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An exploration of the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program from the theoretical framework of self-authorship
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An exploration of the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program from the theoretical framework of self-authorship
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Running head: UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF-AUTHORSHIP 1
AN EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF UNDERGRADUATE ADULT
LEARNERS IN AN ADULT DEGREE PROGRAM FROM THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK OF SELF-AUTHORSHIP
by
Rocío Durán Hernández
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2013
Copyright 2013 Rocío Durán Hernández
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Flor and Gerardo Hernandez, who taught me
perseverance and an incredible work ethic. I could not have reached this endeavor without the
life lessons they have taught me. I also dedicate this to my partner, Armando, for as much as I
complained he would listen; for helping me see the positive side when all I could see was the
impossible. Lastly, I dedicate this dissertation to all my nieces and nephews: Liliana, Samantha,
Joseph, and Dominick. My hope is that they too reach for their dreams and accomplish their
goals.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my parents, Gerardo and Flor, for their guidance and support
through my entire educational career. I thank them for always being understanding and allowing
me to grow into the person I have become, and for giving me the freedom to pursue my goals. I
thank my partner Armando, for being supportive throughout this educational experience. For as
many nights as I spent on this dissertation, he spent without me. More importantly, I thank him
for making me laugh when I most needed it and for his encouraging words when it all seemed
overwhelming and impossible. I am additionally thankful to my brothers, Rene and Gera, for
allowing me to spend time with my nephews, which kept me sane. I additionally would like to
thank my committee members, Dr. Tracy Tambascia, Dr. Lynette Merriman, and Dr. Lisa
Buono, for their help throughout this process. I especially thank Dr. Tambascia for her patience
in guiding me through to the end. Lastly, I could not ask for a better support system from my
current employer, California Lutheran University. I owe gratitude to Dr. Buono for allowing me
to share my experience with her on almost a daily basis and for her flexibility that enabled me
the time I needed away from the office to work on this research study. I also thank Dr. George
Petersen who made it his job to provide supportive words and remind me by asking me, on
almost a daily basis, about my progress. I have had an incredible support system.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Background of the Problem 10
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 20
Research Questions 20
Importance of the Study 20
Limitations 22
Definitions 23
Organization of the Study 25
Chapter Two: Literature Review 26
Statement of the Problem 26
The Undergraduate Adult Learner 27
Working Adults 28
Veteran Students 29
In the Classroom 31
Factors Affecting Retention 34
Astin’s Theory 35
Adult Degree Programs 36
Council for Adult and Experiential Learning 37
Accelerated Learning 39
Faculty 41
Academic Advising 42
Theoretical Foundation 44
Self-Authorship: Baxter Magolda 45
Self-Authorship in Connection to Adult Learners 47
The Learning Partnership Model 48
Self-Authorship and Academic Advising 49
Summary 50
Chapter Three: Methodology 51
Research Design 51
Phenomenology 52
Research Bias 53
Setting: St. Rita University 55
Adult Degree Program 55
Academic Advising Model 55
Population 56
Sample 56
Instrumentation and Tools/Source of Evidence 58
Data Collection Process 59
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 5
Data Analysis 61
Summary 64
Chapter Four: Results 66
Participants 66
Data Analysis Procedure 67
Research Question One 68
Theme One: Decision to Enroll at a 4-year institution 68
Insecurity/Fear/Lack of education 69
Religious Influence 70
Future/Career Goals 71
Theme Two: Student Experiences 74
Theme Three: Impact of Family 78
Influencing Family 82
Research Question Two 86
Theme Four: Personal Growth & Development 86
Theme Five: Experiences with Academic Advising 90
Self-Authorship 94
Following Formulas 95
Crossroads 98
Becoming the Author of One’s Life 100
Internal Foundation 102
Summary 108
Chapter Five: Overview 110
Background and Purpose 110
Methodology and Research Design 111
Discussion of Findings 112
Research Question One 113
Research Question Two 116
Limitations 119
Implications for Practice 120
1. Recognize that Adult Learners Balance Many Demands 120
2. Self-Authorship is Part of the Student’s Journey 121
3. Family is Vital to Decision Making 122
4. Experiencing the 4-Year Institution 122
5. Alternative Orientation 123
Future Research 123
Conclusion 125
References 127
Appendix A. Email Request for Participation 134
Appendix B. Pre-Survey Questions 135
Appendix C. Information Sheet 136
Appendix D. Interview Protocol 138
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 6
List of Tables
Table 1. California’s rank in jobs forecasted for 2018, by education level 12
Table 2. Description of Participants 67
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 7
List of Figures
Figure 1. The total student population by age group and projected
student population growth by age group 10
Figure 2. Journey towards Self-Authorship 47
Figure 3. Data Analysis Process 64
Figure 4. Journey towards Self-Authorship, Participant Assessment 95
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 8
Abstract
This study applies Baxter Magolda’s theory of self-authorship (2001) from the literature of
student development theory to examine the experiences of undergraduate adult learners. The
purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of undergraduate adult learners enrolled in
an adult degree program and whether their experiences were influenced by self-authorship.
Utilizing a phenomenological qualitative research design, nine participants were interviewed in-
person for approximately 30 to 60 minutes. Participants were chosen using homogenous
sampling to purposely select individuals enrolled in the adult degree program. Participants in this
study were females who varied in age from 25 to 57 years old. The analysis took place in two
phases. In phase one, the interview transcripts were reviewed, listened to, and read a number of
times for significant statements. Several statements of interest were pulled from the transcripts.
In phase two of the analysis, the themes were assessed for alignment to the phases of Baxter
Magolda’s (2001) theory of self-authorship (following formulas, crossroads, becoming the
author of one’s life and internal foundation). A rigorous review of the data from the interviews
helped identify themes that connected to each participant’s stage in the developmental process.
Findings from the study indicate that the experiences of these students were influenced by
personal development and self-authorship. In-depth descriptions revealed that the participants
traveled through the phases of self-authorship originally identified by Baxter Magolda. This
study begins to show the applicability of self-authorship, a theory of student development, to the
undergraduate adult learner experience.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 9
Chapter One
Overview of The Study
The undergraduate adult learner population in the United States has been growing
steadily for the last 12 years (National Center for Education Statistic [NCES], 2011b) to the
extent that the number of students 25 and older enrolled in postsecondary education may soon be
larger than that of traditionally aged students. Traditionally aged students are those who attend
college straight out of high school. Between 2000 and 2010, the percentage of postsecondary
students 25 and older increased by 42 % while the postsecondary student population below 25
years of age increased by 34 % (NCES, 2011b). The NCES (2011b) projects that this trend will
continue, and that the older postsecondary student population will increase an additional 20 % by
2020. This is in contrast to a growth of only 11 % for the traditional, younger postsecondary
student population during the same period. The U.S. Census (2010b) in 2009 reported an 18 to
24 year old student population totaling just over 12 million, in comparison to a population of
students ages 25 and up of 7 and a half million (U.S. Census, 2010b). Given the faster rate of
increase for the adult postsecondary population, this signals an impending shift in the
demographic composition of our nation’s institutions of higher education with regard to age. The
face of higher education is changing and the impact is being felt in states like California where
this demographic shift is becoming more obvious (Callan, 2009).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 10
Figure 1. The total student population by age group as reported by the
U.S. Census (2010a) and the projected student population growth
by age group as reported by NCES (2011b).
Background of the problem
In the current economic climate, with the downturn in the economy, layoffs and
outsourcing, many adults are finding the need to return to college for a degree in order to
improve their employment prospects (Compton, Cox, & Santos Laanan, 2006). Many
individuals on the job market have discovered that they do not hold the necessary knowledge or
skills for the technologically advanced workforce (Compton et al., 2006). It is during these tough
economic times that adult learners are more likely to make the decision to return to school
(Kasworm, 2003; Pusser et al., 2007).
Furthermore, adult learners are an important population to educate in order to fill jobs in
the advanced workforce. According to the Center on Education and the Workforce (CEW),
“between 2008 and 2018 there will be just under 47 million job openings” (Carnevale, Smith, &
Strohl, 2010, p .26). Of these 47 million jobs, 11.1 will require a bachelor’s degree (Carnevale et
al., 2010). Additionally, looking at educational attainment reveals that opportunities for workers
at the bottom of the spectrum are limited (Carnevale et al., 2010). The data demonstrates that a
0
2,000,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000
10,000,000
12,000,000
14,000,000
16,000,000
Current
Enrolment
With Projected
Increase by
2020
Increase
Difference
18-24 years
25 and older
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 11
limited number of high school graduates have the opportunity to continue on to postsecondary
education and supports the need to focus on educating adult learners (Council for Adult &
Experiential Learning [CAEL], 2008a).
A look into high school graduation data from NCES and the Department of Education
shows that of the number of high school graduates attending a 4 year institution, many of them
will not complete a bachelor’s degree through the traditional route (Ross et al., 2012). According
to a report released in August 2012 (Ross et al.), only 48% of high school graduates in 2004
attended a four year institution. A look at college graduation rates from this same year shows that
58% of students from the college graduating class of 2004 graduated within 6 years (Ross et al.,
2012). These are students who began their college education the traditional route (Ross et al.,
2012). Furthermore, of those that began at a four year institution the year prior, in 2003-2004,
16% left without completing a degree (Ross et al., 2012).
Even if students in all states graduate from high school at the rate of the best performing
state, even if high school students in all states enter college at the rate of the best
performing state, even if students graduate from college at the level of the best
performing state, and even if educated immigrants continue to enter the U.S. at the levels
of the recent past, the U.S. will likely be unable to regain its place of primacy with
respect to postsecondary attainment by relying solely on strategies related to traditional-
aged students. (CAEL, 2008a, p. 23)
These statistics therefore suggest that the adult learner population is needed to help increase the
overall number of U.S. residents who will receive at least a college degree, as well as to boost, or
at least maintain, the country’s international economic primacy (CAEL, 2008a).
To help the economy of the U.S., and that of California in particular, a large percentage
of adult learners will need to return to college for further education (Kasworm, 2010). Without
helping this student population, the shortfall in attainment of a bachelor’s degree within the state
of California is expected to be at 560,688 by the year 2025 (CAEL, 2008a). This means that
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 12
California will need that many more individuals with degrees to fill jobs requiring a
postsecondary education. The recession has increased the number of jobs now requiring
postsecondary education of at least a bachelor’s degree (Carnevale, Jayasundera, & Cheah, 2012;
Carnevale et al., 2010). Currently, “California ranks 21st in terms of the [projected] proportion of
its 2018 jobs that will require a Bachelor’s degree, and...61% of all jobs in California (12 million
jobs) will require some postsecondary training beyond high school in 2018” (Center on
Education and the Workforce [CEW], 2010, p. 19).
Table 1
California’s rank in jobs forecasted for 2018, by education level
(CEW, 2010)
Education level 2018 Jobs Rank
High school dropouts 3,163,000 2
High school graduates 4,198,000 50
Some college, no degree 4,042,000 33
Associate's degree 1,582,000 39
Bachelor's degree 3,937,000 21
Graduate degree 1,961,000 15
The shortfall in California is critical when considering the current state of the economy
and the need for a college educated workforce; California will be unable to fill jobs from within
its own populous (CAEL, 2008a). Of every 1,000 adults ages 25 to 39 in California, 257.3 have a
high school diploma but no college degree, and of those between the ages of 40 to 64, 106.1
adults have only a high school diploma (CAEL, 2008b). California is in need of a college
educated workforce, and adult learners pursuing college degrees offer a promising influx of
educated workers back into the workforce.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 13
Nevertheless, despite what the data shows, institutions have been slow to respond to these
demographic changes, and many colleges and universities are still focused on the traditional
student population (Kasworm, 2010). Colleges and universities are not prepared to provide
adequate services to support their undergraduate adult learners (Kasworm, 2010). Given the
growth in the adult student population returning for a bachelor’s degree (NCES, 2011a),
combined with the projected degree shortfall in California (CAEL, 2008a), indicate the need for
institutions like the University of California (UC) and the California State University (CSU) to
recruit adult learners and offer convenient options for degree completion.
Enrollment in traditional undergraduate programs at the state’s public universities is
limited for adult learners. In 2009, the ten UC campuses received 81,113 applicants in their
traditional undergraduate programs, of which only 263 were between the ages of 20 to 34, and
one was between 35 and 49 years of age (University of California Stat Finder, 2009). Of these
applicants, 152 admitted were aged 20 to 34, while 69,105 were between the ages of 11 and 19
(University of California Stat Finder, 2009). Thus, it is clear that, even in recent years, UC
largely admits traditional students over adult learners (considered a non-traditional student).
In the fall of 2008, the CSU system enrolled 136,174 students aged 25 and older, and
299,489 students aged 24 and under (California State University, 2009, Table 44). Although the
CSU system enrolls a greater number of older students in comparison to the UC System, the
average age of a CSU full time student in 2008 was 21.9 years, while the average age of a part
time student was 26.6 years (California State University, 2009, Table 43a). Similar to the UC
system, the CSU system admits a greater number of traditional students than non-traditional
students. The traditional campuses, services and scheduling may not fit into the lives of adult
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 14
learners; therefore many of these non-traditional students seek an education at institutions that
can accommodate their busy schedules (Compton et al., 2006).
Given societal needs for a well-educated workforce and changing student enrollment
patterns, the research university faces important challenges to realign its undergraduate
mission and environment in support of a more diverse student population, and
specifically in support of the adult undergraduate. (Kasworm, 2010, p.144)
Adult learners thus have limited opportunities in gaining access to a traditional four year public
university (Kasworm, 2010).
In the area of student affairs and student services, adult learners also face challenges.
Student support needs to improve in order to meet the needs of the increasingly diverse
population, specifically as adult learners enter higher education at increasingly higher rates
(Kasworm, 2003). In a study that looked at single parents as adult learners, Yakaboski (2010)
conducted focus groups with 21 single mothers and found that these adult students were feeling
excluded. The students in the study felt there was a lack of family and child friendly events, and
that some of the student fees were more useful to traditional students (Yakaboski, 2010). As
such, “student affairs professionals must adjust to serve this population more effectively,”
Compton et al. (2006, p. 75) asserted, since the undergraduate adult learner population will
continue to grow. The policies and practices implemented by student affairs professionals can
have significant implications for undergraduate adult learners (Compton et al., 2006). The reality
is that these students are enrolling in higher numbers each term, and colleges and universities
need to know how to meet their needs.
Unlike the vast amount of student development theories that may be applied to the
traditional student population (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010), student
development theory is limited in relation to the undergraduate adult learner. Most of the
theoretical frameworks modeled on adult learners are classroom and learning based (Merriam,
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 15
Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). “Knowledge of student development theory enables student
affairs professionals to identify and address student needs, design programs, develop policies,
and create healthy college environments that encourage positive growth in students” (Evans et
al., 2010, p. 7). An understanding of Baxter Magolda’s theory of self-authorship can improve
educators’ support for adult learners in their college experience (Baxter Magolda, 2008). Baxter
Magolda defines self-authorship as the “internal capacity to define one’s beliefs, identity, and
social relations” (Evans et al., 2010, p. 183). Kasworm (2008) affirms that adults enter into their
new learning experiences with differing cognitive beliefs and emotional frameworks. Baxter
Magolda’s theory of self-authorship will assist in the exploration of the beliefs with which adult
students enter into higher education and how these notions affect their experience in an adult
degree program.
Statement of the Problem
There is ample data demonstrating a growth in the postsecondary adult learner population
(Kasworm, 2003; NCES, 2011b). Educators and policy makers in the United States, and in
California specifically, can no longer afford to focus on educating the traditional student
population alone (CAEL, 2008a). Research shows that those with a college degree earn a higher
income than those without one, and earn even more than those without a high school diploma
(CAEL, 2008a; Compton, 2012). In 2011, President Barack Obama recognized this and
established the goal of making America the country with the highest number of students that
graduate from college in the entire world by the year 2020 (White House, 2011). “The President
believes that regardless of educational path after high school, all Americans should be prepared
to enroll in at least one year of higher education or job training to better prepare our workforce
for a 21st century economy” (White House, 2011). If this goal is to be reached, it must include
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 16
the large population of adult learners that enroll in postsecondary education each year (CAEL,
2008a).
Opportunities for adult learners to access traditional four year public universities are
limited (Kasworm, 2010). Although tuition is typically higher at private institutions than at four
year public universities (CAEL, 2008a), many adult students choose to enroll in private
institutions because of reduced government funding to public colleges and universities in recent
years, which has limited course offerings and enrollment (Pusser et al., 2007). Private colleges
and universities may afford better access and support for the enrollment of undergraduate adult
learners (Pusser et al., 2007). Furthermore, with the growth in the undergraduate adult learner
population, there has been a corresponding growth in adult degree programs (Watkins & Tisdell,
2006). Approximately 9 % of adult degree programs are currently offered by four year, private,
not-for-profit universities (Kasworm, 2003). The development of adult degree programs has
occurred as a response to the shift in the market (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006).
Yet much research indicates that the undergraduate adult learner has different needs than
those of the traditional student (Kohler Giancola, Grawitch, & Borchert, 2009). Adult learners
often have to balance several life demands that can add stress, and commencing undergraduate
studies at a later age can add to these demands (Kohler Giancola et al., 2009). Unlike traditional
students, adult learners may have additional responsibilities that can add time constraints and
limit the amount of time for studies (Kohler Giancola et al., 2009). Adult learners are at a
different place in life, have a different view of the world, and thus have different needs.
Nonetheless, their needs as students are equally as important as those of the traditional student
(Kasworm, 2003).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 17
There is an abundance of literature regarding the support services needed for the
undergraduate adult learner population (Bailey, 2007; Compton et al., 2006; CAEL, 2011a;
Fairchild, 2003; Kasworm, 2010). Although research has shown there is a need, there is still a
lack of support services to help undergraduate adult learners be successful at the postsecondary
level (Kasworm, 2010). This lack of support services is often a barrier to participation in formal
education for adult learners (Merriam et al., 2007). In comparison to the traditional student, adult
learners have many other demands and need accommodation from institutions (Malhotra,
Shapero, Sizoo, & Munro, 2007). Administrators and academic advisors need to be aware of the
challenges faced by the undergraduate adult learner population and be ready to assist them by
providing a helpful and supportive environment (Kasworm, 2003; Malhotra et al., 2007).
Of the student support services available at colleges and universities, academic advising
has been identified as one of the most important services in meeting the needs of undergraduate
adult learners (Fielstein, Scoles, & Webb, 1992; Malhotra et al., 2007). Research shows that
academic advising is important in facilitating retention and student development (Grites &
Stockton, 1994; Hale, Graham, & Johnson, 2009; Nemeth Tuttle, 2000). College administrators
have additionally identified academic advising as one of the most important services for adult
learners (Fielstein et al., 1992). However, there is little understanding of what students expect
and need from their academic advisor (Barbuto, Story, Fritz, & Schinstock, 2011). There is a
notable difference between student expectations and advisor perceptions of what students need
from advising (Barbuto et al., 2011). Barbuto et al. (2011) point out that few studies have looked
at the advisor/advisee relationship. Furthermore, few institutions evaluate the effectiveness of
their advising programs (Cuseo, 2008). Although specific programs may be assessed to know if
the needs of their adult learners are being met (Baily, 2007), there is a need to gain further
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 18
insight into the experiences of this population through the voice of the undergraduate adult
learners themselves. This is important when considering that “academic advisors are essential to
promoting student development and success” (Kuh, 2008, p. 81). The academic advisor is often
the resource person for students in connection to student services on campus (Davis & Cooper,
2001). Given that adult learners are more likely to leave during their first year, intervention is
important to their persistence (Compton et al., 2006; Kasworm, 2008). Malhotra et al. (2007)
found that “Individual advising, personal attention, and advisor follow-up and support are
imperative for adults” (p.86). Academic advisors need to be aware of the multiple
responsibilities of undergraduate adult learners in order to provide a supportive environment and
effective educational assistance (Bailey, 2007).
Adult learners additionally reported that one of the most important issues affecting their
college attendance is financial aid (Kasworm, 2003; Merriam et al., 2007). It is often assumed
that because many adult students work, they can afford to pay for their own college education. In
reality, this population has a much greater financial need than institutions assume (Kasworm,
2003). Unlike traditional students who may have parents that provide financial support, adult
learners may have other members of the household that they need to support financially
(Kasworm, 2003; Merriam et al., 2007). Other household members or dependents are often the
motivation and at the same time the deterrent for adult learner participation in education
(Kasworm, 2003). Financial aid is one of several barriers that adult learners have reported
encountering at the postsecondary level (Bailey, 2007; Kasworm, 2003). Lack of money is one
of the most cited reasons for non-participation in education (Merriam et al., 2007).
Traditional four year public institutions with competitive admissions processes for
undergraduate students have shown little interest in the adult learner population. Most adult
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 19
learners either gradually transfer from a community college to a four year university, or decide to
return to complete their degree years later at a non-traditional age (Kasworm, 2010). Those
colleges and universities that encourage the enrollment of non-traditional students in light of
“lifelong learning” (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011, p. 34) do little in terms of accommodating
these students when they maintain a system geared toward the traditional students (Gilardi &
Guglielmetti, 2011). Undergraduate adult learners seek institutions that adequately provide
support services for their adult lives (Kasworm, 2003). Colleges and universities need to focus
on what their undergraduate adult learners need, and they must improve institutional policy in
consideration of the needs of this growing non-traditional student population (Malhotra et al.,
2007).
Various colleges and universities have developed adult degree programs that provide
specialized services for adult learners (Kasworm, 2008). The services these programs offer are
meant to create a supportive culture for adult learners (Kasworm, 2008). Though the majority of
literature in relation to the undergraduate adult learner focuses on the need for appropriate
programs and services (Deggs, 2011), there is a lack of exploration on the experience of the
undergraduate adult learner enrolled in an adult degree program and how self-authorship
influences those experiences. Self-authorship is a student development theory that refers to the
ability of an individual to define their own identity and will be discussed in more detail in
chapter 2 (Evans et al., 2010, p. 183).
The challenge of higher education in serving adults is to create both learning that reflects
the current adult learner’s world and creates possible alternative understandings of that
world in relation to the enhancement of critical thinking, multiple worldviews, and self-
authorship. (Kasworm, 2008, p. 31)
To address this gap in the literature about adult learners, the following sections will describe the
purpose of the study, the research questions, and the importance of the study.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 20
Purpose of the study
The purpose of the study is to explore the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in
an adult degree program and how self-authorship influences these experiences. Much of the
research on adult learners has focused on the overall support services needed for this student
population and the majority of these studies have used quantitative methodology (Deggs, 2011).
