to that event.
Well I would say coming here because that definitely changed my life. I know I got to be
reunited with my parents and it was just you know a different culture, different country,
and more opportunities. Yeah that was the most life changing event…over there people
don’t get an education, unless you are rich. And some of us aren’t even expected to go to
school, so now I have a broader perspective on opportunities.

Like other participants in this study Isabel entered the U.S. with a visa. However, unlike
some of the other’s she was eligible to apply for a temporary protective status (TPS). Under TPS
Isabel is eligible for some benefits that include a work permit and driver’s license. TPS does not
lead to a permanent legal status and does not allow her to receive federal or state financial aid.
I think my situation is kind of like a middle situation because I do have a work permit
which allows me to work and have a driver’s license which a lot of my friends who
weren’t born here don’t have. So I can see that as a benefit definitely however I’m not
able to get financial aid and during high school that was the confusion because my
teachers told me I could. But when I needed the social security it turned out I didn’t have
one, I just knew then it would be harder for me…it’s just made things I think a little more
difficult in a way or more challenging, yeah.

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Family.
Isabel respects the journey her parents took in coming to the U.S. She described them as
“guerreros” [warriors], brave individuals who left their country and overcame many hardships
along the way but managed to bring their two daughters to America.
They’re persistent and they’re loving and they’ve never, never forgotten about me and
they’ve always been there and I’m very thankful that they never forgot us because it
happens you know.

She mentioned that their support was vital to her ability to adjust to the new country,
school, and language. When Isabel arrived she was placed into fifth grade even though she had
completed that grade in El Salvador. She reflected that she was probably placed in the
appropriate grade level because placing her in sixth grade would have been harder due to older
kids. She had an easy time with mathematics and other subjects because according to her schools
in El Salvador were more advanced in those content areas at the time. The mutual support in her
ESL peer group was important in assisting her transition to her new school and language because
they often helped each other. She shared that at times it was hard for her to stay in school
because the kids were mean, laughing at her when she did not speak English correctly. It was
also in middle school that she started hanging out with the wrong crowd and getting into trouble,
but she realizes now that she was doing that to try to fit in.
In fifth grade I know I remember like students would laugh at me because you know kids
are kids and, it was not fun obviously that’s why I didn’t want to got to school anymore
because I was getting laughed at school. It was the only time when I felt like I didn’t
belong or I didn’t want to be there.

Prior schooling.
Isabel credits the charter high school she attended for positively influencing here life.
Instead of going to the corresponding local high school, Isabel’s parents placed her in a charter
high school close to their neighborhood. Her family lives in the Pico-Union a low socio-

46

economic neighborhood where kids at a very young age more often than not end up in gangs,
dropping out of school and in low-paying jobs. However, her high school environment instilled
in her the desire of not only continuing her education but to be an agent of social change.
And I would also say my teachers in high school because they, the whole school was
based on the slogan “College ready, college bound, social agents of change” and I took
that like really to my heart like I still believe in that and um I think that if I wouldn’t have
gone to that high school I don’t know if college would have been like a priority in my life
because I didn’t have that at home.

Her high school motto gave her a sense of purpose and encouraged her to help others in
her community. Isabel was part of the first graduating senior class at her charter school. Her
principal, counselors and teachers were all highly involved with her class. In her junior year she
remembers her school having community dialogues where various topics where discussed and
college was part of many of their conversations. In addition, during her senior year she enrolled
in a required senior class, iConnect, where the teacher focused on getting her to set her goals for
college. This class was also designed to familiarize her and her peers to the college application
process, which they all did together as a class. Isabel feels that the high school environment and
the class is what got her to seriously consider college as an option for her.
I don’t remember a specific thing, but I do remember like just hearing all those facts that
if you go to college you make more money, you’re gong to get an education, you can be
someone, you can have a career, I think all those things together plus the support in that
one classroom where we just focused on that…I think that was vital to my decision of
going to college I think by eleventh grade I was like I’m going to college I was like I’m
going to do it…

College experience.
Isabel remembers applying to colleges all over the country and her family being
indifferent about the entire process. However, as she began hearing back from schools she soon
realized that her father was not supportive of her going out of state. She remembers that her
father told her he had been praying that the out-of-state schools would reject her admission. She

47

was admitted to San Francisco State, which was a school still in California but far from home.
She accepted their admissions offer and was headed up north for college. Everyone in her family
was sad about her leaving, but her father was upset that she had decided to leave the family.
He was mad he didn’t…my aunt that I told you about and my mom went with me to San
Francisco to take all my things and drop me off he didn’t even say bye to me, he was
really upset that I was leaving it was really, it was hard to see that I was trying to like do
something for myself and like he just wasn’t like okay with like…he got over it later he
went to visit me you know but at that point it wasn’t a good reaction. My mom was
supportive she was like okay I’m proud of you… she was always encouraging me.

Isabel was at San Francisco State for one semester. She recalls that having her dad upset
with her because she left the family made much harder to be away. She lacked the support she
was used to in her family and at a school. So after the first term she decided to move back with
her family and attend a college nearby. She remembers having mixed feelings about her
situation. Isabel was happy to be home with her family, yet felt like a failure because she was not
able to not stay in San Francisco. When she returned to Southern California she had a second
start to her first year in college at Cal State Los Angeles. Yet she felt just as lost and
overwhelmed as she had felt before and considered dropping out. Isabel had not completed her
remediation in her first term so as she tried enrolling for the next quarter she was encountering
challenges. When Isabel finally learned about her incomplete remediation requirement she tried
adding the courses at Cal State Los Angeles. and at her local community college unfortunately
by then all sections were closed. She was forced to take the quarter off and thoughts of dropping
out crossed her mind.
I was like I didn’t know, no one told me, how was I supposed to know…but whatever the
thing is like at that point I was just very like why am I even going, I was so discouraged
because I don’t know it was like how am I supposed to be held responsible for classes
that were full you know what I mean so I thin that was probably the toughest time.

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Social support.
Things got a little better for Isabel after that first term, the financial struggles still
continued but she felt more comfortable about herself and being in college. She talked about the
Chicano Studies class that she had taken having the biggest impact on her. She spoke
enthusiastically about how in one of those classes she learned that only a very small percentage
of Latino/as hold a Ph.D. And she talked about how it gave her a perspective in understanding
her own struggles and those of her community.
I took a class I think called environmental justice where you learn you know like of all
the minorities and their struggles it’s just I think those kinds of things have really
impacted me because I see myself like oh okay I’m a minority and there are a lot of
adversities that I have and that I wasn’t aware of before so I feel like I seem myself as I
guess it’s I understand myself from a bigger point of view now.

In addition, Isabel has found a support network through her peers. Students that she met
through SURGE, an AB 540 student group, on her campus or through class. She specifically
talked about her close friend and how they helped each other by being able to share and talk
about their college experience. Unfortunately, Isabel mentioned that because of work she had
been unable to actively participate in SURGE until this quarter. She talked about how much she
enjoyed being with students that shared her experience and it made her feel part of a community.
She’s also been able to work in the community this quarter. She talked about going back to her
high school to give presentation on AB 540 to juniors and seniors. Additionally, she’s
volunteered at the Downtown Women’s Center and fundraised for a leadership program called
Instituto de Lideres. She shared that she has grown so much as a person and a leader through her
experience as an undocumented student and her involvements.
I’ve learned that I can do a lot of things, even though I’m working and gong to school
I’m able to make time for other things and it’s important to know because later on I’ll be
able to manage my time with however I want…I’m a leader. Definitely that I can, that I
can make a change in my community and others.

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Isabel concluded that having her parents support throughout this process has been vital to
her staying in college. She also credits her intrinsic motivation and knowing that she has things
she wants to accomplish in life. Finally, she shared that having her social support form her
friends and having others in her same situation has been extremely influential in her college
experience.
Maria
Maria is a senior majoring in Central American Studies. Her mother migrated to the U.S.
after being laid-off from a good paying job at a shoe factory. In her mother’s absence, her
grandparents raised her in a small rural town of Jalapa. She recalls that although her time there
was enjoyable, her hardest challenge was being separated from her parents, especially her
mother.
I think so I mean just the fact that I came here sort of ‘legal’ ‘cause I came here with a
tourist visa but soon after that meant nothing. I knew that would not mean anything from
early on. Unlike other undocumented students I always knew I wasn’t documented.

Maria’s mother sent for her when she was 12 and she entered the U.S. with a visa and
was always aware of her status.
Family.
Her mother did not enroll her into school right away; Maria started school a year after she
arrived to the U.S. She remembers that during that first year she went to work daily with her
mother, a domestic house worker, cleaning houses. Maria attributes her working ethic to her
mother because during that year she taught her the meaning of hard work. She mentioned that at
the time she did not understand why her mother kept her from school and would not know until
now the impact that it had on her as an individual. And today it motivates her to push forward
and keeps her grounded as well.

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I learned how to clean houses- mansions- like if I needed to do that for a living one day, I
would definitely be able to do it…and it’s an art it’s definitely an art and a lot of people, a
lot of domestic workers are underpaid and discriminated and don’t get breaks and all that
horrible stuff. It’s an art and I’ll tell you, my mom is like in my eyes the best housekeeper
in L.A. as far as I’m concerned.

She remembered that the most exciting thought about coming to the U.S. was that she
would be reunited with her mother. However, soon she was disappointed, often she would come
home from school to an empty apartment. Maria quickly learned that her mother worked long
hours and that she would have little time to rebuild the relationship with her mom. However,
when Maria described her mother she did so with the utmost respect. She described her mother
as a caring, loving and courageous person who sacrificed a lot for her family. To Maria, her
mother and the sacrifices she made is what motivate her through her struggles in pursuit of
higher education and a better future.
Prior schooling.
When Maria started school she was placed into the ninth grade and she felt like it was not
the best placement. In Guatemala she had just started eighth grade when her mother sent for her.
When Maria arrived and was ready to enroll in school the academic year was coming to an end
and she was placed in eighth grade. She was unable to spend enough time in eighth grade to
learn and adjust to the new school before she knew it Maria was in the ninth grade. She
described her experience in the classroom as one of an individual traveling to a foreign country
where no one speaks the language and no one is willing to help. She recalls that her ESL teachers
did not take the time to assess her learning and language skills. Maria laments that she and her
peers were unable to take other courses due to ESL classes.
Like most of our classes were ESL even though I think most of us after the first like
maybe the first two years, we had already picked it up…So I think after the two years,
most of us were not fluent like orally and written but we understood like at least 80
percent of everything, but they still kept us like at a very low level and kept repeating

51

stuff to us like they never really evaluated how much we had learned because they didn’t
care, you know.

She felt that some of her high school teachers did not see much potential in her or the
other immigrant children. And by keeping her in ESL longer than she should have been they
made her feel like an outsider. Sports were one of the key things that helped Maria get adjusted
to her new school and to feel included. She began playing basketball in the eighth grade and
continued until she graduated from high school. As she talked about playing basketball she
shared that the court was the only place she felt like she belonged.
Like that’s kinda of what kept me away from everything and kind of like helped me even
learn English faster. In a way that gave me grounds to be here because we went through
so much discrimination from our peers you know that basketball was the only place
where I felt like I was the same.

On the court there was a common language and there was no need to explain her
situation. She did not have to face her reality of being undocumented and the loss of her dreams.
As she approached high school graduation, Maria began to realize that the desire for a better
future was diming due to her undocumented status. The only place that Maria felt a sense of
accomplishment and belonging was the court.
College experience.
Maria was recruited to play basketball at Pierce Community College. She shared that
pursuing higher education for her was never a doubt; she always knew that her mother brought
her to the U.S. for a better future. And the only way that she would accomplish that future was
by getting an education. She credits her community college education for preparing her for the
academic rigors of a four-year university. She thinks that if she had gone straight to a four-year
institution from high school she would not have persisted.
If school failed you from ninth to twelfth grade you’re not going to recover in college if
anything things are going to become way harder because everything is moving so much

52

faster. I think what prepared me a bit for college was community college; you know that
really helped me.

During her first year at Pierce Community College, Maria with the help of her coach
convinced her mother to let her move out. She had seen that that was what kids did when they
went to college and she saw herself no different. However, it was not what she had expected.
Maria recalls that in her first year she felt lost and lonely. The other women on the team came
from more affluent families and she could not relate.
I was there for six months, but that time really helped me but it was kind of not good,
‘cause I felt really lost, I was someone undocumented, I couldn’t tell anybody, I couldn’t
talk to my teammates about it, they were not going to understand me. They had money, I
didn’t you know…and I was kind of, felt like on the bottom of the bottom you know, I
didn’t find anybody I could relate with.

In addition, she mentioned that during that time she had not fully developed her identity
as an undocumented student. This made it difficult for her to seek help or talk about her status.
Undocumented identity.
She remembers that during that time the undocumented student movement was not as
active. Like many of the students at the time she hid her undocumented identity and at times was
ashamed to bring it up. If she had a chance to relive those years over, she said she would not
have been so concerned about her undocumented status. However, she now understands that it’s
a process that undocumented students have to go through and it’s different from individual to
individual.
Maria managed to work to pay for college. She worked at a coffee shop that paid her well
and gave her reasonable hours. However, due to the economy they cut her hours and brought her
wages down to less than minimum wage. Although her boss’ decision caused economic
difficulty, Maria’s tone reflected appreciation towards her boss. While working and juggling
school, Maria found time to part of the undocumented student movement. She recalls being in

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Washington D.C. when the Federal DREAM Act was introduced and that the event gave her a
reality check on how policies are made.
When I saw like kids DREAM Act eligible students following congressmen to the
bathroom with flowers, that just like…it’s like I can’t erase it from my memory. There
were so many of us there from all over the country with different stories, more an more
compelling than others, like when you hear other people’s stories you say “oh that story
is nothing…”

Maria recognized that many individuals before her had worked hard on advocating for
immigrant rights and that more work laid ahead. During her last year at CSUN Maria says she’s
slowed down on her activism. She feels that her cohort had done what they could and it was time
for the new class to take the lead. Because it really helped her find a place of belonging during
her college experience, she encourages other undocumented students to get involved in the
movement.
That’s been my most helpful experience and I encourage any other students to get
involved because I’ve met so many people. I think that if one day I was to be
deported…like I would feel backed up by my community. I would feel like that couldn’t
easily happen like, there’s a sense of community involvement and community backing
that you feel.

Along with her activism, Maria’s major – Central American Studies – has made an
impact in her self as an individual and as a member of the community. She realizes that many
Central American immigrants that come as young children have a somewhat shared experience
in the U.S. many know very little of where they were born, their history, and reasons why
individuals were forced to migrate. Due to her learning and growth in her major she feels a
strong connection to Guatemala although she lives here. Maria prefers to identify herself as
Guatemalan because she feels it encompasses her core self, composed from the language, the
traditions, the foods, and her perception of looking at the world.
I guess I get this feeling all the time because I am a Central American Studies major, so
we have all these events that have to do with our culture, that have to do with where we

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are from, that have to do…I mean a big par of what we do is to keep our culture alive and
not to forget.

