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Explorations of American churchscape diversity

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Explorations of American churchscape diversity

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Content Explorations of American Churchscape Diversity

by

Amanda Alamo

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

December 2013

Copyright 2013 Amanda Alamo
ii

Dedication

I dedicate this work to my parents who instilled in me a yearning for knowledge
and the bravery to seek answers no matter how difficult the question. And to my
husband for his tireless patience, love, and support throughout this long process.
I would not be who I am today, were it not for you.

iii

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Robert Vos for his support and advice through this long
arduous process. His ability to provide corrections tempered with words of
encouragement made this all possible. Thank You.
iv

Table of Contents
Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ viii
Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Conventional Approaches to Religious Geography.................................................... 4
1.2 Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) ...........................................................7
Chapter 2 Background ........................................................................................................ 9
2.1 Precursory Work ....................................................................................................... 11
2.2 GIS in New Geographies of Religion ........................................................................ 12
2.2.1 Radio Networks .................................................................................................. 13
2.2.2 Historical Development of Cities ....................................................................... 14
2.2.3 Cyberspace and Religion ................................................................................... 15
2.2.4 Neighborhoods and Religion ............................................................................. 17
2.2.5 Jewish Enclaves ................................................................................................ 20
2.2.6 Religious Regions .............................................................................................. 21
2.3 Data Limitations...................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 3 Methodology .................................................................................................... 25
3.1 Data Sources ............................................................................................................ 26
3.2 Denominational Groupings ..................................................................................... 29
3.3 Data Quality ............................................................................................................ 33
3.4 Diversity Index Calculations – Simpson Index of Diversity ................................... 35
3.5 Nearest Neighbor Calculations................................................................................ 37
3.6 3D analysis using ArcScene ..................................................................................... 40
3.6.1 Visualizing the Churchscape ............................................................................. 40
3.6.2 Visualizing the Adherentscape .......................................................................... 41
3.6.3 Visualizing the Mega-Church Phenomenon ..................................................... 42
3.7 Summary ................................................................................................................. 43
Chapter 4 Results: The American Churchscape ............................................................... 45
4.1 Diversity Index Calculations .................................................................................... 45
4.2 Regional Religious Landscape Investigations ......................................................... 47
4.2.1 Northeastern Low Diversity Region ................................................................. 48
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4.2.2 North Central Region ........................................................................................ 51
4.2.3 Southeastern Bible Belt Region ........................................................................ 55
4.2.4 Mountain Region ............................................................................................... 57
4.2.5 Pacific Region ................................................................................................... 59
4.3 Multi-Scale Nearest Neighbor Calculations ............................................................ 62
4.4 Dominant Denominations in the American Churchscape ....................................... 71
4.5 Adherentscape ......................................................................................................... 73
4.6 Highest Average Denomination Size ....................................................................... 75
Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion ............................................................................... 77
5.1 The Churchscape....................................................................................................... 77
5.2 The Adherentscape .................................................................................................. 78
5.3 Religious Regionalization ........................................................................................ 79
5.4 Church Clustering .................................................................................................... 81
5.5 Highest Average Congregation Sizes ....................................................................... 82
5.6 Data Set Needs ........................................................................................................ 83
5.7 Other Areas for Exploration .................................................................................... 85
5.8 Final Thoughts ........................................................................................................ 85
References ......................................................................................................................... 87

vi

List of Tables
Table 1: ARDA data denomination counts......................................................................... 31
Table 2: Oddity point data denomination counts ............................................................. 32
Table 3: Nearest neighbor calculations for Eastern Region ............................................. 63
Table 4: Nearest neighbor calculations for Western Region ............................................ 63
Table 5: Nearest neighbor calculations for Hawaii .......................................................... 64
Table 6: Nearest neighbor calculations for Alaska ........................................................... 64
Table 7: Nearest neighbor calculations by state ............................................................... 67
Table 8: Nearest neighbor calculations by county ............................................................ 68
Table 9: Nearest neighbor calculations by Metropolitan Statistical Area ........................ 70

vii

List of Figures
Figure 1: Counties in the ARDA data with a diversity index score of 0 or 1. .................... 34
Figure 2: Counties in the Oddity data with a diversity index score of 0 or 1. ................... 34
Figure 3: Average congregation size distribution ............................................................. 43
Figure 4: Distribution of diversity index calculations ...................................................... 46
Figure 5: Map depicting religious diversity at the county level ........................................ 47
Figure 6: Map depicting the low diversity Northeast Region ........................................... 49
Figure 7: Religious composition of Northeastern Region ................................................. 51
Figure 8: Map depicting the North-Central Region ......................................................... 52
Figure 9: Religious composition of the North-Central Region ......................................... 53
Figure 10: Religious composition of Kansas ..................................................................... 54
Figure 11: Map depicting the moderate diversity Southeastern Region ........................... 55
Figure 12: Religious composition of the Southeastern Region .......................................... 57
Figure 13: Map depicting the high diversity Mountain Region ........................................ 58
Figure 14: Religious composition of the Mountain Region .............................................. 59
Figure 15: Map depicting the Pacific Region .................................................................... 60
Figure 16: Religious composition of the Pacific Region .................................................... 61
Figure 17: Churchscape of the U.S. ................................................................................... 73
Figure 18: Adherentscape of the U.S. ............................................................................... 74
Figure 19: Average congregation sizes by county symbolized by geometric interval ....... 76

viii

Abstract
Changing technologies and cultures make possible new ways of analyzing,
understanding, and mapping religious geography. This study illustrates how GIS
technology can provide a view of the details in the structures and adherents of the
churchscape of America. GIS allows more detailed exploration of diversity in the
American religious landscape than previous research has uncovered in spite of
very limited data availability. This study has illustrated that the religious
landscape of America is very complicated and multi-faceted. The physical
locations tell us that our nation is a Baptist nation, whereas the adherent
population tells us that our nation is a Catholic nation. The diversity of religious
beliefs and practices that is part of the fabric of the country’s foundation is also
reflected in the current landscape. Cluster analysis of physical church locations
shows us that churches cluster together regardless of denomination. This study
raises questions regarding the exceptional nature of the American religious
landscape. The findings call for other disciplines such as sociology, planning, and
theology to examine in more detail the diversity found in the religious landscape
of America.

1

Chapter 1 Introduction
Within America, religion has played a significant role in shaping the nation’s
cultural development. U.S. currency illustrates this with the ever-present “In
God We Trust” motto as does the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution,
which acknowledges the inherent right of human beings to the freedom to
exercise the religion of their choosing. Societies are organized around morally
structured restrictions that we place between ourselves and others to provide a
sense of cohesion amongst our group and a boundary line to separate us from
those whose actions we disapprove. The presence of religion has acted as a
presupposed guarantee of public and private morality that is a necessary criterion
for receiving the categorization of “good citizen” of America. Religious beliefs act
as an assurance of a minimum set of moral values that leads to a virtuous
citizenry (Barb 2011). This belief in religion as a barometer for what constitutes a
good person has a strong foundation in the American cultural awareness.
The concept of social capital can be understood in part as the set of norms
and relationships that ties people together, bonding people with standards such
as honesty, integrity, reliability, and reciprocity (Fukuyama 2001). Religion is
recognized as being an important contributor to the networks that facilitate social
capital with religious affiliation recognized as one of the most common
membership associations in America (Putnam 2001). Religion is a deeply
personal, experiential realm that exists as part of the lived world and is
2

inextricably tied to our understanding of life and provides social cohesion (Levine
1986). Religious affiliation allows individuals to practice the skills that generate
social capital (Warf and Winsberg 2010). Given its important role in the ties that
bind civil society together, having a more thorough understanding of the religious
landscape of America can provide new avenues for facilitating the increase of
social capital.
The countryside of the U.S. is dotted by communities that contain at least
one church structure. Much of our cultural history is tied to this. The stereotype
exhibited by a rural church is part of America’s cultural nostalgia. The image of a
country church stands for many as a representation of the two parent family with
children, living near to grandparents; all working the family farm (Neitz 2009).
Linking that cultural nostalgia with physical structures is simple as churches are
places that can be seen to exhibit permanence. This permanence places a
foothold in the cultural psyche of an area. It stands as a reflection of a given time
and its values, providing memory and cultural identity (Blake and Smith 2000).
Even in times of urban economic hardship where stores are boarding up windows
and going out of business, churches stand in both rural areas and urban
neighborhoods as a reminder of hope and stability (Botchwey 2007).
As Zelinsky (2001) points out, we should be concerned about the religious
landscape because it plays a critical role in the political, social and economic
facets of American culture, as well as being a major source of visible cultural data
on the landscape. In order to understand our culture from a holistic geographic
3

perspective, a study of the landscape of religion is critical, as the way we position
critical reservoirs of social capital, like churches, on our landscape shows who we
think we are, or what we think we as a culture are becoming (Lewis 1979).
Places of worship have been integral parts of the urban landscape
throughout history. They serve as more than just houses of worship, they serve
as civic centers and social gathering places (Ayhan and Cubukcu 2010). Church
structures are a symbolic manifestation of the interaction between the human
and the divine, without which the ideologies of religion would have no foothold in
reality, no link to ensure they endure (Knott 2005). They represent the visible
imprint of religion on the physical and cultural landscape (Park 2004).
According to the Pew Forum’s 2008 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey,
approximately 83% of adults identify with some form of faith with 78% belonging
to Christian denominations. Their researchers noted the diversity in the
Christian American religious landscape, citing such groups as Baptists,
Methodists, Pentecostals, Orthodox adherents and Catholics. The diversity of the
religious landscape was further noted with the inclusion of such groups as
Mormons, Jehovah Witnesses, Jewish, Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus, Baha’is,
Zoroastrians, and various New Age groups. Melton noted that the U.S., at its
foundation, started out with 20 different religious groups, grew to more than 300
by 1900, and at the end of the twentieth century there were more than 2,000
(Melton 2010).
4

Although the literature claims great diversity in religions in the U.S., there
is little understanding of whether and how that diversity is realized at the
landscape level. For example, no standardized measures of diversity have been
calculated for comparison within or between regions of the U.S. An important
objective of this study is to promote a better understanding of religious diversity
in the American landscape.
This study focuses on depicting the church structures in the American
cultural landscape, i.e., the “Churchscape,” to promote a better understanding of
these forms of social capital in all their diversity. For the purposes of this study
the Churchscape can be thought of as the assemblage of traditional and non-
traditional church locations including recognized church structures, storefront
church locations, portable church facilities, and structures on the landscape that
hold some form of worship practice. The collection of these structures represents
the visible manifestation of the diversity of the American religious landscape.