The existing studies have been limited to prescribed scales that assess specific areas, such as the
academic advising inventory (Hale et al., 2009). This study looks at the overall experiences of
adult learners by utilizing a qualitative methodology in order to acknowledge and incorporate the
voice of undergraduate adult learners as the central focus of the research. This study will provide
administrators and academic advisors in adult degree programs with insight into the adult student
experience from a student development perspective.
Research Questions
The following research questions will guide this study.
1. What are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program?
1a. Do their experiences influence their decision to stay enrolled in college? If so,
how?
2. Are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners within an adult degree program
influenced by personal development and self-authorship? If so, how?
2a. Does academic advising have a role in the development of self-authorship for
adult learners? If so, how?
Importance of the Study
The California Master Plan was developed in 1960 and was approved by the Regents and
the Board of Education (University of California Office of the President [UCOP], 2007a) with
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 21
the goal of increasing access for the population of the state (Callan, 2009). The plan
differentiates between the University of California, California State University and the
community college systems through the development of different missions, funding structures
and enrollment standards (UCOP, 2007a). The plan set forth a tuition free education for state
residents and established the financial aid provision now called the Cal Grant (UCOP, 2007a),
though in recent years both tenets have been in jeopardy. The plan was introduced at a time when
the Baby Boomer generation was reaching college age and the state needed to expand
postsecondary education to serve the needs of the population (UCOP, 2007b). California’s plan
created what is now the largest university system in the country (Callan, 2009). The founders of
the California master plan, however, could not have predicted the current state of education and
the tremendous growth in the state’s population, which, as of 2010, exceeded 37 million and is
the largest population of any state in the country (U.S Census, 2010c).
A CAEL (2008a) report reveals that the participation of adults aged 25 to 64 in the
California workforce in 2005 was 76.5 %. In 2006, the number of adults in this age range that
held a high school diploma but no college degree was 22.7 %, while 20.5 % had some college
course work but no degree (CAEL, 2008a). The difference in California median earnings
between an individual with a high school diploma and an individual with a Bachelor’s degree in
2006 was $27,597 (CAEL, 2008a). This placed California as the state with the largest mean
difference in this category, putting individuals without a college degree at a huge disadvantage
over those in the workforce with at least a Bachelor’s degree. This disadvantage was further
compounded by developments in the workplace during the same period. “The fastest-growing
occupations between 2000 and 2010 [were] expected to be in sectors where a postsecondary
credential is required (Williams & Swail, 2005),” (CAEL, 2008a, p. 19). The CAEL (2008a)
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 22
report showed a 23.4% projected change in occupations requiring some postsecondary training
or a college degree from 2002 to 2012 in California. The recognition of this trend is important
because the undergraduate adult learner population has unique needs that differ from those of the
traditional student population (Kasworm, 2003; Kohler Giancola et al., 2009). As enrollment of
the traditional student population decreases, the 25 and older student population is increasing
concurrently with a growing demand for a college educated workforce (Kasworm, 2003; 2010).
Limitations
One of the limitations to the study is that my professional role included assisting in the
administration of an adult degree program as well as advising undergraduate adult learners
enrolled in the program. The population I worked with is similar to the population I studied. As
the researcher, while conducting the interviews, I needed to be aware of my own biases due to
my personal experiences with the undergraduate adult learner population. Given that I was a
stranger to the site of the study, I also needed to build trust so as to prevent the students from
feeling uncomfortable sharing specific information with me.
A second limitation of the study is the fact that I was not an undergraduate adult learner
myself and I expected that this would challenge my ability to build rapport and relate to the
students. I was a traditional undergraduate student and I initially found this to be a possible
limitation during the interview process if students were to ask me about my own experiences. I
needed to be aware of my own biases in relation to having completed my own education through
the traditional route.
Thirdly, the participants were enrolled in a program that accommodated full time
employment and offered courses on the weekends. The majority of the students enrolled in the
program worked on a full time basis and had limited availability. This was a limitation to the
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 23
participation of the students in the interview process. The students took classes on certain
weekends and were not always available to stay after class for an interview. If they did not have
class, they were less willing to drive to the campus on a weekend for the sole purpose of
participating in an interview. Time for the students to participate in the interview process was a
limitation and often required special accommodations.
Lastly, conducting a qualitative study helped me gather descriptive data but it limited the
amount of students I was able to interview. Furthermore, the small number of total participants
limits the transferability of the study to other adult degree programs. This study was additionally
focused on undergraduate adult learners and therefore is not applicable to the traditional student
population. The program the study was focused on was also at a small not-for-profit institution,
which additionally limits the transferability of the results. A study at a larger institution may
yield different results given the number of students that need to be serviced at a larger university.
Definitions
For the purpose of this study, terms are defined as follows:
Accelerated learning program. Accelerated learning programs largely target the adult
student population and offer degrees for students to complete in less than the traditional time
(Wlodkowski, 2003). These programs are “structured for students to take less time than
conventional (often referred to as traditional) programs to attain university credits, certificates, or
degrees” (Wlodkowski, 2003, p. 6). They have become popular in meeting the needs of the adult
learner (Deggs, 2011).
Adult degree programs. A program that caters to full time, working adult students,
offering special support services and instructional environments (Kasworm, 2008).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 24
Adult learners. Adult learners are not homogenous and vary in terms of their personal
life. They are often characterized as having “delayed enrollment, part time attendance, financial
independence, full time employment… dependents other than a spouse, [and] being a single
parent…” (Deggs, 2011, p. 1543). Adult learners have challenges that differ from the traditional
student population and are less likely to complete their education (Deggs, 2011). Adult learners
are usually self-motivated and have extensive experience to add to the classroom learning
environment (Bailey, 2007).
Adult students. A student who is 25 or older and is often balancing several competing
responsibilities such as work, family, community, and student commitments (Kasworm, 2003).
The typical adult student enrolled in accelerated degree programs is a 36 year old white female
who works full time (Wlodkowski, 2003). This term generally encompasses students enrolled in
undergraduate coursework at a four year institution.
Non-traditional students. In this study, non-traditional students are older students,
usually surpassing the age of 25, from diverse backgrounds, who delay entering into
postsecondary education. The non-traditional student differs in characteristics and usually either
“attends part time, works full time, is financially independent, has dependents other than a
spouse, [or] is a single parent” (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011, p.34). This can include traditional
students who share some of the non-traditional student characteristics (Hardin, 2008).
Traditional students. A student who typically enters college right after high school,
usually coming from a medium to high income family background (Gilardi & Guglielmetti,
2011), who depends on parents for financial support and may or may not work on a part-time
basis (Bailey, 2007).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 25
Organization of the study
Chapter 1 introduced the problem, the increase in the undergraduate adult learner
population, its importance and therefore the purpose for gaining knowledge and insights from the
adult learners enrolled in adult degree programs. Chapter 2 includes a literature review of adult
learners, adult programs, and the theoretical framework for the study. Chapter 3 describes the
qualitative approach for this study. Chapter 4 gives a description of the results of the study and
chapter 5 discusses the findings, implications for practice and recommendations for future
research.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 26
Chapter Two
Literature Review
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of undergraduate adult learners
in an adult degree program and how self-authorship influences their experiences. In this chapter,
I will briefly state the problem, introduce the undergraduate adult learner and give an overview
of adult degree programs and some of their components. I will explore the theoretical
foundations of self-authorship and how this connects to the experiences of undergraduate adult
learners. Theory on the adult learner population has been limited to learning-based models and
there is a need for more information about how to work with undergraduate adult learners in
adult degree programs.
Statement of the Problem
Various institutions have developed adult degree programs that provide specialized
services for adult learners (Kasworm, 2008). The services are meant to create a supportive
culture for adult learners (Kasworm, 2008). Though the majority of literature in relation to the
undergraduate adult learner focuses on the need for appropriate programs and services (Deggs,
2011), there is a lack of exploration of the experience of the undergraduate adult learner enrolled
in an adult degree program and how self-authorship influences those experiences. “The challenge
of higher education in serving adults is to create both learning that reflects the current adult
learner’s world and creates possible alternative understandings of that world in relation to the
enhancement of critical thinking, multiple worldviews, and self-authorship” (Kasworm, 2008, p.
31). The following sections provide a literature review in relation to the problem.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 27
The Undergraduate Adult Learner
Adult learners are individuals of non-traditional age who are entering the university to
complete undergraduate studies. The term “non-traditional” has several definitions; in this study
the non-traditional student is an adult learner who is 25 years of age or older (Gilardi &
Guglielmetti, 2011; Kasworm, 2003) and who typically delays entry into postsecondary
education (Compton, Cox, & Santos Laanan, 2006). The National Academic Advising
Association (NACADA, 2012) Commission on Advising Adult Learners defines the adult
learner as “any student, regardless of age, who has adult responsibilities beyond college classes,
and for whom those adult responsibilities take priority in times of crisis,” (“definition of the adult
learner,” para. 3). However, in this study we are focusing on the adult learner who is 25 years
and older and who is seeking an undergraduate degree as defined by Kasworm (2003) and
Woodson Day, Lovato, Tull and Ross-Gordon (2011). Adult learners typically enroll in
programs that offer convenient schedules, are accessible, and affordable (Kasworm, 2003). They
are also interested in prestige, and this often means looking at highly ranked universities that
may not provide the adequate support services and resources needed for adult learners
(Kasworm, 2003). In addition, adult learners enroll in colleges that offer academic programs that
fit their needs and are readily accessible (Kasworm, 2003). Adult learners return to college with
specific goals in mind and for reasons that may differ from the traditional student (Donaldson &
Graham, 1999; Hardin, 2008).
Adult learners are returning to and entering postsecondary education at an increasing rate;
this population has been growing steadily for the last 12 years (National Center for Education
Statistics [NCES], 2011b). The increase in the population of students 25 and older enrolled in
post-secondary education is larger than that of traditionally aged students, and this trend is
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 28
expected to continue (NCES, 2011b). From 2000 to 2010, the percentage of postsecondary
students 25 and older increased by 42 % while the postsecondary student population below 25
years of age increased by 34 % (NCES, 2011b). The face of higher education is changing and the
impact is being felt in states like California where the demographic shifts are becoming more
obvious (Callan, 2009). The economy in California needs adult learners returning for further
education, without helping this student population the bachelor’s degree shortfall in the state is
expected to be at 560,688 (Council for Adult & Experiential Learning [CAEL], 2008a). This
means that California will need that many more individuals with college degrees to fill jobs
requiring a postsecondary education. The recession has prompted employers to either ship their
companies overseas for cheap labor or to automate their jobs; this has increased the number of
jobs now requiring postsecondary education with possession of at least a bachelor’s degree
(Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010). The shortfall in the California employment sector is critical
when considering the current state of the economy and the need for a college educated
workforce; California will be unable to fill jobs from within its own populace by the year 2025
(CAEL, 2008a).
Working Adults
Some adult learners return to college due to specific career interests, while others have
personal life transitions that prompt them to complete their college education (Compton et al.,
2006; Hardin, 2008; Kasworm, 2003). The recent economic recession has caused a shift that has
prompted more women to return to school because they can no longer afford to stay at home
(Compton et al., 2006). Given this fact, many women reentering the job market have found
postsecondary education to be a necessity.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 29
Upon returning to education, working adults often experience identity conflict between
their world of work and their new “intellectual world” (Askham, 2008, p. 89). This leads many
adult learners to feel anxiety about their return to college. Askham (2008) conducted a two-year
longitudinal study with 22 adult learners enrolled in a two-year undergraduate program. The
students in this study were work-based learners going to school on a part time basis at the
postsecondary level for the first time. In order to explore the learning experience of these adults
learners, Askham (2008) used interviews and diaries to collect his data. The results provided in-
depth information about what it means to be an adult learner and revealed some of the challenges
that these students faced. Askham (2008) summarizes the adult experience well in his research
by stating that there are “contradictions flowing from being an adult and a student at the same
time…the adult identity is autonomous, responsible and mature whereas that of the student
identity is incomplete, dependent and in deficit” (p. 90). This is the idea that needs to be
understood by academic and student affairs professionals who work with adult learners. For
working adult learners, the worker identity is many times prioritized over their identity as
students (Compton et al., 2006). This is important especially for educators who spent time
working with adult learners in the classroom. Knowledge and awareness can help educators
better assist working adult students.
Veteran Students
Veteran students are a portion of the non-traditional student population that is returning
to college after the completion of their military service with the assistance of the post-9/11 GI
Bill (O’Herrin, 2011). Veteran students, as defined by the U.S Census (2007), are those who
have served in the armed forces on active military duty. Current data shows that of 21,128,562
veterans who are aged 25 or older, only 5,562,195 hold a Bachelor’s degree or higher, and
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 30
7,675,846 have some college or an Associate’s degree (U.S. Census, 2011a). In the state of
California there are 1,880,399 veterans with some level of postsecondary education; 796,694
have some college or an Associate’s degree and 379,394 have only a high school diploma or
equivalent (U.S. Census, 2011b). Retention and completion rates of veteran students are not
tracked by the federal government (O’Herrin, 2011). In addition, there are no consistent policies
for all colleges and universities to follow in the process of assisting veteran students (Rumann &
Hamrick, 2009). Retention is a particularly important topic with veteran students; they often
enroll or re-enter college right after being on active duty (Rumann & Hamrick, 2009). These
students require assistance with re-entry academic issues, financial resources, advising and often
counseling (Rumann & Hamrick, 2009). If they are students in the National Guard or in the
Reserve, their status may be reactivated in the middle of a semester, which could cause further
transition issues (Rumann & Hamrick, 2009).
Veteran students bring with them a wealth of knowledge and experiences valuable to
classroom discussions and to expanding diversity on college campuses (O’Herrin, 2011).
Although the veteran student population is growing (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2012), the
federal Department of Veteran Affairs found that only a small number of veterans take advantage
of their educational benefits (O’Herrin, 2011). Nonetheless, their retention is important as their
numbers are steadily increasing and colleges and universities need to know how to meet their
needs (O’Herrin, 2011). Veteran students are considered non-traditional students, and are
typically older. They now make up a growing faction of adult learners entering postsecondary
education (O’Herrin, 2011). Institutions of higher education have been encouraged to provide
counseling services for these students as many return with post-traumatic stress disorder or
depression (Green & Van Dusen, 2012; O’Herrin, 2011). Other veteran students may be
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 31
experiencing physical disabilities due to combat and will need additional support services
(Bailey, 2007).
It is often challenging for colleges and universities to provide support services when there
is no tracking system for this student population (O’Herrin, 2011). Despite the high risk of
veterans developing a mental health disorder after deployment, there are no studies that show the
rate at which mental health services are sought by veterans (Hoge, Auchterlonie, & Milliken,
2006). “Such studies are an important part of measuring the mental health burden of the current
war and ensuring that there are adequate resources to meet the mental health care needs of
veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan,” (Hoge et al., 2006, p. 1023). Colleges and
universities have had to develop their own methods in order to track and service these students
(O’Herrin, 2011). The campus environment can make a difference in the persistence of veteran
students (Green & Van Dusen, 2012). As a response to the growing veteran student population,
some colleges and universities have developed veteran services offices or programs in order to
better assist military students (Moon & Schma, 2011). Unlike the majority of adult learners,
veteran students have to learn to cope with the culture shock of not only entering higher
education but they also have to deal with the other challenges presented by life after deployment
(O’Herrin, 2011).
In the Classroom
Most of the theoretical frameworks modeled on adult learners are classroom and learning
based. Although some aspects or stages of student development theory may apply to the adult
learner population, most are based on the experiences of traditional aged students. Frameworks
of adult learning theory include andragogy, self-directed learning, and transformative learning
(Ross-Gordon, 2003). Andragogy is the most frequently studied framework when looking at the
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 32
adult learner population (Ross-Gordon, 2003). Andragogy was first introduced by Malcolm
Knowles in contrast to pedagogy; Andragogy focuses on helping adults learn, whereas pedagogy
focuses on helping children learn (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Andragogy aims
at “establishing a suitable physical and psychological climate for learning” (Ross-Gordon, 2003,
p. 44). This concept also focuses on the adult learner and his or her life circumstances (Merriam
et al., 2007). Self-directed learning is a framework that assumes that learning is situational or that
the manner in which adults learn is based on the adult learner and on the given situation (Ross-
Gordon, 2003). This framework recognizes that self-directed learning occurs outside of the
classroom and in the adult learner’s everyday life (Merriam et al., 2007).
Transformative learning, in contrast, was proposed by Jack Mezirow and is described as a
more unique theoretical learning framework for the adult learner population (Taylor, 2008).
Transformative learning helps explain the adult learners’ construction of new knowledge
(Taylor, 2008) and refers to the process by which this new knowledge helps in the creation of a
new way of thinking (Ross-Gordon, 2003, p. 45). It includes using prior knowledge and the
newly learned knowledge to create new meaning (Taylor, 2008). These are adult learning
theories that apply to the ways in which adult learners construct knowledge in the classroom.
Adult learners typically come to the classroom with a vast amount of experiences and because of
this they enter their education with different frames of beliefs than do traditional students
(Kasworm, 2008). These different frames of reference are one of the challenges to serving the
undergraduate adult learner (Kasworm, 2008). Creating learning that combines the student’s
current frame of reference with new knowledge will assist them in the process of making new
meaning and developing self-authorship (Kasworm, 2008). This study will explore how self-
authorship influences the experiences of adult learners.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 33
Theoretical frameworks of learning and development theory applicable to the adult
learner are limited (Donaldson & Graham, 1999). College faculty and administrators are in need
of ways in which to work with adult learners, but they have little theory to reference (Donaldson
& Graham, 1999). Donaldson and Graham (1999) state that undergraduate adult learners’
classroom participation differs from the traditional student because they try to compensate for
their lack of participation in on-campus activities. Donaldson and Graham (1999) developed the
model of college outcomes to further research how adult learners compensate for their non-
traditional college experience. In their research, Donaldson and Graham (1999) introduce a
comprehensive model utilizing six main areas they consider to be related to the undergraduate
experience of adult learners. These areas included the following:
(a) prior experience; (b) orienting frameworks such as motivation, self-confidence, and
value systems; (c) adult’s cognition or the declarative, procedural, and self-regulating
knowledge structures and processes; (d) the connecting classroom as the central venue for
social engagement and for negotiating meaning for learning, (e) the life-world
environment and the concurrent work, family, and community settings, and (f) the
different types and levels of learning outcomes experienced by adults. (Donaldson &
Graham, 1999, p. 24)
They looked at the classroom experience of adult learners and found that these students enter the
classroom with a different perspective. Unlike most traditional students, adult undergraduates
that work full time have the intent of applying what they learn in their place of work (Donaldson
& Graham, 1999). The researchers found that adult learners were far more interested in their in-
classroom experience than in their experience outside of the classroom. They found that adult
learners were also more interested in their interaction with faculty and faculty availability
(Donaldson & Graham, 1999). The adult learners’ connection to campus comes from their
classroom experience and this often defines their college experience.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 34
Factors Affecting Retention
Adult learners are less likely to complete their degree than the traditional student, and
they often leave college before completing their first year (Compton et al., 2006; Hardin, 2008).
This student population requires early intervention and a university or program that will remove
the barriers that undergraduate adult learners typically face (Hardin, 2008). Adult learners report
that the most important issue affecting their college enrollment is financial aid. It is often
assumed that adult learners can afford to pay tuition since many of them work, but that is not
necessarily the case (Kasworm, 2003).
In a study that looked at the deterrents to adult participation in education, the cost of
tuition and books, time constraints and job responsibilities scored as the highest reasons for non-
participation (Malhotra, Shapero, Sizoo & Munro, 2007). Gilardi and Guglielmetti (2011)
additionally note employment as having a negative impact on retention. Their research found that
students who work for employers who have no interest in their employees educational pursuits
can have a negative impact on the continuation of the student’s studies (Gilardi & Guglielmetti,
2011). In their study, these authors explored the relationship of the first year experience and
compared traditional and non-traditional students (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011). They further
found that the relationships of adult learners with other students and with professors are
important aspects of their academic experiences (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011). Through their
study they additionally confirmed Donaldson and Graham’s (1999) model of college outcomes
for adult learners (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011).
Understanding the characteristics and needs of undergraduate adult learners is important
to their retention and success to degree completion. “That process must begin by identifying the
diversity of adult learners’ needs in order to focus on those adult students who are most at risk
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 35
for failure…[and] identify the unique challenges and obligations that shape access and success in
the postsecondary arena” (Pusser et al., 2007, p. 17). Institutions need to be able to support adult
learners in their pursuit towards a degree (Pusser et al., 2007).
Astin’s Theory. Although the majority of Astin’s research on student involvement and
retention has been based on the traditional student and there is no evidence for the applicability
of this work to the non-traditional student population, Gilardi and Guglielmetti (2011) argue that
the level of engagement for adult learners is based on the ability to find balance between their
academic and non-academic commitments. Astin (1984) defines student involvement as “the
amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the academic
experience” (p. 297). Although Astin’s involvement theory evolved out of a study of entering
college freshmen, some components of his theory are applicable to the undergraduate adult
learner. For example, Astin (1984) states that time devoted to studying is considered
involvement on campus. In addition, the theory of involvement postulates that a lack of
involvement is linked to student attrition, while campus involvement was connected to student
retention (Astin, 1984). Astin (1984) writes that “it is easier to get involved when one can
identify with the college environment” (p. 303). Getting involved on a college campus is not
always realistic for adult learners due to the demands of their personal and professional lives.
The majority of these students may only get involved academically.
Some of the areas in Astin’s summary of involvement theory do not apply to
undergraduate adult learners, while others are applicable. Involvement in campus residential life,
honors programs, athletic involvement and student government are areas that are less pertinent to
undergraduate adult learners. The areas of involvement that are applicable to adult learners
include spending time on campus; and devoting time to studying and interacting with faculty,
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 36
staff and other students (Astin, 1984). Astin’s (1984) theory posits that it is much more difficult
to retain students who work off campus at a full time job because these students are spending a
considerable amount of time on non-academic activities.