Maria attributes her strong Central American identity to her years in the major, where she
not only learned to celebrate her culture but also the history of its people. She acknowledges that
if it were not for her courses she would have little to no knowledge of Guatemala or any Central
American country. She attributes her strong sense of self to knowing about her culture and
embracing it.
I didn’t know all these things and neither did my peers. So for me it’s been like I have
never felt more Central American than now, it’s like semester keep going, the feeling gets
stronger you know.

Although Maria considers herself truly Guatemalan she recognizes that she has many
other identities due to her experience in the U.S.
I mean just like a person like anybody else, diversity here in L.A. makes you different. I
couldn’t just say I’m Guatemala now because that’s no longer true. A big part of me is
but not entirely.

Maria shared that unfortunately people see her and are quick to stereotype. She feels that
many people still hold misconceptions about immigrants. But in her experience she has
witnessed the opposite of what these people believe. She has seen her and her peers work hard,
have a degree of respect for this country, and have the desire to contribute to their communities.
In a way she feels that this makes it harder for her because it puts more pressure on her to do
well. She feels that she has to do well in school, get a job and outperform at it, so that all those
who doubted her and people like her could be proved wrong. She also feels that it is her
responsibility not to let her community down by not doing her best and succeeding.

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Paola
Paola is a sophomore majoring in Political Science. Her mother left her in the care of her
grandfather when she migrated to the U.S. Her grandfather lived in a small town in the outskirts
of Santa Ana, El Salvador. She remembers getting up early to go to work with her grandfather in
the fields and being able to play and run freely.
I feel that the lifestyle over there it’s a lot happier. They might not have as much, but they
have their own land. They have family. Whereas here, you have bills to pay, you don’t
have as much family, you don’t have anyone to rely on. So that I think plays a lot into
your feeling of happiness, in a place.

As she spoke about her life prior to the U.S., she recalls her small town, as a place where
everyone knew each other and all seemed happy even though there was a lot of poverty.
Family.
Her mother brought her when she was 9 years old. Paola remembers that it was a big
change for her and her sister. She felt that she was coming to live with her mother, someone who
she did not know at all. By the time Paola arrived her mother had remarried and not only did she
feel like she had to get to know her mother all over again, but she now had a new dad. The
challenges of her transition to the U.S. began at a home with what she described as “a new
family.” Because of this experience Paola feels that she is a much stronger and independent
individual. Although her grandfather raised her during her mother’s absence she feels it was still
a very lonely process.
I mean personally the fact that I grew up without my mom or dad…it makes you very
independent and very strong. It makes you not want to rely on anybody. I had my sister,
so we would always look out for each other. So there is like a very, very strong bond.
Um, but it kind of…it makes it harder to build relationships with other people in terms of
letting people in.

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The only other person Paola felt connected with was her sister due to their shared
experience. She mentioned that the strong bond that she has with her sister makes it difficult to
open up to other individuals.
Immigrant experience.
Like many other Central American immigrants Paola has a temporary protected status
(TPS). She shared that although she has certain benefits like a work permit, her status plays a
critical role in her daily life. She described that in a way having TPS makes it harder for her
because it may seem like she fits in when in reality she does not.
…you still feel undocumented, you know, in terms of tuition. You can’t travel outside of
the country. Especially now that I’m in my second year, I see a lot of students, um, going
abroad, a lot my friends having those experiences, and it makes you feel kind of left out,
‘cause you know you can’t do certain things. So I guess in comparison to the other AB
540 students, I do have a minimal advantage, but it’s still…you still feel like you’re sort
of an outcast.

She shared that her motivation to do well in school and pursue higher education was to
improve her and her family’s economic status. Her biggest supporter has been her mother. She
shared that her mother left for the U.S. and traveled by herself through Guatemala and Mexico.
She talked about how in those days and even today that’s not a safe thing to do as a woman.
She never gives up. Um, I mean she came here when she was, I think, 24, and she left on
her own from El Salvador, so I don't know how she managed to get here. Um, I know
that she worked in Mexico for a while because she left with pretty much no money from
El Salvador, so she took about six months to arrive to the United States. So she had to
work along the way, and being a woman who's 24 years old traveling all the way from
down there to-to the United States, that is pretty tough. So I really look up to her in that
sense. Very courageous woman.
And when she talks about her mother’s journey one can could hear in Paola’s voice the
love and respect that she has for her mother.

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Education.
Paola always knew that her mother had brought her to the U.S. to get a better education
and to improve their condition of life. As such she never thought that college would not happen,
she knew it had to happen but was not sure how. Her mother and stepdad always stressed the
importance of doing well in school and always encouraged her. Paola shared that even with all
the support and encouragement the motivation and drive to go to college was intrinsic for her.
She explain that it is something in her unconscious, something that she carries with her perhaps
because of her lived experience in El Salvador.
There wasn’t something that motivated me precisely. Maybe I mentioned this before, but
it was my lifestyle. I remember there were times where I was walking around barefoot in
El Salvador because I didn’t have shoes. Or like you had to share your food like as little
food as you had with your family, because you didn’t have money. So maybe on an
unconscious level, it’s those little things that factor into considering it a responsibility
versus something you want to do.

When she arrived to the states she was placed into the last two months of third grade and
pushed along to fourth grade. She remembers that her ESL teacher was instrumental in her
learning the language because she spoke Spanish. Her teacher only spoke Spanish when it was
necessary and challenged the students to want to understand and learn English. In addition, she
mentioned that her peers in the non-ESL classes were integral in her ability to quickly adapt to
her new school. The other children spoke Spanish and when she struggled to understand they
would help her out in her native language. She also remembers that in high school she had
“pushy” teachers. Teachers that challenged her to think and work harder, that saw her potential
and often redirected her when she would stray. Due to the language barrier her parents could not
help her with her homework.
So especially when I was learning English, we mostly spoke English at home, just so I
would be able to understand it, my sister would be able to learn it fast, and that’s how I
managed to learn it so quickly. I got out of like ESL and all of that within a year, and I

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caught up to the other kids by the time I was in fifth grade…So I would say in terms of
that my parents were always trying to help me.

However, Paola remembers that her parents always checked up on her grades and
attended parent/teacher conferences. She also said it was their support that helped her learn the
language faster.
Undocumented identity.
However, it was not until high school that she began to realize the implications of her
legal status on her future goals. She shared that she had never had any social barriers up until
high school when she realized that she was an AB 540 student. She experienced a shift in her life
one that seemed much more challenging. But she saw this a positive experience in her life. Her
high school teachers and peers were very supportive and encouraging of her when she began to
doubt she could go to college. Due to this awakening, she began to get involved in her
community. Through this involvement she learned of the hardships and injustices her community
faced, especially the immigrant community. She admits that her involvement made the biggest
impact in how she views the world.
I got involved in my community…So I would say that um, this is when I started going to
marches and I started getting involved, and I started learning a lot more about college
acceptance rates for undocumented students and what it really meant for undocumented
students to go to college and especially in our community seeing so many people
unemployed and being taken advantage of and all that.

One of the community organizations that she got involved with was the Salvadoran
American Legal and Education Fund (SALEF). Through SALEF she met one of her mentors,
Carlos, an AB 540 student who had gone to UC Berkley. Carlos inspired Paola because he had
fled El Salvador during the Civil War and had lost his family but still managed to graduate from
what she considers a very prestigious school. She also talked about her mentor, Erica, a master’s
student at the USC. These individuals directly and indirectly helped her to keep motivated and

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move forward. When it came time to apply to colleges Paola set her heart on UC Berkley what
she described to be her “dream school.” Paola was offered admission at UC Berkley but recalls
that even with the CAL Dream Scholarship, which offers $10,000 to AB 540 students. Yet, she
quickly realized that even with the scholarship she was not going to afford to attend CAL. She
admits that this was a low point during her senior year. However, she also received an
admissions letter from UCLA her second choice. And although she knew that she would have to
work hard to pay for UCLA she realized it was much more affordable because she could stay
home while attending school.
College experience.
As Paola began her first year at UCLA her family went through yet another transition.
Her parents decided to get a divorce. This had major implication on Paola’s future because her
dad who was leaving to Mexico had been the biggest financial contributor to their household.
She realized that with him gone they would no longer be able to afford rent and she would be
forced to work more and contribute to paying bills. She remembers that she had to take a quarter
off soon after she started her first year, because she could not come up with all the tuition money.
Although her mother kept telling her that things were going to work out, she remembers feeling
very depressed because she felt like her dream was disappearing.
Because that’s one of the things that hurt the most, having to work so hard for something
to get somewhere, and then not being able to do it. And not be able to like, take your
classes and work on your degree the way you want to. But she [mom] was very
supportive. She’d be like okay, you know what, let’s go take a hike. Let’s go out. You
need to pull yourself together. You need to work more hours. You need to find a way to
save money for your tuition. Obviously, I can’t help you, but I’m going to pay the rent.

Her mentor was also very supportive in helping her find ways to fund her education.
Paola mentioned that Erica organized a fundraiser for her tuition money. She spoke with much
appreciation about what her mentor had done for her. She mentioned that the support she has

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received from her mother and mentors motivates her to do better in school and instilled a sense
of responsibility to do well.
Paola remembers her first year was challenging because there were times that she felt
inadequately prepared for the courses she was taking. She remembers sitting in her classes and
listening to the other students talk about the course readings and feeling lost. She felt like she had
to learn things that she should have learned in high school. Additionally, she shared that at times
she questioned her ability to be at UCLA. Paola mentioned that being the only Latina in her
classes has attributed to her feeling of loneliness. She also shared that it has been difficult to
disclose her undocumented status with any of her peers or faculty, which adds challenges to her
already complicated college experience. Paola shared an experience she had last term when her
classes were dropped due to her inability to pay tuition on time. She recalls feeling devastated
because she knew the she would get the money. She remembers it was difficult for her to speak
with the instructor and tell him not to drop her without really disclosing her legal status. Luckily,
she remembers that she met a friend that quarter that by chance was in all her classes, this friend
helped by pulling the readings and assignments from Blackboard for her thus enabling her to
keep up.
My first year I feel like I was very introverted about my situation…I was, kind of going
about my business, trying to figure it out on my own. Um, now I take more initiative to
talk to my TAs, not so much my professors, because I feel it’s a little intimidating still.

Paola shared that having the confidence to talk to her TAs about her legal status was not
an easy process. She felt encouraged when she met a TA, Michaela, in a Chicano Studies class
who told her to seek out help and to talk to the course TAs.
Michaela, she knows about my situation and she’s always like “You know, just keep
doing it. You’re going to face a lot of struggles, but I mean you’ve made it so far. So
hang in there. You’ll be okay. Just talk to people. Build connections with your TAs by
talking to them you’ll get the help you need.”

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In addition to the few key individuals she has met on campus, Paola continues her
involvement and connection with SALEF. She mentioned that she feels a connection with
individuals there because she can relate with them more. When asked about groups on campus
that support AB 540/undocumented students she mentioned that she had given them a chance but
did not feel a connection.
You have things like IDEAS, which is for AB 540 students, but it’s not necessarily
Salvadorian. And a lot of these clubs I feel…um not comfortable. I went to a IDEAS
meeting once and it was just not what I was looking for…yeah it didn’t fit

Paola ended by telling me that her ability to come to terms with her undocumented reality
and understanding that she is different is what keeps her determined. She realizes that it will be
that much more difficult for her but she’s willing to put herself out there, get the help that she
needs to be able to succeed. And she feels that she has a responsibility to her mother who has
worked so hard to give her this opportunity to her younger brother who she hopes will have it
easier when he goes to college.
Rosa
Rosa is a freshman with an undeclared major. She was 7 when she arrived to the U.S.
with her sister Rosa. She remembers that when her parents sent for them they traveled through
Mexico on trains and buses. At such a young age, Rosa was aware that she was no longer in El
Salvador because she missed the little familiar things she enjoyed so much, like her
grandmother’s hand made tortillas. When she arrived to the U.S. after being away from her
parents so long she felt excited. However, what she experienced on her arrival was unexpected.
She felt like she was meeting two people for the first time, even her memory of her parents was
blurred.

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I don’t think I remember my mom either so you know when I came it was like, it was like
I got adopted by my old parents, because I didn’t really remember them and it was just
like you know coming here was like – it was great, but you know it was kind of hard
because I didn’t really know them, I didn’t know what they did and like they didn’t even
know that much about me either.

And not only did Rosa feel like she was getting new parents but her mother was also
expecting a new baby. Rosa shared that for her it was a struggle to find her fit and role within her
family. She shared that she’s always been aware that the reason her family migrated to the U.S.
was in search of better opportunities. Rosa shared that while living in El Salvador she had not
been exposed to all the possibilities. And although it was hard at first to find her fit in her family,
she appreciates her parents’ sacrifice.
Prior education.
Rosa’s schooling experienced was somewhat different than her older sisters’. When she
arrived she was enrolled into the second grade. Rosa could not recall if she had been placed into
ESL classes. As she told me about her elementary school she talked about her teacher who spoke
Spanish and was instrumental in getting her acclimated to her new environment. She also
remembers that kids in her class helped her in Spanish when she could not understand. She feels
that if her teacher had not been bilingual she would have struggled a lot. However, not all of her
peers were as friendly and helpful. One of Rosa’s memories from her first years of school in the
U.S. was that of a classmate in the second grade that teased her about not speaking the English.
Rosa attributes her motivation to learn the language faster to that classmate who teased her.
Rosa shared that she has a strong bond with her sister and that she sees her as a role
model. She talked about how it must have been more difficult for her sister to adjust because she
was a little older than her when she arrived. Rosa’s also witnessed how hard her sister worked in

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high school and has worked to get herself through college. And she feels that her sister is the
only person that she can relate with because they have been through many things together.
Yeah, I think she’s my best friend event though we fight all the time (laughs). She’s
always telling me you’re supposed to go to school Rosa, go to college. I think she’s like
my motivation because I always see her. And everything that’s happened to her, has
happened to me so she’s the only person that I can kind of relate to and like I would tell
her everything…she’s my inspiration you know. I always wan tot be like her even though
it’s hard.

She shared that although her parents were minimally present in her K-12 schooling, they
always instilled in her the value of education. Rosa attributes her parents’ lack of involvement to
them working so many hours and the language barrier. She felt that her parents made sure to
attend Back to School Nights, Open Houses and Parent/Teacher conferences but that was the
extent of their involvement. In addition, she shared that although her parents were not as
involved at home they always made sure she knew that going to college was the expectation.
Although they knew little of what it took to get to college they instilled in her the belief that
education would open up opportunities for her.
Aside from her family’s moral support, Rosa talked about Mr. Wong, her high school
teacher, being an inspiration to her. Mr. Wong encouraged her and her classmates to consider
applying to UC’s. According to Rosa he was one of the people who had an impact on her own
educational goals. She remembers Mr. Wong telling her class stories and facts about various
things and to her it was sort of an awakening to all her future possibilities.
I think Wong did. You know, he was really smart. He would tell us all these stories and I
was like how does he know that. So I think he was like, he would always tell us like, you
know, try to got to UC. They have a better education system. So I think when he told us
that I think it kind of like pushed me, you know to apply to a UC, but in the end I didn’t.

