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Positive deviance: first generation Latino college students
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Positive deviance: first generation Latino college students
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Running head: FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 1
POSITIVE DEVIANCE: FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS
by
Erika Castañeda-Flores
________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2013
Copyright 2013 Erika Castañeda-Flores
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 2
Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………...…… 4
Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………………...… 5
Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………...…. 6
Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………...… 7
Research Questions…………………………………………………………………...….. 8
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………...……. 9
Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………………...….11
Delimitations, Limitations, Assumptions………………………………………………. 13
Organization of the Study…………………………………………………………..……14
Chapter 2: Literature Review………………………………………………………………….... 15
Positive Deviance……………………………………………………………...…………16
First Generation Latino College Students………………………………………………. 20
Challenges Facing First Generation Latino College Students………………………….. 24
Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………...….. 33
Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………............35
Research Questions………………………………………………………………………35
Research Design………………………………………………………………………….35
Sample and Population…………………………………………………………………..36
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………………. 39
Instrumentation…………………………………………………………………………..40
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………….41
Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………………...41
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 3
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………42
Chapter 4: Findings…………………………………………………………………....................43
Challenges Faced by First Generation Latino College Students………………………...43
Strategies Used to Achieve College Persistence and Higher Levels of Educational
Attainment………………………………………………………………………………..64
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………97
Chapter 5: Discussion and Implications for Practice………………………………………….....99
Study Framework Revisited…………………………………………………………….100
Implications for Practice………………………………………………………………..101
Study Challenges and Limitations……………………………………………………...115
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...116
References……………………………………………………………………………………...117
Appendix A: Information Sheet …………………………………………………………….....123
Appendix B: General Recruitment Letter ……………………………………………………..125
Appendix C: Student Interview Guide ………………………………………………………...126
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 4
Abstract
First generation Latino college students are underperforming and continue to have the lowest
levels of educational attainment relative to other groups in the United States. This study utilized
a positive deviance theoretical framework to uncover the challenges faced by first generation
college students, as well as the strategies used to achieve college persistence and higher levels of
educational attainment. Data collection occurred via interviews with ten positive deviant
students, currently in their third year of college in the state of California. Results revealed
challenges related to limited college readiness, a challenging first year transition, financial
struggles, lack of support systems, and negative self-perceptions. In addition, the results also
unveiled numerous strategies employed by these students to mitigate their challenges, such as
maintaining a college focus in high school, self-regulating learning, and establishing support
systems. The study’s results have significant implications for both high school and college
educators as they aim to narrow the educational attainment achievement gap of the largest
growing minority group in the United States. Furthermore, the findings of this study are of
interest both to the families of first generation Latino college students and students striving to
achieve college persistence and higher levels of educational attainment.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 5
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study
At more than 54 million strong, including the nearly 4 million in Puerto Rico,
Hispanics constitute the country’s largest and fastest-growing minority group.
They have had a profound and positive impact on our country through, among
other things, their community’s strong commitment to family, faith, hard work
and service….Our country was built on and continues to thrive on its diversity,
and there is no doubt that the future of the United States is inextricably linked to
the future of the Hispanic community.
- President Barack Obama, October 19, 2010
Introduction
America’s education system has been experiencing an era of heightened accountability.
In addition to influencing policy change and educational reform, this heightened era of
accountability sheds light on the educational attainment gap in one of our nation’s largest and
fastest growing minority groups – Latinos. According to the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES), only 36 percent of first-time, full-time Latino students earn a degree within
six years, compared to 49 percent of whites (Liu, 2011). California has the largest gap with only
15.5 percent of Latino adults with a degree compared to 50 percent of white adults (Liu, 2011).
According to the 2010 census, it is estimated that 30 percent of the population in the United
States will be Latino by 2050 (Liu, 2011). With much of the growth occurring in the school age
population, the educational success of Latinos will determine the strength of our nation’s and
states’ workforce and economy (Liu, 2011).
The recent attention on Latino educational attainment brings to the forefront not only
questions about equal opportunity and decreasing achievement and educational attainment gaps,
but also the impact that these gaps have on our national economy. According to a study
conducted by McKinsey and Company (2009), if the United States had invested time, energy,
and tremendous effort to close the racial achievement gap of black and Latinos to their white
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 6
counterparts by 1998, the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP) would have increased by two
to four percent. Not supporting individuals from the Latino community in reaching their
academic potential restricts the adaption to new technologies used to enhance productivity and
ability to engage in the American economy (McKinsey & Company, 2009). Providing sufficient
support for individuals to reach their academic potential entails placing a strong emphasis on
college matriculation and persistence, as well as defining, determining, and discovering the
successful behaviors in which first generation Latino college students engage.
Statement of the Problem
Data pertaining to college preparation and enrollment suggest that many Latinos are the
first in their family to enroll in college (Excelencia in Education, 2011). In 2007-2008, about
50% of Latinos enrolled in college had parents whose highest level of education was a high
school diploma or less, compared to 28 percent of white students who were the first in their
family to go to college. Similarly, a study from the University of California, Los Angeles Higher
Education Research Institute reported that 1 in 6 freshmen at American four-year institutions are
considered first generation college students (Heinz, 2012). In a study by NCES, it was reported
that 36 percent of minority students were also considered first generation (NCES, 1998). In fact,
48.5 percent of Latinos enrolled in college in 2007-2008 had parents whose highest level of
education was a high school diploma or less, making them by definition, first generation college
students (Excelencia in Education, 2010).
With much of the Latino growth occurring in the college age population, the college
enrollment of Latinos is projected to increase by 38 percent compared to 4 percent for whites.
While Latinos’ high school completion rate has increased from 60 percent in 1987 to 69 percent
in 2009, this group still has the lowest college-going rates – e.g., compared to 49 percent of
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 7
white high school completers, the college-going rate for Latino high school completers between
18 – 24 years of age was 37 percent. (Excelencia in Education, 2011).
Moreover, a benchmarking study published by Excelencia in Education in 2011
illustrated how the gap in degree attainment between Latino and white cohorts of first-time, full-
time students had widened from 10 percent in 2005-2006 to almost 14 percent in 2007-2008. In
2007-2008, Hispanics earned 16 percent of vocational certificates, 12 percent of associate
degrees, and 8 percent of bachelor’s degrees awarded by degree-granting institutions. A similar
pattern emerged when looking at data regarding attainment of postsecondary degrees. When
compared to white postsecondary students (39 percent) in 2008, only 19 percent of Latinos who
were 25 years of age and older in the United States earned a postsecondary degree.
In sum, first generation Latino college students are underperforming and continue to have the
lowest levels of educational attainment relative to other groups in the United States. A shortage
of first-generation Latinos earning a postsecondary degree presents a significant academic
achievement gap. Thus, the narrowing of the educational attainment gap of first generation
Latino college students is a top priority (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the behaviors and strategies that influenced
college persistence and higher levels of educational attainment for first generation Latino college
students. This was accomplished through the use of the positive deviance framework, which at
its core involves looking for outliers who succeed against all odds. Malloy (2011, p.5) states:
Positive deviance is based on the observation that, in every community,
there are certain individuals or groups whose uncommon behaviors and
strategies enable them to find better solutions to problems than their peers,
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 8
even though they have access to the same resources and face similar or
worse challenges.
With the positive deviance framework, solutions are discovered, generated and implemented by
members of the community (Pascale, Sternin, & Sternin, 2010). Positive local assets are found in
the form of successful strategies or behaviors utilized by individuals to mitigate the same
challenges being faced by all members of a community. Individuals employing successful
strategies or behaviors are known as positive deviants because they have been able to find a
solution to an otherwise intractable problem for which no other effective solutions have been
identified. The discovery of positive deviants within reinforces the idea that effective solutions to
intractable problems already exist, empowers members of the community to adopt such
successful strategies and behaviors. Consequently, the entire community has the potential to
succeed rather than a selected few.
Utilizing an asset-based, problem-solving, and community-driven inquiry approach with
a Latino population, where social networks are a critical aspect of their academic and personal
identity, could prove to be extremely beneficial. Shining the spotlight on positive data regarding
first generation Latino college students has the potential of being a tool of empowerment for a
community that is rapidly evolving into the economic lifeline of our nation. Furthermore, the
successful behaviors of the 15.5 percent of first generation Latino adults with a degree can be
adopted by other Latinos and ultimately bridge the education attainment gap.
Research Questions
To gain insight into the experiences of successful first-generation Latino college students,
the current study was conducted to address the following research questions:
1. What were the challenges faced by first generation Latino college students?
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 9
2. What are the behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How did positive deviants utilize these strategies and behaviors to facilitate success?
Significance of the Study
According to Gándara & Contreras (2009), the American economic structure is not
designed to favor the undereducated or those who are the lowest performing academically.
Clearly, as Latinos become a growing part of the American public, it is in everyone’s best
interest to ensure the academic success of these individuals in order to remain active participants
in the global economy (Oseguera et al., 2009). In previous centuries, learning a simple trade
could easily provide enough financial support and stability for individuals and their families.
However, with the twenty-first century quickly gaining speed, even a specific trade requires
additional education (Heinz, 2012).
A recent article in The Atlantic (2012) highlighted a number of interesting and important
key points related to the economic impact of investing in education. For example, the typical
income gap between a college graduate and a high school dropout has never been higher, noting
that today, college graduates earn 80 percent more than individuals without a high school
diploma (Thompson, 2012). The article also made reference to two studies reinforcing the
importance and power of investing in education. The first study, by the National Bureau of
Economic Research (NBER), estimated that “the benefit of a good teacher over an average
teacher could improve a student's future lifetime earnings by $400,000” (Thompson, 2012, p. 2).
The second study from the Hamilton project found that, “$100,000 spent on college at age 18
would yield a higher lifetime return than an equal investment in corporate bonds, U.S.
government debt, or hot company stocks” (Thompson, 2012, p. 2).
The economic impact of educational attainment is even more pronounced in states with
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 10
predominately Latino populations such as California. In reference to the Latino education crisis,
Gándara & Contreras (2009) noted that the state’s per capita income will drop significantly if
underrepresented students are not better prepared. They explained that “if California does not
immediately begin preparing more underrepresented students for higher education, by 2020 the
state will experience an 11 percent drop in per capita income, resulting in serious economic
hardship for the state’s population” (p. 5).
The extant literature exploring first generation Latino college students persisting and
attaining higher levels of education is limited. Further still, broader educational research has
been overly deficit-based in its approach (Hernandez, 2000), which poses an issue since
important information is missed regarding what helps students to persist. The current study is
significant as it shifts the focus from deficit to asset, by concentrating on the educational
attainment of first generation Latino college students. Most importantly, as stated by Pascale et
al. (2010, p. 3), this study will emphasize the importance of regarding “individual difference as a
community resource” shifting the attention from the perspective of student failure to the
perspective of student achievement. Whereas past research was dedicated to the what or why of
first generation Latino college students college persistence and levels of educational attainment,
this study shifts the focus to the how – the tangible behaviors that help first generation Latino
college students to succeed. A positive deviance inquiry focused on how of college persistence
and educational attainment has the potential to make significant contributions to the field of
Latino education, since this type of research can “bridging the gap between what is happening
and what is possible” (Pascale & Sternin, 2005, p.1).
Hernandez (2000) studied the experience of ten college graduates or near graduates to
illuminate the factors tied to these students’ successes. This study produced 11 major categories
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 11
and themes that provided a better understanding of the factors influencing retention of Latino
college students. The majority of the 11 categories and themes were grounded in the concepts of
motivation, efficacy, and having an “I can” or “I am capable” mentality (Hernandez, 2000).
Although the researcher was able to construct a conceptual model of the relationship among
elements of Latino retention, his discussion also drew attention to the need for additional
research.
A study utilizing a positive deviance framework can help to build on Hernandez’s study
and provide the field of education with a strategy-based action plan derived from the successful
behaviors of individuals from within the community. The strategy-based action plan will lead to
high levels of Latino college student retention as well as helping to equip first generation Latino
college students with the necessary tools to compete and succeed in this era of heightened
accountability and economic hardship.
Definition of Terms
There are a number of terms that will be referenced in the study. The following sections
define each of these terms.
Positive Deviance
Positive deviance is an approach grounded in the assumption that communities have
assets or resources they have not tapped. Enabling a community to identify and amplify those
practices and behaviors, measure outcomes, and share their successful strategies with others,
brings about sustainable behavioral and social change by identifying solutions already existing in
the system (Pascale, Sternin, and Sternin, 2010). Thus, in this study, there is an assumption that
there are first generation Latino college students employing practices and behaviors that enable
them to successfully complete their first year of postsecondary studies.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 12
Positive Deviant
A positive deviant will be generally defined as an individual working with equal
resources in the community demonstrating behaviors that enable them to mitigate the challenges
others have not been able to (Pascale, Sternin, and Sternin, 2010). Within this study, a positive
deviant exhibits behaviors that enable the individual to successfully complete the first year of his
or her postsecondary studies leading to higher levels of educational attainment.
First Generation Student
A first generation student is someone whose parent(s) have not attended an educational
institution beyond high school. In the case of a two-parent household with different levels of
education, the maximum education level of either parent determines how a student is categorized
(NCES, 1998).
Success
Success is defined in terms of completing two years of college or four years of college
and earning a postsecondary degree.
Postsecondary Studies
This is defined as one or more years of study at a college or university.
College Persistence
Persistence involves students re-enrolling at an institution until they have achieved their
postsecondary degree and have graduated.
Educational Attainment
This the overall education level than an individual has achieved. In the current study, this
term is used in reference to earning postsecondary degrees.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 13
College-Readiness
This is defined by the completion of A-G college admission coursework requirements
and possessing high-order studying strategies required to be academically successful in a
university setting
Delimitations, Limitations, Assumptions
Delimitations
This study focused on discovering and exploring the strategies of positive deviants
attending colleges and universities in the state of California. This study was limited to first
generation Latino students ranging in age from 19 – 24 who completed at least the first two years
of their undergraduate education. The study was bound by specific sites selected based on the
colleges and universities being attended by participants.
Limitations
One major limitation is the generalizability of the study. The small sample size and
focused recruitment on students attending California colleges and universities prevented any
broad generalizations of the results of this study. The experiences of these students were unique
to their individual college or university, which is also important to note. Purposeful sampling
was used to identify participants who could unveil the widest array of strategies possible. The
current study was not able to explore in depth how students’ strategies have shifted over time, as
the study took place at a single point in time and was not longitudinal in nature.
Organization of the Study
This study examines the behaviors that influence college persistence and higher levels of
educational attainment for first-generation Latino college students. Chapter 1 provided an
overview of the study and articulated the problem and its significance in the current educational
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 14
context. Chapter 2 offers a review of the literature and discusses the definition of a first-
generation student, institutional challenges faced by first-generation Latino college students, how
the Latino cultural context is integrated in the institutional context, and the factors that contribute
to institutional access and educational attainment. Additionally, this chapter presents the concept
of positive deviance and the research that has been conducted utilizing this approach, as well as a
conceptual framework for understanding the topic of first generation Latino college student
persistence in the context of the positive deviance framework. Chapter 3 details the methodology
used in developing and implementing the study and the reasons for selecting a qualitative
approach. Chapter 4 describes the results of the qualitative analyses and answers the research
questions posed in Chapter 1. Finally, Chapter 5 discusses the implications and
recommendations for research and practice. An action-plan is also presented.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 15
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Currently, first-generation Latino college students are underperforming relative to other
groups in the United States (Santiago, Kienzl, Sponsler, and Bowles, 2011). This is particularly
an issue for students who are enrolling in elementary and secondary schools that are old,
segregated, and lack the resources to support students, as these issues often result in students
leaving the public education system devoid of the skills needed to enter the workforce and
support the global economy (Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2009).
First-generation students who have grown up in segregated communities develop a keen
awareness of the inequalities in their context and in many cases are unable to overcome their
contexts in order to complete their college education (Oseguera et al., 2009). However, despite
this awareness, a number of individuals find a way to mitigate the challenges and attain higher
levels of education. The purpose of this dissertation is to apply the positive deviance framework
in an effort to discover these successful strategies that influence college persistence and higher
levels of educational attainment for first generation Latino college students.
The main objective of this chapter is to present a conceptual framework based on current
literature about first generation Latino college students and the central principles of positive
deviance, which guided the study. To accomplish this, this chapter begins by describing the
positive deviance framework and how it can be used to inform strategies in the educational
setting. This is followed by a description of the characteristics of first generation college students
and Latino students. Next, six challenges encouraged by first generation Latino college students
in the educational and broader social contexts are closely examined: institutional, academic,
emotional, conflicting cultures, social and cultural capital, and financial challenges. Finally,
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 16
knowledge regarding the positive deviance approach and first generation college students will be
integrated into a framework that focuses specifically on first generation Latino college students.
Positive Deviance
Historical Context
In 1990, an estimated sixty to seventy percent of all Vietnamese children under the age of
five suffered from some degree of malnutrition (Sternin 2003; Pascale & Sternin, 2010). The
varying degrees of malnutrition were manifested in both acute and chronic ways. While both
acute and chronic conditions of malnutrition had the power to weaken children’s immune
systems causing further health problems, the effects of chronic malnutrition were the most
traumatic due to the fact that the effects were irreparable and often fatal. Vietnam was challenged
with finding a solution to this all-pervasive problem.
Determined and eager to tackle this problem head-on, the Vietnamese government
extended an invitation to a United States non-governmental organization (NGO) known as Save
the Children. Save the Children was assigned the task of creating and implementing a program
that would enable poor villages to solve the problem of childhood malnutrition. Jerry and
Monique Sternin were long time program development practitioners and accepted the task of
working with the Vietnamese government to solve the pervasive problem of childhood
malnutrition. Aware that there was little time to waste, the Sternins immediately began to tackle
the issue they were challenged to solve.
It quickly became evident to the Sternins that up to their arrival in Vietnam, almost all
government solutions to the pervasive problem of childhood malnourishment were temporary
and dramatically unsustainable (Sternin, 2003). The program failed to encourage or require
participation from the villagers to change underlying behaviors/practices or become aware of
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 17
health-seeking behaviors associated with good nutritional status. Instead, the fact that they
remained passive participants increased their dependency on external solutions to their
community-based problem of childhood nutrition.
Knowing that Vietnam did not possess the resources to maintain and sustain a community
of passive participants, the Sternins searched for a radical new approach to solve the problem of
childhood malnutrition. The search for such a strategy led Jerry Sternin to Positive Deviance.
The idea that some individuals in a community were better able to tackle and solve problems
than others with access to exactly the same resource become the foundational framework for
Sternin’s approach to the problem of childhood malnutrition (Sternin, 2003; Pascale & Sternin,
2010).
Through onsite observations, positive deviants – children who were not malnourished –
were identified along with some uncommon strategies and behaviors accounting for their
superior nutritional status. Based on these behaviors (e.g., food supplementing practices,
cooking strategies, etc.), an intervention was designed that provided other members of the
community – primarily parents - an opportunity to access and practice these observable
successful behaviors. In less than a year over half of the children had achieved and maintained
normal nutritional status; families also continued to practice these newly adopted behaviors in
the future and with their older children (Sternin, 2003).
Definition of Positive Deviance
Conventionally, deviance has carried a very negative focus and limited definition.
According to Spreitzer & Sonenshein (2004), “traditionally, deviance refers to intentional
behaviors that depart from organizational norms that threaten the well-being of an organization,
its members or both” (p.828). In fact, the most common thread in previous literature related to
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 18
deviance has been the focus of negative, harmful norm-departing behaviors. Expanding the
definition of deviance to include a wider range of both positive and negative behaviors present
within organizations would lead to a more complete and accurate representation of deviance. The
authors go on to state that the construction of a more precise and encompassing definition of
deviance helps to shift the focus from deficits to overall observable contributions.