Adult Degree Programs
As a way to provide specialized services, many colleges and universities have opened
their doors to the undergraduate adult learner population by developing adult degree programs
(Kasworm, 2008). Adult degree programs are meant to create an adult friendly environment by
providing specialized instruction, advisement and support services (Kasworm, 2008). Some adult
degree programs have been developed in response to market pressure due to an increase in adult
learner enrollment (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). In order to respond to the educational needs of
adult learners, the increase meant colleges and universities needed to respond to the fiscal
realities (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). For some institutions, this meant moving away from their
historical missions (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). In their study, Watkins and Tisdell (2006)
interviewed 8 program administrators of adult degree programs at institutions originally founded
as traditional liberal arts universities. They conducted in depth interviews with these
administrators to explore how they negotiate power at their small, private, non-profit institutions
(Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). Researchers found that these institutions are now in an era of
competition where higher education is being influenced by the corporate culture and that there is
pressure to increase enrollment and revenues for their institution by marketing to adult learners
(Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). The researchers observed:
They are not only in competition with large, public institutions, they are also in
competition with corporate and for-profit universities for a strong market of adult learners
and must be concerned for growth potential in order to keep their doors open. (Watkins
& Tisdell, 2006, p. 153)
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 37
Institutions of higher education first began to see the need for an undergraduate education
amongst working adults during the late 1970s (Husson & Kennedy, 2003). Colleges and
universities then began to move towards degree focused options, making their programs and
courses fast paced to attract working adults who were accustomed to working and learning in a
fast paced environment (Husson & Kennedy, 2003). Prior to the creation of these programs the
only option for adults was to complete their degree through the traditional route by taking
evening classes, often necessitating several years for degree completion (Husson & Kennedy,
2003). Some colleges and universities regard the adult student population as a “commodity or
merely a source of income rather than as a distinctive population worthy of special effort and
consideration” (Baroody Butler, 2005, p. 65). According to Kasworm (2003), about 9 % of these
programs are located in four year, private, non-profit institutions that provide evening options
separate from their traditional student population. The development of many adult programs has
occurred in spite of the lack of buy-in from faculty or staff at these institutions (Watkins &
Tisdell, 2006). Many oppose the implementation of adult degree programs, questioning their
academic rigor and regarding them as a challenge to the traditional notion of what constitutes a
quality education (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006).
Council for Adult and Experiential Learning.
The Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (CAEL) developed a framework that
colleges and universities may use to evaluate their effectiveness in serving the adult learner
population (Compton et al., 2006). CAEL (2011c) is a non-profit organization that advocates for
adult learners and their access to education. CAEL (2011a) has conducted research for a number
of decades and has developed many best practices. The council additionally provides assistance
to colleges and universities with creating military friendly policies to serve military veterans
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 38
returning to school (CAEL, 2011d). The following are CAEL’s (2011a) principles for colleges
and universities serving adult learners:
Outreach. Conducts its outreach to adult learners by overcoming barriers in time, place,
and tradition in order to create lifelong access to educational opportunities.
Life & career planning. Addresses adult learners’ life and career goals before or at the
onset of enrollment in order to assess and align its capacities to help learners reach their
goals.
Financing. Promotes choice using an array of payment options for adult learners in order
to expand equity and financial flexibility.
Assessment of learning outcomes. Defines and assesses the knowledge, skills, and
competencies acquired by adult learners—both from the curriculum and from life and
work experience—in order to assign credit and confer degrees with rigor.
Teaching-learning process. Faculty uses multiple methods of instruction (including
experiential and problem-based methods) for adult learners in order to connect curricular
concepts to useful knowledge and skills.
Student support systems. Assists adult learners using comprehensive academic and
student support systems in order to enhance students’ capacities to become self-directed,
lifelong learners.
Technology. Uses technology to provide relevant and timely information and to enhance
the learning experience.
Strategic partnerships. Engages in strategic relationships, partnerships, and
collaborations with employers and other organizations in order to develop and improve
educational opportunities for adult learners.
Transitions. Supports guided pathways that lead into and from the institution's programs
and services in order to ensure that students' learning will apply usefully to achieving
their educational and career goals.
CAEL identified six institutions that utilized these best practices in serving the adult learner
population (Compton et al., 2006). In their literature, Compton et al. (2006) found that these six
colleges all offered experiential learning where adults have the option to earn credit for prior
work experience. The programs at the institutions identified by CAEL offer customized
education plans, support for distance learning and student services for adult learners overall
(Compton et al., 2006). Nonetheless, traditionally, credit for prior experience, although
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 39
convenient for adult learners, has not been viewed positively by established four year institutions
(Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). Not all colleges and universities service adult learners by these
principles. Compton et al. (2006) state that institutions need to accommodate adult learners, be
proactive and reconsider their traditional practices.
Accelerated Learning
Accelerated degree programs have been developed by some universities in order to
respond to the educational needs of adult learners (Deggs, 2011). Accelerated learning degree
programs largely target the adult learner population and offer degrees that can be completed in
less than four years (Spaid & Duff, 2009; Wlodkowski, 2003). Accelerated degree programs
were created to meet the needs of adult learners who were working for corporations that sought
professional development opportunities for their workforce (Husson & Kennedy, 2003). Adult
learners who wanted to return to school, but felt shut out from the traditional university system,
took advantage of these programs (Husson & Kennedy, 2003). These programs became degree
focused and accelerated in order to attract the working adult (Husson & Kennedy, 2003).
However, these programs have not been created without scrutiny at four year colleges and
universities that had previously served primarily traditional students (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006).
Several of these programs offer classes that are shorter in duration than the traditional university
classes (Wlodkowski, 2003). Critics argue that the reduced time frame of the courses does not
offer the necessary contact hours for covering course content.
Accelerated degree programs market the convenience factor and the idea that students
will learn from instructors who have real world experience, both of which threaten the status quo
of traditional institutions (Wlodkowski, 2003). Accelerated degree programs have been
controversial; there is an assumption that less time spent in the classroom translates to less
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 40
learning. Wlodkowski (2003) found that research has shown mixed results in relation to the
affect classroom time actually has on the amount of learning. The duration of time spent in a
class is only one of the predictors of learning, and on its own it is not enough to make such a
determination (Wlodkowski, 2003). Other predictors of learning include the student’s level of
motivation to learn and the quality of the instruction (Wlodkowski, 2003). Nonetheless,
Wlodkowski (2003) writes that universities offering these programs have been called “Mc
Education” and “Drive-Thru U” by those disagreeing with this less conventional method of
education. Critics argue that these accelerated degree programs rely on convenience rather than
rigor and threaten the conventional system of academe (Wlodkowski, 2003).
Some programs use online courses to offer adult learners other options to complete their
education (Rodriguez & Smith Nash, 2004). Online programs have also been criticized by
faculty who are not convinced that this format delivers the same value as classroom instruction
(Rodriguez & Smith Nash, 2004). Rodriguez and Smith Nash (2004) found that the challenge of
an online program was not so much the technology, but rather the students and the faculty who
had to learn how to use the technology. The primary issue with this type of program is teaching
the students and the faculty to use the technology required for the online programs. Rodriguez
and Smith Nash (2004) launched an undergraduate online degree program and their experience
corroborated much of what they had found in the literature regarding the delivery of an adult
degree online option. They found a need to teach both faculty and students how to interact in an
online learning environment. Rodriguez and Smith Nash (2004) called this the “human factor”
(p.74) because the challenge with the online courses was with the individuals using the
technology, and not necessarily with the technology itself. Faculty find themselves teaching
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 41
online courses because of the pressure they receive from program administrators and growing
student demand (Rodriguez & Smith Nash, 2004).
Faculty
As noted earlier, CAEL’s principles for colleges and universities serving adult learners
include the teaching-learning process, which focuses on the multiple methods that faculty use to
teach adult learners (CAEL, 2011a). Woodson Day et al. (2011) and Ross-Gordon (2003) state
that serving a diverse groups of ages is a challenge that is an exception to adult degree programs.
However, adult learners not only range in age but also come with a diverse set of experiences
and beliefs (Kasworm, 2008). This diversity may pose a challenge for faculty in meeting the
students’ needs (Woodson Day et al., 2011). The relationship that faculty develop with the adult
learners in their classrooms is important to adult learners’ identity as students and success at the
postsecondary level (Kasworm, 2008). Tinto (2006) also confirms that faculty play an important
role in the retention of students.
In a study that explores faculty perceptions of adult learners, Woodson Day et al. (2011)
interviewed faculty from both a four year institution and a community college who had at least
five years of experience in teaching at the collegiate level. The findings were framed around the
themes of faculty conception of adult learners, teaching adults, and how the faculty prepare to
teach adult learners (Woodson Day et al., 2011). Researchers found that faculty perceived adults
as multi-tasking individuals trying to juggle both family and school who were prepared and
motivated to learn (Woodson Day et al., 2011). However, they found that although adult learners
were prepared because of life and work experiences, they lacked the study skills and confidence
necessary in the classroom. Overall, the faculty in the study prepared to teach these students by
developing strategies that incorporated their students’ life experiences into the classroom, often
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 42
using these as case studies to help students learn from each other (Woodson Day et al., 2011).
Academic Advising
A second important component of adult degree programs is academic advising. Academic
advising is a vital student support service (Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher
Education [CAS], 2011). According to CAS (2011), “the primary purpose of academic advising
programs is to assist students in the development of meaningful educational plans” (p. 4).
Academic advising has been found to be one of the most critical services in meeting the needs of
undergraduate adult learners (Fielstein, Scoles, & Webb, 1992). One of the more recent
definitions describes “academic advising as an educational activity that assists college students in
making decisions in their personal and academic lives” (Coll & Zalaquett, 2007, p. 274). The
academic advisor is often the resource person for students in connection to student services on
campus (Davis & Cooper, 2001). Adult students need advising to be dependable and an advisor
who understands their specific needs, especially in the first year of enrollment (Wlodkowski,
2003).
The NACADA statement of core values (2005) state that advisors are responsible: (1) to
the individuals they advise; (2) for involving others, when appropriate, in the advising process;
(3) to their institutions; (4) to higher education in general; (5) to their educational community;
and (6) for their professional practices and for themselves personally. The first core value states,
“in one of the most important potential outcomes of this process, academic advising fosters
individual potential” (NACADA, 2005, p.1). The core values further state that advisors help
students be realistic about their goals and at the same time help them become responsible for
their own future. “Academic advisors are essential to promoting student development and
success” (Gordon, Habley, & Grites, 2008).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 43
Recent research has positively linked academic advising to student retention (Bailey,
2007; Davis & Cooper, 2001; Hale, Graham, & Johnson, 2009; Mottarella, Fritzsche, &
Cerabino, 2004; Nemeth Tuttle, 2000). “Individual advising, personal attention, and advisor
follow-up and support are imperative for adults,” Malhotra et al. asserted (2007, p. 86), and can
provide these students access to information since many work during the day and are less likely
to visit the university campus (Gordon et al., 2008; Malhotra et al., 2007). Adult students are
more likely to utilize online academic advising services and may rely on email communication
more frequently (Gordon et al., 2008). “Given the important role of academic advising in
student retention, serious efforts to improve retention should be grounded in an evaluation of
student perceptions, desires, and satisfaction with academic advising” (Hale et al., 2009, p. 314).
Academic advisors need to be aware of the changing profile of today’s college students to be
able to advise effectively (Gordon et al., 2008). Assisting adult learners can be challenging, as
“adults do not want to feel as if they are being treated like teenagers or young adults, yet they
still need all of the same information—sometimes even more” (Bailey, 2007). Some of the needs
of adult learners include extended office hours and centralized services, child friendliness, quick
response times, and the undivided attention of their academic advisor (Bailey, 2007). Academic
advisors need to be aware of the challenges faced by the adult learner population and be ready to
assist them (Malhotra et al., 2007).
In their study examining the advisor and advisee relationship, Barbuto, Story, Fritz, and
Schinstock (2011) found that academic advising is one of the few student services that can help
ensure a student’s success as it is “intended to enhance students’ academic and social integration
into the institution” (Hale et al., 2009, p. 315). Professional academic advisors are more
accessible to students; they strive to understand and meet the needs of their students and are able
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 44
to refer students to the appropriate resources. In a study with 468 traditional and non-traditional
students that responded to a quantitative survey composed of 48 different advising scenarios,
Mottarella et al. (2004) found that the advising type or approach during advising was less
important to students than other aspects of the advising relationship. The non-traditional students
in the study were less interested in discussing their classroom experiences or their short or long
term plans (Mottarella et al., 2004). The researchers found that not only did the non-traditional
students feel they were receiving less interpersonal support from their academic advisor, but they
were also less likely to open up about future goals and experiences in the classroom as well as in
the college setting (Mottarella et al., 2004). This study, however, was based on a quantitative
survey and the researchers did not have the opportunity to gather the type of in-depth data
allowed by a qualitative study. The researchers also found that academic advisors have the
ability to influence their students’ expectations (Mottarella et al., 2004). Academic advising is an
important part of the experience of college students and utilizes several theories and strategies to
assist students in their college careers (NACADA, 2005).
Theoretical Foundation
Theoretical frameworks addressing the involvement of undergraduate adult learners are
largely absent in the existing literature. Much of the theory that exists is based on classroom
learning needs of these students (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). Adult learning theory emphasizes the
classroom as the primary location where adult students engage on a college campus (Merriam et
al., 2007). This is unlike the engagement of traditional students, who may be involved in clubs
and organizations (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011). Although the majority of student development
theory focuses on the traditional student, Baxter Magolda’s (2001) theory of self-authorship is
applicable to undergraduate adult learners. Unlike other student development theory, self-
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 45
authorship is determined by gathering information about the experiences of students in higher
education. Understanding how self-authorship applies to undergraduate adult learners is
important for academic advisors, as they play a critical role in student development (Gordon et
al., 2008). Kasworm (2008) affirms that adults enter into their new learning experiences with
differing cognitive beliefs and emotional frameworks than traditional-aged college students.
Self-Authorship: Baxter Magolda
An understanding of Baxter Magolda’s (2008) theory of self-authorship can improve
educators’ support for adult learners in their college experience. Baxter Magolda defines self-
authorship as the “internal capacity to define one’s beliefs, identity, and social relations” (as
cited in Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010, p. 183). In her theory of self-authorship,
Baxter Magolda identified four different phases: 1) following formulas; 2) crossroads; 3)
becoming the author of one’s life; and 4) internal foundation (Evans, et al., 2010; See Table 2).
Baxter Magolda (2001) additionally identifies three intertwining dimensions; the epistemological
(how do I know?), intrapersonal (Who am I?), and interpersonal (What kind of relationships do I
want with others?). The theory of self-authorship came out of Baxter Magolda’s study with
Miami University students (as cited in Evans et al., 2010). Her study began with 101 students
enrolled at Miami University during their undergraduate career. She continued with her research
by following 39 of these 101 students during the decade of their twenties, and 30 of the 39
students continued with her study through their thirties (Evans et al., 2010). Of these 30
individuals, 18 were women and 11 were men. This study is unique in that Baxter Magolda
followed up with a sample of these students later into their adulthood and found self-authorship
to be more apparent (Pizzolato & Ozaki, 2007). Baxter Magolda (2008) found that “personal
characteristics and environmental context both mediate the evolution of self-authorship” (p.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 46
273). The questions that were identified by her participants were those of the three dimensions of
self-authorship: How do I know? Who am I? And what relationships do I want with others?
(Baxter Magolda, 2001). From this longitudinal study, Baxter Magolda (2001) found that adults
in their thirties were at a place in their lives where they felt they could “trust their internal
voices” (p. 271), which led these individuals to the last phase of self-authorship: internal
foundation.
The adults in Baxter Magolda’s (2001) study, however, were individuals that completed
their education via the traditional route (Evans et al., 2010). Many adult learners find themselves
at different phases of the journey towards self-authorship as they enter postsecondary education.
As noted by Baxter Magolda (2009), “guiding learners through the transformation from authority
dependence to self-authorship is a primary challenge for twenty-first century higher education”
(p. 144). Whatever the reason for their return to or continuation with their education, adult
learners have strong emotions associated with those reasons, which may place them in one of the
four phases identified by Baxter Magolda (2001). The following is a visual representation of the
four phases of the journey towards self-authorship and how the three dimensions apply to the
theory (see Figure 2). The phases are presented from left to right, with following formulas being
the first phase of development.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 47
Figure 2. Journey towards Self-Authorship (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 40)
Dimensions
Following
Formulas
Crossroads
Becoming the Author of
One's Life
Internal
Foundation
Epistemological
Dimension: How
do I know
Believe
authority's
plans; how
"you" know
Questions Plans:
See need for own
vision
Choose own beliefs;
how "I" know in context
of external knowledge
claims
Grounded in
internal belief
system
Intrapersonal
Dimension: Who
am I?
Define self
through external
others
Realize dilemma of
external definition;
see need for
internal identity
Choose own values,
identity in context of
external forces
Grounded in
internal
coherent
sense of self
Interpersonal
Dimension: What
relationships do I
want with
others?
Act in
relationship to
acquire
approval
Realize dilemma of
focusing on
external approval;
see need to bring
self to relationship
Act in relationships to
be true to self, mutually
negotiating how needs
are met
Grounded in
mutuality
From Making their own way – narratives for transforming higher education to promote self-
development (p. 40), by M.B. Baxter Magolda, 2001, Sterling, Virginia: Stylus. Copyright 2001
Stylus Publishing, LLC. Reprinted with permission.
Self-Authorship in Connection to Adult Learners
Although self-authorship has not been directly connected to adult learners in adult degree
programs, there are previously studied contexts of self-authorship that may be applicable to this
student population. In one of her descriptions of the journey towards self-authorship, Baxter
Magolda (2009) stated, “during the college phase of the study participants relied heavily on
external sources of authority… in over 500 interviews in the fifteen years since these
participants’ college graduation [I have] heard how self-authorship evolved through their
professional and personal lives” (p. 147). The question becomes, how does this then apply to
adult learners? The traditional students in the study made minimal progress in the development
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 48
of self-authorship, and left college without having reached phase 4 (Baxter-Magolda, 2009). For
adult learners, the development of self-authorship will be different as they experience their
undergraduate studies at a later age and will have personal knowledge of the workforce prior to
their studies. The traditional students in Baxter Magolda’s (2009) study did not experience the
need for self-authorship until entering the workforce. Unlike these traditional students, adult
learners take work experience with them into the classroom (Donaldson & Graham, 1999).
Furthermore, unlike other student development theoretical models, by following up with her
original participants, Baxter Magolda’s (2009) theory illustrates that adults can develop self-
authorship later in adulthood.
The Learning Partnerships Model
From her study on self-authorship, Baxter Magolda (2009) developed the Learning
Partnerships Model. The intent of this model is to promote self-authorship while concurrently
supporting student’s ways of making meaning in the learning environment (Baxter Magolda,
2009). The learning partnership model consists of three principles: 1) validating learner’s ability
to know; 2) situating learning in the student’s experience; and 3) defining learning as mutually
co-constructing meaning (Baxter Magolda, 2009). Baxter Magolda (2009) found that the
participants’ past experience worked as a foundation for their learning.
In addition, Pizzolato (2006) applied Baxter Magolda’s (2009) Learning Partnerships
Model (LPM) to academic advising. Pizzolato (2006) states that within the first principle,
academic advisors can help students develop confidence and feel validated during an advising
session. With the second principle, Pizzolato (2006) postulates that academic advisors already
help students make sense of their learning by helping them identify their interests and
aspirations. In addition, academic advisors already provide students with options during
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 49
advising, specifically by assisting them in choosing a major, thus helping students make meaning
of their choices, a development that is expected to occur in the third principle (Pizzolato, 2006).
Pizzolato (2006) provides a number of advising practices for each of Baxter Magolda’s
principles, and goes on to state that academic advisors need to show students the importance in
the process of making decisions outside of only choosing a major.
Self-Authorship & Academic Advising
Baxter Magolda (2007) connects self-authorship to academic advising and to the
development of autonomy in adulthood. She states, “academic advising often focuses on helping
students make good academic decisions; learning goals such as critical thinking, internally
defined values, and responsible citizenship are inherent in these decisions” (Baxter Magolda,
2007, p. 75). Pizzolato specifically examined the relationship between academic advising and
Baxter Magolda’s theory of self-authorship (as cited in Evans et al., 2010). Pizzolato (2008)
reconceptualizes advising as teaching and identifies three important areas in which advisors need
to assist students. These three important areas include: “(1) identifying and achieving realistic
goals, (2) making connections between academic courses so that learning becomes more
integrated, and (3) becoming aware of how one’s own academic experiences connect to one’s
life” (Pizzolato, 2008, p. 19-20). Pizzolato (2008) writes, however, that for students to make and
achieve realistic goals, they have to know oneself well, and academic advisors thus need to assist
students in developing a strong identity. In a separate study, Pizzolato (2006) looked at how
academic advisors provoke self-authorship. In her study an open-ended questionnaire was
implemented both pre and post during one semester (Pizzolato, 2006). She found that self-
authorship was encouraged during academic advising sessions when those sessions included goal
reflecting with the student and the advisor (Pizzolato, 2006). The focus of this study is the role of
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 50
advising in the development of self-authorship, a deeper understanding of which will help in
assisting adult learners with a successful transition into and throughout their academic education
(Pizzolato, 2008).
Summary
Working with undergraduate adult learners has become an important challenge as the
adult learner population grows. As noted, theory on the adult learner population is limited to
learning theory and there is a need to improve support services given the projected growth of this
population in postsecondary education. The purpose of this study was to acquire an inside
perspective from undergraduate adult learners about their experiences in an adult degree program
from the context of self-authorship. Chapter three discusses the methodology that was
implemented for this study.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 51
Chapter Three
Methodology
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of undergraduate adult learners
enrolled in an adult degree program and how self-authorship influences their experiences. This
chapter presents the research design for the study. Included is a description of the methodology,
the study site, the population and sample, information about the instrumentation, the data
collection and the analysis process.
The following research questions guided the study:
1. What are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program?
1a. Do their experiences influence their decision to stay enrolled in college? If so,
how?
2. Are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners within an adult degree program
influenced by personal development and self-authorship? If so, how?
2a. Does academic advising have a role in the development of self-authorship for
adult learners? If so, how?
Research Design
Phenomenology is the research design that guided this study. The phenomenon of interest
is the students’ experience in an adult degree program and how self-authorship influenced these
experiences. There have been many studies that have inquired into the support services that adult
learners feel they need from their postsecondary institution (Bailey, 2007; Compton, Cox, &
Santos Laanan, 2006; Council for Adult & Experiential Learning [CAEL], 2011a; Fairchild,
2003; Kasworm, 2010); however, this study looked at these experiences from the developmental
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 52
perspective of self-authorship. A phenomenological framework assisted in gaining a deeper
understanding of the experiences of adult learners.