Rosa had a few reasons why she did not apply to a UC, she shared that unlike her sister
she had taken school less seriously without realizing the consequences it would have for her. She

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remembers that when she started to learn about the application process she realized that schools
asked for transcripts that began in the ninth grade. And although she had average grades she did
not have the GPA necessary for a UC. At the same time, Rosa learned about her undocumented
status and what it meant to be an AB 540 student. She realized that a UC represented more
money and it would be a harder struggle for her. Unlike her older sister, Rosa does not have a
work permit. Rosa does have temporary protective status (TPS), but mentioned that her work
permit had not arrived since 2009. And until that is resolved she’s unable to work and relies on
her parents to help her out financially.
I think it’s really hard because I didn’t—because when you are small you don’t know you
are an immigrant and stuff. But as you grow older—I don’t really know when I knew I
was an immigrant. I think in high school you start applying to colleges…and you realize
that you won’t be able to get as many things because you are an immigrant, right.

She narrowed down her college applications to the two closest CSU’s to home, CSU
Dominguez Hills (CSUDH) and CSU, Los Angeles (CSULA). She realized that as an AB 540
student she did not qualify for financial aid and it would be harder financially if she went far
from home. By staying at home she would have financial support from her parents that would
cover board and food in addition to having their moral and emotional support. She was admitted
to both schools and decided to attend CSULA because her older sister was there and it was much
closer than CSUDH. Unfortunately, even with all the support from her high school teachers and
counselors Rosa missed some important admissions deadlines for CSULA and her admission
was rescinded. Her parents continued to be supportive of her attending a community college and
her high school teachers and counselors explained that it was financially a better route for her
and encouraged her not to be discouraged.

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College experience.
Rosa decided on attending Los Angeles Community College (LACC) close to home.
Although she had witnessed her sister’s college going experience from home, she was not
expecting to struggle so much. Yet, she described her first year as being academically and
socially tough. For example, Rosa shared that all through high school she had earned high grades
in all of her math classes so when she placed into college level math she felt confident and
prepared. However, in her first semester Rosa was failing her college math course. She recalls
approaching the professor about her challenges in the course, but was met with an unexpected
response.
I think when I talked to the teacher and him telling me, you know, “you should just drop
the class.” I think that was kind of like, uh a bummer because I was always like a good
math student…And then when I got there it was like you know the teacher…I kind of felt
like, you know, kind of dumb. You know, for not getting it.

This experience made Rosa realize that her prior education had not prepared her for
college.

Social support.
Socially she has also struggled, she shared that in her classes she finds older individuals
and finds it hard to connect. In addition, she shared that the campus is not very active with
student life. She has managed to make a few friends including one that is also AB 540. Together
they decided to form an AB 540 club called LACC Dreamers, but it did not succeed. Rosa talked
enthusiastically about how she and her friend made flyers and posted them across campus
announcing their first meeting. Unfortunately, the first meeting was only attended by a few
students and after no more showed. And that has been the extent of her social involvement at
LACC. She attributes the lack of interest to the fact that the campus is a community college.

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Rosa shared that it lacks the feeling of a four-year institution. And in a way she feels that she’s
losing out on a real college experience.
I think because everybody, well, most like -- not most, but a lot of people, you know,
moved out and they had like the whole college experience like moving into dorms and it's
like -- I am never -- I'm never going to have that experience, you know. And it's
annoying, you know. I know it's no one's fault. I'm not blaming anybody, but I think it's
kind of like, kind of like disappointing that I am living at home, but it's good that I'm still
going to school.
However, Rosa acknowledges that it is not the institution type that limits her college
experience but her undocumented status.
Immigrant identity.
However, when Rosa spoke about being an immigrant she showed pride. She talked
about how many of her friends were born here, and their parents had come with the same goal as
her and her family- to achieve the American Dream. She feels a sense of responsibility not only
to her parents who sacrificed a lot to bring her here but also to those people who have negative
perceptions of immigrants. Rosa was also very proud to identify herself as Salvadoran. She
acknowledged that many people in Los Angeles assume that she’s Mexican and due that she
feels it’s important to let others know that the Salvadoran community exists. And she feels a
sense of responsibility to represent her community positively and that motivates her to pursue her
education. And she also shared that she’s not sure yet what the difference between being Latino
and Hispanic are and thus would not know where she’d fit in.
And I don’t know where I would fit in, somehow we—and I am definitely not Mexican.
And I don’t—you know like I just wanted to identify where exactly I’m from, you know
because…I think I am unique; because I don’t really know a lot of Salvadorians…so it’s
like you should be proud to say you are Salvadoran.

Rosa shared that the two most important reasons for pursuing a college education are to
have better opportunities in the future and to make her parents proud.

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Yesenia
Yesenia is a sophomore majoring in Psychology at Pasadena City College. She was 15
when she arrived to the U.S. She recalls that her parents were going through a divorce when her
mother made the decision to migrate to the U.S. Her mother made that decision because it would
give Yesenia and her sisters better educational opportunities. However, this decision was not
popular with her community in Guatemala. Yesenia remembers that they were actively involved
in church and their friends and family did not agree with their decision of moving to the U.S. In
spite of the lack of support from the community, Yesenia’s mother with the help of her brothers
migrated north. Because they had traveled through Mexico with a tourist visa, the idea of her
being undocumented had not set in for Yesenia.
It took me a while because we spent a month in Mexico. In Rosarito they stole everything
from us, cameras…everything. It was like a vacation that’s why I didn’t feel it as harsh
because you hear all these terrible things, terrible stories like going through the desert and
thank goodness we didn’t have to go through that and uh it was a fourth of July when my
older sister…my two sisters and, and my aunt we arrived here

As Yesenia reflected on this event in her life she shared that at the time she did not
realize the impact it would have in her life. Her community’s reaction to their migration is
something that she remembers clearly and because of that she has a great desire to help out the
Guatemalan community. She feels a sense of responsibility to give back to her Guatemalan
community especially “los niños de la calle” (the children of the street).
Prior education.
When she arrived to the U.S. Yesenia had completed the equivalent of middle school in
Guatemala. Her mother enrolled her in the local high school and she started her American
education in the ninth grade. The high school she attended was in a low socio-economic
neighborhood and she recalls that instruction and the facilities reflected that. High school made a

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huge impression on her. As she compared her school experience with that of Guatemala she saw
that students had much more freedom and less discipline. She remembers that even the social
behavior of her peers made an impact on her views of schools in the U.S.
I always thought they spoiled children a lot here, because if the teachers were to say
something they found offensive, then you get all these issues with the family, the school
system, they have no respect for the teachers they just…are given a lot of liberty in the
high school campus. It was a little impacting for me to see 15 or 16-year-old girls
pregnant and sitting on a guys lap or something like that it was like wow…was definitely
different from what I was used to see over there.

As she compared American schools she noted that her experience in Guatemalan schools
was more of a college environment with more responsibility placed on students and more
discipline in-and-out of the classroom. She attributes her discipline to the education she received
in Guatemala and in her opinion that is what helped her through her ESL classes. According to
Yesenia she was expected to stay in ESL classes for up to two years but she managed to be
tracked into regular English classes after a year and a half. She reflects that her ESL teachers did
not utilize a more personalized system of teaching English to her and her classmates. Instead
they relied on their prior knowledge as many of them had taken at least a basic class in English
and teachers built on that using picture books and flashcards. In addition, Yesenia’s high school
was predominantly Latino so there was hardly a need to speak in English. She mentioned that in
her opinion this and the lack of teacher interest is why ESL kids conformed and stayed in those
classes.
But some people I know a lot of my ESL classmates they, they just stayed there, they get
used to that idea oh I don’t know how to speak English so I’m going to stay here and they
have to help me that’s not how it works…

In the second semester of tenth grade Yesenia was placed into regular English classes and
this is where she began to learn about the college admissions process. Up to this point Yesenia
had thought that she would have to spend an extra year in high school because she was in ESL.

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But because she had placed into regular English much faster than expected this gave her new
opportunities. She became involved with California Scholarship Federation (CSF), a student
organization, where she learned about college recruiters visiting her high school and gave her an
opportunity to ask questions. It was also during this time that she learned about opportunities out
of state. She recalls that going out-of-state for college appealed to her and she sought more
information from her college career counselor and teachers all of whom were supportive of the
idea. To Yesenia this was an attractive opportunity, especially when she learned that some out-
of-state schools pay full tuition. Knowing her economic situation this would be her best choice.
College experience.
Yesenia applied to UC’s and private universities during her senior year of high school.
She remembers that she applied and got accepted to a few UC’s including UCLA and UC San
Diego along with privates such as Loyola Marymount University (LMU). Unfortunately due to
her undocumented status and lack of financial support she was unable to attend any of these
universities.
But because of the money I couldn’t go, they told me just go because I had, I had I’ll say
$12,000 in scholarships, different scholarships uh but I couldn’t make it either way
paying, because it’s I think like $38,000 per year…excluding books and transportation. I
really thought, I could see myself in the, at least in another state going to a university and
just calling my family…but it didn’t happen and then that’s okay, I’ll say being and AB
540 it’s uh, it’s really hard…

After coming to terms with the fact that she would not be able to afford going directly to
a university, Yesenia enrolled at Pasadena City College (PCC). She shared that it was a hard
process because she felt disappointed and a sense of injustice that she could not go directly to a
university.
Yeah, I thought it was really unfair, I thought I am not asking for them to give me free
money or anything like that, it’s I’m asking for an investment because right now you’re

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paying for my classes for me to grow as a person…so I can do something for this country
in the future…

Yesenia shared that once she realized that she was not going to any of the schools that
had admitted her, she began researching the local community colleges. She learned that PCC had
a good reputation in transfer rates next to Santa Monica College (SMC). Her older cousin had
attended PCC for a few semesters so she felt comfortable with her decision to attend PCC.
Because her decision-making took time she was late applying to PCC, this had a major impact on
her first year of college. According to her, she enrolled in classes that she did not need because
the courses she needed were full. She needed to enroll in classes because she had scholarship
money that otherwise would not be awarded.
Yes definitely, I felt that I wasn’t prepared for college. Because everybody else seemed to
be very familiar with how it worked or what to do or where to go for help and because
when I go to this building, which is the Student Services Building, they send you from
one place to another and back and forth all the time. That’s why when I go I have to
know where to go…but now I understand it, in the beginning I didn’t know how it
worked and I was really shy about it and I just didn’t want to admit I didn’t know how it
worked because everybody else was like they knew how it worked, everything the
system, homework wise, I was a little bit lost.

When she finally arrived to the campus she felt unprepared in the sense that she did not
know where to go with her questions. She remembers that kept being bounced from one office to
another in order to get her any help.
Social support.
Unlike the other participants in this study Yesenia was the only one that lacked her
family’s emotional and moral support. Although her mother encourages her to continue her
education Yesenia feels that there is a lack of interest or understanding of what college may do
for her and her family.
Because it ahs, it’s been a hassle since I well since before I graduated high school
because there is no support from my family…because I don’t have the economic support

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from my family, nor the emotional support, I’ll say because they don’t understand what
process I’m going through because my sister, I have an older sister, she’s 22 and she’s
going to have a baby soon…um but they’re always asking me like, oh when are you
going to pay for rent, when are you going to do this…

Her older sister and cousin who live in her household do not share her aspirations for a
college degree and often ask her to contribute to the family’s finance. Her mother does ask her
from time to time how she’s doing and what she’s taking, but it does not go beyond that. She
feels her mother is proud of her but does not understand what it means to be a college student in
her situation. For these reasons Yesenia’s journey is a lonely one and she has to be very
independent. Her father who lives in Guatemala is a big support for Yesenia. She mentioned that
although they live apart he often is the only one that understands what she’s going through. She
attributes this to the fact that her father was not allowed to continue his education, he was forced
to begin working the fields at a young age. Yesenia relates very much to her father’s desire to
advance personally and intellectually and having a variety of obstacles.
She shared that she’s learned to be very independent in this process and could not really
identify a single person who helped her in her pursuit of higher education. She mentioned really
good teachers who influenced her way of thinking such as her mathematics high school teacher.
Yesenia mentioned that she had thought that math was only for some people and she did not
consider herself one of them however, her math teacher made it accessible for everyone and she
admired that. In high school, she had a friend who made an impact on Yesenia because of her
determination and resourcefulness in getting prepared for college.
She was um very she was really smart but also very straight. What she did in her classes
she always wanted to be the first one in everything and I admired that …she was the one
who told me about like oh did you apply to this scholarship did you know about this and
that’s when I started like if, I heard something from her then, I looked up the information
and all of that. My, my friend yea, in the process of applying to college.

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Yesenia has not had much time to socialize outside of her classes. Although she feels it’s
important to do so she’s unable due to work and school. She spends her time studying and
working to help pay her tuition. After juggling work, school and home life Yesenia has no spare
time to get involved with student organizations. Due to this she has not met any staff members or
professors who would be able to help her educational pursuits. She does have a friend in the East
Coast who she feels has influenced her not only as a college student but also as an AB 540
student.
So we talk sometimes and he will tell me like oh I took this class, this psychology class
and this what I’ve been learning and I don’t know if you have heard of this and I learn a
lot from him and he’s an AB 540 as well that’s why I have a lot of respect for him, his
perspective and all he’s doing and that he, he tells me “Oh we don’t have any Dream Act
supporters over here” and there are a small group of people they, they don’t really talk
about their status because it’s a very, how do you say it, because they’re very a lot of
republicans over there…

Her friend is at Dartmouth University attending as an undocumented student and shares
with her his experience at a conservative institution where he is one of the few. His experience
motivates her to continue pursuing her own educational goals.
Immigrant identity.
Yesenia remembers that she first learned how important it was to have documents when
her mother lost her job as a custodian in a hospice. She remembers that her mother was making
decent wages and they were doing okay when they recently arrived because of that job.
However, the company conducted document verification and that this is when her mother lost
her job.
Yeah, so it’s by Hollywood but she had, she was using a fake ID when they found out
about it they, they told her oh sorry yea, that was a really good job. They would pay her I
think it was 20 an hour. Back then it was really good money and um, I don’t know that’s
when I realized oh having papers like being legal here, does make a difference and even
in jobs like that which is pretty much labor, it does make an impact having papers.