1.1 Conventional Approaches to Religious Geography
In modern geographic thinking there are two main approaches to the
intersection of geography and religion. The “geography of religion” focuses on
the artifacts of religious expression on the landscape, while “religious geography”
is more concerned with how theology shapes people’s conceptions of the
universe. Specifically, research in the area of “geography of religion” explores
5

and explains the various ways religion is expressed in social, cultural, and
environmental milieus. Religious geography instead is concerned with the
manner in which religion shapes people’s perceptions and beliefs about spaces
and places in the world around them (Park 2004). In short, the geography of
religion is concerned with how internal beliefs are expressed outwardly, while
religious geography is concerned with how space and place shape our internal
religious conceptions. These two approaches complement one another in
thinking about the Churchscape. This study, however, finds itself positioned in
the geography of religion, concerned with the location of physical artifacts on the
landscape.
Human geography’s coverage of religion traditionally has been relegated
to the distribution of religions globally and regionally, the origin and diffusion of
religious beliefs and practices, and the impact of religion on regional culture,
politics, and demographics (Proctor 2006). Mapping spatial patterns and the
distribution of religion is a central thematic area in the geography of religion.
There are two main methodologies within this area: looking at the distribution of
religious groups across space, either as individuals or groups, and the delineation
of regions based upon this distribution (Bauer 2006). Maps showing religious
distributions must be looked at skeptically, bearing in mind that the religion
shown for an area may be the dominant religion but is likely not the only religion.
The size of the area attributed to a specific religion or group does not necessarily
reflect the actual population distribution within that region. Also, the maps are
6

not likely to express the vitality or adherence to the religion in the area (Park
2004).
The scholarship revolving around the patterns of religion in the U.S. is well
documented. Scholars such as Shortridge (1977), Zelinsky (2001), Jordan
(2006), Bauer (2006), and Silk (2005; 2007) have undertaken a variety of
descriptions of the religious landscape of America; each coming to their own
version of religious regionalization, all very similar. The Northeast is highlighted
for its tendency toward Catholicism, the South is correlated with Evangelical
Protestant denominations such as Baptists, the upper Midwest is associated with
Mainline Protestant denominations such as Lutherans, Utah is shown as the
heart of Mormonism, and the West is exposed as an area of non-affiliation. The
methods of each vary including the multivariate statistical clustering of
Shortridge and the Local Indicators of Spatial Analysis (LISA) statistics of Jordan
(Bauer 2012).
Limited scholarship has been undertaken to demonstrate religious
diversity at a regional scale. Warf and Winsberg (2008) explore data from circa
2000 using choropleth maps and Dorling cartograms. Silk (2007) defines
regions of diversity in his attempt to understand and define the impact of
religious pluralism on the American landscape. His work broadly categorizes the
U.S. into four regions of diversity including the ‘Melting Pot’ of the Middle
Atlantic region, the ‘Secularist’ Northeast, the fluidity of the Pacific region, and
the ‘Culture Warriors’ in the Southeast (Silk 2007).
7

1.2 Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Given the importance and complexity of religion on the landscape and the
power of Geographic Information Systems, it is advantageous to use this
combination to explore these research fields in new ways. To study something
from a geographic perspective allows for more than just a neighborhood or
regional approach. It opens the door for study from a “locationally-specific”
perspective (Jordan 2006). Using geocoded locations for church buildings it is
possible to see if there are patterns between physical presence on the landscape
and overall numbers of religious adherents or patterns of diversity in religious
practice. How do the numbers of adherents and denominational structures relate
to artifacts on the landscape? Finding these kinds of links may suggest
hypotheses for further exploration.
Geographic Information Systems possess abilities that far exceed mere
tabular data, especially for visualization. Being able to translate the tabular data
into a format that people can readily comprehend at one glance, such as a map,
provides more analysis power for any topic. If topics are to be explored in new
and different ways it is imperative to use the newer more robust technology that
makes sense out of non-traditional approaches to data. A map has the ability to
speak to more people than a tabular set of words and numbers. Using this
technology allows for nationwide examination of very fine scale data on religion
in a way that has previously been near impossible.
8

Using GIS tools, this study aims to explore the “Churchscape” of America.
The notion of a “Churchscape” can be loosely thought of as the collective presence
of physical church locations on the landscape. This is an initial investigation of
church locations, revolving around the regional and spatial variations of religious
diversity, spatial clustering of churches, and congregation size. The objective of
this study is to explore hypotheses about the impact of religious diversity on the
spatial clustering of churches, regional variations in diversity, and congregation
size.
This study will explore the possible hypotheses through the following
questions. How does the physical churchscape vary across regions? What impact,
if any, does religious diversity have on spatial clustering of churches? Does
denomination play a role in the degree of clustering? What does the landscape of
churchgoers or adherent fabric look like? How does the physical churchscape
compare with the adherent fabric? What is the relationship between average
congregation size and religious diversity?

9

Chapter 2 Background
The literature centered on religious geography or the geography of religion is
quite varied and extensive. Many scholars have looked at this topic; however,
until recently, not much GIS work has been undertaken. This literature review
covers some of the main points and ideas that have been considered both in the
field as a whole and in regards to the use of GIS. From this framework it is
possible to illustrate how GIS can be further expanded into the geography of
religion to add additional value to the field.
Religious thinking and geography have been intimately tied throughout
the ages. In ancient Greece, the geographers of the time explained the patterns
around them as results of larger cosmological and spiritual forces. The Middle-
Ages and Renaissance gave rise to ecclesiastical geography which set about
describing the spread of Christianity around the world and contained overt
theological overtones (Park 2004).
Ecclesiastical geography was replaced by the study of scriptural geography,
the mapping of scriptural elements from the bible, which was then supplanted by
Enlightenment thinking that held scientific laws superior to God. Modern
geography of religion replaced, for the most part, religious geography because the
changing scholastic paradigms no longer supported the ideas of religious
geography (Bauer 2006).
10

The geography of religion moved through a series of stages in the
twentieth century, beginning with the idea that religious beliefs and landscapes
were determined by environmental factors. Some argued that the cradle of the
religion determined its imagery and symbolism. For Example, Eskimos believe
that hell was a dark place full of storms and intense cold, much like the extremes
of their environment (Kong 1990). This was followed by the study in the 1920s of
how religious thinking caused adherents to alter the physical landscape to fit into
the theological framework of their beliefs. The landscape itself became the focus
of study and an attempt was made to determine what artifacts on the landscape,
such as settlement patterns, transportation, and population, were direct results of
religious influence (Kong 1990). Both the environmental determinist views and
the ideas of human agency were eventually synthesized in contemporary theories
of religious landscapes (Bauer 2006). However, there is no single overriding
theory of religious landscapes; the field is an amalgamation of many disparate yet
related ideas.
Rather than seeking to understand how the environment shapes a religion
or how Christianity has spread over a region, this thesis seeks to understand the
current landscape and how religious diversity is represented at a regional scale.
Additionally, by studying the physical artifacts of churches at a micro-scale an
attempt is made to understand at a finer level of detail how individual religions
are represented on the landscape by the placement of churches. This two-fold
process sets out to use more modern technology, GIS, to explore the interaction
11

between religion and the physical and social landscape, with the physical
landscape merely being the starting point rather than the end.

2.1 Precursory Work
Many geographers have studied the concept and reality of sacred space.
Places are not sacred because they exist. Instead, they are sacred because they
exist as a combination of the history, aspirations, experiences and meanings of a
people and are perceived as holy to the people to which they belong (Tuan 1979;
Kong 2001; Park 2004). In this vein, many geographers have studied religious
architecture at a scale finer than the level of analysis suggested in this thesis.
Religious architecture such as churches, mosques, temples, and cathedrals
possess value because they are the places where learning and the expression of
sacred beliefs are focused on the Earth (Mazumdar and Mazumdar 1993).
Zelinsky (2001) focuses on the uniqueness of the American religious
landscape, which possesses a wealth of physical manifestations of religious
diversity. These include mega-churches, storefront churches, church signs and
reader boards from all denominations. He found that relative to other cultures
the American landscape generally lacks sacred space artifacts such as roadside
shrines, sacred effigies, and hilltop crosses. Instead, the American landscape is
characterized by religiously significant buildings (Zelinsky 2001).
12

In a review of research surrounding the geography of religion from the
1990s, Kong (2001) points out that most of the work concerning the geography of
religion concentrates on the distribution, diffusion, and dynamics of religion.
However it does not take into consideration issues of spirituality, personal
experience, cultural politics or religious symbolism. She argues that ‘new’
geographies of religion must examine such things as different sensual
experiences of geography that go beyond the ‘officially sacred’ to include things
such as aural/audio experiences, and space-place interactions in cases of
religious diversity in urban areas, particularly how churches have been
incorporated into other meaning systems through their conversion to alternate
spaces. New geographies of religion should also include various scales of analysis
stretching from the body to regional to national to global, diverse populations
such as women and children, and divergent views of morality (Kong 2001).
While this study does not explore the areas suggested by Kong it does look to a
new geography of religion by examining the clustering of church locations and
their relationship with the underlying diversity of the region.

2.2 GIS in New Geographies of Religion
To explore ideas of new geographies, some have undertaken the use of GIS
in their studies. GIS has the capability to examine and represent data in a whole
new format. Using GIS technology has enabled scholars to look at things as
diverse as radio networks, historical development of cities based on religious
13

architecture, religious communities in cyberspace, neighborhood stability and
religion, and Jewish Enclaves in urban environments. GIS has also furthered the
understanding of broad religious regions across the U.S. A brief review of these
studies demonstrates the possibilities inherent in GIS analysis by highlighting the
arenas that research has already explored and providing examples that serve as a
basis for this study.

2.2.1 Radio Networks
Religious programming has existed on the radio airwaves since the early
days of AM radio. Over time the presence of the programming has continued,
however the form on the landscape has changed. Wikle and Comer (2010)
investigate the modern radio translator as a feature of religious landscapes.
Translators are low power radio stations that extend reach into areas where
signals are blocked by terrain by rebroadcasting the radio signal on an FM
frequency. Their article looks at the changing spatial patterns of religious radio
landscapes after the advent of these types of networks, highlighting two main
types: those aimed at attracting young listeners through music and
entertainment, and those aimed at reaching isolated communities with programs
with a stronger religious emphasis (Wikle and Comer 2010). The objective of
their research was to discover the patterns of the translators over space and time
and to understand the socioeconomic characteristics of the various groups found
in proximity to the five largest networks.
14

Wikle and Comer (2010) produced a series of maps showing the point
locations of the different translators over space and time, creating a visual means
of understanding the pattern and diffusion of the expanded radio translator
networks. This point level methodology is beneficial for examining a more
specific and detailed level of data and could be expanded to include a different set
of landscape features such as religious schools, churches, or bookstores.