Phenomenology
Phenomenology is a theoretical framework in qualitative inquiry that helps us understand
how individuals make sense of their experiences (Patton, 2002). Self-authorship, much like
phenomenology, requires obtaining descriptions of students’ experiences (Baxter Magolda,
2001). The combination of phenomenology and self-authorship helped gain insight into the
experiences of the undergraduate adult learners. “The aim [was] to determine what an experience
means for the persons who have had the experience” (Moustakas, 1994). This allowed for in-
depth data collection of the participants’ lived experiences in the adult degree program being
studied (Patton, 2002). Rather than attempting to gather an individual story through narrative or
to conduct case studies, which requires data collection from multiple sources over an extended
period of time, the phenomenological approach was best suited to describe the experience of
several individuals with a shared phenomenon (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2002). In addition,
Moustakas (1994) states that the primary source in phenomenology is perception. It is this
perception of the experience that I sought to explore. Using phenomenology, I interviewed the
participants in-depth in order to explore their perceptions as close as possible (Patton, 2002).
Fundamental to Phenomenology is the concept of intentionality (Moustakas, 1994).
Intentionally refers to “being conscious of something” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 28), that something
being the phenomenon of interest (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas (1994) states that every
intentionality involves the concepts of a noema and noesis. “Noema is that which is
experienced… [while] noesis is the way in which the what is experienced” (Moustakas, 1994, p.
69). Noema is defined as the phenomenon or “the object that appears in perception” (Moustakas,
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 53
1994, p. 29). The object in perception also varies based on when it is perceived and on the
individual who perceives the object (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas (1994) used a tree in his
example of the explanation of noema and shares that the tree itself exists; however, it is the
perception of the tree that is in the consciousness of the individuals. Although the perception of
the tree may vary, the tree in itself does not (Moustakas, 1994). Thus, “regardless of when or
how, regardless of which components or what perception… the synthesis of noemata (perceived
meaning) enable the experiencing person to continue to see the tree as just this tree and no other”
(Moustakas, 1994, p. 29). Noesis involves the explanation of what is actually being perceived,
felt, remembered or thought (Moustakas, 1994). The way that individuals experience the
something differs; perceiving something with confidence is different from perceiving something
with doubt (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenology is therefore retrospective and reflective, it is
reflecting on an experience that has already occurred (Patton, 2002). To gain this reflection and
acquire an understanding of the experiences of the participants in this study, I had to challenge
myself to use these processes shared by Moustakas (1994). A description of this experience is
provided below.
Researcher Biases
As the researcher, I needed to be cognizant of my biases during the interview process. I
used Moustakas’ (1994) three-step guide to assist me with this process. I needed to place myself
outside of the scope of my own experiences in working with undergraduate adult learners.
Moustakas (1994) wrote:
The researcher following a transcendental phenomenological approach engages in disciplined
and systematic efforts to set aside prejudgments regarding the phenomenon being
investigated (known as the Epoche process)… to be completely open, receptive, and naïve in
listening to and hearing research participants. (p. 22)
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 54
Epoche involves looking at the phenomenon with a fresh perspective and without using prior
knowledge (Moustakas, 1994). Achieving Epoche, as noted by Moustakas (1994), is rare;
however, this type of reflection assisted in the process of reducing preconceived biases
(Moustakas, 1994). As the researcher, I had to strive to perceive the information as if it were
being encountered for the first time. Moustakas (1994) calls this transcendental-
phenomenological reduction and describes the phenomenon as the second step in
phenomenological research. He considers this essential to facilitating the “derivation of
knowledge” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 33). To assist with this process, I set aside time to journal the
potential biases and feelings produced during the data collection process. Journaling completed
either prior to or after the interviews assisted with the data analysis process and helped reduce
the influence of bias.
As Moustakas (1994) suggests, as the researcher I needed to “allow [the] phenomenon or
experience to be just what it is and to come to know it as it presents itself” (p. 86). This was a
difficult task; however, journaling assisted with the process. As stated by Creswell (2007), “to
fully describe how participants view the phenomenon, researchers must bracket out, as much as
possible, their own experiences” (p. 61). The last step in Moustakas’ (1994) description of
phenomenology is imaginative variation. In this step, any perspective is a possibility and
involves answering the question of how the phenomenon came to be (Moustakas, 1994).
Utilizing this three-step process, I attempted to step away from my prior knowledge and
experience with the phenomenon being studied, and grasp a description of the nature of the
phenomenon itself (Creswell, 2007). To further assist with this process, I used member checking
during the data analysis process in order to check the accuracy of the interpretations of the data
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 55
(Creswell, 2007). This assisted in the effort of stepping away from my knowledge of the setting
and population.
Setting: St. Rita University
The institution selected for this research study is a religiously affiliated, liberal arts,
private, not-for-profit institution located in the western United States. This is a postsecondary
institution that offers Associate of Arts degrees, Bachelor's degrees, Master's degrees, and a
Doctorate in professional practice. The total undergraduate enrollment of the institution for both
full time and part time students is less than 2,500.
Adult Degree Program
The program selected for this study is an adult degree-focused program designed for
working adults, taking place over the course of 18 weekends within the same year.
Approximately 80% of the students enrolled in the program are female with the remaining 20%
being male students. The courses take place during six intensive weekends per semester, with
two to three non-consecutive weekends in between. Degree options include a B.A. in business
administration and English, English, film and social justice, gerontology, liberal arts, religious
studies, or sociology, and a B.S. in business administration, criminology, or social work. The
program does not require a minimum grade point average for admission. To be admitted,
students need to complete an application, pay the application fee, participate in a personal
interview, and submit official transcripts from any previously attended colleges or universities,
as well as an official high school transcript that reflects graduation or GED if the applicant has
completed less than 24 transferrable units.
Academic Advising Model. When a student is first admitted to the adult degree program
at St. Rita, an academic advisor is assigned to the student. Academic advisors are assigned
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 56
alphabetically by the student’s last name and each student needs to meet with their academic
advisor once a semester in order to be able to register for courses. The program consists of three
full time academic advisors supporting about 375 adult learners; therefore each advisor sees
about 125 students. The academic advisors are required to know all of the majors within the
program in addition to the general education requirements at St. Rita’s.
Population
Students invited to participate in this study were all enrolled in the adult degree program
as undergraduates during the spring 2013 semester. Enrollment in the fall 2013, spring 2013, or
summer 2013 semester as a graduating student was required for participants to be able to reflect
on their “lived experience” (Patton, 2002, p. 104) within the program. A student completing
degree requirements during the fall of 2012 through the summer of 2013 semesters were
considered graduating students for the purpose of this study. Additional required characteristics
included a minimum age of 25 years, enrollment in the program on either a part time or full time
basis, and full time employment. The process of selection included an email notification to all
students enrolled in the program (See Appendix A).
Sample
Participants for the interviews were selected using homogenous sampling, which is a
form of purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2008). In homogenous sampling, the researcher takes
purposeful sampling one step further by selecting participants with shared characteristics; in this
case, the participants were undergraduate adult learners enrolled in an adult degree program
(Creswell, 2008). In purposeful sampling, there is intentional selection to understand a shared
phenomenon with a specific population at a specific study site (Creswell, 2008). Purposeful
sampling is the strategy that assisted in producing information rich data (Patton, 2002). This type
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 57
of sampling helped reduce variation and assisted with focusing on the sample needed from the
population of the students in the program (Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) stated that purposeful
sampling helps gather in-depth data, unlike random probability sampling, which does not
accomplish this same goal.
The goal for the study was to select eight to ten adult learners enrolled in the adult degree
program to participate in this study. Three email notifications and in-class presentations were
conducted during the recruitment process. Ten participants completed the survey linked to the
email communication; one participant completed a paper version of the survey. Of these eleven
students, nine were eligible for participation; seven participants preferred email communication
and two preferred phone communication in the initial process of setting up the interview date. In
phenomenology there is no exact number of participants required for a study. The most common
number of participants referenced by Patton (2002) is ten. Patton (2002) states that the number
depends on the study and on the information the researcher is looking for. A small sample of
participants providing rich in–depth information can be valuable to the study (Patton, 2002). As
cited by Creswell (2007), Dukes recommends three to ten participants, Polkinghorne
recommends up to 325, while Riemen has studied ten participants. Creswell (2007) additionally
notes that researchers recommence interviewing 5 to 25 participants who have experienced the
phenomenon being studied. Furthermore, “the overall ability of a researcher to provide an in-
depth picture diminishes with the addition of each new individual or site” (Creswell, 2008, p.
217). The validity of qualitative inquiry is less about the sample size and is more about the depth
of the information gathered.
As noted earlier, the process of selection included in-class presentations and email
notifications to all students enrolled in the program that had graduation dates in Fall 2012, Spring
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 58
2013, or Summer 2013 (See Appendix A). The email contact information for students in the
program was gathered by the dean of the adult degree program at St. Rita University who
additionally sent the email communication to the students. The in-class presentations and email
notifications specified the purpose of the interview, consent and confidentially, the specific
criteria for participation, the incentive involved for participation, and a link to the brief pre
survey from surveymonkey.com (See Appendix B). This survey was utilized to evaluate
participants for the study’s characteristics. The students who responded to the survey and met the
study’s characteristics were contacted via email or phone to set up a date and time for a one-on-
one interview. Students that participated were compensated in the form of a $15 Amazon gift
card (See Appendix A, B). The gift card was given as a form of appreciation. The researcher
understood that time was valuable for these students who were working full time and spending
their weekends earning a bachelor’s degree.
Instrumentation and Tools/Source of Evidence
The initial pre-survey consisted of a set of closed-ended questions that allowed
participants to confirm their characteristics and eligibility for this study. The interview protocol
consisted of a set of open-ended questions designed to detect self-authorship (See Appendix D).
Prior to beginning the interviews as described below, the interview questions were field tested
through the interview of a student enrolled in an adult degree program similar to the one utilized
in this study. Field testing the interview protocol assisted in reducing mistakes during interviews.
Interviews were conducted utilizing a semi-structured approach to allow flexibility with
the participant’s responses (Patton, 2002). A semi-structured interview protocol was the best fit
for this study because it allowed the researcher to change the sequence and form of the questions
in order to probe and follow up with the participants (Kvale, 1996). To assist interviewees in the
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 59
process of their reflection and descriptions, as recommended by Baxter Magolda and King
(2007), some of the probes included “asking about… their best or worst experiences, challenges
or dilemmas they encountered, situations in which they were unsure of what was right, their
support systems, conflicts or pressures they encountered, and interactions with people who differ
from them” (p. 501). The researcher had the ability to ask additional questions to either clarify a
response or to seek further information in order to understand the student’s experiences; this was
necessary to help the interviewer assess self-authorship (Baxter Magolda & King, 2007).
The open-ended questions allowed participants to voice their experiences and help the
researcher gain in-depth information as required in phenomenology (Creswell, 2008). Creswell
(2008) writes that with open-ended questions, “participants can best voice their experiences
unconstrained by any perspectives of the researcher or past research findings” (p. 225). A set of
the questions utilized in the interview protocol have been previously used by Pizzolato (2004) as
a way to examine how traditional first year college students cope with conflict. The method of
detecting self-authorship is based on “asking students to describe important experiences and how
they processed them [and] was recommended by M. Baxter Magolda (personal communication,
Fall 2002)” (Pizzolato, 2004, p.428). Asking students questions about their expectations and
experiences assisted in promoting conversation and in the assessment of self-authorship (Baxter
Magolda & King, 2007).
Data Collection Processes
Creswell (2007) pointed out that in phenomenological research many forms of data can
be collected. An interview guide (see Appendix D) was used and field notes were taken during
the interview process in order to reflect on the answers of the participants. In addition, 15 to 30
minutes were set aside either prior to or after the interview to engage in journaling for the
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 60
purpose of bias reduction. The data collection occurred primarily at or near the study site. The
researcher sought the dean’s assistance to find a quiet office space for the individual interviews
in consideration of the confidentiality of the participants. Pseudonyms were assigned to further
protect the identity of the participants.
Each participant’s one-on-one interview was between 30 and 60 minutes in length. The
purpose of the interviews was to collect information about individual experiences. At the start of
the interview, the researcher thanked the participant for agreeing to the interview, gave the
participant an Information Sheet (See Appendix C) describing the purpose of the study,
discussed what would be done with the data in order to protect confidentiality, and asked for
permission to record the interview. Participants were also informed that they could cease
participation at any time. Prior to beginning the interview, the audio recorder was tested.
As a trained counselor, the researcher utilized counseling skills during the data collection
process in order to build rapport with the participants and help guide and move the interviews
along. The researcher mainly utilized invitational counseling skills which helped encourage
participants to open up and share their stories (Young, 2005). Invitational skills include two
categories; nonverbal skills and opening skills (Young, 2005). Nonverbal skills include the use
of eye contact, an open and attentive body position, appropriate use of silence, and appropriate
use of gestures encouraging the participant to open up (Young, 2005). Opening skills “ask the
[participant] to explore a little deeper but are not very invasive,” (Young, 2005, p. 96). Opening
skills are encouraging statements such as “say some more about that,” and questions like, “could
you tell me what has been going on?” (Young, 2005, p. 97). Utilizing counseling skills during
the interviews assisted in gaining in-depth descriptions of the participants’ experiences as
required in both phenomenology and self-authorship.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 61
Data Analysis
The data analysis, as stated by Creswell (2008), involves a simultaneous approach. Data
was analyzed as interviews were completed and transcribed. Once one interview was completed,
the data was transcribed utilizing a professional transcription service. The next interview took
place while the researcher waited for that transcription to be returned. Once the transcriptions
were complete, the researcher read through the data several times. Reading through the data
several times helped gain a deeper understanding of the information (Creswell, 2008). The
researcher additionally organized the data into computer file folders and created back up files by
printing out the documents. Pseudonyms were assigned to the files so that no identifiable
information was connected to data.
The data analysis took place in two phases. In the first phase, the data was analyzed for
significant statements that illustrated how the participants experienced the phenomenon
(Creswell, 2007). These statements were gathered into themes in order to develop “clusters of
meaning” (Creswell, 2007, p. 61), as is the general data analysis process in phenomenological
study. In a phenomenological study, as pointed out by Creswell (2007) during the data analysis,
the coding process involves “formulating meaning and clustering them into themes common to
all of the participants’ transcripts” (p. 89). The researcher identified themes (or categories)
through the exploration of the data in order to construct meaning, look at the organization of the
data, and write any ideas or concepts in order to code the data. Aside from the analysis of the
interview data, the researcher did not have any other documents to analyze for this study. Once
the exploration was complete, the researcher brought the data together and created final themes
using common labels. The researcher utilized the research questions to guide the themes and
look for connections in the literature review. Utilizing the research questions, the researcher
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 62
additionally created a table utilizing excel to help organize the data, as recommended by
Creswell (2008).
In phase two of the analysis, the themes were assessed for alignment to the phases of
Baxter Magolda’s (2001) theory of self-authorship (following formulas, crossroads, becoming
the author of one’s life, and internal foundation). A rigorous review of the data from the
interviews helped identify themes that connected to each participant’s developmental level in
terms of the three dimensions of self-authorship (epistemological, intrapersonal, interpersonal).
Each interviewee underwent a learning experience that demonstrated their shift within phases
and helped determine where they stood developmentally within the theory of self-authorship.
This form of assessment is explained in the interview analysis description by Baxter Magolda
and King (2012). Phase two of the analysis was not foreseen nor planned at the time the
methodology for the study was outlined. Baxter Magolda and King’s (2012) assessment guide
was released after the initial planning of the methodology, and it assisted in the assessment of
self-authorship.
The findings were then validated by using phrases or statements from the participants’
interviews in the final description of the data analysis (Creswell, 2007). Unlike quantitative
analysis, the phases in qualitative analysis are “iterative, meaning you cycle back and forth
between data collection and analysis” (Creswell, 2008, p. 245; Creswell, 2007). To further
validate the findings as accurate, the researcher used member checking (Creswell, 2008). Using
the data and looking for sources of evidence to justify themes helped validate the study
(Creswell, 2009).
Since member checking involves following up with participants (Creswell, 2007), the
researcher sent each participants their corresponding transcript and asked them to review the
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 63
document and respond with anything they felt they needed to be added or clarified. The follow
up was conducted via electronic email, which was the preferred mode of communication of the
participants. The data analysis process recommended by Creswell (2008) was used in the data
analysis of this study (Figure 1). This recommended process involved having the data
transcribed, reading through the data, and coding the data. The data for the study was kept secure
by utilizing a password protected laptop. All recordings and transcriptions were immediately
downloaded into the same file folder in this laptop to protect the identity of participants in the
study. All participants were additionally assigned pseudonyms to protect their identity.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 64
Figure 3. Data Analysis Process (Creswell, 2008, p.244)
From Educational research – planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative
research (p. 244), by J.W. Creswell, 2008, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted with permission.
Summary
The purpose of chapter three was to discuss the research design of the study including the
research site, participants, instrumentation, data collection and data analysis procedures. This
research design assisted in the data collection of the experiences of undergraduate adult learners
Codes the text for
description to be used
in the research report
Codes the text for
Themes to be used in
the research report
The researcher reads
through data (i.e., Obtains
a general sense of
material
The Researcher Collects data
(i.e., a text file such as field
notes, transcriptions, or optically
scanned material)
The Researcher Prepares
Data for Analysis (i.e.,
transcribes field notes)
Iterative
The researcher codes the
data (i.e., locates text
segments and assigns a
code label to them)
Simultaneous
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 65
enrolled in an adult degree program, by utilizing self-authorship as the context for the study. The
results of this study are discussed in Chapter 4.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 66
Chapter Four
Results
The purpose of this research was to explore the following questions: What are the
experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program? Do their experiences
influence their decision to stay enrolled in college? Are the experiences of undergraduate adult
learners within an adult degree program influenced by personal development and self-
authorship? Does academic advising have a role in the development of self-authorship for adult
learners? In this chapter I give an overview of the participants, the data analysis process, and
introduce the findings of the study.
Participants
Nine participants were interviewed in-person for approximately 30 to 60 minutes during
the spring semester of 2013 at St. Rita’s University. Participants were chosen using homogenous
sampling to purposely select participants enrolled in the adult degree program (Creswell, 2008).
Participants in this study were females and varied in age from 25 to 57 years old (see Table 2).
The findings of these interviews are presented in this chapter.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 67
Table 2
Description of Participants
Participant Age Attendance Career/Occupation
Ada 43 Full Time
Property management consultant
Isidora 35 Full Time
Social Work
Bertha 45 Full Time
Para legal work
Camilla 40 Part Time
Market Analysis/Business
Kiara 38 Full Time
Previously a model/ Business owner
Clare 45 Full Time
Human Resources/Business
Florentina 43 Full Time
Banking/ Business
Ida 25 Full Time
Retail/Sales
Veridiana 57 Full Time
Medical field
Data Analysis Procedure
Interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed by a professional transcription service.
The analysis took part in two phases. In phase one, the interview transcripts were reviewed,
listened to, and read a number of times for significant statements. Several significant statements
were pulled from the transcripts. Horizonalizing (Moustakas, 1994) was used as every statement
was regarded as relevant to the student’s experiences. Horizonalizing is a dimension of
phenomenological reduction, which includes setting aside any prejudgments (Moustakas, 1994).
This technique involves regarding every statement as “relevant to the topic and question as
having equal value” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 118) during the data analysis process. I then clustered
these significant statements into themes (or categories) utilizing Microsoft office excel. Five
themes emerged from these clusters. These themes were then used to gain an understanding of
how the students made sense of their experiences (Patton, 2002). Phase one of the analysis
occurred as planned and matches the analysis process required in phenomenology. In a
phenomenological data analysis, as pointed out by Creswell (2007), the coding process involves
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 68
“formulating meaning and clustering them into themes common to all of the participants’
transcripts” (p. 89). A constant comparative analysis was conducted and significant statements
were compared to the existing descriptions in the literature on the assessment of self-authorship
development.
In phase two of the analysis, the themes were assessed for alignment to the phases of
Baxter Magolda’s theory of self-authorship (following formulas, crossroads, becoming the
author of one’s life, and internal foundation). A rigorous review of the data from the interviews
helped identify themes that connected to each participant’s developmental level in terms of the
three dimensions of self-authorship (epistemological, intrapersonal, interpersonal). Each
interviewee had a learning experience or an epiphany that demonstrated their shift between
phases and where they stand developmentally. This form of assessment is described in the
interview analysis description by Baxter Magolda and King (2012). Phase two of the analysis
was not foreseen nor planned at the time the methodology for the study was outlined. Baxter
Magolda and King’s (2012) assessment guide was released after the initial planning of the
methodology, and it assisted in the assessment of self-authorship.
Research Question One
What are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program? Do
their experiences influence their decision to stay enrolled in college? If so, how?
Theme One: Decision to Enroll at a 4-year institution
For all of the participants, the decision to enroll and stay enrolled in the program was
based not only on their present experiences within the program, but also on their experiences
prior to enrolling in the program. Eight of the nine participants had meaningful experiences prior
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 69
to their enrollment that influenced their perspectives. These experiences differed for each
participant. Some of the decisions were based on the experience of having attended another type
of college; others had experiences that encouraged them to make goals to further their career and
their future, and for a couple participants, religion played a role in the decision.
Insecurity/Fear/Lack of Education. Four of the participants experienced fear and
insecurity when deciding to return to college and enroll in the adult degree program. There was
uncertainty and fear of the unknown. Clare, Kiara, Florentina, and Bertha all shared this fear.
Clare was unsure of her decision; she feared finding herself in a classroom of teenagers that she
could not relate to. “I was very fearful and for me to admit to that, it’s kind of hard, because I’m
a very strong person…” She additionally felt insecure about being back in school and not
knowing those who would be enrolled alongside her. Kiara echoed Clare’s sentiments.
There was just you know this idea of am I capable?....But that being said with the system,
you put in the work you get the grade, it was a really nice confidence booster, and every
semester that I kind of got behind me, made me feel better about myself… I think as a
woman and a working woman it’s just made me feel much more legitimate in my
intelligence and it’s given my voice a little more power.
The ability to give an educated opinion was important to Kiara. Like her, some of the other
participants had an experience that made them feel an education was necessary to overcome
feelings of inability.
Kiara had a unique experience while growing up, and she had made a career for herself as
a professional model. She had a great income and was well traveled because of it. Regardless of
her travel experience she felt uneducated.
I felt like I was somehow lacking and that there was a skewed opportunity system that I’d
somehow lost out on. The other component of that was I felt like when people looked at
me, they assumed I had kind of all this shit locked down. And then when I opened my
mouth it was dead giveaway of kind of the socioeconomic level I had come from.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 70
Although she had experienced more than most people through her early career, she still felt
inadequate. Florentina also felt that her lack of education equated to her inability to give an
educated opinion. Being educated meant speaking in an educated language and gaining
confidence because of it.