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Yesenia strongly identified herself as Guatemalan. She felt that this tells people where
she’s from but also the values she holds as an individual. She mentioned that sometimes it
surprises her that people do not know that Guatemala is a different country and not part of
Mexico. But she shared that she takes this time to educate people about the difference. On the
other hand, she has found some people who have visited Guatemala and she enjoys talking to
them.
In my English class we would write a lot of research papers. My topic always was about
students how the AB 540 and how it was to be Guatemalan…she [teacher] would ask me
how do you feel about this or that, and she had a lot of respect because uh for my
Guatemalan side because I told her sometimes I feel offended because they think um
Mexico is the only place we all com from and that’s not how it is…

The most challenging thing for her has been finding scholarships that are for the Central
American community. Most scholarships she’s found specify some requirement about being
Mexican or Mexican American. She did get connected with SALEF that offered scholarships to
Salvadoran’s and Central Americans, but she noted they also open it up to the Mexican
population. Finding SALEF made her feel included.
Organizations and scholarships they sometimes specify that you have to be Mexican or
Mexican American. I never found a scholarship that says Guatemalan or Guatemalan
American. The only one I found was the SALEF, yeah…yes definitely that’s why I was
like “hey this is for me”…

One could hear that Yesenia is appreciative of her experience in the U.S. even with its
challenges due to her undocumented status. Additionally, she appreciates the sacrifice her mother
made in coming to the U.S. And although her family may not provide her with emotional or
financial support she is grateful for having them here. She also shared that her dream to give
back to Guatemala also keeps her motivated.
I think for the most part I’m really grateful for being here, for having my family whether
we get along or not sometimes I’m grateful I love them…what I have to do is fight and
have passion for that [my dreams].

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My…Guatemala, I definitely want to do something. I want to form a, I want to be part of
an organization or buy a huge house over there and have it full of children from the
streets and have someone reliable to work with them, that’s probably my biggest dreams,
whatever I end up doing here, like my career being a psychologist being a teacher or
anything it is uh, will be for Guatemala my community and my future family.

In closing Yesenia mentioned that the recognition that she gets for her hard work from
professors, her family and Guatemala keep her motivated to strive for success.
Betty
Betty is a sophomore majoring in Biology at Santa Monica College (SMC). She arrived
with her parents from El Salvador on a visa when she was 14 years old. She was too young to
really understand the reasons why her parents decided to migrate to the U.S. However, from
what she’s learned from her parents it was their economic situation that forced them to leave El
Salvador in search for better opportunities. She and her family have experienced big economic
hardships but she recognizes that if they had stayed in El Salvador things would be worse.
Pues una vez al venirnos acá, nuestra situación económica ya era difícil de por sí, y al
venir acá no es que haya mejorado. Pero es como mis papas dicen que los pobres acá son
la media clase allá, o mas entonces ya estar acá aun así somos clase baja pero um nos
permite sobrevivir acá y al mismo tiempo pagar deudas de allá. Y en cuanto a mí, allá
cuando vivamos allá nosotros estudiábamos en un colegio privado entonces por eso es
que yo también no miraba mucho la realidad de cómo iban las coas con mis papas. Pero
ya al estar acá era como un reality check como dicen no, que tenemos que empezar desde
cero estábamos viviendo en una cochera que habían hecho en casa cosas así …y todo eso
entonces el venirse acá me hice mas, como se dice la palabra como mas consiente sobre
lo que estaba pasando…te hace más responsable también…

Family.
Unlike the other participants of this study Betty’s parents were the only ones that had a
college education in their home country. She described her parents as humble, hard workers and
adaptable. An important lesson they have taught her is that any job no matter how simple it as
long as it’s honest it is a respectable job. She feels that her parents have sheltered her a bit in

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terms of their economic struggles because they want her to be worry-free and successful in her
studies. She did emphasize that both her parent have infused into her the value of education.
Mmm, yo pienso que, yo pienso una de las cosas más importantes que ellos me han
transmitido a mi es el hecho de de valorar la educación. Yo pienso que eso es lo que es
porque en mi casa todo el tiempo es de que, prácticamente todo el tiempo sobre se pasa
hablando si no es la economía de que pasa eso con mi papa si no de la escuela cosas así.
De cómo uno debe de tratar de hacer lo que se pueda en la – en mi caso universidad
porque más ahora que los precios están más arriba y esto, y lo otro, y que tengo que
valorar mi educación y a la fuerza tratan de hacerme mas responsable. También ya me
han dicho si no se pone más seria en su estudio le va tocar trabajar para aprender a
valorar su tiempo, así que, pero si siempre lo de la educación.

Betty mentioned that she admires both her parents for the sacrifices they have made, but
that her father has definitely been the one to influence her the most. She shared that her father
was born and raised in the country on her grandfather’s ranch. Although country people in El
Salvador are not highly regarded, her grandfather held a high socioeconomic status and was able
to provide her father with more opportunities. However, what she most admires about her father
is that he has always exhibited what she called “un espíritu de lucha” (fighting spirit). Her father
left the countryside and enrolled in the Universidad Centroamericana (UCA) something no one
had done before him.
She remembers that in El Salvador her parents were highly involved in her school by
checking up on her homework, speaking with the teachers, and ensuring that she had all the
necessary materials. While they still continued to be involved here in the U.S. the language
barrier, their work and the new educational system limited them. However, Betty continues to
feel their support not only financially but also emotionally. She has witnessed that her parents
have tried to learn and ask questions about college.
Umm mis papas otra vez, económicamente, más que todo económicamente porque ellos
no conocen el sistema en el colegio. Entonces um mi mama al principio pues el
placement exam – que me traía aquí, me llevaba allá paraa – para lo del colegio um y a
tratado de informarse pero por cuestiones del trabajo y tiempo no ha podido ir a

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reuniones y cosas así. Umm mas que todo el apoyo que ellos me han dado a sido
económico, económico sí.

Prior education.
In El Salvador Betty attended a private school and coming to the U.S. the first difference
she noticed was that schools were public. In addition, there were many other differences that she
noticed. She recalls that in El Salvador teachers were stricter and course rigor was similar to
college level classes. She also recalls that the material that she saw here in her ninth grade math
class was material that she had already covered in seventh and eighth grade, this it easier for her
to focus on learning the language. However, she also thinks that due to her being so relaxed on
the other content she lost the discipline she had learned in El Salvador as it pertained to school.
Before she enrolled in ninth grade Betty was required to take an English placement exam
to determine the ESL course she would begin at. She remembers going in for the test with
another Salvadoran student who coincidently had recently arrived from the same town she was
from but had never met in El Salvador. She recalls taking the exam and what negative experience
that was because she could not answer the questions.
Este tome el examen y recuerdo que, y claro como venía de allá sistema estricto, cuando
vine acá la verdad era tomar examen era solamente para ver en que nivel de ingles yo
estaba pero me frustre. Me frustre bastante porque no sabía contestar las preguntas y
entonces quizá me presione yo sola bastante al punto que, que después el profesor dijo no
ya tienen 5 minutos terminen, y yo no llevaba quizás ni la mitad del examen. No entonces
fue cuando me quebré y empecé a llorar y, y eso fue es lo mismo de siempre es todo
conmigo. Por eso el maestro siempre me recordaba me decía no llores despues del
examen, molestándome pero eso fue lo primero, la frustración.

When asked if she felt she was placed in the appropriate grade Betty answered yes, but
like many of the participants in this study she replied that the ESL classes were a waste of time.
She recalls that her ESL teacher did not have any classroom management and therefore the kids
would do whatever they wanted during class. In addition, she feels that he had no real pedagogy

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because all he did was review the worksheets and have students work on those and do some
reading. It was her efforts outside of the ESL class that helped her learn the language.
Um de por si el maestro que yo tenía no era un buen maestro. Era un maestro sin carácter
y los alumnos hacían lo que querían con él en la clase eso era una cosa. Y de ahí el
sistema que ellos usan es le dan a uno libros y te- el maestro más que todo nos daba
paginas para trabajar y eso era mas que todo lo que él hacia nos daba paginas explicaba
una que otra cosa en la pizarra y eso era todo. Yo sinceramente siento que no aprendí, del
ingles que yo puedo ahora me puedo defender en conversación pero el ingles que yo – yo
aprendí fue quizás diez por ciento de esa clase de los 3 años que yo estuve ahí, el resto
fue de mis otras clases y hablando a fuerza con mis otros compañeros

Betty noted that one of the first things that impacted her when she started high school the
diversity of the student population. There were many Latinos in her classes who helped her get
adjusted to her new environment because they spoke Spanish and would translate for her.
Additionally, there was a large African American population and one thing she noticed was that
students gravitated to others from their own ethnic group. She does not remember being aware of
these differences in El Salvador, where mostly people segregated by economic status. This
experience brought on a new awareness in her that she did not have before.
Yo pienso que que abrió mi mente a cosas que yo no miraba antes. Porque antes en el
Salvador mi mundo era el colegio la escuela y amigos y claro mi familia pero al, al venir
para acá, si no se porque este me hizo more aware of other things like. Cosas que nunca
pensé antes, como cuando que raza, que el hecho que tu seas de cierta raza trae la gente
ya trae prejuicios si tu eres de cierta raza cosas así o tu acento cosas así. Porque alla es
más que todo clasismo si eres rico o pobre, acá es más que tu de que raza eres y yo nunca,
esa mentalidad empecé a tener cuando vine, de que importaba, en cierta forma siento que
sí, que si importa de qué raza eres y todo

Although for Betty college had always been an expectation it wasn’t until the eleventh
grade that it became a possibility. It was during a special meeting with her high school counselor
that she learned about the AB 540 law and even helped her complete the affidavit for the college.

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College experience.
As she reflected on her first year of college Betty shared that high school did not prepare
her for it. She feels that her peers started mentally preparing for college as they were filling out
applications and writing personal statements. Because of her status and knowing she would be
attending a community college, Betty did not have time to process her transition beforehand.
Instead she remembers graduating from high school and starting community college soon after
without much mental preparation. Additionally, she feels that the way teachers had treated her in
high school was detrimental once she entered college. She felt that high school teachers had
treated her and her classmates like little children that needed to baby sitting instead of kids that
needed to learn. She remember that at times teachers would allow her peers to retake exams
multiple times until they performed better thus making students irresponsible for their own
learning.
Como que son niñitos que tienen que llevar de la mano y empujar y yo siento que eso le
hace a los estudiantes más mal que bien, los hace atenidos y yo siento que también dan,
los hace irresponsables porque dan demasiadas oportunidades para hacer algo…

The way she was treated in high school made the transition to college challenging
because she had relied too much on her teachers for information and opportunities to make up
work. In addition, she had never been taught how to be a good student and was never empowered
with the resources and skills that would make her a successful student.
Como dice mi papa, me recibieron con una pata en el pecho porque si sentí el cambio
cuando de high school al colegio. Lo sentí bastante y todavía me está costando
acostumbrarme al, al cómo funciona no porque en high school que lo llevan de la mano a
uno pero ya en colegio, tu iniciativa propia todo tiene que salir de uno para hacer las
cosas…

The transition to college was challenging for her not only academically but also socially.
She shared that she has probably limited herself socially in college due to her lack of confidence

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with the English language. She mentioned that the friends she has at SMC are students who are
in her same situation or friends from high school. The only involvement she has had so far is
being part of Adelante. Adelante is a student success program designed to help the Latino student
experience at SMC. In addition to helping them transfer to a UC or CSU, one of the components
of the program is that students will meet with a counselor from the Latino Center one-on-one to
help them with their transfer plan, major and career objectives as well as help students adjust to
college and succeed. Betty shared that it was with the Adelante counselor that she felt most
comfortable with especially in identifying herself as an AB 540 student.
Donde seria en cuanto consejeros hay un programa que se llama Adelante. Especifico
para, para Latinos pueden ir otras personas también no necesariamente latinos. Pero alli
con mi consejera, porque le puedo decir cómodamente que soy un estudiante
indocumentado. No es como con otros consejeros regulares que no lo diría, diría que soy
estudiante internacional y que por x razón no puedo hacer tales cosas, no siento la misma
confianza…

Adelante has helped her find a place where she feels comfortable and she has been able to
overcome her fears by challenging herself to move outside of her comfort zone. In addition,
she’s tried to be more open to change and accept it instead of trying to resist it. To Betty
continuing her education is important because that was the reasons why her parents brought her
over. However it has been hard for her, she mentioned that her past semester she had thought
about quitting because her classes were getting harder and even though she spent extra time
studying she still walked away with a D in her Chemistry class. It was this past semester that she
felt disillusioned with school and more importantly did not want to disappoint her parents with
her poor performance or by taking longer to transfer. By the same token her parents are her
motivation that always prevails and moves her forward.
Um en el hecho de, de que por haberme venido acá. De que no me había venido acá por
gusto, para quedarme acá. Eso de que no había dejado que familia y amigos y la forma de

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vida que tenia allá, que no la había dejado por gusto. Y el hecho también que mis papas,
todo el sacrificio que han hecho.

Immigrant identity.
Betty identifies herself as Latina and strongly as a Salvadoreña. She feels that this really
encompasses who she is. However, she also spoke about how as time transpires she will begin to
relate to the American identity.
… siento que ya después de varios años de estar acá, y ya primero Dios, y ya siendo un
citizen de acá me identificaría quizás más como una estadounidense. Yo pienso porque
adoptaría mas la cultura de acá.

She also felt that changing her legal status would giver her identity legitimacy as an
American. She also takes her Salvadoran identity seriously, she shared that she feels that she has
to conduct herself in a respectable manner. Because she’s learned that people will judge her and
her culture based on her actions.
Mm, a veces quizás siento que, que por el hecho de ser Salvadoreña. Porque yo he
escuchado que las Salvadoreñas tienen como, no sé porque veo que hay la gente tiene
prejuicios sobre ciertas razas, y todo eso entonces siento que en cierta forma tengo que,
soy como, represento a los Salvadoreños. Y que si yo hago una acción mala, algo así, va
afectar al resto. Aunque no debería ser así, porque cada persona es diferente pero siento
que, que como que si soy la representante…

It was in her high school Chicano Studies class that she learned about the struggles of
Latinos in the U.S. and it made her understand the tension between the various sub-populations
and make sense of the prejudices that she saw from others.
Betty shared that her immigrant status weaken her character but has taught her to be
independent. It has also added stress to her family because they lack documents. Every time her
parents are asked to bring documentation it creates instability. Luckily, her father was able to
secure a drivers license when he first arrived to the U.S., which has helped him avoid being fired.

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Betty credits SALEF for helping her cope with her undocumented status and having a positive
influence in her life.
Quizás no es una persona en general, una persona especifico, perdón, pero ha sido una
organización con la que yo me encontré con SALEF. Porque ella, me ayudaron a
sentirme cómoda con el hecho de ser indocumentada. Pero si, definitivamente ha sido
SALEF los que me hacen sentirme cómoda con eso. Me ayudaron también con, porque
soy un poco tímida entonces también hay que hacer presentaciones, que vamos a como
hacer presentaciones con los papas, ayudarles con clases de computación cosas así, me ha
ayudado a cambiar, a salir de mi, de mi burbuja si se puede decir

Adelante has enabled her to have a space to disclose her undocumented status and seek
the help she needs to succeed. Betty shared that because of her accent people at school ask about
her background. She is very careful to whom she discloses her legal status and often times
answers by telling them she’s an international student from Latin America. Betty feels that she’s
able to get away with that answer because SMC attracts such a big international student
population. Although she has found a support program on her campus she feels that there should
be more help, tailored specifically for Central American students. Specifically she thinks that
transfer services and scholarships that speak to the Central American community are necessary
to help them feel included.
Situación – sería definitivamente el hecho de haberme venido para acá. Eso, el sacrificio
que hicieron mis papas, eso de quedarme en el colegio. Y de que ellos, son bien
luchadores entonces como quien, porque yo no voy a derrotar, yo solita viendo con mis
papas todo el esfuerzo que ellos han hecho para traernos acá. Eso es una experiencia, no
que realmente me, me hace que me quede en el colegio.