2.2.2 Historical Development of Cities
Places of worship have been integral parts of the urban landscape
throughout history. They serve as more than just houses of worship, they serve
as civic centers and social gathering places (Ayhan and Cubukcu 2010). Because
of their importance in the urban environment, understanding their distribution
and expansion can help understand the overall development of the cities in which
they reside. Ayhan and Cubukcu explore the idea that the spatial pattern of a city
can be explained by the location of the places of worship. Their research uses GIS
and spatial analysis, particularly mean center, weighted mean center, and
standard deviational ellipse, to see if the spatial development pattern of Izmir,
Turkey can be approximated by the location of 525 mosques constructed between
the years of 1550-2008. The research indicates that the development pattern of
Izmir closely imitates the development of mosques throughout the city landscape
(Ayhan and Cubukcu 2010). This research was limited to mosques leaving an
opening for studying different religious group artifacts in different locations.
15

2.2.3 Cyberspace and Religion
As cyberspace has matured, the amount of religiously based content has
flourished. There are now classes on theology, web discussion boards, religious
articles, recorded sermons, and music. According to the Pew Research Center, in
2001, 25 percent of people used the Internet for religious purposes; this figure
was higher than that for banking, stock-trading, or even gambling. The Internet
breaks down the walls of traditional religious interactions. People of diverse
faiths can interact in spaces removed from the physical churchscape. Traditional
powers and roles are being replaced by diverse movements originating with the
people (Berner 2005).
Some have argued that the spread of more sophisticated technology and
communication tools would eradicate distance and render geography irrelevant.
However both sacred and secular spaces are still important. With the advent of
the Internet, it is merely changing from historical patterns. Worship that was
once predominately a corporate practice has become more individualized.
Shelton et al. (2001), set out to study religious cyberscapes. The authors
used a search program that counted the number of religious references that are
geotagged to a specific place and are indexed on Google maps. In the Chicago,
Illinois, area there were 7,519 geotagged references that pertained to the word
Catholic. This same search was performed across the globe analyzing words and
search terms that incorporated key religious names, denominations, buildings,
and important religious figures. The study investigated geotagged religious web
16

content to analyze how and where people are using the Internet for religious
engagement. Geotagged information is important for identifying different
religious practices on line as well as the distribution of the associated offline
practices. The net effect of this research was to create a new ecclesiastical
geography based on cyberscapes. (Shelton, Zook and Graham 2011).
Shelton, Zook, and Graham (2011) also mapped the virtual references to
specific denominations in the U.S. and produced a map depicting this version of
regionalization. The cyberspace references to Baptist, Catholic, Lutheran,
Methodist, and Mormon resulted in maps containing points coded by the
dominant denominational reference for the area. Their results indicated that
there are several clearly defined belts of denominational affiliation in the U.S.
(Shelton, Zook and Graham 2011). This differing form of regionalism illustrates
the possibility of exploring additional bases for regionalization such as diversity.
Others such as Cheong et al. (2009) assert that the entrance of churches
and religious organizations into the Internet realm opens up new avenues for GIS
visualization and analysis. Virtual geography is opening new avenues that
include multi-scale and spatiotemporal GIS environments to model how people
interact over different time and space combinations. Through their spatial
analysis of hyperlinks embedded in websites they highlight a new form of
mapping to show connections in cyberspace across the globe (Cheong, et al.
2009).
17

This broadens the meaning of place beyond the local and visible. Many
pastors have a sense that their web presence should brand unique elements of a
given church. This sense of branding can be extended to people who cannot
physically be at that particular church but can feel like a member merely by
visiting the website (Cheong, et al. 2009).
The use of this new technology in churches illustrates the idea that the role
that GIS can play is far more than just a processing engine; it can be used as a
communication device whereby people are connected across vast amounts of
space and time into one religious community (Cheong, et al. 2009). Given the
relative newness of the Internet this is an area of study that could be greatly
expanded. Using Internet networks, research could map the interconnected
religious life of diverse groups across the world. While this study does not
attempt to address the multi-faceted world of cyberspace it is important to
highlight the wide array of ways that religion is expressed on the landscape, both
physically and culturally.

2.2.4 Neighborhoods and Religion
Neighborhoods are an important feature of the American landscape, and
as all things they can fall victim to decay. The concept of neighborhood stability
is important and can be thought of as the permanence of the people and
structures over time. To explore the relationship between the stability of a high-
poverty neighborhood and the presence of churches, Kinney and Winter (2006)
18

approached the concept using GIS and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
They looked at three different types of churches: free standing, store front, and
home-based. The research examined such measures as the permanence of
structures, the length of time of residence, and property values as a means to
gauge neighborhood stability. Areas around each church within a 250 foot
diameter circle were identified using GIS. The choice of 250 feet mitigates the
potential problems from overlapping buffers and approximates the standard
block length in the area of their case study.
The research performed by Kinney and Winter (2006) found no significant
association between free-standing churches and neighborhood stability in low
income areas. Store front churches were positively linked to neighborhood
stability, although this could be an artifact of the commercially zoned
neighborhoods that the store front churches were located in (Kinney and Winter
2006). This research was limited to an urban area in a time of decay.
Neighborhood stability will suffer during times of outmigration and financial
hardship leading to the presence of church structures that occupy little more than
space in the local communities. While beyond the scope of this study, it would be
of interest to study how stability of neighborhoods is impacted in suburban or
rural communities by church structures.
Another approach to religion and neighborhoods is to investigate the
residential proximity of those attending the church. Historically congregations
were composed of people who lived nearby the church, even within walking
19

distance. Now that society is more mobile, proximity is not as much of a
determinant of congregation makeup. Sinha et al. (2007) used GIS to analyze the
neighborhood composition for churches where the congregation lived nearby and
compared it to churches where congregants lived further away. They found the
two scenarios provided very different racial makeup, socio-economic status, and
neighborhood stability results. Their regression models showed that the
contributing factors for congregants living in close proximity to their church were
denomination, racial makeup of the congregation, pastor’s place of residence, and
neighborhood stability. In Catholic and Jewish congregations the regression
model showed that adherents were more likely to reside in the same
neighborhood as the church. A racial makeup of predominately whites showed a
positive correlation with residential proximity while predominately black
congregations showed a negative relationship with residential proximity. Their
research also showed that if the location of the pastor’s place of residence was
close to the church the proportion of adherents living in close proximity would be
higher. It was also noted that in stable neighborhoods, the residences of
adherents would more likely in close proximity to the church. Their analysis of
further research suggests using GIS to map actual locations of members to
provide the detail of an accurate spatial distribution pattern which can then be
compared with neighborhood characteristics to see how distribution may have
changed with changes in neighborhoods (Sinha et al. 2007).
20

The concept of neighborhood scale analysis will be further explored in this
study. Point level locations of churches will be examined at a various scales
including Metropolitan Statistical Area to compare the denominational diversity
and clustering with the underlying congregational fabric of the area. This
approach is missing in the current literature of church locations and their
interaction with the surrounding neighborhoods.

2.2.5 Jewish Enclaves
Minority or Ethnic religious groups have a tendency to cluster in and
define the neighborhoods in which they reside. The Jewish presence in America
represents itself very much as an ethnic religion. Patrick Gallagher (2009)
studied their presence in Brooklyn using GIS. He completed a GIS-based
analysis that attempted to locate Orthodox Jewish Enclave settlements in
Brooklyn. His research used a geocoded list of all synagogues, yeshivas (religious
schools), and kosher food establishments in the Brooklyn area. Performing
density mapping, he looked for areas with high organizational density that were
characterized by an increased concentration of religious sites. He also looked at
the racial composition of the surrounding neighborhoods. His work illustrated
that an abrupt change in density indicated that there was a Jewish Enclave
(Gallagher 2009). While this research was specific to just one ethnic/religious
enclave the possibilities for this methodology far supersede this one topic. Any
subculture group with identifiable map-able elements could be analyzed and
21

understood using this process. This method could be used to identify if other
religious groups present themselves as enclaves such as the Amish or Latter-Day
Saints, while not approached in the scope of this study is an area that could add
further understanding of the religious landscape of America at a neighborhood
scale.

2.2.6 Religious Regions
Spatial patterns and the distribution of religions are main thematic areas
in the geography of religion. There are two main approaches to this: looking at
the distribution of religious groups across space either as individuals or groups
and the delineation of regions based upon this distribution. Bauer (2006) points
out that regionalization studies have a long history, most of which focused on
grouping regions based on dominant group counts; however, current research is
taking novel approaches, including Crawford’s (2005) examination of the
centroid, and weighted mean of 10 major religious groups showing their shift or
stability over time.
Bauer uses GIS cluster analysis to define more current religious regions in
the U.S. – grouping counties together based on their religious statistics. He then
classified the religious groups based upon Melton’s classification scheme that
holds groups together that share common theology, history, and lifestyle. From
there he created maps that illustrated the religious groupings for the entire
population of the U.S. for three successive decades (Bauer 2006). Similarly, this
22

study examines religious regionalization. However regions are defined based on
the diversity rather than the dominant denominational family.
Wu and Tong (2012) examined Buddhist temples in China using GIS to
look at the distribution of religious sites compared with different levels of
regional religious systems. Buddhist temples are local institutions that are not
dependent on the political framework. Because they are dependent on socio-
economic and geographical factors for their development they can serve as an
accurate index to socio-cultural development. Their work showed that the actual
density of Buddhist temples did not necessarily follow the traditionally
understood and documented regions. Performing density mapping on the
location of Buddhist temples shows the boundaries that can create sub-regions
within the larger framework or cause existing boundaries to be adjusted (Wu and
Tong 2012). This study will build upon this examination of individual church
locations and look at the clustering of individual church locations in hopes of
uncovering a theory of denominational clustering.

2.3 Data Limitations
Limits in spatial datasets are an inherent challenge in studying religion
within a geographic framework. There are limited spatial data for this topic both
in scholarly literature and readily usable datasets. In the U.S., there is no
governmental source of data on religious demography; the only acquirable data
23

comes from private organizations (Zelinsky 2001). The data to map out different
dimensions of religion at various scales is near to impossible due to a lack of
information. Data on church structures have not been gathered with any global
reliability at any useful spatial resolution. Some countries, such as western
European countries and the U.S., have more and better data than others but it is
often still insufficient for a thorough analysis. However, Christianity has more
followers and better statistical documentation than other religions making it
much more approachable for study. The U.S., more than any other country, has
also been the focus of much study, due largely to the availability of private
datasets (Park 2004).
Given the lack of consistent data sources, geography of religion is
constrained. One of the subsidiary benefits of this study is the creation of a new
data set for the U.S. This data set encapsulates the physical location of a church
structure as well as its denominational affiliation. While imperfect, it adds
benefit to the study of the geography of religion at the individual church level.
The wide range of topics covered in the literature of the geography of
religion sets the tone for new ways of looking at the religious landscape. As Kong
(2001) implies, there is room for a ‘new’ religious geography that explores
diversity in a different manner than has been previously undertaken (Kong
2001). The GIS techniques used by Gallagher (2009) and Wu and Tong (2012)
highlight an avenue for extrapolating regional scale data from point level data.
The combination of these ideas underpins the attempt in this study to use GIS as
24

a tool for understanding the regional variations in the diversity and composition
of the churchscape and for exploring ideas of the spatial relationship churches
have with one another.

25

Chapter 3 Methodology
Using GIS tools, this study aims to explore the churchscape of America. This is
an initial investigation of church locations, revolving around the regional and
spatial variations of religious diversity, spatial clustering, and congregation size.
The objective of this study is to explore hypotheses about the impact of religious
diversity on the spatial clustering of churches, regional variations in diversity and
congregation size.
This study will explore the possible hypotheses through the following
questions:
1. How does the physical churchscape vary across regions?
2. What impact, if any, does religious diversity have on spatial clustering of
churches?
3. Does denomination play a role in the degree of clustering?
4. What does the landscape of churchgoers or adherent fabric look like?
5. How does the physical churchscape compare with the adherent fabric?
6. What is the relationship between average congregation size and religious
diversity?
The county was chosen as the unit of analysis for several different reasons.
Counties have long standing unchanging boundaries with a wealth of data
collected at their scale. Their presence in all areas of the U.S. assures that areas
will not be overlooked and all regions will be considered in the analysis. There are
26

3,141 county or county equivalents in the U.S. This study also includes the
District of Columbia and the City of Baltimore, bringing the total number of
geographic entities to 3,143. Other units of analysis such as census tracts or
metropolitan statistical areas do not have the same scope of data collected on
them, making them less viable candidates for this study.