Looking for outliers who succeed against all odds is the core concept of positive
deviance. The basic premise of a positive deviance approach is to identify solution-oriented
community members. Through focusing on solution-oriented community members, this
approach highlights the existing knowledge contained within the community and strengthens it
(Singhal, 2010). According to Walker (2007), “interventions based on local knowledge have the
advantage of fitting community characteristics and building on community assets, making them
more likely to be culturally relevant and sustainable” (p. 571). The sustainability of an
intervention is dependent on the available assets instead of dependence on external resources and
fixes.
A second vital component of this approach is the clear and transparent visibility and
practice of the newly discovered successful strategies. Focusing on practice is essential to
advancing knowledge and bringing about lasting behavioral change across a range of issues
(Sternin, 2003; Pascale & Sternin, 2005; Singhal, 2010; Walker, 2007). Interventions must be
designed to smoothly progress from the “what” to the “how.” It is not enough to just have
knowledge of what is being done; an individual must also learn exactly how it is being done.
Creating opportunities for knowledge to be translated into practice will help to change people’s
attitude through action (Sternin, 2003; Pascale & Sternin, 2005; Pascale, Sternin & Sternin,
2010). Not only does practice decrease the level of resistance from community members but it
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 19
also allows for the imprinting of these successful strategies for use in the future ensuring the
amplification and sustainability of the identified successful strategies.
Positive Deviance Approach to Change
A closer analysis of the Positive Deviance approach to change highlights the bottom-up,
inside out, and asset-based methodology of this unique process. Compared to traditional
approaches to change, which focus on generating lists of best practices to be repackaged as
generic templates, the “bottom up” approach utilizes an inductive framework of qualitative,
inquiry-based methods. According to Stuckey et al. (2011), this is because the focus is directed
toward the behaviors of individuals who have comparatively better outcomes, in an effort to
determine the practices they use in order to achieve those outcomes. The design and
methodology of the Positive Deviance process warrant results that are verifiable, replicable, and
scalable.
Although the design and methodology of the Positive Deviance process has evolved to
function in different contexts, the essential blueprint and framework is rooted in the four steps of
Positive Deviance pioneered by Jerry and Monique Sternin. Following are the four steps of this
approach (Pascale et al., 2010).
1. DEFINE the problem and desired outcome
2. DETERMINE if there are individuals with the community who already exhibit the
desired behavior
3. DISCOVER uncommon but successful behaviors and strategies through inquiry and
observation
4. DESIGN an action learning initiative based on the findings
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 20
Positive Deviance is a data-based approach. Gathering and analyzing data allows the
community to clearly define, reframe, and measure problems and desirable outcomes, which
according to Pascale et al. (2010) can provide strong reinforcement for behavioral change. In
addition to making the desired outcomes visible, the real power of data is experienced when it is
personalized and socialized. Data that is acquired by “those in the trenches” are more likely to be
valued, appreciated, and most importantly put into use (Pascale & Sternin, 2005; Pascale,
Sternin, & Sternin, 2010; Malloy, 2011). Commitment to such a qualitative inquiry-based
approach has been the key to the success of applying this Positive Deviance approach in solving
multidimensional societal issues such as childhood malnutrition, hospital-acquired infections,
HIV/AIDS prevention, female circumcision, sex trafficking of females, corporate sales and
performance, and school dropout and retention rates (Pascale & Sternin, 2005; Pascale, Sternin,
& Sternin, 2010; Singhal, 2010; Dura & Singhal, 2009).
The Adaptability and Application of the Positive Deviance Approach
The versatility and adaptability of positive deviance makes this approach tremendously
useful in addressing a wide variety of problems. In the same fashion that this approach was
utilized to tackle problems of childhood malnutrition, it has also been most frequently utilized in
areas of public health specifically focusing on problems such as: preventing female genital
mutilation, minimizing the risks of hospital infections, reducing infant mortality rates, increasing
the use of weight control practices, and reducing high school dropout rates (Pascale, Sternin, &
Sternin, 2010; Dura & Singhal, 2009; Po, 2011).
First Generation Latino College Students
Latinos pervasively have the lowest levels of educational attainment compared to any
other group (Santiago, Kienzl, Sponsler, and Bowles, 2011; Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 21
Latinos also remain one of the nation’s largest and fastest growing minority groups. With much
of the rapid growth occurring in the school age population, decreasing achievement and
educational attainment gaps has quickly become a top priority for the educational community.
This section discusses the definition and characteristics of a first generation college student.
Additionally, the literature review is focused on what it means to be a first generation college
student within a Latino context. This is followed by a discussion of the specific challenges faced
by members of this community as their cultural contexts integrate with the institutional contexts.
Finally, the conceptual framework guiding this study will be presented.
Characteristics of First Generation College Students
In the past two decades, the educational community has seen a significant change in the
demographic profile of students entering postsecondary institutions. Research has revealed that
most of the students entering colleges and universities share some common characteristics and
trends. The two most common characteristics and trends of students entering postsecondary
institutions in the past two decades are (a) coming from low-income households and (b) being
the first in their families to works towards a postsecondary degree (Terenzini et al., 1996; Choy,
2001; Pascarella et al., 2004). A statistical analysis report by the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES, 1998) defined a first generation student as someone whose parent or parents’
highest level of education is a high school diploma or lower. In the case of a two-parent
household with different levels of education, the maximum education level of either parent
determines how a student is categorized (NCES, 1998, p. 7).
Although any college student has the potential of experiencing anxiety and stress due to
transition to college, research studies focusing on first generation college students discuss the
uniqueness of their experiences in postsecondary settings. In a study conducted by Terenzini et
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 22
al., (1996), the authors highlighted that first generation college students not only struggle with
the typical challenges associated with transitioning to college (e.g., anxiety, dislocation, etc.) but
also struggle with transitioning from cultural and social contexts to academic contexts. The study
goes on to suggest that first generation college students continuously find themselves struggling
to balance the roles and demands of family responsibilities and educational attainment.
A study by Pascarella et al. (2004) revealed that levels of parental educational attainment
influenced both the academic and nonacademic experiences of their children, who were the first
in their families to pursue a postsecondary education. Hence, parents of first generation college
students are less knowledgeable and lack a deep understanding of influential networking systems
directly connected to the privileges of acquiring higher levels of educational attainment. By the
same token, first generation college students will inherit fewer assets from their parents to assist
them in successfully navigating through higher education institutions. Similar to the study
conducted by Terenzini et al., (1996), Pascarella et al. (2004) stated that first generation college
students were more likely to possess lower cognitive skills and academic/professional
aspirations, be less involved in extracurricular activities, and encountered fewer opportunities to
build social and cultural capital related to postsecondary settings. In general, the lack of out-of-
class experiences impeded the ability for the integration of a first generation student’s cultural
and social contexts into the academic and institutional contexts they were encountering at the
postsecondary levels (Terenzini et al., 1996; Choy, 2001; Pascarella et al., 2004).
Characteristics of a Latino Student
Despite the rapid increase and growth of the Latino population, they continue to
dangerously lag academically compared to other groups (Gándara & Contreras, 2009; Oseguera
et al, 2009; Davis & Bautsch, 2011; Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Research has consistently shown
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 23
that levels of educational attainment are the lowest amongst Latinos compared to any other
group. The United States Census Bureau predicts that by 2025 one of every four students will be
Latino and with that figure continuing to increase, which creates awareness of just how
inextricably linked Latinos are to the nation’s future. Therefore, it is imperative that an accurate
and informative demographic report of first generation students is built within a Latino context.
In a research brief released in 2010, Excelencia in Education took on the task of providing an
accurate and informative demographic report of Latinos based on data from 2007-2008. To begin
with, the brief stated that in 2008, Latinos represented 15 percent of the United States population
with attention to the expected growth of 88 percent between 2005 and 2022 of the Latino
college-age population.
Addressing misconceptions regarding language proficiency and citizenship, the 2010
Excelencia in Education research brief emphasizes that more than 80 percent of Latino students
spoke English with no difficulty and that 88 percent of Latinos enrolled in college were United
State citizens and 11 percent were legal residents (Excelencia in Education, 2010). In a roadmap
published in March 2011, Excelencia in Education addressed the public’s misconceptions of
Latinos due to inaccurate and limited profiles, suggesting the need for the educational
community to examine the integration of Latinos’ cultural context into institutional contexts.
According to the roadmap, it is commonly assumed that the majority of Latinos are immigrants,
high school dropouts, and English language learners (ELL). In fact, the roadmap clarifies that the
majority of Latinos in the United States are native-born, high school graduates, and English
language dominant.
With regards to economic background, the brief explained that almost 25 percent of
Latino students (still considered dependents) have annual family incomes of less than $40,000.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 24
As a result, 76 percent of Latino college students either work full or part-time. Although a high
percentage of Latino students come from low-income households, on average, Latino college
students receive lower amounts of financial aid compared to any other group due to a lack of or
limited knowledge of available financial aid resources (Excelencia in Education, 2010).
As for educational attainment, Excelencia in Education found that Latinos earned 16
percent of vocational certificates, 12 percent of associate degrees, 8 percent of bachelor degrees,
with only 19 percent of Latinos over the age of 25 earning a postsecondary degree. In terms of
college preparation and enrollment, not only is the college going rate for Latino high school
completers between the ages of 18-24 the lowest of any group at 37 percent, 45 percent of Latino
students had taken a remedial course and are more likely to be placed in lower academic tracks
throughout their secondary schooling (Excelencia in Education, 2010).
Challenges Facing First Generation Latino College Students
First generation Latino college students face many barriers as they struggle to complete
their postsecondary degrees. These include institutional, academic, emotional, cultural
exclusivity, social and cultural capital, and financial challenges.
Institutional
Changes in the demography of higher education and political policy have had an impact
on the ability of postsecondary institutions to meet the needs of the growing number of first
generation Latino college students. Gándara & Contreras (2009) examined the historical context
of the Latino educational experience from the late 1960s to the present and argued that school
systems have become ill-equipped to address the needs of first generation Latino college
students. The authors stated that while policies aimed at recruiting and supporting Latino college
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 25
students were in place four decades ago, they have since been replaced with policies that impede
the ability for Latino college students to earn higher levels of educational attainment.
For example, institutions have witnessed a decrease in the amount of financial aid
provided, decreased efforts for desegregating public school systems, a lack of early education
programs, inadequate school facilities, limited exposure to rigorous academic curriculum,
placement in lower-achieving academic tracks or course offerings, less access to highly qualified
teachers and stable school leaders, fewer opportunities for extracurricular activities, and reduced
support programs for personal, social, and academic development. The authors go on to discuss
the significant impact that one or any combination of the factors previously listed can have on a
first generation Latino college student’s ability to increase her/his level of educational
attainment: they lead Latino students to have a distorted view of their environments and a very
limited vision of the possibilities that exist in it (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Academics
For the past ten years schools have been experiencing an era of heightened accountability
since No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was enacted and standards-based reforms have been
sweeping the country (Lachat, 1999; Nelson-Barber, 1999; Fallon, 2007). In an effort to continue
to hold schools accountable and guarantee access to a “world-class education” for every student,
the Obama administration released a blueprint aimed at revising the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA). One of the key priorities on the blueprint is to prepare college-and-
career-ready students by supporting college-and-career-ready standards (Retrieved from ed.gov:
U.S. Dept of Education website). A closer examination of the academic challenges facing first
generation Latino college students reinforces the need for this key priority.
Latino students are on average less academically prepared for college than their peers
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 26
(Schmidt, 2003). According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), one-
third of Latino students perform below grade level and are more likely to be placed into lower
academic tracks throughout their secondary schooling, which in turn affects their overall college
preparation (Santiago, Kienzl, Sponsler, & Bowles, 2011). Oseguera et al. (2009) state that,
“variables such as low expectations from teachers and peers, and non-supportive educational
environments can affect Latinas/os’ academic performance and persistence decisions” (p. 34).
In schools that serve predominately Latino students there is a surplus of less qualified
teachers and a shortage in supplies, proper facilities, and advance placement (AP) course
offerings to better prepare students for college (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Though a particular
school may offer a number of different AP courses, Latinos are less likely to enroll or be placed
in courses delivering college prep curriculum (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Continuously placing
Latinos in lower academic tracks and limiting their access to essential resources can have a direct
impact on their ability to be equipped with the necessary skills to successfully navigate and meet
the demanding expectations of a college environment.
Latino students also tend to score lower on standardized college admission tests –
reducing their likelihood of accessing top-tier institutions. When compared to any other minority
groups, Latino students score lower on college admission tests and require more remedial
courses upon entering college (Oseguera et al., 2009; Schmidt, 2003). Oseguera et al. (2009)
explain that, “these exams hold a great deal of social weight and often determine what
educational opportunities students will be exposed to throughout their educational careers.
Consequently, the quality of students’ educational experiences depends on test scores” (p.33).
The authors go on to clarify that these scores can also have an effect on Latino students’
perception of how academically competitive they can be compared to their peers.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 27
Aside from being utilized as indicators of academic achievement, test scores also play a
role in what many researchers refer to as the “overprediction phenomenon.” Oseguera et al.
(2009) share that the “overprediction phenomenon is a documented trend in which scores on
standardized tests and prior grade point averages overpredict the academic performance of high-
achieving minority students in college” (p. 34). Unfortunately, this leaves many high-achieving
minority students, especially first generation Latino college students, academically vulnerable at
a time when academic achievement and educational attainment are so crucial. Even when first
generation Latino students make it to college they arrive with a lack of reading, writing, and oral
communication skills at the level of the children of college graduates (Heinz, 2012). Using her
own experience as example, Heinz (2010, p. 2), a first generation student, shares how the
phenomenon of overprediction was evident in her education:
I was a strong high school student, and even was class valedictorian, but
soon after I arrived at Oberlin College I realized that my preparation for
college-level work lagged that of my classmates. I learned in high school
to study for memorization rather than analysis.
Her experience illustrates the need for first generation Latino college students to be academically
prepared and confident before graduating high school.
For many first generation Latino college students who are likely to enter college with less
academic preparation, the challenges associated with academics is only the tip of the iceberg.
The limited access to information about the college experience in general, either from parents or
relatives, contributes additional barriers such as being placed in remedial courses or lower
academic tracks (Thayer, 2000).
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 28
Emotional
Emotional struggles also pose a challenge for first generation Latino college students,
particularly as they strive to meet the requirements for entry to college. According to Oseguera
(2009), Latino students experience a high degree of stress when taking standardized tests,
particularly as they become increasingly aware of the relationship between high school grades,
standardized test scores, and the probability of their success in college. The emotional toll
resulting from such an overreliance on standardized testing has a direct effect on a first
generation Latino student’s decision about college enrollment and persistence as well as
academic ability. As a result, first generation Latino students experience decreased levels of self-
efficacy and confidence in their ability to perform successfully in demanding, rigorous academic
settings.
Managing and surviving these emotional challenges does not end once a first generation
Latino student makes it to college. Thayer (2000) explained that a lack of knowledge regarding
the college campus environment and bureaucratic operations that characterize many institutions
may result in first generation college students encountering cultural conflict between their home
and college community. Without successful strategies to mitigate through cultural conflict,
emotional challenges have devastating consequences for first generation college students.
Oseguera et al. (2009) point out, “Latinas/os are particularly vulnerable to developing
negative academic self-concepts and having negative perceptions of the campus climate because
of their social position, history of underrepresentation on college campuses, and dissonance
between the cultural expectations of higher education institutions and their home cultures” (p.
33). The particular vulnerability of first generation Latino college students also makes them
susceptible to emotions such as isolation, doubt, “culture shock” and “survivor’s guilt”. In an
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 29
essay calling on colleges to focus on first generation students, Heinz (2012, p. 3) describes
culture shock as being “dropped into a foreign country without a map” and “survivor’s guilt” as a
feeling of guilt associated with leaving family members behind and feeling ashamed of having
working-class origins. The author also noted that it can be difficult for students to live in two
cultures simultaneously – the working class culture (home) and the middle/upper class culture
(school): “difficulties occur when someone lacks the cultural capital necessary for successful
self-management within an unfamiliar social class”. As has been noted, the emotional challenges
experienced by first generation Latino college students impact academic performance and
cultural transition into college.
Cultural Exclusivity
The need to “straddle” between two class cultures, like home and school, presents
another challenge for first generation Latino college students. The need to participate in two
cultures can result in a sense of cultural exclusivity, causing students to feel as though one
culture has to be chosen over the other. Deviating from the norm and being the first in the family
to pursue higher education marks a significant separation from the past for a first generation
college student (Hsiao, 1992). For these students, this means having feelings of doubt about
academic success and culture shock that can be compounded by a higher education environment
that reflects Eurocentric traditions (Oseguera et al., 2009). Eventually, this persistent feeling of
culture shock can lead to conflicting obligations from a first generation Latino college student’s
community of origin and the culture of higher education (Oseguera et al., 2009; Hsiao, 1992).
These conflicting obligations can quickly transform into differing expectations, leaving first
generation Latino college students without the skills or ability to build the cultural capital needed
to transition between different cultural contexts.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 30
Much of the frustration that results from trying to mitigate and make sense of the varying
cultural conflicts comes from the fact that most cultural rules are unspoken: knowing middle-
class cultural grammar for relating to others, appropriate dinner conversation topics with
professors, proper dress codes for professional interviews, extensive vacation planning and travel
(international or domestic) experiences, art and theater (Heinz, 2012). According to Oseguera et
al. (2009), “as Latinas/os navigate the many facets of higher education, they are confronted with
institutional customs that do not reflect their own traditions and assumption-based practices
about students that do not apply to them” (p. 35).
Institutions that create an atmosphere of cultural exclusivity, where students feel as
though they must choose one culture over the other, can be detrimental for first generation Latino
college students seeking a sense of belonging while simultaneously straddling two cultures.
Consequently, an atmosphere of conflicting cultures can lead to feelings of insecurity, shame and
guilt. Oseguera et al. (2009) highlight the point that “students with higher levels of cultural
congruity perceive fewer educational barriers and exhibit higher help-seeking attitudes” (p. 35).
Therefore, addressing the importance and shortage of individual role models for first generation
Latino college students, with the capability of demonstrating the skills required to build social
and cultural capital needed to achieve cultural congruity becomes the next focus.
Social and Cultural Capital
The fact that these students are the first in their family to attend institutions of higher
education suggests that they lack immediate role models to assist them in mitigating the
challenges. Although family members of first generation college students can be perceived as
non-supportive due to their lack of college experience and its rewards, Schmidt (2003) clarifies
that first generation Latino college students tend to have unconditional parental support. On the
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 31
other hand, despite this unconditional support from parents, first generation Latino college
students do not have parents or family members who grasp the connection between career goals
and educational requirements (Schmidt, 2003; Vargas, 2004).
The absence of immediate role models for first generation Latino college students
extends far beyond the home culture and is also evident on college campuses nationwide. The
fact that Latina/o faculty members are still underrepresented in higher education, which directly
fuels the social and cultural capital challenges, faced by first generation Latino college students
(Oseguera et al., 2009; Heinz, 2012). Oseguera et al. (2009) noted that, “first-generation and
underrepresented students are especially responsive to institutional agents’ expressions of
interest and confidence in their potential, in addition to being a source of valuable information
about financial aid, involvement opportunities, and advocacy on behalf of Latina/o students” (p.
37). At a time when a postsecondary degree is the ticket to economic stability, having a strong
professional network will enable first generation Latino college students to make professional
contacts and learn job searching strategies such as resume and cover letter writing skills as well
as interview skills, leading to future career and employment opportunities (Heinz, 2012).