Lastly, Betty shared that what motivates her to continue her educational dreams are her
parents and validating the reason why they left El Salvador. She also feels a sense of
responsibility towards others here in the U.S. she does not want to be part of the college dropout
statistics for Latinos.

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Juana
Juana is a Pre-Medicine sophomore majoring in Spanish at UC Berkeley. Her younger
brother was born with a genetic disease that forced her father to migrate to the U.S. after being
laid-off in order to send money for his medical treatments. This separation was extremely
stressful for her family so her parents decided that bringing the entire family to the U.S. was the
best decision. Juana arrived to Southern California when she was eleven with her younger
brother and mother.
Family.
Juana’s biggest motivation in life is her younger brother who due to his condition has
suffered not only physically but also emotionally. Her decision to become a doctor is to help her
brother.
Well, I mean first of all I’m pre-med for that reason, you know. I want to be a doctor in
order to like…I do love this idea of like helping my brother um, his genetic disease does
affect his appearance and he wasn’t like able to participate in sports and be exposed to
activities. So it was really hard to grow up you know and people were making fun of him
and everything and I do love like taking care of him so I like, I aspired to be a doctor for
that reason.

She shared that her family is very united and they give her the strength to overcome
challenges and pursue her educational goals. In describing her parents she said they were strong,
adaptable and committed. Juana emphasized that keeping the family together has been important
to them and she described their hard work as a collective effort. Juana believes that she’s gained
those same qualities from her parents.
I mean, I’m I think I’m pretty strong. I mean I don’t know how, but that’s helped me so
far, you know. There are too many things, family problems, school, stuff and I. That, you
know and they gals my dad has set for himself I guess. Me, you know I set my goals and
I’m, I’m on my way there so. If I commit to it, I’m going to do it. It’s just like my dad;
he’s helping pull his family forward and I’m convinced to do the same thing.

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Her family has been her main support throughout her life and especially as she adjusted
to life in the U.S. She shared that when she first arrived her self-confidence was low because she
did not know the language and it was hard to make new friends. During her early years here the
only person she shared her frustrations and happiness was with her mother. To this day Juana
considers her mother her best friend because she feels they’ve shared so much and she’s the only
one that truly understands her. One of the hardest things she’s had to deal with has been moving
away to college and not being with her family. However, she feels that this experience has also
made her grow as a person.
I’m a family girl [LAUGH]. I was like, ah, but I’m glad I’m here. I’ve become more like
independent. I, you know, you grow up a lot being far away from home.

Education has always been important to her family. In Guatemala her parents worked
hard to ensure that she went to a private school, which offered a better education. She’s also
aware that her parents made sacrifices in their youth to get an education themselves. So in a way
she sees education as an expectation for her.
So like education was always like the main thing. Like my dad was like pretty much took
care of him while he grew up. His mom moved here to the U.S. and his dad was nowhere
to be found, so put himself through school. He went to a private school, too, but he paid it
himself. You know he worked at night and went to school in the mornings and he wanted
to be a doctor but he couldn’t…

Due to her parents belief in the value of education Juana has a lot of support from her
parents and the few extended family she has in the U.S.
And the reason why I’m doing this is for my family so I just, I want to like increase my
family and the Latinos you know. Maybe you know like I’m the first generation going to
college and I hope my kids will continue and my brothers will be, too you know. So I
feel like it’s really important not only because for economical reasons but also because in
society, you know…So I feel like education is kind of empowering not just for like the
people that are getting an education but also the family members. You know, my parents
now, when they um talk to people like you know the first thing they say is about me and
that gives them a little bit of confidence, gives them a little power and they can speak up,

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you know. My dad now he’s just, open-minded, he has an accent and he doesn’t, he no
longer cares about it, you know.

Juana feels a sense of responsibility as well because she is the first one to go to college
and would like to set the example for her brothers and cousins.
Prior education.
When Juana arrived she was enrolled into the sixth grade and she remembers
experiencing a major culture shock. One of the things that stood out to her was the student
“cliques” she felt that kids isolated themselves into groups and were mean-spirited. Socially she
had a hard time in middle school because kids would make fun and bully her because she did not
speak English. She also noticed that the kids she was in school with had lost their “innocence”
and were more experienced than she was at the age of eleven.
I think that in Guatemala…I mean the students are at 5
th
grade, they were more innocent
than the kids that were here in the 6
th
grade you know. Um, and then yeah they were like
thinking of different stuff and I was so behind in that you know in that aspect of life, like
in Guatemala it feels like you know jugar tenta (freeze tag), placa, placa, policia (police
and robbers) you know and here it was talking about sex and you know all these drugs
and I was like “what” you know…

She had a hard time making friends and remembers that she preferred being in class
instead of going to lunch. As she reflected on this experience she acknowledged that perhaps this
made her strive harder academically. In spite of the difficulties she had in making friends, Juana
managed to meet a few peers that helped her adjust to her new environment. She specifically
remembers her friend, Mayra, they shared the same class schedule and she always helped her by
translating what she did not understand. Juana was placed in ESL classes and did not say much
about the instruction. She did mention that it was hard for her to pick up the language because
her middle school was predominately Latino most students spoke Spanish. It was her parents
who encouraged her to practice the language outside of class to help her learn it faster.

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The problem that I had in middle school though is that it was like in the Latino
community, and a lot of people spoke Spanish. So when I was with my friends I would
talk in Spanish, so I wouldn’t really practice my English. Uh it was only like the class
stuff you know, if you don’ use the material you won’t really learn. Um I could read it I
mean and sometimes I would get really stuck on word some words but, speaking it was
very hard for me. It got the point where my dad would play the news in English with the
closed caption at the bottom. He was like until you start speaking English to me I will
you watch anything that’s good. ‘Cause he knew I was lagging in the English accent kind
of thing.

It took Juana two years to make it out of the ESL track, in the eighth grade she was
placed into the regular English course. It was during this year that she met two important
teachers that made an impact in her life. Her Advancement Via Individual Determination
(AVID) and English teachers identified and encouraged her to apply to a math and science
magnet high school. She shared that they saw her potential and not only encouraged her to apply
but helped her with the application and personal statement. She remembers that neither of them
were aware that she had only been in the country for two years and were surprised to find out as
they were helping her apply to the magnet high school. Juana applied and was admitted to the
California Academy of Math and Science (CAMS), which to her was a great accomplishment
and life changing. She mentioned that if she had not gotten into CAMS she would have gone to
Jordan High School and perhaps would not be at CAL today.
In high school Juana experienced yet another culture shock. She was no longer in a
predominately Latino school and was forced to speak English because she did not have the
support of her Spanish-speaking peers. At the same time she had a boost in self-confidence
because she was attending a very selective and competitive high school. In high school she began
to see herself as an equal with her peers and this motivated her to improve her English and do
well academically.
…I mean I'm just, I'm just high school is the moment it clicked you know it was the
moment I was like I have to learn English because everyone was like you know, no one

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in my high school spoke Spanish, like even the Latinos wouldn't speak Spanish I was like
so I had to like change I had to I wasn't made fun of because of my accent, I couldn't
pronounce words or anything so I had to like push myself into that. And just like with
learning experience knowing that, that you can have the same conversation as that, that
girl that has the dad that works in NASA, you know the dad that works as a chemist and
the girl that has the doctor as a dad you know. I was the daughter of a construction
worker you know and a babysitter is having the same conversation as her you know it's
kinda, I like that you know knowing that I…knowing real knowledge.
In high school, Juana became very active researching opportunities for herself. She
remembers finding out about a conference at UCLA that focused on AB 540 students. During
this conference she learned that she would be able to go to college and pay in-state tuition. Other
undocumented students who shared their experiences also inspired her. She specifically
remembers one student who shared his story about attending CAL and his involvement with
Rising Immigrant Scholars through Education (RISE).
Yeah…so he was talking about how you could tell how he had recently came because he
had a really think accent, so I was like you…that’s me you know, that’s where I should
go and he made it seem possible like um…

Prior to Juana attending this conference she and her parents thought she would not be
able to apply to college. They had feared that if she submitted her college application the
information would be forwarded to immigration and they would come find them. The conference
helped them get over that fear by seeing other students in Juana’s situation. However, there was
still the question about financing college because they would still have to pay out of pocket.
…my parents and I thought I can’t apply if I do me van a mandar de regreso a Guatemala
(they will send me back to Guatemala) you know, like we were like si aplico all scared
you now got to college like I can’t, I’m gonna have to like figure a way to like get money
but then we went to that conference and that was like I was enlightened and everything
just clicked and then, I just applied…

She remembers that after attending this conference she had a renewed sense of
confidence but the thought of how to finance college is what made her doubt whether she should
even submit an application. Her father encouraged her to apply by telling her that she lost

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nothing by applying. She remembers him telling her that if they rejected her then she would start
at the community college, but if they accepted her they would figure it out. So when it came to
apply to college Juana joined her peers in applying to various schools. Juana talked about how
many CAMS graduates attended prestigious colleges after graduation. According to the CAMS
website, 95% of their graduates attend four-year colleges after graduation (Retrieved from
http://lbcams.schoolloop.com/faq). She heard back from many schools including CAL her first
choice.
College experience.
Juana attributes her high school curriculum and teachers for preparing her for college.
She remembers that her classes in high school required a lot of time and effort that it makes it
easier for her to handle the workload in college.
Yea California Academy of Math and Science so um it was really very intense. Like I
think it really prepared me for college. I mean I don’t have as much work as I did in high
school because every day I was doing some kind of homework or project or paper or
something but it prepared me in staying focused and my reading I mean if I didn’t get my
reading done then I’m behind and then so it did prepare me for like the load of work…

Academically Juana felt prepared but she encountered challenges in adjusting to college
due in part to her financial situation and being far from her family. Her first year she could not
afford to live close to school so lived about an hour away using public transportation. She
remembers that because of her commute she was unable to participate in any activities on
campus, which made it difficult for her to meet people. It was also during her freshman year that
she thought about withdrawing for a term. She was feeling homesick, her classes were
challenging and she had made very few friends.
Like every weekend, I was like “Dad, can you pick me up? Can you pick me up?” And he
was like “Mija, gasto mucha gasoline” (Daughter, I’ll spend too much gas), you know.
And it was just, I didn’t want to be here. I just felt like it was a battle, and I was just here

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alone. I was fighting this huge campus all by myself, and I didn’t have the support from
my parents, you know.

This on top of worrying how to finance the rest of her education made Juana doubt her
ability to continue at CAL and she began to think whether it was even worth it. She began to
think about what would happen after graduation, she knew that if nothing changed on
immigration reform she would not be able to get a job. The combination of these stressors took
an emotional and mental toll on Juana.
Social support.
However, Juana recognizes that she has to keep herself motivated. She shared that she’s
faced many challenges that affect her motivation; but that she tells herself she cannot focus on
those because it will make things harder. Her second year has been better socially because she
was able to move closer to campus and shares a house with students whom are science and pre-
medicine majors. Additionally, in her second year Juana has found various support services and
programs that have helped her overall college experience. She applied and was accepted to
participate in the Biology Scholars Program (BSP) where she’s also met one of her mentors at
CAL.
Like I said, my BSP advisor Corey. He’s amazing. He’s the one that interviewed me for
the program and um, we became really good friends, and he has supported me. He’s the
one that got me to drop Chemistry and take it this semester, instead of last, and so far so
good, I mean I got above average. It was worth waiting, you know.

Her involvements also include participating in the Chican@s/Latin@s in Health
Education (CHE) student organization that is focused on meeting the needs of underserved
communities. Within CHE she has found students who share her experiences as a Latino/a
student pursuing a career in medicine that has given her a peer support system.

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We go out to eat together, we got…we go to give information to the jornaleros (day
laborers) and afterwards, we have like a little social…like we go to IHOP or ice-skating
or something, and I think that’s where I have found most of my friends and BSP.

Her second year has been much more socially successful for Juana. She and her friends
from BSN and CHE have study dates as well as social gatherings, all of which have improved
Juana’s experience at CAL.
Immigrant identity.
Juana strongly identifies herself as Guatemalan. She very much dislikes that people
assume she’s Mexican and she makes sure they know she’s not. She talked about how many
people have bad perceptions of Mexicans and she acknowledges that no one individual is
representative of the whole, yet they all get penalized at times. For this reason, she feels it’s
important to let people know that she’s Guatemalan.
Oh every person that asks me, um any of them I tell them Guatemalan. I’m straight out
Guatemalan. Like I was born there and raised there you know. I came when I was 11 and
uh I have continued my life here so I continue myself Guatemalan and like you know
Americ-, I mean Guatemala is still America so I hate when they say I’m American, I’m
like so am I you know, Central America. So I’m yeah you know I’m Guatemalan and I’m
continuing my life here in the U.S. so I guess I’m both.

She also talked about how she educates her friends of how important the difference is for
her. She shared that her Asian American friends from Japanese background get offended if
someone refers to them as Chinese. She tells them it is the same concept with Latinos. She talked
about how proud she is to identify herself as Latina. It also empowers her because she feels that
she represent her culture being at CAL and overturns the misconceptions people may have.
And plus also being Latina and Guatemalan when you it’s, it kind of empowering
because it show you know, um I’m Latina, I’m Guatemalan and no matter what people
think I’m here at Berkeley you know it’s just so empowering just to say that you know,
I’m at Berkeley and I’m Latina and Guatemalan you know. So I just love using those
words.

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Juana had joined another pre-medicine organization on campus along with CHE but
decided to stick with CHE because she felt she belonged. She also felt she shared CHE’s mission
in helping the Latino community.
Yeah I mean we’re Latinos and we’re helping our community, I, I think with CHE is
where I fell more Latina.

The most challenging thing for Juana is dealing with her undocumented identity because
school is that much harder for her. She talked about how hard she works and at times feels
discouraged because as she overcomes one obstacle another one arises. She described it as “one
door opens, but the next one is closing.” She appreciates the help her parents give her but also
recognizes that they do not have the income to help her out fully in financing her college
education.
…it’s very, it’s very difficult just to like you know, you know knowing that you really
don’t have a straight path there’s always like turn here, there and you just, I don’t know
and now I’m, uh being Latina and like and…and undocumented and from low income
family just plays against me, you know it’s just really hard.