As Bertha described, getting an education not only impacted her life, but that of her
daughter. Bertha’s decision to return to school was partly due to her feeling a lack of ability to
assist her daughter while she was going to school. With attending college, Bertha was able to
have a better influence in her daughter’s life.
Religious Influence. Veridiana, Isidora, and Florentina’s decisions were religiously
influenced. Veridiana was enrolled in a Bible institute at the time that she decided she wanted to
return to college and pursue a degree in religious studies. She stumbled upon St. Rita’s adult
degree program during a religious education conference and decided that the program would
work better for her work schedule.
Unlike Veridiana, Isidora had attended religiously based schools throughout her
childhood. She found out about the adult degree program through a co-worker. At the time she
found out about the program, Isidora had experienced traumatic events that would lead her back
to her faith and spirituality. She described how she felt visiting the campus while she was
exploring the program, “It’s serene… I remember going to the school and then going to the
chapel and I knew that like I would be in a safe environment. That was the most important part
for me.” At a young age she had struggled with bulimia, and later in life she had to work through
the issues that resurfaced from an incident of rape that occurred when she was 18 years of age.
Because of these experiences and the return to her faith, Isidora felt safe at St. Rita’s.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 71
I’ve been going through my own issues with dealing with being a rape survivor. So
being around women… it’s a very comfortable experience… when I go into the
classrooms and I see those crosses… because of my childhood experience… it brings me
back to being in like the happy, good days of being in Catholic school and, and there was
no worries… I always feel like, when I walk in those classes and I see the cross… like
God’s got my back, like I’m cool… I’ll go by the chapel and it just gives me peace… I
think God just knew, he just put me in the right place at the right time.
Florentina similarly felt she had come across the religious campus for a reason. She learned
about the adult degree program through a friend. At the time she began the program she had not
been looking to move on with her education. Florentina was simply trying to complete her
general education course work at community college. When she began the program she realized
that she was there for a reason greater than herself. “There was a reason why I needed to take a
religion course, there was a reason why I needed to come to a small school… I have made
wonderful friends… People that have supported me and I’ve supported them.” Florentina felt
that she was meant to attend St. Rita’s as she too had gone through a difficult time in her
personal life.
Future/Career Goals. For many of the participants, future goals played into the decision
to enroll and stay enrolled. Ada’s goal was to go beyond her bachelor’s degree and eventually
earn her doctorate in psychology. “I knew I always wanted to be a therapist. So my goal was to
be a psychologist… I plan on getting my doctorate in psychology.” Ada’s experience within the
program reinforced her interest in psychology and motivated her to pursue further education. “I
never thought in a million years that I would ever be interested in research, and so when I took
my quantitative and qualitative research class… it really sparked an interest in research.” Ada
planned on pursuing her Masters in Social Work at another private four year institution after
graduating from St. Rita’s University.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 72
Isidora, Bertha, Camilla, Clare, Florentina, Ida and Veridiana all mentioned plans of
continuing on to graduate school either directly after completing their undergraduate degree or
after taking some time off to recuperate. Camilla associated going back to school and furthering
her education with societal expectations. She felt that without the degree she would not be able
to move up in her career and acquire a better income. She wanted to have the opportunity to
move up and not remain in the same job. The majority of the participants found that they could
only go so far in the work place and in their careers without a degree. Clare described her
experience, she wanted to apply for a position at work but was unable to because she did not
hold a degree. As she stated, “even though I had all of the experience necessary, I needed the
degree… and the person who ended up getting the position was someone who was just out of
college.” The lack of a bachelor’s degree prevented Clare from moving up in the work place and
it was then that she decided she had held back long enough from returning to school. She
planned on going further, as she stated. “I said if I could go this far I could do another sixteen
months. I did five years, what’s sixteen months? It’s focusing strictly… on an MBA.” Florentina
had a similar experience. She shared having this experience with what she considered big
companies, “…I couldn’t move up if there was no education background to support it.”
Florentina reached a point within her education where she could apply what she had learned in
her classes to her job in banking. She planned on returning to school for her Master’s degree
after taking time off. Bertha also planned on taking time off. Her goal was to apply to law school
along with one of her classmates. She decided to wait for her classmate in order to study and take
the LSAT’s together.
Isidora echoed Clare and Florentina’s frustration of not being able to move up in her
career because of her lack of a postsecondary degree. She helped train graduate interns
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 73
completing MSW programs that would then return to work and earn at least $20,000 more in
income than she did. After a while, Isidora realized that if she wanted to move up in her career
and earn a greater income, then she was going to have to return to school. As she stated, “what
really changed everything for me, is that when they get hired on, they make a lot more than I do,
because they have the Masters… that kind of like ignited a fire… I put in my application for…
[a] Master’s Program.” She started working in the field of social work at the age of 21 and has
remained in the field since.
The desire to work in a job one cares about rather than just for income was echoed by
Veridiana. She enjoyed religion and had known that she wanted to return to school to study the
subject. She decided that if she was going to need to work during retirement, she should do
something she loves. As she shared, “almost everyone I know who’s retiring ends up working at
least part time when they retire and I decided if I have to work then I want to do something that I
really love.” Veridiana’s reasoning related to the state of the current economy and her
understanding of her need to work during retirement. She planned on continuing on to a master’s
program in religious studies. “I kind of hope to come back here and teach one day… I’m
receiving a minor in Philosophy, so I know that I might be able to work at a junior college…
because they have the philosophy/religion classes.” Her goal was to start at a community college
and work her way back to the adult degree program like many of her professors had done.
Although Kiara’s goal was not as clear as Veridiana’s, she looked forward to the opportunities
her education would bring. As she stated, “I’m not really sure where I’m going with this
education, but I do know that the opportunities will be greater with it than without it.”
Ida’s decision to enroll in the adult degree program was much different than the majority
of the other participants. Ida had started out the traditional route at a four year institution and
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 74
found herself leaving the university for remedial reasons to attend a local community college.
While she was enrolled at the community college, she found out about the adult degree program
at St. Rita’s. She decided not to return to the 4 year public institution because of the impact state
budget cuts had on course offerings. As the youngest of the participants, Ida’s experiences have
not been as extensive and her reasons for enrolling in the adult degree program were different
than those of the other participants.
Theme Two: Student Experiences
The majority of the participants had taken classes at a community college or at another
four year institution. Most of them shared an experience and compared it to their experience at
St. Rita’s University. Ada’s expectations, for example, were quite different than what she
actually experienced at St. Rita’s. She expected mature adults but came across some students
who showed immature behavior and asked unnecessary questions in some of her classes. Ada
had experienced immature behaviors at the community college level, but she did not expect to
run into similar behaviors while enrolled in the adult degree program.
Similarly, Clare shared that her experience at community college was not as great
because she had been in a class with teenagers who did not seem to take their education
seriously. “What’s so great…[in the] Adult program [is that] we all are working and we all are
very disciplined and we appreciate the time that we have to learn here.” Being at the adult
degree program had been great for her because she had classmates who took their course work
seriously. In addition, Camilla stated, “as an adult you are digesting the material a little bit
differently.” Clare explained how they had relied on each other to be on top of their assignments,
especially when it came to group work. Clare described an experience she had in one of her
classes at St. Rita’s. She does not like working in teams but she was challenged to do so in one of
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 75
her business classes. As she stated, “I don’t like teams. But I have to learn diversity and I have to
learn how to… get along with others because in the working world I need that.” She had to work
with a group of people to put a project and presentation together, and one of the individuals in
her group did not get her part of the presentation together. In order for their team to do well
during their presentation, Clare had to step up and take over. Camilla echoed Clare’s sentiments
about having to learn to work in teams.
When you’re in college, you have to have groups and teams sometimes that works out
and sometimes they don’t, but you still [have] to get the work done… I’m thankful and
grateful for the experience with the students because it teaches you that everybody
[doesn’t] follow through, so when they don’t follow through you have to make it…
Camilla related her experience in the classroom to her experiences in the work environment.
Florentina also shared Clare’s sentiments. Her experience at St. Rita’s has been very
different than her experience at the community college. “It’s nothing like when you go to
community college… when I came here it was at a different level… I was being treated like an
adult.” Unlike the rest of the participants, Florentina had to take a course at St. Rita’s through the
traditional program to complete graduation requirements. The students were younger and had a
different background. She noticed how the traditional students were afraid to speak up when the
professor opened the class up for discussion. Florentina on the other hand was not afraid and felt
that she was more prepared because of her age and experience. Florentina felt she ended up at St.
Rita’s for a reason; the program was a great fit for her.
Furthermore, Isidora’s description of being at St. Rita’s was similar to the other
participants, “the best thing about being there is that everyone is older.” She felt in her element
and, as a single mother, did not need to worry about being at an institution that did not fit her
adult life. “People come with amazing experience in the field… that’s another like really good
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 76
aspect about, about being there too is that people work at different agencies… it just enriches
your experience.” She additionally had great experiences within the classroom, and the
professors in the program enhanced this experience. Isidora pointed out that her professors really
understood the students as working adults. She added, “and more importantly is like they really
value your insight and they love listening to different stories and different experiences.”
Isidora felt her identity as a working adult and single mother was understood at St. Rita’s. This
was an understanding that lacked at the four year institution at which she had initially begun
taking classes.
Kiara expressed the opinion that she was getting an education worth paying for. “The
lectures are very informative, there’s a lot of conversation...” She felt that, as an adult, her
professors shared an understanding of the amount of work they had to complete. Kiara shared an
example from one of her classes where her professor brought up a topic for discussion in relation
to global economics.
We’re talking about the mortgage crisis and we’re looking back at the acquisition crisis in
the ‘80’s, and this woman [in class] was part of that. And she’s like you have no idea
mortgages were 17% interest and then my professor was like 17% interest?... so at some
point we see her… getting a little overwhelmed… and she said it’s overwhelming how
much work you guys do.
As described by Kiara, the experiences shared by the students often added to the classroom
discussions and influenced the classroom experience. Like Clare, she believed they took the
course work more seriously than traditional college aged students. She shared that if they were
ever behind with course work it was not because they did not take the time to do the work, but
rather, because they were legitimately busy adults.
If I say to my professor listen… this week was hellacious at work, like terrible. By the
time I got home some nights it was just, had nothing left… I have a paper due and I’m
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 77
only half way there and I don’t want to turn shoddy work in. So I will have to have a
conversation with her next, next period when I have her and say I am so sorry but this is
the reality of being a working student, 90% of the professors will say okay. Now she may
ding me. She may say you cannot turn it in tomorrow, it’s possible. But as an adult I’m
fully ready to take that medicine if I have to, I get it. But 90% of the professors I think
completely get how much work we’re doing on the other side of the table if that makes
sense?
The same circumstance in a traditional program or at the community college would have likely
been different for these students. There was already a “misconception of it being easy because
it’s [an adult degree] program.” Clare explained that it helped when the professors in the
program understood where they were coming from. She felt that those who went through the
program themselves or had taught in the program for a long time were the most understanding.
The participants shared similar feelings; they had the understanding from their professors and the
program staff of being adults with other commitments. This was an understanding that they felt
lacked at the community college level.
The participants additionally shared having the understanding and support from
classmates. Camilla shared that her experience was one full of emotions. She often felt frustrated
and discouraged at having to get up early on Saturday and Sunday to attend classes after just
having worked a 40 hour week. She shared that it was having the support from classmates that
kept her going. As she stated, “I had a friend that was coming way from [a farther city] so… I
used to tell myself, if she can do it [Camilla], you can do it.” It was putting forward this effort
that resonated with the majority of the participants as they felt that they had really been there
earning a degree. “When I come and I’m among my peers; it feels like I really got away for the
weekend, so it’s time away from home, but at the same time I appreciate it.”
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Theme Three: Impact of Family
Family played a huge role in the lives of these students. The participants’ roles with
family varied; while some were single mothers, others had no children. Some of the participants
were married and others were divorced. Whatever the case may be, family played a role at some
level in the experiences of these students prior to their enrollment in the adult degree program,
and in some respect helped bring them back to their education at that point in their lives.
Ada became a single mother at a very young age and this experience changed her path
educationally. Ada shared that for her, her child was more important, “that’s why I’m completing
my education now… because he came first, and every once in a while, I would take a class here
or there but he came first.” Ada was not willing to sacrifice raising her own child over going to
school. She took courses sporadically in an attempt to move forward with her education but
found it challenging to immerse completely because of her son. She had grown up with parents
that “were not emotionally supportive,” and because of that wanted something different for her
son. Ada shared that her parents were not around much when she was growing up.
[They] did not give guidance or advice or were not really affectionate or loving so …
when I was 16 I had my own apartment… I did live on my own… my mom basically
paid for my rent and gave me money to live on my own.
Ada had a very different experience growing up in comparison to the other participants; her life
could have gone in a different direction. She had a lot of freedom growing up since she did not
receive guidance from her parents and, at that time, school was not a priority.
… my son’s father was in a rock band… I toured with him… when I should have been in
college… and just yeah, being independent in some sense at a young age, and the
dynamic of, my father [who] is Filipino so I had that kind of strict culture kind of
mentality. I was around that even though I was on my own I still was in contact with my
family… And then I had my mom who is Caucasian. Which that side of the family was
very, I don’t know how to explain them. Non-affectionate on both sides… it was just
weird.
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Ada struggled growing up because of the absence of her parents, but at the same time was mature
enough to know that she wanted something different for her own son. Her husband, who had just
completed his second degree, encouraged her to go back to school and pursue her education. His
encouragement and motivation helped her make the decision to finally pursue her dreams.
Isidora also shared a similar experience with having her son. She tried to stay in school
even while she was pregnant at the age of 18. Her son was her motivation as he changed the
direction of her life. She had been an honor roll student and had planned on going straight to
college from high school and even had the desire to play college basketball. The birth of her son
changed all of this for her. Isidora followed the traditional route at a four year university,
attending class while pregnant and then returning to classes even after giving birth. She “had
[her] son on [a] Thursday; [she] went back to school on [a] Tuesday.” Once she realized having
to work and attend school full time while raising her son alone was not going to work for her, she
stopped attending school full time. In addition to being a single mother, she had to help take care
of her parents.
… my parents were in financial hardships as well. So not only am I taking care of my kid,
but I’m also trying to help out my parents… as time progresses you focus on what is
going to bring food to the table and school is not… as important. It’s making sure you
have a roof over your head and being able to be a good provider.
Family responsibilities and financial hardships took precedence in Isidora’s life. Unlike Ada, she
had to deal with the realities of coming from a low socioeconomic background and needing to
take care of her parents. The traditional university system did not fit her life style as a working
adult and provider. Because of this, Isidora took longer to complete her degree than she would
have liked. She explained how she had been in her “senior year” for 10 years at a traditional
university trying to complete her degree. She felt that people around her could not understand
why she was taking so long to finish. However, as she explained, her son was her priority and
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 80
when he turned 16, she felt she needed to be there for him. She shared, “sometimes parents have
to give up their own dreams so their kids can have dreams, and have a healthier life and so that’s
part of the bigger struggle in my life.” She stayed enrolled in college with the end goal of earning
a degree, but at the same time, she had to provide for her son and help her parents. This meant
putting school to the side when necessary.
Bertha was a single mother who put her daughter first. Bertha realized the importance of
schooling once her daughter came of an age to begin attending school. “I realized at the time I
had my daughter, I wanted more for her and I, it was like a wake up moment for me.” Having her
daughter influenced her going to school and earning her degree. Camilla had been married and
had put her education aside for her marriage and her daughter. She returned to school as a single
mother, as she stated, “to prove to [her] daughter, as well as [her] nieces and nephews that you
can do it. You can pursue a career or your education… no matter what; you just have to put forth
an effort.”
Clare was in a similar position to Isidora earlier in life, when she had to care for a
struggling parent. As a young girl she began working and because people found her to be smart
she would acquire good paying jobs. She tried enrolling in college later in life but at that point
she had her own family and found that she could not make the classes at community college
work for her.
Florentina, divorced, did not have any kids of her own, but as she had explained, “I was
married which that takes a lot of your time away because I didn’t want to fail and say well I’m
failing here because I’m bringing my education first.” Her marriage had taken priority. Having
gone through a divorce while attending college impacted her in a positive way, school became
her refuge. “When I started [at St. Rita’s] I was basically walking into the process of going
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 81
through a divorce… a horrible divorce… But my decision was to go full time to school and make
my dream come true.”
Though Kiara is now married, at a younger age she had a very different experience. Her
parents had separated when she was only 11 years old and she ended up staying with her father
rather than with her mother. When her dad passed away when she was 21 she felt that ended her
“family safety net.” As Kiara described it, she was no longer going to have a place to return to
that she could call home. Although at the time she had a career as a model and her own
apartment, she had relied on her father as her family as she did not have a relationship with her
mother. In addition to this there was a lot going on financially that she had not been aware of and
her father’s home had been in foreclosure. As she explained:
So there was this kind of bam, bam effect of like he’s gone, we’ve got to figure out a
funeral. Now my mom is back trying to kind of run the show. And holy shit the sheriff is
locking down my house. So there were a lot of stressors and I didn’t live with him
fulltime, I mean at 18, I had moved out and I had my own apartment. But there’s that
fiction I think in your early 20’s of you know, I’d go home with my dog and do
laundry… that feeling like I can always go home kind of evaporated in a really short
span… So that was a big definer in my life.
Attending college and earning a degree was nowhere near her mindset at that time because of the
issues that she experienced with her family and because of her career. “I think it makes sense to
me as an adult, looking back at that marriage why it fell apart and why she left. But as an 11 year
old… I was like how do you walk away from your kids?” She did not have a parent telling her to
pursue an education and she did not have a mother to rely on and that changed her path in life
tremendously. She had been scouted to model when she was only 15 and had a great career and a
great income as a young woman. However, as she explained, “it became pretty clear to me, as I
entered my mid to late 20’s that this lifestyle I was living was related solely to how I looked and
had an expiration date on that was pretty firm.”
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Unlike any of these women, Ida, only 25 years of age, has had very different experiences.
Ida’s family included her mother and one brother. She has no children of her own nor does she
have a significant partner. Her mother has made sacrifices by immigrating to this country and she
felt that she needed to get educated to make her mother proud.
Influencing Family. Being in college has had an impact on the personal lives of these
students. In turn the students have been able to influence their own family.
Ada was able to encourage her son to pursue his passions and explore the world. While
she was in the program she took her son on a trip to Denmark to attend a music festival. For her
it would be an opportunity to bond with her son and to motivate a different type of education.
She wanted him, at 19 years of age, to experience traveling and to learn about other cultures. She
was able to impact her son in a different way because of her own experiences traveling at a
young age. Her experiences were not educationally based, but because she knew they could be,
she wanted to offer that option to her son.
Education had a much deeper impact on Isidora’s personal life and on her family. As she
explained, she “grew up in a very loving and giving family.” Isidora shared what it was like
growing up and how that impacted her life. She grew up seeing her parents feed the homeless
and continuously fundraising to send money to orphanages in Mexico. Because of her own
experiences as a child and her experiences in education, Isidora was able to have an impact on
her son. While taking her son out for dinner one day, Isidora invited a homeless man to eat with
them after the homeless man had asked her for money for a meal. She shared the impact the
experience had on her son.
When we got in the car, after we finished dinner my son and I were driving home and he
said wow mom, he said I love you mom. I said, well why do you say you love me? He
said that was the coolest thing I’ve seen and he saw my interaction and he goes you
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 83
didn’t judge him… and everybody kept looking at us and I said you can’t worry about
what everybody else thinks because if you were on the street, how would you have felt if
somebody took you in and fed you? He said mom I know, I know.
Isidora explained how her experiences with her work and in school had helped her realize the
importance of the positive influence she could have on her son. After that experience, her son
began speaking to her about different career paths that were all related to helping others and
included being a probation officer, a psychologist, and helping kids. She shared how he was
involved in a peer helping class at his high school where he is able to go out to middle schools
and speak to kids about self-esteem and anti-bullying. As she shared, “it makes me feel so good
because I know in some way, shape or form I made some impact in his life… it’s an exciting
thing because I know that my love for helping people started with my parents.”
Bertha’s personal life impacted her schooling, and at the same time she knew how
important it was for her to stay enrolled given life’s circumstance. Bertha was challenged while
she was in the program. While she was in the program her mother became ill, she had to take
care of her daughter and at the same time learn to balance her school and work schedule. It was a
challenge for her because her mother was the one who helped her take care of her daughter. With
her mom being ill, not only did she no longer have that help, but she had to step in to take care of
both of them. Bertha shared, “it was overwhelming and yet significant… now I can look back
and say wow, I can’t believe I did it. So it showed me how to be a stronger person.” Bertha knew
that aside from that being a challenging experience for her, at the same time, her daughter was
watching and learning from her. She talked about her experiences in class and about sharing the
joy of making the Dean’s List with her daughter. “And so it motivates her, it motivates her to the
point where even her grades have come up.” Bertha viewed this influence as a great
accomplishment. She had tried motivating her daughter and explaining to her the importance of
an education before. She then explained how she had to pull back as she was trying to force
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 84
having influence on her daughter and trying to encourage her to see the importance of doing well
in school. Once she took a step back from trying to pressure her daughter, she saw the
improvement in her grades and in her goals. “11th grade she realized and she had this wakeup
moment… I’m like okay, well you know, sometimes you have to let it go in order for people to
realize.” Bertha explained further…
She’s seen my struggles and I told her see you’re going to struggle like me because I was
hard headed. I didn’t listen and so this is the result of it and if you want to do what I’m
doing, then fine. You know? But I should have been enjoying the time with you, as
opposed to going to school, and interfering in your special time. So she realizes that…
and she takes it with a grain of salt.
Being in school also impacted the decisions Bertha was able to make within her family. It was a
learning experience for her and she gained knowledge she hoped she was successfully passing on
to her daughter.
Despite the tumultuous relationship with her mother, Kiara developed a closer
relationship with her as she got older. The relationship developed to the point where Kiara not
only decided to participate in study abroad through St. Rita’s, but she also decided to take her
mother along for the adventure. Kiara described the experience of going to Paris:
So my mom was digging it like, you know, she didn’t have to come to lecture every
morning. She was downstairs ready to go with her coffee like super fired up about it…
She was so into it. She was like what books are you reading? And then next thing I know
we both had books and we’re reading all the school books together. So it was probably
one of the coolest experiences I’ve had, because my mother, it was her first time in
Paris… and I don’t think she thought in her lifetime she would get there…We did it
together which was huge.