3.1 Data Sources
This study takes advantage of two distinct data sets: a polygon data set
with data aggregated at the county level and a point data set that represents each
individual church on the landscape. Given the complexity of the religious
landscape using the two data sets affords an opportunity to look at churches and
church-goers from micro or point level scale, and a macro or county level scale.
This allows for an exploration of the landscape from different angles adding
richness to the study.
The polygon data set comes from The Association of Religion Data
Archives (ARDA). The data from ARDA have been collected by scholars and
research institutes through surveys, polls, and other data collections since 1997.
It is housed under the Department of Sociology at Pennsylvania State University
(ARDA 2010). The 2010 Congregational Data that is a main component of the
ARDA data was gathered by the Association of Statisticians of American
27

Religious Bodies, originally appearing in the 2010 U.S. Religion Census:
Religious Congregations & Membership Study.
The ARDA data set includes congregational counts for each county,
covering both physical meeting places, represented as congregations as well as
counts of adherents within each congregation. Adherents are understood by
ARDA to be any current member, unaffiliated attender, baptized believer, or child
of an attender (ARDA 2010). The data for adherent numbers and congregation
counts was gathered by researchers who contacted the administrative body for
each denominational family requesting specific congregation counts and
adherent numbers. This approach makes the data more reliable than individual
survey data, which is noted to be erroneously over reported by some
congregations and underreported by others (Hout and Greeley 1998).
Collecting religious data is challenging with some congregations being
undercounted, some being over reported and others missed entirely (Grammich
et al. 2012). ARDA recognizes the potential shortfalls in their congregation data
and addresses one such issue with the following explanatory disclaimer: “. . . The
2010 reports contain incomplete counts of congregations and adherents
belonging to the eight largest historically African-American denominations.
These denominations are not included in the 2000 reports and are largely
missing from the 1990 and 1980 reports” (ARDA 2010). In spite of
acknowledged short-comings, this data set is very robust and covers all counties
28

in the U.S., making it one of the most thorough sources of religious data currently
available.
The point level data set comes from a Church database purchased from
Oddity Software. It is comprised of individual churches coded with church name,
address, denominational affiliation, pre-identified latitude and longitude, and
website address. According to the Oddity website, the data are updated every 120
days and should cover over 68,000 worship location across 18 denominations
(Oddity Software 2012). No methodology for data collection was provided in
their literature. Thus, it is impossible to know how the purportedly full
population of churches was established. As will be discussed later, it is likely that
this dataset also undercounts churches in the U.S.
The Oddity data contain 93,345 records of church locations in the U.S.
For this project, the data were imported into Excel from the purchased CSV file.
The data were then sorted by state and county, in preparation for data clean up.
From this set 3,133 entries were removed as they represented locations that were
not churches. Entries in error included facilities easily mistaken as churches
such as religious day care centers and wedding chapels, as well plainly erroneous
facilities such as car washes, roofing companies, and restaurants. Of the
remaining entries, nearly 60,000 of them required manual denomination
classification.
29

The manual classification process took many weeks and included such
steps as identifying denomination through obvious naming conventions, such as
Baptist or Methodist. Denomination was also determined by visiting church
websites and searching for affiliation either through direct reference or indirectly
through doctrinal statements. Additionally, names were run through the search
function on the ARDA website to determine which denominational family they
belonged to. In the interest of continuity, the congregations were classified into
families using the same grouping as the ARDA data. A note of importance is that
this data set neglected to provide a church location for 619 counties out of 3,143,
an omission of 19.6%. While incomplete, this collection represents the best
available point dataset on church structures in the U.S.

3.2 Denominational Groupings
Each of the data sets went through a process of denominational grouping.
The individual denominations were grouped into religious families. A religious
family can be thought of as a group of denominations that has a shared historical
origin (The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life 2008). Melton’s classification
takes into account 10 characteristics grouped into 3 categories: history, thought
life, and behavior patterns (Melton 2004). History represents the group’s own
understanding of its history as well as the outsider view. Thought life includes
the overall belief system and any specific beliefs that may differ from other
groups. Behavior patterns include ethics, worship format, organization structure,
30

and any distinct spiritual practices. This method is particularly useful for
understanding the wide variety of different forms of Christianity found in
America. It is a well-known classification schema used in religious research and
the backbone of the Encyclopedia of American Religions making it the
appropriate choice for this study (Melton 2004).
Other existing methods for denominational classification include Bryan
Wilson’s classification scheme, which is organized by the path to salvation, and
Elmer Clark’s approach that classifies groups based on their organizational thrust
(Melton 2004). Yet another approach is the typological system used by Bauer in
his revisiting of the religious regions of the U.S. However, it is limited to 9
classes not seeming to embrace the full diversity of the landscape (Bauer 2012).
These alternative schemes were considered but found to be less comprehensive
than Melton’s classification system. Tables 1 and 2 illustrate the results of the
classification system on each of the data sets. As a point of clarification, Non-
Denominational Christian counts represent churches that identify with the New
Testament church structure and theology and are not a catch-all classification.
The category of “Other” represents churches that do not appear to fit into any of
Melton’s family groups. While the denominational classification attempts to
account for as much variety as possible, the finer groupings in non-Christian
religions are not included in this grouping, for example all Muslim groups are
categorized as Muslim rather than differentiated as Shiite or Sunni.

31

Table 1: ARDA data denomination counts
Denominational Family Number of Churches
Adventist 5,885
Amish 1,869
Anglican 913
Baha'i 1,130
Baptist 1,710,725
Brethren 2,371
Buddhist 2,854
Catholic 20,718
Christian Scientist 1,153
Communal 1
Friends 1,329
Hindu 1,625
Holiness 12,945
Independent Fundamentalist 120
Jain 71
Jehovah's Witnesses 5,769
Jewish 3,529
Latter-Day Saints 14,393
Liberal 1,022
Lutheran 18,848
Mennonite 1,342
Methodist 51,536
Muslim 2,106
Non-Denominational Christian 35,496
Orthodox 2,551
Other/Unknown 34,999
Pentecostal 35,168
Presbyterian 17,404
Shinto 5
Sikh 246
Spiritualist 34
Tao 43
Zororastrian 33
Total Number of Congregations 1,988,199

32

Table 2: Oddity point data denomination counts
Denominational Family Number of Churches
Adventist 812
Anglican 3,014
Bahai'i 119
Baptist 20,298
Brethren 349
Buddhist 53
Catholic 10,590
Christian Science 205
Communal 2
Friends 78
Hindu 22
Holiness 2,476
Independent Fundamentalist 412
Jehovah's Witnesses 252
Jewish 1,244
Latter-Day Saints 2,460
Liberal 88
Lutheran 7,750
Mennonite 180
Methodist 9,188
Muslim 163
Non-Denominational Christian 7,479
Orthodox 654
Other 187
Pentecostal 11,276
Presbyterian 7,359
Quaker 3
Sikh 14
Spiritualist 298
Unknown 3,315
Total Number of Congregations 90,340

33

3.3 Data Quality
Prior to exploring the results in detail, it is important to compare the
potential errors between the data sets. The diversity index for each county was
examined between the ARDA and Oddity data. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate counties
where the diversity index was 0 or 1. An index of 0 indicates that there is either
no diversity or that there was missing data for the county. An index of 1 indicates
perfect diversity. This score was found in counties where there was either only
one church or one each of a combination of congregational families. These two
scores expose the possible points within the data sets that the results could be
considered less reliable.
The ARDA Data had very few areas that were missing data or had an index
of 0. There were 29 counties or county equivalents out of 3,143 that had potential
outlier data. Five counties possessed a diversity score of 0, in each case this was
attributed to single denominational dominance. The additional 24 counties had
scores indicating perfect diversity. The Oddity Data did not fare so well. There
were 1,637 records that were potential areas of less reliable results in this data
set. For the purposes of diversity calculations the ARDA data were considered
the more reliable source. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the location of the counties
with the potentially problematic data.

34

Figure 1: Counties in the ARDA data with a diversity index score of 0 or 1.

Figure 2: Counties in the Oddity data with a diversity index score of 0 or 1.
35

3.4 Diversity Index Calculations – Simpson Index of Diversity
In order to map and analyze the religious diversity of the American
Churchscape, a diversity index had to be calculated for each county. There are a
multitude of methods for calculating diversity, many of which come from the field
of biodiversity and ecology (Lu, Wagner and Chen 2007). For the purposes of
this study the Simpson Index of Diversity was used, which calculates the
probability that two randomly chosen samples will be of different species (Khan
2013). It takes into account the number of species present and the relative
abundance of each species. The formula for the Simpson Index of Diversity (SID)
is:
SID= 1- D (1)
where D = (∑n (n-1))/ (N (N-1)); n= the total # of organisms of a particular
species; and N = the total number of organisms of all species. The results fall
within a range of 0 to 1. Scores closer to 0 indicate lower level of diversity.
Scores closer to 1 indicates higher levels of diversity. As the value of D increases
the diversity decreases.
This method takes into account both richness and evenness. It is
important to note that this index is “heavily weighted to the most abundant
species in the sample while being less sensitive to species richness” (Khan 2013,
2). Species richness focuses on the sheer number of different species and does
not take into account the relative abundance of the species. In practical terms,
36

this index does not address diversity in terms of small non-Christian
denominations (i.e., species richness). Instead, it focuses on relative abundance,
which is exhibited predominantly by Christian denominations. Counties with an
overabundance of one specific denomination and a scattering of many other
denominations will appear less diverse than a county that has a more equitable
count of each denomination. This limitation in the formula is offset by the lack of
susceptibility to sample size found in other diversity index formulas, enabling
counties with differing sample sizes to be more readily comparable.
County religious diversity was then calculated and mapped for each county
in both the ARDA and the Oddity datasets. The data were originally symbolized
using the Geometric Interval classification method, Quintiles, as well as the
Natural Breaks (Jenks) method. The Geometric Interval is well suited for data
that are not normally distributed and have a high count of duplicate values, as
these data sets do. It produces an easy to interpret visual display. Quintile
classification is useful for grouping data into easy to understand categories such
as low, medium low, medium, etc. This produces easier to interpret visual output
while still maintaining data reliability. The Natural Breaks (Jenks) classification
groups classes together to make them as similar as possible while maximizing the
differences between classes. This produces data that is partitioned into natural
groups found within the data. The Geometric Interval classification methodology
was chosen because the data sets are not normally distributed and have high
counts of duplicate values.
37

The Oddity data were found to be of such poor quality that they were not
utilized for the diversity calculations. The overwhelmingly high rate of missing
data made it an unacceptable candidate when compared against the more
complete ARDA data set. While incomplete, the Oddity data represents the type
of data that are available at the individual point level, making it the only viable
candidate to use for spatial clustering analysis.