Juana acknowledges that she has grown as a person due to her circumstances. She
mentioned that if she had stayed in Guatemala and her father kept sending money, she would not
have become the person that she is today. Because her father was sending money her mother was
able to afford private schools and nicer things. She feels she would have grown to not really
appreciate what she has and the opportunities offered to her. She has learned to be adaptable and
strong.
…randomly and unexpectedly things can change. You know, life can change in blink of
an eye, and you just have to be strong and um, you now find a way to survive and do
good, you know like things are bound to happen here, you know…so just being prepared
for the unexpected…

In talking about the D.R.E.A.M. Act movement, Juana shared that she only follows it
through RISE. She feels that it is an important movement and she admires the students who have

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taken risks and have come out publically. She said that she would like to join the movement but
is scared of getting picked up by I.C.E. She worries that if that would happen it would put
additional stress on her family and all that she’s done so far would go to waste.
I don’t want to risk, you know, going back to Guatemala and not finish my dream, you
know…But at the same time, not doing it makes me feel bad because I’m not doing
anything about it, you know what I mean? I see people risking that, but I can’t do it, you
know. It’s like, um, but the reason I can’t is my family. I can’t leave my family. I’m like
their support after I graduate. I can’t risk, you know my future and my parents’ and my
brothers’ future.

In summarizes her motivation to continue pursuing her dream no matter how challenging
Juana mentioned her family. Her family gives her the strength and support she needs to keep
moving forward. Additionally, she said all those individuals who have supported her throughout
her education from teachers to peers.
So I guess that’s where I get my motivation from, my parents, my teachers, and the
friends that trust that they know that I can do it.

Estrella
Estrella is freshman at L.A. Trade Tech majoring in Human Resource Management. She
mentioned that her parents got the idea of moving to the United States from her grandmother
who knew of people that had moved. As she reflected to your childhood she remembers that her
parents began packing and even moved into her grandmothers house for some time. She was so
young that she did not pay too much attention to all the movement until the day she realized her
parents were leaving. She remembers that was a hard transition for her because she had never
been apart from her parents.
Well the first thing would be meeting back with my family, it was a very surprising,
happy moment after three years, they left me and my brother over there in Honduras. It
was very exciting happy moment I guess.

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Three years later her parents sent for her and her brother in Honduras and she arrived to
the U.S. at the age of twelve.
Family.
Estrella attributes her family to being the person that she is today. She described her
parents as caring, loving, and hard workers. And in her way of speaking of her parents she
showed respect for them as people and for the sacrifices that they have made to support her.
Well the teachings that they gave me, the advice that they gave me and all the support
that they gave me and they showed me, it shaped me as a person. I always saw my mom
struggling and looking forward to helping us, to buy us the little gift for our birthday.
And she always was very detailed an she still is so I love her to death. Well my mom and
dad you know always working hard, struggling, we were poor but we never showed
people we were in need, you know…because my mom and dad always worked hard…

Her family has been her base of strength throughout the transition from Honduras to the
U.S. and in her college experience. She described the efforts of each individual family member
as a collective effort. She acknowledges that the struggles that her parents have overcome are for
her benefit, that they have always thought of a better future for her and her brother.
I would describe my family as…a rock, a rock because everything is so tight and hard
and you could do so many things to it but it takes so much power for you to do something
to the rock a big rock, that is not easy to just get the rock, it’s first of all it was not easy to
lift the rock…and then once you lift it up, if you ever could it is not easy to break it or
damage it.

She shared that her family underwent a huge when her father was deported. She talked
about how deportation is the biggest fear for undocumented immigrants and that there is no
emotional preparation that can be done to handle the stress. That was the moment that she
realized the meaning of having a family and also the importance of her getting an education. She
described that her family was like a dysfunctional team without her dad.
It was like having the team you know and one of the players or two of the players are
missing or how they are going to take a break or something…the team is going to start
loosing control…the team gets weak overall it’s not the same thing anymore.

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Although Estrella’s parents had always instilled in her the importance of an education,
her father’s deportation made it more real for her. She shared that it was then that she decided to
pursue a law degree because she felt the need to help others as well as her family in these types
of situations.
Prior education.
Estrella recognized that her parents motivations of coming to the U.S. were to giver her
better educational opportunities. She remembers that Honduras was a country in turmoil and that
often times teachers walked out on strikes. When this happened kids would be out of school for
days or weeks until the issue was resolved and the cycle would repeat again. Estrella had
finished sixth grade in Honduras and was placed in that same grade level here. She feels that was
unfair she was repeating a grade, yet she felt that it was helpful because she started with younger
kids and not in high school.
…it was not fair, I had like a month left over there to finish [6
th
grade] so I would have
finished a year earlier from high school and I would have started college earlier you
know and yeah I was…at the same tie I felt more comfortable because I started off from
middle school level which is 6
th
grade and so I felt like more welcomed in the school.

Estrella shared fond memories of her ESL teacher who she felt was caring and nice.
According to Estrella, her ESL teacher was meant to be a teacher and to help immigrant students.
She remembers that all new students went to her and that she knew them all and was very
helpful. Estrella believes that it was her teacher’s caring personality that made her an excellent
teacher. She also remembers that in addition to using the textbooks her ESL teacher would make
the class fun and engaging by doing various activities. She remembers that her teacher would
hold mini-essay competitions and would reward the winners with a variety of prizes. Estrella
remembers winning one essay competition and her reward was going to see the Lion King play

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with her ESL teacher and another student. This left a lasting impression on Estrella, as she shared
this experience she mentioned that the experience was the first time she had interacted with a
teacher outside of class. As she described her experienced I sensed that Estrella had felt
welcomed and included by her teacher.
Her family was the main source of support as she adjusted to her new school. It helped
that her brother was enrolled in the same school and she felt less lonely. She remembers that she
struggled with school because of the language barrier; and although her parents were supportive
they could not help much because they also did not speak English.
My mom you know my dad, they would see me cry at something you know because I
didn’t understand the homework and they couldn’t really help me, because they didn’t
know you know like sometimes it was English homework and they can’t help, they don’t
know English you know and there was no way that they could help me. And they would
talk to me and tell me, not to worry, not to stress you know, they knew, they were aware
of you know that I was struggling because learning a different language you know it’s not
easy…

Estrella found her place in school on the track. In tenth grade she joined cross-country
and track and this gave her a sense of belonging at her high school. She also talked about her AP
Spanish Literature teacher who had a doctorate from the University of California Irvine he
inspired and motivated her. She described him as an energetic, enthusiastic and caring teacher.
Estrella remembers that he shared his story with them and she felt a connection because it was
like her own story. Her teacher was an immigrant who had gotten here at a young age, had gotten
his doctorate and was now teaching. Estrella felt that if he could got to college at a time where
undocumented immigrants were less and had no policies like AB 540 that she could do the same
today.
And I would talk to him you know like on the side or after class and I would go hang out
with him and I would talk to him and ask him how was it because he was immigrant as
well yeah and I would ask him you know how do you end up here, what did he go

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through and he was very you know like, he was, I think he should have been a counselor
instead of a teacher, yeah he was a really good counselor.

Estrella remembers that it was in the tenth grade when she first started learning about
college and what she needed in order to apply. She remembers that a counselor came into one of
her classes to explain the requirements and asked students where they were and what were they
thinking. She remembers that if it were not for the counselor coming into her class it would have
taken her some time to think about her future after high school. Estrella remembers that she was
so behind in her knowledge because she had start by understanding what a GPA was. Estrella did
not wait too long before seeking more information, she immediately visited the counselor after
the presentation to clarify her questions and learn more.
The next day I went to my counselor. And she was really nice so she like me a lot, yea
she talked to me and then she was just explaining all that happened the day before and
she explained to me all the things that you need and everything that’s when I realized you
know that if I had any missing classes or you know how to make up the classes and
everything. So I started making up classes…

It was also her counselor who helped her prepare the application for university
admissions in the twelfth grade. Her counselor held workshops two to three times a week during
her senior year to help students with their applications and personal statements. Additionally, her
counselor also encouraged Estrella to have her top choices of school but also a back-up school.
Estrella did get admitted to a number of universities but in the end she decided to go to a
community college because financially it was what she and her family could afford.
College experience.
Estrella experienced a bit of culture shock when she started at LA Trade Tech, she had
not expected to see the vast range in age differences from her peers. She remembers walking into
class and seeing student right out of high school just like her while at the same time seeing
students that were adults. Because of her prior expectations of what college was supposed to be

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like, Estrella found this to be very shocking for her. She remembers having lots of fear during the
first semester to the point that it affected her physically. She remembers I would be shaking in
class and with sweating palms. She realizes now that the fear was a combination of the new
environment, new people and the fear of the unknown. She still struggles at the beginning of the
semester but the fear fades away after the first few days.
I was really scared and I was so scared that I was never going to get out of there but I
started to get used to you know and that fear went away I just feel something like the firs
day of class you know when I am going to start the new semester to see what kind of
people I have and the teacher you know but besides that few days and now it just goes
away and they everything is better now. I would cry so much…

Estrella also struggle with finding purpose in college. She did not have a clear direction
on what she wanted to major in and there was no one that she knew of to help her at her college.
She remembers that although she never considered dropping out she was depressed and
desperate to find someone at her college to help her. Her brother was attending LA Trade Tech
and he was the one who helped her select and register for her first semester courses. She also
mentioned that they enrolled in once course together and that made it much easier for her. She
did finally find a counselor at her college that has helped her plan out her transfer. She
mentioned that he was very nice and helpful however, she’s been unable to form a real
relationship with him. When I asked her why that was, Estrella mentioned that he’s very busy
and she usually books half hour appointments with him to review her progress and find out if she
needs anything else. She finds that he is very busy and she does not feel comfortable asking him
additional questions that would help her find a school to transfer to or a major. However, Estrella
is excited that she’s on track to transfer in two years and she’s hopeful that at the university
she’ll find more of a support network.

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Immigrant identity.
Estrella strongly identifies herself as Hondureña and Latina. To her identifying as Latina
connects her not only to the language but also to all other Spanish-speaking people in the U.S.
Additionally she is very proud of her Hondureña identity.
And Honudereña or Catracha, because that’s what people from Honduras are called, yeah
and I’m very happy you know that when they ask me where are you from, I say Honduras
you know because people will tell me I look Dominican or Brazilian, yeah but I am like
no I am Honduras and they get interested in Honduras…and I’m happy you know
because Honduras is a very small country in Central America, you know very little
country and not a lot of people know about it.

Although Estrella is very proud of her background she realizes that it has been a
challenge for her in the U.S. Estrella remembers that it was not until high school when she
realized she was undocumented and what that meant for her future. As she saw her peers getting
jobs and driver’s licenses the limitations of her status began to be real for her.
As an undocumented person, a student it’s not easy at all, first when you are little, you
don’t realize you are not from here, you are from there, everything is just nice you
know…but once you get into high school you realize that – you have all these limitations,
you know if you want to go to a place you know you need an ID to show and you don’t
have one.

In college she’s unable to receive financial aid like many of her peers, which has made
college difficult for her. She’s thankful that her parents have been supportive emotionally and
financially to her. But she realizes that she has been limited in her choices because of her
undocumented status. She also talked about having to continuously prove herself because some
individuals have negative perceptions of Latino immigrants.
It’s the way they see me, you know they don’t really know me so I can’t do much about
it…but I always but myself you know out there as a good person and show them you
know that not everybody is the same like I said, everybody is different.

Estrella also shared that she does not share her undocumented status with others and this
maybe as a result of her father’s deportation and the impact it had on her family.

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I always keep it a secret you know because nobody really cares, they are not like they are
gin to help me so I just keep that a secret. And it has helped me to motivate myself, to
show people you could say people that don’t know what the truth is about immigrant
people, show them that if we come to this country we don’t come to just take their money
like people say “they take our jobs,” we don’t come to this country to be lazy people that
just want things for free…but to show people that I am an immigrant but that shouldn’t
make a difference, you are still a human being and you want to do the same things as the
people here do and even more.

When asked what kept her motivated and focused on reaching her dream Estrella
mentioned the AP teacher she had in high school. He inspired her to not give up regardless of the
struggles, she feels that if he did it during a more difficult time she will be able to achieve it
today with the various support services and new laws that help undocumented youth. She
mentioned her family as the number one motivator and support for her. She’s grateful for the
sacrifices that her parents have made and feels it’s her responsibility to achieve more than they
did. Finally, Estrella mentioned those individuals who have the opportunities but do not take
advantage of them. She feels that she’s working hard to achieve her dream is something to be
proud of and in the end she can say that she did it on her own, that the government did not help
her. And to her this is important because she feels it’s her responsibility to prove that immigrants
to come to take resources, but that they want to contribute to their communities through their
hard work.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide context and to understand the socialization
experiences of each participant. For all the participants family was an important source of
motivation and for most it was also their strong support structure. Their parents moved to the
U.S. due to economic reasons and most of the women were left behind in the care of
grandparents. A similarity found with all women who were left behind in the care of their
grandparents was that they all experienced anxiety when reuniting with parents.

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About half the women entered the U.S. with a visa and established temporary protective
status (TPS). Regardless of their status however, the women experienced being an immigrant in
the U.S. very similar ways. In terms of their education socialization, most women attended rural
schools in their home countries. Three of the women attended private schools or “colegios”
which placed them higher on the socioeconomic latter. Only one of the women had college-
educated parents, all others were labor skilled workers in their home countries. All of the women
showed tremendous respect towards their parents and described them as hard workers. The
biggest lesson they learned from their parents was that of being resilient. They all spoke of the
sacrifices and challenges their parents faced and how each time they were not defeated but
instead found ways to overcome the situation.
The next chapter will present the findings from this study. The following four emergent
themes will be analyzed: 1) resiliency; 2) sense of responsibility; 3) multiple identities; and 4)
social justice.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The increase in the U.S. Latino population and its diversity has gained much local and
national attention of the need to learn more about their experiences in college (Torres, 2003).
And although this body of research is growing, the work is limited to a segment of the Latino
population. The literature has mainly focused on the Mexican American or immigrant
experience, by far the largest segment of the Latino population. Lopez and Dockterman (2011)
reported that the largest growing sub-segment in the Los Angeles-Long Beach metro was the
Guatemalan and Salvadorian community. And as the immigration debate continues in both the
political and educational arenas it is critical to understand the diverse experiences within the U.S.
Latino population.
The purpose of this study is to provide context on how the immigration and socialization
experiences of undocumented Central American Latinas affect their persistence in college. This
segment of the population has been lumped together in the research that looks at the
undocumented experience. It is important to look at it separately due to the different immigration
experience; the majority of Central American immigrants escaped their countries due to civil
wars and extreme poverty. As a result of these civil wars, many of them entered the U.S. with
temporary protective status (TPS) that afford them limited benefits such as driver’s licenses and
work permits. This temporary status creates contradictions within the individual as they grapple
with their multiple identities. And as the push to change legislation for the undocumented college
student population continues, it is important to understand the experiences of students in our
institution who are facing challenges that may be different from the traditional undocumented
experience.

