University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Resource allocation practices in start-up charter schools in relation to identified school reform strategies

(USC Thesis Other)

Resource allocation practices in start-up charter schools in relation to identified school reform strategies

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 1

RESOURCE ALLOCATION PRACTICES IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS IN RELATION TO
IDENTIFIED SCHOOL REFORM STRATEGIES
by
Christine Sandra Suh
______________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2013
Copyright 2013 Christine Sandra Suh
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 2
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my father, Myung Ryung Suh. He has
mentored and guided me in discovering my passions. He has nurtured, encouraged, and
supported me in pursuing every ambition and dream my entire life. This dissertation is also
dedicated to my family, friends, colleagues, and, most importantly, God — each and every
individual has given me hope and faith during my most challenging moments that I can achieve
my goals and, for that, I am forever grateful.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 3
Acknowledgments
This dissertation was made possible through the ongoing support of my dissertation chair,
Dr. Lawrence Picus, who I have to thank for his passion and expertise. I thank you for the email
responses, phone conferences, face-to-face meetings in the evenings, and for reading drafts and
providing recommendations and guidance. I would also like to thank the members of my cohort
who have kept me motivated through the past three years with their passion and desire to be
leaders in the field to ensure that every student receives a quality education. It has been an
absolute honor and pleasure working with and getting to know each and every one of you.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 5
Abstract 6
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 8
Chapter 2: Literature Review 21
Figure 2.1. The Evidence-Based Model: A Research/Best Practices Approach
Linking Resources to Student Performance 60
Chapter 3: Methodology 64
Chapter 4: Presentation of Findings 74
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Implications 122
References 131
Appendix: Adequate Resources for Prototypical High Schools 137
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 5
List of Tables
Table 4.1. School Demographics 79
Table 4.2. Green Dot Public Schools Resource Allocation Gap Analysis: Four Start-Up
High Schools 100
Table 4.3. Green Dot Public Schools Positions Included in Personnel Allocation Count 102
Table 4.4. Individual School Gap Analysis: Assistant Principal and Coaches 105
Table 4.5. Individual School Gap Analysis: Specialist Teachers 107
Table 4.6. Individual School Gap Analysis: Special Education Teachers 108
Table 4.7. Individual School Gap Analysis: Non-Academic Pupil Support Staff 110
Table 4.8. Individual School Gap Analysis: Extended Day/Summer School Staff 111
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 6
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to develop a better understanding of the allocation of resources
utilized to improve student learning outcomes in four start-up, independent charter high schools
within a Charter Management Organization (CMO). The four high schools that participated in
the study had similar demographics and served students in urban communities throughout the
greater Los Angeles area.
The current practices implemented at the four high schools as they relate to the allocation
of resources were compared to Odden and Picus’ (2008) Evidence Based Model (EBM) as well
as Odden’s (2009) “Ten Strategies for Doubling Student Performance”, which are research
driven and likely to significantly improve student achievement outcomes. The study revealed that
the four high schools’ current practices for improving student achievement aligned with the
strategies identified by Odden (2009). Additionally, the study found that the practices
implemented by the schools were supported by the CMO’s mission and vision of ensuring that
every classroom had an effective teacher delivering instruction to prepare every student for
college, leadership and life upon graduation.
Finally, the use of Odden and Picus’ (2010) simulation to compare current resource
allocation practices for the participating schools with Odden and Picus’ (2008) EBM enabled a
gap analysis to be conducted. The findings of the study revealed that the personnel allocation
practices at the four schools did not vary significantly from that of the recommendations of the
EBM. However, specific recommendations to improve the supports and services for at-risk,
struggling learners were provided. Additionally, specific areas require further study for the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 7
purposes of considering how these schools can further improve the support and services provided
to at risk, struggling learners through extended day, school year and Summer School programs.