3.5 Nearest Neighbor Calculations
As a means to examine the spatial clustering of the location of churches on
the landscape in relation to diversity, the Oddity Data were run through a series
of Nearest Neighbor calculations. This method’s main purpose is to determine
the distance between a feature and its nearest neighbor and then calculate an
average that is used in an index, useful for comparing the clustering of features
(Esri 2013). The purpose in this study was to see to what degree churches of
specific religious families are clustered together in the American Churchscape. Is
it the case that like denominations stick together spatially?
The Nearest Neighbor measure first calculates the distance between the
points and their nearest neighbor and then calculates the average from the data
set. If the ratio is less than the expected average for a random distribution, then
the finding is considered clustered. If it is greater than the expected average,
38

then it is considered dispersed. The Nearest Neighbor calculations are performed
by first calculating the Average Nearest Neighbor Ratio;
ANN=Do/De (2)
where Do is the observed mean distance between each feature and their nearest
neighbor,
Do =
∑

, (3)
and De is the expected mean distance for the features given a random pattern,
De=

√
(Esri 2013). (4)
The closer to 0 the results the more clustered the points, while a reading of
1 indicates randomness, and a reading above 1 tends toward dispersion. This
method is effective for comparing features within the same study area and best
used on point data. However, it is sensitive to size changes. The results can be
greatly skewed by the geographic size of the county. A county with a larger
geographic size will likely show more clustered results than a county of a smaller
geographic size using the same point locations.
The density of churches on the landscape varies regionally across the U.S.
In order to calculate the clustering of each denomination across regions with
similar density, the data points were broken into three regions. West of the
Mississippi the settlement patterns tend to be more dispersed with larger empty
39

spaces between areas of development. East of the Mississippi the settlement
patterns tend to be more densely packed and more homogenously distributed.
Alaska and Hawaii were best kept as individual cases due to their isolated nature
and differing settlement patterns.
To further explore scalar effects this process was run at three additional
scales across low, medium, and high diversity areas. Each of the additional sites
shares similar geographic sizes to mitigate the calculations sensitivity to size
differences. State level calculations were performed on a subset of three states,
New Mexico, Mississippi, and New York. County level calculations were
performed on Jefferson County, Alabama; Maricopa County, Arizona, and
Providence County, Rhode Island. Lastly, the process was also performed at the
Metropolitan Statistical Level. The areas chosen were Dallas-Ft. Worth-
Arlington, Seattle, and Washington D.C.
Within each of the scales and regions the nearest neighbor ratio was
calculated for each of the major denominations and then compared against the
ratio for all churches within the same region. This method was used in an
attempt to see if there were any noticeable clustering patterns driven by
denominational family. This was then compared with the religious diversity
index calculations to see if diversity had any impacts on the spatial clustering of
churches.

40

3.6 3D analysis using ArcScene
The use of GIS enabled a novel method for creating a representational
fabric of both Churchscape and the landscape of adherents or “Adherentscape”.
ArcScene, a tool in Esri’s suite of visualization tools, allows users to analyze and
interact with two-dimensional data in a three-dimensional viewer. This helps to
make subtleties in the data more apparent. Standard choropleth maps may be
useful in understanding some facets of the data sets, but lack the compositional
rendering that ArcScene allows. Used in conjunction with the ARDA data,
ArcScene provides an additional resource for understanding the religious
landscape of an area.

3.6.1 Visualizing the Churchscape
To create the Churchscape Fabric (CF), each of the largest congregational
families was symbolized with a different color at the county level. Then the
extrusion or three dimensional setting was set using the following formula:
CF= (FC/C) * 10,000 (5)
where FC = the total count of congregations within a denominational family; C=
the total number of congregations within the county; and 10,000 is the factor the
result is multiplied by to obtain the extrusion height. With each of the
congregational families using the same formula, the one with the largest value
becomes the dominant color for the county.
41

3.6.2 Visualizing the Adherentscape
The religious landscape is composed of more than just the churches. It is
also composed of the adherents or churchgoers. To capture what the
adherentscape fabric (AF) looks like, each congregational family adherent count
was symbolized as a different color at the county level. Then the extrusion setting
was set for the ARDA data using the following formula:
AF= (AC/A) * 10,000 (6)
where AC = the total count of adherents per denominational family; A= the total
# of adherents within the county; and 10,000 is the factor the result is multiplied
by to obtain the extrusion height.
Population variations could have significant impacts on either over- or
under-representation of adherent counts. There will also be areas where
adherents may live in one county, yet attend church in a different county. In
order to minimize the potential problems that could be introduced, these data
were also normalized by total population. The following formula was used:
AF= ((AC/A) * 10000)/2010 Census Population (7)
The adherent population that has the highest proportion of the population is the
dominant color for the county.
42

3.6.3 Visualizing the Mega-Church Phenomenon
ArcScene was also used to visualize more clearly those regions that had the
highest average denomination size. Mega-churches, establishments with
attendance counts higher than 2,000, are considered one of the more rapidly
growing elements of the religious landscape in America (Warf and Winsberg
2010). The visualization of this phenomenon was performed in hopes of seeing if
there was any pattern in the location of these counties in terms of diversity, as
well as a dominant denomination. To estimate church sizes, the ARDA data were
used to calculate the average denomination size using the formula Total
Adherents/Total Congregations. The calculation is an average of total adherents
at the county level and does not represent specific counts for individual
congregations. This is an alternative way of looking at Mega-Churches, instead of
looking at individual churches it looks at the overall abundance of adherents
limited to a given number of congregations.
43

Figure 3: Average congregation size distribution

Figure 3 shows the distribution of average congregation sizes by county.
The mean for this data set is 188 while the median is 166. This result was then
extruded producing a three-dimensional view of the regions with the highest
average congregation size.

3.7 Summary
Understanding the churchscape and adherentscape of America is a
complex task. In an attempt to explore the landscape in novel ways, diversity
indexes were calculated for each county using a well-known diversity index from
ecology using two different data sets. Then the religious diversity was mapped at
Average Congregation Size
[0; 50)
[100; 151)
[201; 251)
[301; 351)
[402; 452)
[502; 552)
[602; 653)
[703; 753)
[803; 853)
[904; 954)
[1054; 1104)
[1205; 1255]
Number of Counties
540
520
500
480
460
440
420
400
380
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
44

the county level in order to visualize the patterns on the landscape. The degree
of clustering of churches was calculated to see if there were any patterns amongst
denomination. Using ArcScene, a fabric of churches and adherents was created
providing a new way of visualizing the religious landscape of America. Lastly, the
mega-church phenomenon was mapped using 3D tools providing a new way of
conceptualizing the location of mega-churches. The techniques and methods
presented here can be used to produce new visualizations of the religious
landscape of America. The choices made reflect an effort to explore this topic
from many different angles in an attempt to further a thorough understanding of
the American Churchscape.

45

Chapter 4 Results: The American Churchscape
The religious landscape of the U.S. can be viewed and explained in many different
ways depending upon the metrics employed. Looked at as a whole, the different
regionalization patterns show a complex and diverse landscape of American
religion. The introduction of GIS allows for the existing landscape to be explored
from new angles. By examining the differences between what the physical
locations say about the religious landscape with what the adherents say about the
religious landscape a different form of regionalization becomes apparent.
Looking at counties using diversity as an indicator illustrates yet another type of
regionalization.

4.1 Diversity Index Calculations
The diversity index was calculated for each county and then classified
using the Geometric Interval classification. This method is best used on data that
is not normally distributed and contains a high count of duplicate values. As
shown in Figure 4, the diversity index values for U.S. counties are non-normally
distributed. The Geometric Interval classification method provides an easy-to-
interpret visual representation of the data that minimizes the issues that can arise
in data that are not normally distributed. The pattern shows a bimodal
distribution with more counties weighted toward higher levels of diversity.
46

Figure 4: Distribution of diversity index calculations

When mapped, the overall the religious diversity of the U.S. exhibits three
main regions. Figure 5 illustrates the collective diversity landscape at the county
level. The Northeast region exhibits a broad tendency toward less diversity. The
South exhibits predominately moderate levels of diversity. By contrast, the West
has many counties with higher levels of diversity interspersed with counties of
lower levels of diversity. In the West, the overall trend is toward more diversity,
and counties with lower diversity sometimes form distinct sub-regions (e.g.,
Coastal and Central California, Coastal Washington State).
Diversity Index Calculations
[0.; 0.02)
[0.06; 0.08)
[0.14; 0.16)
[0.22; 0.24)
[0.3; 0.32)
[0.38; 0.4)
[0.46; 0.48)
[0.54; 0.56)
[0.62; 0.64)
[0.7; 0.72)
[0.78; 0.8)
[0.86; 0.88)
[0.94; 0.96)
Number of Counties
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
47

Figure 5: Map depicting religious diversity at the county level

4.2 Regional Religious Landscape Investigations
To look at the religious landscape in further detail, smaller geographic
regions were defined. These regions encompass many states and were loosely
determined by the overall pattern of diversity. The regionalization following
diversity levels is an approach to religious grouping not typically seen.
Traditionally, religious regions are defined by the dominant denomination of the
area rather than the diversity of the area.
48

Denominational profiles are also useful for understanding the religious
landscape of a region. The religious composition of a region viewed in the frame
of diversity shows that the composition and numerical distribution of
denominations plays a role in the diversity of the area. For the following regions,
the only denominations highlighted graphically were the groups with a larger
share of the adherent population. The landscape contains many smaller
denominations and many non-Christian groups such as Hindu, Muslim, and
Buddhist, but their limited numbers are not as likely to appear as diverse in the
landscape even though they represent species richness. This approach looks at
the overall fabric of the region rather than the specific details.
4.2.1 Northeastern Low Diversity Region
The states of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York,
Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, West
Virginia, and Illinois were chosen for this grouping because of the overwhelming
presence of counties of low diversity upon visual inspection. The mean religious
diversity for the 552 counties in this region is 0.338, the lowest of any region.
49

Figure 6: Map depicting the low diversity Northeast Region

This area is defined by two main cultural regions, the New England Region
and a portion of the Midwest. The New England culture has been shaped by early
European immigration that was largely rooted in a Puritan heritage. A great deal
of the culture focused on maritime affairs such as fishing and whaling. Despite
the early religious beginnings of the area, it is now according to the American
Religious Identification Survey, one of the least religious areas of the nation
(Kosmin and Keysar 2009). The other culture region present is a portion of the
Midwest. This area is known for its combination of heavy industry and
50

agriculture. Many Midwesterners share common values that have come to be
identified with the Heartland including family, hard work, honesty, and integrity
(Zelinsky 1973, Gillin 1955, Kosmin and Keysar 2009).
The religious landscape of the Northeast Region is characterized by
numerous small churches. This selection of counties has an average number of
1,772 congregations per county with an average of 86 adherents per church.
Many of the congregations appear to be hold-overs from the mainline protestant
denominational history of the area. The low number of adherents per
congregation is likely a product of the high number of churches in an area noted
for its low overall religiosity.
Figure 7 shows the denominational composition of the area highlighting
the dominance of Catholic, Baptist, and Methodist congregations. The higher
count of churches might be associated with higher levels of diversity, but in this
case it is not. Instead, the increased number of churches are confined to a few
denominations and coupled with low overall religiosity.
51

Figure 7: Religious composition of Northeastern Region

4.2.2 North Central Region
This region’s 657 counties cover the states of Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri.
Counties in this region have a mean diversity index score of 0.604 closest to the
mean for all states, at 0 .603. Kansas is an outlier for this region and seems to fit
more closely with the Northeastern Region than any of its surrounding areas.
52

Figure 8: Map depicting the North-Central Region

The culture of this area, particularly the Upper Midwest, is greatly
influenced by large numbers of Scandinavians, Irish, German, and Polish.
Religion is an important part of the regional lifestyle. The economy is a balance
between heavy industry and agriculture, with nearly 65% of the population
participating in the workforce according to the U.S. Census. The average median
family income is slightly above the U.S. average at $57,998.
53

The religious landscape of the area is closer to the national mean than
other regions. The average congregation count for the selection of counties is 307
with an average adherent count of 177 people per congregation. The
denominational profile is a fairly even split between Catholic, Lutheran, and
Methodists. This area has the highest percentage of Lutheran adherents in the
entire U.S.