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This chapter will present a discussion within the context of the literature focusing on the
four themes that emerged through the data analysis of the interviews. These themes are: 1)
resiliency; 2) sense of responsibility; 3) multiple identities; and 4) social justice. Second, it will
present implications and recommendations from this study to the practice of professionals in
education. Finally, this chapter will suggest future directions for this research.
Discussion
Linked to the four themes that emerged from the data analysis was the role of social
capital within the socialization experience of each participant. Each of the participants shared
that family was critical to their success as an immigrant in this country. Most of the women
arrived to the U.S. after their parents were established and learned from them the new norms of
life in America. As such, each of the participants had a strong support network within their
families. This study confirms O’Connor, Hammack, and Scott’s (2010) argument that as these
immigrant women began their college journey they lacked the social capital to guide them
through the process. Many of them found support and guidance through their high school
counselors and teachers. In some cases, these individuals played a crucial role in assisting the
women apply to better high school programs, the college application and selection process.
However, as the women progressed from high school to college they lost the social
capital they had acquired to get them to college. In many cases, they were left to embark on the
college experience alone. Some of the women did find support systems in college that would
help them transition into and stay in college. Yet, they also shared that it was not easy to acquire
the social capital because of their undocumented identity. The four themes that emerged from the
study are closely related to how these women overcame the lack of social capital in college. The

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themes reveal that for many of them their persistence arose intrinsically and as a result of their
immigration and socialization experience.
Theme 1: Resiliency
The women in this study confirmed what the literature suggests that Latinas/os face
additional economic and sociocultural challenges as they transition to college. The struggles for
the women in this study began during the language acquisition stage of their educational
experiences. Many of the women had positive experiences and learned the language quickly with
the support of their family, teachers and friends. Some of the women struggled to place into
regular English classes mainly due to the lack of support for the ESL programs at their high
schools. All of the women from this study shared the pre-college barrier of coming from a low
socioeconomic background (Gloria, Castellanos, & Orozco, 2005). Regardless of how this
experience impacted their confidence level, the women who shared the negative experiences
were determined to acquire the language and pursue their education. Through their stories, the
women shared their feelings of having to prove to others that they would be able to learn. Some
of the women shared that they internalized this struggle and made it their personal source of
motivation.
Another unique challenge faced by the women in this study was that of their
undocumented status and the impact it had on their economic status. Due to their inability to
apply for financial aid, paying for college was the biggest stressor even before they stepped foot
on a college campus. They have learned to be resourceful in acquiring information about
scholarships offered to undocumented students. Five of the eight women interviewed for this
study were highly involved in a community organization that provided mentorship and
scholarship assistance not only to undocumented students, but also specifically to Central

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American students. Moreover, many attended high schools where there was at least one teacher
or counselor that helped them navigate the college applications process as well as to find and
apply for scholarships. Only one student mentioned a mentor who helped her fundraise money
for college. The women although cautious about revealing their immigration status were savvy in
identifying individuals on their campus that were trustworthy and helpful.
Yet, even after all of their accomplishments many of the women shared feelings of
academic and social inadequacy. The results from this study also confirm that Latina women
often times feel unprepared in class (Gloria, Castellanos, & Orozco, 2005), as shared by many of
the women in this study. Additionally, their undocumented status provoked feeling of not
belonging, being left out, and marginalized. For many of the women these feeling delayed their
ability to seek the resources they needed to succeed. They also experienced a tension within
themselves because at times they felt like they had as much right as anyone else to seek
resources and pursue an education. When they experienced these contradicting feelings is when
they felt the most empowered to ask questions and find the resources. They also found the
courage to disclose their undocumented status to individuals who they trusted to ask for help and
guidance. Their ability to come to terms with their undocumented status identity was a turning
point for many of the women in how they navigated the university environment and accessed
resources.
The capacity to quickly recover from the challenges they faced was prevalent in all of
their stories. Many of the women shared that they had learned that behavior from their parents.
They shared that whenever they thought of how hard things were getting they remembered the
sacrifices made by their parents. Family was an important factor in their ability to rebound from
adversities. Some of the women shared that they saw their parents as “guerreros” (warriors) and

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“luchadores” (hard workers) and that they had gained some of those same qualities. Family
support was strongly and visibly linked to their ability to persist in college (Castellanos, Lopez,
& Rosales, 2005).
As mentioned earlier, family was a critical source of social capital for these women. And
as they shifted from primary to high school the social capital shifted from the family to
institutional agents such as counselors and teachers. However, the women found that the support
they had enjoyed in high school was no longer available to them as they entered college. One of
the reasons that these women felt isolated and unable to seek out the resources they needed was
due to their undocumented status. As they grew more comfortable with that part of their identity,
they also began to seek out individuals in college who they could trust with this information.
This is also where many of the women showed their resiliency. Some of them shared that
although not comfortable disclosing their undocumented identity, there were times when they
had to do it in order to move forward. This also helped them recognize key individuals at their
institutions.
Theme 2: Sense of Responsibility
As mentioned previously, the participants expressed that family was the key motivator
for their academic success (Gloria, Castellanos, Lopez, & Rosales, 2005). Additionally, they held
in high esteem the sacrifices their parents had made by leaving their home country and bringing
them to the United States. Throughout their stories the women not only showed genuine
appreciation but respect for the sacrifices made on their behalves. As noted earlier, family has
been identified as critical source of emotional support and motivation for Latinos/as.
Furthermore, “familia” is a core value among individuals who strongly identify themselves as
Latino and many exert strong feelings of loyalty and solidarity (Gloria, et al., 2005). This was

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prevalent in the participants of this study as they mentioned that they felt a sense of
responsibility towards their parents. This sense of responsibility was visible in the actions they
took in high school acquiring the information to apply to college through accepting admissions.
Often they repeated that when they felt like giving up, they reminded themselves that they had to
persist because their parents had sacrificed a lot. Some of the women also mentioned they felt a
sense of responsibility towards other immigrants and anti-immigrants groups. They spoke of
being a representative of their communities and as such had to succeed in order to prove that
immigrants positively contribute to U.S. society. The women spoke of feeling responsible to
respond and prove the anti-immigrant groups wrong by working hard and achieving success.
This sense of responsibility led many of them women to network with other undocumented
students on campus and create a social support system that helped them access resources.
With the sense of responsibility the women showed respect towards their parents. For
them respect was a way to validate their parents as individuals. Furthermore, respect also
validated them and this was especially important in settings where the participants often felt left
out. Some of the participants shared that gaining the respect of their peers was important; it
legitimized them within the context of a classroom or the college campus. Just as their parents
had earned their respect because of their hard work and sacrifices, some of the women wanted to
gain the respect of their professors and peers. This became an important part of their immigrant
and undocumented identity. Their ability to represent that group of individuals in a positive light
but gain the respect of others.

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Theme 3: Multiple Identities
The majority of the women in this study shared stories where they had to negotiate their
multiple identities. And as Torres and Baxter Magolda (2004) assert the women spoke of the
negotiation they faced between their American and Latino culture. All of them strongly
identified with their Central American identity and to them it validated their struggles. Some of
the women also spoke of the misconceptions associated with Central American women and how
they felt they had to educate and prove themselves to others. They also spoke of the challenges
they faced in distinguishing themselves from Mexican immigrants. It was important to them to
create that distinction and felt compelled to educate others because it was a source of pride to be
able to speak of their Central American identity. They felt that their struggle was undermined if
they were lumped into one sub-population. Some of the women spoke that it was important to
them to identify their Central American identity because their success spoke highly of the
smaller Latin American countries that are often neglected.
In spite of the strong identification with their Central American identity, some of the
women saw themselves as American. To them the longer they live here in the United States the
more they saw their identity changing. For example, Betty mentioned that if she were able to
resolve her immigration status then she would have to embrace and incorporate her American
self into her identity. Like her, the others felt that legalizing their status would change the way
they see themselves in relation to their American identity.
Some of the participants shared their in-class experiences where they were told that the
classroom was not where they belonged because of their gender. However, they did not see these
experiences as detrimental to their college experience. In fact, the women who mentioned such
experiences had a strong sense of self and took on the challenge of educating those who

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questioned their ability to be in college. Thus confirming what Barajas and Pierce (2002) suggest
that that Latinas who have a strong race/ethnic identity are more likely to succeed in education.
As independent as the women feel, they shared many stories that demonstrate their various
caretaker roles within their families. Many of them took care of their families by being the
language translators, representatives at school for younger siblings, assisting with documentation
for their parents, as well as their extended family. Few of them took on the household
responsibilities of cooking and cleaning; in fact Estrella was the only one that mentioned taking
on these responsibilities. Yet, she also spoke of deterring from her household responsibilities
when she has a lot of homework. Her father and brother who she cares for in here mother’s
absence, are supportive of her when she needs her own time. The other women shared that they
were spared of household chores because they were in college and their parents allowed them to
dedicate that time to studying. They spoke of bargaining for time with their parents. When they
have papers due, midterms or finals they negotiate more time with their families to complete
their chores.
High school was a significant time for many of the participants in terms of learning about
their undocumented identity. Especially for the women who entered the U.S. at a younger age
this time was critical for them because it was the first time they learned about their status. Some
of the participants that entered a little older to the states shared that they always knew of their
immigration status. Yet, the implications of their status became clearer to them when they started
learning about and aspiring to go to college. As they developed their understanding of their
undocumented status the participants shared they began to feel marginalized, as mentioned
earlier in this chapter. These findings affirm the argument that Gonzalez (2006) makes about

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undocumented youth straddling their legal and illegal identity, and feeling of inclusion and
exclusion.
Using Torres’ (1993) Bicultural Orientation Model (BOM) to explain the ethnic identity
development of the women in this study, the women find themselves in the Marginal Orientation.
In this orientation individuals feel discomfort in all of their cultures (Torres 1993), refer to
Figure 2. Integral to the understanding of the identity development of the participants is to keep
in mind that as Ek (2009) noted identity is fluid and is derived from social practice, activity, and
lived experiences. Therefore, it cannot be argued that these women stayed in the Marginal
Orientation. In fact, through their stories they shared experiences where they moved from one
orientation to another depending on the environment and context of the specific experience.

The women showed a tremendous ability to weave in-and-out of the quadrants depending
on the situation they found themselves. The ability to do so assisted them not only to succeed in
Figure 2. Torres’ Bicultural Orientation Model (1993)

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college but also in all aspects of life. With regards to their Hispanic Orientation, many of the
women felt a strong connection to that identity in correlation with their country of origin, as
mentioned previously. Of all the women in this study, only Paola spoke of feeling somewhat
disconnected to her culture. This was due in part to her stepdad who was from Mexico. She felt
that because of her mother’s marriage they had lost some of the Salvadorian customs and
traditions as they adopted those of her stepdad’s. She was also the only one that mentioned
feeling uncomfortable when speaking Spanish with other Salvadorians. Paola mentioned that her
Spanish was now more Mexican friendly. In this sense, Paola moved from the Hispanic
Orientation to the Bicultural Orientation. However, Torres’ (1993) model does not fully explain
the development that Paola experienced because in a sense she’s adapted more than two
orientations, this will be explored later under future directions for research.
Finally, the women that had temporary protective status (TPS) dealt with another layer of
incongruency with regards to their identity. Isabel shared that she was able to find social support
among the AB 540 students at her school however, she felt somewhat privileged because of her
TPS status. Because her status allowed her some benefits such as acquiring a driver’s license and
work permit, she felt that she did not have the same degree of struggles as her AB 540 peers.
However, she admitted that her status still left her out of the mainstream society because it did
not allow her to gain full benefits in higher education. As she spoke of her experience she
mentioned feeling like she did not belong with the undocumented nor documented group. Her
experience sheds light into the future implication for undocumented students in light of recent
legislations that will be discussed later in this chapter.

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Theme 4: Social Justice
The last theme that emerged from this study is that of social justice. All of the
participants mentioned “giving back” to their communities as an important part of their
motivation. However, this sense of social justice encompassed a wide spectrum. For some of the
participants, it meant giving back to their communities in their home countries. As an example,
Yesenia spoke a lot about giving back to the homeless children in Guatemala. To her this was a
source of motivation in her pursuit of education. At various points in our conversation she talked
about the desire to go back to Guatemala and set-up a home or foundation that would support her
cause. As she spoke about this desire to give back, the researcher sensed it was a way to connect
with her home country. Especially for Yesenia who was the only one that mentioned being aware
of the opposition her family faced when the decision to migrate to the United States was made.
This made an impact on how she saw herself in relation to her Guatemalan community. And as
she spoke about her desire it was clear that she also wanted to help validate the decision as a
wise one by succeeding and giving back to others less fortunate. It also strengthened her
Guatemalan identity.
Additionally, the women spoke of helping the communities where they grew up here in
the Los Angeles area. They were especially concerned with helping other AB 540/undocumented
students at their high schools. Many continue to be involved by giving presentations,
testimonials and providing assistance in the application process. The women who were engaged
with SALEF actively visited the organization and made themselves available to assist future
students. This was a reflection of the support they had received through these local organizations.
Many of them shared still being connected to those individuals that helped them out during the

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college application process. And although some of the women had been or were active in the
immigration movement, the majority were concerned with helping out at a local level.
Of the eight women only two mentioned not being actively involved in the immigration
movement, Betty and Juana. The reason that Betty is not active according to her is lack of
interest. She recognized that any improvements to immigration would be to her benefit but I
gather from our conversation that she is still trying to develop her undocumented identity in the
context of higher education. Juana on the other hand, mentioned that she was not involved out of
fear of deportation. She spoke very passionately about how if deported she would not only ruin
her personal plans but those of her parents and siblings. As such she follows the movement
through emails, talking to peers, and the news.
Only a couple of women shared that their involvement took them to Washington DC.
They shared that it was empowering to see the number of people supporting the cause and that it
reenergized them. Maria spoke of how it changed her view on life. To her it was a humbling
experience to see her peers as they approached legislators and lobbied for the DREAM Act. She
spoke highly of her peers because to her these were hard working, motivated, and intelligent
individuals who due to circumstances not under their control were being limited on what they
could achieve. Maria shared that she had to limit her activism mostly due to work, but she also
mentioned that she felt it was time for the younger students to take over. She spoke of how she
appreciated what had been done before her because their dedication and passion permitted her to
attend college. And she felt that she had done her part in the movement and it was time for others
to move it forward. However, she is still committed to the movement and is willing to guide the
next generation of activist at her school.