Financial
Similar to the struggles already discussed, a lack of knowledge about how to finance a
college education can also be a barrier in attaining a postsecondary degree. When Latino families
are misinformed about college financing and financial aid, they tend to overestimate tuition costs
and underestimate the availability of financial aid resources (A Shared Agenda, 2004). With the
continuous fiscal and budget constraints and the most significant growth of the Latino population
occurring in the college-age group, access to accurate and useful knowledge about financial aid
has been a crucial factor for first generation Latino college students and their families.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 32
Federal aid programs are important to college access and persistence for Latino students
(Excelencia in Education, 2011). A focus on federal policies and Latino college completion
highlighted that Latino students’ enrollment decisions are influenced by factors such as limited
knowledge about federal loan programs, loan resources and price sensitivity. Difficulties faced
from these financial struggles are amplified when information is received too late, directly
affecting a first generation Latino college student’s ability to attend college or influence
decisions about applying (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Under those circumstances, misconceptions
about the availability and eligibility for financial aid become prominent amongst first generation
Latino college students.
In order to mitigate financial challenges, first generation Latino college students take
action by commuting and working full or part-time, which in turn can create additional struggles.
Information collected by Excelencia in Education from the National Center for Education
Statistics and National Postsecondary Aid Survey showed that the majority of Latino students
were employed while enrolled in college (Ensuring America’s Future, 2011). The profile details
that, “in 2008, 42 percent of Latino students enrolled full-time and 74 percent of those enrolled
part-time were employed” (Ensuring America’s Future, 2011, p. 10). Handling the financial
challenges by working long hours off campus and commuting rather than living on campus, can
limit the opportunities available to first generation Latino college students to have a well-
rounded college experience. Commuting makes it more difficult to become involved with
campus activities or expand social networks (Heinz, 2012). Fortunately, organizations like
Excelencia in Education are bringing attention to such key issues by noting that:
“There is some evidence that more campuses are augmenting the Federal
Work-Study program with their own resources to engage more Latino
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 33
students and address their need to work with the opportunity to stay on
campus and potentially use more of the institutions’ support services, gain
work experience in their chosen field, and pay for college” (Ensuring
America’s Future, 2011, p. 11).
While there have been many state and federal programs to help students build capital
(e.g., Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs – GEAR UP, Race
Upward Bound, McNair Scholars program), there is still a widening gap between the levels of
educational attainment of first generation Latino college students and their peers. Creating and
providing action plans detailing specific, uncommon successful strategies and behaviors will
help to provide first generation Latino college students with not only the “what” but the “how” to
identify, access and utilize available financial resources in an effort to increase their levels of
educational attainment.
Conceptual Framework
Despite numerous state and federal programs, low levels of educational attainment
amongst first generation Latino college students continues to be an ongoing, intractable problem.
In light of this, this study will utilize a positive deviance inquiry approach in order to define and
discover specific uncommon strategies and behaviors used by successful students to mitigate key
challenges - institutional, academic, emotional, cultural exclusivity, social and cultural capital,
and financial challenges.
The positive deviance approach utilized in this study shifts the focus from factors that
continue to widen the academic and education attainment gap (i.e., Ensuring America’s Future,
2011; Davis & Bautsch, 2011) to successful strategies and behaviors that have the potential of
narrowing the gap and used in this study.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 34
Figure 1. Adapted positive deviance framework approach to understand higher levels of
educational attainment
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 35
Chapter 3: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to identify the behaviors and strategies that influenced
college persistence and higher levels of educational attainment for first generation Latino college
students. As illustrated in the previous chapters, low levels of educational attainment among
first-generation Latino college students are a persistent issue that has been difficult for existing
interventions to resolve. Because these issues of decreasing achievement and educational
attainment gaps negatively impact individuals and our national economy alike, efforts must be
made to help first-generation Latino college students attain postsecondary degrees.
This chapter presents the methodological approach of the study. First, the positive
deviance theoretical framework will be revisited followed by a discussion of the study sample.
Then, instruments and data collection procedures will be described followed by a discussion of
the data analysis tools and techniques that will be utilized to make sense of the data, and answer
the specific research questions. Finally, potential ethical issues that may be encountered in the
study will be addressed.
Research Questions:
The positive deviance framework offered the approach for addressing the issue of
educational attainment. The purpose of the current study was to explore the following questions:
1. What were the challenges faced by first generation Latino college students?
2. What were the behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How did positive deviants utilize these strategies and behaviors to facilitate success?
Research Design
The asset-based inquiry process of the positive deviance framework narrows the research
focus to the particular strengths of a community by uncovering the strategies and behaviors of
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 36
successful individuals. Qualitative interviews are particularly appropriate for this type of inquiry.
Pascale, Sternin, & Sternin (2010, p. 161) state that “asking questions is more powerful than
knowing…questions can be more transforming than answers.” According to Creswell (2009),
qualitative research designs offer an approach for “exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 4). This type of design is often
used when the goal of the research is to examine in depth the issues that surface in a particular
setting. Specifically, the use of interviews as a data-collecting tool allows for a more in-depth
exploration into the experiences, perceptions, and knowledge of individuals (Patton, 2002). A
critical inquiry-based dissection of individual experiences is a key aspect of the positive deviance
approach, which focuses on behaviors and strategies of successful individuals within a
community facing a particular challenge (Pascale et al., 2010). Students were the unit of analysis,
as the study is attempted to look at first generation Latino college students who engage in
positive deviant behaviors. Information was collected via interviews to yield information about
the uncommon strategies and behaviors in which positive deviants engaged.
Sample and Population
Sampling
Participants were selected by means of purposeful sampling—specifically, positive
deviant case sampling—which involves strategically selecting cases that will yield a depth of
information based on the purposes of the study and the resources available to the researchers
(Patton, 2002). Deviant case sampling was utilized in a manner that is reflective of the positive
deviance approach, such that individuals with non-normative outcomes (i.e., first-generation
Latino college students that have completed two years of postsecondary studies) were selected
for study.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 37
Participant Characteristics
The participants for this study were selected based on a variety of characteristics. First,
participants had to be a first generation Latino college student attending a college or university in
the state of California. Additionally, at least two years of postsecondary education were
completed prior to participation in this study. All participants graduated from high schools in
south central Los Angeles area. The communities from which they came were predominately
Latino, low-income, and considered “at-risk” due to the high levels of violence and gang
activity.
Participant Profiles. Ten participants were selected. Table 1 displays the demographic
characteristics of the participants.
Table 1
Participant Demographics
Select Characteristics College Student
Number of Participants
Gender
Male
Female
Qualify for Financial Aid
10
20%
80%
100%
Table 2 profiles all of the participants of this study.
Table 2
Participant Profiles
Pseudonym Description
Salvador Currently in his third year at UC Riverside; majoring in sociology;
interested in exploring careers in the field of Education; the first in his
nuclear and extended family to pursue higher education.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 38
Amelia Currently in her third year at UC Riverside; majoring in sociology
with a minor in spanish; the first in her nuclear and extended family to
attend a four-year university.
Brenda Currently in her third year at UC Berkeley; majoring in integrative
biology; interested in exploring careers in the fields of science and
medicine; the youngest of four, she is the first in her nuclear and
extended family to pursue higher education.
Lucero Currently in her third year at UC Berkeley; majoring in molecular
environmental biology; interested in exploring careers in the fields of
science and medicine; the first in her nuclear and extended family to
persist in higher education.
Jesus Currently in his third year at UC Riverside; majoring in computer
engineering; interested in exploring careers in computer engineering
and software development; the first in his nuclear and extended family
to attend a four-year university.
Maria Currently in her third year at UC Davis; majoring in biological
sciences; interested in exploring careers in the fields of science and
medicine with a focus on epidemiology; as an only child, she is the
first in her nuclear and extended family to pursue higher education.
Teresa Currently in her third year at UC Berkeley; double majoring in social
welfare and sociology with a minor in education; interested in
exploring careers in the fields of social work and education; the first
in her nuclear and extended family to pursue higher education.
Margarita Currently in her third year at UC Berkeley; majoring in mathematics
and dance; interested in exploring careers in the fields of mathematics
and arts; the first in her nuclear and extended family to pursue higher
education.
Fernanda Currently in her third year at CSU Fullerton; double majoring in
history and chicano studies as well as completing a single subject
teaching credentialing program ; interested in exploring careers in the
field of secondary education; the first in her nuclear and extended
family to pursue higher education.
Paloma Currently in her third year at CSU Long Beach; majoring in criminal
justice; interested in exploring careers in the field of law; the first in
her nuclear and extended family to pursue higher education.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 39
Data Collection
The design for this study involved the use of semi-structured in-depth interviews. The
interviews were conducted in accordance with the interview guide contained in the appendices of
this dissertation. The primary goal of these interviews was to establish knowledge about positive
deviant practices that promote retention through the first and second year of postsecondary
studies and to identify ways in which others, helping them become more successful, could adopt
these practices. While the use of the interview guide provided structure to ensure that the
interviews addressed the study’s research questions, it also allowed the interviews to remain
open to other topics.
Prior to data collection, all participants were provided with an information sheet and
general recruitment letter which explained the purpose of the study, the types of activities
required of them, the length of their involvement, and compensation they would receive for
participating in the study. A copy of the information sheet and general recruitment letter are
included in Appendices A and B. Before each interview began, the researcher reviewed the
information sheet with the participant and obtained permission to record the interview.
All interviews were recorded via digital audio recorder, and at the end of the interview
participants were asked if the researcher could contact them in the future, for further
clarifications or in the case of any additional questions. A gift card was given to the participants
after completion of the interview to compensate them for their time and effort. The audio
recording was then sent to an external transcription service for processing. Additionally, written
field notes were also completed in order to capture aspects of the interactions that may not be
captured by audio recording (e.g., body language, facial expressions). In an effort to minimize
distractions and remain attentive, field notes were completed within thirty minutes of the
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 40
interview, while the interaction was in working memory, to ensure the accuracy of the notes
regarding the interaction.
Instrumentation
The interview protocol allowed the researcher to probe in an effort to gain in-depth
responses, providing greater insight in to the positive deviance experience. The interview
protocol was also developed with college students in mind so that the conversation generated
during interviews was free-flowing and productive allowing for probing questions to be asked
without abruptly interrupting the flow of the interview. Additionally, an introduction script was
also developed and read at the beginning of the interview. The following table illustrates how the
interview protocol mapped to the research questions.
Table 3. Student Interview Protocol Mapping to Research Questions
Questions RQ1 RQ2 RQ3
Tell me about yourself.
What does a first generation Latino college student
that is making it work in college look like to you?
What do they do?
X
Have you ever thought or wanted to drop out of
college? Why?
X
What are the challenges to staying in school?
X
Why did you stay in school instead of dropping out?
X
What influenced you to go to college? How?
X X
Who has supported you along the way? How?
X X
How did you find supportive people/allies?
X X
What steps did you take to go to college? What
strategies did you use to overcome your challenges?
X X
What is a typical day like for you as a student?
X X
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 41
What are the daily obstacles to meeting your goals?
How do you overcome them? What strategies do you
use?
X X X
Think about other first generation Latino college
students like you. Do you know others who are also
successful? What did they do to be successful?
X
Think about other first generation Latino college
students like you who have not persisted. How are
they different?
X
What strategies have been the most useful to you?
Which have made the biggest difference in your
success?
X X
What advice would you give to other first generation
Latino students who want to go to college?
X
What lessons have you learned that might benefit
others?
X
Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis techniques make sense of textual data by bringing order to the
narrative (Creswell, 2009). For this study, interviews were sent to a third party to be transcribed.
The interview transcriptions were then organized, coded and analyzed using ATLAS.ti, a
qualitative research analysis tool. After patterns were identified from the transcribed and coded
data, the analysis of the data progressed with the goal of evaluating in detail the specific
strategies used to persist in college and attain higher levels of education. The overarching themes
common across interviews were derived from the translation of information occurring at every
level of the multi-step coding process. (Creswell, 2009).
Ethical Considerations
This research involved the use of interview procedures; information was recorded in a
manner that participants could not be identified. Hence, participation had no impact on the
participant’s liability in any civil or criminal case or harm the participants’ financial standing,
employability, or reputation. Moreover, the study carefully followed all the guidelines and
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 42
procedures established by the University of Southern California (USC) Institutional Review
Board (IRB). Further still, only students over eighteen years of age were recruited to participate
in the study.
The educational context of this current study, focused on highlighting assets, presented a
minimal risk of harm. Nevertheless, the discussion surrounding specific challenges faced by
positive deviants could have created the potential for negative or emotional feelings leading
participants to experience moments of discomfort. Additionally, it was possible that references
made about family members or peers could have also fostered negative emotions regarding
challenges encountered either by the individual participants, peers, or family members. Therefore
a concerted effort was made to emphasis that the purpose of the study was to focus on the
positive aspects of the individual’s overall experience.
Voluntary participation in the study was always made clear by the researcher, with
participants able to leave the study at any stage of the study. Pseudonyms were used throughout
the study to protect the identity of the participants. In addition, audio as well as interview
transcriptions were strategically stored and password protected. Finally, at the conclusion of the
study all contact and personal information was appropriately destroyed.
Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the qualitative case study method and data analysis
implemented in this study. Next, Chapter 4 will describe the results of the qualitative analyses
and answer the research questions posed in Chapter 1. Finally, Chapter Five will discuss the
implications for research and practice. An action-plan will also be presented.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 43
Chapter 4: Findings
The goal of this study was to discover and identify behaviors and strategies that influence
college persistence and higher levels of educational attainment for first generation Latino college
students. To explore this topic, the following research questions were generated:
1. What were the challenges faced by first generation Latino college students?
2. What were the uncommon behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How did positive deviants utilize these strategies and behaviors to facilitate
success?
Using the asset-based positive deviance approach as the underlying framework, data were
collected via interviews with ten third-year first generation Latino college students currently
attending various four-year universities across the state of California. The purpose of this chapter
is to present the challenges revealed in the study, as well as the findings regarding the strategies
used to influence college persistence and higher levels of educational attainment.
Challenges Faced by First Generation Latino College Students
The challenges faced by the participants were numerous and included limited college
readiness, first year transition challenges, financial challenges, lack of support, and negative self-
perception. Figure 3 provides an overview of these challenges.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 44
Figure 3. Challenges faced by first generation Latino college students
Limited College Readiness
Students often entered college without acquiring sufficient strategies to successfully
navigate the academic rigor of a demanding college curriculum. In this study, limited college
readiness existed in terms of limited college knowledge and a disconnect between high school
and college contexts.
Limited college knowledge. The fact that all of the participants in this study were the
first in their families to apply, matriculate, and attend any form of post-secondary institution
limited the amount of college knowledge they possessed or could easily access. For participants
like Maria, college was something not often thought about or considered. Maria stated: “Before
in high school, I remember I didn’t really think about it so much. I had this talk with a couple of
friends, like we didn’t even think about college. It was like, those places exist?” Additionally,
Limited College
Readiness
Limited College
Knowledge
Disconnect
between high
school and
college
contexts
First Year
Transition
Challenges
Overwhelming
Experience of
Navigating
Social Context
Competing
Distractions
Homesickness
Financial
Challenges
Lack of
Tangible
Resources
Balancing
Work and
School
Lack of
Support
Family
Institutional
Lack of
Role
Models
Negative
Self-
Perception
Lack of
Self-
Confide
nce
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 45
although some participants had previously heard about college, they did not have anyone sharing
previous college experiences. Maria described this in the following way:
…I know in high school, they took us to the college fair. I had heard about these schools
but… I didn’t even know they existed. Even with the UC system. I didn’t know that
UCLA and Berkeley were under the same system…None of my extended family had this
type of experience or knew this type of experience.
For example, Amelia shared how difficult the process of applying and attending college can be
when one does not have a wealth of information at your disposal when she stated, “It was
something new because my brother never did nothing like that …[and he] wasn’t able to help me
because he didn’t go through that process…it was really hard.” The difficulty that arose from
having limited college knowledge was even more apparent in terms of knowing how to apply to
college. Margarita described this when she shared:
I didn’t know anything. I just knew you had to apply. All this information just thrown
at us. I’m like oh, my. It was definitely a challenge not knowing 100 percent what I was
doing but I knew I was doing something.
Although participants were aware of the college application process, they lacked specific
knowledge related to the types of information required on a college application form such as
demographic, financial, and academic data. Furthermore, participants lacked specific knowledge
regarding any supplemental requirements for college applications including evidence of
extracurricular activities, letters of recommendations and application fees and deadlines.
The impact of limited college knowledge affected some participants even after they had
been accepted to the university. Teresa recalled: “[I] didn’t know anything about UC Berkeley,
even when I got accepted. Because I remember…[my advisor] called me and she was more
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 46
excited than I was. But I wasn’t that excited because I didn’t know what it was.” Teresa’s case
illustrates that on some level she possessed very little knowledge about college in general or
what her experience in college would be.
In the case of Lucero, the extent of her limited college knowledge was realized the
moment she arrived to college. Lucero shared:
I remember when my mom dropped me off my first year there…and my mom wanted to
cry. I wanted to cry too. And I guess [this lady] saw it. And then the lady approached us
… And she’s like “I’m here dropping off my grandchildren. I already went through this
process with my children and now it’s my grandchildren.” And that she had gone there
too, to Berkeley. I’m like really? So they already know and we’re clueless.
This quote distinguishes the varying levels of experience that families have with sending
children off to college, and Lucero felt as if she “didn’t know anything of anything.” Lucero’s
feelings of cluelessness and insecurity were intensified by knowing that others did know what to
expect from a college experience. Moreover, students with parents or family members who were
familiar with college served as essential sources of college knowledge.
Disconnect between high school and college contexts. From the first moment they
arrived on their college campuses, participants were faced with attempting to close the gap
between what they had heard college would be like and their actual experiences. While some
participants described having reliable support systems in high school, navigating an unfamiliar
college setting on their own was a major challenge. Maria explained her experience in the
following way:
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 47
It’s hard…I mean I know that everybody at [our high school], all our teachers would tell
us so many things about college. But it’s way different experiencing it than actually
hearing it because once you’re there, you see it yourself, how things are.
Several participants felt as though they had received an inaccurate representation of college to
varying extents. For instance, participants were under the impression that college would be
similar to their high school context in terms of academic coursework, academic expectations, and
grading systems. Participants thought that the study skills and content knowledge they acquired
in high school would allow for the same level of academic success experienced prior to college.
Furthermore, the intensified focus on college offering various fun and social activities blurred
participants’ picture of the importance of balancing the academic responsibilities with social
events.
Some of the participants indicated that they entered college with skills and overall college
readiness levels far below their peers. Salvador stated, “I felt like I was a little bit out of place
because I didn’t feel prepared enough to be in college.” Interviews commonly shared a
disconnect between what was learned in high school and what is needed for learning in college.
Positive deviants reported insufficient studying strategies, and a lack of comfort with and
knowledge of summative college assessments like mid-terms and finals.
When participants began their first year of college they all imagined it would be similar
setting to the high school setting they had just left. Even participants who were largely successful
in high school still felt they were not college-ready. Multiple participants stated that not knowing
the difference between going the high school and college contexts made it much more
challenging to think of themselves as being college-ready by possessing the academic strategies
required to be academically successful in a university setting. Maria expressed this idea when
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 48
she shared that, “in high school, it’s like school, okay, I’ll study a bit here and I get the info, it’s
so easy…just now, I feel like it’s harder and you’re competing against other people for your
grade.” A similar feeling was expressed by Lucero:
In high school, I felt like it was pretty easy. I had a system which was the whole
memorizing stuff. And going to college, I had the idea that it was going to be the same.