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 8
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The desire to improve the educational outcome of all students has posed fundamental
challenges in every aspect of our society. Policy makers and key stakeholders in the educational
realm continuously strive to develop an infrastructure that would enable students to develop the
skills needed to succeed in the 21
st
century and compete in a global economy (Ladd & Hansen,
1999-2000). The current economic state has caused the focus to shift towards the effective and
efficient allocation of funds to meet the needs of the dynamic student population that exists in
our nation. During an era of educational reform, it is crucial for policy makers to examine the
process in which reform agendas are communicated and implemented; they must ensure that
resources are provided equitably, adequately and allocated properly to truly fulfill their purpose.
In addition, it is critical for student achievement to be placed at the forefront of all decision-
making processes at the district and school levels if all students, regardless of their gender,
ethnicity, socio-economic status and cognitive capacity, are expected to meet their maximum
potential and high academic standards.
Background of the Problem
School finance issues accompanied by economic trends and increased accountability
measures are a paramount concern at the national, state, district and school level (Sandler, 2010).
With the release of A Nation at Risk in 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in
Education reported systemic problems that were promoting mediocrity thus allowing other
countries to “meet and surpass America’s educational, industrial, and commercial achievements”
(Sandler, 2010, p. 1). According to Sandler (2010), the commission provided the nation with a
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 9
sense of optimism by stating that they believed these problems could be corrected if stakeholders
worked collaboratively and were courageous enough to do what was required to improve the
system. This call for change enabled the foundation of the “education industry” to be established
as well as the growth of a class of “education entrepreneurs,” also referred to as social
entrepreneurs, whose sole mission was to improve educational outcomes of students across the
nation.
Over the past quarter century, school finance has evolved into a unification of the
economic and social worlds due to the fact that the future success of our society depends upon
the quality and effectiveness of our educational system (Sandler, 2010). Social entrepreneurs
have embraced the concept that education is a sector of the nation’s economy and as expectations
rise for students and teachers to perform at higher levels through an increased level of
accountability, the effective and efficient allocation of resources to best support these reforms
becomes the critical question for all stakeholders (Pan, Rudo & Schneider, 2003).
California serves over 6.2 million students through its public education system, which
includes a very diverse population with various needs (Education Data Partnership, 2013).
California’s student population varies by ethnicity, language, race, and socio-economic status,
making its schools responsible for providing varied resources so that the needs of all of its
students may be met. Additionally, the economic crisis that our nation has suffered has
intensified the budget cuts affecting the educational system; however, the demands made by our
federal and state officials as they relate to accountability systems to improve the academic
performance of all students continues to be at the forefront of the educational reform agenda.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 10
Therefore, the need for educational entities to identify resource allocation strategies that are
linked to student achievement is crucial.
While there has been a general increase in spending on both instructional and non-
instructional staff coupled with a declining pupil-teacher ratio, immense disparities continue to
exist across states in per pupil spending (Barro, 1992; Picus & Fazal, 1996; U. S. Census Bureau,
2008). In the past, school districts had the authority to set their own tax rates which constituted
the majority of their revenue; this, however, caused inequitable funding between wealthy and
low income communities. Fortunately, as a result of the Serrano v Priest (1971) case, California
courts now serve as a controller to reconcile discrepancies in per pupil expenditures between
urban and suburban districts by equalizing general-purpose funding across districts (Weston,
2010). Shortly thereafter, the passage of Proposition 13 (1974) established a property tax rate
limit of one percent; limited increases in assessed values on which the tax was based; and
allowed the state to determine how these funds would be allocated to each district (Weston,
2010). Four years after the passage of Proposition 13, the state increased its financial support to
schools to 61%, with local support generating approximately 25% (Weston, 2010). (Schools in
California are primarily financed by the state rather than their local municipalities.) Within the
last decade, the state of California has funded, on average, 55% of all K-12 funding (Weston,
2010).
Standards based educational reform has also had an immense impact on the school
finance system. Over the last 20 years, educational policy makers have prioritized standards-
based education to raise student achievement and equalize the playing field between urban and
suburban districts. Standards based educational reform coupled with outcome oriented
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 11
accountability measures that are directly tied to fiscal resources requires schools to focus on
results in order to function (Odden, 2003).
2001 legislative act No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is a prime example of standards based
educational reform. NCLB holds schools accountable for ensuring that all students receive
standards-based instruction and meet the same high academic standards, regardless of their race
and ethnicity (Porter & Polikoff, 2007). This outcome-based accountability measure serves to
promote equity and requires schools to demonstrate specific levels of growth towards
proficiency. This policy also involves monetary sanctions that penalize schools if “adequate
yearly progress” is not made towards proficiency targets for their entire student population
(Edsource, 2005). This shift in the educational finance system towards results-driven
accountability measures has forced schools to determine effective and efficient methods for
allocating resources.
In recent decades, research efforts have focused on broadening the understanding of the
role of school resources and its impact on student achievement, and how the process in which
funds are distributed can be refined to maximize progress towards proficiency targets as well as
improve post-secondary outcomes (Karoly & Panis, 2004). Many schools are investing in
developing their human capital through increasing the quantity and quality of professional
development provided to teachers. They have recognized that teachers must be provided with the
training and support necessary to meet their students’ needs and meet proficiency growth targets
(Archibald & Gallagher, 2002). Others are investing in additional instructional support staff that
includes literacy and math coaches to provide additional support to teachers. Although
investments in both professional development and coaches have been stated to be the most
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 12
effective in raising student achievement, further investigation involving the cost and direct
impact must be conducted to guide schools in their decision-making as it pertains to resource
allocation (Desimone, Porter, Birman, Garet, & Yoon, 2002).
Statement of the Problem
According to Odden (2003), the 1990s launched a major shift from fiscal equity towards
fiscal adequacy. Equitable funding, did not demonstrate improved levels of achievement within
minority student groups across the nation, thus, causing little or no change in the achievement
gap. Although higher monetary resource allocation positively impacts educational opportunities
and achievement rates among students, schools must determine the adequate funds necessary to
meet the needs of their school population as well as meet accountability measures due to the
limited resources available in our current economic state (Odden, 2003).
According to Odden (2003), the adequacy model analyzes and evaluates the state’s
school finance system in allocating sufficient revenues for the average student as well as
adequate resources for students who require additional support due to their disability, socio
economic status and English language development levels. The shift from equitable to adequate
frameworks requires districts and schools to spend adequate levels of funding to ensure that
educational programs are designed and implemented to allow all students to meet high
performance standards. Designing adequate school finance systems requires that the state
identify sufficient expenditure levels for all student populations and make necessary adjustments
accordingly. In order to determine adequate revenue to meet diverse student populations, Odden
(2003) indicates that cost-effective programs, curriculum, professional development and
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 13
personnel allocation must be identified and translated into efficient school finance structures so
that districts and schools are better able to produce desired outcomes.
Four methods to determine an adequate foundation expenditure level have been identified
by Rebell (2007):
1. Successful district approach: Identifies districts that have demonstrated success in
meeting proficiency targets for all student populations;
2. Cost function approach: Recognizes the unique characteristics of districts across the
nation and utilizes regression analysis to determine adequate expenditures per pupil
for the average district;
3. Professional judgment approach: Asks a panel of professional educational experts
to identify effective educational strategies for the K-12 setting that includes specific
interventions for subgroups including students with disabilities;
4. Expert judgment approach: Recommendations are made by expert researchers who
recommend educational delivery strategies that they believe to be supported by
research or proven best practices.
Odden and Picus (2008) offer an additional “evidence based approach,” which focuses on
methods that determine adequate expenditures utilizing their evidence based model (EBM). This
approach provides schools and districts with the crucial components that are required for the
purpose of establishing a high quality, comprehensive, school-wide instructional program. This
method provides a guide for school leaders to assist them in making cost-effective and efficient
decisions.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 14
In the current era of accountability and decreased revenues, the strategic allocation of
resources to enable all students to meet their potential is required. Strategies that have
demonstrated success can be incorporated into a district or school’s strategic plan and
implemented to ensure that all students achieve at higher levels regardless of their race, ethnicity,
gender and socio-economic status. The use and implementation of the EBM pertaining to the
allocation of resources can help during this current economic crisis to enable schools in meeting
high performance standards.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to examine the resources allocated to improve student
learning outcomes in four high schools within a charter management organization (CMO). All
schools involved in the study were start-up, independent charter schools. Due to the difference
between traditional public and charter schools, it is important to provide background information
pertaining to charter schools to gain an understanding of the context for the study.
Charter schools have become a significant aspect of the educational landscape over the
past decade in the United States with over 2,400 schools serving more than half a million
students in 34 states and the District of Columbia. Charter schools are authorized by either a
district, county or state and are autonomous, meaning they are given the opportunity to operate
independently from district regulations in exchange for enhanced accountability (Burkley &
Fisler, 2003). Charter schools have become an alternative option to traditional public schools,
thus a strategy within the educational reform movement (Burkley & Fisler, 2003). The article “A
Decade of Charter Schools: From Theory to Practice” presents five theoretical components of
charter schools (Burkley & Fisler, 2003). The first component is the establishment of charter
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 15
school law that creates new schools within the public educational system that provides parents
with alternative options for schooling. The second component pertains to the autonomy and
flexibility that charter schools possess which allows them to operate independently from the
school district as well as provides them with waivers from abiding by certain state laws and
regulations. The third component relates to market accountability which forces charter schools to
be more innovative in delivering services and offering higher quality programs than the
traditional school. The fourth component discusses the rigorous accountability measures that
charters are expected to achieve in order to meet the demands of their market as well as their
authorizing public entity due to the fact that they are required to seek renewal every 3-5 years to
continue to operate. Finally, the fifth element discussed by Burkley and Fisler (2003) involves
the expected outcome of charter schools. This element theoretically indicates that if charter
schools are given autonomy, are held to higher accountability measures which requires
innovation, the outcomes would include improvement in student achievement, high parental and
student satisfaction, teacher empowerment, a broader system of public education and positive
effects on educational equity.
The study intended to develop an understanding of the correlation between resource
allocation patterns and practices of four start-up charter high schools and their student
achievement outcomes which guided the recommendations provided to reallocate human capital
resources to effectively and efficiently improve performance.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 16
Research Questions
The following four research questions guided this study:
I. What are the current human resource allocation strategies implemented at four start
up charter high schools within Green Dot Public Schools to increase student
achievement?
II. Are the current human resource allocation strategies consistent with the
organization’s strategic plan for increasing student achievement?
III. Is there a gap between current human resource allocation practices in Green Dot
High Schools and the strategies that are used in the EBM?
IV. How can human resources be strategically re-allocated to align with strategies that
improve student achievement for students in Green Dot at the high school level?
Odden and Picus’ (2008) EBM was used in the analyses into the resources necessary for four high
schools to adequately allocate funds to increase student achievement levels. The purpose of the
EBM is to guide stakeholders in identifying methods by which existing resources can be allocated
to further improve student outcomes (Odden & Picus, 2008).
Importance of the Study
As the US faces the challenge of competing in the global economy and improving student
outcomes during this economic crisis, it is crucial for schools to be provided with evidence based
strategies pertaining to resource allocation. This study intends to analyze current human resource
allocation through the lens of an EBM for the purpose of providing practical recommendations
for improving academic achievement. Resource allocation must be focused on maximizing
student outcomes; therefore, this study aims to offer independent charter high schools in urban
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 17
settings the guidance and support necessary to transform into a school that produces outcomes
comparable to their suburban counterparts.
Summary of Methodology
This study utilized a qualitative methods design to assist in answering the research
questions. The data pertaining to instructional goals and priorities were collected through
interviews with the principals and cluster director. In addition, data focusing on resource
allocation was gathered from the human resources, knowledge management and finance
departments and analyzed through a gap analysis comparison using the evidenced-based model
(Odden & Picus, 2010).
Limitations
Data gathered for this study are limited to expenditures and resource allocations in the
2012-13 school year and were not longitudinal. Only school-level data were used, thus findings
are not generalizable across districts in the state of California.
The EBM recommends a high school size of 600 students with class sizes of 25, however,
when the number of students in a school or grade level cannot be evenly divided by 25, it can
trigger an additional entire Full Time teacher or can increase the class size which would contradict
the model.
Special education funding also varies across the nation and funding models also vary
across districts which include encroachment costs by the special education local planning area
(SELPA) that are deducted prior to the distribution of funds to district and schools. The EBM
does not account for these factors nor does it account for caseload numbers that are established
by Educational Code.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 18
Delimitations
Only start-up charter high schools within the Green Dot Public Schools network in Los
Angeles, California were considered for participation within this study. Findings can only be
generalized to California start-up charter high schools meeting the same criteria used for
selection within this study.
Assumptions
Underlying assumptions of this study include honesty and openness in the interviews as
well as the level of accuracy in the data provided by district office departments such as finance,
human resources and knowledge management. Statistics and achievement data were extracted
from the state website to ensure consistency across the four sites although slight differences are
anticipated between identified percentages of students scoring at proficient or advanced on state
accountability measures and site reported data.
Key Terms
Adequacy
The concept of educating all students to a predetermined level of
proficiency as set by the state’s accountability system under No
Child Left Behind. Students with varying needs may require
different levels of support in order to attain this minimal level of
proficiency
AJRCHS Animo Jackie Robinson Charter High School
ALCHS Animo Leadership Charter High School
API
Academic Performance Index: An annual ranking based on
calculations of student proficiency on yearly assessments as part
of California’s overall accountability system
ARBCHS Animo Ralph Bunche Charter High School
ASLACHS Animo South Los Angeles Charter High School
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 19
AYP
Adequate Yearly Progress: - A series of annual academic
performance goals established for each school, LEA, and the
state as a whole. Schools, LEAs, and the state are determined to
have met AYP if they meet or exceed each year’s goals
CA Current Allocation
CFU Checking for Understanding: A teacher evaluation system
CMO
Charter Management Organization: A non-profit that launches
and operates charter schools
CPRE Consortium for Policy Research in Education
CRTF College Ready Teaching Framework
EB Evidence-Based
EBM Evidence-Based Model
ELL English Language Learner
Equity
The concept of providing students with equal access to a quality
education through an even distribution of resources
GL Grade Level
GLL Grade Level Leader
IEP Individualized Education Plan
ILT Instructional Leadership Team
LEA Local Education Agency
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
NCLB
No Child Left Behind: 2001 federal legislative act proposed to
increase accountability for schools in reaching high levels of
proficiency for all students
Professional
Development
Organized district and school activities intended to build teacher
knowledge and skills
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 20
RCM Resource Cost Model
SELPA Special Education Local Planning Area
SEPA Special Education Program Administrators
Start-Up,
Independent
Charter School
In California, a petition to start a charter school can be initiated
by anyone. Priority in the approval process must be given to
schools designed to serve low-achieving students. Once
signatures are gathered, the petition is submitted to a chartering
authority—most often a school district, but sometimes a county
office of education or the State Board of Education
TLF Teacher Leader Facilitator
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 21
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to review and synthesize the extant literature related to the
history of school finance as well as the changes that have taken place to meet the new
accountability measures of the NCLB. Over the past few decades, educational finance reform has
focused on adequacy which calls for districts and schools to adopt new approaches in spending
for the purposes of improving student outcomes while fulfilling the demands of state and federal
guidelines. Costing-out methodologies will be presented including the EBM which will be
discussed in more detail as a preferred model towards the end of the chapter. This chapter will
also present a review of literature related to the process that districts and schools need to
implement so as to better manage the overall restructuring of their instructional, organizational,
and allocation practices for the purposes of increasing student achievement. In addition, the
review will present strategies that have been identified to significantly increase student
achievement as well as effective methods that districts and schools can utilize to allocate
resources. School choice as a reform effort and improvement strategy will also be presented with
a focus on charter schools. Finally, the gap that exists between the actual and desired resource
allocation practices adopted and implemented at districts and schools utilizing the EBM will be
presented.
Accountability Measures and School Finance
In the early 1990s, the standards-based reform movement emerged (Rebell, 2007). Over
the past 15 years, this movement has increased the awareness and has created a sense of urgency
regarding the poor academic achievement levels of all students in our nation. The passage of the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 22
NCLB Act in 2001 expanded upon the standards-based reform movement and placed
accountability measures on districts and schools for the purpose of improving student outcomes.
Furthermore, higher expectations placed on workers in the public and private sectors have forced
policy makers and educational leaders to ensure that students are provided with the resources
necessary to meet high achievement standards for the purposes of preparing them to compete in
the global economy (SEDL, 2003).
Due to heightened accountability measures imposed on districts and schools, pressure has
been placed on schools to raise student achievement levels, or else face sanctions such as
decreased enrollment, funding, loss of autonomy and, in some cases, school closures, all of
which are specifically outlined in the new legislation (SEDL, 2003). Additionally, challenges
such as narrowing the achievement gap that exists between specific student populations have
influenced judicial definitions of adequacy to ensure that these groups are provided with the
necessary resources to meet grade-level standards (Rebell, 2007). Rebell (2007) further argues
the need for states to determine the resources necessary and adequate to increase student
achievement in all subgroups as well as calculating the cost of those resources.
In addition, it is crucial to ensure that resources are allocated in an adequate manner due
to the fact that per-pupil expenditures significantly impact student outcomes (Odden, 2003). This
has caused states to use the adequacy cost-analysis framework as a foundational building block
to ensure that the funding system is constitutionally acceptable in meeting the needs of all
students (Rebell, 2007). The adequacy model also enables states to determine whether or not
accountability measures can be met for all students given the amount of funding provided
(Odden, 2003). Due to the significant impact this shift in models has made on the educational
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 23
system for the purposes of meeting accountability measures, an analysis of the history of
educational finance will be presented in the next section to provide a context for the current
funding models that are utilized.
Education Finance History
In the 1920s, the issue of equitable funding between suburban and urban districts arose.
Due to the apparent inequities that existed, many states adopted “foundation” programs which
required school districts to levy local property taxes to generate revenue to fund minimum
education needs (Rebell, 2007). The state then supplemented the revenue generated by urban
districts if they did not yield the minimum foundation level. The challenge states faced with
implementing this method was that they lacked a system to establish an equitable foundation
level as well as information on the actual costs of resources necessary to meet student needs to
improve student outcomes; instead the foundation levels tended to be established based on the
amount of funding available for education (Rebell, 2007).
Fortunately, as a result of two major court cases in the early 1970s, California courts
reconciled funding discrepancies between urban and suburban districts by equalizing general
purpose funds and establishing property tax rate limits to ensure that funding was distributed
equitably (Westin, 2010). The issue that arose despite equitable funding policies was that
achievement gaps continued to exist which initiated a major shift from fiscal equity towards
fiscal adequacy in the early 1990s (Odden, 2003). The challenge that is faced in the educational
arena as a result of this shift is determining the adequate funds necessary to meet all student
populations. “Under an adequacy argument…the legal test is whether a site’s school finance
system provides adequate revenues for the average student to meet determined performance
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 24
standards and whether adequate additional revenues are provided for the extra help students with
special needs require to achieve at those same performance standards” (Odden, 2003, p. 121)
A common misconception regarding school finance is that funding allocated to schools
has decreased significantly and is insufficient to enable schools to meet accountability measures
imposed by federal and state mandates. According to Odden and Picus (2008), funding for
schools has gradually increased during the 20
th
century and continues to rise in the 21
st
century.
From 1890-1990, K-12 per pupil expenditures increased 3.5% annually (Hanushek & Rivkin,
1997), a fact supported by Lankford and Wyckoff (1995) who also indicate that educational
expenditures rose from $2 billion in 1890 to $187 billion in 1990. This equates to an increase in
per pupil expenditures from $164 in 1890, $772 in 1940, and $4,622 in 1990 (Hanushek &
Rivkin, 1997). The federal, state, and local revenue contributions for public education for 2010–
11 were estimated at $62.6 billion, $273.1 billion, and $260.6 billion, respectively, totaling
$596.3 billion (NEA, 2010). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),
per-pupil expenditures were approximately $9,000 in 2003 (Odden & Picus, 2008). In 2010-
2011, this amount was estimated to increase to $11,144 according to the National Education
Association (2010). The concern that arises regarding the consistent increase in per pupil
expenditures is that student achievement levels have not improved at the same rate (Odden &
Picus, 2008). As Rothstein and Miles (1995) have noted, “If everyone knows that growth in
public education spending has outpaced any rise in school achievement, the challenge must be to
design systems that use money more effectively…” (p. 3).
The crucial inquiry focuses on how new monies are being allocated if the portion of
school budgets spent on each function remain essentially the same (Odden et al., 2003). Data
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 25
presented by Odden et al. (2003) indicates that districts generally expend resources using the
following distribution patterns: 60% for instruction, 5% for instructional support, 5% for student
support, 5% for site administration, 5% for district administration, 10% for operations and
maintenance and about 10% for transportation, food and other services. As Odden et al. (2003)
have observed, although the percentage dedicated for instruction remained the same despite the
increase in funding, substantial changes have been made within the category for planning and
preparation time for teachers, professional development, non-instructional staff, specialized
classes and pull-out services for students with disabilities as well as those who are identified as
being at risk. An important point to note that pertains to these changes is that districts and
schools must allocate adequate funds to meet student’s instructional needs in the regular
education program rather than focus on increasing the funding for resources outside of the core
instructional setting (Odden & Picus, 2008)
The need to reallocate resources to target student needs may be challenging due to the
lack of an effective finance reporting system that guides educational leaders and policy makers in
making programmatic and instructional decisions (Odden, et. al., 2003). Historically, financial
reports that have been utilized account for standard expenditures such as personnel and operating
costs; however, they make no mention of allocations for the purposes of increasing student
achievement. In the 1950s, the United Stated Department of Education, with the input of
educational leaders, released a fiscal accounting handbook to assist districts and schools in
outlining expenditures by categories; these included instruction, instructional support,
administration, operations, maintenance, transportation, and food services. Although this
reporting method enabled districts to identify expenditures in a more detailed manner, it lacked
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 26
the level of detail necessary to identify how dollars were specifically being utilized. Schools still
had no models to assist them in identifying student needs and the costs of meeting those needs.
In addition, schools required guidelines and reporting methods that utilized evidence based
models to identify needs as determined by student demographics to reallocate funds that
incorporated program improvement strategies (Odden et. al., 2003).
Research at the Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) developed a new
expenditure reporting structure, referred to the “expenditure framework.” This framework
identified spending by educational program within the instructional category and enabled
districts and schools to report spending of dollars by educational strategy as well as non-dollar
indicators (Odden et. al., 2003). The educational strategies included: Core instruction, specialist
instruction, professional development and types of extra help for students with disabilities and
students identified as being at risk. Non-dollar indicators involved: The number of minutes
allocated for reading and math instruction in elementary schools, class sizes, percentage of core
versus elective classes in the high school (Odden et al., 2006). CPRE indicated that the use of
the framework in reporting expenditures provided a comprehensive and more explanatory picture
of how educational resources were used to deliver instruction (Odden & Picus, 2008). In
addition, Odden and Picus (2008) have recommended the following data on resource allocation
in order to determine effective reallocation strategies: staffing and expenditures by program and
educational strategy and content area; interrelationships among staffing and expenditure patterns;
and the relationships these staffing and expenditure patterns have on student performance. This
disaggregation of expenditures and analysis of impact is the first step to addressing the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 27
productivity of resource allocation practices and ensuring adequate levels of funding are
provided to meet all student needs.
Costing-Out Studies and Methodologies
The focus on the level of funding required to provide an adequate education coupled with
the nationwide movement to raise student achievement and educational standards has resulted in
an explosion of “costing-out” studies that “aim to determine objectively the amount of funding
that is actually needed to provide all students with a meaningful opportunity for an adequate
education” (Rebell, 2007, p. 1304). One of the first studies was conducted in the early 1980s by
Jay Chambers and Thomas Parrish, through a study conducted in Alaska and Illinois. They
developed a “resource cost model” (RCM), which sought to identify the resources necessary to
achieve desired achievement goals in education (Rebell, 2007). The RCM is an input-oriented
model which involved key stakeholders such as superintendents, administrators, and teachers for
the purpose of developing ‘appropriate’ service delivery systems and identifying the resources
and costs necessary to implement them.
The RCM and other costing out studies and models have evolved over the past twenty
years. Rebell (2007) identified four methods to determine an adequate foundation expenditure
level: 1) the successful district approach; 2) the cost function approach; 3) the professional
judgment approach; and 4) the expert judgment approach. The first method identifies districts
that have demonstrated success in meeting proficiency targets for all student populations. This
method was developed by John Augenblick and John Myers as a result of the Ohio Supreme
Court’s education adequacy order in the case of DeRolph v the State (Rebell, 2007, p. 1307). The
major task of this method was to identify districts that were successful in meeting state standards,
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 28
and then analyzing their expenditures to establish a fair estimate of the actual cost of an adequate
education. The Ohio researchers identified a sample of successful school districts using six
specific measures of student achievement and then proceeded to analyze eight input-measures
such as pupil-teacher ratio and average teacher salary to determine a fair estimate.
The “cost function approach”, recognizes the unique characteristics of districts across the
nation and utilizes regression analysis to determine adequate expenditures per pupil for the
average district. Statistical relationships between “districts’ current spending practices and
student outcomes, controlling for variations in district characteristics and student population
characteristics” are identified through this method (Baker, 2005, p. 270). This approach also
requires “extensive statewide data on per-pupil expenditures, student performance and various
characteristics of students and school districts” (Rebell, 2007, p. 1312). The complexity of the
statistical analysis involved in this method makes it challenging for policy makers, educators and
the public to comprehend, thus causing it to be minimally utilized and generally perceived as a
theoretical model (Rebell, 2007).
The third method involves a panel of professional educational experts to identify and
design effective educational programs and strategies for the K-12 setting. These programs and
strategies include specific interventions for subgroups including students with disabilities that
would ultimately allow for the delivery of a proper education for all students. Costs are then
determined for each of these programs and strategies to render a total per pupil expenditure. This
method was developed in the mid-1990s by James Guthrie and his colleagues at Management
Analysis Planning (MAP) (Rebell, 2007). This came about after the Wyoming Supreme Court
required the state to calculate the cost of the ‘basket of goods and services’ required to provide a
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 29
“proper” education to all students. (Rebell, 2007). This methodology incorporated the input
oriented model outlined in the RCM but placed a greater emphasis on education “out-puts”
(Rebell, 2007). In addition, the basic resources necessary to implement the educational programs
using extensive economic analysis tools and market-pricing assumptions are identified, and
additional resources are considered that would potentially be required to provide specific
subgroups with a proper education.
The “expert judgment approach” is simplistic and has the ability to deal with the full
range of educational needs and outputs necessary to improve student outcomes. Although this
method is similar to the “professional judgment” approach, one of its advantages is that it offers
cost effectiveness literature knowledge base that professional judgment panels generally lack
(Rebell, 2007). Recommendations are made by expert researchers who recommend educational
delivery strategies that they believe to be supported by research or proven best practices.
The benefit of costing-out methodologies identified by Rebell (2007) is that they enable
districts and schools to identify the full range of educational inputs and outputs necessary to meet
the needs of students and meet desired performance-levels. However, each method has its
challenges and it is not possible to determine the exact amount of money needed for an adequate
education. Even though, “costing-out” studies attempt to utilize complex statistical and analytic
techniques, they still rely on critical judgment as well as comprehensive state wide financial and
student achievement data which can influence the ultimate outcomes. In addition, the
applicability and effectiveness of these methods have not been tested across the nation in districts
and schools that have diverse needs (Rebell, 2007).
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 30
Finance history along with the development of costing-out methodologies are indicators
of the continuous process of change that has taken place to ensure that adequate funds are
provided to meet student’s needs. The changes have provided guidance to districts and schools in
their financial decision making processes as well. In order to continue the necessary reform
efforts in the educational arena for the purposes of improving student outcomes through effective
resource allocation strategies, it is crucial for organizations to understand the process of
transformation. Furthermore, it is essential to have an understanding of research based strategies
that have demonstrated success in significantly improving student performance.
The Process of Change in the Educational Arena
Changes in the educational arena are often initiated by issues such as low academic
achievement, poor leadership and disgruntled teachers (Odden & Archibald, 2009). In order to
make large organizational changes, Mohrman & Cummings (1989) have identified a three-step
process to guide districts in managing the overall restructuring that is necessary to improve
student outcomes (Odden & Archibald, 2009). The first step in establishing the foundation for
change is to develop a common understanding of the organization’s strengths and weaknesses, as
well as the gap between the organization’s actual performance and its desired performance.
Large organizational change also requires buy-in from stakeholders with the understanding that
achieving new goals for significantly higher performance-levels for all students will require
commitment, dedication and complex, systemic, organizational restructuring. The second step in
the change process involves a comprehensive analysis of the organizational and programmatic
components that can positively impact student performance in the areas that require
improvement. Educational strategies require decisions to be made regarding regular education
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 31
programs in addition to programs and supports targeting struggling students who demonstrate a
need for extra services. The third step in high-stakes organizational transformation is strategic
implementation, monitoring and on-going support and assessments to continuously ensure that
strategies are adapted as necessary. These three steps provide a macro level process for
organizational change.
In addition to the three crucial macro level steps discussed above, it is beneficial for districts and
schools to research other educational organizations that have similar demographics and have
experienced success in improving student outcomes. It is essential for organizations to learn from
others who have demonstrated success in overcoming challenges as well as determining elements
that are necessary for increasing student achievement at a rapid rate. The next section will outline
strategies that districts and schools can implement to rapidly double their student performance
outcomes.
School Improvement Strategies for Doubling Student Performance
Duke (2006), through a review of qualitative studies, has identified factors that enabled
low-performing schools to experience a turnaround in their students’ achievement. These factors
include
• Assistance for students experiencing problems with learning;
• Collaboration;
• Data-driven decision-making;
• Leadership;
• Organization structure;
• Staff development;
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 32
• Alignment of curriculum content and assessments;
• Parent involvement;
• High expectations;
• Scheduling.
These elements also align with the strategies outlined by Odden & Archibald’s (2009) school
improvement strategies for doubling student performance. In Odden and Archibald’s (2009)
Doubling Student Performance…and Finding the Resources to Do It, the authors cite research
conducted by others that identifies districts that are producing significant improvement in student
achievement as well as effectively reducing the achievement gap. Odden and Archibald (2009)
also conducted a comprehensive study involving three small rural school districts and four
medium-sized urban school districts, primarily focusing on reform efforts at the elementary
school level as well as one K-8 school serving a high-minority and high-poverty population.
Despite differences in school size, location and socio-demographic characteristics, the strategies
developed and implemented to produce significant gains in student performance are quite similar
(Odden & Archibald, 2009).
Each of the districts and schools involved in this study demonstrated a drastic
improvement in student achievement, and used similar themes in developing and implementing
strategies in response to the NCLB act and standards-based reform. The themes have been
compiled into “10 Strategies for Doubling Student Performance” that provide a framework to
guide schools desiring the same results: 1) Understand the Performance Problem and Challenge;
2) Set Ambitious Goals; 3) Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New Instructional
Vision; 4) Utilize Benchmark and Formative Assessments, and Make Decisions Based on Data 5)
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 33
Provide On-going, Intensive Professional Development, 6) Use Time Efficiently and Effectively
7) Extend Learning and Time for Struggling Students, 8) Establish a Collaborative, Professional
Culture and Distributive Leadership System 9) Ensure that Professional and Best Practices are
Implemented, 10) Acknowledge and Incorporate the Human Capital Side of Doubling Student
Performance. Each of these strategies provided by Odden & Archibald (2009) will be further
discussed in the sections below and utilized as a framework; also, research that aligns with each
of the strategies will be included to provide additional support to their recommendations.
Understand the Performance Problem and Challenge
The NCLB Act has provided districts and schools with accountability measures and data
that have revealed student performance issues and achievement gaps. In order for these entities
to initiate the process of change, an analysis of student test data needs to be conducted to
determine the strengths of the district and schools programs and services, teachers and students.
Areas requiring significant improvement as well as the gap between their actual and desired
performance must also be analyzed. According to Odden (2009), it is crucial to gain an
understanding of the current performance levels through the analysis of statewide testing data to
address the areas requiring improvement in a systematic manner.
It is crucial to note that none of the school districts or schools involved in the study by
Odden and Archibald (2009) spent time scrutinizing state tests or arguing the lack of
comprehensive assessment of achievement that the tests provide, nor did they place
accountability on the student, family or environmental demographics due to the fact that these
factors are out of the control of the schools. The majority of districts and schools involved in the
study did, however, engage in an analysis of the content assessed in state tests and how well their
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 34
curriculum aligned with these elements. Additionally, they also analyzed their own standards to
determine their alignment with state standards and modified their standards and curriculum,
accordingly. These organizations also conducted a comprehensive analysis of their program
components that had been determined to positively impact student performance and identified
adjustments that would be necessary to further improve outcomes. Once improvement strategies
were identified, these districts and schools developed assessments and monitoring systems to
enable them to measure their effectiveness. As can be seen, these organizations had the “moral”
drive to close the achievement gap and improve the performance of students from low socio
economic and minority backgrounds. (Odden & Archibald, 2009).
Set Ambitious Goals
During the second half of the century, educational scholars recognized that in order to
enhance instructional outcomes, clear goals need to be set and school administration and staff
need to maintain a sense of common purpose (Hallinger & Heck, 1996). As stated by Hallinger
and Heck (1996), “Goals clarify where people intend to go, and how they will know when they
have gotten there” (p. 17). More importantly, organizations need to set high and ambitious goals
despite current performance levels and student demographics in order to achieve at an advanced
level. Odden and Archibald (2009) found that districts and schools that doubled in student
achievement strived for “quantum improvements” that applied to all students, regardless of their
demographics (p. 63). An important fact to consider is that even though districts and schools
may not fully achieve these goals, significant progress towards their established goals will be
made. These high expectations were set for all students in the schools and districts that doubled
their students’ performance levels, and regardless of whether or not they met their goals, districts
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 35
and schools attained immense progress and ended in a far better place than where they started. It
is recognized by successful organizations that setting ambitious goals are crucial in the process
of change and improvement, thus they find it essential to adopt a method in which goals are
developed. The 90-90-90 model is outlined below to provide a method for developing ambitious
organizational goals.
As coined by Dr. Douglas Reeves, the founder and leader of the Leadership and Learning
Center, the phrase 90-90-90, in reference to school goals, has been adopted by schools serving
low-income, minority students across the country (Odden, 2009). Dr. Reeves observed that high
performing schools in Milwaukee serving populations made up of 90% or more minority
students, of which 90% or more were eligible for free and reduced lunch, set goals indicating that
90% of their students would achieve at or above the proficiency level. The 90-90-90 approach
represents ambitious goals set for high-need student populations who typically do not meet or
exceed proficiency levels. Although effective schooling cannot overcome all of the challenges
that accompany poverty and language barriers, there are significant contributions that schools
can make in increasing the achievement level of students from these backgrounds; there exist
many 90-90-90 schools across the nation that are able to prove this philosophy (Odden, 2009).
Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New Instructional Vision
“Schools that produce high levels of student performance focus on what they can impact-
everything that happens in schools: the assignment of teachers, the organization of curriculum
and instruction, academic expectations, and curriculum and instruction” (Odden & Archibald,
2009, p. 64). What teachers teach, and how they teach it, has the largest impact on student
achievement (Odden & Archibald, 2009). Districts and schools doubling in student performance
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 36
adopted new research-based curriculum and developed a district and school-wide view of the
elements of effective instruction through a collaborative process that involved professional
learning communities. These elements were integrated into the new instructional vision that
involved new teacher induction, professional development for experienced teachers, and the
organization’s evaluation system.
Although the new instructional vision was developed through a collaborative process, it
was facilitated by an effective leader. Leaders at the districts and schools involved in Odden &
Archibald’s (2009) study believed that all students could perform well and meet high
expectations, and that the proficient achievement levels were a result of hard work, dedication,
and effective collaboration among all stakeholders. These leaders were able to share their
personal instructional vision, as well as inspire their faculty and staff to adopt it, which was a key
component to the improvement their organizations were able to demonstrate. Effective leaders
are an essential element in developing ambitious goals and more importantly ensuring that those
goals are achieved.
As discussed by Northouse (2006), leadership requires that the leader establish a
direction by creating a vision, aligning people through the communication of goals, and
motivating and inspiring the organization. Northouse (2006) further states that transformational
leadership involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more
than what is usually expected of them; it is a process that often incorporates charismatic and
visionary leadership. This style of leadership is also most effective when leaders of the school
clearly articulate personal values and are able to have these values adopted by all of their
members.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 37
Hallinger and Heck (1996) have also indicated that leaders with clearly articulated
personal values are more effective problem-solvers and are able to influence and inspire others
with their vision for the future. “Values are a great help in establishing relationships. They
provide a cohesion of identity for distant operations. Values on their own are like a fly-wheel
without a shaft - they need to be attached to the engine of the organization. Operating principals
provide the links” (Hallinger & Heck, 1996, p. 39). A principal’s role in framing school goals
and establishing a clear mission, in addition to gaining consensus, are strong predictors of school
outcomes, more so than their other duties as a school leader. Additionally, if a leader is to expect
whole-hearted commitment from all their stakeholders, their values and mission must symbolize
what is in the hearts of all members; this factor is key when establishing cohesion and inspiration
among administration, faculty, staff, parents and, most importantly, students.
Formative Assessments and Data-Based Decision Making
Districts and schools involved in Odden and Archibald’s (2009) study have implemented
many strategies to improve their students’ performance levels such as incorporating multiple
assessments into their everyday practice to inform instruction. These assessments enabled
teachers to design instructional activities that targeted student’s areas of challenge and deficit,
which served to enhance their skill level in the areas deemed more deficient. There are many
types and instruments utilized for formative assessments such as the Northwest Evaluation
Association’s (NWEA) Measures of Academic Progress (MAP). The NWEA’s MAP assessment
is administered quarterly, online, and provides teachers with results the following day so that
they are able to immediately tailor their instructional plans accordingly (Odden & Archibald,
2009). Unlike annual state-testing data which provides a macro-level map, formative
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 38
assessments provide a micro-level map to guide teachers’ specific curriculum units which allow
for higher performance on the macro-level assessments.
It is essential to triangulate findings from multiple data sources such as statewide testing
data, summative, and formative assessments to confirm or dispute whether or not progress has
been made towards an organization’s identified goals (Boudette, City, & Murnane, 2005).
Teachers can be trained to analyze and utilize multiple data sources within their classrooms such
as portfolios and student conferences, as well as formative and summative assessments to
identify patterns that can guide them in adapting instructional strategies and methods. This
process would also foster them in strategically developing and tailoring their own action plans to
support the school’s ambitious goals and high expectations.
Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development
Professional development is required at all levels when initiating a change process and,
more importantly, when attempting to double student performance. Districts and schools need to
provide targeted professional development for their teachers, especially around analyzing test
data, and how to implement new curriculum materials. In addition, extensive, ongoing
professional development is needed to ensure that teachers are well-equipped to analyze and
utilize formative assessment data in their planning process, and that incorporates the
organization’s newly-identified elements of effective instruction (Odden & Archibald, 2009).
Professional development should involve the building of knowledge, skills and their
effective implementation, as well as professional training that will enable people to become more
effective learners (Joyce & Showers, 2002). According to Joyce & Showers (2002), professional
training should consist of four main components: developing knowledge through the exploration
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 39
of theory to better understand the concepts behind a skill or strategy; the demonstration or
modeling of these skills; and the practice of these skills, along with peer coaching. There are
also key elements that are involved in becoming an effective learner; these include persistence;
understanding the need for theory, as well as application; and the ability to productively access
peers as a resource. Additionally, training must be closely related to its desired outcomes; thus,
schools should look closely at the intended outcomes of professional development in the context
of their own goals, problems, and priorities.
According to Guskey (1986), staff development can be redesigned to make a more lasting
effect. He (1986) identifies three guiding principles that he believes are essential in planning
effective professional development: 1) recognizing that change is a gradual and challenging
process for teachers and that new programs and innovations must be presented in a clear and
explicit way; 2) providing ongoing feedback on the student learning process; and 3) providing
continued support and follow-up after the initial training. He further explains that the first stage
of the change process involves providing staff development which will change teachers’
classroom practices, which will then change student learning outcomes, thus causing a change in
teachers’ beliefs and attitudes (Guskey, 1986).
According to research by Desimone et al. (2002), effective districts with strong
professional development activities were found to have a superintendent with a strong vision of
reform, have aligned their standards and assessments with professional development, and have
developed performance indicators to evaluate the effectiveness of teacher training. Desimone et
al (2002) outline three foundational steps in developing and implementing effective professional
development: strategic planning that includes developing goals and objectives, as well as
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 40
identifying how progress towards achieving these goals will be measured; conducting a needs
assessment for the purpose of ensuring that the strengths and challenges of teachers is accurately
addressed; and, ensuring that teachers are held accountable for the outcomes of the professional
development.
Based on their research of 1,000 teachers who participated in the federal government’s
Eisenhower Professional Development Program, funded by Title II, Desimone et al (2002)
determined six best practices found in effective professional development: 1) Form; 2) Duration;
3) Collective Participation; 4) Content; 5) Active Learning; and 6) Coherence. Form pertains to
the manner in which the professional development is formatted and how it is presented to
teachers. Professional development that involved collaboration, teacher coaching, modeling, and
follow-up observations was determined to be more effective. Duration involves the hours and
amount of time allocated to the professional development; in successful schools, extended
duration was found to be a key component to effective professional development. Districts and
schools involved in Odden and Archibald’s (2009) study dedicated ten pupil-free days prior to
and throughout the school year for teacher professional development. Collective participation is
when all teachers from a school, department or grade level participate in the development of
professional development. When stakeholders were involved in the development of professional
training, it proved to have a greater impact on student achievement. In regards to content,
professional development that focused on specific content areas rather than generic teaching
methodologies or strategies demonstrated increased effectiveness in learning outcomes for
students (Odden & Archibald, 2009). Active learning provides teachers with the opportunity to
be engaged in simulations, develop lesson plans, review student work, present, lead and write.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 41
When teachers were active participants in the training, and were given the opportunity to apply
new practices and receive feedback, the effects on student achievement increased. Lastly,
coherence addresses the fact that professional development training should build upon the state’s
accountability system and provide time for teachers to dialogue about how they will apply the
new program or strategies to current practices.
Most districts continue to incorporate the same practices in regard to professional
development despite the numerous changes in standards and accountability measures enforced
by local, state and federal guidelines. These practices lack continuity and follow-up and have led
to minimal gains in students achievement and teacher practice. Corcoran (1995) provides some
ideas for improving the current condition of professional development which include allowing
for joint work which promotes interdependence among teachers, and which sparks collaboration;
establishing teacher networks within subject-specific groups in which a common goal is pursued;
developing school and college partnerships which can lead to their playing an essential role in
supporting teacher learning; implementing professional development schools where teachers are
given the opportunity to practice what they are learning; encouraging teachers to pursue National
Board Certification as the process for applying and participating is considered to be highly
effective on the individual teacher; and providing research opportunities for teachers which
empowers teachers to work collaboratively in defining and solving problems. Due to the fact that
the teacher is the most crucial element in improving student outcomes, districts and schools must
strategically incorporate the strategies outlined in this section.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 42
Using Time Efficiently and Effectively
Districts and schools that doubled student performance have managed their instructional
time during the regular school day more efficiently and effectively. For example, some districts
and schools have dedicated more time for instruction in reading and math, making certain that it
remains free of interruptions and allows teachers to devote the entire time allotted for reading
and math instruction. Other districts and schools have clustered groups of students who were
performing at similar levels so as to enable teachers to focus specifically on the necessary
instruction required for them to perform proficiently. Students who were performing at the
lowest levels received small group instruction as a means of providing them with more intensive
support in meeting proficiency levels.
Secondary schools have also begun to offer “double” block periods for math and English
for struggling students; in this model, the second block serves as a support class to provide
remedial instruction on targeted skills that students need to develop to better access grade-level
content material as well as to reinforce content presented in the first block, as necessary. It is
crucial to note that these “double” block periods are taught by teachers who demonstrated
effectiveness in their ability to implement additional instructional approaches for students who
struggled to understand the content the first time around (Odden & Archibald, 2009). Each of the
districts and schools detailed above used the fixed resource of a six hour school day, and
restructured and reallocated personnel, to provide assistance to students who required this
additional support.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 43
Extended Learning Time for Struggling Students
Districts and schools involved in Odden and Archibald’s (2009) study embraced the
theory that most students can learn to high standards if given sufficient time (Odden &
Archibald, 2009). These organizations held high performance standards for even their lowest
performing students, and built multiple extra-help strategies to further support them in meeting
proficiency targets. In a study conducted by Silva (2007), the Commission on Time and Student
Learning, as well as a report from the Education Sector, recommended that extra help and time
be provided during and outside the regular school day and year (Odden & Archibald, 2009).
Secondary schools can offer extended time during the regular school day by providing
struggling students with a double-block in reading, language arts and math in lieu of an elective
course; as has been identified, there is a correlation between reading and increased proficiency
levels in other content areas (Odden & Archibald, 2009). Individual and small group tutoring
during the school day was also offered by districts and schools that doubled in progress. In most
cases, tutoring was provided by certificated trained staff who were experts in reading.
Extended time to support struggling students during the regular school year can also be
offered before school, in after-school programs, as well as on Saturdays. These intervention and
support classes are often staffed by school faculty and, in some cases, by outside agencies that
are funded through grants (Odden & Archibald, 2009). Summer school or extended school year
options can be offered through a reallocation plan to provide additional support to students who
continue to struggle to meet proficiency levels, as well as for high school students who have
failed courses during the school year.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 44
Collaborative, Professional Culture and Widespread, Distributed Instructional Leadership
In an action research study conducted by Joyce and Calhoun (1996) involving five school
systems that attempted to become true learning communities, it was reported that the culture of
the school must change so that learning becomes the central focus of the workplace.
Collaborative, professional cultures, also referred to as “professional learning communities,”
were established by districts and schools that doubled their student performance for the purpose
of developing and implementing the aforementioned steps in a collaborative, rather than a
bureaucratic manner. It was found that teachers who extend themselves professionally and work
in collaboration with others for the purpose of improving their effectiveness will become better
teachers who produce higher performance levels.
Social relationships in schools and classrooms are also shown to significantly affect
students’ ability to learn, and contribute strongly to accepting personal responsibility for student
learning (Louis & Marks, 1998). Teachers who served in the districts and schools doubling their
student performance levels shared high expectations for all students and took ownership and
accountability for student achievement, or the lack thereof; they were also reflective and open to
critical feedback, and publicly shared their successes and challenges in and out of the classroom.
Professional teachers observed and collaborated with one another to ensure that the school-wide,
professional approach to good instructional practice was being implemented and that they were
aligning their instructional units to collected formative assessments. This openness, along with
the characteristic of being a lifelong learner who believes that more can always be done to
improve student achievement, allowed for the districts and schools involved in Odden and
Archibald’s (2009) study to double their students’ performance level. “Teacher professionalism
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 45
must increase if education is to improve. While individual professionalism is desirable, active
work in a professional group is also important to increasing teachers’ sense of their craft and
overall commitment to work contexts that are increasingly difficult and demanding” (Louis,
Marks & Kruse, 1996, p. 758). Professional communities of learning as well as leadership that is
distributed has demonstrated increased commitment in the teaching field as well as teacher
effectiveness.
Leadership involving central office personnel, school site administrators and teachers is
often called distributed leadership; as has been found, there is higher probability that the goal
will be achieved when all entities demonstrate a vested interest and dedication to the goal of
doubling student performance. Central office personnel and board members serving the districts
and schools that doubled in performance often visited the school site to offer their support and to
determine how they could contribute and serve towards increasing student achievement levels. In
some districts, central office personnel ensured that formative and state-level testing data was
provided in a format that was easily comprehensible to administrators and teachers, as well as
offering support to schools in reallocating the resources necessary to implement their strategies
(Odden & Archibald, 2009).
School site administrators also recognized that they did not have the capacity to provide
all the instructional leadership needed to “change the entire curriculum, create and implement a
professional development strategy, work with teachers on the analysis of formative assessment
data, and provide the classroom coaching necessary to allow teachers to change their
instructional practice; “as such, they promoted teachers to serve in roles such as instructional
coaches, curriculum heads, new teacher support providers, and curriculum facilitators” (Odden &
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 46
Archibald, 2009, p. 81). This distributed leadership model further nurtured the process of
shared-decision making which fosters an open line of communication and trust between school
site administrators and teachers as decisions are made as a community. In the districts and
schools that doubled in student performance, principals were instructional leaders; however, it is
important to note that if principals do not serve in this capacity, they do have the ability to
identify and support teachers in fulfilling the roles necessary to achieve their ambitious goals
while they perform all of the other functions required in managing a school (Odden & Archibald,
2009).
Professional and Best Practices
Highly professional educational organizations that sought research-based best practices;
best practices that demonstrated effectiveness in other districts and schools; and top experts to
provide the best reading, writing, math, science and professional development programs doubled
in student performance (Odden & Archibald, 2009). Too often, teachers work in isolation and
are unaware of the vast knowledge and resources that are available to support them in improving
their instructional practices. Understanding about teacher’s “acquisition of knowledge and skills
is fundamental to our understanding about how and in what circumstances teacher use research
and evidence to develop their practice” (Joyce & Showers, 2002, p. 1).
The Human Capital Side of Doubling Student Performance
“Principal and teacher talent are key to improving student performance” (Odden, 2009, p.
119). The districts and schools that demonstrated a significant improvement in student
achievement outcomes developed successful strategies to recruit top talent at all levels within
their educational system. However, it is important to acknowledge that it is difficult in particular
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 47
districts located in urban and rural communities to recruit highly qualified candidates to fulfill
personnel needs. There is also an issue of turnover in these high need districts and schools which
further complicates the implementation of the aforementioned strategies. Odden (2009), indicates
that in order to make progress in achieving the ambitious goals established by a district or
school, systems for recruiting, deploying, inducting, developing, evaluating, compensating and
managing of leaders and teachers need to be revamped.
As cited by Odden (2009), a national project emerged in 2008 called the Strategic
Management of Human Capital (SMHC). This project’s sole purpose was to address talent and
human capital management issues faced by the educational system, specifically in large, urban
school districts. Alongside SMHC’s efforts, talent recruitment organizations such as Teach for
America (TFA), The New Teacher Project (TNTP) and New Leaders for New Schools (NLFNS)
identified key elements of effective recruitment and talent management strategies.
Once of the key components to recruitment identified by SMHC and these organizations
is that districts and schools need to deploy “a set of aggressive, well-designed, comprehensive,
and multifaceted recruitment strategies” (Odden, 2009, p. 124). Many urban school districts
involved in SMHC’s studies waited until August to recruit candidates for the upcoming school
year. By this time, top talent had taken positions elsewhere leaving districts to select from a pool
of candidates who were not as highly qualified. Recruitment must occur early on and should
include an automated system where positions are posted online, screenings take place
electronically and feedback is sent shortly after an application is submitted. In addition,
recruitment must take place at top colleges with highly reputable teacher education programs that
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 48
are in close proximity to the district. Thus, a crucial talent recruitment strategy is to build strong
partnerships with high quality teacher training programs at local colleges and universities.
Another recruitment strategy is to partner with organizations such as TFA, TNTP or
NLFNS to fulfill personnel needs. Each of these organizations receive thousands of applications
from graduates of the top colleges throughout the nation as well as from individuals seeking to
change career paths to serve high needs areas. Additionally, districts and schools can develop
their own training programs that involve a year of “residency” to fulfill future personnel needs.
During this year of residency, leaders and teachers would serve under the supervision of a mentor
which can be an individual from the district or from a program at a local college or university.
Offering an array of incentives to enhance recruitment efforts is another strategy
identified by SMHC. Examples of incentives that have been implemented by districts involved in
SMHC’s study include housing support programs that involve a flat-rate bonus for specific
positions that include a minimum commitment of service, tax free grants for individuals who
serve in high needs schools each year for a specific number of years, as well as salary increases.
Districts can also develop additional incentives that would attract top talent to their area.
Recruitment is the first step in ensuring that districts and schools are staffed by highly
qualified and effective individuals. More importantly, it is essential to manage and train top
talent in ways that align to the organizations instructional vision and ambitious goals.
“To make talent management practices even more strategic, they need to be linked
vertically to the educational improvement strategy and horizontally across all its
key elements-recruitment, selection/placement, induction, mentoring, professional
development, performance management/evaluation, compensation, and
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 49
instructional leadership-so that they produce the people with the knowledge and
skills needed to execute the overall improvement strategy.” (Odden, 2009, p. 121)
Recruitment and talent management are the key elements in the process of
improving student achievement. Recruitment strategies along with systems for personnel
development, compensation and evaluation must be established and implemented
effectively for all of the aforementioned improvement strategies to demonstrate desired
results.
School Choice — A Reform Effort and Improvement Strategy
In 1955, Milton Friedman argued that adopting a school voucher system would increase
competition among schools, thus, improving the quality of education provided to children which
initiated the concept of school choice (Moe, 2008). More than half a century later, debates
continue as to whether or not this choice system would offer an additional advantage to wealthy
students who already exercise choice by living in communities with high performing school
systems. Today, school choice options exist in the following formats: home schooling, magnet
schools, tuition tax credits, voucher systems, and charter schools.
The number of students selecting the home schooling option has risen significantly in the
last decade. A U.S. Department of Education study estimates that in 2003, 1.1 million students
were homeschooled. This number was estimated to have increased to 1.5 million students in
2007 (NCES, 2010). Although home schooling provides choice to families, not all families have
the resources necessary to properly educate their children, which fails to make this a viable
option in closing the achievement gap on a larger scale.
Magnet Schools are federally authorized under Title V of ESEA. The goals for the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 50
federal magnet schools program which are promoted by the U.S. Department of Education
include: To develop school programs that will assist in achieving systemic reforms and close the
achievement gap by providing all students the opportunity to meet challenging state academic
standards; to develop innovative educational programs that promote diversity and increase
choice in schools; to promote courses of instruction that will substantially strengthen students'
knowledge of academic subject matter and attainment of tangible and marketable 21
st
century
skills; and, to ensure that all students have equitable access to high-quality education that enables
them to succeed academically as well as pursue post-secondary education and/or meaningful
employment (USDOE, 2012). Although magnet school programs have received nationwide
attention and financial support through federal grants, this option seeks to educate specific
populations of students, and by design, will not prompt large-scale education reform.
V oucher programs and tuition tax credits have been implemented in a small number of
states across the nation and differ from home school and magnet programs that only impact a
small number of students. In 1995, Wisconsin became the first state to enact a law allowing
public funds to be used to educate children from low-income families at public or private schools
(Jennings, 2012). Ohio, Florida, and Indiana have followed suit and have passed laws offering a
form of voucher programs. By 2008, ten tuition tax credit programs were offered nationally to
provide parents with tax credits for education expenses at private schools. These tuition tax credit
programs also provided tax credits to businesses and individuals for contributing to scholarship
organizations that provide vouchers to children (Moe, 2008). While controversial in nature,
these programs have not been broadly adopted across the nation as a school choice reform effort.
Whereas all aforementioned school choice options remain limited in scope and impact,
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 51
charter schools are permeating, particularly in urban areas suffering from prevalent achievement
gaps. Since the inception of the first charter school in 1992, charter school enrollment currently
serves 4 percent of the total U.S. enrollment in elementary and secondary schools. Charter
schools are typically concentrated in urban geographic areas, with cities like the District of
Columbia, enrolling approximately 40 percent of its students in this school choice option
(Jennings, 2012).
California was the second state in the country to pass charter school legislation. By 2008,
charter schools represented 7 percent of all public schools and enrolled 4 percent of all students
in California (EdSource, 2009). The Charter Schools Act of 1992, served as a political
compromise to the highly debated voucher initiative and sought to accomplish the following
goals: 1) Improve student learning; 2) Increase learning opportunities for all students; 3)
Encourage the implementation of innovative learning methods; 4) Create new professional
opportunities for teachers that involve leadership and decision making roles and responsibilities;
5) Expand choice for parents in the public school system and 6) Hold schools accountable for
meeting measurable student outcomes (EdSource, June 2004 & June 2009).
The first charter schools in California were primarily conversion charters – traditional
public schools that converted into charter schools. They retained their facilities, staff and
students. In recent years, this trend has changed with most California charters opening as start-
ups that host their own facilities, hire their own staff, and recruit students from existing
surrounding schools. In 2008, approximately 83 percent of California’s charters were start-ups,
serving 73 percent of charter school students (EdSource, 2009). The purpose of this change is
largely based on the understanding that start-up charters can more rapidly produce improved
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 52
learning outcomes because they are not constrained by issues of existing staff and school culture.
However, it is critical to consider the fact that California has faced funding decreases and the
challenge of securing facilities which have forced many charter operators to rethink their
approach when opening new schools.
Based on a comparison study conducted by EdSource in 2009, varying demographic
information exists at the high school level between charter and non-charter students. For
example, charter high schools have a higher participation rate than traditional high schools in the
Free and Reduced Lunch program. Charter high schools also enroll a higher percentage of
African-American and Latino students, while serving a lower percentage of Special Education
students and English Language Learners than traditional schools (EdSource, 2009). Due to the
variations in demographic data between charter and traditional schools in California, the study
considered these differences when comparing achievement data and adjusted its analysis and
findings accordingly. These adjustments resulted in charter high school students scoring almost
nine points higher on the API than their non-charter counterparts. However, when the data was
disaggregated, results revealed that students score slightly higher on English tests and slightly
lower on Math tests (EdSource, 2009).
A study on charter performance conducted in 2009 by the Stanford University Center for
Research on Education Outcomes (CREDO) involving 15 states and the District of Columbia
revealed mixed results as well. Performance gains varied across states, school levels, special
populations including ELLs and students with disabilities, number of years a student attended the
charter as well as content area. These mixed results have led to contentious debates over charter
effectiveness. Contributing factors for these persisting debates include: State charter school
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 53
policies; lack of a uniform academic program that would enable an easier comprehensive
evaluation; Student demographics such as higher percentages of at risk populations served in the
charter schools; and lastly, the political nature of charters that restrain meaningful discussion
about charter schools as an effective school choice option.
Evidenced Based Model (EBM)
Earlier in this chapter, four costing-out methodologies were presented along with
strategies that were implemented at districts and schools that significantly improved student
achievement which was also supported by additional research. This section will discuss in detail
the EBM as a preferred model due to the fact that it couples costing-out methodologies with
research based strategies for improving student outcomes and specifically guides decision
making practices pertaining to the reallocation of resources.
The EBM identifies school-based programs and educational improvement strategies that
have been proven through research to improve student achievement levels (Odden & Picus,
2010). The ten key strategies included in the EBM are listed below. The similar strategies
implemented by schools and districts that doubled in student performance were presented in
detail earlier in this chapter.
1. Creating a sense of urgency
2. Setting ambitious goals
3. Adopting a new curriculum and instructional vision
4. Using multiple forms of student data
5. Investing in ongoing professional development
6. Using time more effectively and efficiently
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 54
7. Providing extra time and help to struggling students
8. Creating collaborative cultures
9. Becoming professional communities and performance oriented cultures
10. Addressing talent and human capital issues.
The prototypical school size that the EBM utilizes, based on research is 600 students at
the high school level and a class size of 25 which indicates a need for 24 core teachers. If the
school is significantly larger than the prototypes, Odden and Picus (2008) recommend dividing
the school into smaller learning communities that operate as semi-independent entities. Since
collaborative planning time, professional and curriculum development are key components of
recommended improvement strategies, providing teachers with a period a day for these purposes
would reflect an additional 20 percent allocation for specialist teachers who provide instruction
in art, music, library skills or specialist content courses. Odden and Picus (2008) also
recommend block scheduling due to the fact that research suggests the need for extended,
concentrated time for acquiring knowledge that is based on rigorous performance expectations.
90 minute block periods at the high school level would require an additional 33 percent for
specialist teachers indicating a staff of 32 Full Time Employees (FTE) for the prototypical high
school size of 600.
The EBM calls for instructional facilitators that enable professional development to
achieve its intended outcomes. These individuals spend most of their time in classrooms
modeling lessons as well as coaching teachers by observing and providing feedback which
significantly impact the instructional program. The formula utilized to determine the number of
instructional coaches is one FTE for every 200 students which would translate into 3 FTE for the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 55
prototypical high school. Although these positions indicate FTE, schools can divide these
responsibilities across several individual teachers that allow them to teach 50 percent of the time
and provide instructional coaching for the other 50 percent.
Staffing for struggling students is a crucial component in the EBM. Struggling students
can be identified as students who are eligible for free and reduced lunch, identified as students
with disabilities and/or English Language Learners (ELLs). Research indicates that 1-1 tutoring
by a licensed teacher is the most powerful and effective strategy to support struggling students
(Odden & Picus, 2008). The EBM calls for one tutor for every 100 struggling students which
translates into six FTE tutors, with a minimum of one for a prototypical high school. It is
essential to note that structures for tutoring programs can range depending upon the needs of the
school as well as formative assessment data. Tutoring groups can be arranged using a 3:1 or 5:1
ratio with a 1:1 ratio for the students with the most needs, specifically in the area of literacy.
The EBM indicates critical components necessary in serving ELLs which include
qualified teachers, adequate instructional materials, good school conditions, effective
assessments, integrated programs, rigorous curriculum and courses as well as professional
development targeting sheltered-English teaching skills (Odden & Picus, 2008). The model calls
for one FTE for every 100 ELLs.
Extended-day programs provide safe environments for students before and after school
and have demonstrated improvements in academic and behavioral outcomes for all students
(Odden & Picus, 2008). The model includes resources for 50 percent of the number of students
qualifying for free and reduced lunch and suggests one FTE for every fifteen eligible students
which is paid at a rate of 25 percent of the positions annual salary. This would enable the school
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 56
to offer a 2.5-3 hour extended day program. Research also indicates the need for summer school
at the high school level that focuses on courses that students failed during the school year. The
model includes a summer school program that serves 50 percent of all students qualifying for
free and reduced lunch. Resources are allocated for an eight week, six hour a day program with a
class size of 15 students.
Offering appropriate special education programs and services in a cost effective manner
is a challenging task due to complex funding models across the nation. If a school’s special
education population is made up of primarily students with mild to moderate disabilities who can
be served within the general education program, allocating a fixed number of FTE would work.
However, districts and schools typically serve students with moderate to severe disabilities such
as autism, intellectual disabilities and emotional disturbance. Depending on the number of
students identified with these disabilities, districts can cluster students and provide appropriate
programs and services at a central site for the purposes of cost efficiency. In addition, special
education funding models differ across the nation; some states, such as California, have adopted
a census-approach which funds additional teacher resources for prototypical schools, assuming
that there is an even distribution of disability categories across the districts and schools. The
reason for the adoption of this approach in states across the country include: the increase in
students with learning disabilities, underfunding of programs and services for students with
severe disabilities, over-identification of low income, minority, ELL students as well as a
reduction in paperwork (Odden & Picus, 2008). It is crucial to acknowledge that there are
advantages and disadvantages with this approach which involve flexibility, simplicity coupled
with issues of equity and differences between state aid and the actual costs of student needs. The
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 57
EBM support the census approach for students with mild to moderate disabilities and suggest
that the state reimburse districts for 100 percent of the costs for students with severe disabilities.
The EBM identifies additional resources necessary for prototypical schools such as:
substitute teachers, support personnel including librarians and aides, administrators as well as
professional development, technology, equipment and instructional materials. Resources needed
for substitute teachers are approximately 10 days for each teacher. Schools also need personnel
to provide outreach to parents which include trainings on what they can do to support their
students’ academic success as well as how to understand the expectations of the school’s
performance expectations. At the secondary level, trainings would include graduation criteria and
college entrance requirements and processes. The model provides resources for parental outreach
and involvement as well as counseling for students. The EBM allocates six teacher level
positions and 2.4 counselors for a prototypical high school that serves primarily low-income
students.
Aides are also included in the EBM to fulfill duties such as lunch, before and after school
supervision as well as school bus monitoring. The model does not support instructional aides due
to a lack of evidence that they add value to the schools or positively impact student achievement.
However, if they are selected utilizing specific criteria, are trained in implementing specific
reading programs and are closely supervised, they can have a significant impact on improving
literacy skills of students who are struggling to achieve (Odden & Picus, 2008). The prototypical
high school includes 3 FTE aide positions to be filled to relieve teachers of non-instructional
duties.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 58
The EBM indicates the need for one principal at the prototypical high school due to the
indirect impact that this individual can have in the success of a school. High schools in particular
require an effective principal who can influence the school’s instructional climate and
organization by establishing clear goals; providing programmatic coherence; communicating
relevant information that includes best practices, establishing systems of accountability,
nurturing collaboration and professional learning communities; and maintaining student
discipline (Odden & Picus, 2008). Although many districts and schools indicate a need for an
assistant principal, the EBM suggests the need for additional instructional coaches rather than
administrative staff.
Secretarial staff support is necessary at the school site level for clerical and administrative
assistance. The model includes three positions at the high school level. Resources that are
required to implement and provide effective, ongoing professional development that involves all
components indicated in the section regarding improvement strategies include: intensive summer
training institutes which include ten days of teachers’ normal work year dedicated to professional
development, on site coaching, collaboration planning and preparation time as well as funds for
training during the summer and school year which amounts to approximately $100 per pupil,
translating into $60,000 for a prototypical high school.
In regard to technology, the EBM implies that students can be better equipped for post-
secondary education and the workforce if used appropriately. It can also increase student
motivation and can support students in meeting future performance expectations that will
incorporate technology skills. (Odden & Picus, 2008) There are direct and indirect costs
associated with technology. Direct costs include hardware, software and direct labor. Indirect
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 59
costs include training, user application development, maintenance, and downtime costs. The
model suggests a $250 per pupil figure, which would cover direct and indirect costs and enable
the school to provide one computer for every three students. It is also recommended that a
maintenance agreement is purchased to decrease the amount of personnel required to manage
technology at the district and school level.
In order to achieve high performance rates, acquiring up to date instructional materials is
critical. Although the cost of ensuring that textbooks and materials are current is substantial, it is
essential to the learning process. The EBM recommended that districts and schools allow for a
six year adoption cycle and purchase six books per pupil at the high school level. The price of
textbooks vary; however, textbooks are estimated to cost approximately $120 per book plus $50
for supplemental consumables.
The EBM accounts for one librarian at the high school level and suggests a resource
allocation of $25 for library texts and electronic services. The model also includes an allocation
for student activities that include after school programs such as clubs, bands, and sports, which
amount to $200-250 per pupil at the high school level. Figure 2.1 provides a visual
representation of the EBM described above.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 60