Figure 9: Religious composition of the North-Central Region

Kansas is an outlier in this grouping. The religious diversity for Kansas is
significantly lower overall than any of the surrounding states. It more closely
follows the pattern found in the Northeast region. What is it about Kansas that
makes it an outlier for the region? This is an area that would benefit from a more
in-depth analysis than performed here.
54

Kansas has 105 Counties with a mean religious diversity index of 0.342
and a median diversity index of 0.209. The mean congregation size is 58 with a
median of 26. The mean congregation count per county is 507 with a median of
107. The variance between the mean and the median indicates that there are a
few counties that have much higher averages than the others and cause the mean
to be higher. The relative abundance of farmland supported by small farming
communities and the presence of only a few major urban areas likely drive this
landscape. Overall the denominational profile is heavily weighted toward
Catholics and Methodists as Figure 10 indicates.

Figure 10: Religious composition of Kansas

55

4.2.3 Southeastern Bible Belt Region
The eastern seaboard and southern states of Maryland, Delaware, District
of Columbia, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and
Louisiana make up the third region. The 1,365 counties in this grouping have a
mean diversity of 0.678, the second highest in the regions identified here.

Figure 11: Map depicting the moderate diversity Southeastern Region

56

Traditionally known as The South, this region was historically dependent
on agriculture, and society was stratified along property ownership lines and by a
history of slavery, reconstruction, and segregation. The original settlers were
primarily of English origin with a large influx of African Americans due to
slavery. Religion has always been an important facet of the culture, and is
something that is simply part of how life is lived here, giving the region the
commonly known nickname “The Bible Belt”. This is a distinct subculture region
and significantly more politically conservative than the remainder of the U.S
(Gillin 1955, Zelinsky 1980).
The religious landscape of the area is overwhelmingly dominated by
Baptist congregations as seen in Figure 12. The selection of counties has an
average number of 306 congregations with an average adherent count of 235. It
has the highest average congregation size of all the regions. The average median
income of the region is the lowest of all regions at $51,664. It would seem that
the overwhelming dominance of one denomination would create an environment
where religious diversity is lower than areas with a more balanced
denominational composition. Yet, even in this region, almost half of the church
structures host other denominations. Of particular note is the nearly even
balance between the Methodist and Catholic churches, the other two principal
denominations. While traditional thinking believed that this region was heavily
dominated by Baptists and lacking diversity, this study highlights that “The Bible
Belt” is much more diverse than commonly believed to be.
57

Figure 12: Religious composition of the Southeastern Region

4.2.4 Mountain Region
The region made up of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah,
Nevada, New Mexico, and Arizona has a mean diversity index at 0.695. This
region of 281 counties exhibits the highest overall religious diversity index of any
region.
58

Figure 13: Map depicting the high diversity Mountain Region

The Mountain Region is an area known as a frontier and a haven for
independent and free-spirited people. The abundance of wilderness and outdoor
activities are a major attraction. Much of the culture is built on the cowboy ethos
of hard work and self-reliance (Gillin 1955).
The religious landscape of the area is the most diverse of all the regions.
The denominational composition is heavily weighted toward the Latter-Day
Saints and Catholics as seen in Figure 14. The Latter-Day Saints have their
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headquarters in Utah, which is the area with the lowest diversity of the region,
perhaps indicating that the predominant presence of Latter-Day Saints reduces
the diversity in that state. However, it is important to note that even Utah has a
higher level of diversity than many other states in the U.S. The large numbers of
Catholics is likely due in part to the growing of Hispanic populations in Arizona
and New Mexico.

Figure 14: Religious composition of the Mountain Region

4.2.5 Pacific Region
The Pacific states of Washington, Oregon, California, Hawaii, Alaska and
their 167 counties make up the final grouping. This region has the second lowest
overall diversity with a mean diversity index of 0.632.
60

Figure 15: Map depicting the Pacific Region

The Pacific Northwest is a bastion for those wanting a lifestyle that is laid
back and revolves around the natural beauty and favorable climate. The
landscape is made up of liberal cities thriving on new money from technology
ventures, juxtaposed by very conservative agricultural or ranching rural areas.
Overall there is a very low population density. California is unique in terms of
culture, an immigration destination, and its role in show business, technology,
61

finances, and agriculture. This region is known for its loose family ties and high
value placed on mobility (Gillin 1955).
The religious composition of the Pacific Region, as seen in Figure 16, is
surprising considering its long time association with a lack of strong religious
ties. This area is largely Catholic with secondary dominance split between
Baptists and Methodists. Non-Denominational Christians have a greater
presence in this area than any other area. Perhaps the relative newness of
settlement and the influx of different cultures make a denomination that is
different than the traditional mainline denominations appealing.

Figure 16: Religious composition of the Pacific Region

62

4.3 Multi-Scale Nearest Neighbor Calculations
This study also set out to look at the spatial clustering of churches on the
landscape at various scales ranging from broad regions to selected states,
counties, and metropolitan statistical areas across differing scopes of religious
diversity. The process entailed performing Nearest Neighbor Calculations for all
churches and then each of the major church denominational families, by region,
state, county, and then metropolitan statistical area. The goal was to determine if
the physical churches for particular denominations are spatially clustered in the
U.S. Do particular denominations isolate their church structures in areas with
like-minded denominations? The closer to 0 the resulting statistic the more
clustered the locations, whereas a statistic closer to 1 indicates randomness, and
statistic greater than 1 indicates dispersion.
The broad regions included counties east of the Mississippi, counties west
of the Mississippi, Alaska, and Hawaii. This method for grouping counties was
chosen for the differences in development pattern and density. This study is not
interested in comparing between the regions, to do so would require a method for
normalizing data based on development patterns.
Tables 3 through 6 illustrate the differences between each of the broad
regions and each denominational family. Overall the calculations for All
Churches showed the highest degree of clustering. Thus, although churches of all
denominations tend to be clustered in the landscape, particular denominations
are not isolated from others.
63

Table 3: Nearest neighbor calculations for Eastern Region
Nearest Neighbor
Index
Number of
Churches
All Churches 0.196893 55,518
Adventist 0.352769 393
Anglican 0.32488 2,011
Baptist 0.256257 12,965
Catholic 0.303351 6,837
Holiness 0.40367 1,447
Latter Day Saints 0.470106 374
Lutheran 0.287287 4,655
Methodist 0.315932 6,525
Non-Denominational Christian 0.309229 4,033
Pentecostal 0.378639 6,393
Presbyterian 0.281524 5,295

Table 4: Nearest neighbor calculations for Western Region
Nearest Neighbor
Index
Number of
Churches
All Churches 0.201364 32,903
Adventist 0.330107 398
Anglican 0.305625 883
Baptist 0.209628 7,121
Catholic 0.292004 3,501
Holiness 0.395654 955
Latter Day Saints 0.341544 1,887
Lutheran 0.225542 2,991
Methodist 0.263263 2,527
Non-Denominational Christian 0.236298 3,311
Pentecostal 0.315243 4,623
Presbyterian 0.28609 1,936

64

Table 5: Nearest neighbor calculations for Hawaii
Nearest Neighbor
Index
Number of
Churches
All Churches 0.103136 608
Adventist 2.757913 7
Anglican 1.113632 17
Baptist 0.172192 44
Catholic 0.51014 49
Holiness 0.810967 24
Latter Day Saints 0.172192 159
Lutheran 2.831444 12
Methodist 0.315605 18
Non-Denominational Christian 0.715294 30
Pentecostal 0.173564 105
Presbyterian 0.816797 34

Table 6: Nearest neighbor calculations for Alaska
Nearest Neighbor
Index
Number of
Churches
All Churches 0.166722 530
Adventist 1.000772 11
Anglican 0.775257 15
Baptist 0.374415 50
Catholic 0.464449 43
Holiness 0.206651 40
Latter Day Saints 0.661897 32
Lutheran 0.189746 38
Methodist 0.297655 24
Non-Denominational Christian 0.130482 64
Pentecostal 0.347446 97
Presbyterian 0.418347 14

In examining the clustering data for each denominational family it is
important to look at the number of churches for each denomination that factor
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into the nearest neighbor statistic. It could be a safe assumption that the law of
large numbers could be at play; denominations with more congregations will
have more clustered results and denominations with fewer congregations will
show more random or dispersed statistics. This does not appear to carry through
within this data set. In the Eastern Region, Table 3, Anglican and Adventist
denominations have markedly different counts and quite similar statistics. There
are a total of 2,011 Anglican churches with a nearest neighbor statistic of
0.32488; yet there are only 393 Adventist denominations that produce a statistic
of 0.352769. Given that there are five times more Anglican churches than
Adventist churches, it might be safe to assume that Adventist denominations
would show significantly less clustering, perhaps five times less, than Anglican
churches. The statistics do not show this.
Non-Denominational Christian congregations in Alaska were the only
family that exhibited a higher degree of clustering than the calculation for All
Churches within the same region. This was true across all of the four broad
regions. With the exception of Jews and Presbyterians, all Western Region
churches exhibited higher degrees of clustering than the Eastern Region
churches, in spite of the smaller denominational counts. This was an expected
result given that the observed development pattern in the Western U.S. follows a
much more clustered pattern than the diffuse homogeneous pattern seen in the
Eastern U.S. The density calculations for Hawaii were quite varied, some
66