I’ve always had really good grades and it was just like a slap across the face. You don’t
feel prepared and I thought I was.
For Jesus, this disconnect had a lot to do with the connection between what he learned in high
school and what he was learning in college. Jesus explained when he stated:
Like in high school, math was very systematic. You learned it and that was it. Like why
do I need to learn this? In college, that was the first time where I could say oh, this is for
a heat engine. It’s practical. Someone could pay me to do this or stuff like that… I can
do stuff with what I’ve learned which is a big thing for me.
Participants like Brenda and Teresa both acknowledged spending most of their first year
studying alone. Teresa went on to specify that, “I think that’s why I struggled the first semester.”
Both Brenda and Teresa experienced difficulties because they did not have or form a peer
support network that could help them develop the study strategies through peer learning that
would improve their academic performance. Jesus stated, “In high school, I never once studied.
It was more or less just easy. I either picked it up and I knew it or I got it wrong on the test.”
Thus, participants quickly realized that studying by “picking things up” or memorizing would
not be sufficient if they wanted to succeed academically.
Participants did not only feel that they had limited college readiness in terms of
insufficient college studying strategies but more importantly they did not understand the
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 49
difference between studying for assessments that carry such a high point value like mid-terms
and finals and studying the daily content presented in class. Brenda came face to face with the
reality of limited college readiness when she took her first college mid-term. According to
Brenda:
I didn’t really know how to study. I guess for the first mid-term I had for chem which is
always my hardest science or always a harder class for me, I probably studied alone like
two days before because I thought that would be good. I didn’t end up failing or anything
but I didn’t do good. I got a C, a really low C and I thought I would do better because I
studied for two days.
All of the participants came from high schools where grading scales were designed to account
for and include such things such as participation, class work, homework, projects, quizzes, and
unit tests. Salvador explained, “Sometimes, you don’t study as good as you should have because
you didn’t know how to study for a test that means so much.” Although they were familiar with
having and taking mid-terms and final exams in high school they were not accustomed to their
academic grade being solely based on one or two major assessments.
Due to limited college readiness, academic probation became a reality for participants
Amelia and Jesus during their first year of college. According to Amelia and Jesus, at both their
institutions, if a student earns a grade point average below a 2.0 at the end of any quarter or at
any point in the student’s cumulative studies, that student is placed on academic probation.
Furthermore, if the student remains on academic probation after two terms or earns a grade point
average below a 1.50, the student is “subject to dismissal”. For Amelia, allowing herself to be
“subject to dismissal” was not an option. She expressed this when she said, “I was on academic
probation…I knew I needed to get out of this…I can’t be on academic probation because I got a
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 50
D in religious studies.” Amelia recognized that earning a letter grade of a D in an academic class
in college had a much greater impact than earning the same letter grade in one course during
high school.
For many of the participants in this study, giving future first generation Latino college
students an accurate picture of what to expect in college was very important to them. For Lucero,
this accurate representation of college begins with honesty. This idea is supported by her
following statement:
Like I said, I was always a straight A student and then I get to college and it’s like oh,
well, what happened here… you can’t sugar coat it. You can’t be like it’s going to be
easy, it’s going to be fun because it’s going to be hard. And I thought oh, college is fun.
I mean it can be but it can also drain you of your will to live at the same time. And I feel
like if you slap on the cold hard facts, that’s going to be more of an eye-opener…You just
have to emphasize [that] if you really want it, you’re going to have to work really hard
for it…if you’re honest, then they can get it.
The same sentiment was experienced and shared by Fernanda as she spoke about her role as a
peer mentor. Since Fernanda did not feel that she received an accurate representation of what
college was really going to be like, she made it one of her priorities to paint a more accurate
picture for first-year first generation Latino college students at her campus. Fernanda explained:
I was always very straight-forward with them, like I didn’t sugar-coat anything for them.
I got a couple of times where they would say, damn, why are you so mean to us? It’s like
I’m not being mean to you guys. This is how it is. If you guys don’t care for your
education, then nobody else is going to.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 51
First Year Transition Challenges
The first year of college, in particular, was a struggle for participants. Although a new
setting can be difficult for any individual, participants experienced challenges that were
intensified by their lack of social and cultural capital. In interviews, they discussed several
challenges including: overwhelming experience navigating the social context of college,
competing first year distractions, and homesickness.
Overwhelming experience of navigating social context. Experiencing academic and
social independence for the first time, and without sufficient cultural capital, made it difficult for
participants to have a smooth first year transition. Teresa noted, “It’s hard, because there’s no
one telling you…We had that support in high school…And now I don’t.” Participants felt
“overwhelmed” and “lost” when it came to navigating the social context of college in terms of
knowing how to join clubs, meet new people, and make friends. Fernanda described these
feelings when she shared, “I started freshman year and I didn’t join anything…it was so
overwhelming and I didn’t know what to do… I was miserable my first semester.” For Fernanda;
it was clear that not participating in the social aspects of school left her feeling unhappy.
Fernanda went on to explain:
I was kind of lost during my transition… nobody told me to make friends. I didn’t want
to meet new people. It’s college. It’s supposed to be like this amazing new thing but it’s
not always like that. And I didn’t have anybody telling me that this is what I should be
doing if I wanted to have a successful year.
Thus, not possessing the skills and cultural capital needed to successfully navigate the social
context of college impacted her ability to learn how to grow and develop a social network of
friends and extracurricular activities.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 52
Competing first year distractions. The degree to which participants experienced
competing distractions varied. In some instances, participants were easily distracted by
electronics and dorm settings, while others acknowledged distractions such as drugs and
social/family gatherings. Across these diverse situations, participants were challenged in
remaining focused on their academics. To illustrate, Lucero explained, “My first year was
horrible. I probably was one of the ones sitting in the back [of class], distracting myself with the
Internet and stuff.” A similar experience of being distracted while in class was shared by Paloma
when she stated, “Most people who are on their computers don’t take notes…they’re mostly on
Facebook or online shopping.” The range of electronics mentioned by participants also included
cell phones, iPods, and televisions. For example, Amelia stated, “A lot of students use
electronics…using their cell phones, listening to their iPods…that’s why I try not to take my
phone or iPod. If I do, I keep them off and in my backpack.”
Similarly, for some participants, living in a dorm setting was the first time that they were
granted more freedom and independence by being far away from parental household rules,
rituals, and routines. Salvador explained:
When I was younger, I thought everybody went to sleep at 10, at least I did… I got to
college and everybody’s up until like two or three in the morning, doing who knows what
on the computer or just walking around, talking, eating or whatever…that was a big
challenge for me, telling myself when I got to go to sleep instead of someone else telling
me.
Similar to other participants, Salvador encountered the pressure of having easy access to drugs
and roommates that had given in to such distractions. To illustrate, he explained:
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 53
In college, I feel like a lot of people do a lot of drugs…that’s probably one of the things
that affects Latino students the most because I’ve seen a lot of students intoxicated and
constantly smoking and drinking…they should learn to control themselves because I feel
like some people have no self-control at all…one of my [Latino] roommates would be an
example of that. He has no self-control. He’s a very smart guy but he just doesn’t know
when to stop…
Also distracting was the need to balance academic priorities and social/family gatherings.
Several participants described cultural expectations that often interfered with academic priorities
and responsibilities. For example, Amelia explained that being a member of such a close-knit
family made it much more difficult to turn down weekend family dinner invitations and
gatherings. Often, her family had difficulty understanding the reasons their invitations were
refused. Amelia noted:
It’s hard. I’ll be like…don’t call me…sometimes I’ll try to avoid answering my uncle. I
know what he wants already. He wants me to come over. I can’t answer no cousin’s calls
or my Tia [aunt] because I know they want me over. But sometimes it’s hard…I’ll
answer and they’ll be like come over. I’ll tell them I can’t today. I got to do this
[schoolwork].
For Amelia, the pressure to attend “kickbacks” with the rest of her family was distracting, but
she understood that engaging in these activities prevented her from focusing on her college
goals.
Homesickness. Across interviews, when asked about being away from home for the first
time, participants all shared similar experiences of feeling extremely homesick. For example,
Teresa stated:
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 54
The first month, I was really homesick…I had never left my house…Besides that one
school field trip where we went to the East Coast for a week. I was crying every single
day. I was calling my mom every single day telling her I want to transfer…Now I was
stuck here…I didn’t know how to come back and forth.”
Never having left home prior to starting college, Teresa lacked the social and cultural capital that
comes from long distance traveling experiences. Teresa’s feelings of homesickness were
compounded by the fact that she possessed limited knowledge regarding transportation services
that could help her return home and prevent her from feeling “stuck” in college. Feelings of
desperation and defeat also found their way into Fernanda’s first year transition. She stated, “The
first two weeks were hell for me…I was adjusting to new people, new classes, new workloads,
and money…It was intense …I felt like I was going to die because I didn’t have my family here
with me.” The feelings expressed by both Teresa and Fernanda were echoed by the rest of the
participants as being a significant challenge during their first year in college.
For Brenda, it was much more than being away from home for the first time; it was being
away from where a loved one was killed that was the biggest challenge. During the spring of
Brenda’s sophomore year in high school, her 21-year-old sister became a victim of gun violence
when she was shot and killed while sitting in a parked car in front of their home. This was
extremely difficult for Brenda and her family on many different levels. Brenda’s sister had
always been supportive of Brenda’s achievements and consistently recognized Brenda’s hard
work and dedication to her desire to be the first in the family to go to college. Brenda’s sister
demonstrated her unconditional support by being present at all parent-teacher conferences,
school events, and rewarding Brenda for all of her accomplishments. Brenda shared, “It was hard
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 55
being away from home my first year…There weren’t a lot of people I could talk to about it,
especially about reasons why I would be sad sometimes… that was a big challenge.”
In addition to missing family members and their physical homes, many participants also
missed their neighborhoods and familiar networks of people with whom they shared similar
backgrounds and experiences. Maria and Lucero attributed their feelings of homesickness to
much more than simply missing their nuclear family members. To illustrate this, Maria noted:
It’s really hard not having your support system there…I guess just not having family
there… being there by yourself…surrounded by people who may come from the same
backgrounds as you or people that may not even know what it feels like to come from a
low income family.
Similarly, Lucero was experiencing being the minority in her environment for the first time. As a
Latina, the lack of cultural representation in her environment led to homesickness when she first
left for college. Lucero described her experience in the following way:
Freshman year was the worst… I regretted [going to college]…You’re always more
comfortable with people like you and when there’s hardly any, you feel really
homesick… I missed Latinos in general because you talk about foods and about homes.
Everyone’s Latino mom is just the same. So you kind of miss that. And when you have
a group of friends who are Latino, you feel at home. And I didn’t really have that.”
As a result, Lucero felt alienated within the college context, since she had fewer similar others
with whom she could have shared her experiences. Comparatively, having fewer similar others
to share experiences appeared to be amplified by the fact that participants were the first in their
families to experience a college context.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 56
Financial Challenges
Participants indicated that financial challenges also posed difficulties for first generation
Latino college students. In some cases, a lack of financial resources required participants to focus
their energy and attention on finding and keeping a job in addition to balancing their college
coursework. Financial difficulties also came in the form of a lack of tangible resources such
personal transportation and not having a stable residence.
Balancing work and school. Conversations with the participants revealed that coming
from families and neighborhoods with very few financial resources and support systems required
many of them to have to seek employment while going to school. Salvador compared his
financial situation to one of his more affluent schoolmate’s and stated:
A good friend of mine… he’s also first generation and always tells me that – he finds it
very different between me and him because he’s from Orange County. His parents have
a business. So he has means and he doesn’t come from a financially stricken background
like I do and he always tells me about that, how he doesn’t see how I can work and go to
school at the same time.
Although all of the participants in the study depended on financial aid to help them pay for
college tuition as well as room board, many sought employment to lessen the financial burden
and stress for their families. In Brenda’s case, having a job while going to school allowed her to
have enough money for the bus ride home to visit her family. But when Brenda’s work schedule
conflicted with her schoolwork and tutoring schedule she was forced to quit her job. Brenda
shared:
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 57
My work schedule didn’t really allow me to go to tutoring… I decided to quit work for
that semester… it was a hard decision to make because I started getting used to not
asking my parents for money… at the time I needed money to go back home.
Having prioritized her studies over her work, Brenda felt obligated to ask her parents for money
to spend and for bus rides back home, things that she had been able to take care of when she was
working.
Whereas Brenda had been able to prioritize her studies and quit her job, Teresa found
herself in a more challenging financial situation that ended up having an effect on her overall
grades and grade point average. Having been admitted as a spring semester candidate her first
year, Teresa had to take courses during the summer to make up for not being enrolled in the fall.
Teresa explained how her financial difficulties were more challenging due to her limited
knowledge of summer financial aid. She stated, “I thought they actually gave you loans but the
loans that they give you are unsubsidized… I stayed away from that… and I remember I only
had $1,200 for the entire summer.” After accounting for rent, Teresa had been left with only
$300 to meet the rest of her personal needs for the entire summer. Aware of her family’s
financial hardships, Teresa was reluctant to ask her mother for some financial assistance. Teresa
shared the moment she asked her mother for money:
The last couple of weeks, I was on the dollar menu but there’s nothing for a dollar, unless
I went to McDonald’s. And I had to go there early or do something and I realized that
that wasn’t going to work. And then I had to ask my mom for money. I tried to stay
away from that because I know she has bills that she needs to pay. But there were no
loans I could take out.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 58
In addition to not having enough money to eat, Teresa’s grades and overall grade point average
had also been affected by the lack of a stable residence. After being unable to get her rent money
back due to dispute, Teresa had to commute to school, work, and to a friend’s house who let her
stay for some time during the summer. The impacts of these challenges were apparent in
Teresa’s reflection of her academic performance for that summer term. She stated:
I had work… I’m a student director at another school site. So that meant more
responsibility. It was hard to juggle all those things and make it. That sort of affected me
getting those C’s in those classes because I feel like if I would have had a stable place, I
would have been able to concentrate in school. But this all happened because I was
broke this summer.
Lack of Support
The degree of support participants received from family and school varied. In most
instances, participants felt a lack of support from family members and/or their respective
educational institutions. Participants also discussed an absence of role models they could rely on
to assist them in navigating their college experience.
Family. Some participants noted that family members often times did not push them to
pursue higher levels of educational attainment. Maria described her family’s low expectations
when she shared, “My family didn’t really tell me…You have to go to college. It was mainly get
a career… they didn’t care if I was just going to a tech school… where it’s six months and
you’re in and out.” By the same token, the challenge of competing expectations made it difficult
for participants like Margarita to feel supported by her family. To illustrate, Margarita explained:
My mom never supported me to go to college ever. If I had homework due a day later,
instead of telling me do your homework, she would tell me, clean the house or wash the
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 59
dishes. If I had told her, I have homework to do, she was like I don’t care. Homework
isn’t going to help you right now to get the house clean. Homework isn’t going to help
you get money or get food on the table.
Even though Margarita would do as her mother expected, she still made it a priority to complete
her school work. She added, “I would sometimes have to leave the homework and not do it until
the next morning, a period before that period or something.” As a result, Margarita was left with
less time to adequately prepare for her academics.
Parental conflicts and unstable family structures also fueled the lack of support
experienced by participants. According to Margarita, “Because I come from separated parents…
my dad was the only one who would be willing to pick me up sometimes and take me to school-
related functions... my mom never was there for us.” An unstable family was also a challenge
for Teresa who shared:
Nobody understood what I was going through. Getting good grades, well, my mom didn’t
care if I got A’s or B’s or anything. For her, it was like whatever… my mom didn’t
know anything about it and then my dad; he was out of the picture because he gotten
unemployed and he started drinking. He wasn’t there.
Institutional. This study also revealed that participants did not receive adequate support
from the educational institutions they attended. Specifically, participants shared accounts of
unsupportive high schools and college counselors. According to Maria, in communities where
graduating high school is considered one of the greatest achievements, there is very little support
for attaining higher levels of education. Maria clarified this point when she explained:
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 60
[First generation Latino students] don’t really think about going to college because not a
lot of our schools tell us that we should go to college… because a lot of people don’t
think about these neighborhoods when they think about people going to college.
The same lack of support was experienced by participants even after being admitted to a four
year university for the first time. Unable to attend a summer bridge program for incoming
freshmen due to a personal family matter, Brenda had first-hand experience with what she
described as unsupportive college counselors. She explained:
I remember my first semester; I messed up my schedule and enrolled for upper division
classes. And I went to a counselor who was really mean about it. He actually made me
feel bad because he told me if I would have gone to Summer Bridge… I would have
picked all my classes correctly.
Additionally, Brenda was pressured into choosing a major without having the support that would
help her make a well-informed decision.
Absence of role models. Another important factor was the absence of role models
available to the participants of this study. Across interviews, participants revealed that lack of
role models posed a significant challenge in terms of having individuals that can provide
knowledge and access to resources. More specifically, a lack of role models limited participants’
knowledge of all available resources in addition to knowing when and how to best utilize
available resources. In fact, some participants described instances in which the presence of a role
model would have made a difference in their overall college knowledge. Paloma said, “It’s hard
in a way because I have no one to tell me what to expect.” Maria added to this point when she
stated that if there had been a role model, “I would be able to look at somebody else’s steps that
they’ve done and possibly do things differently… if they failed at something, maybe I’ll know…
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 61
I shouldn’t do this because then I’ll end up going that same path.” Moreover, Lucero highlighted
the specific benefits of a role model when she stated that if she had a role model, she “would
have known probably basic stuff, like financial aid or anything like that.”
Participants also felt that they would have understood more about career possibilities if
they had role models to provide personal and relevant experiences. To illustrate, Fernanda
explained:
If I had an example or at least somebody to look up to, even if they did it right or they did
it wrong, if I had some kind of format for somebody, [it] would make a difference. But I
don’t. It’s just I have to do it all on – not necessarily all on my own but everything’s new
to me. I’ve never seen somebody go to college and graduate. I’ve never seen somebody
have a degree and do their career. All my family works in mediocre jobs. I kind of want
to see what else there is after college.
Equally critical to participants was the absence of role models in college classrooms and in
specific fields of study, such as science. Fernanda pointed out that first generation Latino
college students are “a big population on campus, but in the classroom, we’re very scarce.” For
Maria, this was especially true in her field of study. She stated, “Being a [biological sciences]
major, you don’t really see as many Latinos in there.” As a result, Maria not only lacked the type
of support systems needed to navigate college in general, but she also lacked guidance needed
for specific and demanding fields of studies such as Science.
Negative Self-Perception
Participants often entered and progressed through college with doubt regarding their
academic preparation and skills. Participants’ negative self-perception was a key issue that
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 62
hindered their levels of self-confidence, self-efficacy as well as their comfort levels when it came
to seeking help from others, especially professors.
Low self-confidence. Across interviews, participants reported having higher levels of
self-confidence in high school than they did in college. In fact, when students began their college
education, their levels of self-confidence dropped dramatically. Salvador noted:
In high school, I had this confidence, this ego, where I can do anything but then once I
went to college, I just felt like a small fish in a big lake… I didn’t feel like I was smart
enough to be in the place where I was at… I thought everybody was going to be smarter
than me…I went in with the mentality that people are smarter than me. I’m going to have
to struggle… I felt I lacked confidence in myself.
Similarly, Jesus stated, “Our high school, was very small. I knew who I was competing against.
And this [college], there were some crazy smart kids. I felt I wasn’t going to stack up.” Brenda,
experienced a constant fear of academic failure. She noted, “When I started [college], I always
feared I was going to fail my classes.”
Fear of academic failure became a reality for both Jesus and Amelia. Jesus described his
experience of having been placed on academic probation in the following way:
Even when I was there, it still didn’t hit me…until my second quarter. I was actually on
academic probation because I failed my first computer science class and it just hit me,
why am I here…I was ashamed to admit it and I didn’t want to tell my parents. This
[was] a low point for me.
Therefore, it may be the case that the consequences of being placed on academic probation not
only jeopardizes first generation Latino college students’ feelings of succeeding academically
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 63
but also affects their overall sense of accomplishment, self-efficacy, and self-confidence when
interacting with their families and speaking about their first college experiences.
Low levels of self-confidence were also a factor when participants were in need of
academic assistance, often leaving help-seeking as a last resort. Lucero highlighted this point
when she shared, “I feel like that was the biggest thing, approaching people and talking to
them… And saying I don’t understand… It’s very intimidating.” Rather than exposing her lack
of knowledge and understanding, and having her status as a successful college student
questioned, Lucero chose to find solutions on her own.
For some participants, seeking help from a professor was particularly stressful and
difficult. Amelia stated, “I just feel like professors are sometimes intimidating… so I won’t go to
them.” The same sentiment was expressed by Teresa when she shared, “I avoid the professor. I
don’t know why.” For example, Fernanda explained, “I think that’s definitely one issue. I know
I’m not comfortable at all going to my professor’s office hours.” Feeling comfortable
approaching others for help, even if that person happens to be a professor, would often times
depend on the context. Salvador illustrated this point when he explained, “I still to this day
haven’t talked to a professor like in their office. I’ve talked to a couple of professors but in the
classroom but never in their office, one-on-one.”
Summary
In sum, five key challenges were revealed through the data analysis: limited college
readiness, challenging first year transition, financial challenges, lack of support, and negative
self-perception. In terms of limited college readiness, participants had limited college knowledge
and experienced a disconnect between high school and college contexts. This had significant
implications for participants’ overall academic success in their competitive four-year
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 64
universities. Challenging first year transitions created additional difficulties for participants –
from being overwhelmed with navigating the social contexts of college to experiencing intense
feelings homesickness. In addition, participants encountered many competing distractions during
their first year transition. Furthermore, a lack of financial resources and support systems brought
along additional sets of challenges for participants as they attempted navigate a new college
environment. This included balancing work and school and finding their way through college
without access to any role models for guidance or support. Finally, having a negative self-
perception played a key role in terms of participants’ levels of self-confidence. Participants were
often unable to approach other people, specifically professors, when assistance was needed as
participants worked towards their goal of attaining higher levels of education.
Strategies Used to Achieve College Persistence and Higher Levels of Educational
Attainment
Positive deviant participants leveraged a wide array of strategies in order to achieve
college persistence required for attaining higher levels of education. The analyses revealed that
participants focused on college in high school. Additionally, while in college, they self-regulated
their learning, and developed support systems as a strategy for college persistence. A roadmap of
these strategies is displayed below in Figure 4.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 65
College Focus in
High School
Academic
Preparedness
Extracurricular
High School
Activities
College-Going
Culture
Self-Regulated
Learning
Class
preparation
and
engagement
Reviewing
Academic
Content
Minimizing
Distractions
Time Management/
Organization
Prioritization
Self-Reflection
and Motivation
for Persistence
Establishing
Support Systems
Peer
Collaboration
and Support
Accessing
rresources
through peers
Help-Seeking
and
relationship
with
professors
School
Involvement
Family and
Peer models
Figure 4. Strategies used by positive deviants for college persistence and higher levels of
educational attainment.
College Focus in High School
Participants spent a considerable amount of time in their high school contexts focusing on
activities that would increase their chances of being college-bound. These activities included
academically preparing for college by completing college requirements and engaging in
challenging coursework such as honors and advanced placement courses, participating in
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 66
extracurricular activities, and actively involving themselves in the college-going culture at their
respective high school.
Academic preparedness. To achieve academic readiness, participants were purposeful
in planning their coursework to meet the minimum college admission requirements, as well as
taking the most rigorous courses offered at their high school. Jesus shared: “My idea of how to
get to college was the A through G requirements… also…I took all the AP classes that were
offered to me.” Participants focused on completing and fulfilling a sequence of recommended
coursework set forth by the state of California commonly known as the A-G requirements.
Courses classified as A-G are designed to give students a well-rounded academic background
across all of the disciplines to ensure that students are prepared for the college curriculum.
Successful completion of this sequence of coursework is required in order to meet the minimum
admission requirements for a public four-year university in the state of California. In addition, all
of the participants reported participating in challenging, higher-level coursework such as honors
and/or advanced placement classes with the goal of building a level of academic readiness that
would best prepare them for college. To illustrate, Margarita described how completing
advanced placement courses in calculus and English while in high school prepared her for
college. She stated:
The only reason why I was able to follow what the professor was saying, , was because I
had taken AP Calculus in high school… that’s the only reason why I was able to follow
what the professor was doing because the way he teaches, he skips a lot of steps.
The content knowledge she had acquired in AP Calculus allowed her to pick up what was going
on in her college math class when the professor skipped steps when working out a math problem
in class. Margarita was also able to implement and utilize class discussion and participation
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 67
strategies she had learned in her high school advanced placement English course. She described
a specific moment in which these strategies were used:
One thing that actually helped was Mr. B’s class. He would make us do
seminars…analyzing a certain book… that helped for my classes in Berkeley that had to
do with some kind of book or some kind of reading we had to do because since that class
[AP English], I always raise my hand to say something, even if it doesn’t sound smart or
it doesn’t sound with a high vocabulary as others, it doesn’t matter… It’s the fact that I
posed a question… I said something.
In other words, the seminar course helped Margarita to develop both analytical and help-seeking
strategies that contributed to her success in college. Honors and/or advanced placement high
school courses provided her with opportunities to learn and develop group discussions and
critical thinking skills.
Furthermore, participants reported focusing on academic achievement by attaining higher
letter grades and staying organized. Earning higher letter grades was regarded by all participants
as one of the most important factors in getting into a four-year university, and they accomplished
this in a number of ways. For example, students made an effort to ensure that they submitted all
homework for their courses. Brenda explained, “I always felt I needed good grades to go to
college…I always turned in all my work.” They also committed a significant amount of time to
engaging in their schoolwork. To illustrate, Lucero, in her efforts to complete her work,
described the level of effort she made. She said, “I would always spend more time on homework,
like extra time. I would stay up late. That’s why people were like wait, you pulled off all-
nighters in high school?... yeah, I would.” Thus, the extra time being spent on homework was
regarded to have a direct impact on attaining higher letter grades and academic achievement.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 68
Remaining organized was viewed as equally as important to academic achievement as
attaining higher letter grades. The use of a folder and school agenda were tools that benefitted
Margarita in her efforts to stay organized while in high school. In regards to using a folder as an
organization tool, Margarita used it to physically place her homework in locations that would
help her to easily locate what was complete and incomplete. She stated: “[The] left side, that’s
where all the homework that hadn’t been done, that I had to do that night and then I would do it
all and put it on the other [right] side.” More specifically, the use of a folder helped Margarita to
stay organized because “when the next day came and they [teacher] asked me for the homework,
I knew where it was at” and I knew I had done it if it was there.” The high school agenda, given
to students in the ninth grade and required of students at Margarita’s high school, also helped her
to stay organized, which she described in the following way:
I remember freshman year… the fact that we got an agenda, I would always write down
what homework needed to be due when it was due… that helped a lot because if I didn’t
write it down, it wasn’t going to be done at all.
As a result, Margarita remained organized and informed about assigned and/or completed
homework.
Extracurricular high school activities. Participants believed that involvement in
extracurricular activities in high school was a crucial aspect of becoming college-bound. As
Salvador explained, “Other than enrolling in all the AP classes and I did Students Run LA… I
tried to get involved as much as I could because that’s what I heard schools were looking for,
students that were well-rounded.” For Lucero, this meant stepping out of her comfort zone by
getting involved in school athletics. She stated, “I joined the basketball team which was
something I didn’t see myself doing… but if that will help me get to college, I’ll do it.”
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 69
Involvement by participants varied and included membership in existing school clubs as well as
taking the initiative to establish new clubs. To illustrate this pro-active attitude, Fernanda
explained:
I know we didn’t have thousands of clubs that we could have joined but even that, I
remember Brenda and I trying to start clubs in ninth grade, trying to start things in tenth
grade… getting involved in high school made me want to come to school because I knew
that there was something more than just schoolwork… something more to look forward
to. This kind of kept me on track as well because I had a balance of fun and academics
and leadership roles… what I did [in high school] kept me on track to college.
Overall, participants saw involvement in extracurricular activities as an essential component to
successfully building college readiness, with the understanding that a college-bound student is a
well-rounded student.
College-going culture. Many interviewees recognized the value of actively participating
in a college-going culture. Across interviews, participants revealed that the college-going culture
established by school staff and individual teachers played an important role in remaining focused
on college, beginning early in the students’ education. Margarita’s college-going mindset began
in elementary school where she shared “They always made us draw this picture showing us…
here’s elementary, then you got middle school, then you got high school, then you got college…
so I knew somehow I would end up there.” Teresa shared a similar experience from elementary
school when she remembered how her fourth grade teacher “would always tell me… strive for
A’s. Even though I knew my mom didn’t care… that stuck to me.” Teresa continued to
experience a college-going culture in middle school during a school field trip to the University of
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 70
California, Los Angeles. She shared, “I went with my AVID class… we got a tour and a sticker
saying you’re going to college… So UCLA was always the one that I wanted to go to.”
Similarly, experiencing a college-going culture at the secondary school level was also
important to all of the participants in this study. Salvador explained: “In high school everybody
was talking about going to college, teachers, counselors and the principal, their whole purpose
was for us to go to college… they instilled that idea.” Being surrounded by individuals talking
about going to college made a big difference for Teresa as she described how “the school helped
because they were always telling us go to college, go to college… I guess that helped because
nowhere else did I hear it.” In addition, school-sponsored field trips to different college
campuses helped to contribute to a college-going culture. Margarita recalled the impact a college
road trip had on her college-going mindset. She stated, “Taking us on the college road trip where
we went to see Ivy League schools made the possibility of going to college more real.”
Further still, a college-going culture created and sustained by teachers had a greater
impact on all participants. Fernanda supported this point when she stated: “Honestly the teachers
are the ones who really pushed you towards it…they were telling us about our A through G
requirements since ninth grade.” In addition, teachers provided participants with guidance related
to specific college admission requirements. For example, Margarita shared that if it would not
have been for her teachers “I would have had no idea about SATs.” In Margarita’s case this also
included understanding how to interpret SAT scores and how they connected to the college
application process. For Lucero, teacher support was important because “being the first one [to
go to college], you’re completely clueless… they [teachers] believe in me and that’s kind of a
boost that you need sometimes.” Thus, participants’ feelings about remaining focused on college
were strengthened by the comments shared with them by teachers.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 71
Another important factor that played an active role in developing a college-going culture
and mindset in all participants were individual teachers’ actions. In fact, some participants
described instances in which an individual teacher’s actions made a significant impact on their
ability to remain focused on getting to college. Teresa described her experience when she shared:
[Ms. S] my advisory teacher helped me a lot. She stayed after school a lot of times
helping me revise my personal statements. I guess having that support, knowing that she
was always there helped because in my other school, we would get switched around in
advisories. It wasn’t stable. And I felt like having a stable advisor to go to helps because
you know your other teachers are going to change but not that one. You’re always going
to go to that one.
Moreover, for both Margarita and Lucero, individual teachers’ actions were significant enough to
make their college focus more specific. In Lucero’s case, a comment made by her advisory
teacher in ninth grade provided her college-going mind set with direction. She stated:
I never really heard about Berkeley in general… and I remember I was walking to class
and I was wearing my best friend’s sweater and it said Berkeley on it and I passed by my
classroom and [my advisor] said I expect to see you there once you graduate. I was like
Berkeley? What’s at Berkeley? So I Googled it and I looked it up and it was this
amazing university. I was like I want to go there. So after that, my heart was set on
Berkeley.
Altogether, teachers were instrumental in sustaining a college-going culture that could be utilized
as a resource for first generation Latino students with the goal of attaining higher levels of
education.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 72
Self-Regulated Learning
First generation Latino college students developed approaches to regulate their learning
in a variety of ways. First, students made an effort to both prepare for and be actively engaged
while in class. When learning new material, students discovered ways of reviewing academic
content and minimizing distractions. Students also were aware of and deliberately employed
learning strategies that worked best for them, and they developed time management and
organization strategies. Finally, students remained focused on attaining higher levels of
educational attainment by prioritizing their studies and engaging in self-reflection.
Class preparation and engagement. All positive deviant first generation Latino college
students agreed that being prepared for class and actively engaging while in class were key
elements in achieving higher levels of academic success. According to participants, class
preparation and engagement took a variety of forms, from printing out notes before class to
taking color-coded written notes.
Being adequately prepared for class began with acquiring all of the materials needed for
class. The importance of class materials was first noted by Salvador, who viewed course
textbooks as necessary resources for academic achievement. He explained, “I buy all my
textbooks… no matter how much they cost.” He considered this such an essential aspect of being
prepared for class that he did not let the price of the textbooks become a barrier. In addition,
Fernanda emphasized the importance of making use of class materials prior to going to class. She
stated, “Come to class prepared. If your syllabus says read chapter one, two and three, then read
chapter one, two, and three, come prepared. Then you’ll actually know [what] the professor’s
talking about.” Salvador also supported this idea when he shared, “if I read the readings and
write down things that I know for sure, then I can be prepared to discuss things.”
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 73
According to some participants, class materials included more than just course textbooks
and readings. Aside from course textbooks and readings, Brenda prepared for class by printing
out class notes prior to going to class. She shared, “I would print out my notes the day before and
just fill that in [during class lecture].” Having access to printed class notes also served as a tool
for Brenda to be more actively engaged while in class. In the same way that Brenda printed out
class notes before class, Margarita made it a point to always begin each quarter with a print out
of a class schedule. In addition, Margarita prepared for class by knowing her classroom
locations, giving herself enough walking time as well as carrying enough snacks and water. She
explained, “[I] print out my class schedule, know what building it’s [class] at, give [myself]
enough time to walk, make sure [to] carry snacks and water in case of a long day.”
Participants also discussed the importance of attendance. According to Amelia, engaging
in class began with “going to class every day.” In other words, engagement in class depends on
the student’s presence in the classroom. Aside from missing out on the opportunity to engage in
class, Paloma pointed out: “You never know what you’re going to miss that day.” Paloma further
explained: “[I] wake up like an hour or two before my classes are, just so I’m not like half brain
dead when I go there, like asleep. I like to really wake up.” Missing class was something that
was out of the question for Fernanda. She made it a point to develop strategies that helped her to
attend class on a daily basis. For example, Fernanda explained:
I make sure my alarm goes off three times at least, to wake me up if I’m not up the first
or second time. But I think attendance is so important because you’re paying to sit in
those seats. Why wouldn’t you want to go to class? You never know what you’re going
to learn. I come out with so much more knowledge and I think that’s the best feeling for
me. I came to class and I actually learned something.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 74
Although class attendance played an important role in class engagement, being attentive
in class was equally as important. When in class, participants stressed the importance of paying
attention. For Lucero, this meant having her “eyes dead set on the professor.” Salvador also
shared a similar strategy when he shared, “I normally watch the professor, how they’re working
usually. I try to focus on them and if they’re writing anything.” Paloma also emphasized the
importance of being attentive when she stated, “Pay attention in class because they [professors]
always add in things that aren’t in the book, that aren’t in the notes that they give you.”
Therefore, being attentive in class and focusing on the professor allows students to capture all of
the lesson’s learning objectives.
Across interviews, participants stated that taking hand written notes helped them become
more engaged in class. Soon after having arrived to class, Teresa stated, “[I]take out my
notebook and what I think are important things, start jotting them down.” In fact, both Jesus and
Fernanda utilized an even more specialized note-taking strategy – color-coded notes. Fernanda
explained, “I take notes in different colored pens. So when the topic changes or when there’s an
important point, then I write it in different colors so that I know where things are shifting gears.”
Jesus provided a more specific illustration of how he used the color-coding note strategy in one
of his classes. He described the color-coding note strategy in the following way:
I picked up the habit of using colored pencils to take my notes and be more efficient
about what it is that I do. It’s just actively listening and knowing what he’s [professor]
saying to distinguish it. So again with the colored notes, if I’m aware of what he’s
[professor] saying, I know what is a principle or an equation that we’re supposed to know
and make that colored red. And then the rest he’s [professor] deriving stuff or working
out problems, so that would be blue.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 75
Thus, both Fernanda and Jesus are more engaged in the content being delivered throughout the
lesson by color-coding the information on their notes.
Altogether, the strategies used to prepare for and engage in class also allowed participants
to contribute to class discussions and increase class participation. As was previously stated at the
beginning of this section, preparing for class by completing all of the pre-assigned reading
creates opportunities for students to actively engage in class discussions, providing more
opportunities for students to feel like contributing members of the class. Moreover, actively
participating in class has additional benefits such as individual recognition by the professor.
Margarita regarded this as an important benefit from preparing and actively participating in class.
She stated, “If you understand what’s going on, try to participate. Always try to participate to
get the teacher remembering your name.” Thus, active participation can be an important strategy
that helps students to build professional relationships with professors, a specific challenge
identified by several of participants from this study.
Reviewing academic content. Positive deviant first generation Latino college students
also recognized the value and importance of content review strategies. Although, review
strategies varied amongst participants, they all helped participants gain a better understanding of
the content delivered in class. For example, Lucero described how she would review class notes
immediately after getting out of class. She stated, “I review the [notes from the] class that I just
came out of.” Lucero went on to explain in detail exactly what she did when she reviewed notes.
She explained, “Sometimes my notes are sloppy, so I go back home and rewrite them… I fill in
the blanks because usually you can’t catch everything that people say.” She realized that she
needed to set aside time right after class to rewrite and fill-in missing notes in order to help her
grasp the material covered in class on any given day.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 76
Similar to Lucero’s review strategy of rewriting class notes, Maria and Teresa, also
allotted time to rewriting and finalizing class notes. While Lucero spent time filling in missing
notes, both Maria and Teresa used lecture recordings they had taken during class to help them
revamp their notes. Maria shared, “I would record the lecture and I would also take notes while
in class. So that way, I would go back, look over my notes and listen to the lecture again.” In
Teresa’s case, she used the lecture recording to add and take extra notes on a particular class
topic. She explained, “I go back and I read my lecture notes, after I had already listened to the
recording and taken extra notes in a different paper, I finalize those notes.” As a result, both
students are able to interact with the class content in a more extensive manner.
Having knowledge of more than one review strategy played an important factor in
extending learning. Brenda shared that utilizing a number of different review strategies helped
her gain a deeper understanding of the difficult material covered in class. In addition, she stated
that it also helped her be better prepared for an exam or for the next class. She explained: “Going
over mock old exams has been really helpful… also, bio classes are webcast. So you also have
the option of reviewing them. So I go to the library and go over them.” In terms of reviewing
notes she shared that she dedicated time to, “go over them myself and kind of repeat it in my
own words or something like that, I thought it would be more helpful.” Moreover, when it came
to sharpening her skills on a specific class topic she extended her learning by engaging in
optional class work. She stated: “For chemistry, a lot of it was he [professor] gave you optional
homework. So I did all of [it].” Therefore, Brenda was able to extend her learning by engaging
in optional class work when she felt she needed additional practice to master specific course
topics.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 77
Minimizing distractions. Positive deviant first generation Latino college students also
made an effort to minimize distractions both inside and outside of the classroom. To accomplish
this while in class, participants sat in the front rows of the classroom and kept electronics out of
sight. Lucero stated, “I’m usually sitting at the front to avoid distractions.” Sitting in the front
also allowed Jesus to be more attentive in class. He shared, “I usually try to sit in the front row
just because I feel it’s more an incentive for me not to fall asleep.” Maria also felt that sitting in
the front provided her with the opportunity to be more attentive by reducing distractions from
other people’s electronics. She explained: “If I sit all the way in the back, I’ll just probably see
people on their laptops and they’ll probably be in another website that’s not related to the course
at all.” For Fernanda, sitting in the front prevented her own electronics, like her cell phone, from
becoming a distraction. To illustrate this point she explained:
If I’m in the front row, then I can’t be texting because the professor is right in front of
me. So then I won’t use my phone, I’ll just keep it away. If I’m in the back row, then I
can hide it. But if I’m in the front, then that’s kind of disrespectful to be doing it in their
face. So I just keep it away.
Participants also recognized that minimizing distractions outside of the classroom played
an important role in facilitating academic success. Whether participants lived off or on campus,
they made an effort to either create or find a space conducive to learning. Although commuting
made it difficult for Amelia to stay on campus, she managed to minimize distractions by creating
a quiet study space at home. She explained, “Sometimes I just have to shut everything off and
get my book, my pencils. And if I really need to use the computer, I’ll get it but if I don’t need
to use it, I won’t get it.” By only giving herself access to the most essential materials needed to
accomplish a specific study task, Amelia was successful in minimizing immediate distractions.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 78
For the most part, Lucero was successful in finding a quiet, isolated space to study in one of the
many libraries on campus. To illustrate this point she explained:
You kind of feel guilt there [library] if you are on your phone or on the computer -
You’re like oh, people are judging me. So okay, I have to focus. And it’s quiet and I’ve
always liked a quiet environment. And I always go to somewhere that’s like completely
isolated and alone. Plus, there’s no signal at all in the library. That’s a plus for me.
Finding an isolate space was also a priority for Fernanda. She shared, “I find a spot where I’m by
myself. There’s little corners or little tables around campus that nobody goes to and I just crank
out an assignment or at least read.”
While some participants actively searched for quiet, isolated spaces, others preferred
environments where people were actively working or study labs available to students from a
specific field of study. Maria described how she minimized distractions by finding “an area
where there’s people also doing their work because they will motivate me to do my work.” For
Jesus, staying on campus at a study lab for students majoring in computer science helped him
minimize distractions. He explained, “I never study at home, I find it very distracting. So I’m
always in the lab, doing my work I feel like it’s a more professional setting. I know what I’m
there to do.” Therefore, the professional setting of a lab study space also helped in minimizing
any potential distractions. In addition to all of the previously mentioned strategies used to
minimize distractions, Margarita developed a strategy designed to help her return to campus. She
shared:
If I do decide to go home, then I would tell one of my classmates if they’re staying. I’d
be like okay, I’m going to leave my purse. Can you watch it and I’ll be back? And I
definitely have to come back then. So then I’ll go home.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 79
Consequently, reducing distractions allowed for more conducive learning environments to thrive.
Time management and organization. Positive deviant first generation Latino college
students consistently communicated that identifying the time to complete tasks in addition to
managing other roles and responsibilities was challenging. Thus, they would devise time
management and organization strategies that worked best for them. Across interviews,
participants identified agendas/planners, class syllabi, and digital calendars as essential time
management and organization tools. To illustrate the importance of having and using a planner
Fernanda described her planner in the following way: “My planner is literally my go-to, it’s my
little sidekick. It’s always with me. I check it every day, it’s [planner] with me at all times when
I’m in school.” She added, “I write everything in pencil just in case things change around.”
Margarita shared that, “I always get a planner every year, anything I need to do, I need to write it
down.” For example, in terms of homework, she shared: “If I didn’t write it down, I wouldn’t do
my homework.” As a result, both Fernanda and Margarita relied on and used their planners to
ensure that they accomplished all tasks and stayed up to date with any changes.
Another aspect of time management and organization was integrating class syllabi with
personal agendas/planners, as well as wall and digital calendars. Paloma shared that when,
“professors post that [syllabus] online before classes start” she set aside time to “write everything
in my agenda.” This was a time management and organization strategy that Paloma has used ever
since she began college. She stated, “I started doing that ever since I started college, I guess, to
manage my time better, since the assignments are really big… I needed to see how to work out
my time.” The idea that transferring syllabi content onto a personal agenda/planner in order to
“see” how to manage time and remain organized was also emphasized by Teresa when she
stated, “I feel like writing it down and seeing it visually for all your classes put together helps.”
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Therefore, having a visual representation of a course syllabus can help create a comprehensive
picture of both time and organization.
While Paloma transferred important information such as assignment due dates and exam
dates directly onto her planner, Jesus used a digital calendar as a time management and
organization tool. Jesus explained, “I have a calendar on my Google account where I input all of
their [professors] contact information and office hours… I have everything about the syllabus on
my Google account [calendar] so I just throw the paper [syllabus] away.” On the other hand,
Fernanda made it a point to keep hard copies of course syllabi. After transferring important
information from the syllabi onto her monthly dry erase calendar she kept on her wall, she kept
all hard copies of course syllabi and used them as additional time management and organization
tools. To illustrate how she used the hard copies of the syllabi she explained:
As the weeks go by, I’m highlighting the weeks that are gone already and I highlight the
assignments that I already did. So if there’s ever like an unhighlighted part, I know that I
need to go talk to my professor about that, [maybe] I missed the assignment… I know
that I have to at least get back to it.
As a result, Fernanda was able to not only successfully manage her time by being organized; she
was also able to follow up on any incomplete tasks. Overall, participants leveraged time
management and organizations strategies as a way to complete as much work as possible and
stayed focused on accomplishing everyday tasks.
Prioritization. One very important self-regulatory strategy that participants used was
knowing how to prioritize one’s work. This was especially important because participants had to
make decisions about balancing academics and social events. According to Brenda, “You can
still have fun but just know how much.” Moreover, Lucero highlighted the difficulty of
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balancing such priorities when she stated, “You have to learn to kind of balance everything and
it’s tough… there’s no cookie cutter way… it’s a really individual, personal thing.” Most of the
participants noted that they made decisions to sacrifice leisure time in an effort to prioritize their
studies. For example, Fernanda shared how she would tell herself, “Don’t go out to the movies
tonight… Read the textbook and pay attention to what you’re reading.” Similarly, Amelia found
herself making many more sacrifices during midterms and final exams. She shared that during
the weekend of midterms and final exams “I don’t go out… I don’t do anything.” Thus, in an
effort to ensure academic success participants prioritize school work over social activities.
According to Maria, knowing how to balance “work and fun” is a process. Over time,
students learn how to combine both worlds. Maria explained this idea in the following manner:
As a third year, I feel like I balance it even more, way better than I did my first year. I
mean being the only one there, not knowing anybody at all, I did seek out friends and
stuff. And those friendships, resulted in, instead of being alone in my room, studying, I
would go to their dorm and study there because they were also studying. Or like we
would take study breaks together and just hang out and stuff. It was a bit of both worlds,
socializing and also getting my work done.
Furthermore, Paloma emphasized the importance being aware of why any student should
prioritize school. She stated, “Know that school comes first because you’re paying for it…it
should be your main priority, if you have free time, do other stuff but not while you’re supposed
to be studying or doing homework.”
Self-reflection and motivation for persistence. One of the factors that kept positive
deviant first generation Latino college students moving forward was engagement in self-
reflection regarding their desired future. Whether self-reflection took on the form of self-talk or
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confidence-building, the desired outcome remained the same – attaining higher levels of
education through college persistence. Salvador and Paloma shared that engaging in self-
reflection allowed them to focus on building self-confidence. Paloma explained that self-
confidence grew from reflecting on personal accomplishments. She said, “Once you realize that
you’ve done good in something, you know that you can do it over and over and over again.”
According to Salvador, in order to build self-confidence, a person must focus on “posture, being
assertive, expressing ideas and opinions and not letting other people shut you down” as well as
“having an idea of where you’re going or what you want to be.” Salvador discussed specific
strategies he used to help build self-confidence after engaging in self-reflection about his desired
future. He said, “[I] listen to TED Talks on this app, where talk about building your self-
confidence and trying to be the best you can be… I try to jot down things that I think would help
me in my life.” Further still, Salvador noted that only after he “made a list of goals on paper and
checked them off as I went along” was he able to “start building confidence.”
Additionally, because participants engaged in self-talk as a form of self-reflection, they
were able to identify their sources of motivation for persisting. Across interviews, one of the
most consistent messages participants received from engaging in self-talk, was that giving up and
dropping out of college was never an option. Regardless of the challenges encountered by
participants giving up was out of the question. Paloma illustrated this idea when she shared, “I
did get a D once, so I retook the class. If I didn’t pass the class, then I didn’t pass the class but
I’m not going to leave school.” Maria echoed this sentiment by sharing that whenever she found
herself struggling to move forward she would take a break and ask herself, “If you were able to
do two years, who’s saying you can’t do two more?” Then she reflected on “all the time spent
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away from family” and how she sacrificed this time in order to “challenge myself to do
something for myself” and in the process reminded herself of her desired outcome.
Past work experiences and family were at the core of self-reflections and were identified
by participants as sources of motivation for persisting. Reflecting on her past work experiences
helped Teresa remain motivated to persist. She shared, “I’m not going back to downtown. I feel
sorry for people that work there because I know what they are going through.” Teresa went on to
state that she still accompanies her mother to clean houses. She said, “I’ll go with them… I’ll
clean rich people’s houses… because these things drive me to do better… so I keep that in
mind.” Keeping things in mind is also something Fernanda experienced when in engaging in
self-reflection. She described her experience in the following manner:
All of my family runs through my mind probably every single day… the example that I
want to set for my younger cousins, even for my older cousins too. Like my brother and
my sister, what did I have that you guys didn’t that allowed me to go to college? Why
couldn’t you guys do this? So it’s like everybody runs through my mind because I don’t
want to let anybody down. I don’t want to let myself down… I can’t just quit.
In the same way that considering past work experiences and family can serve as sources
of motivation for persisting, reflecting on sources of happiness and support are equally as
important. Margarita stated: “Do what makes you happy, not what looks good for others because
at the end of the day, it’s going to affect you more than the other person.” The idea of reflecting
on things that make a person happy was considered to be extremely valuable to many
participants. According to Brenda:
It’s important to find something that motivates you… something besides money. I know
for me, I always feel like my sister’s been a big motivation. And I know that she’s gone,
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but I always felt she was proud of me, so I want to keep making her proud. And I felt
like that’s really something that’s helped me a lot. So it’s important for someone to find
something, it can be anything that kind of helps them stay motivated.
For Lucero, keeping all of the individuals who had supported her along the way present in her
mind was a source of motivation. She explained:
I feel you always have to remember where you come from, why you’re there, because
sometimes you lose sight of that. And that’s when you want to give up. But then you
remember all the people who were there for you, who believe in you. You can’t just
throw in the towel… just staying humble the whole way because you may be the one in
college but you didn’t get there by yourself. There’s a line of people, family, teachers,
everyone. So I feel if I just give up, I’m also letting them down in a way and I don’t want
that.
Thus, self-reflecting and engaging in self-talk were key aspects of the participants’ strategies
toward staying focused and motivated to persist.
Establishing Support Systems
Positive deviant first generation Latino students became efficient at utilizing resources
and establishing support systems. Their strategies included: peer collaboration and support,
accessing resources through peers, help-seeking, school involvement, and modeling.
Peer collaboration and support. Peer collaboration and support was identified to be a
valuable aspect of the participants’ experiences. When facing challenges, peer networks provided
participants with both academic and emotional support. Peer collaboration would most often take
place in the forming of and participation in a study group. According to participants, being a part
of a study group had various benefits. For example, when engaging in a difficult academic task,
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Maria described: “Sometimes you just can’t do it yourself. You need help sometimes because
what you may think you know might be wrong. And it’s just that whole idea that two heads are
better than one.” Both Paloma and Teresa also shared the idea that collaborative problem-solving
was useful in learning challenging material. Paloma stated: “If I don’t get it, someone else in the
group gets it.” This suggested that working together with peers, participants were able to gain a
deeper understanding of content that otherwise would have been too difficult to understand
individually.
Moreover, peer collaboration also provided participants with the opportunity to observe
and learn different study strategies. Brenda explained it in the following way:
Studying with other people, you also get their different study strategies and you try
different things. Sometimes it helps and it works out for you. One of my friends, we
studied together one day and we were trying to make up stuff that rhymes with something
else so we would remember it.
Emotional support from peers was equally as important as academic support. In fact, participants
shared experiences in which receiving emotional support from peers directly impacted and
influenced their overall academic success and college persistence. Brenda described how peers
can also provide emotional support that in turn facilitates learning. Brenda shared; “The first
friend I made, she’s the one who said we should study together. I feel like if she hadn’t said
anything, I would have just been like oh, man, I’m so depressed and gone to my room.” As a
result, the invitation to study together provided Brenda with much more than solely academic
support. For Jesus, this type of support made a difference even before beginning college. He
recalled how a peer was instrumental in keeping him on the college pathway. Referring to his
high school peer, he shared: “We would constantly keep tabs on each other. And ask each other
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well, have you done this for the dorms, have you done this for the financial aid, have you done
that for the health services thing.” Thus, having a supportive peer who was also applying to
college helped Jesus stay on track and complete necessary college application and enrollment
requirements.
Peer support was especially important when participants were in need of reassurance. For
example, Amelia described how a peer helped her persist whenever she felt like she could not
continue. She shared: “One of my friends, she said you already did 12 years of school. Why
can’t you do four more years? I’m like you’re right, four more years, two more years now. I’m a
third year so, one more year.” Amelia explained how the supportive words from her peer helped
her persist in college by taking each year as one step at a time. Further still, Lucero described
how valuable it was to have peers that were supportive and motivating. She stated: “My own
peers, they’re like oh, wow, you’re in Berkeley. That’s pretty impressive. We’re proud of
you… little things like that, kind of eggs you on.” Fernanda also felt strongly about the positive
impact and influence that a person can receive from peers. She explained: “To have people that
are doing the same thing as you supporting you and wanting you to do better, it kind of lights a
fire up under you.” This may be similar to other first generation Latino college students who are
the first in their family to pursue a college education and therefore count on the support from
peers with whom they are sharing the experience of being the first.
Accessing resources through peers. Positive deviant first generation Latino college
students were able to find the resources they needed through peer networks. From transportation
and test banks to programs available to specific fields of study, participants were able to have
access to these resources through peers. A peer with his own car proved to be a useful resource
to Jesus whenever he wanted to get to campus at a late hour. Referring to his peer, Jesus stated:
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“He has a car so usually if he tells me he’s going on campus at one in the morning, I’ll tell him to
come pick me up.” Thus, Jesus could now spend more time on campus focusing on academics.
Peer networks also helped participants learn about and utilize resources specific to their
fields of study. For example, Brenda shared how a peer who was a member of the Biology
Scholars Program (BSP) made her aware of academic resources. Referring to her peer, Brenda
stated: “She was in BSP and apparently, they had a test bank and she had all these old tests we
could go through… I never knew about this.” Having access to these test banks provided Brenda
with more subject-specific resources that she utilized to help her be better prepared for class as
well as be more engaged during class. In Margarita’s case, learning about a resource from a peer
made a difference in her decision to continue with her field of study. She explained her
experience in the following manner:
I heard about the NERDS program through a friend that was a classmate and he told me,
hey, since you’re a math major, there’s this program. It’s limited. There [are] a few
spaces available but you should apply now since you’re done with your first year. So I
applied at the end of my first year. If he wouldn’t have told me about the NERDS
program, I would have not majored [in] math. I would have been like this is so hard.”
Help-seeking and relationships with professors. Positive deviant first generation
Latino college students engaged in help-seeking in the form of asking questions in class,
attending course office hours and building relationships with professors. Lucero recalled her
experience with help-seeking when she first started college. She stated:
[Use] all the resources you have because I didn’t do that my first year. And I regretted it.
I started approaching my GSIs. That was a milestone for me because usually I’m always
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quiet. But then they were really helpful. I was like why didn’t I ask for help [before]
when I needed it.
She recommended that college students, especially students who are more quiet and shy,
challenge themselves to step out of their comfort zone and ask for help when needed. She
continued by stating that, “you’re going to drown if you think you can go off on your own.”
Similarly, Salvador noticed a difference in his academic performance the moment he engaged in
help-seeking. He noted:
It wasn’t until one of my classes where I didn’t understand the homework… I was
completely lost. So I decided to go ask for help and then once I asked for help, after that
quarter, I started doing a lot better I started realizing that I should just ask for help. I’ve
gained a lot of information just by asking questions.
By engaging in help-seeking behaviors, Salvador observed improvement in his academic
performance.
Across interviews, participants considered attending office hours as one of the most
important help-seeking behaviors. Participants had the choice of attending office hours with the
professors or graduate student instructors (GSI). Reasons for attending office hours varied
amongst participants. For example, Teresa attended office hours when she was working on major
writing projects. She shared: “I would go when I had a rough draft due… That way I could know
if I [was] on the right track.” On the other hand, Margarita used office hours to help her with
homework assignments as well as making connections between topics presented throughout a
course. She explained:
I’ll go to the GSI’s office hours and ask questions about the homework or ask how certain
topics are related to the beginning topics we learned… that’s where I get my participation
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going, one-on-one, asking my questions because then I’m not worried if I’m right or
wrong… the GSI is there to help me understand why I’m wrong, rather than say
something in discussion and then have another student, no, no, no, no, no, let me show
you what you’re saying wrong. I’d just rather not hear it from them.
Attending office hours served as a space where Margarita felt comfortable asking questions
without fear of not always knowing or having the correct answers.
Although participants had a choice of attending office hours with both professors and
GSIs, most participants elected to attend office hours with graduate student instructors rather
than professors. Nevertheless, participants like Lucero were aware of the importance of forming
relationships with professors. She noted, “I’m working on that because they emphasize how
important it is. Like if you need a personal statement, a letter of recommendation, you need to
talk to your professors. So I said okay, I will. That’s the next challenge.” Determined to
overcome this challenge, participants developed strategies they believed helped them begin to
form relationships with professors.
For several participants, getting the professor to know your name was the catalyst to
building a relationship with a professor. According to Salvador, this meant being more strategic
about where he sat in class. He stated, “I now sit in the front. So the professor knows my name
and sees my face every day.” Maria also agreed that being more strategic in terms of where a
person sits in class could lead to the professor noticing and recognizing a person. Referring to
sitting in the front of the classroom, Maria noted, “I feel like the professor might recognize me…
he’ll start noticing, oh, I see this student every day.” Consequently, sitting towards the front of
the classroom had more benefits than simply helping to minimize distraction, it also served as the
first step towards forming a relationship with a professor.
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However, sitting towards the front of the classroom, was only one strategy for building
relationships with professors. Fernanda recalled how when she took on the role of being a peer
mentor for incoming freshmen she spent time giving advice to incoming freshmen about forming
relationships with professors. She stated: “One of the things that I told them was go talk to your
professors, go to their meeting times. And then I was like well, you don’t even do that yourself.
Why are you telling them to do that?” After reflecting on the advice she had given to incoming
freshmen, Fernanda made the decision to follow her own advice and became more proactive
about forming relationships with her own professors. She explained her experience in the
following manner:
I’m literally in my professors’ offices probably at least once a week. Sometimes I don’t
even have things to tell them. I just drop in, to make sure that they know my face, know
who I am. So that when they’re grading me, at least they know that I’ve been trying…
that I’m more involved in my education than just going to class. I want them to put a face
to my paper and know who they’re grading.
The benefits of forming such relationships allowed participants to have access to the resources
and knowledge needed in order to improve academic performance and graduate.
School involvement. Positive deviant first generation Latino college students made a
special point of recognizing that involvement in school clubs and organizations also provided a
network of support systems. School involvement functioned as a vehicle by which participants
experienced the social aspects of college. To illustrate, Fernanda described this idea in the
following manner:
I think you gain a love for your school eventually just because you step out of the
classrooms and you see all the other things that go on, besides all the classes… all the
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political things, fundraising for different organizations, so many things that go on an
actual campus. I think that’s very important to make your school your home instead of
just another institution that you go to.
School involvement included participation and membership in a variety of clubs and
organizations all serving a different purpose. Participants were involved in school clubs and
organizations focused on (1) first-year transition, (2) academics, (3) cultural inclusivity, and (4)
volunteering.
First-year transition. As previously mentioned in the challenges section of this study,
first-year transition was identified as a major challenge. However, several participants found
orientations, Summer Bridge, and first-year learning programs to be very helpful in providing
them with support during their transition from high school to college. Paloma shared that without
her school’s summer orientation, “It would have been difficult going to school because I
wouldn’t have known the campus because it’s huge. I wouldn’t have known how to sign up for
classes. I also made a friend so it was cool.” Aside from the support she received in selecting her
classes and becoming familiar with the campus, Paloma was also able to make social
connections.
Participants also attended Summer Bridge programs which provided support in making
the transition from high school to college. Margarita described the Summer Bridge program as a
“rigorous program” that she attended “for five or six weeks” in which she lived in the dorms,
was enrolled and attended “actual lecture classes and a seminar.” In addition to “to getting a lot
of resources,” Margarita also had access to “a counselor” who “helps you sign up for your
classes.” Moreover, she was also able to form a strong peer support system. Referring to her
Summer Bridge peers, she shared that they would “go to class together, come back, eat dinner
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together because it was downstairs and then do homework together.” Further still, participating
in the Summer Bridge program gave Margarita the opportunity to “learn how to get used to this
academic life - school, study, homework/test, and home.” She went on to note that “I didn’t find
it [first year of college] as hard as I thought I would because of that summer program. It’s a great
way to transition from high school to college.”
Students also participated in first-year learning programs that provided new students with
on-going support throughout their first year of college. Salvador described the program and his
experience in the following way:
The program is designed to have all the same students… two peer mentors and a T.A.
with you for three different classes throughout the whole freshman year. They [peer
mentors and TAs] have like a session once a week where they give you tips on how to
deal with studying… you could ask them anything. I came across that program through
orientation and signed up… thank God, I got the last spot.
In addition, Salvador shared how the first-year program also helped him network and build
relationships with peers and professors, providing him with much needed support during one of
the most challenging years of college.
Academics. In an effort to gain access to support resources that would help them to excel
in specific fields of study, participants joined school clubs and organizations with an academic
focus. Brenda explained her reasons for getting involved with the Biology Scholars Program
(BSP) in the following manner:
Biology Scholars Program [is] for students who are majoring in a science. It offers
tutoring in all your undergraduate courses and, I think one upper division. They have
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counselors that help you pick your classes and help you find internships… the majority of
the students are minority students or first generation students.
Not only was Brenda able to receive academic support in the form of tutoring, the program also
provided additional support in selecting classes as well as connecting first generation students.
Additionally, Margarita found similar academic resources and supports as a member of
an organization on her college campus known as NERDS which stands for New Experiences for
Research & Diversity in Science. Margarita described her experience as a member of NERDS in
the following way:
It’s an organization that helps low [income] minority students who are first generation go
to grad school or get their Ph.Ds. We have a study space where we’re always welcome,
24/7 if we want. We have a secret study room, a computer lab, a mini fridge, and
couches if you want to sleep. They also have individual tutors for us.
Thus, Margarita’s membership in NERDS provided her with tangible resources in addition to
academic support.
Cultural inclusivity. Special housing programs as well as culturally relevant school clubs
were also identified by participants as valuable support systems. In Maria’s case, electing to
participate in a special housing program during her first year provided her with both transitional
support and a sense of cultural inclusivity. The special university housing program consisted of a
building known as Casa Cuauhtémoc designed to support primarily first-year, first generation
Latino college students. In an effort to minimize the experience of culture shock she had heard
about from so many people, she elected to live in Casa Cuauhtémoc. Maria stated: “Even though
I [lived] there, I was still culture shocked, but it helped to know that I wasn’t the only Latino
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there.” Furthermore, as a member of a special housing program, Maria benefited from additional
supports. She explained:
They would also have a special class you would take once a week in your own dorm.
They would bring in the Chicano professors to talk to us, tell us their experiences, have
us question why we’re even there, to get us thinking [about] what we want to do and let
us know that we’re not the only ones there that they’ve also gone through it and it’s
possible to go through all of it.
Therefore, taking part in the special housing program also exposed Maria to culturally relevant
classes as well as Latino role models.
Access to Latino professionals and role models was also a benefit of being a member of
Chicanos in Health and Education (CHE). As active members of CHE, both Brenda and Lucero
had opportunities to expand their networks of Latino professionals in addition to learning about a
number of internships and volunteering opportunities. Lucero described her experiencing in
attending her first CHE meeting in the following way, “Everyone was Latino. I’m like oh, my
God, there’s people like me here. I started meeting people. And that’s really encouraging.” She
recalled how one person in particular – a doctor, who had been invited by CHE to be a guest
speaker- made a big impression on her. She shared:
He’s [guest speaker] like I’m here today to tell you that you can do it too. We need
doctors, especially with your skin color, with your language, because people – I have
people waiting six months to see me because they refuse to see anyone else. So we need
you… that was really encouraging. He gave us his card and his e-mail. Also, he actually
told me about a program over the summer.
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Not only did the guest speaker inform Lucero about possible summer work she was also able to
observe and take an active role in networking.
Volunteering. While volunteering is often regarding as a person providing support rather
than receiving, participants still believed in the benefits of dedicating time being a volunteer.
Brenda saw volunteering at the Berkeley Free Clinic as opportunity to practice and strengthen
her Spanish speaking skills. On the other hand, Teresa saw it as an opportunity to familiarize
herself with potential career settings. She explained, “I volunteer with a social service agency
because I do want to be a social worker. So I want to see how that is.” Furthermore, Lucero saw
volunteering as an opportunity to “learn more about yourself.” She shared how at first she was
“very shy” but after volunteering for an organization that would prepare and distribute sack
lunches to day laborers in addition to informing them about different health topics and resources,
she “can approach a stranger” and engage in conversation. Thus, volunteering created
opportunities for personal and professional growth.
Family and peer models. Family and peer models, both positive and negative, served as
sources of motivation and learning for participants. In addition, family and peer models also
provided knowledge about useful strategies.
Across interviews, participants indicated that they often looked to and learned from their
peers. Jesus described how other students’ academic successes drove him to better his
performance. Referring to a specific colleague, he shared, “I met him when I was on academic
probation. He was all about the grades, that was his main focus.” Jesus went on to explain that
while he had spent most of his freshmen year satisfied with earning letter grades no higher than a
C, having a peer model the importance of earning high letter grades “revitalized my freshman
year.” After his encounter with his peer Jesus noted that “I have to put in effort and get the A or
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maybe settle for a B but I have to get the A.” Hence, Jesus was able to use what he had learned
from using his peer as a model and work his way out of academic probation.
Peer models also played a very important role in demonstrating what can be achieved
through remaining positive and goal-oriented. For example, Salvador saw the influence of a
friend as encouraging him to set specific goals. He explained:
My friend would write notes to himself on the wall and he’d be like yeah, dude, you’ve
got to remind yourself why you’re here. You’ve got to remind yourself every day. He
was a positive role model… a really influential person in my life. After that, I started
putting things together and realizing where I wanted to go and what I wanted to do. I
want to take advantage of every opportunity.
Furthermore, Salvador shared how he used a strategy he learned from a peer model that helped
him keep a positive attitude. He stated: “Hang around with people who you think are going to be
successful and take positive things from them.” By observing the way a peer modeled how to
keep a positive attitude, Salvador learned how to adapt these strategies and behaviors to his own
college experience.
Family models demonstrated how the smallest of actions can have the biggest impact.
Margarita learned this by observing her father’s willingness to always drive her to school-related
functions and service-learning opportunities. She shared: “The one that helped was my dad… he
was the only one who would drive me.” For Brenda, the actions modeled by her siblings served
as a positive family model. Referring to one of her siblings, Brenda shared, “She always believed
in me… she would tell her friends at work how she had a smart sister… she was my biggest
support.” Further still, after telling with her family that she had earned a letter grade of a D on
two of midterms, she shared that, “[my sister] called me a couple weeks later and said “we’re
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really proud of you.” I feel like knowing that they’re proud of me, motivated me to keep trying.”
The action of modeling support by making positive comments regarding Brenda’s academic
success as well as making a quick phone call to express positive messages influenced Brenda’s
motivation, effort and persistence.
However, witnessing peer and family models encounter challenges also served as
learning opportunities. In fact, participants indicated that seeing peer and family models struggle
allowed them to work towards avoiding similar outcomes. For example, when Amelia was asked
about what influenced her college persistence, she indicated that seeing her father and older
brother struggle financially earning minimum wage was a strong influence. She described how
she “sees how my dad breaks his back working – barely earning minimum wage” and how her
family would always stress the value of getting an education. Amelia recalled how her father
would tell her, “When I die; I’m not going to give you nothing… all you have in this world is
your education. If you’re educated, you can defend yourself in the real world… he’s always
supported me.” Moreover, Amelia’s eldest brother also served as a family model that encouraged
her to avoid the outcomes he experienced. She stated, “My older brother didn’t graduate from
high school and is always telling me “I’m killing myself, barely earning minimum wage at a
bakery.” So he’s always telling me to continue to go to school.” Therefore, Amelia used her
family models as a source of motivation to persist. In another case, Jesus discussed how a close
high school friend dropping out of college served as model for persistence. He said, “my good
friend dropped out and I remember it really bothered me. We [were] both going to graduate and
do something, but he didn’t… that pushed me more, I’m going to stick to this, I’m going to do
something. Thus, the actions modeled by families and peers facing financial and academic
challenges influenced participants to persist and work towards a different outcome.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 98
Summary
To summarize, three main categories of strategies were identified. First, students
maintained a focus on college while in high school. This was revealed through their attention to
academic preparedness, engaging in extracurricular high school activities and actively
participating in a college-going culture. Students also leveraged numerous approaches to self-
regulating their learning, including preparing and engaging in class, reviewing academic content,
minimizing distractions, managing their time, practicing organization skills, prioritizing tasks,
and self-reflecting on motivations for persistence. Establishing support systems was another
approach, and they accomplished this by peer collaboration and support, accessing resources
through peers, employing help-seeking strategies, building relationships with professors,
becoming involved with school clubs and organizations, and learning from family and peer
models.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 99
Chapter 5: Discussion and Implications for Practice
The widening of the educational attainment gap in the United States continues to be of
great concern, and the literature review revealed that the group most affected is also one of the
fastest growing minority groups – Latinos. The review of the literature also uncovered that many
Latinos are the first in their family to enroll in college and that addressing the specific challenges
faced by first generation Latino college students could be a first step towards narrowing the
educational attainment gap.
Because little research existed that explored specific strategies used by these students to
persist and attain higher levels of education, the current study was conducted. In this study, the
positive deviance approach was utilized to explore the following research questions:
1. What were the challenges faced by first generation Latino college students?
2. What were the uncommon behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How did positive deviants utilize these strategies and behaviors to facilitate
success?
To accomplish this, ten first generation Latino college students were purposefully sampled from
four-year universities in the state of California to identify the challenges in persisting and the
strategies positive deviants used to overcome these challenges and attain higher levels of
education.
Several key themes were identified in this study. First generation Latino college students
experienced challenges tied to limited college readiness, challenging first year transition,
minimal financial resources, lack of support, and negative self-perception. Additionally, they
employed numerous strategies to persist, including focusing on college in high school, self-
regulating their learning, and establishing support systems. This final chapter discusses themes
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 100
that emerged and their implications for practice. Challenges, limitations, and directions for future
research are also presented.
Study Framework Revisited
At the end of Chapter 2, a framework was presented for understanding the attainment of
higher levels of education within the context of the positive deviance framework. The current
study has further expanded this framework, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Revised framework to understand higher levels of educational attainment utilizing the
positive deviance approach.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 101
The challenges faced by first generation Latino students were consistent with what was presented
in the literature review of this study, listed in the challenges section in Figure 5. That is, limited
college readiness as well as limited institutional and financial resources was still considered
challenges within this study. However, the current research expanded the list of challenges to
further explore the disconnect between high school and college contexts and emotional
challenges. For example, more was revealed about the difficulty experienced by first generation
Latino college students during their first year transition, and how a lack of support systems
impacted self-perception.
The current study also revealed the numerous strategies that positive deviants used to
facilitate college persistence and attain higher levels of education. For first generation Latino
college students, this included remaining focused on college in high school, self-regulating
learning, and establishing support systems. While these factors have been related to influences
discussed in the literature review – e.g., development of social and cultural capital and support
systems – the understanding that first generation Latino college students used these specific
strategies for persistence and degree attainment represented new knowledge regarding the factors
that contribute to higher levels of educational attainment for first generation Latino college
students.
Implications for Practice
The results of this study led to several important recommendations tied to pre-college
focus, connection between high school and college contexts, cultural inclusivity and support
systems, and school involvement. Pre-college focus recommendations are based on modifying
the context of secondary schools to develop beneficial college-bound behaviors. These
recommendations include efforts to:
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 102
Establish a college-going culture early in students’ academic careers
Increase participation in and access to college-prep curriculum
Build college knowledge
Establishing more direct and relevant connections between high school and college contexts can
help facilitate first year transition academic and social experiences. The following
recommendations suggest building a bridge between educational experiences in secondary and
postsecondary school settings:
Explicitly teach high-order studying strategies and increase access to skill-building
Integrate the development and use of self-regulatory strategies into all learning
experiences
Develop a deeper understanding of grading systems and their impact on academic
performance
The importance of cultural inclusivity and developing support systems cannot be underestimated.
In fact, participants who were actively involved in structured first-year experiences such as
themed-based living-learning communities and student organizations focused on serving
vulnerable communities gained numerous benefits including but not limited to: peer support,
social networking, and professional networking. Thus, the following approaches are proposed:
Cultivate cultural differences as strengths
Foster an asset-based perspective aimed at highlighting successes within Latino
communities
Encourage participation in structured first-year experiences
Develop family and peer support systems and partnerships
Provide informational support on financing a college education
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 103
Finally, the importance of school involvement must be addressed. Participants’ involvement in
extracurricular activities both in high school and college led to the development of stronger
leadership and networking skills. Hence, the following recommendation is proposed:
Expand educational experiences by becoming more involved in school
Establish a College-Going Culture
In communities that considered graduating from high school as one of the greatest
achievements, there can often be very little support for attaining higher levels of education
(Reyes and Nora, 2012). Participants shared how being immersed in a college-going culture had
a positive influence in their decision to pursue a college education. Consequently, establishing a
college-going culture can have a significant impact on first generation Latino college students’
persistence and educational attainment.
Planting the seeds for a college-going culture must begin as early as possible in all
students’ academic careers. For many of the participants in the study, exposure to a college-
going culture began as early as in elementary and middle school. For example, students had been
engaged in a drawing about the pathway to college or attended a middle school fieldtrip to
UCLA. These activities, among others, played a powerful role in planting the seed of a college-
going culture and communicate to students that attending college can be a viable goal for them,
even if they were uncertain as to how to get there.
The establishment of a college-going culture can be accomplished by immersing students
in a print-rich college-going culture such as college posters, banners, and brochures.
Additionally, staff can play a more active role by wearing college gear and integrating a college-
going culture in their classes. For example, creating collaborative group activities where groups
are named after different colleges. Furthermore, making an effort to plan and provide students
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 104
with an opportunity to participate in school-sponsored college field-trips can help transform a
college-going culture into an attainable reality.
Parents and students can also play an active role in participating in a college-going
culture. In addition to attending school-sponsored workshops related to college admissions,
parents can begin to extend the college-going culture into their homes by initiating conversations
around going to college, buying more college gear and accessories, and visiting nearby college
campuses. Students can also play a role in sustaining a college-going culture by taking the
initiative to research different colleges and universities and requesting informational packets or
scheduling visits and tours of local colleges and universities. In the end, a collective effort
between parents, students, and schools to create a college-going culture has the potential to
provide much needed support in attaining higher levels of education.
Increase Participation in and Access to College-Prep Curriculum
Encouraging participation in advanced college-prep curriculum such as honors and
advanced placement courses is key for a pre-college focus. As discussed in the literature review,
Latino students have limited exposure to rigorous academic curriculum (Santiago, Kienzl,
Sponsler, & Bowles, 2011). Though a particular school may offer a number of honors and
advanced placement courses, Latino high school students are less likely to enroll or be placed in
courses delivering college prep curriculum (Zarate & Burciaga, 2010). Furthermore, not having
access to college-prep curriculum can have a direct impact on a Latino student’s ability to be
equipped with the necessary skills to successfully navigate and meet the demanding expectations
of higher learning.
This study supported the idea that participation in honors and advanced placement
courses helped equip students with a strong foundation for content knowledge, in addition to
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 105
developing analytical skills and participation strategies. In fact, one participant shared how
taking an AP calculus course and AP English literature course in high school made a difference
in her academic performance in a college mathematics and social science course. Consequently,
it is vital to ensure access to college-prep courses with the goal of building a level of academic
readiness that best prepares first generation Latino students for college.
Build College Knowledge
Being the first in a family to pursue a college education most often translates into having
limited cultural capital in the form of college knowledge. The literature review made mention of
the specific challenges faced by first-generation Latino college students who did not have parents
or family members who grasped the connection between career goals and educational
requirements (Schmidt, 2003; Vargas, 2004). In fact, several positive deviant first generation
Latino college students noted that even after having been accepted to a four-year university they
still did not have a clear idea as to what a college education entailed. It is important to note that
although participants successfully engaged in the college application process, the study revealed
that they possessed minimal college knowledge. These findings suggest that it is essential to
provide first generation Latino students with the opportunity to build college knowledge. This
may be accomplished by explicitly teaching students what constitutes college knowledge as well
as a variety of ways to build college knowledge.
Educators can begin building college knowledge by creating and implementing college-
readiness lessons that focus on items such as the significance of grade point averages, college
admission exams, required coursework, the benefits of enrolling in honors or advanced
placement courses, writing personal statements, requesting letters of recommendation, as well as
understanding the difference between the different types of colleges and universities. In fact,
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 106
learning about and utilizing digital resources such as the Collegeology Games and
KnowHow2Go.org can enhance educators and students’ experience of building practical college
knowledge and successfully navigating through the college application process. Created by the
University of Southern California (USC) Pullias Center for Higher Education, Game Innovation
Lab, Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation (CORE), and a group of public school
students and teachers, the Collegeology Games are a set of games specifically aimed at helping
low-income high school students to navigate the college application process (Corwin et al.,
2012). The set of games range from video to card games designed to introduce and teach
students the skills and strategies needed for the college application process. Similarly, the
KnowHow2Go campaign not only provides digital resources for middle and high school students,
it also provides state specific college knowledge (American Council on Education & Lumina
Foundation for Education, 2013). Additionally, educators can also model successful ways to
research colleges to match students’ needs and interests, knowing what questions to ask, as well
as inquiring about different programs and student services. Moreover, a pre-college focus on
building college knowledge has the potential to empower and encourage students to think more
critically about things like the benefits of living on campus or deciding on a major. Thus,
building college knowledge is vital in helping to establish a college-going culture that has both
direction and purpose.