The table below has been modified from Odden and Picus’s (2008) chart to outline all information reflected in the EBM at the high
school level.
Figure 2.1. The Evidence-Based Model: A Research/Best Practices Approach Linking Resources
to Student Performance
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 61
Gap Analysis
As educational systems strive to improve academic performance levels in all schools, it is
apparent that resource allocation practices need to be revamped for greater efficiency and
effectiveness. The improvement strategies implemented at the districts and schools that
significantly increased their student achievement levels which are aligned to the EBM are
explicit. However, there is gap that exists between the actual and desired resource allocation
practices that are implemented in districts and schools across the country.
A study conducted by the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL, 2005)
involving independent school districts in Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico and Texas,
demonstrated this gap. The study analyzed the districts and schools resource allocation practices
that were implemented to improve student achievement. SEDL (2005) examined student
performance data as well as the fiscal and human resource allocation of each of the districts
involved in the study. Within the study, 12 districts that demonstrated consistent gains in student
performance were selected and further examination of their resource allocation practices was
conducted. High performing districts involved in the study implemented different resource
allocation patterns in specific fiscal and staffing categories than low performing districts. A
common finding that emerged indicated that high performing districts allocated an increased
level of funding per pupil for instruction, teachers and core expenditures and less on
administrative staff and non-instructional areas (SEDL, 2005).
Clark and Estes (2008) describe various ways to identify a performance gap through gap
analysis which diagnoses the human causes behind performance gaps. As Clark & Estes (2008)
have asserted, when diagnosing performance gaps, three critical factors must be examined:
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 62
“people’s knowledge and skills, their motivation to achieve the goal and organizational barriers
such as a lack of necessary equipment and missing or inadequate work processes” (p. 43).
During the gap analysis process, it is important to determine whether or not workers know how
to achieve their performance goals, if they want to pursue, persist and invest their efforts towards
the goal as well as if the organization needs to develop, adapt/modify current
processes/procedures.
The gap that exists in actual and desired resource allocation practices based on the EBM
in districts and schools across the nation can be attributed to a knowledge and organizational
barrier. The improvement strategies indicated in the EBM that are aligned to Odden &
Archibald’s (2009) 10 strategies for doubling student performance lacks research that indicate
effect sizes for each strategy; This hinders districts and schools in making informed decisions
regarding the strategies they choose to implement.
In regard to the organizational gap, it is important to acknowledge that there are two
major differences between traditional school finance models, costing out methodologies and the
EBM: 1) The EBM builds from funding estimates from the school level rather than the district
level; 2) The model assumes that all resources are available for the educational strategies it
recommends. Due to the fact that resources may not be available immediately to implement all
improvement strategies recommended, it is difficult to determine which strategies to prioritize
because of the lack of research pertaining to effect sizes of each strategy. Although Odden and
Archibald’s study of districts and schools that implemented all improvement strategies which
allowed them to demonstrate significant growth, many districts and schools lack the funding to
do so.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 63
Connecting Literature to Research
In exploring the research questions of this study, four start-up charter schools within the
Green Dot Public Schools network will be compared to the EBM to determine if similarities and
differences exist between how these schools have chosen to allocate resources in relation to their
identified improvement strategies. This will help inform whether or not the model can be
modified while yielding equitable increases in student performance. The schools that are
underperforming will gain knowledge regarding alternative methods of structuring their spending
that will enable them in acquiring a higher level of success.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 64
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter will describe the design, sample, instrumentation, data collection and
analysis process that were utilized in this study. The purpose of the study was to develop a
better understanding of how resources are allocated in four high schools within a charter
management organization. Each of the school’s resource allocation patterns were compared to
the EBM to identify the relationship between how they are spending monies and research based
improvement strategies for effective school reform. The initial analysis established a base line
that outlined current practices. The comparison to the EBM will guide schools and district level
leaders in redesigning allocation practices to more effectively distribute resources. This
comparison will further support practitioners and policymakers in developing an understanding
of how to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the educational dollar at the high school
level. Specifically, this study intended to investigate the resource allocation practices at the
school sites to determine if there is an alignment between these practices and the school’s student
achievement goals.
Research Questions
The research questions for this particular study were:
I. What are the current human resource allocation strategies implemented at four start-
up charter high schools within Green Dot Public Schools to increase student
achievement?
II. Is the current human resource allocation strategies consistent with the
organization’s strategic plan for increasing student achievement?
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 65