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Likewise, Paola shared that she also went to Washington DC and that she was impressed
by the degree of solidarity she witnessed. Paola talked about how she saw individuals from all
walks of life coming together in support of the cause; to her this was an awakening of the power
of what can be achieved by committed individuals. Yet, Paola shared her disappointment that
after witnessing such a powerful event the federal DREAM Act has yet to pass. She spoke of
how she’s lost faith in the movement and instead she’s turned her focus to her local community.
She feels that she has a greater impact locally by working with students at her local high school
and through SALEF. She spoke that she enjoys empowering young people by informing them
that college is an option and that although they will face challenges they can overcome them, just
as she has done.
Summary
This chapter presented the four themes that emerge from this study. The themes address
the correlation between the participant’s immigration and socialization experiences and their
persistence in college. It is notable that all women drew their strength and ability to overcome
challenges from their immigration experience. From witnessing the trials and tribulations that
their parents underwent as immigrants in the U.S. to their own personal educational experiences.
Their self-confidence comes from them knowing that if their parents could migrate to the U.S.,
overcome language barriers, and survive on low-paying labor; they will be able to graduate from
college. Furthermore, the all shared a sense of responsibility to their parents. They all mentioned
the importance of pursuing their dreams and not giving up because that is the reason they were
brought to the U.S. Some also shared that they did not want to disappoint their parents by failing
or not even attempting to pursue their dreams. Thus, parents not only play a key role in
supporting their students financially but also emotionally. The emotional support that parents

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give to these women goes above and beyond verbal motivation, it has the power to intrinsically
motivate the women by the behaviors they have observed as young children.
This chapter also discussed how the women encompass more than one identity. The
women in this study have learned to adapt various identities and utilize them in a variety of
environments to help them succeed. Most women had a strong sense of their Central American
and Latina identity and many coped to deal with their undocumented identity. Their
undocumented identity was the most difficult for the women to negotiate mostly because of the
legal consequences it would bring on them and their families. This chapter also demonstrated
that the women grew up in educational systems that either supported or neglected their
immigrant identity. Regardless of the system they grew up in, the women learned to navigate the
educational system and shared a sense of accomplishment and determination. If they had a
positive experience in high school, the women spoke of people who were integral in their college
application/admissions process. Whereas, the women with a negative experiences in high school,
shared that it was their own commitment that helped them graduate.
Finally this chapter concludes that through their immigration and educational experience,
the women felt compelled to give back to their communities. Whether these communities are
here in the U.S. or in their home countries. The injustices that they have faced themselves as
individuals or as part of the collective community have instilled in them a desire to work towards
a more just society.
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study should be of utmost importance to educational institutions
and policy makers. In the following section I will discuss practices that can be employed in the

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educational sector that will alleviate the struggles of AB 540 undocumented students,
specifically those from Central America.
1. Participants shared stories of key individuals in their high schools or community
organizations that helped them get into college. However, they did not easily identify
key individuals at their colleges to help them navigate the college experience. This
made it especially difficult for the participants to find adequate resources that would
help them as AB 540 undocumented students. None the campuses attended by the
participants’ showed any indication of facilitating interactions between students and
caring faculty and staff. Efforts should be made at the institutional level to have
intentional programming the first weeks of school for first-generation students.
Additionally, students spoke of peer support networks that helped them in high school
and informal groups they had found in college. Mentoring programs should be
established for AB 540 undocumented students that would facilitate the transition and
would help students share resources with each other.
2. Training about the AB 540 law should be made available to all faculty and staff at
colleges and universities. This will ensure that everyone is informed about the basic
components of the law and could refer students to the appropriate offices for
additional support. Additionally, allies should be identified at each institution. Allies
would be individuals that are not only aware of the law but are cognizant of the
unique challenges faced by AB 540 undocumented students. As such, allies would be
able to refer and advocate on behalf of these students to various departments. Allies
should be easily identifiable by students by obtaining a decal that certifies them as
such.

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3. Participants shared that one of the greatest challenges they faced was financing their
education. Although scholarships are available for AB 540 undocumented students
often times it is not enough to cover all college and living expenses. AB 540
undocumented allies from the institutions should partner with community
organizations to create fundraisers that would provide additional scholarships.
Additionally, creative ways to support the expenses for these students should be
explored. For example, a participant suggested a book drive where students would
donate used books that would then be made available to AB 540 undocumented
students.
4. Participants expressed a great deal of pride identifying as Central American. The
Latino landscape in the U.S. continues to change and institutions of higher education
need to be responsive. Although Mexicans continue to be the majority among the
Latino population, they are no longer the largest percentage of new immigrants.
Salvadorians and Guatemalans compose the fastest growing segment of new
immigrants in Southern California. And unlike Mexican immigrants, many of Central
American youth immigrants enter the U.S. with Visas and obtain TPS. This is a
unique immigrant experience that affects the way these young people develop their
sense of self in relation to their American identity. As such it is critical that
multicultural and cultural-specific centers include their unique experiences into their
workshops and trainings. This would help to validate their existence and become a
more welcoming space for Central American students. Additionally, it would help
practitioners understand that not all undocumented experiences are the same. In this
way resources would be shared that are more appropriate for this sub-segment of the

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population. For example, if an undocumented student is looking for work
practitioners would know to ask if the student has a work permit and not assume that
the student is ineligible to work.
5. In conducting this study, the researcher found it difficult to find persistence data
specifically for Central American students. Most data that is collected at the local and
national level lump the Latino community together. This makes it increasingly hard to
analyze the data in relation to the unique experiences of Central Americans. There is
a need both locally and nationally to begin disaggregating data for Latino students,
especially in areas where the growth of the population comes from other than the
Mexican sub-group.
Future Research
This study examined college persistence of eight undocumented Central American
Latinas. The study was contextualized by their immigration and socialization experiences, by
institutions of higher education in Southern California, as well as the social climate at the time of
the interviews. The results of this study should be used cautiously to make generalizations of
college persistence for undocumented Central American college women. Additionally, the study
focused on female students who persisted in college. In order to gain further understanding into
the factors that affect college persistence for undocumented students further research is required.
Some of the additional areas of research focus should include:
• A study that focuses on the experiences of undocumented Central American men.
• A critical look at students that do no persist in college.
• Students who attend private and/or elite institutions, where additional sources of
funds and opportunities may be available.

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• A comparative study of undocumented students from various sub-populations to
draw on key differences and similarities.
• Identity development of Central American immigrants.
This study offers a glimpse into a significant sub-group of the undocumented
population in Southern California and attempts to provide practical solutions to help them
succeed in college. There is much work to be done with respects to the Central American
population, but it is the hope of the researcher to open up the discussion of the varying
experiences of the U.S. Latino.
Policy Considerations
This study also hopes to add information about the young people that were brought into
this country by their parents. Young people who by all accounts grow up as American until they
come of age to a brutal reality of their undocumented status. These young individuals could
achieve great success, if only given an honest opportunity, because they posses the drive,
enthusiasm and motivation to so. The Federal DREAM Act is one of the most significant
legislations affecting immigration. This is the only piece of legislation that incorporates a
pathway to citizenship for these young individuals. Additionally, it would offer upward mobility
for these young people as well as provide an educated workforce that would benefit the local and
national economies. In spite of the efforts made by young and organizational activist, the
legislation has been at a standstill since 2001 and has yet to be reintroduced.
Since the start of this study two major policy changes were approved that affect the
young undocumented population of Southern California. Governor Jerry Brown signed the CA
DREAM Act in 2011 to become law through Assembly Bills (AB) 130 and 131. Beginning in
January 1, 2012 AB 130 allows students who meet the AB 540 criteria to apply for and receive

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non-state funded scholarships for public colleges and universities (Retrieved from the California
Student Aid Commission at http://www.csac.ca.gov/dream_act.asp). AB 131 allows students
who meet the AB 540 criteria to apply for and receive state-funded financial aid such as
institutional grants, community college fee waivers, Cal Grants, and Chafee Foster Youth Grant
(Retrieved from the California Student Aid Commission at
http://www.csac.ca.gov/dream_act.asp) starting January 1, 2013. Although the participants of
this study were informed that the CA DREAM Act had been passed they had not knowledge of
who it would be implemented at their schools. As such it is important that colleges and
universities work together with the California Student Aid Commission to inform Admissions
and Outreach officers, as well as high school counselors and teachers. More importantly, it is
important that community organizations are kept abreast of the requirements so that they may
assist the families in gathering the necessary documentation for their students.
On June 15, 2012 President Obama announced a deferred action policy (DACA). Under
this policy DREAM Act eligible undocumented youth would not be deported and would be given
a type of temporary permission to stay in the U.S. called “deferred action” and are eligible to
receive a work permit (Retrieved from the National Immigration Law Center at
http://www.nilc.org/FAQdeferredactionyouth.html). Deferred action (DACA) will be granted on
an individual basis. And although this policy presents a move in a more hopeful direction, a
deferred action is only temporary and does not provide a pathway to citizenship. The policy has
caused much controversy as it comes about in an election year. Additionally, DREAM Act
supporters as well as those who oppose it have criticized it. Although long- or short-term effects
of this directive have yet to be seen we can learn from the experience of undocumented students
with TPS to help prepare for the needs of DACA eligible students. We can anticipate that

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students who are granted DACA will encounter the same identity struggles as those with TPS.
Our institutions need to be proactive and respond to these needs by providing education about
the legislation, implications to the student experience and resources for students struggling with
their multiple identities and fit at our institutions. And as the conversation for a comprehensive
immigration reform picks up we can expect that any policy changes will continue to shape the
direction of future research.

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130

APPENDIX A
Participant Information Sheet and Criteria Rubric
Student Name:
Telephone #:
E-mail address:
University/College:
Met
Criteria
Undocumented legal status
Graduate from H.S. in U.S.
Currently enrolled in a university
Completed at least one semester
of college coursework

131

APPENDIX B
General Recruitment Email
Dear [Name],
My name is Maruth Figueroa , and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education
at University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation,
focusing on the university experiences of Central American-born Latinas in Southern California.
This study will provide a cultural and national perspective for examining college persistence for
Latino/as by looking through the lenses of Central American women in college. The results hope
to make a positive impact on the support services and programs currently offered at state
institutions of higher education. If you are a Central American-born Latina attending college in
Southern California, I invite you to participate in this study.
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain confidential at
all times during and after the study.
If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me at maruthfi@usc.edu.
Thank you for your participation,

Maruth Figueroa
Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California

132

APPENDIX C
Interview Protocol
Frameworks
Persistence Identity Socialization
Self
What was going on in your family, your
community, and the world at the time when you
migrated to the U.S.?
-‐ How do you believe that has shaped you? X X
How has your economic situation impacted your
sense of self? Your life? X X X
How has your citizenship status impacted your
sense of self? Your life? X X X
What has been the most significant event in your
life up to the age of 18 (prior to college) that has
impacted your view of the world?
What special people have you known in your life?
-‐ Who has shaped and influenced you life
the most up to now?
-‐ Who have been guides and helpers in your
life up to now?
-‐ Who has been most helpful your
developing your understanding of
yourself? X X X
What has been your most important life lesson,
outside the classroom? X X
What is your view of the role of education in a
person’s life? X X

Family
How would you describe your family? X X
How would you describe your parents?
-‐ What do you think you inherited from
them? X X
What are your family beliefs about education? X X X
In your upbringing what specific things did your
family do to help you in your schooling? X X
Which family members have been most influential
or supportive in your college journey? How so? X

133

Tell me about your family's reaction when you
announced that you wanted to go to college? X X
How do you describe your college experience to
your family? X X
What do your family members know about your
college experience so far? What is something that
your parents don't know about in college? X X
Have any of your family members visited the
University? What were their first impressions? If
they haven't visited, what are the barriers that
prevent them from visiting? X X
What role do you play in your family? X X
What roles do the women in your family play?
Men? Children? Elders? X X X
Discuss the challenges of living:
- With your family while going to college (for you
and your family members)
- Away from your family (for you and your family
members) X X

Culture
How do you identify yourself? (Hispanic, Latina,
Central American, Chicana, etc.)
Why this and not others? X
What does that mean to you? X
What are some positive perceptions of your
culture you see? X
What are some negative perceptions of your
culture you see? X
Tell me a story about a time that you felt "Latina"
on campus, if ever? X
Do you gain strength from your culture? If so,
how? X
Do you perceive your culture as a barrier or
benefit at the University? X X
How does culture play a role in your college
experiences? X X
When and where are you most comfortable talking
about your culture on campus? X
When and where are you least comfortable talking
about your culture on campus? X

134

Schooling
Did you attend school in your home country? If
so, how long?
- What difference did you see in the US schools
and schools in your home country? X
What is your first memory of attending school?
-‐ Did you have a favorite teacher in grade
school? Junior/Middle school? High
school?
-‐ How did they influence you?
-‐ Do you believe he/she had an impact in
your educational goals? If so, how? X X
Do you feel you were put into the appropriate
grade level? X X
What method did the schools use to teach you
English? X X
What helped you adjust to you new school? X
What did you enjoy most about your school? X
What did you least enjoy about your school? X
How would you rate your parents’ involvement
with your school activities? X X
What motivated you to do well in school? X
How did teachers and other students treat you at
school? X X
Tell me the story when you first learned you could
go to college? X
Describe the moment when you decided that you
were going to go to college X
Did your prior schooling prepare you for college?
If so, how? If not, who/what helped? X
Tell me a story of an individual who was most
influential in getting you prepared for college? X X
Tell me about your first year in college:
-‐ What do you remember most about the
first year?
-‐ Did any of your involvements in- or out-of
classroom experiences affect the way you
see yourself? X X X
If you could do your schooling over again what
would you change or do differently? X

Immigration
Describe your native town (from personal
experience or from what you your parents have
shared) X

135

- What did you like most about your town? Least?
Why did you and your family move to the US?
- Describe an event that made you realize that you
were no longer in your country anymore. X
In your opinion, how are Central American
immigrants different from US born Central
Americans? How are they alike? X
What are the challenges that you have experienced
in college as a Central American immigrant? As a
female in college? X
Did you family experience any stress when you
first arrived to the U.S. If so, how did they deal
with their challenges? Do they still experience
these stressors? If so, how do you deal with family
stress while in college? X X
What lessons from your immigration experiences
do you apply in college or as a college student? X X
Discuss your understanding of the Dream Act
legislation CA and Federal.
-‐ What are your thoughts about this policy?
-‐ Are you actively involved in the
movement?
-‐ If you don’t follow it, why? X X
If you could meet the president of the University,
what do you want him to know about Central
American immigrant students? What suggestion
would you give him/her about how to better
support your needs at the University? X

College Experiences
How would you describe your college experience?
(Probe both academic and social experiences) X X X
What were you greatest fears about coming to
college? How did you overcome those fears? X X
Was there ever a time when you wanted to thought
about dropping out from college? If yes, could you
expand? X X X
What have been your greatest challenges in
college? What was your most negative experience
in the classroom and outside of the classroom? X
What have been the greatest triumphs or
accomplishments of your college experience?
What you most proud of? X

136

To summarize, can you list those things that stand
out as the most influential to your staying in
school? X

Is there anything that you would like to add? Is
there anything that you feel I should have asked?

Protocol adapted from
Susana Muñoz's dissertation

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Figueroa, Maruth (author)

Core Title Achieving the dream: undocumented Central American Latinas in college

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/06/2013

Defense Date 08/06/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Central American identity,college persistence,Higher education,intersectionality,Latino,multiple identities,OAI-PMH Harvest,persistence,social capital,Southern California,undocumented immigrants,Women

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Venegas, Kristan M. (committee chair), Corwin, Zoe (committee member), Perez, William (committee member)

Creator Email maruth.figueroa@lmu.edu,maruthf@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-317196

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