Most of the participants had experiences in relation to family that they could share with each
other. This experience of being in college and having the support of family helped them relate to
one another.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 85
Clare felt that her enrollment in the program impacted her relationship with her husband
and family in a positive way. Clare spoke about how her husband was concerned that they would
grow apart with her attending college. She was aware that getting exposure to new knowledge at
times changes individuals. She kept her husband’s concern in the back of her mind and worried
that she would outgrow him. However, she realized over time, that her going home and sharing
new things with her husband actually impacted their relationship in a positive way. As she stated,
“I think the school not only helped me but it also helped him because it made him push
himself… to learn more.” Similarly, Kiara felt that her husband benefited from her own
educational experience.
I feel like my husband has gotten a wicked education, even though he won’t get the
degree. Because you know they are the spouses, God they need to be acknowledged…
They deserve like a huge gold star because that is a really, really tough thing, and I will
say that you know, my poor husband has listened to more papers… So I feel like the
spouse gets you know… neglected… I feel like he’s gotten a small window into my
education.
Kiara described how she would get home really enthusiastic and excited about what she had
learned and could not help but share it with her husband. Both Clare and Kiara felt their
education not only enhanced their own knowledge but has enhanced that of their husbands.
Although Ida has never been married and has no family of her own, she found pride in
her culture and family through her education. She attempted to influence both her mother and her
older sibling. She shared that her mother was Guatemalan and spoke kanjobal, a Guatemalan
language, but that she was ashamed of speaking the language out in public. As Ida shared, “I
think she should be proud, I mean she knows a language not a lot of people know.” She tried to
be a motivation to her brother who had a son. She felt that if her brother went to college he
would be a better influence on her nephew. She would tell her brother about some of her
classmates who are a lot older than he is with the hope that this would encourage him to return to
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 86
school. Ida also talked about how she would go home and share some of the things she was
learning in her classes with her family members. She did not have quite the impact that Ada,
Isidora, Bertha, Kiara or Clare had on their children or their spouses, but the desire to have that
impact was there. Ida, although shy and quiet in most of her classes as she shared, silently
absorbed motivation from her peers in the program.
Research Question Two
Are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners within an adult degree program
influenced by personal development and self-authorship? If so, how? Does academic advising
have a role in the development of self-authorship for adult learners? If so, how?
Theme Four: Personal Growth & Development
While in the program, all of the participants expressed moments of personal growth and
development. Some of the personal growth was obvious to the participants and for others it took
a moment of realization. For Ada it was realizing that there were assumptions she held that were
wrong. “I guess what was challenging was just having to process the fact that if I’m learning this
now and realizing I’ve been wrong all this time, what else have I been wrong about?” She
wanted to gain more knowledge to make sure she was informed correctly. Ada’s personal
development included getting clarification, correcting her knowledge, and affirming for her that
she was going into the right field and heading in the right direction. Through her education,
Isidora has realized how fortunate she was to be in a field that she loved.
I feel grateful with, the things that I have learned through the years that have truly
impacted how I communicate to others, not just professionally, but in relationships with
family, with friends… It’s so funny; my dad even finds homeless people and gives them
my card. And people know that if they need help with resources, call [Isidora]… So you
know I have built really good relationships with people outside of my job through
networking. And they have become really good friends of mine just through building
relationships.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 87
Isidora shared how her education felt richer because of the experiences she had through working
in the field of social work. Not only was she able to share examples of her work, but she was
able to make sense of the theories she learned in her classes.
The experience in personal development was similar for Bertha, whose perspective
towards life changed. “It’s given me so much more insight now… I look back at some of the
writings that I did, I’m like wow; I really have grown.” Bertha took a lot away from her
experience within the program.
You can’t change anybody, they are who they are. And you have to accept the person for
who they are or you can choose to leave that person alone… I don’t know if it’s because
we’re all adults or because we’re people, period, but I find that it correlates with work…
That no matter what, you still have to put up with people, and like a family you can’t
choose who your classmates are, and who your coworkers are.
Clare realized her level of growth at various moments. First, she took over a class presentation
when one of her classmates was unable to move the presentation forward. She was impressed by
herself as she had not known the amount of knowledge that she had gained up to that point. The
changes in her persona were more apparent to her husband. “He says I see a difference in you as
far as how you relate to people and… things that used to bother me before they don’t bother me
now.” She further shared the impact her personal development had at work. “I concentrate on
different things now… I concentrate on getting the job done, doing it right, learning how to put
certain processes in place…” Clare had noticed the change in her and felt she had gained
confidence. As she shared, she looked at life very differently.
Now when I’m in my car, I have a long commute… I listen to Talk Radio… see what’s
going on in the world… to try to help expand my world and expand me into different
things. I do a lot of networking now; I never did that before, trying to get to know other
people. I definitely will utilize the Alumni Association because I believe that you have to
stay connected.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 88
Clare gained a different perspective in life and shifted her way of doing things on a daily basis.
Her view on friendships and relationships shifted as well. Her views on what is important
changed and had an impact on her personal values. Since her enrollment in the program she went
on to own her home with her husband. Being surrounded by her classmates and growing into the
person she has become made her realize, as she states, that “…it’s about investing in your life
and for your children…” She described how some of her relationships with the people she had
considered her friends had changed. She recognized that going back to college and educating
herself had changed her perspective and outlook on life. For Clare, this changed some of her
friendships. She had friends who didn’t like who she was becoming because; they could not
understand the journey she had taken and would complain that she was not the same person. As
Clare stated, “I’m still the same person I’m just exposed to different things and I’m finding out
that I like these different things…”
Florentina echoed these sentiments as her view became one of getting inner motivation
rather than looking for that motivation through someone else. She worked hard and strove to be a
better person. As she said, “And at the end, yes, I will be very proud of myself. Who will tap you
on the back and say, you did a good job? Basically I have to say it to myself.” On the other hand,
Ida, who was 25 years of age, recognized that she had room to grow. “I’m really shy, I don’t
know if you can tell… when it comes to like one on one I’m not really, but [with] big [groups]…
I’ll get really red and… really shy so.”
For Veridiana, the knowledge she gained in her courses allowed her to interact with more
people in the work environment. “I work at a hospital and there’s often an opportunity to use, not
necessarily specifics of what I’ve learned but in general, learning about cultures and how
different people learn… how to react and deal with different people.” She learned to appreciate
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 89
other cultures and had a better understanding of the different experiences that individuals bring
to the table. Learning about the history of other countries and hearing people’s stories has
broadened her awareness.
…Especially living here in Southern California it’s, you hear in the recent years where
this issue of the borders and immigrants and immigration and so forth. But being here
among so many different people… it kind of breaks down that last vestige of I don’t, not,
well I would never say that I had prejudice but kind of, I guess just ignorance of what’s
really happening in other countries.
In addition to learning about different cultures and people, Veridiana learned more about religion
overall. “Considering that I came here for Religious Studies program, the deeper knowledge that
I’ve gained in that area has helped to deepen my faith and helped me understand it in big picture
of the world.” Veridiana’s faith has deepened because of this learning.
Kiara agrees that you change as a person when you get educated. She referenced a study
she learned about during one of her courses to demonstrate just how powerful she felt education
could be.
I read a study for one of my classes that said if you have children and you have one
person in the family that’s a college graduate the likelihood that your children will go to
college jumps something like 70%. Like it’s a ridiculous number, so if you have two
parents in a house that have a college education, it’s something like a 90 percentile... my
husband doesn’t have a college degree, so if we had kids… the likelihood that my
language in a home that we live in is going to instill a higher education… is interesting to
me.
Kiara additionally developed an understanding of religion she did not have prior to her
attendance at the adult degree program. Kiara shared, “the scholarly application of going to a
Catholic school and learning about religion have helped me take the blinders off of my
assumptions and opinions about religion.” As she became aware, she became more open and
understanding of people who ran their lives based on religious beliefs. The knowledge that these
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 90
students learned through their enrollment in the adult degree program helped them break down
their assumptions and become educated about the world around them.
Theme Five: Experiences with Academic Advising
The participants all expressed varied experiences with their academic advisors.
Expectations, preconceived notions, and previous experiences affected their perspectives of the
academic advising process. Interview data did not reveal academic advising as an important
component in the development of self-authorship; in-depth descriptions were lacking.
Nonetheless, academic advising was seen as important part of the program. For the majority of
the participants, their experiences with academic advising in the program were positive. Three of
the nine participants shared personal challenges with the academic advising process. The
majority of them expected their academic advisors to guide them in the right direction and
recommend the appropriate course work.
Ada expressed that her advisor has been very helpful and responsive. Her advisor helped
her with any issues that she came across, even if it was not necessarily her responsibility. Ada
stated, “I’ve been happy, especially [since] I know that they have a lot of students.” Another
reason she had sought the assistance of her advisor was for recognition. Ada felt that she had put
a lot of time into one semester and did not want to let the opportunity to be recognized for it go
by. She felt she deserved it.
I was a baby one semester… And normally I don’t want any attention or anything but
because that semester was so grueling, the next semester they always put who’s on the
dean’s list and my name wasn’t on there. Just something as simple as this and I emailed
her and I said, I know this is ridiculous and I know I’ve never, I have not been on that list
when I should have been before, but this time I just want to see my name because I tried
so hard.
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Her advisor was usually within reach and very responsive. Other than this minor issue, Ada did
not have the in-depth experience with this aspect of her education for there to have been an
impact developmentally. The advisor’s role in this process was assisting her with changing her
concentration in order to be able to pursue a masters in social work and eventually a doctorate in
psychology. Advising, for Ada, did not play a major role in her development of self-authorship.
Isidora’s experience with her advisor went beyond her expectations. As she described,
she had an amazing academic advisor.
I have never in my lifetime really encountered somebody so caring. His energy is great,
his ability to get back to you right away. When you’re struggling with something and he
like guides you in the best way… I feel sometimes he can be like a great life coach… he
should be like the model academic advisor, honestly... he gives you the confidence you
need to finish… and of course I think, his ability to build a great rapport with people is
really important… he’s helping me achieve my goals.
Academic advising played a small role in Isidora’s development of self-authorship. Isidora felt
that she had support from her academic advisor when she was going through a very tough time.
Her advisor was available and assisted her with the selection of course work.
Camilla also had a good experience with advising. When asked what would happen if she
did not have an academic advisor while in the program she stated that it would not be good
because then she would not have received the guidance she needed. Her advisor helped her focus
on course work in the order that it needed to be completed. “For instance you need a business
math in order to take on finances, so you need preparatory classes…” Academic advising did not
play a major role in her development; her description of the advising process was limited.
Florentina, Ida and Veridiana additionally had positive experiences with their academic advisors.
Both Florentina and Ida’s experiences with academic advising were positive and did not play a
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 92
role in their personal development or in the development of self-authorship. Veridiana’s learning
experiences came from interacting with others and from the classroom experience.
Veridiana shared:
I have had a fantastic experience with academic advising. I’ve had a great adviser. There
was just one little snag where one course was missed that I thought I didn’t need or didn’t
know I needed until kind of late. I shouldn’t say late because I still have time to do it but
I would have done, taken my classes a little bit different had I known sooner… I was
hoping for real guidance and I think I got that…
Unlike these students, Bertha’s experience with academic advising was not as positive at the
beginning of her enrollment in the program. “I ended up taking the Introduction to Philosophy
after I took the Advanced Philosophy… Not that I shouldn’t have been watching it myself, and
looked…” Bertha felt that she was misadvised and because of it ended up taking course work out
of order. She had placed faith in her advisor guiding her in the right direction. “And it was times
where I would call her, she wouldn’t call me back. It took me like three tries… Wasn’t pleasant
at all, I hated going to my counselors.” As she explained, she had a negative experience with her
advisor to the point where she felt uncomfortable going to the program office for assistance. For
her, academic advising had a limited role in her development in relation to the academic piece.
Because of the lack of guidance she experienced she found herself having to take initiative to
find the answers to her own questions. The classroom experience in combination with her
personal life played an important role in her development of self-authorship. She felt that she
needed to find her own way through the program until she was assigned a new advisor. She
shared that her new advisor was great. “She’s just phenomenal, honestly like where were you my
entire experience here?... I wasn’t trying to make anybody’s life difficult…” Bertha mentioned
how important it was for students to have someone to go to for advising and other related
matters. The second advisor that was assigned to her met her expectations.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 93
Kiara initially also had a negative experience with academic advising. Part of the
experience was due to her not understanding the role of the academic advisor in the program.
It felt like go see the advisor, and we talk about what I need. And sometimes they, you
know, have an idea of what I should take. And sometimes they don’t. And sometimes it,
it almost seems like just another step in the way if that makes sense? Like you have to see
your advisor before you can enroll… So the advising thing, I feel like you know, I can
look through the paperwork and see where I’m at and what I need to do… But it didn’t
ever seem like I had someone advocating for me in a way that some of the other students
have reported that they had… I guess I’m not really clear what the advisor’s job is.
Although she did not fully understand the role of the academic advisor, academic advising did
not seem to play a role in her development of self-authorship. Kiara’s travel across self-
authorship was highly based on previous experience. Through further discussion Kiara shared
that she missed the orientation and that could have added to her lack of understanding of the
academic advising process. She additionally lacked knowledge pertaining to the availability of
other resources on campus that may have been available to her.
Clare did not have a great experience with her academic advisor and she described this in
detail. She felt that she had to make herself known in order to get the attention she felt she
deserved. She was made aware of information about transferring credits from a community
college, information which she had not previously been aware of.
I thought that they should have told me at least about being able to transfer in fifteen
units, once I became a student. So that was fifteen units I could have saved money on
because I could get a fee waiver at the junior college...When I found out about it I asked
them about it. And he said yes. I could do it. And I was like, well, do you guys not tell
students that… Fifteen units at six hundred dollars is a lot of money and that’s money I
would have had to pay out of my pocket. So needless to say I was able to do it. And I was
able to transfer in fifteen units.
For her the difference in having the correct information meant a difference in the cost of her
education. After this incident, her relationship with her academic advisor changed. This
experience made her feel that she was going to have to constantly follow up with her advisor
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 94
once in the master’s program to make sure she does not miss out on any information. Clare
wanted to ensure that she was not missing out on any information that would have helped her be
successful in the program. Academic advising did not play a significant role in her development,
if anything she gained enough confidence to question her academic advisor. She felt the
experience prepared her for her enrollment in the MBA program.
Self-Authorship
The shared themes have given insight into the participants and some of their experiences.
To comprehend how self-authorship has influenced the experiences of the participants it is
important to assess how the theory applies. The interviews yielded rich data that reflects the
movement within phases of the theory across all three dimensions: Epistemological (How do I
know?), Intrapersonal (Who am I), and Interpersonal (What relationships do I want with
others?). Eight of the nine participants shared experiences that reflect their journey through the
phases and how this has shaped who they are as individuals. To assess self-authorship in this
second phase of the results, the researcher used Baxter Magolda’s (2001) “Making their own
way” and the self-authorship assessment guide by Baxter Magolda and King (2012).
To better understand the findings, a description of the four phases of the journey towards
self-authorship is warranted and provided within the discussion of each phase. Baxter Magolda
defines self-authorship as the “internal capacity to define one’s beliefs, identity, and social
relations” (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010, p. 183). The journey towards self-
authorship begins in the first phase, following formulas, and ends in the final phase of internal
foundation. The epistemological, intrapersonal, and interpersonal dimensions intersect through
the development towards self-authorship (Baxter Magolda, 2010; see Figure 4).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 95
Figure 4. Journey towards Self-Authorship (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 40)
Participant Assessment
Dimensions
Following
Formulas
Crossroads
Becoming the Author
of One's Life
Internal
Foundation
Epistemological
Dimension: How
do I know
Believe
authority's
plans; how
"you" know
Questions Plans:
See need for own
vision
Choose own beliefs;
how "I" know in context
of external knowledge
claims
Grounded in
internal belief
system
Intrapersonal
Dimension: Who
am I?
Define self
through external
others
Realize dilemma of
external definition;
see need for
internal identity
Choose own values,
identity in context of
external forces
Grounded in
internal
coherent
sense of self
Interpersonal
Dimension: What
relationships do I
want with
others?
Act in
relationship to
acquire
approval
Realize dilemma of
focusing on
external approval;
see need to bring
self to relationship
Act in relationships to
be true to self, mutually
negotiating how needs
are met
Grounded in
mutuality
Participant
Assessment Ida Camilla Ada, Isidora,
Bertha,
Kiara, Clare,
Florentina,
Veridiana
From Making their own way – narratives for transforming higher education to promote self-
development (p. 40), by M.B. Baxter Magolda, 2001, Sterling, Virginia: Stylus. Copyright 2001
Stylus Publishing, LLC. Reprinted with permission.
Following Formulas. In this first phase of self-authorship development individuals
follow what others expect of them (Evans et al., 2010). Individuals are dependent on family for
identity definition and additionally view family as the authority figure (Baxter Magolda,
Creamer, & Meszaros, 2010). In the epistemological dimension individuals come to see that
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 96
there are several different and equally valid perspectives and opinions and that the knowledge
behind these is uncertain (Baxter Magolda, 2001). In the intrapersonal dimension individuals
adopt external definitions to define their internal self, thus using external definitions, the
interpersonal dimension, to acquire approval in relationships with others (Baxter Magolda,
2001).
The interview data revealed that Ida, the youngest of the participants, was still in the
process of learning about herself and was dependent on validation from her mother and family.
Ida lacked confidence and was depending on external knowledge. Her way of being fell under
the following formulas phase which included relying on “external authority and guidance”
(Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 72). She had difficulty relating to others and making friends in the
program. She speaks about being shy and not interacting with other students.
Well this one student that like we got along really well. She’s graduated so she’s gone.
So I have to find my new friend. But I try to do as much work on the weekends so I don’t
have to do it during the week. So a lot of the times I’m just at the computer lab or the
library… right now we have group therapy class so we sat in the big group and like it was
really hard for me to talk like I can feel my face… flush.
Her description of preferring to be in an environment of people who are more accepting further
revealed that Ida defined herself through others and how she perceived others as viewing her.
She felt she gained more motivation from the older students.
I think I’d rather be with older people than younger people just because I feel like older
people can be a little bit more accepting because they’ve gone through different situations
more than like college, eighteen year olds straight out of high school…
Ida showed she lacked confidence, is dependent on others for self-definition and is looking for
motivation from others rather than finding the reasons within herself.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 97
Kiara was in the internal foundation phase; however, her earlier experiences expose her
early development. She had an experience while in her late twenties that demonstrated that she
fell between the phases of following formulas and crossroads. Kiara shared an experience she
had at a dinner party and how this experience motivated her college attendance. The dinner was
hosted by a friend of hers from New York who had attended Stanford for college. At the dinner
party she met other Stanford graduates. She went on to describe this experience:
As the dinner went on, the conversation completely escaped me. I couldn’t keep up…
Just so much so about kind of economic ideas. Things about the way government was
being run… Who Rupert Murdoch was at the time… At that point I was a young working
model, and I had traveled. Period. So at some point at the dinner party I had asked a
question, and I guess, I don’t even remember what the question was. But everyone
laughed because it was a dumb question; it was clearly the uneducated question at the
table… I felt small. And then the guy across the table, who was very witty, very fun and
very smart, threw out what a shame it was that I was a blonde model and had asked that
question.
At that point Kiara had let the comment affect how she felt about herself. She allowed this
person’s definition of her to define her in that moment. As Baxter Magolda (2001) explained, in
the phase of following formulas, “this resulted in adopting formulas or doing what others
determined would be successful” (p. 72). She decided to try to prove them wrong. Kiara further
explained how after that moment, she felt out of place and had cried all the way home. She was
annoyed at the comments that were made. She stated,
Because he was right. I’m blonde, I was a model and I had no… idea what they were
talking about… So, so we got home and it sat and it festered and it annoyed me and when
I saw all those people out occasionally because I’d bump into them… It just kind of
deepened to the point that one of my other girlfriends who was, had just started
community college was like have you ever thought about going to school? I was like no.
That’s for those people. And then I thought well wait a minute, if I don’t want to feel like
this anymore, maybe I should not be one of these people… And let’s just see how stupid I
really am.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 98
Although she feared going back to school, she went on to enroll in college. Kiara had last
attended high school with college nowhere in sight. She went on to explain how that first
semester she earned A’s and the confidence to continue with her education. She realized that the
difference between her and her friends and all those at the dinner party was that they had access
to the educational system earlier on in life. She went on to say, “So that dinner party though,
every time I’ve wanted to drop or quit or throw the towel in, I’m like [screw] those people man,
I’m getting a degree.” At that time external voices were still affecting her perspective. She was
defining her internal self by what she “perceived that others thought was appropriate” (Baxter
Magolda, 2001, p. 72). Kiara moved on to reach internal foundation, but her journey began by
allowing herself to be defined by others.
Crossroads. Individuals in this second phase begin to establish their own beliefs (Evans
et al., 2010). They find themselves in conflict as they struggle with what others want for them
versus what they want for themselves (Evans et al., 2010). All three dimensions
(epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal) require work from the individuals on
developing their internal voice (Baxter Magolda, 2001). As described by Baxter Magolda (2001),
“the crossroads was a turning point that called for letting go of external control and beginning to
replace it with one’s internal voice” (p. 94).
Earlier, in the discussion of the fourth theme, personal growth and development, we
learned about Ada who shared she had clearly held incorrect assumptions. She realized the
dilemma of holding incorrect external definitions without having the knowledge to support her
assumptions (Baxter Magolda, 2001). The knowledge she gained through her enrollment in the
program made her desire further knowledge and education.
Well it’s funny because before I started taking sociology classes one of my insights was
no matter what, no matter where you come from, no matter what type of background, I
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 99
felt like anyone could succeed and everyone has opportunities. And I was really adamant
about that. But since I’ve taken sociology classes it’s sort of changed my mind about that.
She realized that who you were and where you came from often made a difference in the
opportunities that were available to different individuals. She gained a different perspective and
began to “actively and critically question… how [she] came to know what to believe,” (Baxter
Magolda & King, 2012, p. 76). Ada went on to share what she used to believe.
… people that are addicted to drugs… my assumptions was… they can choose any time
to quit. Like if somebody wanted to quit they can do it no matter what. And so obviously
as time goes on we’ve been learning scientifically that there are biological factors to
addiction that I didn’t know before… not everybody you know, with drug addiction can
stop on their own if they wanted to… once you start to educate yourself you just expand
even outside of school to learn more and more.