III. Is there a gap between current human resource allocation practices in Green Dot
High Schools and the strategies that are used in the EBM?
IV. How can human resources be strategically re-allocated to align with strategies that
improve student achievement for students in Green Dot at the high school level?
The questions are intended to address how the allocation of resources compare to those strategies
that are identified by Odden and Picus (2010) as improving student achievement under the EBM.
The improvement of students’ achievement is at the forefront of the schools that were involved in
this study as these four charter schools are part of the ongoing charter reform movement within
the Los Angeles area, and in the highest-need areas of the county. The first question intended to
investigate and determine if the improvement strategies being implemented in these four high
schools are among research-based strategies that have been identified to significantly improve
student outcomes. Additionally, question two is intended to describe how human resources were
allocated in these four high schools and analyzed the rationale for the current resource allocation
practices. The third question is intended to compare whether there is a gap between the current
allocation of resources and the strategies identified by the EBM. The fourth question is intended
to determine if a gap exists within the current allocation of resource practices to those outlined
by the EBM, and how the schools can strategically look at realigning their resources to match the
strategies that have been outlined as demonstrating the most impact on student outcomes. This
question offers new knowledge around how school sites actually try to couple resources to
improving student outcomes. Given the current state of the educational budget in California and
the significant cuts to fiscal resources for schools, this question is important in providing
information to districts and schools as well as policymakers around improving student
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 66

achievement utilizing effective and efficient resource allocation strategies. The gaps between
current and desired allocation practices in comparison to the EBM were revealed and
stakeholders were able to determine where the deficits in funding may exist that hinder the
organization’s ability in adopting elements of the model. The research questions ultimately
aimed to analyze the current practices the four high schools implement as they pertain to
resource allocation, and to determine if there was a gap as it relates to the recommended
practices outlined in the EBM. The investigation is crucial in informing future practices in the
charter arena due to the fact that it provides a deep analysis as to whether the practices utilized
are truly aligned with the mission of the organization to improve student outcomes for students
in the highest need communities in Los Angeles.
Study Design
The methodology for this study was qualitative in nature, as qualitative data were
collected from the Green Dot Public Schools Charter Management Organization pertaining to
resource allocation practices for each of the four independent charter high schools in Los
Angeles, CA. The qualitative data was collected through document analysis obtained through
district level human resource, knowledge management and finance departments, and interviews
with the school principals and the district cluster director. The principals were interviewed since
they are the ones who makes the final budget decisions based on the School Site Council
recommendations. The district cluster director, who represents the District’s higher management
level is the principals’ supervisor who is responsible for reviewing the budget and providing
input to the principal to ensure that the allocation of resources is within the school’s budget and
that the decisions are aligned with the organization’s recommendations and mission.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 67

This researcher intended to interview all four principals however only three of the four
were interviewed due to the fact that one of them was unable to be contacted to schedule an
interview. Four emails and three phone messages were left in attempt to contact this principal to
schedule an interview. An attempt to schedule an interview was also made in person, however,
the individual was unable to accommodate the researcher in scheduling an interview. Fortunately,
the data collected and analyzed for all four schools along with the information provided by the
district cluster director provided sufficient information in drawing conclusions and making
recommendations. The data analysis section of this chapter provides a summary of the resource
allocation differences among the four start-up independent charter schools compared with the
EBM (Odden & Picus, 2008).
Sample
The study’s unit of analysis comprises four start-up charter high schools (CHS).
Purposeful sampling was utilized to identify the resources allocated to these four high schools
(Patton, 2002); this is appropriate because the focus of this study was to provide an in-depth
analysis of the resources allocated for improvement strategies identified in the EBM at the
school-site level for four start-up, charter high schools in Los Angeles, California:
1. Animo Leadership CHS, founded in 2000;
2. Animo South Los Angeles CHS, founded in 2004;
3. Animo Jackie Robinson CHS, founded in 2006;
4. Animo Ralph Bunche CHS, also founded in 2006.
These schools are part of the Green Dot Public Schools network that includes 18 schools
that are located throughout the greater Los Angeles area. This organization was selected due to
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 68

the growth in charter schools operating in the Los Angeles area as well as throughout the
country. In addition, research pertaining to resource allocation patterns in the charter school
arena, specifically in relation to the EBM is scarce and needed to guide organizations that are
seeking to become established as well as expand.
The network includes four middle schools and 14 high schools with each being
categorized as a start-up/independent, transformation or conversion charter school. The sample
of the start-up charter schools was selected because each of the schools began with a 9
th
grade
level and added approximately 140 students each year to become an established 9-12
th
grade
level high school serving approximately 575 students. This start-up model enabled the schools to
establish a strong program model with one 9
th
grade level cohort. In addition, the schools were
able to adapt and improve the programs and services each year thereon after to ensure that the
needs of its student population were being met.
The start-up/independent charter schools within the network consist of the first five
schools that were established within the organization, often referred to as the “founding schools”
and five additional schools in the Jefferson Senior High (SH) area. Animo Leadership and Animo
South Los Angeles are part of the founding five schools and Animo Ralph Bunche and Animo
Jackie Robinson are a part of the Jefferson SH area. Each of schools is situated in Hawthorne and
South Los Angeles, which are both urban communities that are culturally and ethnically diverse.
2009.
Additionally, the schools that were identified for participation were purposefully selected
based on the following criteria:
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 69

• All schools were identified as independent start up charters managed by the same
CMO; a petition was submitted, on their behalf, to the local district which
authorized the schools to operate as a public entity;
• All schools had a maximum capacity of 700 students enrolled. Although the initial
model yielded a school size of 575, the model has changed in the past three years to
add 180 students each year, which would eventually change the total school size to
720 by the 2013-2014 school year.; This change was made to compensate for fiscal
cuts to educational spending over the past several years;
• Percent minority population was greater than or equal to 95%;
• Percent low-income student population was greater than or equal to 90%;
• Percent of English Language Learners was greater than or equal to 10%;
• Percent of Special Education students was less than or equal to 10%.
Instrumentation
The study utilized the EBM developed by Odden and Picus (2008) to review and analyze
the staffing patterns of the four high schools and determine how they aligned to the model’s
recommendations. Under the EBM, a comprehensive set of school-level elements required to
deliver a high-quality instructional program within a school are identified. The EBM determines
an adequate expenditure level by placing a cost for each component-It also aggregates the
components to a total cost (Odden, 2009). Under the model, Odden (2009) suggests the use of
full-time Average Daily Membership (ADM) as the method for counting students in each school
and each district. As it relates to the state of California, in which this study has been conducted,
the use of Average Daily Attendance (ADA) was utilized. Furthermore, the EBM approach to
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 70

adequacy shows resources for prototypical types of schools with 600 students at the high school
level. The schools that were reviewed in this study are similar to the prototypical size; however,
it is important to note that the charter management organization has a goal of maintaining a
maximum student population of no more than 720 students at each high school site by the 2013-
2014 school-year.
The study was conducted within a thematic dissertation group at the University of
Southern California’s Rossier School of Education made up of 17 researchers collecting data and
conducting similar studies. For the purpose of establishing consistency within all 17 individual
studies, this researcher and others in the group participated in a training facilitated by Lawrence
O. Picus, Dissertation Chair, in the summer of 2012. The training involved the development of
research questions, data entry and analysis protocols utilizing the model created by David
Knight, a Ph.D. student from the Rossier School of Education, which yielded a gap analysis
(Clark & Estes, 2008). All researchers in the thematic group used this model, which was
designed to enable each individual to enter staff and resource allocations independently for each
school site involved in their study. The EBM simulation includes components for staff input data,
student input data, and current allocation input; with this information, the desired allocation
output and EBM model output was looked at to analyze the gap that exists between the current
allocation of resources and the EBM recommendations. In the next section, the data analysis
process is described to provide an understanding of how the study intended to analyze the current
practices for the four high schools and how they compared to the recommendations of the EBM.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 71