Explicitly Teach High-Order Studying Strategies
The results of the current study suggest there is danger in romanticizing the idea of
college without adequately equipping students with high-order studying strategies. As discussed
in the literature review, Latino students are on average less academically prepared for college
than their peers (Schmidt, 2003). Further still, participants shared that soon after starting their
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 107
college education they experienced intense feelings of frustration and a dramatic decrease in self-
confidence as they struggled to understand the reasons why their academic performance was so
poor when they were considered high-achieving students in high school.
The experiences shared by participants coincided with the trend of “overprediction
phenomenon” stated by Oseguera et al. (2009). Described as a trend in which test scores and
prior grade point averages overpredict academic performance, it leaves many high-achieving
minority students, especially first generation Latino college students, academically vulnerable in
a college setting. Heinz (2010), also a first generation student, stated how the phenomenon of
overprediction was evident in her education when she realized that the skills she had learned in
high school were insufficient in college. Similar to Heinz’s experiences, participants noted how
only knowing how studying for memorization rather than analysis had a negative impact on their
academic performance.
Collectively, these experiences illustrate the need for first generation Latino students to
have increased access to skill-building opportunities. Access to skill-building can be
accomplished through a number of ways. To start with, educators must explicitly teach high-
order studying strategies. Second, high school and college educators alike must prioritize the
importance of building academic congruency between what is learned in high school and how it
connects to content learned in college. Finally, expanding students’ engagement from factual
knowledge to more conceptual and theoretical knowledge can help prevent students from feeling
as one participant stated, “like small fish in a big lake.”
Integrate Self-Regulatory Strategies into all Learning Experiences
Along with explicitly teaching high-order studying strategies and increasing access to
skill-building, learning and implementing self-regulatory strategies can also be used as tools for
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 108
improving academic performance. Based on the work by Zimmerman, a pioneer in the learning
theory of self-regulation, Everson (n.d.) makes note of the gradual release of responsibility that
occurs as students transition from high school to college contexts. According to self-regulated
learning theory, students who are meaningfully engaged are more likely to take greater
responsibility for their own learning as they transition into different learning contexts (Schunk
and Zimmerman, 2001). In addition, self-regulation enhances learning when students are able to
engage in both short and long-term goal setting as well as practicing various strategies followed
by a metacognitive evaluation to determine the effectiveness of the strategies used (Everson,
n.d.). The element of evaluation in self-regulated learning theory also facilitates and provides
opportunities for students to engage in self-reflection, allowing for academic growth and
development (Schunk and Zimmerman, 2001).
The study revealed that self-regulatory strategies such as time management, organization,
and prioritization had a positive influence on participants’ college experience. For example, the
use of agendas, folders, and digital calendars were helpful in staying organized and
accomplishing tasks. More specifically, participants integrated the information from course
syllabi into their personal agendas and digital calendars as a way of creating a “big picture” of
their schedules and academic responsibilities.
Additionally, self-regulatory strategies were useful in helping participants prepare for and
engage in class as well as review academic content. Furthermore, employing these strategies
allowed participants to minimize distractions, prioritize, and engage in self-reflection. For
instance, first generation Latino college students should be encouraged to develop and use
organizational tools such as agendas or digital calendars, prepare for class by acquiring all
necessary materials such as textbooks or notes, complete reading assignments in an effort to be
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 109
prepared to engage in class. Participants revealed that when they prepared for class they felt
more comfortable participating. Moreover, they also shared that participating in class was
instrumental in helping them begin to build relationships with professors – a challenge identified
in the study.
Self-regulatory strategies were also used by participants to minimize distractions and
engage in self-reflection. Participants minimized distractions by sitting in the front during class,
putting away electronics, taking hand-written notes rather than typed notes, and finding or
creating a physical space that was conducive to their style of learning. Equally important was
engaging in self-reflection. The type of self-reflection that participants engaged in varied.
Examples included: writing down personal goals and checking them off when accomplished,
practicing self-talk, and identify sources of motivation for persistence. Explicitly teaching and
integrating self-regulatory strategies can help provide first generation Latino college with a more
positive college experience.
Develop a Deeper Understanding of Grading Systems and their Impact on Academic
Performance
Focusing on developing a clear understanding of grading systems and the impact of
grades for first generation students is important in establishing a stronger connection between
high school and college contexts. This study revealed that participants were challenged by the
unfamiliarity of course grades being determined by only one or two major assessments. With
most of their knowledge limited to high school grading systems which tend to include a variety
of weighted categories, participants encountered a different experience with college grading
systems and the impact of letter grades in college. Academic probation was identified as a
challenge encountered by participants. Consequences of being placed on academic probation
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 110
included a decrease in self-confidence, guilt, and shame when talking about their first year
college experiences.
Clearly communicating the importance and impact of grades to first generation Latino
college students should be a priority for all educators in an effort to prevent students from
experiencing the feelings that come from being placed on academic probation. This can be
communicated by explicitly redesigning high school grading systems to better mirror the types of
grading systems students will encounter in college. Another strategy might be a school-wide
implementation of course syllabi that purposefully detail and explain how grades will be
calculated. In addition, students would benefit greatly from engaging in purposefully scaffolded
activities designed to explain the meaning and impact of letter grades on academic transcripts
and college admission.
Cultivate Cultural Differences into Strengths
When asked to describe their first year in college, participants used words such as
“overwhelmed”, “lost”, “culture shock”, and “clueless”. As discussed in the literature review, the
lack of knowledge regarding how to navigate the academic and social context of college, makes
first generation Latino college students susceptible to experiencing emotions such as isolation,
doubt, and “survivor’s guilt” (Thayer, 2000; Heinz, 2012). Furthermore, feelings of doubt about
academic success and culture shock can be intensified by a higher education environment that
reflects Eurocentric traditions (Oseguera et al., 2009). This is an important point to consider
given the continuous rapid growth of the Latino population.
In a white paper prepared for the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities,
Reyes and Nora (2012) noted that agents such as faculty, staff, and administration can provide
nontraditional students with validation thereby igniting their self-confidence (as cited in Rendon,
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 111
1994, p.4). This can be accomplished by designing and implementing programs with this specific
population (first generation Latino college students) in mind. Rather than making students feel as
though cultural differences can hinder success, being proactive about finding ways to develop
cultural differences into strengths can benefit all stakeholders (Reyes and Nora, 2012).
Specifically, targeting first generation Latino college students for recruitment efforts, scholarship
opportunities, and on-campus college experiences can help foster an environment of cultural
inclusivity and belonging.
Foster an Asset-Based Perspective Aimed at Highlighting Successes within Latino
Communities
Making the shift from a deficit-based to an asset-based perspective is another important
factor in fostering cultural inclusivity. The study revealed that participants had more knowledge
about deficit-based data regarding Latinos in education than positive data. For example, several
participants made reference to being afraid of being another statistic (e.g., they did not want to be
another drop out). In fact, participants heard and knew more stories about Latinos dropping out
than stories about Latino persisting towards degree attainment. Seeing similar others perform
poorly can create a space in which students feel like they might have the same outcome.
Shifting to an asset-based perspective could help students to feel better supported by
providing them with opportunities to see the successes within their community. Similar to an
athlete visualizing being told to hold onto a ball versus not dropping the ball, an asset-based
point-of-view provides a more positive visualization of success for first generation Latino
college students. Reyes and Nora (2012) stated that building a new narrative and appropriate
supports around first generation Latino college students has the potential of having a positive
influence on academic achievement (p. 6). In preparing first generation Latino students for
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 112
college, more efforts can be made to provide students with tangible positive role models that
allow them to see the successes within their community and shift their deficit-based focus to one
of assets.
Encourage Participation in Structured First-Year Experiences
Even though Latinos are considered a minority group in the United States, they make up
the majority of the population in many urban high schools. This experience can have a profound
impact on first generation Latino college students, especially during their first year in college.
Participants mitigated these challenges by engaging in first year experiences that functioned as
support systems. These experiences included summer orientations, summer bridge, living-
learning communities, and first-year learning programs. Participation in these programs provided
first generation Latino college students access to numerous support services – e.g., academic
counseling, access to peer mentors, structured curriculum focused on skill-building and high-
order studying strategies, and early introduction to college culture and expectations.
The benefits revealed in this study from participation in such programs highlights the
importance of encouraging participation in structured first-year experiences. This has strong
implications for both secondary and postsecondary educators. In the process of building college
knowledge, a specific emphasis should be placed on teaching first generation Latino college
students how to research structured first-year experiences offered by universities. Thus,
allocating efforts and resources to offering more structured-first year experiences, can facilitate
the transition to higher learning for first generation Latino college students.
Develop Family and Peer Support Systems and Partnerships
Family and peers play a vital role in the academic careers and aspirations of first
generation Latino college students. Data presented in this study revealed that participants relied
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 113
on family and peers when making decisions about their academic futures (e.g., deciding which
college to attend, identifying housing opportunities). As discussed in the literature review,
despite unconditional support, first generation Latino college students do not have family or
peers with extensive college knowledge or a deep understanding of the connection between
career goals and educational requirements (Schmidt, 2003; Vargas, 2004).
Involving families in creating college-going cultures and building college knowledge can
help empower family members and validate their support. This study and other research (e.g.,
Reyes and Nora, 2012) revealed that family and peers models serve as a support system and are
also sources of motivation for persistence, particularly since family models of hard work and
determination are regarded as sources of strength by first generation Latino college students. One
approach to involving families and peers more deeply in the students’ college-going process is to
invite them to attend college field trips, on-campus celebrations, and to be active participants in
establishing a college-going culture at home. Furthermore, developing partnerships that involve
the families and peers of first generation Latino college students has the potential extending the
idea of cultural inclusivity to include individuals that play an important role in influencing
academic success.
Provide Informational Support on Financing a College Education
A lack of financial resources and supports amongst participants was consistent with the
literature review’s finding that first generation Latino college students are more likely to come
from low-income households. Even though having a future of financial security was a motivation
for persistence, a lack of knowledge about how to finance a college education was challenging.
Consequently, participants in this study were either forced to find part-time work, do without
essential resources, or live off campus and commute due to a lack of financial resources.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 114
Providing informational support on ways to finance a college education can help to
address many misconceptions regarding financial aid and the availability of resources.
Specifically, having access to stable financial resources creates the potential for students to
become more involved in school events and organizations without having to worry about
working or commuting. As discussed in the literature review, having to commute and/or work
makes it more difficult to become involved with campus activities or expand social networks
(Heinz, 2012).
Access to informational support about financial resources can begin by developing
partnerships with families, and informing parents not only of the availability of resources but
also of the impact that academic performance can have on resources such as grants and
scholarships. Parents and students should also be encouraged to become more proactive in
attending financial aid workshops, searching for scholarships, and seeking assistance with
completing financial aid documents. Increasing access and familiarity of different financial
resources has the potential of addressing misconceptions and fears often associated with the cost
of a college education.
Expand Educational Experiences through School Involvement
School related extracurricular activities played a significant role in participants’
precollege and college experiences. Pre-college, participants were proactive in being involved in
extracurricular activities with the goal of building a well-rounded educational resume for college
admission. In fact, involvement in extracurricular activities led to the development of stronger
leadership and networking skills. Additionally, clubs identified in this study provided students
access to academic, cultural, first year transition, and volunteering resources and services.
Regardless of the number or type of school club/organization participants were involved with,
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 115
they all provided first year generation Latino college students with additional support systems
and resources. For instance, several participants made mention of potential internship and
employment opportunities that resulted from professional networking.
Emphasis must be placed on encouraging first generation Latino college students to
become more involved. This can be accomplished by, first, inquiring about first generation
Latino students’ interests. Giving students a voice through such things as a digital survey or a
discussion forum and prioritizing their needs, has the potential of generating a stronger sense of
inclusivity and belonging. More specifically, institutions can form partnerships with various
alumni associations and organizations dedicated to serving the needs of underrepresented
communities. Additionally, institutions can allocate funds, time, and other resources to providing
physical spaces on campus for student involvement to place. Fostering student involvement has
the potential to create the opportunity for first generation Latino college students to expand and
personalize their overall college experiences.
Study Challenges and Limitations
Although purposeful sampling was used to identify participants who could disclose the
widest array of strategies possible, the current study was not able to explore in depth how
students’ strategies have shifted over time, as the study took place at a single point in time. In
addition, no conclusions could be made regarding the relationship between different strategies
and the participants’ levels of educational attainment. Further research designed for a detailed
exploration of the strategies that are directly related to college persistence and degree attainment
is highly recommended.
Throughout the interviews, participants made mention of individuals that played a role or
had an influence in their academic career. Interviews did not take place with individuals
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 116
connected to the participant because distance and geographic location were issues in terms of
accessing these potential sources of information. Additional research should include individuals
commonly identified as influential by the participants, as this could provide greater insight into
the strategies used to support first generation Latino college students.
Finally, it is important to consider that all the universities attended by participants are
located in the state of California and are publicly funded. Further research should include first
generation Latino college students attending private or independent universities and universities
across the United States to determine whether the findings of this study could be replicated in
other university settings.
Conclusion
This study’s asset-based positive deviance approach represented an effort to explore the
behaviors of first generation Latino college students’ college persistence and levels of
educational attainment. Use of the positive deviance approach was especially valuable because it
allowed the discussion regarding first generation Latino college students to be centered on
positive, effective efforts rather than deficit-based data regarding high drop-out rates and low
levels of educational attainment. Interviews with positive deviant first generation Latino college
students revealed a wealth of information on strategies that could be used to support college
persistence and degree attainment. The recommendations of this study are focused on helping all
first generation Latino college students acquire strategies to help support college persistence and
degree attainment as well as shifting the narrative of Latinos in education into a more positive
spotlight. The results of the study provided reassurance that with the right set of skills and
support systems, first generation Latino college students can and will successfully persist and
attain higher levels of education.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 117
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Appendix A: Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Study: Positive Deviance – First Generation Latino college students
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to discover behaviors that influence college persistence and higher
levels of educational attainment for first generation Latino college students.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
You will be asked to engage in an interview that may range from 45 to 90 minutes in length. The
minimum time commitment for the interview will be 60 minutes for students and 45 minutes for school
staff or family. If all of the interviewer’s items have been responded to, then the minimum time
commitment will be considered as met.
Participation in the study is always voluntary, and participants can choose to remove themselves
from the study at any time. There will be no researcher- or school-imposed consequences for
choosing not to participate in the study.
In the interview, you will be asked about your thoughts regarding college persistence and levels of
educational attainment amongst first generation Latino college students. This will include details about
your personal experiences and what it is like to be in your role as a first generation Latino college student,
family member, or staff member. You will be asked about the types of things you did in order to get
ready for college and your current strategies for completing two years of postsecondary studies. You will
also be asked questions about the school, and how students can be supported once they are in college. One
of the major goals of the study is to see how your experiences can be used to help other first generation
Latino college students persist in college and attain higher levels of educational attainment.
A digital audio recording of the interview will be made, and the results of the recording will be
transcribed to text. The recording is necessary and required for participation in the study.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $15 gift card for your time to one of the following vendors of your choice: Target,
Amazon.com, or Starbucks. You do not have to answer all of the questions in the interview in order to
receive the card; however, compensation will be provided only in the event that a) you have responded to
all of the interviewer’s questions, and/or b) you have met the minimum time commitment requested for
the interview.
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 124
CONFIDENTIALITY
Although personal information may be collected about you during the interview, your identity will not be
revealed when the results of the study are reported. In cases where specific quotes are used, pseudonyms
will be assigned to protect your identity. Your personal information will be stored in a location separated
from where the transcribed interviews and audio recordings will be stored, and will be password
protected. The transcribed interviews and audio recordings will not contain any personal information
about you within it. Any contact information that you share will be stored in a password protected
location until the data collection period has ended. At that point, your contact information will be
destroyed.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data.
The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator
Courtney L. Malloy, Ph.D.
Clinical Assistant Professor
University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway
WPH802, MC 4038
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
clm@usc.edu
Co-Investigator and Primary Contact
Erika Castañeda-Flores, M.A.
Ed.D. Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California
erikacas@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Credit Union Building, 3720
South Flower Street, CUB # 301 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 125
Appendix B: General Recruitment Letter
[Date]
Dear Participant:
My name is Erika Castañeda-Flores, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of
Education at University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study as part of my
dissertation, focusing on the uncommon strategies and behaviors used by first-generation Latino
college students who have successfully completed two years of college. You are invited to
participate in the study. If you agree, you are invited to participate in an interview session that
may take between 45 and 90 minutes to complete and will be recorded via digital audio recorder.
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain confidential at
all times during and after the study.
If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me by e-mail at
____________________ or by phone at ____________________.
Thank you for your participation.
Sincerely,
Erika Castañeda-Flores, MA
University of Southern California
FIRST GENERATION LATINO COLLEGE STUDENTS 126
Appendix C: Student Interview Questions
1. Tell me about yourself.
2. What does a first generation Latino college student that is making it in college look like to you?
What do they do?
3. Have you ever thought or wanted to drop out of college? Why?
4. What are the challenges to staying in school?
5. Why did you stay in school instead of dropping out?
6. What influenced you to go to college? How?
7. Who has supported you along the way? How?
8. How did you find supportive people/allies?
9. What steps did you take to go to college? What strategies did you use to overcome your
challenges?
10. What is a typical day like for you as a student?
11. What are the daily obstacles to meeting your goals? How do you overcome them? What strategies
do you use?
12. Think about other first generation Latino college students like you. Do you know others who are
also successful? What did they do to be successful?
13. Think about other first generation Latino college students like you who have not persisted. How
are they different?
14. What strategies have been the most useful to you? Which have made the biggest difference in
your success?
15. What advice would you give to other first generation Latino students who want to go to college?
16. What lessons have you learned that might benefit others?
17. Is there anything else that you would like to share about this topic? Is there anything that you feel
I should have asked you?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
First generation Latino college students are underperforming and continue to have the lowest levels of educational attainment relative to other groups in the United States. This study utilized a positive deviance theoretical framework to uncover the challenges faced by first generation college students, as well as the strategies used to achieve college persistence and higher levels of educational attainment. Data collection occurred via interviews with ten positive deviant students, currently in their third year of college in the state of California. Results revealed challenges related to limited college readiness, a challenging first year transition, financial struggles, lack of support systems, and negative self-perceptions. In addition, the results also unveiled numerous strategies employed by these students to mitigate their challenges, such as maintaining a college focus in high school, self-regulating learning, and establishing support systems. The study’s results have significant implications for both high school and college educators as they aim to narrow the educational attainment achievement gap of the largest growing minority group in the United States. Furthermore, the findings of this study are of interest both to the families of first generation Latino college students and students striving to achieve college persistence and higher levels of educational attainment.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Castañeda-Flores, Erika
(author)
Core Title
Positive deviance: first generation Latino college students
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
07/30/2013
Defense Date
06/10/2013
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
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Tag
first generation,Latino college students,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive deviance
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English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Malloy, Courtney L. (
committee chair
), García, Pedro Enrique (
committee member
), Stowe, Kathy (
committee member
)
Creator Email
ecastanedaflores@gmail.com,erikacas@usc.edu
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first generation
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