congregations like the Baptists exhibiting tightly clustered results while others
such as the Adventist and Lutheran congregations were quite dispersed.
The results indicate that development patterns dictate to a large degree the
clustering of churches on the landscape. In areas where development is diffuse,
the churches can be expected to exhibit less clustering than in areas where
development is clustered. Denomination did not appear to play an appreciable
difference in the clustering of churches overall. The two denominational families
with the largest ranges of clustering were the Adventists and the Lutherans, each
because of their dispersed results from Hawaii.
The states chosen for the analysis included states of similar geographic
size but different religious diversity results. In part, this was done in an effort to
explore whether the spatial scale of the analysis influences the basic conclusions.
The states chosen were the high diversity state of New Mexico, the moderately
diverse state of Mississippi, and the low diversity state of New York. The results
are included in Table 7. A score closer to 0 represents a greater degree of
clustering while a score closer to 1 indicates randomness and a score above 1
indicates a greater degree of dispersion. The results for the clustering of All
Churches illustrates that the number of churches does not play an appreciable
role in the clustering statistic. New Mexico had the fewest number of churches
and the most clustered result. Methodist denominations exhibit similar
disregard for the law of large numbers. New Mexico has 30 congregations and a
statistic of 0.522495, Mississippi has 70 congregations with a statistic of
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0.327665, while New York has 462 congregations and a statistic of 0.477637. The
statistic from New York, if it were following the law of large numbers would show
a result significantly more clustered than either of the other states.
Table 7: Nearest neighbor calculations by state
New
Mexico
Number
of
Churches
Mississippi Number
of
Churches
New York Number
of
Churches
All Churches 0.17752 593 0.380425 908 0.228347 3627
Adventist 0.716379 8 0 1 0.558727 24
Anglican 0.880838 14 1.269823 17 0.398906 227
Baptist 0.336409 62 0.296646 335 0.319985 343
Catholic 0.599113 79 0.56146 44 0.372842 912
Holiness 0.929161 18 1.129171 20 0.408271 63
Latter-Day
Saints
0.598812 75 1.149568 12 1.643511 7
Lutheran 0.234839 27 0.926785 12 0.387794 340
Methodist 0.522495 30 0.327665 70 0.477637 462
Non-
Denominational
Christian
0.438409 46 0.539929 39 0.410765 149
Pentecostal 0.338944 109 0.598118 240 0.345197 302
Presbyterian 0.341857 29 0.414963 26 0.440834 412

The nearest neighbor calculation was also conducted at the county level,
once again to check for scalar effects on the measure. The counties chosen
include three counties of roughly the same geographic size and represent low,
moderate, and high diversity. Jefferson County, Alabama is the most populated
county in the state, encompassing Birmingham and its suburbs. Maricopa
County, Arizona is the home to Phoenix and is one of the most populated
counties in Arizona. Providence County, Rhode Island is the center of population
for the state. These three counties are all population centers in different diversity
68

regions. Their nearest neighbor ratio calculations are included in Table 8. In all
three counties the ratio for All Churches showed a higher degree of clustering
than any one denominational family. Non-Denominational Christian statistics
show that in Jefferson County there are 29 congregations with a clustering
statistic of 0.952718, while Maricopa County has 114 congregations with a
statistic of 0.741038, and Providence County has 14 congregations with a statistic
of 1.344221. These statistics show that congregation count does not seem to
matter at the county scale either.
Table 8: Nearest neighbor calculations by county
Jefferson
County,
Alabama
Number
of
Churches
Maricopa
County,
Arizona
Number
of
Churches
Providence
County,
Rhode
Island
Number
of
Churches
All Churches 0.571203 482 0.464962 877 0.525917 354
Adventist 2.71188 4 1.459972 10 1.996689 5
Anglican 1.430522 12 1.111882 23 0.871157 27
Baptist 0.765308 241 0.771243 123 1.014376 34
Catholic 1.261473 19 0.903831 76 0.597382 106
Holiness 1.877533 6 1.12872 35 1.682295 8
Latter-Day
Saints
0 1 0.873903 85 1.121464 9
Lutheran 1.384221 7 0.93771 83 1.911739 5
Methodist 0.957841 62 0.981075 46 1.5213574 11
Non-
Denominational
Christian
0.952718 29 0.741038 114 1.344221 14
Pentecostal 0.862411 75 0.694132 126 1.02331 46
Presbyterian 1.009876 18 0.912332 49 1.369986 18

As a final check at the smallest relevant scale, three urban areas were
chosen including locations from regions of the U.S. that differ both
geographically and in their overall diversity levels. Dallas-Fort Worth represents
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an urban area that is comprised of 10 different counties with a mean diversity
index of 0.689. The Seattle urban area contains three counties with a mean
diversity index of 0.263. Washington D.C is comprised of 22 counties with a
mean diversity of 0.632. In each of these areas the nearest neighbor ratio shows
the most clustering for All Churches. No single denominational family exhibits
higher clustering. Catholic denominations across each of the MSA’s highlight a
similar finding that number of churches is not a determinant of clustering
statistic. In Dallas-Ft. Worth there are 87 churches that produce a statistic of
1.270416, Seattle has 75 congregations that produce a nearest neighbor statistic
of 0.8903, and Washington DC has 168 locations that produce a statistic of
0.780911. The significant difference between Dallas-Ft. Worth and Seattle
illustrates that church numbers do not dictate clustering statistics.

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Table 9: Nearest neighbor calculations by Metropolitan Statistical Area
Dallas-
Fort
Worth-
Arlington,
TX
Number of
Churches
Seattle Number
of
Churches
Washington
DC
Number
of
Churches
All Churches 0.53833 1,719 0.505865 809 0.486971 1,782
Adventist 1.881634 9 1.375442 18 1.322122 23
Anglican 1.076792 55 1.246841 36 1.069051 116
Baptist 0.656644 751 0.791244 105 0.62562 410
Catholic 1.270416 87 0.8903 75 0.780911 168
Holiness 1.160986 19 1.403188 28 0.737241 34
Latter-Day
Saints
3.797126 4 0.939972 37 1.446444 14
Lutheran 0.972724 69 0.789633 137 1.017675 111
Methodist 1.011925 202 1.058381 64 0.816564 252
Non-
Denominational
Christian
0.736618 225 0.156369 94 0.738549 122
Pentecostal 0.891984 159 0.73813 90 0.528602 177
Presbyterian 0.956655 73 0.841225 72 0.825931 122

The findings for the spatial clustering for churches are an important
evidence for the null hypothesis. There is no evidence of a relationship between
clustering of like denominations in the American Churschape. Also, no
particular denominations are more clustered than others. Changes in scale and
overall levels of diversity do not influence this result. Irrespective of scale, the
findings for All Churches showed a higher degree of clustering than any
denominational family. As the geographic regions chosen for analysis got smaller
the degree of clustering seemed to trend toward randomness or dispersion.
However, the relationship remains in which churches of all denominations are
more clustered than for any specific denominations.
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The study also finds for the null hypothesis on the relationship between
diversity and clustering. This study was unable to identify any linkage between
diversity and clustering. Thus, even in areas where a few denominations are in
the minority, these church structures for these denominations are not spatially
isolated from other churches.
While this study was unable to find any direct correlation between
clustering and congregation counts, or diversity there is much still to be explored.
The nearest neighbor statistic is susceptible to study area size, making it critical
to compare study areas of like size. This paper attempted to find samples of
similar geographic size in different diversity regions, there is additional study
that should be done to control for geographic size more closely to confirm the
findings.

4.4 Dominant Denominations in the American Churchscape
Another way to view the Churchscape is to look for the most dominant
church denomination on the landscape in terms of church buildings or meeting
places. This analysis is based on the congregation counts found within the ARDA
data because of its completeness. The most surprising result is that Baptist
churches or places of worship prevail across the vast majority of the U.S. The
Lutheran church dominates the far north around Minnesota and North Dakota.
The Latter-Day Saints are fairly tightly clustered in the region surrounding Utah.
72

The Methodist, Catholic, Pentecostal, and Presbyterian congregations are
scattered across the remainder of the U.S. as seen in Figure 17.
This result is surprising given that traditional religious geography that
relegates Baptists to the Bible Belt in the Southeast region of the U.S. (Clarke
1990). Based on physical places of worship America appears to be a
predominantly Baptist country. The Lutheran presence in the far north parallels
the migration of Scandinavian peoples into the area. The concentration of Latter-
Day Saints in and around the Utah area is reasonable; given Salt Lake City’s role
as the historical heart of the Latter-Day Saints Church. The remaining counties
are a mixture of Methodist, Pentecostal, and Catholic denominations scattered
throughout the U.S.

73

Figure 17: Churchscape of the U.S.: County color reflects denominational family with highest
percentage of church buildings on the landscape.

4.5 Adherentscape
The Adherentscape represents the denomination that has the highest
percentage of adherents per county, shown in Figure 18. The results show
regional clustering of denominations. The Baptists are homogenously spread
across the southeastern U.S. The Latter-Day Saints are concentrated in the Salt
Lake Basin, covering the majority of Utah and parts of Idaho and Wyoming. The
Lutherans are clustered in the north covering parts of North and South Dakota
and Minnesota. The Catholics were the most surprising with their distribution
seemingly acting as a border around the perimeter of the U.S. The lone clustering
74

of Methodists in southwestern Pennsylvania and Northeastern Virginia marks the
only other grouping of note.

Figure 18: Adherentscape of the U.S.: County color reflects denominational family with highest
percentage of adherents.

One of the most striking results from this study is the difference between the
Churchscape and the Adherentscape. The physical congregations as seen in Figure 17
show an overwhelming dominance of Baptists. Yet the adherents as seen in Figure 18
limit the Baptist influence to the area commonly understood as the Bible Belt. The
Lutheran presence in the church locations is seemingly more localized in the north,
75

whereas the adherents spread further south into more of the Great Plains region. The
Latter Day Saints also exhibit a similar pattern, with their churchscape dominance being
less pervasive than their adherentscape presence.

4.6 Highest Average Denomination Size
This study also looked at the average congregation size by county as seen
in Figure 19. Within the ARDA Data each denomination was given a total count of
adherents. This was divided by the total number of congregations to determine
the mean adherent count per church for each county. Based on this county-by-
county calculation, the mean church size for the U.S. is 188 with the median value
of the mean church size for all counties being 166. The Northeast as well as West
Virginia, Indiana and portions of Kansas has the lowest average congregation
size. Here nearly all fall below an average adherent count of 126.
The areas that show the highest average denomination size share one thing
in common: the dominant congregational family is Catholic. In Mono County
California, there are 13,645 adherents spread across 14 different congregations,
and 12,852 of those adherents attend just three Catholic churches. Not
surprisingly, Webb County, Texas has 147,243 adherents in 138 different
congregations with 126,750 of them belonging to 26 different Catholic churches.
The complex of parishes with large churches that surround New Orleans,
Louisiana also exhibits the Catholic dominance. In counties with high average
church sizes that are not Catholic, the results favor rural areas with only a few
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church structures where the adherent counts may represent the majority of the
believers for the entire county.
Figure 19: Average congregation sizes by county symbolized by geometric interval

77

Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion
The traditional geographic distribution of religions in the U.S. shows that we
have very distinct regions dominated by different denominations. The results
from this study also show this; however, the comparison between the landscape
of the physical church structures and the landscape of adherents uncovers
discord between the two. The American Churchscape is predominantly Baptist
and the Adherentscape is predominantly Catholic.