Data Collection Procedures
This study utilized a qualitative approach that incorporated an analysis of documents and
interviews. The President of the CMO was contacted to request permission to access financial
reports, human resource reports, and school strategic budgetary plans — these were necessary to
study the resource allocation for the four high schools. The first step of the data collection
process consisted of first reviewing all documents that were used by the school to distribute
federal, state, and grant monies to the school.
The second step in the data collection process involved contacting the interviewees for
participation to provide them with an overview of the study along with the interview protocol
and anticipated time commitment. The interviewees included the school site principals and the
district cluster director. Three of the four principals and district cluster director responded to
emails and phone calls and agreed to participate in the study. These participants were selected for
interviews because they were directly involved in the budget process and the allocation of
resources at the school and district level. Additionally, it was crucial to gain an understanding of
the process as well as the extent of the knowledge these individuals possess in aligning their
practices with those that have been identified to significantly improve student achievement.
The interview protocol included open-ended questions outlined in Odden and Picus’s
(2008) framework to draw school reform strategies the schools utilized to allocate resources and
how they related to student achievement.
The open-ended questions included:
1. Can you describe your school’s instructional vision?
a. Can you describe the process that was utilized to establish this vision?
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 72

b. Can you describe your school’s strategic plan and how it is aligned to the
school’s instructional vision?
c. What research driven strategies that have demonstrated success in improving
achievement are being utilized to support your school instructional vision?
d. How are resources being allocated to implement these strategies?
2. How do you prioritize the resources being allocated for improving student
achievement when the school/s encounters a budget crisis?
3. If you were to make any adjustments to your current resource allocation; how
would you reallocate resources to further support your school(s) in meeting your
instructional vision?
4. What do you believe are the factors that contributed to the student success, growth
and achievement levels at your school(s)?
5. If budgets were increased, how would you allocate these additional resources?
After the four interviews were conducted, they were transcribed to identify general patterns and
trends for the resource allocation practices of leaders at the school and district level.
Data Analysis Procedures
The data collected were entered into a systematically developed simulation created by
Odden and Picus (2010) that involved pre-set formulas which identified whether or not a gap
existed between the EBM resource allocation recommendations and the current schools’ current’
practices. Once the data were input into the simulation, the simulation produced a comparison
between the current resource allocation practices and those recommended by the EBM for the
four high schools. The simulation also identified how the schools’ resource allocation practices
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 73

aligned to improvement strategies for school reform. Additionally, the interview data were
analyzed to identify any patterns and trends that emerged within the responses pertaining to (a)
the resource allocation practices that existed in the four high schools and (b) the practices
recommended by the strategies outlined in the EBM for improving student achievement.
With these data, the researcher generated simulations of personnel resource allocations
and offered research-based strategies, recommendations, or alternatives to the current resource
allocation implemented within the four high schools for the purpose of significantly improving
student achievement. It was anticipated that the four high schools had a resource allocation that
is less than the recommendations outlined in the EBM. Therefore, alternatives to the school’s
current allocations were based on what may be possible if additional funding were available to
the district. The results are discussed in Chapter 4 of this study and final recommendations are
revealed in Chapter 5.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 74
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to collect and evaluate resource and personnel data from
four start-up, independent charter schools within Green Dot Public Schools to determine the
relationship between the allocation of staff and funds and what the EBM recommends. In the
first section, an overview of the district as well as the four schools will be presented. In the
second section of the chapter, the findings as well as a synthesis, thereof, as it relates to the
following research questions intended to be answered by the study:.
I. What are the current human resource allocation strategies implemented at four start
up charter high schools within Green Dot Public Schools to increase student
achievement?
II. Are the current human resource allocation strategies consistent with the
organization’s strategic plan for increasing student achievement?
III. Is there a gap between current human resource allocation practices in Green Dot
High Schools and the strategies that are used in the EBM?
IV. How can human resources be strategically re-allocated to align with strategies that
improve student achievement for students in Green Dot at the high school level?
The final section of this chapter summarizes the findings and recommendations yielded by the
study which includes alternative resource allocation strategies to specifically address research
question four.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 75

Overview of Green Dot Public Schools
This study utilized a purposeful sample of Green Dot Public Schools, a Charter
Management Organization (CMO), whose mission is to change the quality of public education
provided to youth in the greater Los Angeles Area. The CMO’s commitment is to prepare all
students for college, leadership, and life through a small schools model. Founded in 2000, Green
Dot Public Schools operates four middle and 14 high schools and serves approximately 10,000
students in grades 6-12. The next section presents an overview of the four schools that
participated in the study.
Animo Leadership Charter High School (ALCHS)
ALCHS was founded in 2000 as an independent charter with a group of 9
th
grade students
and developed into a comprehensive high school serving approximately 620 students in grades 9-
12. It was the first Green Dot Public School and is part of what is referred to as the “founding
five” schools. The school recently moved into the Lennox area during the spring of the 2011-
2012 school year and was previously located in the Inglewood area since its inception. The
school serves students identified as 98% Hispanic and .5% Black, which qualifies them to
receive Title I, Title II, and Title III funding. ALCHS demonstrated significant gains over the
past twelve years in its API and earned a score of 806 in 2012, setting it apart from its
neighborhood counterparts. The school is a school of choice, which involves an application and
lottery process for enrollment. However, it is important to note that the population currently
served by ALCHS is reflective of the demographics found in the other schools in the area.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 76

Animo South Los Angeles Charter High School (ASLACHS)
ASLACHS was founded in 2004 as an independent charter with a group of 9
th
grade
students and developed into a comprehensive high school serving approximately 630 students in
grades 9-12. The school was the fifth school opened by the CMO, which made then the last
school within the “founding five.” The school is located in the South Los Angeles area and
serves students identified as 61% Hispanic and 37% Black, which qualifies them to receive Title
I, Title II, and Title III funding. Although the school has demonstrated gains since its inception,
their API scored decreased to 709 in 2012. However, the school still yields higher student
achievement scores in comparison to its neighborhood schools. The school is a school of choice,
which involves an application and lottery process for enrollment. However, it is important to
note that the population currently served by ASLACHS is reflective of the demographics found
in the other schools in the area.
Animo Jackie Robinson Charter High School (AJRCHS)
AJRCHS was founded in 2006 as an independent charter with a group of 9
th
grade
students and developed into a comprehensive high school serving approximately 575 students in
grades 9-12. The school was one of the five schools opened in 2006 in the Jefferson Senior High
Area, making them a part of what is often referred to as the “Jeff Schools.” The school is located
in the South Los Angeles Area and serves students identified as 80% Hispanic and 3% Black,
which qualifies them to receive Title I, Title II, and Title III funding. AJRCHS has demonstrated
significant gains over the past six years in its API and earned a score of 775 in 2012 with a
baseline of 552 in 2007, setting it apart from its neighborhood counterparts. The school is a
school of choice, which involves an application and lottery process for enrollment. However, it
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 77

is important to note that the population currently served by AJRCHS is reflective of the
demographics found in the other schools in the area.
Animo Ralph Bunche Charter High School (ARBCHS)
ARBCHS was also founded in 2006. The school was one of the five schools opened in
2006, making them a part of the “Jeff Schools.” The school is located in the South Los Angeles
Area and serves students identified as 99% Hispanic and 0.6% Black, which qualifies them to
receive Title I, Title II, and Title III funding. ARBCHS earned an API score of 692 in 2012 with
a baseline of 636 in 2007, setting it apart from its neighborhood counterparts. The school is a
school of choice, which involves an application and lottery process for enrollment. However, it
is important to note that the population currently served by AJRCHS is reflective of the
demographics found in the other schools in the area.
As can be seen, the four high schools that participated in the study have similar
demographic elements and are all considered Title I, Title II, and Title III schools due to the
population they serve. In addition it is important to note that the four sample schools were
selected based on the following criteria:
• All schools were identified as independent start up charters managed by the same
CMO; a petition was submitted, on their behalf, to the local district which
authorized the schools to operate as a public entity;
• All schools had a maximum capacity of 700 students enrolled. Although the initial
model yielded a school size of 575, the model has changed in the past three years to
add 180 students each year, which will eventually change the total school size to
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 78

720 by the 2013-2014 school year. This change was made to compensate for fiscal
cuts to educational spending over the past several years;
• Percent minority population was greater than or equal to 95%;
• Percent low-income student population was greater than or equal to 90%;
• Percent of English Language Learners was greater than or equal to 10%;
• Percent of Special Education students was less than or equal to 10%.
Additionally, the four schools receive state and federal funding including Title 1 funds that are
allocated to schools serving low income students to address the achievement gap that exists
throughout the nation. They also receive supplemental funds for specific subgroups such as ELLs
and special education students. Furthermore, it is important to note that as a large CMO, Green
Dot Public Schools is a recipient of a number of grants and donations for the purposes of further
supporting schools in meeting its mission of preparing all students for college, leadership and
life.

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 79
Table 4.1
School Demographics
SCHOOL
ENROLLMENT
Grade Level

English
Language
Learners
Special
Education
Socio-
Economically
Disadvantaged
9
th
10
th
11
th
12
th
Total # % # % # %
ALCHS 168 157 148 145 618 90 14.6 32 5.2 572 92.6
ASLACHS 180 177 138 139 634 70 11 42 6.6 573 90.4
ARBCHS 180 150 160 204 694 215 31 52 7.5 681 98.1
AJRCHS 149 145 143 141 578 185 32.0 42 7.3 539 93.3
Total 677 629 589 629 2524 562 22 168 7 2365 94

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 80

Introduction of the Findings
This study was conducted in collaboration with a dissertation group that consisted of 17
researchers at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education who collected
data and conducted similar studies. The researcher in concordance with the dissertation group
developed interview questions along with data entry and analysis protocols utilizing the model
created by David Knight, a University of Southern California’s PhD student. This model yielded
a gap analysis between the schools allocation of staff and resources and the EBM. (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The simulation model was designed to enable each researcher to independently
input all personnel resources and staff allocated to each school site within their district of study
which then generated a gap analysis between the school’s allocation and what the EBM
recommends. Additionally, the model also allowed for the researcher to input staff allocations
based on the Evidence Based Model developed by Odden and Picus (2008) giving the researcher
the ability to compare the EBM recommendations with the schools’ actual allocations.
The next section provides a discussion of the findings of this study as it relates to the four
research questions. The research questions were answered using the data provided by the
district’s human resource, knowledge management and finance departments which were entered
and compiled into the simulation model during the fall of 2012. Data collected from interviews
were utilized to provide further information regarding the personnel allocation process as well as
the instructional vision and improvement strategies implemented at each school site.
Research Question I
What are the current human resource allocation strategies implemented at four start up
charter high schools within Green Dot Public Schools to increase student achievement?
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 81

The study’s initial question seeks to identify the research-based human resource
allocation strategies that are proven to increase academic achievement for students in the
participating high schools. The schools participating in this study use a variety of improvement
strategies for the purposes of increasing student achievement outcomes. For the purpose of this
study, the improvement strategies utilized by the four schools were analyzed through Odden’s
(2009) framework found in “10 Strategies for Doubling Student Performance.” In a study
conducted by Odden (2009) involving a sample of schools and districts, ten strategies were
identified as having a positive impact on student achievement: 1) Understand the Performance
Problem and Challenge; 2) Set Ambitious Goals; 3) Change the Curriculum Program and Create
a New Instructional Vision; 4) Utilize Benchmark and Formative Assessments, and Make
Decisions Based on Data; 5) Provide On-going, Intensive Professional Development; 6) Use
Time Efficiently and Effectively; 7) Extend Learning and Time for Struggling Students, 8)
Establish a Collaborative, Professional Culture and Distributive Leadership System; 9) Ensure
that Professional and Best Practices are Implemented; and 10) Acknowledge and Incorporate the
Human Capital Side of Doubling Student Performance.
Strategy 1: Understand the performance problem and challenge. One of Odden’s
(2009) strategies for doubling student performance indicates that a school should analyze its
student achievement goals and data to determine the gap that exists between their current and
desired performance. Once the gap is determined, Odden (2009) states that present and potential
challenges in meeting the school’s desired performance and a plan to address these challenges
needs to be outlined. Strategic plans for the upcoming school year are developed by each of the
school principals with the guidance of the district cluster director as well as input from the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 82

teacher leaders on site during the spring of the current school year (Personal conversation,
District Cluster Director, December 12, 2012). Schools have multiple strategic plans that focus
on teacher effectiveness, special populations including ELLs and Special Education students,
professional development, grading etc. These plans outline goals for the upcoming school year,
an analysis of data pertaining to the progress towards and achievement of current goals, strengths
as well as gaps and challenges in attainment of goals and the implementation of the current
strategic plan. These data involve stakeholder feedback from students, parents and teachers/staff,
statewide testing information, district quarterly benchmark scores, common assessment scores
and teacher grade books. (Personal conversations, Principals, November 11, 13 & 14, 2012).
After strategic plans are established, budgets are then developed for the upcoming school year to
ensure that funding is allocated in alignment with the plans.
Strategy 2: Set ambitious goals. Odden (2009) emphasizes the importance of setting
high and ambitious goals for all students regardless of student demographics and current
achievement levels. These goals and the belief that all students can achieve need to be embraced
by all stakeholders. In addition, all students and teachers need to be held accountable to high
achievement and performance standards. Green Dot Public School’s mission is to prepare all
students for college, leadership and life. The “800+” club was also established with the goal that
all schools achieve an API score of 800 or above (Personal conversation, Principal, November
11, 2012). A common theme that was identified when asked to define the instructional vision of
the school(s) was that students receive a rigorous, quality education that prepares them for
college in every period/subject, every day. Rigor was defined as instruction that involves high
levels of content and critical thinking skills. (Personal conversation, District Cluster Director,
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 83

Principals, December 12, 2012, November 11, 13 & 14, 2012). One principal also indicated that
in addition to establishing high academic standards, it was equally important that teachers
provide the necessary supports for students to meet these standards due to the fact that the
majority of the students entered the school far below grade level (Personal conversation,
Principal, November 13, 2012).
Strategy 3: Change the curriculum program and create a new instructional vision.
Another crucial factor that impacts student achievement is the curriculum and the instructional
programs that are implemented and established within a school (Odden, 2009). This strategy
involves allocation of staff, courses offered, academic expectations and the organization of
curriculum and instruction. Green Dot Public Schools has evolved significantly since its
inception in 2000 to meet the needs of all students. Although its mission has remained the same
throughout the past twelve years, the organization has made data driven decisions to further
support students in being prepared for success for college, leadership and life such as offering a
mandatory “Summer Bridge” program and English and math intervention courses.
Currently, incoming students participate in the “Summer Bridge program before the
beginning of their first school year at a Green Dot school. All four schools that participated in
this study offer a two to four week “Summer Bridge” program, depending on their budget.
Students are provided with an orientation involving school policy, culture, leadership,
expectations pertaining to academics as well as the mission of Green Dot. In addition, they
participate in an English and Math course in which assessments are conducted to determine
whether or not they require intervention courses to support them in being successful in core
content area courses. Based on student assessment data, students are offered either a double
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 84

block of English or a double block of Math or both-one core course and one intervention course
(Personal conversation, Principals, November 13, 2012).
English and Math intervention courses at the high school level include System 44, Read
180, Academic English Essentials, Math Support and Integrated Math. System 44 and Read 180
are both software programs that involve direct instruction from a trained teacher, independent
computer station and reading time that is tailored to each student’s reading levels which is
determined by the system’s assessment scores. System 44 is for students who are still acquiring
basic phonics skills and was recently implemented within the past two years after data
demonstrated the lack of progress a number of students were making in Read 180. Read 180 has
been offered at each of the four schools for at least five years and focuses on fluency and reading
comprehension skills that require students to have basic decoding skills in order to benefit from
the program. Both programs are offered to students in multiple grade levels based on need
whereas in the past, it had been geared for incoming 9
th
grade students (Personal conversation,
Principal, November 14, 2012). Math support was established to assist students in developing
necessary skills for Algebra 1. Integrated math was developed to support students who continued
to have difficulty in succeeding in their Algebra 1 course. The curriculum maps and common
assessments for the Math intervention courses were developed by the district math coordinator
along with the math curriculum specialists to ensure that the courses truly supported students in
successfully accessing content in core math courses. According to the District Cluster Director,
the growth that each of the schools has made in their student achievement levels over the past
several years can be partially attributed to the creation, development and implementation of these
courses (Personal conversation, District Cluster Director, December 12, 2012).
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 85

Strategy 4: Formative assessments and data-decision making. Instruction should be
tailored to meet the needs of students and in order to determine the skills and standards students
have mastered in addition to the skills that need to be reinforced or retaught, it is necessary to
implement formative assessments frequently and with fidelity (Odden, 2009). Currently, Green
Dot Public Schools conducts quarterly benchmarks for all core content areas that are aligned to
the California Standards Tests. All teachers throughout the organization meet by content area
after the benchmarks are administered and scored. These scores are presented to the group and
the teachers with the highest scores are asked to share strategies, lesson plans and resources to
support others in increasing student achievement at each teacher’s school site. Common
assessments are utilized as unit exams and are administered for all math courses and are created
by the district curriculum specialists. All other subject area teachers create quizzes and unit
exams that are aligned to the quarterly benchmarks to provide data on a more frequent basis for
the purposes of tailoring instruction to meet student needs. At schools that have more than one
teacher for a content area, it is expected that a collaborative process is established for ensuring
that assessments are aligned (Personal conversation, Principal, November 11, 2012). In addition,
one of the focus indicators within the new teacher evaluation system is “Checking for
Understanding” (CFU). Teachers are expected to incorporate CFUs throughout each lesson
conducted. Adaptations to the lesson are also expected to be planned based on the outcomes of
each of the CFUs.
In addition, the organization utilizes Data Director, an online management system that
disaggregates all inputted assessment data by teacher, student and standard. It also houses student
state test and quarterly benchmark scores. Each school site involved in the study provided
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 86

teachers with training on how to navigate the system. Additionally, each site has a Data Director
“expert” who has been provided with additional training and direct support from the district Data
Director expert. This site expert offers additional support to teachers at their site in accessing
data as well as utilizing the data to improve teaching and student performance.
Furthermore, the organization has a knowledge management department that provides
support to the schools in utilizing multiple systems such as PowerSchool and Data Director. This
department is responsible for submitting data to the state as well as extracting and compiling data
for the schools on a frequent basis. These data include D and F grades per school by teacher,
subject and grade level, discipline data by school and subgroups such as special education
students and ethnicity to further drive the schools in making data-driven decisions pertaining to
strategic plans.
Strategy 5: Ongoing, intensive professional development. Odden (2009) emphasizes
the importance of implementing professional development that is systematic, widespread,
ongoing, and aligned to goals. He also indicates that professional development is more effective
when teachers are involved in the development and facilitation of the training and are also
provided with support in the application of skills and strategies presented. Each of the school
sites involved in this study developed a professional development calendar that outlined topics
that would be covered during the upcoming school year through a collaborative process between
the school site administrators and Instructional Leadership Team (ILT) or professional
development committee (Personal conversation, District Cluster Director, December 12, 2012).
The topics are based upon the organization’s specific initiatives such as “Academic Discourse,
Questioning and Group Structures” as well as topics that have been identified to be an area of
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 87

need based on school data and stakeholder feedback such as, implementing accommodations,
positive behavioral supports and grading (Personal conversation, Principals, November 11, 13 &
14, 2012). The ILT or committee meets on a monthly basis throughout the school year to develop
and plan the trainings that are facilitated at the school’s weekly staff meetings with the support of
the school site administrators and as needed, district office support. Members of the ILT or
professional development committee are compensated for their additional duties with a yearly
stipend that is determined by either the administrative team or a stipend committee.
The organization also has a Teacher Leader Facilitator (TLF) team for each subject area
that involves an application process. Teachers are selected based on the application that includes
a statement of interest, recommendation letters and a video of them conducting a lesson. They
meet six times a year to participate in professional development trainings as well as to develop
systematic professional developments for their departments across the organization with the
support of the district College Ready Framework Implementation Coordinator, Special Education
Program Administrators, New Teacher Development Director, Literacy and Math Coordinators
as well as curriculum specialists. These professional development trainings are referred to as
“All Green Dot Collaboration Days” and topics for these trainings are determined based on
teacher evaluation data that provides an analysis of areas that teachers are rated the lowest in
across the organization. Each member of the TLF team is also provided with a stipend for each
attended meeting in addition to the four “All Green Dot Collaboration Days” which is funded by
a grant at the district level.
Teachers are also given the opportunity to participate in the “Lesson for Study” program
that involves groups of content area teachers who are required to collaborate in the development
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 88