Ada had begun to recognize how she was “processing and being influenced by other’s points of
views” (Baxter Magolda & King, 2012, p. 77), a position that is reflective of leaving the
crossroads phase of self-authorship.
Further on we learned more about Isidora who had realized the need to have an internal
identity and the “need to bring self to relationship,” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 40). Isidora was
dealing with a set of personal issues that had transpired in her life prior to her enrollment in the
adult degree program. The trauma from her experiences came to light during her time in the
program and her descriptions of the events exposed her journey from crossroads to internal
foundation with that aspect of her life. These traumatic incidents affected her capacity to define
herself. At the beginning of her time in the program, Isidora was in an abusive relationship. She
shared, “I have a lot of issues from the past, and when I started [at St. Rita’s], I got really sick.
Caught pneumonia and suffered [through] domestic violence… I took a leave of absence from
my job… and I actually started therapy.” Isidora found the strength to seek help knowing that
she was not in a healthy position. Baxter Magolda and King (2012) state that individuals who are
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 100
prepared to leave the crossroads phase are those who have “cultivated the internal voice [and
have grown] better able to manage external influences” (p. 86). At approximately the same time,
Isidora had a telling experience at work. She was unconsciously holding on to her past traumatic
experience and had not appropriately coped with the issues in relation to that experience. Isidora
shared her experience,
I can talk about it now, but I’m a victim of rape… I was 18. I struggled with bulimia and
I had an incident that happened to me at work, where I went to go assess a client in a
mental hospital who had just been raped… being in this field you have to be aware of all
the issues that you have because you might come across them, and you have to be strong
and know how to deal with them…
Isidora had not dealt with the issues she had from her situation and found it affecting her and she
began crying. This happened to her while she was enrolled in the program. Conducting the
assessment raised a lot of issues for her that she had not dealt with. As she explained further,
I took a leave of absence from work… And during that time, I didn’t want to leave home.
I became really depressed. I never knew like mental health to the extent that I knew it
then because I couldn’t sleep. I had really bad nightmares. I had anxiety. I didn’t want to
be out in public, enclosed areas. And at the time, I had three classes I’ll never forget at
[St. Rita’s] and one of them was group therapy.
Isidora realized that she had to learn to deal with the issues before she could fully help others.
Through this experience she gained the “capacity to decide which external influences to pay
attention to and how to let such influences affect [her],” (Baxter Magolda & King, 2012, p. 86).
In the following section, we see Camilla’s struggle from moving beyond the crossroads phase.
Her limited descriptions place her mainly at the phase of becoming the author of one’s life.
Becoming the Author of One’s Life. When individuals arrive at the third phase of self-
authorship, they come to hold strong beliefs and are cautious of the relationships they commit to
(Evans et al., 2010). In Baxter Magolda’s study (2001), this phase “involved reshaping what
[individuals] believed (epistemology), their sense of self (intrapersonal), and their relationships
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 101
with others (interpersonal)” (p. 119). This is a phase of “intense self-reflection” (Baxter
Magolda, 2001, p. 120) where individuals make an attempt at living out their own beliefs and
choosing their own identity.
Camilla hesitated sharing her personal experiences. Her limited descriptions revealed she
was in the midst of the struggle of redefining herself. She was still going through personal
struggles and not yet at a comfortable phase with a grounded sense of self. Camilla, from what
she shared, was between the struggle of leaving crossroads and entering the phase of becoming
the author of one’s life.
Oh, God, I was just like so focused. I just wouldn’t let anything get in the way… I
learned how to say no because you can’t do everything if you want to obtain a certain
goal in life… I had to put things on hold in order to obtain this goal because I was
working and going to school and that was a lot on my plate… I was a single mom … I
felt that was a lot… I would explain myself why I couldn’t… I couldn’t do everything…
Christmas at times, my family would be like can you come out to Vegas… and I’d be like
no, I can’t because I need to use this time in order to catch up on school work because
maybe I was busy at work and, you know sometimes you need a day just to de-stress…
This reflection showed Camilla at the end of the crossroads phase. She had learned to determine
which external influences she was going to allow in her life. Self-reflection showed she was
developing a sense of herself (Baxter Magolda, 2001). She shared how she had never been an
outspoken person and after being in the program for a while she found that it was easier to speak
to people. She had learned to express herself through her time in the program, especially when it
came to presenting in front of others. She explained that she no longer gave importance to what
others were critiquing her about as she presented in class. Camilla’s description of becoming
outspoken was shared with a level of uncertainty. The last portion of her description was almost
a question; it was stated with the uncertainty of whether what she was stating had truth to it.
Camilla shared she was unsure of moving on with her education, she expressed the desire to take
time off from school and spend time on developing her skill set. She was still negotiating how to
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 102
meet her needs, as is common in the phase of becoming the author of one’s life (Baxter Magolda,
2001). Aside from Camilla, descriptions highlighted individuals being at the crossroads phase
and moving through to internal foundation. No other descriptions were found that would
highlight participant experiences within the phase of becoming the author of one’s life.
Internal Foundation. The majority of the participants ended their educational journeys
at the internal foundation phase. In this final phase individuals are comfortable within and do not
let any external factors influence their personal beliefs (Evans et al., 2010). Individuals “were
able to develop their ability to know intuitively and to accept life as it came” (Baxter Magolda,
2001, p. 155). Seven of the nine participants discussed experiences before or during their time at
St. Rita’s that helped move them from the crossroads phase to internal foundation. “The security
of the internal self and belief system afforded a new vantage point from which to engage in
authentic, mutual relationships with others” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 155). The following
sections highlight some of the participants’ experiences.
Ada had several significant experiences prior to and during her enrollment in the adult
degree program. She was forced to live independently at a young age and that influenced the
decisions she made up to that point. She became grounded in who she is and in her desire to
pursue the field of psychology and eventually earn her doctorate. “I’m on the right path and I
knew all along this is what I wanted to do. But the classes are just reaffirming that, and I’m
dying to get into that field.” Ada’s realization and reaffirmation that she was on the right path
towards achieving her end goal of becoming a psychologist reflects her reaching the internal
foundation. She reveals “settling into” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 184) her internal self. As is
common in internal foundation, Ada demonstrated that she was at the beginning of another phase
of development. As individuals settle into this phase, a new door of opportunities opens allowing
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 103
room for “new experience and further growth” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 184). Ada prepared to
leave her full time job to pursue a Master’s in Social Work on a full time basis, thus it was the
beginning of another experience for her.
Earlier we learned that Isidora’s decision to enroll was largely based on the point she was
at in her life; she had returned to her spirituality and felt safe at St. Rita’s. As we saw, Isidora
traveled through the crossroads phase, with St. Rita’s becoming her sanctuary in the process. She
was working through her personal issues and moving on with her life. Everyone around her
could not figure out how she remained focused in school while dealing with her personal issues.
But she shared that school was like her refuge.
Because I literally channeled everything, I went to therapy every week during that time…
there was a specific time during that six months that the therapist actually said that I
needed to go the partial hospitalization program because of the fact that I couldn’t stop
crying. And interestingly enough believe it or not school, school kind of got me through,
just because I’m like if there’s some bit of goal that I want in my life, that I literally put
everything into school and like self-help books and everything…
It also helped that her professors were very understanding and that helped her get through school.
Isidora moved through the crossroads and reached the Internal Foundation phase, where she
became the author of her own life and became able to talk about her experiences with the issues
she had to work through. She became personally grounded in her sense of self. This is seen
through several earlier examples; she became focused on being a positive influence on her son,
and we see an example of her buying a homeless man a meal and having him join her and her
son for dinner. Isidora had traveled through a journey of self-discovery by dealing with her
traumatic experiences. She felt at peace, an important aspect of being grounded in the internal
foundation phase (Baxter Magolda, 2001).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 104
Bertha had an epiphany while sitting in a philosophy course. The moment of truth
translated to a shift from crossroads to internal foundation while dealing with a family dilemma.
When leaving the crossroads phase, individuals gain “the capacity to decide which external
influences to pay attention to and how to let such influences affect them” (Baxter Magolda &
King, 2012). Bertha had to decide to not let a family conflict influence her. As she explained, she
had to make the right decision for her, her mother, and her daughter. Her family had entered the
restaurant business and conflict arose when her sister decided that she was going to own the
restaurant with her significant other. Her mother had loaned her own home to begin the business
and Bertha had used up her daughter’s college fund and sold her own home as well. Her parents
had worked a long time for that restaurant and she saw her mother becoming ill over the
situation. Bertha had to decide what she wanted to do for her mother and herself and she decided
that she was going to let the restaurant go and fight to keep her mother’s home. Her sister
eventually lost the restaurant. Bertha shared how this related to her philosophy class:
I was the kind of person where I [was]… always helping someone else. And I happened
to walk into that philosophy class, and the professor said… do you ever notice when you
help people you elevate them and… those same people never come back to help you?…
But the way he presented it... I can’t believe it took me 43 years… it finally dawned on
me…
Gaining the insight from her philosophy class helped affirm that she had made the right choice,
she had to help herself. She learned that she needed to help herself first before she could help
anyone else.
And if I didn’t walk away with anything at the school, I walked away with that
knowledge… That class fell in the middle of it and it has helped me just be a better
person… my daughter as young as she is… she analyzes and she’s like mom… let’s do
this first. And let’s not tell anyone… I can see her growing through me.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 105
Bertha developed a sense of agency, which is key in reaching the internal foundation phase in
self-authorship. As Baxter Magolda describes, “a sense of agency [is] evident at this point in the
journey to direct one’s life, choose priorities, and act consistently with self-defined boundaries”
(2001, p. 184). Her struggle and epiphany demonstrated how throughout that period she was
moving towards the internal foundation phase. Bertha further explained the impact that attending
the program has had on her personal life in addition to having had this experience with her sister.
It broke up the family till today... I had many people tell me you always try to fit in
because you’re the youngest out of seven. Everybody else got theirs, you’ve helped
everyone with their kids and here you are in an ocean by yourself. And so I’m okay with
it, it hurts; I can’t tell you it doesn’t, but at the same time I’m like oh my God, this school
has helped me to grow so much. And even my mom tells me; I can tell by the way you
speak, I can tell by the way you handle things now. Before I was so impatient and now
I’ve learned to figure things out first.
Bertha had become grounded in her sense of self and planned on taking the LSAT and moving
on to law school and continuing her education.
Kiara began to realize that acquiring an education went beyond that moment at the dinner
party described earlier. Throughout the years and during her time in the program she experienced
personal growth. She was not only the first one in her family to go to college but she had already
had a successful career as a young model that she had to leave behind. As Kiara had explained,
although she had a successful career she still lacked confidence in herself. “I think my
confidence in being intelligent was not fully actualized until I realized that I was smart enough to
be in college, if that makes sense?” Thus while going through the program and experiencing
travel with a different perspective was when Kiara began to develop an internal sense of self and
move through self-authorship. She participated in a study abroad trip to Paris to study medieval
France and decided to invite her mother along. Taking her mother with her made it a better
experience overall as she was able to share every bit of that experience.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 106
… And every day you’re walking the streets of the city and seeing how it came to be, you
know? Where all these amazing kind of historical figures came from, where they lived,
you know?… And then being able to share it with somebody.
Kiara had managed to involve her mother in her educational experience. Kiara did not have a
strong relationship with her mother earlier in her life and was at a point where she wanted to
change this. It was through her educational experience that Kiara arrived at the internal
foundation phase. She had started her education earlier based on a moment of external definition.
Kiara had, at that time, accepted the way others defined her. Throughout her education she came
to realize that she needed to define herself. By coming to the realization that her career as a
model would eventually end and by going through the program, Kiara had a lot of time for self-
reflection. As is the nature of internal foundation, “in the process of becoming authors of [her]
own” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 183) life, she could only control how she made meaning of her
internal self. She realized that the only difference between her and the individuals from the
dinner party was they had accessed a system she had no access to at that time.
Clare had an epiphany while at work that brought to light the amount of personal growth
that had transpired within her without being conscious of it. She traveled from the crossroads
phase to internal foundation. Clare shared an experience she had at work while she was in her
junior year in the program. She had been asked by her boss to participate in a management
committee. She was the only female at that committee meeting and before she knew it she had
found herself facilitating the meeting. As she explained,
It just made me realize that though I came… to get a degree… there’s so many other
tools that I picked up… It was like you know how they say that a light bulb goes on?...
And at that moment…I was like… where did this person come from like who am I. It was
like everything came full circle… I mean everything just changed... It was like an
epiphany…
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 107
Clare came to her sense of self, a self she had not been aware existed. She was settling into her
new self as occurs in the internal foundation phase. This opened up a new experience for her as
well as the opportunity for further growth.
Florentina felt that it made sense in her life to enroll in the program and complete her
degree. She recognized the potential she had to accomplish more and admitted to being unhappy
with where she was working. She was being authentic to herself and was confident that this was
a step in a positive direction, common to the internal foundation phase in self-authorship. She
felt that she was not too old to walk on stage or to still be in school attempting to complete her
degree. She recalled her first day at St. Rita’s and how she had felt so full of energy. As she
stated, it “… felt so great, like brand new doors are opening for me… I get bored very quick …
The more I learn… the more I set myself to accomplish.” Florentina was grounded in her sense
of self and in the relationships she wanted with others. She was “taking responsibility for making
meaning of one’s self, relationships and beliefs” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 184). Her belief was
that accomplishing her dream was more important than missing specific events. Her priorities
were her focus in life. This included giving up some weekends to work on the goal of completing
her degree.
Basically you come in here knowing… you’re committed to it and, yes, you say no to a
lot of things in life, but at the end, you’ll always go to a wedding, you’ll always go to a
party, you’ll always go on a vacation, the place is not leaving anywhere, but this… time
goes by fast and at the end you’re getting something out of it… something that you’ve
dreamed of… and it’s not just a piece of paper, it’s something that you worked for.
Because Florentina was focused on her internal self, she was grounded and therefore comfortable
with the decisions she had to make in order to succeed.
Veridiana was fully grounded in her sense of self, knowing what she was looking for out
of life. Veridiana demonstrated that she possessed the inner strength that Baxter Magolda (2001)
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 108
describes in internal foundation. It is “the combination of an internal sense of self and internal
belief system” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 183). As she discussed, she was choosing a religious
career path, one that most people would question.
I’m not the type of person who’s going to go out and try to become an entrepreneur…
what I’ve learned over the years is if you must work then you should do something that
you love because there’s nothing worse than having to get up every day and dread going
to your job. I’ve done that as well.
She knew the type of person she was and therefore enrolled in school to shift into a career that
would fit into her soon-to-be new reality, retirement. She was comfortable and mutually
grounded in who she had become at the age of 57. As the youngest sibling of 7, she had grown
up with self-esteem issues, was shy, withdrawn, and the opposite of her siblings.
But anyway you know you mature as you age… but I think being here and meeting
people that I have a great deal of respect for and receiving respect from them has helped
me as well to kind of expand my sense of worth if that makes sense. Meeting people that
are of like mind… it’s great to be able to sit down and have conversations with people
about the Old Testament or philosophers…
Veridiana was open to new experiences and further growth. Everything she was experiencing
was an opportunity for learning. As she became knowledgeable of other cultures she learned to
be more appreciative of others. “Not to take people or situations for granted, that there are things
to be learned from people from all different walks and different ages… there’s something to be
learned from everyone.” Veridiana had the ability to “connect meaningfully and mutually with
others while maintaining an authentic self” (Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 184).
Summary
The purpose of this study was to learn about the experiences of undergraduate adult
learners in an adult degree program and whether self-authorship influenced their experiences.
Five common themes were found in response to the research questions; decision to enroll at a 4
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 109
year institution, student experiences, impact of family, personal growth and development, and
experiences with academic advising. In the findings of the experiences with academic advising,
descriptions did not expose a significant influence in the development of self-authorship for
these participants. All of the participants shared experiences that reflected their journey through
the phases of self-authorship. A discussion of the findings will follow in chapter 5.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 110
Chapter Five
Overview
The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the experiences of
undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program and how self-authorship influenced their
experiences. In this chapter, I present a brief summary of the background and purpose of the
study, the research questions and methodology. I then summarize the results by relating the
themes and self-authorship discussion of chapter 4 back to the research questions of this study. I
additionally link the findings of the study to the literature. The chapter concludes by addressing
how this study informs practice in the field and future research opportunities.
Background & Purpose
The data showed that the postsecondary adult learner population is increasing (Kasworm,
2003; National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2011b); educators and policy makers in
the United States, and California in particular, can no longer afford to focus on educating the
traditional student population alone (Council for Adult & Experiential Learning [CAEL], 2008a).
In the current economic climate, with the change in the economy, layoffs and outsourcing, many
adults are finding the need to return to college for a degree in order to improve their employment
prospects (Compton, Cox, & Santos Laanan, 2006). Upon reentering the job market, many adults
are discovering that they do not hold the knowledge or skills necessary to be competitive in this
technologically advanced workforce (Compton et al., 2006). An educated populace will
additionally be needed to fill open employment opportunities. The data demonstrates that a
limited number of high school graduates have the opportunity to continue on to postsecondary
education and supports the need to focus on educating adult learners (CAEL, 2008a).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 111
The development of adult degree programs has occurred specifically in four year, not-for-
profit, liberal arts universities as a response to the shift in the market (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006).
With the growth in the undergraduate adult learner population there has been a growth in adult
degree programs (Watkins & Tisdell, 2006). The concern with this increase is that the
undergraduate adult learner has different postsecondary needs than those of the traditional
student (Kohler Giancola, Grawitch, & Borchert, 2009). Colleges and universities are not
prepared to provide adequate services to support their undergraduate adult learners (Kasworm,
2010). Student support needs to improve in order to meet the needs of the increasingly diverse
population, specifically as adult learners enter higher education in growing numbers (Kasworm,
2003).
In the area of student affairs and student services, adult learners also face challenges.
Student development theory in application to the undergraduate adult learner is limited.
“Knowledge of student development theory enables student affairs professionals to identify and
address student needs, design programs, develop policies, and create healthy college
environments that encourage positive growth in students” (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, &
Renn, 2010, p. 7). An understanding of Baxter Magolda’s (2008) theory of self-authorship can
improve educators’ support for adult learners in their college experience.
Methodology and Research Design
A qualitative research design was utilized to explore the research questions. The research
was guided by phenomenology, “to determine what an experience means for the persons who
have had the experience” (Moustakas, 1994). Self-authorship, which is the “internal capacity to
define one’s beliefs, identity, and social relations” (Evans et al., 2010, p. 183) was utilized in
combination and helped shed light on the experiences of undergraduate adult learners. Self-
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 112
authorship, much like phenomenology, required obtaining descriptions of students’ experiences,
and it assisted in the assessment of self-authorship and learning about the student experiences of
the participants within an adult degree program (Baxter Magolda, 2001). I conducted nine face-
to-face interviews with undergraduate adult learners enrolled in an adult degree focused program
within a private liberal arts institution between the end of the fall semester of 2012 and through
the spring of 2013. Each student was given an informed consent agreement.
The research questions guiding the study were:
1. What are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program?
1a. Do their experiences influence their decision to stay enrolled in college? If so,
how?
2. Are the experiences of undergraduate adult learners within an adult degree program
influenced by personal development and self-authorship? If so, how?
2a. Does academic advising have a role in the development of self-authorship for
adult learners? If so, how?
Discussion of Findings
Five overarching themes were found in response to the research questions. The themes
that emerged were the following: the decision to enroll at a 4-year institution, student
experiences, the impact of family, personal growth and development and experiences with
academic advising. In addition, in-depth descriptions showed participants traveled within the
phases of self-authorship. Seven of the nine participants were found to have reached the internal
foundation phase, one participant remained at the following formulas phase, and one participant
was assessed under the phase of becoming the author of one’s life.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 113
Research Question One
The personal experiences of the participants and those of their classmates enriched their
experiences in the program. The ability to relate to each other and be amongst adults influenced
their decision to enroll and stay enrolled. The understanding on behalf of their professors of their
identities as working adults was also an influence in their experiences. As stated by one of the
participants, “when I come and I’m among my peers; it feels like I really got away for the
weekend, so it’s time away from home, but at the same time I appreciate it.” Their reasons for
returning for a bachelor’s degree included a career shift, greater income, and life transitions. As
found in the literature, adult learners enroll in colleges that offer academic programs that fit their
needs and are readily accessible (Kasworm, 2003). Adult learners return to college with specific
goals and for reasons that may differ from the traditional student (Donaldson & Graham, 1999;
Hardin, 2008). Some adult learners return to college due to specific career interests while others
have personal life transitions that prompt them to complete their college education (Compton et
al., 2006; Hardin, 2008; Kasworm, 2003). The recent economic recession has additionally caused
a shift that has led more women to return to school because they can no longer afford to stay at
home (Compton et al., 2006).
Four of the participants expressed insecurity or fear when describing their decision to
return to school. They feared being enrolled in classrooms with traditionally aged students, as
well as fear of the unknown due to not having been in school for several years. Research shows
that upon returning to education, working adults often experience identity conflict between their
world of work and their new “intellectual world” (Askham, 2008, p. 89). This leads many adult
learners to feel anxiety about their return to college. As one of the participants shared:
There was just you know this idea of am I capable?... But that being said with the system,
you put in the work you get the grade, it was a really nice confidence booster, and every
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 114
semester that I kind of got behind me, made me feel better about myself… I think as a
woman and a working woman it’s just made me feel much more legitimate in my
intelligence and it’s given my voice a little more power.
Lacking an educated language was one of the concerns of many of the participants.
The participants discussed their student experiences at other colleges or universities and
compared it to their current experience at St. Rita’s. Several appreciated the fact that their faculty
understood the multiple demands juggled by adult learners. This finding supported previous
research which showed that the relationship that faculty develop with the adult learners in their
classrooms is important to adult learners’ identity and success with the college experience
(Kasworm, 2008). One of the participants described this experience:
I’ve had amazing teachers so the interaction, the discussions, the live experiences… the
teachers…the ones that I have had, have been really amazing…They’re very lively, they
always reiterate, I know you guys are working adults… they’re very, very much more
understanding of, of just being a working adult. And more importantly is like they really
value your insight and they love listening to different stories and different experiences…
In a study that explores faculty perceptions of adult learners, Woodson Day, Lovato, Tull, and
Ross-Gordon (2011) found that faculty perceived adults as multi-tasking individuals trying to
juggle both family and school who were prepared and motivated to learn (Woodson Day et al.,
2011). They further found that the relationships of adult learners with other students and with
professors are important in their academic experiences (Gilardi & Guglielmetti, 2011).
Many participants expressed the importance of being in an environment with other
working adults and not having to be worried about being in the classroom with traditionally aged
students. One of the participants shared:
What’s so great about the [adult degree program] is that… we all are working and we all
are very disciplined and we appreciate the time that we have to learn here. Whereas in a
traditional college you have these younger kids… they’re not as disciplined and they’re
not as serious as we are…
Askham found that there are “contradictions flowing from being an adult and a student at the
same time… the adult identity is autonomous, responsible and mature whereas that of the student
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 115
identity is incomplete, dependent and in deficit” (p. 90). For working adult learners, the worker
identity is many times prioritized over their identity as students (Compton et al., 2006).
Participants in the program described being surrounded by other adults and having the
understanding of their professors as important.
The importance of family as experienced by the participants was not discussed in depth in
the literature review. Family was a priority for many of the participants with children or spouses.
For two of the participants their immediate family members, parents and siblings, played a role
in their decision to enroll. All of the participants who had children or a spouse spoke about their
family being a priority and the reason for not attending a four year university earlier in life. One
of the participants shared her reason for attending college later in life.
… to me the most important event of my life was having my only child… that’s why I’m
completing my education now… because he came first, and every once in a while, I
would take a class here or there but he came first and I just was not going to take any
more time away from him.
The traditional class schedule did not meet the needs of the participants and did not support them
as adults with responsibilities. The literature demonstrated that four year institutions need to
provide support services, such as child care, for this student population. Other than this example,
the literature lacks information about how family plays a role in the education of adult learners.
There is an abundance of literature on the support services needed for the undergraduate
adult learner population (Bailey, 2007; CAEL, 2011a; Compton et al., 2006; Fairchild, 2003;
Kasworm, 2010). The lack of support services is often a barrier to participation in formal
education for adult learners (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). In comparison with the
traditional student, adult learners have many other demands and need accommodation from
institutions (Malhotra, Shapero, Sizoo, & Munro, 2007). Although the literature showed that
financial aid was the most important issue affecting the college enrollment of adult learners, the
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 116
participants in this study did not address financial aid concerns focusing more so on their direct
experience in the program. Nonetheless, financial aid should be kept in mind as a needed support
service for adult learners as it was found in the literature review. Administrators and academic
advisors need to be aware of the challenges faced by the undergraduate adult learner population
and be ready to assist them by providing a helpful and supportive environment (Kasworm, 2003;
Malhotra et al., 2007).
Research Question Two
Whatever the reason for their return or continuation with their education, their in-depth
descriptions unveil their student development and guides their status within Baxter Magolda’s
theory. Data from the shared experiences related to personal growth and development, and
experiences with academic advising. Understanding how self-authorship applies to
undergraduate adult learners is important for educators and academic advisors as they play a
critical role in student development (Gordon, Habley, & Grites, 2008). Kasworm (2008) found
that adults enter into their new learning experiences with differing cognitive beliefs and
emotional frameworks.
Eight of the nine participants had some type of epiphany or moment of realization while
being enrolled in the program. This learning experience either occurred while at the work site or
while with family members. Others experienced that moment in the classroom or at home with a
spouse. The in-depth descriptions revealed that these participants experienced a shift in their
approach to constructing meaning. Although this was a common finding amongst the
participants, it is not a finding that was addressed in the literature. The extent to which we know
the importance of the attainment of an education for these students is the extent to which we
know, based on the literature and data, that the economy in California needs adult learners
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 117
returning for further education in order to fill the expected bachelor’s degree shortfall in the state
(CAEL, 2008a). The experiences of undergraduate adult students within adult degree focused
programs from the perspective of student development are not found in the literature.
Academic advising did not play as significant of a role in the development of self-
authorship for these students as much as their experiences with classmates and the program in
general. Their experiences were significant in relation to the knowledge they were gaining in the
classroom, how they related with others in the program, to their work environment, and how they
related these experiences to their personal lives. Some of the participants had great experiences
while others were not happy with their experience. There was not a sufficient level of in-depth
descriptions regarding the experiences with academic advising to show that it had a significant
influence in the development of self-authorship for these students. The role of the advisor from
the perspective of these participants was one who provided guidance, an educational plan, and
information about available resources on campus. According to the Council for the Advancement
of Standards in Higher Education (CAS, 2011) “the primary purpose of academic advising
programs is to assist students in the development of meaningful educational plans” (para. 1). The
literature shows that the academic advisor is often the resource person for students in connection
to student services on campus (Davis & Cooper, 2006). Adult students need advising to be
dependable and need an advisor who understands their specific needs, especially in the first year
of enrollment (Wlodkowski, 2003). The findings reveal that academic advising did not influence
student development for these participants.
Baxter Magolda (2007) connects self-authorship to academic advising and to the
development of autonomy in adulthood. She states, “academic advising often focuses on helping
students make good academic decisions; learning goals such as critical thinking, internally
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 118
defined values, and responsible citizenship are inherent in these decisions” (Baxter Magolda,
2007, p. 75). Pizzolato specifically examined the relationship between academic advising and
Baxter Magolda’s theory of self-authorship (Evans et al., 2010). Pizzolato (2008) writes,
however, that for students to make and achieve realistic goals they have to know oneself well
and academic advisors need to assist students in developing a strong identity. The researcher
found that self-authorship was encouraged during academic advising sessions when those
sessions included goal reflecting with the student and the advisor (Pizzolato, 2006). This,
however, was not found in the descriptions shared by the participants.
Kasworm (2008) affirms that adults enter into their new learning experiences with
differing cognitive beliefs and emotional frameworks, but discussions about self-authorship is
largely absent from the literature. The in-depth descriptions from the participants confirms
Kasworm’s (2008) research. All of the participants entered their educational experience at St.
Rita’s with different beliefs. Their journeys throughout the program showed 1 out of 9 of the
participants traveling from the early phases of self-authorship through to becoming the author of
one’s life. Seven of the participants traveled from the crossroads phase to the internal foundation
phase. Only one of the participants entered the program within the following formulas phase and
has remained there. This may be attributable to age and inexperience. The experiences of the
participants expanded on the theory of self-authorship. Unlike the vast amount of student
development theories that may be applied to the traditional student population (Evans et al.,
2010), student development theories that apply to the undergraduate adult learner are limited.
Most of the theoretical frameworks modeled on adult learners are classroom and learning-based
(Merriam et al., 2007).
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 119
Limitations
One of the limitations to the study was my role as a professional which included working
for a similar adult degree program. While I was not a working professional at St. Rita’s
University, my professional working role included advising undergraduate adult learners which
could have biased my expectations of the students. I placed an effort on removing preconceived
notions and in listening to the stories of the participants. I did my best to achieve epoche, which
involves looking at the phenomenon with a fresh perspective and without using prior knowledge
(Moustakas, 1994). Achieving Epoche, as noted by Moustakas (1994), is rare; however,
reflection does assist in the process of reducing preconceived biases (Moustakas, 1994). As
stated, I set aside time to journal the potential biases and feelings produced during the data
collection process. Journaling and reflection was completed prior to or after the interviews. This
assisted in removing bias and appreciating the personal information about their experiences that
participants were willing to share.
Secondly, the participants are enrolled in a program that accommodates full time
employment and offers courses on the weekends. The majority of the students enrolled in the
program worked on a full time basis and had limited availability. I had to accommodate to
participant work schedules and work around class schedules. This consisted of several visits to
St. Rita’s. The students take classes on certain weekends and had a preference for participating in
between class breaks or during a week day evening after work. The first interview was conducted
after the end of the fall semester; the second interview took place approximately one month later.
Eight out of the nine interviews took place during the spring semester, with five of these
interviews taking place during the same weekend due to participant availability and convenience.
Three interviews had to be conducted consecutively, one after the other. Few minutes were
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 120
allotted in between two of these three interviews for journaling. The majority of the journaling
took place after the three interviews were completed utilizing the information I had taken earlier
for those two interviews. Time for the students to participate in the interview process was a
limitation and required special accommodations. This lengthened the time of completion for the
data collection.
Lastly, all of the participants in this study were female. The current enrollment of the
program is about 80% female. No male students completed the survey to be contacted for
participation. This limits the transferability of the study to male students who may have different
levels of development and see their experiences very differently than their female counterparts.
While family and children were viewed as important and had an impact on the decisions of the
participants, male students may have a different view towards family.
Implications for Practice
The findings of this study hold several implications for administrators, academic
advisors, faculty and staff working with undergraduate adult learners. These implications were
drawn based on the in-depth descriptions provided by the participants and the research findings.
1. Need to recognize that adult learners balance many demands.
It is vital for educators working with this student population to recognize that
undergraduate adult learners are completing a bachelor’s degree while having a personal life and
working full time. Adult learners are at a different place in life, have a different view of the
world and have different needs; nonetheless their needs as students are equally as important as
those of the traditional student (Kasworm, 2003). Findings from this study indicate that the
decisions of these students to stay enrolled within the adult degree program were influenced not
only by their outside experiences, but also by their experiences within the program. Each
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 121
participant had a reason for pursuing their bachelor’s degree at that point in their life and it was
apparent that the experiences they had within the classroom, with program staff, and classmates
had an influence on their decision to remain in the program. Isidora mentioned how her
professors were much more understanding of her being a working adult in comparison to her
previous experience at a traditional university campus. Throughout the data collection period,
participants repeatedly mentioned the understanding that professors had of their roles as not only
students, but as full time employees and as parents, spouses, or care givers to their own parents.
Thus, it is important for educators working with the undergraduate adult learner population to
understand these experiences in order to provide a supportive environment and help students
through to completion. Understanding and flexibility were important to these participants.
2. Self-Authorship is part of the students’ journey.
An understanding of Baxter Magolda’s (2001) theory of self-authorship and student
development theory can improve educators’ support for undergraduate adult learners in their
college experience. Knowledge of self-authorship will assist individuals working with this
student population “to identify and address student needs, design programs, develop policies, and
create healthy college environments that encourage positive growth…” (Evans et al., 2010, p. 7).
The findings of this study indicate that issues of personal development and self-authorship
influenced the experiences of the participants. We see Ada realize the incorrect assumptions she
held and the importance of having the knowledge to support her assumptions. She experiences a
shift in the epistemological dimension. Each participant’s in-depth descriptions aligned with the
components of self-authorship and reflected personal development. Throughout their experience
within the program, participants traveled through the phases of self-authorship, most of them
reaching the final phase of internal foundation. This revealed that self-authorship applies to adult
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 122
learners who pursue an undergraduate degree later in life. This implies that student development
theory is important to the undergraduate adult learner population.
3. Family is vital to decision making.
Adult degree-focused programs need to recognize the importance family plays in the
education of undergraduate adult learners. The findings indicated that family, whether they were
spouses, children, or elder parents, influenced the decisions of the participants to enroll in the
program. In addition, the participants were influencing and impacting their family members
throughout the course of their education. There were several examples in the data where
participants described taking important in-classroom learning experiences and sharing them with
family members. Kiara described how she would take home information and videos she watched
in class and share them with her husband. Programs aimed at working with undergraduate adult
learners need to be aware of the importance of family. Providing intentional services and
programming that incorporate family can provide a more supportive environment for the
students. It could also provide a support system for the family members of these students. Some
examples of services and programming include child care, extending invites to spouses to
informational sessions and new student orientation, and family centered events such as a picnic
where students can network and meet each other’s family members. This would additionally
allow family members to relate to the experience of having a spouse or parent in college.
4. Experiencing the 4-year institution.
Academic advisors need to understand that for many of these students it is their first time
experiencing the four-year university. Findings indicated that many of the participants felt they
lacked important information as to how to navigate the university system. Many of them felt they
missed out on information not previously shared with them. Although these participants are
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 123
adults, many of them have not experienced navigating a four year university campus and are not
often aware of the resources available to them as working adults. Clare shared experiencing
frustration with her academic advisor because of information she had not been aware of and was
disappointed it had not previously been shared with her. It is therefore necessary for academic
advisors to provide students with all the necessary resources and information to help them learn
how to navigate a university campus as full time working adults.
5. Alternative Orientation.
This leads to the importance of adult degree-focused programs providing alternative
options to new student orientation. Many of the frustrations shared by the participants were due
to their lack of participation in orientation. Those that mentioned participation described less
frustration because they had a better understanding of how to navigate the university. Some
shared that they could simply not make it to the orientation on the day it was held. This indicates
the importance of providing an alternative to orientation for the working adults unable to attend
the event. Kiara indicated she never quite understood the role of her academic advisor but she
also missed the program orientation. This implies the importance of providing an alternative
option. Perhaps a required one-on-one session with an academic advisor or an alternative online
component would assist these students.
Future Research
The link of personal development and self-authorship to the experiences of undergraduate
adult learners suggests student development theory is an important area that merits further
exploration. Classroom and learning based theory have formed the theoretical frameworks
applied to the undergraduate adult learner experience thus far. A further exploration of student
development theory may give insight as to how to improve support services for undergraduate
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 124
adult learners. As a result of this major finding, following are several recommendations for
future research.
While the exploration of the experiences of these nine female participants was valuable, it
may additionally be beneficial to explore the experience of male undergraduate adult learners
and how personal development and self-authorship influences their experiences. An intentional
exploration with male undergraduate adult learners could benefit a greater understanding of this
student population. The themes that emerged were based on the experiences of nine females. One
of these themes was the impact of family. Does family have a similar influence on the
experiences of male students? Do their experiences align with those of their female counterparts?
This warrants further exploration.
Secondly, the role of family in relation to the undergraduate adult learner population
warrants further exploration. Family can be defined for these students as a spouse, children, and
elderly parents. This study gave a glimpse of the impact family can have on adult learners prior
to and during enrollment in college. An in-depth exploration of the impact or influences of
family on this student population can yield valuable information to educators working with this
student population
Thirdly, there is more to gain from further examining the advisor/advisee relationship.
Little was learned about the role of academic advising in the development of self-authorship of
the participants in this study. In depth studies focusing on academic advising alone with this
particular student population may be advantageous to academic advisors working in adult degree
focused programs. Gaining the perspective of the academic advisors themselves may give an
idea as to the role advisors believe they have in assisting these students. A comparison to the
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 125
understanding and expectations from the perspective of the undergraduate adult learners would
further assist in improving academic advising for this student population.
Lastly, student development is composed of several theoretical frameworks that may be
studied in connection to the undergraduate adult learner population. It may be beneficial to
examine other student development theories in application to the undergraduate adult learner
population. Knowledge of student development theory is important as it helps address student
needs and, as the literature affirmed, adults enter into their new learning experiences with
differing cognitive beliefs and emotional frameworks. Little has been explored about the
development of these students as they pursue their undergraduate education later in life. As
found in this study through the use of self-authorship, adult learners experience growth and
development while enrolled in college. If self-authorship is applicable to this student population,
what other student development theories could be important to apply and explore with
undergraduate adult learners?
Conclusion
It is the role of those working with undergraduate adult learners; administrators, faculty,
academic advisors and staff, to gain the necessary knowledge of student development theory.
Knowledge of self-authorship specifically, would help educators to better understand their
students on a developmental level. This study showed that adults can be self-authored later in
life. It is additionally important to remember that adult students, although adults, have often not
been exposed to the university system and should not be expected to know how to navigate it.
Although these are adults, they are also undergraduate students and need just as much guidance
as the traditional students. The undergraduate adult learner population is growing, and those
working with these students need to know how to meet their needs. Knowledge of self-
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 126
authorship and student development theory can help those working with undergraduate adult
learners provide appropriate support services.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 127
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UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 134
Appendix A
Email Request for Participation
Dear Student,
I am a doctoral student in the Educational Leadership Ed.D program in the Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, CA.
I would like to invite you to participate in a research study about the adult learner’s
experience in an adult degree program. The purpose of the interview is to learn about your
experience within the program and how your experience is influenced by your own growth and
change during this process. The study hopes to gain insight into how to better assist
undergraduate adult learners. Participation is voluntary.
The study procedures include a 5 minute survey from Survey Monkey and a taped 45-60
minute interview. Interviews will take place at the college campus during a weekend when you
are on campus, email or telephone follow-up interviews may take place, in order to clarify an
issue.
Your participation will not affect your relationship within the program or with St. Rita’s
Adult Degree Program. Identities will be protected with the use of pseudonyms; names will not
be associated with any research findings. The recordings will be destroyed after the study is
completed. Compensation will be provided for the interview.
I will be happy to answer any questions and share the research finding with you upon the
completion of the study.
To be eligible you must meet the following criteria:
Enrollment in the adult degree program on either a part time or full time basis
Will be graduating in Fall, 2012, Spring 2013, or Summer 2013
Be employed full time
Be at least 25 years of age or older
To participate please visit the following link and complete a brief pre-survey:
http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/3C8JH22
If you have any questions please contact me via email at rocioh@usc.edu or by phone at
805.493.3169.
Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions.
Sincerely,
Rocío Hernandez
University of Southern California
Ed.D. Candidate
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 135
Appendix B
Pre-Survey Questions
1. What is your enrollment status?
____ Part Time Student
____ Full Time Student
2. When will you be graduating?
____Fall 2012 Semester
____Spring 2013 Semester
____Summer 2013 Semester
3. Which of the following categories best describes your employment status?
____ Employed, working 1-32
____ Employed, working 32 or more hours per week
____ Not employed, looking for work
____ Not employed, NOT looking for work
____ Retired
____ Disabled, not able to work
4. Which category below includes your age?
____ 25-34
____ 35 & over
5. At what email address or phone number would you like to be contacted to set up an
interview?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 136
Appendix C
Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
An exploration of undergraduate adult learners and their experiences in an adult degree program
from the Theoretical Framework of Self-Authorship
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Rocio Hernandez under the
supervision of Dr. Tracy Tambascia at the University of Southern California. You are eligible to
participate because you are enrolled in the adult degree program on either a part time or full time
basis, have full time employment, and you are at least 25 years of age or older.
Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions about
anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time
as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your
family or friends. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to learn about your experience within the adult degree program and
how your experience is influenced by your own growth and change during this process.
Completion and response to the study procedures will constitute consent to participate in
this research project.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to complete a 5 minute survey and an
in-person interview. The interview will take place at the college campus during a weekend when
you are on campus, is anticipated to last no more than 60 minutes and consist of questions about
your experiences within the program as well as your experiences outside of the program that
have impacted your decisions in your education. Your interview will be voice recorded. A
followed up interview or email may be conducted to clarify any issues. If you do not wish to be
audio recorded, you cannot participate in the interview.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks in this study. If you experience discomfort during the interview,
you may decline to answer or withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation
without penalty.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There are no anticipated benefits to you. It is hoped that researchers gain insight into the
experience of undergraduate adult learners pursuing bachelor’s degrees in programs catered to
their full time employment and may encourage further research for the improvement of adult
degree programs.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 137
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive compensation for the survey. If you agree to participate in the interview,
you will be compensated with a $15 gift card from Amazon.com. The gift card will be issued
within 2 weeks of completion of the interview and will be pro-rated to half of the gift card
amount if you choose to withdraw from the study prior to completing the interview.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential and
will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
To protect your identity your name will not appear in the interview questionnaire or the audio
recording, a pseudonym (false names) will be used. You have the right to listen to the recording
of your interview or to view a copy of the transcription of your interview.
The data will be stored in a password protected file for three years after the study has been
completed and then destroyed.
The results of the study will be shared with the program administrator upon request for the
purposes of program improvement.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact me, Rocio
Hernandez at (805) 493-3169 or rocioh@usc.edu or the faculty advisor, Dr. Tracy Tambascia at
(213) 740-9747 or tpoon@usc.edu.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant you
may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have questions about the
research and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park IRB (UPIRB), Office of the
Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Credit Union Building, 3720 South Flower Street,
CUB # 301 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 138
Appendix D
Interview Protocol
Time of Interview:
Date:
Location:
Interviewer:
Interviewee:
The purpose of this study is to learn about the experiences of undergraduate students enrolled in
programs geared towards adult learners and how these experiences are influenced by student
development theory. The information collected will consist of several questions in a 45-60
minute interview. To protect confidentiality your name will not be connected to this interview
and a pseudonym will be used.
Characteristic Information:
Age of Interviewee:
Do you work full time?
Do you attend the program full time?
Are you completing degree requirements in Fall 2012, Spring 2013, Summer 2013?
Questions:
1. I would like you to tell me about an important experience in your life prior to pursing
your degree (Pizzolato, 2004).
2. Tell me about an important non-academic experience you have had since you enrolled in
the adult degree program (Pizzolato, 2004)
3. Describe an important academic experience you have had since you enrolled in the
program (Pizzolato, 2004)
a. Tell me about your experience in the classroom. (Baxter Magolda & King, 2007,
p. 497)
b. Describe your experience with academic advising. (Baxter Magolda & King,
2007, p. 497)
UNDERGRADUATE ADULT LEARNERS AND SELF AUTHORSHIP 139
4. What experiences, if any, have shaped what you believe, who you are, and how you
relate to others? (Baxter Magolda & King, 2007, p. 501)
a. What insights are you taking away from these experiences? (Baxter Magolda &
King, 2007, p. 501)
b. How were your personal values and assumptions influenced? (Baxter Magolda &
King, 2007, p. 501)
5. Have you shared everything that is significant in reference to these experiences?
6. What additional information can you share that I have not directly asked about?
*Thank you for your cooperation and participation in this interview. Again, confidentiality will
be kept by assigning a pseudonym to the interview data.
Abstract (if available)
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The impact of work study on the integration and retention of undergraduate students at the University of California
PDF
A semester late: a phenomenological study examining the experiences of spring admits in higher education
Asset Metadata
Creator
Hernández, Rocío Durán
(author)
Core Title
An exploration of the experiences of undergraduate adult learners in an adult degree program from the theoretical framework of self-authorship
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
08/30/2013
Defense Date
06/18/2013
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
academic advising,adult degree programs,adult learners,non traditional students,OAI-PMH Harvest,self-authorship,student development,undergraduate adult learners
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Tambascia, Tracy Poon (
committee chair
), Buono, Lisa L. (
committee member
), Merriman, Lynette (
committee member
)
Creator Email
rocio.d.hernandez@gmail.com,rocioh@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-326583
Unique identifier
UC11293746
Identifier
etd-HernandezR-2029.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-326583 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-HernandezR-2029.pdf
Dmrecord
326583
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Hernández, Rocío Durán; Hernandez, Rocio Duran
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
academic advising
adult degree programs
adult learners
non traditional students
self-authorship
student development
undergraduate adult learners