5.1 The Churchscape
The American Churchscape reflects the long historical tradition of
religious diversity and pluralism stemming from the Colonial period. Although
adherents and church structures for one denomination or another predominate
in particular counties and regions, there is no trend toward isolation or
sectarianism in either the Churchscape or the Adherentscape, as is sometimes
reported in other parts of the world.
When looking at the churches in communities across the country Baptist
churches are the most numerous. Why is the landscape this way? Could the
proliferation be due to Baptist evangelism efforts at the beginning and middle of
the Twentieth century? Stetzer (2005) reported that during the 1920s and the
1950s church growth in the Southern Baptist Convention experienced positive
growth and evangelism due to the “75 Million Campaign” and “A Million More in
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54” (Stetzer 2005). Examining the establishment date for the churches could
pinpoint the era of greatest infiltration of Baptists across the American
landscape.
Some regional clusters are well explained by particular religious histories.
For example, the cluster of the Latter-Day Saints in the area surrounding Utah is
easily comprehended as this area was a remote place of refuge for Mormon
adherents when the early church was persecuted in the Midwest. Also, the history
of Scandinavian immigration explains the cluster of Lutherans in the far north.
The Baptist dominance across the majority of America is not as easy to explain
and is worthy of further exploration.

5.2 The Adherentscape
The landscape of adherents or those that attend a specific church tells a
different story than the Churchscape. The Adherentscape is largely Catholic, with
a heavy concentration of Baptists in the southeastern U.S. and a large cluster of
Latter-Day Saints in the Utah area. Why does the Adherentscape tell a different
story than the Churchscape? This finding falls more in line with the traditional
understanding of the religious regions of America; however, the disparity
between physical church establishments and adherents deserves further
exploration. A standardized and regularly maintained data set that includes
locations, denominational affiliation, and attendance might highlight the
79

differences found in this study or it could show that the findings of this study do
not hold true.

5.3 Religious Regionalization
Traditional religious geographic thinking carves the American landscape
into regions based on dominant denomination. Notwithstanding studies by Silk
(Silk 2007) and Warf and Winsberg (2008) using different techniques, diversity
is a less explored facet of religious regionalism. The detail in this study allows for
a more fine-grained view of the diversity of the American Churchscape.
Exploration of the pluralistic nature of the American religious landscape as
undertaken by Warf and Winsberg (2008) focuses on mapping the religious
diversity at the county level. Using Shannon’s Index, a well-known biodiversity
index, and a Dorling Cartogram. The visual exploration also included mapping
the sheer volume of different denominations at a county level and mapping each
county’s adherents belonging to the largest denominations (Warf and Winsberg
2008). While each of the results was similar, the visual representations only
focused on the largest denominations rather that the entire fabric of diversity.
Also at issue is the base congregational data, while from a similar source, is circa
2000. Much can change in a decade.
This study builds upon previous scholarship such as Warf and Winsberg
(2008). Rather than limiting diversity to measures reflecting only the major
80

denominations, all denominational families were included to truly appreciate the
diversity of potential religious expression. ARDA data from 2010 includes
previously unreported data that originates from the traditionally African-
American denominations (ARDA 2010). Utilizing a more complete data set that
takes into account the finer details of religious diversity provides a more
comprehensive look at the religious diversity of America. However, the
denominational families were heavily weighted to the many varieties of
Christianity and did not include the full variety of non-Christian groups, creating
a limitation in understanding the full diversity of the religious landscape.
The work of Bauer (2012) illustrates the similarities and differences
between American religious regions from 1980 and 2000. The results of the
regionalization in this work were pulled from a data source similar to the ARDA,
providing a similar base for comparison. The classification of religious groups
was done at a typological level that groups many denominational families
together, rather than at a denominational family level as in this study. By
creating a more detailed classification and basing it on diversity, this study shows
a greater level of specificity and detail that has not been included in most
traditional region level classifications.
This study looked at creating regions based on religious diversity; the
result was five broad multistate regions that span multiple denominational
dominances. However, the underpinnings of culture in these regions were not
explored in great detail. Further study should explore in detail the demographic,
81

cultural, historical and economic factors in each region to find any discernible
explanation for the differences in the degree of diversity across regions. Esri has a
data set, the Esri Tapestry Segmentation that uses cluster analysis on census data
to group ZIP codes into 65 different social segments (Esri 2013). Usage of the
Esri data set could empower researchers to look at the underlying social fabric of
each region as people commonly understand it to see what factors may be driving
the levels of religious diversity in an area.

5.4 Church Clustering
The spatial clustering of churches, despite religious diversity, is not
denominationally specific. Churches as a whole cluster more closely than any
given denomination at all scales. This seems contrary to common thought that
certain denominations may cluster more tightly than others, such as the Latter-
Day Saints to escape persecution. Further study looking at cities that were
established at similar times in history and are approximately the same size may
be a better comparison.
In regions of the world undergoing political and ethnic turmoil, an
examination of the church spatial clustering would be beneficial. Examining
locations in areas of turmoil can illustrate the impact of strife on churches. What
would the landscape of Northern Ireland show? Perhaps looking at this type of
82

result and comparing it with the findings of American cities may produce
interesting results.
While this thesis looked at different scales, there are scales that could still
be explored. Further research could look into the clustering at the city, town, or
even neighborhood scale. This level of examination could provide relevant
understanding for urban planners and those interested in neighborhood
stabilization.

5.5 Highest Average Congregation Sizes
The relatively recent phenomenon of Mega-Churches, those with huge
numbers of adherents, is an area where much further scholarship should be done.
From this study’s approach it appears that churches that have highest average
adherent counts tend to be in suburban areas where Catholicism is the dominant
denomination. Previous research has indicated that the majority of Mega-
Churches have Protestant, suburban, metropolitan, and Sunbelt orientations
(Warf and Winsberg 2010). Is this always the case? Many of the most commonly
identified Mega-Churches are specifically Non-Denominational Christian, such as
the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, California. This study indicates that the
counties with the highest average adherent count are predominantly Catholic.
The adherent counts reported by the ARDA data utilized the same formula for
calculating for each denomination, what could cause this differentiation.
83

A plausible theory for the Catholic lean toward large congregations could
be that Catholic parishes offer more opportunities for worship during the week
than other denominations. For example, Saint John Cathedral in Lafayette,
Louisiana has 17 different times for Mass during the week, whereas Bayou Baptist
church in the same community has only three services during the week. The
increased opportunities for worship may contribute to the higher adherent count
in Catholic churches in some areas.
This apparent contradiction in what is traditionally understood to be a
Mega-Church and what the ARDA data indicates deserves further research.
While geographers have looked at the individual churches and their locations as
isolated instances, the ARDA data seems to indicate that perhaps the local
adherent body is larger in areas where there are Mega-Churches. Chaves (2006)
looked at the overall distribution of growing Protestant denominations; the same
methodology could be applied to Catholic churches to see if the patterns
uncovered in this study are supported by other findings.

5.6 Data Set Needs
Traditionally, GIS has approached analysis from a problem solving
perspective. This approach is self-limiting and often establishes a cycle of
continually focusing on problems that eventually lead to negativity. Hodza
(2013) brings this idea to the forefront in his recent article. He asserts that this
84

negative cycle causes GIS to miss the point of Appreciative Inquiry, where focus
is placed on strengths rather than weaknesses (Hodza 2013). Religious data in
and of itself will not likely be a data set used for problem solving. Rather it is a
data set that can be used by communities and scholars to explore how to drive
community innovation and generate social capital.
This study had to cope with data problems. Spatial data on religion is
scarce at best. There are limited numbers of reliable data sources, many of which
are themselves rife with data collection problems. There was only one easily
attainable point level data set wrought with flaws available for this study. This
initial data set contained over 93,000 points that required several weeks’ worth
of clean up, that included manual classifying the denominations and deleting
records that were not actual church locations.
Point level data on each church with self-identified denomination and
standardized attendance numbers could provide a more accurate base by which
further point level analysis could be accomplished. This study shows the value of
GIS as a tool for understanding and answering questions about the religious
landscape. Overlaying accurate points on various types of demographic data such
as the Esri Tapestry Segments could be used by religious scholars and church
planners to see what type of church appeals to various types of people. Church
planners could then make more informed decisions when attempting to locate a
new church in an area that would have the most impact.
85

5.7 Other Areas for Exploration
Within this study there were many variables that could have been
examined in more detail. One such area is the denominational grouping schema.
If data were examined at the tradition level rather than the denominational level,
how would the findings compare? Would the results be similar to what is found
in Warf and Winsberg (2008)? Data deficiencies created the need for a great deal
of manual classification and educated guessing at the denominational level.
Using a broader classification could eliminate many of these issues.
Another area that could be explored as a check against these findings is the
diversity calculation formula. There are many other formulas in ecology that may
produce different results, such as Shannon’s Index. Further study could compare
the findings across multiple diversity formulas to explore alternate
understandings of religious diversity in America, with particular attention to the
formulas that are more sensitive to richness with less sensitivity to evenness.
This would allow for a more detailed examination of the many permutations of
both Christian and non-Christian groups in the landscape without allowing the
larger numbers of Christian denominations to skew the diversity calculation.

5.8 Final Thoughts
Taken as a whole, America is a truly diverse and complicated land,
physically and culturally. The physical landscape spans ecosystems from deserts
86

to tundra to boreal forests to mangroves. The cultural landscape welcomes
peoples from all areas of the world and brings together a very diverse array of
cultures and beliefs. The religious landscape is a mirror to that diversity. The
physical church locations indicate America is a strongly Baptist country, whereas
the actual adherents indicate we are a predominantly Catholic country. The
apparent contradiction further exemplifies the complexity and diversity found in
America, and the churchscape is in some ways a manifestation of the
constitutional freedom each American has to choose their religion and the
freedom to practice as they see fit.

87

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Changing technologies and cultures make possible new ways of analyzing, understanding, and mapping religious geography. This study illustrates how GIS technology can provide a view of the details in the structures and adherents of the churchscape of America. GIS allows more detailed exploration of diversity in the American religious landscape than previous research has uncovered in spite of very limited data availability. This study has illustrated that the religious landscape of America is very complicated and multi-faceted. The physical locations tell us that our nation is a Baptist nation, whereas the adherent population tells us that our nation is a Catholic nation. The diversity of religious beliefs and practices that is part of the fabric of the country’s foundation is also reflected in the current landscape. Cluster analysis of physical church locations shows us that churches cluster together regardless of denomination. This study raises questions regarding the exceptional nature of the American religious landscape. The findings call for other disciplines such as sociology, planning, and theology to examine in more detail the diversity found in the religious landscape of America.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Alamo, Amanda (author)

Core Title Explorations of American churchscape diversity

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Geographic Information Science and Technology

Publication Date 09/27/2013

Defense Date 08/29/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 3D analysis,adherents,average congregations size,church,churchscape,cluster analysis,Congregations,denominational profile,dominant denominations,geographic information systems,GIS,nearest neighbor calculations,OAI-PMH Harvest,Religion,religious diversity,religious geography,religious landscape,religious regions

Format application/pdf (imt)

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Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Vos, Robert O. (committee chair), Warshawsky, Daniel N. (committee member), Wilson, John P. (committee member)

Creator Email scarletmap@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-329729

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