of a lesson plan. A visit to a selected teacher’s school site is then coordinated to observe each
group member conducting the developed lesson plan to different class periods. The members of
the group then debrief after observing each individual conducting the lesson to provide positive
and critical feedback to one another for the purpose of improving instructional practices.
Teachers are released from their classrooms for a day to participate in this program and
substitutes are funded by the Education Management Team’s budget at the district office.
The organization also provides Special Education Program Administrators (SEPA) to
each of the school sites to provide direct support to the administrators, special education
department as well as necessary professional development to the school staff. Each of the SEPAs
serve six schools and offer technical, instructional, behavioral and compliance support to ensure
that the needs of special education students are met and that teachers are provided with the
necessary support in serving them. Each SEPA meets with the school site administrator
responsible for special education on a monthly basis. This monthly meeting involves observing
teachers in the classroom, debriefing on strengths and recommendations for improvement as well
as discussions regarding program development and improvement, budget, staffing and necessary
teacher supports and follow up’s. The SEPA also meets with the special education department or
department lead on a monthly basis to provide support on specific student cases, protocols and
compliance. Additionally, the SEPA is on site on a weekly basis to provide necessary support to
the school which may comprise of classroom observations, student mediations and parent
meetings.
School site administrators conduct informal as well as formal observations throughout the
year that are followed by coaching sessions to provide feedback based on these observations and
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 89

submitted lesson plans. Additionally, district English and math curriculum specialists provide
coaching support to individual teachers at the schools sites, although one of the schools that
participated in the study did not utilize their assigned math specialist. The coaches schedule
observations and follow up debriefs with individual teachers at the school sites. Debriefs focus
on a specific area within the College Ready Framework (CRTF) in which the teacher requires the
most support. The CRTF is a set of domains and specific indicators that are utilized to evaluate
teachers. The coaches’ work with their district coordinator who collaborates with the school site
administrators to identify struggling teachers based on previous evaluations, formal and informal
observations as well as the goals that were developed around the CRTF which are determined
cooperatively between the teacher and administrator. This enables the coordinator and coach to
target their support and align to teacher goals (Personal conversation, Principal, November 11,
2012).
New teachers to the profession or organization are all mandated to participate in a week-
long professional development training prior to the beginning of the school year. The first 2 days
are dedicated to “Safe and Civil” and “Champs” protocols and strategies which also involve
implementing these programs into a Green Dot Public Schools lesson plan template. The third
day is facilitated by all of the content area curriculum specialists as well as the New Teacher
Development Director and her instructional specialist. It is important to note that the
instructional specialist along with the History and Science curriculum specialists provide
ongoing support to the new teachers throughout the year through meetings and observations. The
fourth day is dedicated to learning about how to support ELLs and students with disabilities,
while the fifth day is dedicated to receiving an orientation at their individual school site to learn
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 90

about the specific protocols and systems implemented that may unique to the school. After this
week, the new teachers are joined by the entire returning school staff to participate in a week-
long professional development training week. Common themes that were articulated through the
interviews was that this week involves culture and team building, a team analysis of the previous
school year’s data, communication regarding the school’s instructional vision and goals for the
year, special education training on protocols, processes and student needs, in addition to time
dedicated to curriculum mapping, lesson planning and classroom set-up (Personal conversation,
Principals, November 11, 13 & 14, 2012).
Furthermore, the organization hosts a website that is private to staff and faculty that
offers tutorials, guides, manuals, and training documents organized in specific communities such
as “Administrators”, “Math Teachers”, ‘English Teachers” and “New Teachers” for accessibility
purposes. School site employees are able to navigate this site and reference previously presented
information and new information that may have been introduced in the weekly organization
newsletter that is disseminated via email. Each of the three principals who were interviewed in
this study referred to this website and the support it provided to their school sites when asked
about professional development and support (Personal conversation, Principals, November 11,
13 &14, 2012).
Strategy 6: Use time efficiently and effectively. Districts and schools that participated
in Odden (2009) study and significantly increased student achievement, utilized time more
effectively and efficiently than their counterparts. Although the organization had to decrease the
number of school days for students from 183 to 180, the schools that participated in the study
implemented a variety of strategies to ensure students received instruction “bell to bell.” One of
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 91

the strategies incorporated the use of an advisory, power reading and/or elective period in which
students received targeted interventions based on data such as California High School Exit Exam
Prep, Academic Success, College Readiness, English and Math Intervention. In addition, one of
the indicators that are part of the CRTF involves ensuring that all instructional time is utilized
effectively which establishes the expectation that teachers strategically plan each of their lesson
plans. Furthermore, teachers are required by their union contract to offer at least 1 hour a week of
office hours to support students through tutoring and academic advising.
Strategy 7: Extend learning time for struggling students. Odden (2009) identifies the
importance of providing additional instruction and support to struggling students during the
school day, outside of the instructional day and regular school year. Extended learning time is
embedded within each of the school sites master schedule which involves intervention courses to
ensure students receive a double block of a specific content area if needed based on student data.
All four start-up charter high schools offered an after school program coordinated by an outside
organization through a collaborative partnership. This agency provides after school tutoring and
assistance to students in completing homework and projects. Teachers offer a minimum of one
weekly office hour and one school studied in this research indicated that a few of their
departments collaborate and offer subject specific tutoring multiple times a week that is hosted
by at least one math teacher in a set room to provide additional support to struggling students.
Additionally, three of the four schools offered summer school during the Summer of 2012 to
support students in recovering credits and all four schools offered summer bridge to their
incoming students to provide intense remediation prior to the beginning of the school year.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 92

Strategy 8: Create a collaborative professional culture and distributed leadership.
This strategy pertains to establishing a culture of collaboration within the teaching staff as well
as between administrators and faculty (Odden, 2009). Each of the schools involved in this study
have department chairs who meet with the administrative team to collaborate in the development
of teacher assignments and master schedule as well as reports as to the progress of the
departments goals which have been focused on vertical planning. The departments’ chairs also
collaborate with one another to improve upon cross curricular planning methods and facilitate
meetings with their department to ensure all members are aware of the discussions and follow
ups and deliverables that need to be completed (Personal conversation, Principal, November 13,
2012).
Three of the four schools have an ILT, which was described in a previous section. The
fourth school has a team of grade level leaders who meet on a weekly basis with the counselors
and the administrative team. This meeting comprises of updating one another on the progress
towards goals of the grade level team which includes successes, challenges and concerns. The
team provides supports in developing strategies to address challenges and concerns and share
information and insight to one another especially if they faced similar challenges with specific
students or grade levels in the past. The team also develops the agenda for the upcoming grade
level meeting to ensure there is consistency in processes, protocols and goals. Each of the grade
level leaders facilitate weekly grade level team meetings and provide an update as to the
outcomes of the grade level leader meeting and ensure that team members “voices are heard” and
are reported to the next grade level leader meeting. Data pertaining to student assessments,
grades and discipline and grade level teams collaborate on structures of support that can be
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 93

implemented and offered to struggling students. At times, when one teacher communicates
challenges he/she is having with a particular student, others who have had success with the
student is able to share strategies to support their colleague. The principal of this school indicates
the importance of this structure of collaboration and distributed leadership for the purpose of the
support it provides to the teachers as well as to the students. Although the other three schools
have grade level teams, meetings are not held on a consistent basis with the grade level leaders
and administrators or with the grade level teams.
The TLF and LFS programs as well as the quarterly benchmark content area meetings
were discussed in a previous section. They have has also nurtured a professional learning
community among teachers across the organization. In addition, the school that implements the
GLL structure and process also has a “buddy system” in which teachers are paired with one
another and observations are conducted by both teachers in the pair. Debriefs are scheduled as
well to provide strengths and recommendations for improvement based on the CRTF. The
principal communicated in his interview that this process has fostered a lifelong learning culture
based on the feedback from teachers and their increased openness to feedback for the purpose of
improving their teaching practices.
The organization also fosters a professional learning community among its administrators
through monthly 95-5 meetings where the focus if 95% instruction and 5% operations. These
meetings are facilitated by individuals at the district office including Chief Academic Office,
Vice President of Academics, District Cluster Directors, Teacher Effectiveness Leaders, Literacy
and Math Coordinators as well as Special Education Program Administrators. There is a 95-5
meeting for Principals as well as a meeting for Assistant Principals that last for the entire school
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 94

day. Information is disseminated, data is analyzed, research and articles are discussed, practices
and strategies are shared and training is provided in regards to observing and coaching teachers
through the new teacher evaluation system that requires administrators to be certified to observe
and evaluate teachers. The District Cluster Directors are able to follow up on these 95-5 meetings
with the school site administrators during their monthly administrative team meetings as well as
principal coaching meetings.
Strategy 9: Establish professional and best practices. Schools that doubled student
achievement demonstrated highly professional practices that involved seeking best practices
pertaining to school improvement through research and partnerships with other districts and
schools that had experienced significant gains student achievement (Odden, 2009). A common
theme that was identified through the interviews, included a reference to Kate Kinsella strategies
and writing across the curriculum. Each of the schools that participated in this study participated
in a school wide training with Kate Kinsella who presented her strategies that could also be
utilized in an initiative to have students writing in all subject areas. These strategies were
embraced by the school staff as well as administrators because of the support it provides to
students at all levels in meeting rigorous academic standards. Her strategies included sentence
frames, starters for writing as well as academic discourse and questioning to support students in
developing their literacy and communication skills.
All schools involved in this study also incorporated a district initiative of implementing
Safe and Civil and CHAMPS school-wide. Both programs are research driven to improve school
culture, behavior and academic achievement.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 95

The organization is also a recipient of “The College Ready Promise” (TCRP) grant along
with three other large CMOs. Each of the CMOs have Teacher Effectiveness Leads as well as a
College Ready Framework Implementation Coordinator who meet on a monthly basis to share
practices, protocols and strategies for supporting teachers in improving practices. TCRP grant
and the collaboration with the other CMOs made it possible for a new teacher evaluation system
to be developed and implemented during the 2011-2012 school year which has demonstrated an
increase in student achievement throughout the organization as well as within each of the schools
that participated in this study (Personal conversation, Principal, November 14, 2012).
Strategy 10: Cultivate human capital side. The final strategy that Odden (2009)
presents is the importance of recruiting the most effective individuals to implement and execute
the ambitious plan to significantly improve student achievement. The recruitment process has
transformed throughout the past five years within Green Dot Public Schools. Every prospective
teacher is required to apply in the online system which involves an assessment that provides a
score indicating the candidate’s potential in being effective in working with the organization’s
targeted population, short answer questions, references and the uploading of documents for
credentialing purposes. The human capital department then reviews applications and based on
established criteria selects candidates to contact to participate in the next step in the recruitment
process: another assessment over the phone. Candidate scores are then inputted into the online
system and administrators are able to search within the site for individuals to fulfill their open
positions. Administrators contact candidates for in person interviews at the school site which
involves a demo lesson presented in a classroom of students and teachers, a writing sample and
questions from the hiring committee. Although the principals at each of the schools indicated that
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 96

this is a rigorous process, they knew that they desired candidates who were persistent and had a
passion to work for the organization. The organization also has partnerships with Teach for
America and various reputable Universities and utilize these partnerships to also recruit teachers.
In addition, the human capital department reaches out to highly effective teachers within the
organization for recruiting purposes.
The training and professional development as well as coaching support provided to new
teachers as well as teachers across the organization and at individual school sites were discussed
in a previous section. Additionally, the new teacher evaluation system has enabled administrators
and teachers to have meaningful conversations. The process involves a number of elements such
as parent and student surveys, school wide growth based on state standardized test scores,
student growth based on state standardized test scores per teacher, and classroom observations.
All elements and weight were agreed upon by the union because of the fact that the purpose of
the evaluation process is to improve teaching practices rather than for punitive measures.
Administrators and teachers are able to have meaningful conversations about their practices after
observations are conducted due to the fact that they are scripted by administrators who offer
evidence to the teachers for ratings for each domain and indicator outlined in the CRTF. This
guides the coaching provided by the administrator regarding what the teacher could have done to
receive a higher rating. This provides teachers with concrete examples of how to improve upon
their practices. They are then able to select specific indicators in which they would like to focus
on as well as receive coaching support from the administrator and district office support staff.
The principals who were interviewed in this study indicated that although the process is grueling,
that they have seen significant improvements within their teaching staff and that some have
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 97

chosen to leave because of the accountability that this process has established. The
organization’s goal is to have a highly effective teacher in every classroom and this new process
has been a “step in the right direction” (Personal conversation, Principal, November 11, 2012).
Research Question II
Are the current human resource allocation strategies consistent with the organization’s
strategic plan for increasing student achievement?
The second question that this study intended to answer is whether or not the human
resources allocated across the four high schools align with the organization’s plan for increasing
student achievement. All of the resource allocation strategies implemented at each of the
participating schools, which were described in detail in the previous section are all aligned to the
organization’s plan of preparing students for college, leadership and life which is further outlined
in its six tenet’s which include: Small, Safe, Personalized Schools, High Expectations for All
Students, Local Control with Extensive Professional Development and Accountability, Parent
Participation, Maximize Funding to the Classroom, and Keeping Schools Open Later.
Green Dot Public Schools continued to place student achievement at the forefront of its
agenda despite the significant decrease in financial support and resources provided to the
schools. Although each of the four schools involved in this study experienced an increase in
school size as a result of the budget crisis, class sizes have not exceeded approximately 28 to 1 in
core content area courses and 32 to 1 in elective and intervention courses (Personal conversation,
Principal, November 13, 2012). Regardless of the fact that the district was forced to reduce the
number of workdays for all employees which included three furlough days as well as a reduction
in instructional days from 183 to 180, the organization did not lay off any teachers and increased
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 98

the level of administrative support at the school site level. Each of the schools studied, were
given the opportunity to hire a second assistant principal for the 2012-2013 school year that is
being funded by a grant at the district office level.
The schools participating in the study did not compromise their commitment to their
school’s strategic plan, the organization’s mission and six tenets and were able to implement a
number of cost saving strategies throughout the past several years to off-set state and federal
budget cuts to education. One of the schools studied cut their general education transportation
and all four schools transitioned into a utilizing a different security company that was lower cost.
The ADA did not decrease and campus safety remained effective despite these cuts and changes.
Enrollment increased to generate additional revenue and various elective courses were
eliminated to balance school budgets. One element that is relatively unique to the organization is
that it receives over ten million dollars a year from private donors and sponsors to ensure that
necessary support from the home office is provided without increasing the costs at the school
level. The level of support staff at the district has increased over time but has not yielded
additional costs to the schools. The organization is also the recipient of a number of grants that
have enabled the schools to offer additional support to teachers and students. Grants have funded
an additional administrator at each site to support in the implementation of the new evaluation
system that involves a high number of observations and coaching sessions as well as enabled the
schools to offer after school programs for students to nurture the “whole child” (Personal
conversation, District Cluster Director, December 12, 2012). Additionally, due to the passage of
Proposition 30 in November 2012, the organization was able to avoid having to face severe
budget cuts per pupil that would have required draining reserves and laying off teachers.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 99

Research Question III
Is there a gap between current human resource allocation practices in Green Dot High
Schools and the strategies that are used in the EBM?
As a performance driven organization, the need to identify the gaps between goals and
actual performance are crucial in order to target necessary support and strategies required to
improve student outcomes. According to Clark and Estes (2008), in order to adequately
evaluate performance and provide organizations with interventions that will target the
performance gap, organizations must have the ability to identify performance goals, determine
performance gaps, and very carefully analyze the causes of the gap. As stated in chapter 2,
understanding the gaps that exist between the current allocation resource models and the EBM
and research-based strategies that have proven to significantly increase student achievement is
crucial in addressing how schools can strategically allocate resources to improve its outcomes.
For the purpose of analyzing the allocation of resources for each of the four schools, documents
were obtained from the district knowledge management, human resource and finance department
and information was entered into the simulation model. The researcher then analyzed the data
utilizing the protocols provided within the model. Table 4.2 shows the gap that exists between
the four schools studied within Green Dot Public Schools and the EBM. A detailed explanation
for the gaps generated by the simulation will be presented in this section. In addition, the Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analysis process will be utilized to analyze the causes for the gaps that exist
between the resource allocation strategies implemented in comparison to the EBM. This process
is crucial in understanding the challenges of implementing improvement and resource allocation
strategies recommended by the EBM.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 100

Table 4.2
Green Dot Public Schools Resource Allocation Gap Analysis: Four Start-Up High Schools
Position Counts Gap
Positions CA EBM CA - EBM
Principals 4.0 4.0 0.0
Assistant principals 8.0 4.2 3.8
Instructional coaches 1.4 12.6 (11.2)
Core teachers 95.0 101.0 (6.0)
Specialist teachers 12.0 33.3 (21.3)
SPED teachers 9.2 16.8 (7.7)
ELL teachers 0.0 5.6 (5.6)
Academic extra help staff 0.2 23.7 (23.5)
Non-academic pupil support 10.7 33.7 (23.0)
Nurses 0.0 3.4 (3.3)
Extended day / summer school staff 16.4 39.4 (23.0)
Instructional aides 0.0 0.0 0.0
Supervisory aides 12.0 12.6 (0.6)
SPED aides 4.0 8.4 (4.4)
Librarians 0.0 4.0 (4.0)
Library technicians 0.0 0.0 0.0
Library paraprofessionals 0.0 0.0 0.0
Secretaries / clerks 12.0 12.6 (0.6)
Total number of positions short (130.5)

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 101

When analyzing Table 4.2, a negative number is shown in parenthesis where the four
schools in total have fewer staff than recommended by the EBM. According to the EBM
prototypical high school, the sample schools fell short of the resources recommended by Odden
and Picus (2008). The prototypical school size that the EBM utilizes, based on research is 600
students at the high school level and a class size of 25, which indicates a need for 24 core
teachers. The schools studied in this research were within a range of 100 of the prototypical
school size with the smallest school serving 578 students and the largest serving 694. There is a
negative gap of 130.5 positions allocated at the schools when compared to the EBM. The
smallest deficit of 0.6 was generated when analyzing the number of secretaries and supervisory
aides allocated at the school sites, while the largest deficit of 23.5 was yielded in the number of
Academic Extra Help Staff serving each school site. The resource allocation of principals, core
teachers, supervisory aides and secretaries/clerks were all similar to that identified by Odden and
Picus’ (2008) EBM. However, all other resources fell short of what the EBM suggests. Detailed
explanations of these gaps are explained in this section in the order in which the positions appear
in Table 4.3.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 102

Table 4.3
Green Dot Public Schools Positions Included in Personnel Allocation Count
Title (EBM) Positions Included in Count
Principals Principal
Assistant principals Assistant principal
Instructional coaches English and Math Curriculum Specialists
Core teachers
English, Math, History, Science, English and Math
Intervention Teachers
Specialist teachers PE and Elective Teachers
SPED teachers Resource Specialists
ELL teachers English as a second language teacher
Academic extra help staff
Service providers such as speech and language pathologists,
deaf and hard of hearing teachers, occupational therapists and
physical therapists
Non-academic pupil support
Counselors, school psychologists, clinical service providers,
Cluster Directors, Special Education Program Administrators,
Cluster Business Manager
Nurses Nurse
Extended day / summer school
staff
After school program staff and summer school/bridge
program staff
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 103

Instructional aides General Education Teachers Assistants
Supervisory aides Campus Aides
SPED aides Special Education Assistants
Librarians Librarians
Library technicians Library technicians
Library paraprofessionals Library paraprofessionals
Secretaries / clerks Office Managers, Parent coordinators and Office assistants

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 104

The number of assistant principals at the school sites studied were nearly two times as
many as the EBM. Whereas the total number of instructional coaches allocated were 1.4 in
comparison to the suggested 12.6 based on the EBM. This discrepancy can be explained by the
school model and support provided by district office personnel. There are two assistant principals
allocated to each of the high schools. They along with the school principal are considered to
serve as instructional coaches due to the number of observations and debriefs they are expected
to conduct throughout the year. Each of the administrators are responsible for evaluating a
specific number of teachers based on years of experience, content area and the content area of
expertise of the administrator. Although the contract only requires two formal observations a year
that consists of a pre and post conference as well as two informal observations which involves a
follow up debrief, administrators are expected to be in classrooms every day to provide teachers
with instructional coaching. The administrators collaborate with the district math and English
coordinators as well as instructional coaches to ensure teachers are provided with the coaching
support necessary to improve their practices.
The number of instructional coaches that are included in the simulation model was
calculated by determining the percentage FTE the district office curriculum specialists within the
organization, were allocated to each school site. This number only involved specialists who
support English and Math teachers at the schools studied. Table 4.4 below provides the gap
between the current allocation and the EBM for both assistant principals and coaches.

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 105
Table 4.4
Individual School Gap Analysis: Assistant Principal and Coaches
Assistant Principal Coaches
CA EB CA-EB Gap CA EB CA-EB Gap
ALCHS 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.4 3.1 (2.7)
ASLACHS 2.0 1.1 0.9 0.3 3.2 (2.9)
ARBCHS 2.0 1.2 0.8 0.4 3.5 (3.0)
AJRCHS 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.2 2.9 (2.7)

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 106

At the time of this study, there was a gap of 21.3 between the number of specialist
teachers allocated across the sample schools and the EBM. This deficiency can be attributed to
the fact that the schools have adopted the A-G requirements to align with the requirements for
students to apply to California State Universities and University of California institutions. This
requirement includes only one year of physical education versus the two-year requirement for a
diploma that meets state minimum requirements. The schools also indicated that there are a
limited number of electives offered to students. The master schedule only includes the number of
electives required for students to meet their diploma requirements and oftentimes does not
include a diverse selection. In addition, English and math intervention teachers were entered into
the simulation as core teachers due to the content and curriculum standards covered within their
courses. Table 4.5 illustrates individual school gap analysis-specialist teachers.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 107

Table 4.5
Individual School Gap Analysis: Specialist Teachers
SPECIALIST TEACHERS
SCHOOLS CA EB CA-EB Gap
ALCHS 3.0 8.2 (5.2)
ASLACHS 2.0 8.4 (6.4)
ARBCHS 3.0 9.2 (6.2)
AJRCHS 4.0 7.6 (3.6)
In terms of special education teachers, the EBM calls for 16.8 FTE while the schools
studied allocated 9.2. The EBM allocates a specific number of special education teachers based
on the total enrollment of a school. Whereas, the schools studied analyze student needs and legal
caseload guidelines in the state of California to allocate special education personnel. The legal
caseload limit for a Resource Specialist teacher is 28:1 and 32:1 if the teacher signs a waiver and
is provided with additional support which may include a special education assistant. The schools
involved in the study are primarily Resource Specialists who do not have a caseload exceeding
28 students. They provide services that include consultation, co-planning and co-teaching with
general education teachers as well as direct support through an elective class in a learning center.
Three of four schools allocated resources to special education aides to offer additional support to
students with higher needs. One school also offers services for students who have additional
needs through core content area courses taught by a special education teacher. Table 4.6 depicts
individual school gap analysis-special education teachers.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 108

Table 4.6
Individual School Gap Analysis: Special Education Teachers

SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS
SCHOOLS CA EB CA-EB Gap
ALCHS 1.0 2.1 (1.1)
ASLACHS 0.0 2.1 (2.1)
ARBCHS 1.0 2.3 (1.3)
AJRCHS 2.0 1.9 0.1

Although there were no English language development programs or courses at the sample
high schools, the curriculum specialists as well as the school site administrators provided
coaching support to all teachers, especially English teachers to ensure students were supported
through the use of strategies, supplemental materials etc.
There was a significant discrepancy between the academic extra help staff allocated at the
four high schools studied in comparison to the EBM: .2 to 23.7 yielding a shortage of 23.5. This
discrepancy is due to the fact that schools do not employee their own staff to provide speech and
language, occupational and physical therapy, deaf and hard of hearing services etc. as well as
nursing services. These services are outsourced and contracted to selected outside agencies due
to the low numbers of students in need of these supports and services at the school sites. Special
Education Program Administrators and finance department personnel at the district office made
this decision after analyzing costs of hiring staff for individual schools as well as for the district
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 109

to be allocated to a number of school sites. Contracts have been developed between the
organization and the outside agencies to ensure that services and supports meet the expectations
of the organization as well as the needs of each individual school site.
The number of non-academic pupil support staff that was allocated in the four sample
schools was also significantly less than the recommendations of the EBM: 10.7 to 33.7. Each
school had an allocation of two college, academic counselors. In addition to providing academic
counseling to the entire student population, these counselors provided counseling for students
with disabilities based on services outlined in their Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) as well
as group counseling and mediation for general education students. All other services included
personnel who served multiple sites. For example, the school psychologist allocated two days a
week for two schools involved in the study and one day to the third school. The fourth school
involved in the study only received services from a school psychologist based on the number of
evaluations that needed to be completed for special education purposes. All of the clinical
services that are offered at the four participating schools received an allocation of an intern two
days a week to provide counseling services to students who had mental health and social
emotional needs. This intern was supervised by an individual who had a caseload of
approximately nine interns. Tables 4.7 and 4.8 show an individual school gap analysis for
extended day/summer school staff.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 110

Table 4.7
Individual School Gap Analysis: Extended Day/Summer School Staff

Pupil Support Staff
Schools CA EB CA-EB Gap
ALCHS 2.9 8.2 (5.3)
ASLACHS 3.0 8.3 (5.3)
ARBCHS 3.1 9.6 (6.5)
AJRCHS 1.7 7.7 (6.0)

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 111
Table 4.8
Individual School Gap Analysis: Extended Day/Summer School Staff

Extended Day Staff Summer School Staff

CA EB CA-EB Gap CA EB CA-EB Gap
ALCHS 3.0 4.8 (1.8) 0.3 4.8 (4.5)
ASLACHS 5.0 4.8 0.2 0.3 4.8 (4.4)
ARBCHS 4.0 5.7 (1.7) 0.2 5.7 (5.5)
AJRCHS 3.0 4.5 (1.5) 0.6 4.5 (3.9)

RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 112

In regards to extended day and summer school personnel, a significant gap existed
between the allocation at the school sites and the EBM. This discrepancy can be attributed to the
fact that the extended day personnel is also outsourced at the school sites to an outside agency
due to limitations in school budgets. A grant was obtained to provide after school program
services at the four schools involved in the study and the number of extended day staff included a
site coordinator, an assistant and additional support staff for supervision and program
implementation purposes. However, it is important to note that the agency also outsources
throughout the year for instructors and additional staff depending upon student expressed
interests. For example, the site coordinator assesses interest from the student body and based on
numbers, will contract with a qualified individual to provide instruction in a specific area. Due to
the fact that this number consistently fluctuates based on student commitment and new interests,
the numbers entered into the simulation included agency staff that was provided for the entire
school year. For summer school staff allocations, although each site was able to provide a
summer bridge program for all incoming 9
th
grade students, only ¾ sites were able to offer a
summer school program. When these results are analyzed through Odden’s (2009) “10 Strategies
for Doubling Student Performance” framework, the participating schools might consider
focusing on this gap. The strategy of providing extended-day and summer school for struggling
learners could have a great impact on the performance of students considered to be at-risk
For librarians, the EBM recommends one librarian for each prototypical high school,
however, each of the schools involved in this study did not have a school library. Although
various teachers collected books and made them available for student use, none of the sites had a
physical library in which students could conduct research and borrow books. Each school did
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 113

have a computer lab in which research could be conducted however, research and leisure books
were not available.
Knowledge and skills. Clark and Estes (2008) assert that people’s knowledge and skills
can be a contributing factor when determining the cause of a gap. In analyzing the district’s
knowledge and skills, it is apparent that the district office employees are knowledgeable and
were promoted from the school site level due to their knowledge and success with students and
teachers (Personal conversation, District Cluster Director, December 12, 2012). At the school site
level, there have been intensive efforts to ensure that certificated and classified staff are provided
with meaningful professional development coupled with follow up and coaching. Trainings are
conducted on and off site by school site teacher leaders, administrators and district office
personnel as well outside agencies. Increased efforts over the past two years has been to provide
support in the classroom through a coaching model as well as the new teacher evaluation system
to support teachers in the implementation of strategies and best practices presented. This was an
initiative throughout the district after an analysis of stakeholder feedback and teacher evaluation
data that indicated that although they had the knowledge of effective instructional methods and
strategies, they lacked the skills necessary to implement them independently, with fidelity in
their classrooms. (Personal conversation, Principals, November 11, 13 & 14, 2012).
Motivation. Clark and Estes (2008) define motivation as the drive that individuals have
to pursue, persist and invest their efforts towards a goal. Employees at the four start-up charter
high schools involved in this study are highly motivated. The majority of individuals who came
to serve students at Green Dot joined due to its mission of transforming public education in
urban communities throughout the greater Los Angeles area by preparing all students for college,
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 114

leadership and life (Personal conversation, Principal, November 14, 2012). They understood that
this mission required commitment and dedication and many times more work than typical urban
school districts. Although the accountability measures have significantly increased due to the
new evaluation system, the majority of the teachers are highly motivated to improve their
teaching practices and believe that it is necessary to hold teachers accountable for high
performance standards and student achievement (Personal conversation, Principal, November 11,
2012). Employees serving the schools involved in this study are also motivated by the leadership
opportunities and collaboration structures that are in place to support them in making a larger
impact on students, the school, organization and urban education.
Additionally, this year will also be the first year that the organization will host an event
that honors teachers, staff and administrators to recognize all of their dedication and commitment
to students and mission of the organization. Individuals will be honored based on nominations
and awards will be presented. The leaders of the organization believe that it is crucial to
recognize employees to build a positive morale, enhance motivation levels, and nurture the
professional culture of honor and respect throughout the district.
Organizational barriers. Finally, Clark and Estes (2008) have indicated that
organizational gaps, which include culture, structure and ability to embrace change, play a
crucial role in understanding gaps. Despite the various factors that have challenged the district as
well as individual school sites such as budget cuts and new accountability measures for teachers
and expectations placed on administrators, the principals who were interviewed firmly believed
that instruction, student achievement and student needs remain the priority. Although the
responsibilities and accountability measures have increased, a common theme revealed through
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 115

the interviews with the principals was the level of support that has increased from the district
office, specifically from the literacy and math coordinators and curriculum specialists.
Unlike other CMOs, Green Dot Public Schools has a union that represents teachers and
counselors as well as a union representing the classified staff. There is an elected board that is
comprised of a President, Vice President, Treasurer and Secretary as well as site representatives
at each site who attend monthly Union meetings. Although it has taken a longer period of time to
create, develop and implement initiatives such as the new evaluation process, the process has
demonstrated effectiveness over time. There are focus groups for each content area that are
comprised of teachers as well as a group for counselors to ensure their input is taken into account
and incorporated in the creation and development of protocols, processes and systems. Items are
then brought to the negotiations committee that is comprised of union members as well as district
office leaders. Once all proposals and initiatives are agreed upon they are then brought to a vote
by all union members. A majority vote is required by the union in order for the organization to
begin the implementation process. This instills a culture of collaboration and nurtures the
professional learning community at the district and school site level and establishes a higher
level of “buy-in” from teachers (Personal interview, Principal, November 13, 2012). However,
the organizational barrier that exists due to the existence of the union is the fact that there is a
contract that limits the amount of time that schools are able to require teachers to stay after
school for meetings as well as extended learning time for students. Although there are many
teachers who volunteer to stay after to school to collaborate, tutor, and meet with administration,
it is challenging to implement a structured program after school that is run by school staff due to
the union contract.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 116

Another organizational barrier was presented by the finance department. The department
indicated that although the organization is one of the most cost effective in comparison to other
CMOs that there is a reliance on private sponsors, donors and grants to sustain its current model.
All four schools have not generated a deficit during the 2011-2012 school year, however, the
second assistant principal that has been added to each of the school sites this year and the
increased level of support provided at the district office level have been funded through a
combination of grants and private sponsors. This indicates that in order to maintain the level of
support provided at the school site through administration as well as district staff, supplemental
funding would continue to be required.
Research Question IV
How can human resources be strategically re-allocated to align with strategies that
improve student achievement for students in Green Dot at the high school level?
The evidence based model (EBM) developed by Odden and Picus (2008) was utilized to
analyze the resource allocation and level of support that exists in the three middle schools
participating in the study. The purpose of the model is to identify elements of a school-wide
instructional program that have demonstrated a positive impact on student achievement. The
EBM provides recommendations for schools, with modifications made based on the overall
student population. The prototypical school size that the EBM utilizes, based on research is 600
students at the high school level and a class size of 25, which indicates a need for 24 core
teachers. The schools studied in this research were within a range of 100 of the prototypical
school size with the smallest school serving 578 students and the largest serving 694 with a class
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 117

size of 28 for core content area courses and 32 for elective and intervention courses, which
entails 24 core and three elective and intervention teachers at each site.
After this researcher analyzed the allocation of resources at each site and the limited
ability to reallocate resources as well as the gaps between current allocation and the EBM, it is
recommended that class sizes increase to 32 for core content area courses and 36 for elective and
intervention courses to generate additional revenue. This additional revenue would enable each
school in hiring a full time instructional coach to provide full time coaching to teachers as well
as support in enhancing the coordination of the after school tutoring program with the existing
outside agency by establishing partnerships with post-secondary institutions to obtain
educational program interns needing to fulfill fieldwork hours.
Although there are three administrators on site who are responsible for providing
coaching through observations and debriefs, as well as support from the district office literacy
and math curriculum specialists who also provide coaching support to the teachers,
administrators are responsible for a great deal of additional duties and the district office
specialists support multiple schools and have limited time in supporting all teachers. In addition,
the EBM recommends one instructional coach for every 200 students to increase the retention of
highly-effective teachers, build teacher capacity as instructional leaders and promote a stronger
professional culture that embraces accountability for student achievement. This additional
support would also enhance the overall support provided to struggling, at-risk and special
education students. Teachers would receive more frequent coaching and debriefing to support
them in improving their instructional practices and maximizing the use of their paraeducator or
resource teacher if they have this support for specific periods. Additionally, struggling students
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 118

would be provided with the extended instructional time necessary for them to acquire the skills
to access curriculum at the same rate as their peers. This would ultimately decrease the number
of referrals for special education as well as ensure that special education students succeed in the
general education environment, which would be an overall, long-term cost saving strategy.
The following recommendations do not require additional funds but would, increase
student achievement significantly based on Odden’s (2009) Ten Strategies for Doubling Student
Performance. The first recommendation is to ensure all new teachers participate in New Teacher
Training regardless of whether or not they are hired and processed prior to the beginning of the
school year when the professional development week takes place. This would require the new
teachers who are hired after the beginning of the school year to be released to participate in the
training that would be offered by the district office personnel. In addition, a restructuring of the
professional development week for new teachers should be established to differentiate between
new teachers to the organization and new teachers to the field. Professional development that
also occurs throughout the organization as well as at the individual school sites should also be
differentiated based on teacher experience as well through a workshop or rotation format or truly
differentiated individual session. In addition, it is recommended that all trainings are videotaped
and archived for the purposes of reference as well as for any teacher who was unable to attend.
Furthermore, additional trainings that pertain to technical and procedural topics should be
developed, narrated, recorded and placed on the organizations employee only site.
The second recommendation is that all schools adopt the Grade Level (GL) team
structure in which there is a recurring meeting between Grade Level Leaders (GLLs), counselors,
and the administrative team for the purposes of collaboration and support to one another and
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 119

most importantly, students. In addition, all schools should adopt the Instructional Leadership
Team (ILT) model to implement the collaborative process of developing and facilitating
professional development at each site. It is also recommended that there is release time each
month, at minimum for the GLLs and the ILTs to observe and coach teachers who require
additional support based on data. The coaching should focus on specific indicators that are
aligned to the College Ready Teaching Framework (CRTF) and teacher goals. This would not
impact the schools’ budget due to the fact that there is already an allocation of stipends for each
GLL and ILT. Additionally, new teachers at the site level should be assigned to a veteran or
experienced teacher who can provide a specified number of hours of support in agreed upon
areas. This “new teacher support provider” can be compensated with a stipend if the budget
allows.
The third recommendation is to ensure that each content area course teacher at every site
has a yearlong pacing plan and common assessments created for each unit before the beginning
of the school year. This should be developed by the literacy and math coordinators in
collaboration with the English, Math, History and Science curriculum specialists. It is also
recommended that all of these items are placed on the district website for accessibility purposes.
For new teachers to the field, it is crucial to have curriculum developed for them that has
demonstrated effectiveness to support them in overcoming the challenges of being a first year
teacher. This curriculum would be aligned to the yearlong pacing plan and common assessments
and should include detailed daily lesson plans along with supplemental materials for at least the
entire first unit of the year. This recommendation would allow for autonomy in how the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 120

standards are taught but would provide a standardized, structured guide across the organization
for the purposes of collaboration and increasing student achievement.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to collect and analyze data from the district level to
determine the connection between the current allocation of resources and to the evidence-based
model (EBM) to determine existing gaps in allocations designed to increase student
achievement. The EBM by Odden and Picus (2008) served as a framework to determine the
effectiveness of resource allocation strategies implemented within four start-up, independent
Green Dot charter high schools. Additionally, Odden’s (2009) 10 strategies for Doubling Student
Performance was utilized as a research-driven framework to determine which strategies the
participating schools implemented for the purposes of significantly improving student
achievement.
The interviews conducted as part of this study provided an insight as to the how the
current strategies utilized in these four schools compared to the “10 Strategies that Double
Student Performance’ as identified by Odden (2009). Based on the findings of this study, it can
be concluded that the four high schools engaged in all ten strategies identified by Odden (2009)
to increase student achievement. Throughout the interview process, it was revealed that the
organization and the schools engage in specific activities with administrators and teachers to
analyze data to determine their current performance and challenges. They then make data driven
decisions and set ambitious goals organization wide as well as at the school site and classroom
levels. Furthermore, the results showed that the leaders at the district office level make it a
priority to ensure that all stakeholders understand the educational vision for the organization and
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 121

each specific school site. Another strategy implemented at all four participating schools involved
providing ongoing, strategic professional development through a distributed leadership model for
the purposes of developing a school culture that embraces accountability and fosters
collaboration. Each of the schools implemented strategies to ensure time was utilized efficiently
and effectively in the classrooms. Additionally, the organization utilized a recruitment system
that was structured in a way to ensure that the human capital that was hired to serve each of the
schools were highly qualified and aligned to the mission and vision of the organization. When
conducting a gap analysis between the allocation of resources at the school sites and the EBM,
principals, core teachers, supervisory aides and secretaries/clerks were aligned, whereas all other
resources fell short of what the EBM suggests. Furthermore, the findings of the study
demonstrated a need for the schools to focus on how to reallocate resources to more closely align
to the EBM, specifically in the area of extra support and time for struggling students. Chapter 5
provides further discussion on this issue, suggestions for future research and conclusions.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 122
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
This chapter provides a summary of the study, the research questions, and the
methodology used in this investigation. The chapter will also provide a summary of the research
findings and pertinent implications for policy and practices. Finally, the chapter includes
recommendations and suggestions for further research pertaining to resource allocation in
schools for the purposes of increasing student achievement.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to examine the resources allocated to improve student
learning outcomes in four high schools within a charter management organization (CMO). All
schools involved in the study were start-up, independent charter schools. The study intended to
develop an understanding of the correlation between resource allocation patterns and practices of
the four start-up charter high schools and their student achievement outcomes which guided the
recommendations provided to reallocate human capital resources to effectively and efficiently
improve performance.
Research Questions
The following four research questions guided this study:
I. What are the current human resource allocation strategies implemented at four start
up charter high schools within Green Dot Public Schools to increase student
achievement?
II. Are the current human resource allocation strategies consistent with the
organization’s strategic plan for increasing student achievement?
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 123

III. Is there a gap between current human resource allocation practices in Green Dot
High Schools and the strategies that are used in the EBM?
IV. How can human resources be strategically re-allocated to align with strategies that
improve student achievement for students in Green Dot at the high school level?
Odden and Picus’ (2008) EBM was employed in analyzing the resources necessary for four high
schools to adequately allocate funds to increase student achievement levels. The purpose of the
EBM is to guide stakeholders in identifying methods by which existing resources can be allocated
to further improve student outcomes (Odden & Picus, 2008).
Methodology
This study utilized a qualitative methods design to assist in answering the research
questions. The data pertaining to instructional goals and priorities were collected through
interviews with the principals and cluster director. In addition, documents involving data
focusing on resource allocation was gathered from the human resources, knowledge management
and finance departments and analyzed through a gap analysis comparison using the Evidence-
Based Model (Odden & Picus, 2010). The intent of the document review was to enable this
researcher to input the allocation of resources at the four high schools into the simulation model
based on Odden and Picus’ (2010) model, created by David Knight, a Ph.D. student from the
Rossier School of Education and to analyze how the current allocation compares to the
recommendations found in the simulation.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 124

Data Collection and Analysis
The data collection included finance, accounting, and human resource personnel records
for each of the schools that were provided by the CMO’s Knowledge Management, Human
Resources and Finance departments. The records included the position count for the four charter
high schools and the average salary for those positions as well as information pertaining to
extended day/year personnel. The documents also included the grade levels and subjects by each
teacher as well as courses offered at each school site. The data collected was then inputted into a
simulation that compared the current allocation of resources for the four high schools with the
Evidence-Based Model (EBM) framework. The purpose of the comparison was to determine if
the current resource allocation applied by the four high schools aligned to those recommended by
the EBM. Additionally, the comparison was examined through a gap analysis lens.
The study also involved interviews with three of four school site principals and district
cluster director to determine whether or not the four high schools implemented Odden’s Ten
Strategies for Doubling Student Performance (2009). The strategies identified by Odden (2009)
to significantly improve student achievement include: 1) Understand the Performance Problem
and Challenge; 2) Set Ambitious Goals; 3) Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New
Instructional Vision; 4) Utilize Benchmark and Formative Assessments, and Make Decisions
Based on Data; 5) Provide Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development; 6) Use Time
Efficiently and Effectively; 7) Extend Learning and Time for Struggling Students, 8) Establish a
Collaborative, Professional Culture and Distributive Leadership System; 9) Ensure that
Professional and Best Practices are Implemented; and 10) Acknowledge and Incorporate the
Human Capital Side of Doubling Student Performance.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 125

The data collected were entered into a systematically developed simulation created by
Odden and Picus (2010) that involved pre-set formulas which identified whether or not a gap
existed between the EBM resource allocation recommendations and the current schools’
practices. Once the data were input into the simulation, the simulation produced a comparison
between the current resource allocation practices and those recommended by the EBM for the
four high schools. The simulation also identified how the schools’ resource allocation practices
aligned to improvement strategies for school reform. Additionally, the interview data were
analyzed to identify any patterns and trends that emerged within the responses pertaining to the
resource allocation practices that existed in the four high schools and the practices recommended
by the strategies outlined in the EBM for improving student achievement.
Summary of Findings and Theoretical Implications
There is a sense of urgency throughout the nation to improve the academic achievement
for all students. Initiatives to ensure students are provided with sufficient opportunities and
resources necessary to meet rigorous accountability measures is currently leading the educational
agenda (Rebell, 2007). The success of our students ultimately relies on effective leadership,
highly qualified teachers and the effective allocation of resources. As expectations rise for all
students and teachers to perform at higher levels, the concern is whether or not the allocated
resources are adequate to support the rigorous achievement standards due to the strong
relationship between spending patterns and student success (SEDL, 2003).
Findings of this study revealed that the participating schools have implemented strategies
outlined by Odden’s (2009) “Ten Strategies of Doubling Student Performance” which are
included as part of their strategic plans developed to address the achievement gap that currently
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 126

exists between their minority student populations and their counterparts. The results of the study
show that the participating schools have processes in place to identify and understand the
performance gap that currently exist at their site between. These processes enable campus
leaders and district personnel in guiding teachers and other key stakeholders toward focusing on
the critical areas of need. It was also found that the organization and four high schools have set
ambitious goals for all students to become prepared for college, leadership and life through the
implementation of a structured instructional program that includes a strong intervention model to
ensure that all students have access to an instructional program that is tailored to meet their
individual needs.
Another finding was that the four high schools engage in a data-driven, decision-making
processes to identify performance gaps for the purposes of making necessary changes to the
instructional program to maximize resources and student achievement outcomes. In regards to
the professional development model, it was found that each school has established a plan to
provide ongoing, systematic support to teachers to ensure quality instruction is delivered on a
daily basis. The model implemented at the schools calls for the principal and assistant principals
to serve as coaches, and also includes a strategic plan that outlines the type of professional
development activities the school should engage in throughout the year based on an analysis of
stakeholder feedback, evaluation results and assessment data. Additionally, the study revealed
that the professional development implemented at the schools involves a collaborative and
distributed leadership approach for the purposes of establishing a strong professional culture and
to ensure that all stakeholders actively participate in supporting the organization and school’s
instructional goals.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 127

The findings demonstrate that each of the four high schools have shown overall positive
gains in student achievement through the implementation of strategies similar to those discussed
by Odden (2009). In 2012, Animo Leadership CHS had an Academic Performance Index (API)
score of 806, Animo South LA CHS had a score of 709, Animo Jackie Robinson CHS scored 775
and Animo Ralph Bunche CHS scored 692. Each school demonstrated significant gains since its
inception and received a score far higher than their neighborhood schools.
The study also revealed that the resource allocation gap existing at the four high schools
were not as significant as anticipated when compared to the Evidence Based Model. The results
can be attributed to the fact that each of the schools employs one principal and two assistant
principals who serve as instructional coaches to their teaching staff. Additionally, it is worth
noting that even though the personnel count of positions at these four high schools is not that
different when compared to the EBM, the budget gap is still significant. This is a result of the
CMO’s ability to secure financial support through grants and private donors and sponsors. As
part of their strategy to minimize the impact of the state’s decreased levels of funding in recent
years, the CMO staffs personnel specifically dedicated to applying for grants and establishing
partnerships with private donors to compensate for the budgetary gaps at the school site level as
well as to increase the level of support that is provided by district office staff.
It is important to note the significance of relying on private donations and grants required
for these schools to operate and implement an effective instructional program for students. This
further reveals the alarming state of our educational system and its inability to allocate adequate
resources to schools to meet the increase levels of accountability instilled by the state and federal
government. Additionally, the fact that schools rely on grants and private donors for adequate
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 128

funding have greater implications in regards to sustainability. As such, this study can provide the
educational community with a baseline as to the actual amounts of resources required to operate
schools that are closely aligned to the EBM that implement strategies outlined by Odden’s
(2009) “Ten Strategies for Doubling Student Performance.” Furthermore, the study can be
utilized by other educational communities to identify the different strategies necessary for
schools sites to improve the services and supports they currently provide to teachers and students
for the purposes of significantly increasing achievement outcomes.
Policy Implications
The Evidence Based Model, as developed by Odden and Picus (2009), offers educational
policy makers, as well as district and school leaders, a framework for effectively allocating
personnel resources adequate for schools to maximize student achievement levels. It is a tool that
yields specific recommendations and can assist schools and districts in identifying the
appropriate resources that should be allocated to meet the needs of a diverse student population.
The study also supports the effectiveness of Odden’s (2009) research driven strategies proven to
increase student achievement that can be implemented at the school site level. The study offers
various methods pertaining to the application of these strategies that can be implemented at the
district and school site level.
Another policy implication highlighted by the study is the importance of aligning the
organization and school sites’ instructional vision for student achievement. District level leaders
must establish clear expectations regarding the organization’s goal for student achievement and
provide targeted support to ensure the schools have the resources necessary to meet these goals.
Finally, the study revealed the importance of building capacity among all stakeholders as it
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 129

relates to the implementation of any effective instructional program as well as a commitment and
dedication to the mission and vision of accountability for providing all students with the highest
quality education possible.
Conclusion
It is recommended that districts focus on research-driven strategies that have proven to
improve student achievement. It is important to acknowledge that the current status of
California’s budget remains and will continue to be problematic; therefore, it is ever critical for
educators at every level of the system to analyze current resource allocation practices compared
to the EBM as a method to address the needs of students and performance gaps that exist. The
four high schools that participated in this study have proven that despite the fiscal crisis, the
appropriate and effective allocation of resources can serve as the vehicle to ensure that
instruction delivered in every classroom remains the priority due to its significant impact on
student achievement. As such, the four high schools can serve as a model to guide other start-up
independent charter schools or schools with similar characteristics in achieving academic success
through the implementation of research driven strategies and effective resource allocation
practices.
Finally, the study demonstrates the need to re-evaluate the current fiscal allocation of
resources, and the manner in which states provide funding to public schools. The four middle
schools in this study were able to achieve success by establishing partnerships with outside
donors and obtaining supplemental funds from who believe and support the organization and
school’s mission which is clearly not a sustainable model. If our nation is truly committed to the
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 130

education of all children, adequate resources must be allocated to ensure all students are
successful in college, leadership and life.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 131

References
Archibald, S., & Gallagher, H. A. (2002). A case study of professional development
expenditures at a restructured high school. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10(29), 1-
24.
Baker, B. (2005). The emerging shape of educational adequacy: From theoretical assumptions to
empirical evidence. Journal of Education Finance, 30(3), 259-287.
Barro, S. M. (1992). What does the education dollar buy? Relationships of staffing, staff
characteristics, and staff salaries to state per-pupil spending. Los Angeles, CA: The
Finance Center, Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
Bolman, L., & Deal, T. (2003). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey – Bass.
Boudette, K. P., City, E. A., & Murnane, R. J. (2005). Data wise: A step-by-step approach to
using assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Burkeley, K., & Fisler, J. (2003). A decade of charter schools: From theory to practice. Los
Angeles, CA: University of Southern California.
Corcoran, T. B. (1995). Helping teachers teach well: Transforming professional development
(RB-16). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania, Consortium for Policy Research
in Education, University of Pennsylvania.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 132

Desimone, L., Porter, A. C., Birman, B. F., Garet, M. S., & Yoon, K. S. (2002). How do district
management and implementation strategies relate to the quality of professional
development that districts provide to teachers? Teachers College Record, 104(7), 1265-
1312.
Duke, D. L. (2006). What we know and don’t know about improving low-performing schools.
Phi Delta Kappan, 87(10), 728-734.
Education Data Partnership. (2013). Ed-Data. Retrieved from http://www.ed-
data.k12.ca.us/Pages/Home.aspx
EdSource, Inc. (2004). Charter schools in California: An experiment coming of age. Retrieved
from http://www.edsource.org/pub_CharterPerf6-04_report.html
EdSource, Inc. (2005). School accountability under NCLB: Ambitious goals and competing
systems. Retrieved from http://www.edsource.org/pub_NCLB8-05.html
EdSource, Inc. (2009). California’s charter schools: 2009 Update on Issues and Performance.
Retrieved from http://www.edsource.org/pub_CharterPerf6-09.html
Guskey, T. R. (1986). Staff development and the process of change. Educational Researcher,
15(5), 5-12.
Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. H. (1996). Reassessing the principal's role in school effectiveness: A
review of empirical research, 1980-1995. Educational Administration Quarterly, 32(1),
5-45.
Hanushek, E., & Rivkin, S. (1997). Understanding the twentieth-century growth in U.S. school
spending. Journal of Human Resources 32(1), 35–68.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 133

Jennings, J. (2012). Reflections on a half-century of school reform: Why have we fallen short
and where do we go from here? Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy.
Joyce, B., & Calhoun, E. (1996). Learning experiences in school renewal: An exploration of five
successful programs. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management.
Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student Achievement through Staff Development (3
rd
ed.).
Alexandria, V A: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Karoly, L. A., & Panis, W. A. (2004). The 21
st
century at work: Forces shaping the future
workforce and workplace in the United States. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
Ladd, H. F., & Hansen, S. H. (20021999-2000). Making money matter: Financing America's
schools. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Louis, K. S., & Marks, H. M. (1998). Does professional community affect the classroom?
Teachers' work and student experiences in restructuring schools. American Journal of
Education, 106, 532-575.
Louis, K. S., Marks, H., M. & Kruse, S. D. (1996). Teachers’ professional community in
restructured schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33(4), 757-798.
Lyman, L. L. & Villani, C. J. (2004). Best leadership practices for high-poverty schools. Toronto:
Scarecrow Education.
Moe, T. (2008). Beyond the free market: The structure of school choice. Brigham Young
University Law Review, 1: 557-92.
Mohrman, S. A., & Cummings, T. G. (1989). Self-designing organizations: Learning how to
create high performance. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 134

National Center for Education Statistics (2010). From PISA 2009: Performance of U.S. 15-
Year-Old Students in Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy in an International
Context. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011004.pdf
NEA Research. (2010). Rankings and Estimates. Rankings of the States 2010 and
Estimates of School Statistics 2011. Washington, DC: National Education Association.
Northhouse, P. G. (2006). Leadership-Theory and Practice (4
th
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Odden, A. (2003). Equity and adequacy in school finance today. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(2), 120-
125.
Odden, A. (2009). Ten strategies for doubling student performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press.
Odden A., & Archibald, S. (2009). Doubling student performance … and finding the
resources to do it. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Odden, A., Archibald, S., Fermanich, M., & Gross, B. (2003). Defining school-level expenditures
that reflect educational strategies. Journal of Education Finance, 28(3), 323-356.
Odden, A., Goertz, M., Archibald, S., Gross, B., Weiss, M., & Mangan, M. T. (2006). The cost
of instructional improvement: Resource allocation in schools using comprehensive
strategies to change classroom practice. Presented at American Educational Research
Association. San Francisco, CA.
Submitted to Journal of Education Finance
Odden, A. & Picus, L. O. (2008). School finance: A policy perspective (4
th
ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw Hill.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 135

Odden, A. & Picus, L. O. (2010). Using the evidence based model in strategic budgeting:
Examples from four diverse Ohio districts. Retrieved from http://www.lpicus.com/c5/
Lawrence O. Picus and Associates
Pan, D., Rudo, Z. H. & Schneider, C. L. (2003) Examination of Resource Allocation in
Education Connecting Spending to Student Performance. Austin, TX: Southwest
Educational Development Laboratory.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3
rd
ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Picus, L. O., & Fazal, M. (1996). Why do we need to know what money buys? Research on
resource allocation patterns in elementary and secondary schools. In L. O. Picus & J. L.
Wattenbarger (Eds.), Where does the money go? Resource allocation in elementary and
secondary schools (pp. 1–19) (1995 Yearbook of the American Education Finance
Association). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Porter, A. C., & Polikoff, M.S. (2007). NCLB: State interpretations, early effects, and
suggestions for reauthorization. Social Policy Report, 21(4).
Rebell, M. (2007). Professional rigor, public engagement, and judicial review: A proposal for
enhancing the validity of education adequacy studies. Teacher College Record, 109(6)
ID Number 12743). Retrieved from
http:/www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=12743
Article ID Number 12743
Rothstein, R., & Miles, K. H. (1995). Where’s the money gone? Washington, DC: Economic
Policy Institute.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 136

Sandler, M. R. (2010). Social entrepreneurship in education: Private ventures for the public
good. New York, NY . Rowan & Littlefield Education.
Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL). (2003). Examination of resource
allocations in education: Connecting spending to student performance. Retrieved from
http://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/policy89.html
Stanford University Center for Research on Education Outcomes (CREDO). (2009). Multiple
choice: Charter performance in 16 states. Retrieved from http://credo.stanford.edu/
U.S. Census Bureau. (2008). Public Education Finances 2006. Retrieved February 17, 2012
from www.census.gov/govs/www/school06.html
U.S. Department of Education (USDOE). (2012). Race to the top. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/executive-summary.pdf
Weston, M. (2010). School finance reform. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy
Institute of California.
http://www.ppic.org/
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 137

Appendix:
Adequate Resources for Prototypical High Schools
School Characteristics
School Element High Schools
School configuration 9–12
Prototypic school size 600
Class size 25
Number of teacher work days
200 teacher work days, including
10 days for intensive training
% disabled 12
% poverty (free and 50
reduced-price lunch)
% ELL 10
% minority 30
Personnel Resources
1. Core teachers 24
600 Students and a class size of
25 indicates a need for 24 core
teachers.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 138

2. Specialist teachers 33% more: 8.0
90 minute block periods would
require an additional 8 teachers
3. Instructional
facilitators/mentors
3.0 1 FTE for every 200 students
4. Tutors for struggling students
One for every 100 poverty
students: 3.0

5. Teachers for ELL students
Additional 1.0 teachers for
every 100 ELL students: 0.60

6. Extended-day 2.5
1 FTE for 50% of the number of
students qualifying for free and
reduced lunch
7. Summer school 2.5
1 FTE for 50$ of the number of
students qualifying for free and
reduced lunch
8a. Learning and mildly
disabled students
Additional 4 professional
teacher positions
Based on census approach. 1
FTE for every 18 students.
8b. Severely disabled students
100% state reimbursement
minus federal funds

9. Teachers for gifted students $25/student
10. V ocational education No extra cost
11. Substitutes 5% of lines 1–11 10 days for each teacher.
RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN START-UP CHARTER SCHOOLS 139

12. Pupil support staff
1 for every 100 poverty
students plus 1.0
guidance/250 students: 5.4

13. Noninstructional aides 3.0
14. Librarians/media specialists
1.0 librarian
1.0 library technician

15. Principal 1
16. School site secretary 3.0
17. Professional development
Included above: Instructional
coaches Planning and prep
time 10 summer days
Additional: $50/pupil for
other PD expenses—trainers,
conferences, travel, etc.
100$/pupil=$60,000
18. Technology $250/pupil Includes direct and indirect costs
19. Instructional materials $175/pupil
$120/book plus $50 for
supplemental, consumables.
20. Student activities $250/pupil

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of the study was to develop a better understanding of the allocation of resources utilized to improve student learning outcomes in four start-up, independent charter high schools within a Charter Management Organization (CMO). The four high schools that participated in the study had similar demographics and served students in urban communities throughout the greater Los Angeles area. ❧ The current practices implemented at the four high schools as they relate to the allocation of resources were compared to Odden and Picus’ (2008) Evidence Based Model (EBM) as well as Odden’s (2009) “Ten Strategies for Doubling Student Performance”, which are research driven and likely to significantly improve student achievement outcomes. The study revealed that the four high schools’ current practices for improving student achievement aligned with the strategies identified by Odden (2009). Additionally, the study found that the practices implemented by the schools were supported by the CMO’s mission and vision of ensuring that every classroom had an effective teacher delivering instruction to prepare every student for college, leadership and life upon graduation. ❧ Finally, the use of Odden and Picus’ (2010) simulation to compare current resource allocation practices for the participating schools with Odden and Picus’ (2008) EBM enabled a gap analysis to be conducted. The findings of the study revealed that the personnel allocation practices at the four schools did not vary significantly from that of the recommendations of the EBM. However, specific recommendations to improve the supports and services for at-risk, struggling learners were provided. Additionally, specific areas require further study for the purposes of considering how these schools can further improve the support and services provided to at risk, struggling learners through extended day, school year and Summer School programs.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Resource allocation practices in three charter middle schools in relation to student achievement improvement strategies

PDF

Personnel resource allocation strategies in a time of fiscal stress: a gap analysis of five southern California elementary schools

PDF

Allocation of educational resources to improve student achievement: Case studies of four California charter schools

PDF

Resource allocation practices in relation to identified school reform strategies

PDF

A closer examination of resource allocations using research based best practices to promote student learning: case studies of Hawaiian-focused charter schools in Hawaii

PDF

Resource allocation strategies and educational adequacy: Case studies of school level resource use in California middle schools

PDF

Educational resource allocation at the middle school level: a case study of six middle schools in one California district

PDF

An examination of resource allocation strategies and finance adequacy: case studies of American Samoa Department of Education secondary schools

PDF

Personnel resource allocation strategies in a time of fiscal crisis: case study of elementary schools in a California school district

PDF

Aligning educational resources and strategies to improve student learning: effective practices using an evidence-based model

PDF

Personnel resource allocation strategies in a time of fiscal stress

PDF

Evidence-based resource allocation model to improve student achievement: Case study analysis of three high schools

PDF

The allocation of resources at the school level to improve learning for struggling readers: What is adequate?

PDF

Allocation of educational resources to improve student learning: case studies of California schools

PDF

Navigating troubled waters: case studies of three California high schools' resource allocation strategies in 2010-2011

PDF

Educational resource allocation at the high school level: a case study of high schools in one California district

PDF

Allocation of educational resources to improve student achievement: case studies of six California schools within two school districts

PDF

Allocation of educational resources to improve student learning: case studies of California schools

PDF

Personnel resource allocation in a Hawaii school complex

PDF

Educational resource allocation at the elementary level: a case study of one elementary school district in California

Asset Metadata

Creator Suh, Christine Sandra (author)

Core Title Resource allocation practices in start-up charter schools in relation to identified school reform strategies

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/05/2013

Defense Date 03/11/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag charter schools,OAI-PMH Harvest,reform strategies,resource allocation,school finance

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence O. (committee chair), Elsasser, Jim (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email csuh@greendot.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-232849

Unique identifier UC11293590

Identifier usctheses-c3-232849 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SuhChristi-1519.pdf

Dmrecord 232849

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Suh, Christine Sandra

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA