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An examination of successful leadership behaviors exhibited by middle school principals in stimulating and sustaining African-American students' achievement on the California Standards Test in ma...
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An examination of successful leadership behaviors exhibited by middle school principals in stimulating and sustaining African-American students' achievement on the California Standards Test in ma...
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Running Head: SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 1
AN EXAMINATION OF SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS EXHIBITED
BY MIDDLE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS IN STIMULATING AND SUSTAINING
AFRICAN-AMERICAN STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT ON THE CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS TEST IN MATHEMATICS
by
Jacqueline Williams
__________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2013
Copyright 2013 Jacqueline Williams
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 2
Epigraph
We have a powerful potential in our youth, and we must have the courage to change old
ideas and practices so that we may direct their power toward good ends.
Mary McLeod Bethune
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 3
Dedication
This project is dedicated to my father, Cleotha N. McGreggor who always
encouraged me to “be the best if not one of the best.” His words of wisdom are
permanently engraved in my mind, and I feel his love always even after his passing.
Even if I did wrong, my father always made me feel special, loved, and invincible. His
love was unconditional, and his desire for me to have the very best was evident. There’s
not a day that goes by that I do not think of my father or miss him. He was indeed a great
man, but he was an extraordinary father. I am who I am today because of him.
This project is also dedicated to my mother, Claudia V. Moore, a very courageous
and strong woman. Even though my educational journey has been extensive and, at times
exhausting, my mother accompanied me on this journey without ever complaining.
Throughout this journey, I depended upon her strength, wisdom, and encouragement.
Without fail, she gave me exactly what I needed. Your vow to my father of ensuring that
I complete the path to higher education is now fulfilled. This accomplishment, as well as
my past accomplishments, could not have come to fruition without her love, support,
encouragement, and advocacy. I will always remember her selfless and tireless spirit in
assisting me in accomplishing my goals in life. I love you, Mom.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 4
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the enormous assistance given to me while working
on my Doctor of Education studies at the University of Southern California. First and
foremost, I give all credit and thanksgiving to Jehovah God who provided me with an
infinite blanket of support of family, friends, colleagues, professors, educational and
financial structures that were required necessities for me to accomplish such an
overwhelming but worthwhile task. Although I am a very determined person, there is no
way that I could have accomplished this project without these people and structures in
place.
Claudia Moore, my mother who gave me the ultimate sacrifice: her entire being.
Mom, you gave me everything even when you had nothing or little to give. You gave so
freely and lovingly. Thank you for being my advocate and confidante in my times of
need, especially when others counted me out. You have instilled in me the courage to
pursue the unimaginable. Thank you for your strength and wisdom. I love you.
Antoine P. Williams, my husband of 21 years and our four children, Tyler, Kenya,
Cassandra, and Matthew who allowed me the freedom and tranquility to work on my
dissertation. Thank you for providing me with the numerous opportunities to write all
day and night without any interruptions. Thank you for your unconditional love and
support and providing me with a shoulder to lean upon when the task became
overwhelming. Your words of encouragement were priceless. I hope and pray that my
countless hours spent pursuing my educational quests did not deter you, but inspired and
strengthened all of you to do greater things in life. Antoine, thank you for the dissertation
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 5
topic of examining African-American students and mathematics achievement. All of you
are truly gifts from GOD. I love you.
My sister Angela, your name should be alongside my name on all my academic
degrees. As I reflect upon the attainment of my past bachelor and master’s degrees, you
gave me so much of your time to look after my children when they were toddlers in order
for me to take my numerous classes which were needed for my degrees and teaching
credentials. You have always been there for us at a moment’s notice. You always say
how proud you are of me, but it was your example of an exemplary scholar that I
followed. Thank you.
Darrell McGreggor, my younger brother, my twin not by birth but from our life
experiences. We have an unbreakable bond and a bond that’s only shared by us.
Although we have other siblings, our bond is special because of our unique upbringing.
This unique upbringing provides us with memories that only we share. Despite the miles
that separate us, your unconditional love and support has helped guide me through this
project and my educational career. I love you and will always be there for you.
Theresa Coleman (Mother-in-law), Danielle Hildreth (Sister-In-Law), Tiffany
Coleman (Sister-in-Law), and Marquis Williams (Brother-in-Law), I thank all of you for
your never ending support. Your words of encouragement were uplifting and provided
me with the mental fortitude necessary to complete my educational endeavors. I am
extremely blessed to have in-laws as wonderful and caring as all of you.
My dissertation committee members, Dr. Garcia, Dr. Castruita, and Dr. Howard,
first and foremost, thank you for your care, concern, and support during the time when
my sister succumbed to cancer. All of you were caring, patient, supportive, and
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 6
understanding as I attempted to trudge through my coursework and dissertation while
grieving my sister’s death. Thank you for your honest feedback and encouragement
throughout this process. Thank you for allowing me the opportunity to work with all of
you.
I would like to thank my former professors – Dr. Parham (University of California
at Irvine), Dr. Murdock, (California State University Dominguez Hills) and Dr. Cooper
(California State University Dominguez Hills). All of you prepared me well for the path
that I am now on and my future in education. I look forward to working with all of you
in the very near future.
Rebecca Clark, my dissertation partner, we work so well together. Your sense of
humor lessened my stress. I am going to miss our planning sessions at Panera Bread and
Red Lobster. Kenya was right, it was well worth it. Thank you for keeping me focused
and motivated throughout the dissertation process especially during my times of crisis.
In addition, I would like to thank the University of Southern California, Rossier
School of Education for inviting me to be a member of Cohort 2010, particularly the first
year LA Weekend Cohort. LA Weekend Cohort 2010, all of you made some long days
shorter. We had some good and interesting times when we met on Saturdays. We all
longed for each other when we had to separate and go to our selected fields of study for
years two and three. I would especially like to thank the participants in the study and the
principals who allowed us to interview them. I would also like to thank my colleagues in
Long Beach Unified School District David Taylor, Lori Clark, Dr. Judy McBride, Dr.
Byron McBride, Dr. Dorothy Thomas, and Brian Moskovitz. Thank you for your
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 7
continued support to provide me with whatever needs necessary to fulfill my doctorate
requirements.
A special thanks to Dr. Guadalupe Garcia. Dr. Garcia, thank you for your insight,
editing, and formatting expertise. Thank you for being my extra pair of eyes to see what
I could not see and making a good project better.
Heartfelt thanks to alumnae Dr. Damita Myers-Miller and Dr. Sunday Abbott.
Dr. Myers-Miller, you have inspired me in more ways than one. Thank you for your
continued and undying support. Dr. Abbott, you extended your hand of assistance and
friendship without ever meeting me. You became my pillar of support without knowing
me. I cannot thank you enough. Thank you Nicole Howton-Childs, for linking me to
Sunday.
To my siblings, Calvin, Bernard, Joseph, Wanda, Lorna, Georgia, Marilyn,
Deleah, Angel, Alita, Eric, Angela, Darrell, Randy, all of you have inspired and
supported me in more ways than one. Thank you for the encouragement along the way. I
love you and thank you. Special thanks to my brother-in-law, Ranard Godwin. Although
I don’t see you often, your words of encouragement through the years have encouraged
me to stay on my path of greatness. Thank you.
I would be remiss if I did not mention my loved ones and dear friends who are no
longer here physically but are with me spiritually – Marcus O. Williams (Father-in-law),
Angelique Pettaway (Friend/Mentor), and Audrey Devon (Friend). These individuals
always encouraged, reminded, and supported me throughout my educational endeavors.
Lastly, if I neglected to acknowledge someone, please “charge it to my mind and
not my heart.” It was not my intention to neglect anyone. Please forgive me.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 8
Table of Contents
Epigraph 2
Dedication 3
Acknowledgements 4
List of Tables 10
List of Figures 12
Abstract 13
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 14
Background 14
Statement of the Problem 18
Purpose of the Study 19
Significance of the Study 19
Delimitations 20
Limitations 21
Definition of Terms 22
Organization of the Study 23
Chapter Two: Literature Review 24
African-American Students’ Mathematics Achievement in the Middle Grades 27
African-American students’ underperformance in mathematics 27
The inability to participate in a global economy 29
Accessing science and math opportunities 30
Inferiority – fact or fiction 31
Effective Principal Leadership 32
Defining effective leadership 33
The 21 Responsibilities of a School Leader (Marzano, Waters, &
McNulty, 2005) 34
Creating a positive school culture 37
Serving as an instructional leader 38
Building a strong leadership team 39
Utilizing data-driven decision making and goal setting to increase student
achievement 40
Professional development that is purposeful 41
Summary 42
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 9
Chapter Three: Methodology 43
Research Questions 43
Design Summary 44
Sample and Population 45
Criteria for Selection 45
Instruments and Data Collection 47
Data Analysis and Reporting 49
Summary 50
Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion 51
Data Collection 51
Quantitative phase – phase one 52
Qualitative phase – phase two 58
Research Findings 60
Research question one 61
Research question two 71
Research question three 92
Summary 104
Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications of the Findings 106
Key Findings 108
Implications for Practice 115
Recommendations for Further Research 115
Concluding Remarks 116
References 118
Appendices
Appendix A: Participant Recruitment Letter 124
Appendix B: Principal Survey 125
Appendix C: Interview Guide 130
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 10
List of Tables
Table 1: The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader (Marzano, Waters,
& McNulty, 2005) 35
Table 2: Comparison of Sample Schools vs. California Averages 46
Table 3: Timeline of Data Collection Process 49
Table 4: Participants’ Profile: Ethnicity (%) 55
Table 5: Participants’ Profile: Teaching Credentials (%) 56
Table 6: Participants’ Profile: Highest Degree Earned (%) 56
Table 7: Participants’ Profile: School Classification (%) 57
Table 8: Participants’ Profile: School Grade Levels (%) 57
Table 9: Years of Experience for Mathematics Teachers (%) 58
Table 10: Participant’s Profile: Participants’ Demographics 59
Table 11: Participant’s Profile: Education and Professional Experience 59
Table 12: Participants Profile: Common Math Grading Scale and Teacher Math
Experience 60
Table 13: Student Populations at Schools of Interviewed Participants (%) 60
Table 14: Collaborative Math Lesson Planning (%) 72
Table 15: Lesson Plan Design for African-American Students (%) 73
Table 16: Professional Development (%) 78
Table 17: Professional Development Schedule – Principal C 80
Table 18: Incentives for Students and Teachers (%) 84
Table 19: Mathematics Resources (%) 88
Table 20: Goal Setting for Mathematics Learning (%) 95
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 11
Table 21: Opportunities for Students to Solve Math Problems Similar to CST (%) 102
Table 22: Student Proficiency Meetings (%) 103
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 12
List of Figures
Figure 1: Instructional Leadership Model (Hallinger, 2005) 39
Figure 2: Sequential Explanatory Design (Creswell, 2003) 45
Figure 3: Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis 50
Figure 4: Systems of Support: Four Motifs 62
Figure 5: Collaborative Lesson Planning Process 76
Figure 6: Monitoring and Assessing Systems 93
Figure 7: Monitor and Assessing Mathematics Learning 97
Figure 8: Structure of Expectation 101
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 13
Abstract
The purpose of this research study was to examine leadership behaviors of middle
school principals who have been successful in stimulating and sustaining African-
American students’ mathematics achievement on the California Standards Test.
Specifically, this research sought to answer the following questions: 1) How do middle
school principal leaders stimulate and sustain mathematics achievement in African-
American students; 2) What school-wide systems and practices do middle school
principal leaders implement to promote mathematics achievement; and 3) What are the
expectations of middle school principal leaders for the monitoring and assessment of
mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test? Using a mixed-methods
approach to gather survey and interview information from 35 middle school principals in
California. The results of the study revealed four motifs that stimulated and sustained
mathematics achievement, four systems and practices that promoted mathematics
achievement, and three monitoring and assessment systems and three subsystems to
monitor and assess mathematics learning prior to the state assessment. As evidenced by
their ability to stimulate and sustain African-American students’ mathematics
achievement for three sustained years on the CST, these principals’ leadership behaviors
did, in fact, have a positive impact upon African-American students’ achievement. This
study contributes to the body of research on leadership behaviors and its impact upon
student achievement, and it reveals that African-American students can achieve when
principal leaders employ the necessary leadership behaviors.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 14
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Both left and right agree that there’s something seriously wrong with our public
education system. Our children are actually worse off when they leave the system than
when they enter it.
Campaign for America’s Children, 2000
Background
More than 50 years after the passing of the landmark legislation Brown vs. Board
of Education, many of America’s educational leaders continue to fail African-American
students in the K-12 public education setting (Ladson-Billings, 1994). This fact is
evident in the area of mathematics. A recent report on California’s African-American
students’ mathematical progress indicated that African-American students showed no
significant gain in closing the mathematics achievement gap (National Center on
Education Statistics, 2011). According to The National Center on Education Statistics
(2011), African-American students scored on average 36 points lower than their White
counterparts, two points lower than they scored in 1990. African-American students
scored lower than any other subgroup. This educational disparity is not a recent
revelation. In fact, African-American students’ underperformance in mathematics has
been the center of numerous academic achievement discussions in past and recent years.
The Education Trust-West (2004) reported that 65% of eighth grade African-American
students could not determine change from a simple monetary transaction and African-
American students in middle school were lagging three years behind their White
counterparts. If this educational disparity is not dealt with expeditiously and
appropriately, African-American students will continue to fall behind their non-African-
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 15
American peers academically. Thus, their future academic and financial opportunities
may be limited in years to come.
To eradicate such mathematical disparities and improve the acquisition of
knowledge for all students, the federal government publicly demanded that the nation’s
schools be held to a higher level of accountability by signing into law the No Child Left
Behind Act (2001), a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) of 1965. NCLB (2001) held states, districts, and schools receiving Title 1
funding accountable for acquiring, increasing and sustaining student achievement in
Mathematics and English Language Arts (ELA).
One of the many requirements of the implementation of NCLB (2001) was for
states to define achievement. In defining achievement, states were also required to
identify minimum levels of achievement. Students’ knowledge of curriculum standards
on the state designed standardized assessment assisted in a state’s identification of
minimum achievement levels. To identify schools that were exceeding minimum
achievement levels, results from the standardized assessments were used to determine the
school’s Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). NCLB (2001) utilizes AYP as the overall
measurement of student performance and the performance of its subgroups. Schools
consistently not meeting the state designated minimum achievement levels face a tiered
level of accountability under NCLB (2001).
Although an effective principal leader’s primary goal is to increase student
proficiency, some principal leaders made the acquisition of student proficiency
unattainable for many African-American students (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Haycock,
2001; Kao & Thompson, 2003; West-Olantunji, Shire, Pringle, et al., 2010; Zhang &
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 16
Cowen, 2005). This is concerning if a school repeatedly fails to meet its required
proficiency targets for its subgroups. Recognizing the need to close the achievement gap,
California received NCLB (2001) with rigorous state standards and high expectations for
student proficiency as evidenced in The Mathematics Framework for California Public
Schools (2005).
The Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (2005) asserted, “The
ultimate goal of mathematics programs in California is to ensure universal access to high-
quality curriculum and instruction so that all students can meet or exceed the state’s
mathematics content standards” (p. 229). Although this may be one of the primary goals
of The Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (2005), many educational
leaders who pay attention to the African-American achievement gap are dismayed with
the mathematical progress of African-American students, and for good reason. The
Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (2005) stated, “To compete
successfully in the worldwide economy and to participate fully as informed citizens,
today’s students must have a high degree of comprehension of mathematics” (xiii). If
the preceding statement is true, it appears that, inevitably, African-American students’
future earning potential may be in jeopardy as a result of their inability to acquire a “high
degree of comprehension of mathematics” as indicated by their lack of proficiency on
California’s standard of assessment, the California Standards Test (CST). This
correlation is alarming since, in America, a man’s earning power is congruent to that of
his father’s earning power and poverty is avoided by the economic circumstances of the
family (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997; Issacs, 2008). Considering these facts as possible
realities for African-American students and their families as well as their future
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 17
generations, addressing the mathematical achievement gap is critical. Not addressing this
gap will be an educational injustice since this lack of math proficiency denies African-
American students of academic and financial possibilities and opportunities as they leave
middle school and enter and exit high school.
Addressing this gap at the middle school level is imperative. Even though a
mathematical achievement disparity exists at every grade level, the middle grades appear
to be most critical (Akos, Shoffner, & Ellis, 2007). Moreover, it is in the middle grades
where many students fall behind (Williams, Kirst, Haertel, et al., 2010). This is
concerning since the middle grades provide the greatest opportunity for educational
leaders to identify and provide academic assistance to students who are struggling in
mathematics (Williams et al. 2010). Knowing this, it would appear plausible to address
this gap in the middle grades by examining the leadership behaviors of middle school
principal leaders who have been successful with increasing and sustaining African-
American students’ mathematics achievement in the middle grades.
To increase African-American student achievement in mathematics, effective
principal leadership and its correlation to student achievement should be examined.
Waters, Marzano and McNulty (2004) asserted that student achievement is stimulated by
effective school leadership. Examining effective leadership strategies of principal leaders
at similar schools can prove to be rewarding to both school leaders and students at
schools that consistently yield not proficient results (Williams et al., 2010). Although
teacher effectiveness is an important component in increasing student achievement, by
far, principal leadership is responsible for producing effective teachers who can increase
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 18
student achievement. Williams et al. (2010) disclosed that principals set the tone for
increasing student achievement with their vision of increasing student achievement.
Statement of the Problem
Mathematics is the gatekeeper for students who desire to enter institutions of
higher learning. Entering such institutions increases students’ career opportunities and
future economic prosperity. Since many of California’s African-American students are
dramatically being left behind in mathematics, it would appear that their academic,
career, and financial prospects are dismal. For this reason, it is imperative for principal
leaders to examine successful leadership behaviors of principal leaders who have been
consistent in stimulating and sustaining mathematics’ achievement at the middle school
level with African-American students. Allowing ineffective principal leaders the
continuance to navigate the educational future of African-American students, is to allow
African-American students to remain in the same dismal state in the near and distant
future.
This research study examined the leadership behaviors of successful middle
school principals who stimulate and sustain African-American students’ achievement on
the California Standards Test (CST) in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Since
mathematics proficiency provides students with various career and financial
opportunities, leadership behaviors of middle school principals who do stimulate and
sustain African-American students’ mathematics achievement are worth examining.
Through their leadership, African-American students are afforded the prospect of
acquiring mathematics proficiency, college opportunities, and economic prosperity.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 19
Hence, America produces productive citizens who are able to compete and contribute in a
global society.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research was to examine the successful leadership behaviors
of California middle school principal leaders who were stimulating and sustaining
African-American students’ mathematical achievement on the California Standards Test
(CST) in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Since the CST is the measurement tool used
by local educational agencies in assessing student achievement on grade level content
standards, the CST was used as the determining factor in revealing which principal
leaders who are stimulating and sustaining African-American student achievement in
mathematics. Specifically, this research sought to answer the following questions:
1) How do middle school principal leaders stimulate and sustain mathematics
achievement in African-American students?
2) What school-wide systems and practices do middle school principal leaders
implement to promote mathematics achievement?
3) What are the expectations of middle school principal leaders for the monitoring
and assessment of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?
Significance of the Study
For decades, educational leaders and policymakers faced the daunting task of
trying to close the nation’s mathematics achievement gap between African-American
students and their counterparts. Their inability to close this mathematics achievement
gap over the years created numerous missed economic and academic opportunities for
African-American students. This research study examined the leadership behaviors of
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 20
California middle school principals who stimulate and sustain African-American
students’ mathematical achievement on the CST in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades.
Since students’ academic prowess diminish when transitioning from elementary to
middle school, this study is especially important in contributing to the existing body of
literature that examines successful principal leadership behaviors connected to student
achievement. By contributing to the existing body of literature, educational leaders can
begin to discuss and utilize proven successful principal leadership behaviors that produce
effective structural and instructional strategies and practices that are conducive to
stimulating and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics achievement.
This research study aimed to provide principal leaders with the leadership
behaviors and strategies necessary to incite, empower, and incorporate their stakeholders
to stimulate and sustain African-American students’ mathematics achievement. Doing so
will provide African-American students with the possibility and the opportunity of
securing future academic, career, and financial opportunities with the prospect of
economic prosperity.
Delimitations
The researcher limited the focus of this study to middle schools with significantly-
sized populations of African American students, meaning this population makes up at
least 9% of the total school population and includes no fewer than 100 students. This
defined criteria caused schools having less than 9% African-American student population
to be excluded from the study. For the purpose of this study, participants were selected
based upon the performance growth of their African-American students on the California
Standards Test. The following criteria were used:
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 21
In 2011, at least 33% of AA students scored Proficient or Advanced Proficient on
the mathematics CST in addition to at least a 10 percentage point growth in
African American student proficiency from 2009-2011; or
In 2011, at least 50% of the school site’s AA students scored Proficient or
Advanced Proficient on the mathematics CST which reflected a positive growth
in proficiency from 2009-2011.
This defined criteria caused other schools in the middle school sector to be excluded from
the study. Such schools could have, in fact, stimulated and sustained African-American
students’ mathematics achievement, but, due to the limited size of their African-
American student population, these schools were excluded from the study.
Limitations
The fact that only middle schools in California were examined for this study
could be viewed as a limitation. Excluding schools outside of California may have
caused the researcher to neglect noteworthy principal leadership behaviors that have
positively affected and sustained African-American students’ mathematics achievement
in the middle schools. In addition to that missed opportunity, the fact that this study only
examined the leadership behaviors of middle school principals caused the researcher to
exclude principal leaders at the elementary and high school levels from the study. The
study was also limited to only 67 principal leaders who were invited to participate in the
study. The purposeful sampling of school principals for participation may decrease the
generalizability of findings. Validity of the study is limited to the reliability of the data
collection instruments.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 22
Definition of Terms
1. Achievement Gap: The difference in achievement levels between African
American students and White students of the same grade level.
2. Accountability System: A method of tracking and holding schools and districts
responsible for growth in academic performance.
3. AYP: Adequate Yearly Progress: The federal accountability system of the United
States. It measures the percent of students scoring at or above proficient levels in
English-Language Arts and Mathematics.
4. African-American: Of African descent living in America; Black, Negro.
5. California Standards Test (CST): The standardized test given in California. The
results are used in the calculation of both API and AYP.
6. Formative Assessment: “Assessment tools and processes that are embedded in
instruction and are used by teachers and pupils to provide timely feedback for the
purposes of adjusting instruction and to improve learning” (Ed Code 60603).
7. Interviewed Participants: Participants who were interviewed in the study. These
principal leaders participated in the quantitative and the qualitative phases of the
study.
8. Middle Grades: Sixth, seventh, and eighth grades.
9. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): The largest nation-wide
assessment of student performance in various subject areas.
10. No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA), established frameworks of standards, testing,
and accountability to be reported by student subgroups.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 23
11. Principal Leader: School principal.
12. Student Achievement: Students’ performance on standardized assessments.
13. Summative Assessment: “…any standardized test that measures the level of
performance that a pupil has achieved in the core curriculum areas” (Ed. Code
60603).
14. Surveyed Participants: Participants who responded to the quantitative instrument.
These participants only participated in the quantitative phase of the study.
15. White: Anglo or European decent.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides and discusses
factual evidence as regards to the significance of the problem with African-American
students’ mathematics proficiency in the middle grades on California’s measure of
assessment. The significance of the implementation of effective principal leadership
behaviors and strategies in eradicating this mathematical disparity are also discussed in
Chapter One. Chapter Two provides a historical account of African-American students’
lack of achievement in mathematics as revealed on standardized assessments and the
importance and relevance of principal leadership behaviors and strategies in stimulating
and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics achievement. In Chapter Three,
population samples, research methodology and design, data collection procedures, and
the analysis of the results are discussed. Discussion and findings of the study are
discussed in Chapter Four. A summary of the study and implications for future research
and practice are contained in Chapter Five.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 24
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Leadership should be born out of the understanding of the needs of those who would be
affected by it.
Marian Anderson
Nearly 60 years after the historical landmark decision of Brown vs. the Board of
Education (1954), African-American students in the K-12 public education setting
continue to underperform on state measures of assessments in comparison to their non-
African-American counterparts (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001; Kao & Thompson, 2003; Miranda, A., Webb, L., Brigman, G. & Peluso, P. 2007;
White & Parham, 1990). This fact is alarming since this precedent legislation instilled an
exuberant amount of hope in oppressed African-Americans’ ability to receive equal
access to a quality education in America through forced school integration. Six decades
later, hope turned into despair for many parents, students, and educational leaders of
African-American students, as past and recent standard measures of assessments
indicated that African-American students are continuously being outperformed by their
non-African-American counterparts (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Hartford, 2008;Kao &
Thompson, 2003; Miranda, A. et al., 2007).
For the sake of African-American students and their future generations, principal
leaders should examine and utilize proven and successful school leadership behaviors to
improve, increase, and sustain African-American students’ mathematics achievement.
Moreover, principal leaders should also examine the leadership behaviors of other
principal leaders who have been successful in positively affecting student achievement at
schools with similar demographics. (Williams et al., 2010). To have this same
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 25
educational disparity discussion in another 60 years would be a grave academic injustice
to African-Americans across the nation.
This literature review is threefold. Part One of this literature review draws
attention to four topics of relevance when discussing African-American students’
underperformance in mathematics at the middle school level:
African-American Students’ Past and Recent Underperformance in Mathematics
at the Middle School Level
The Inability to Participate in a Global Economy
Accessing Science and Math Opportunities
Inferiority – Fact or Fiction
These four topics are important in the Literature Review and are significant to one
another because of the following:
African-American students have been underperforming in mathematics for over
30 years.
This underperformance will prevent them from participating in a global economy.
This underperformance will prevent African American students from accessing
opportunities in science and math.
Unbelievably, there are some individuals who believe that African-Americans
underachievement in school is due to inferiority to the White race.
Highlighting these four topics during Part One of the Literature Review is necessary
because it lends to understanding that this mathematical achievement disparity has
existed for over 60 years, and that it is not new. More importantly, ignoring this
mathematical achievement disparity for 60 years spurned the creation of myths about the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 26
mental capabilities of African-Americans. This absolute denial for numerous years and
the creation of academic myths deprived African-Americans of multitudes of academic
and career opportunities. This is disturbing when recognizing the fact that the exhibiting
and the implementation of effective leadership behaviors was the method needed to
remedy the mathematical disparity.
After highlighting the four topics in Part One of the Literature Review, Part Two
of the Literature Review defines effective leadership and its correlation to student
achievement, particularly African-American students’ mathematics achievement at the
middle school level. To accomplish this, Part Two highlights Marzano, Waters, and
McNulty’s (2005) The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader as a frame of reference.
These 21 responsibilities were identified from 30 years of proven leadership behaviors
which spanned from the years 1978 to 2001.
Since Marzano, Waters, and McNulty’s (2005) The 21 Responsibilities of the
School Leader were limited to the years 1978 through 2001, the third part of this
literature review explores and reveals effective leadership behaviors that have been
identified beyond Marzano, Waters, and McNulty’s (2005) findings. The literature
revealed the following behaviors: School Culture, Instructional Leadership, Strong
Leadership Team, Data-Driven Decision Making and Goal Setting, and Professional
Development. These most recent research findings not only validate the current relevance
of Marzano, Waters, and McNulty’s (2005) research but, more importantly, the literature
review highlights current research pertaining to effective leadership and its impact on
student achievement.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 27
By highlighting and examining these successful principal leadership behaviors,
current and future principal leaders could utilize these proven leadership behaviors as a
leadership framework to progressively improve, increase, and sustain the mathematics
achievement for not only African-American students but for all students in the K-12
public education setting.
African-American Students’ Mathematics Achievement in the Middle Grades
A comprehensive search of literature concerning the underperformance of
African-American students in mathematics revealed some dismal findings at the middle
school level (Haycock, 2001; West-Olantunji et al., 2010; Zhang & Cowen, 2005). The
findings are especially disheartening when their performance is compared to their non-
African-American student counterparts.
African-American students’ underperformance in mathematics. African-
American students’ underperformance in mathematics is startling. Unbelievably, only
35% of African-American students enroll in Algebra I and Geometry as compared to
55% of White students (King, Houston and Middleton, 2001). Haycock (2001) echoed
these findings revealing that only 1 in 100 African-American students were comfortable
with elementary algebra in comparison to 1 in 10 White students. These findings are not
surprising when 65% of African-American eighth graders could not answer a basic
percentage problem (Education Trust, 2004). For these reasons, it’s foreseeable that 50%
of White students would test proficient on a yearly assessment as compared to 5 of every
20 African-American students (O’Connell, 2008). Since the middle grades construct the
mathematical foundation for higher level mathematics (Akos, Shoffner, & Ellis, 2007).
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 28
Even though educational leaders professed that the mathematical achievement gap
was narrowing (Education Trust-West, 2004; Kao & Thompson, 2003), recent data
revealed the same grim facts regarding African-American students’ underperformance in
mathematics (West-Olantunji, Shire, Pringle et al., 2010). In 2011, African-American
students scored, on average, 47 points below Asian students, 36 points below White
students, and six points below Hispanic students on an eighth grade standardized
mathematics assessment (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). A more in-
depth examination into the 2011 findings revealed that only 13% of African-American
students tested proficient, and, of this 13%, only 1% tested Advanced Proficient
(National Center on Education Statistics, 2011). African-American students scored lower
on this particular mathematical standardized assessment than did their non-African-
American counterparts. Undoubtedly, this type of mathematics performance influences
the mathematics courses that students select in high school and college (Akos et al., 2007;
Shakrani, 1996). Assuredly, this is reason for concern since students who are successful
in mathematics are presented with a multitude of future career options and financial
opportunities (Tsui, 2007).
This mathematical gap in achievement is not a new revelation. In fact, this level
of underperformance by African-American students in comparison to their non-African-
American counterparts has been in existence for more than 30 years (Kao & Thompson,
2003). What is even more concerning is the fact that African-American students enter
school with a cognitive level equal to that of their White counterparts (White & Parham,
1990). However, by the time they enter middle school, African-American students have
already fallen dramatically behind their counterparts, and, in some cases, years behind
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 29
(Darling-Hammond, 2007; Haycock, 2001; West-Olantunji et al., 2010; Zhang & Cowen,
2005). This is concerning since African-American students enter elementary school
prepared, but they enter and leave middle school mathematically unprepared to deal with
high school mathematics. This type of academic injustice makes it challenging, if not
impossible, for African-American students to access the higher level mathematics classes
in high school that are needed to meet the A-G requirements for university admission
(Akos, Shoffner, & Ellis, 2007). Hence, their college opportunities and choices are
limited since higher level mathematics is the gatekeeper to college (Rech & Harrington,
2000). Undoubtedly, this increases the likelihood that they may not be able to compete in
a global economy. Their inability to access higher level mathematics contradicts
California’s goal of creating students who are able to compete in a global economy.
The inability to participate in a global economy. Secondary schools’ chief
responsibility is to create a competent labor force (Salamon, 1991). To ensure that all
students have access to challenging mathematics so that they can participate and compete
in a global economy, California created and implemented some of the most rigorous
mathematics content standards in the country (Mathematics Framework for California
Public Schools, 2005). Although these content standards have been created, African-
Americans, as a student subgroup, have not been able to attain such an ambitious goal
(Darling-Hammond, 2007; Haycock, 2001; West-Olantunji, Shire, Pringle, et al., 2010;
Zhang & Cowen, 2005). Because knowledge in mathematics is necessary for “economic
mobility” and “making informed consumer and voter choices,” African-American
students’ lack of success in mathematics leaves them unable to participate and compete in
a global economy (Lubienski, 2001).
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 30
Accessing science and math opportunities. Knowing that mathematics is
crucial when pursuing science and technical careers (Tsui, 2007), Brand, Glasson, and
Green (2006) reported that African-American students are severely underrepresented in
the field of science and mathematics. This fact was also echoed in Tsui’s (2007)
findings. Considering the fact that, in the future, a college education will be a necessity
in a global economy, mathematical knowledge may serve as a catalyst for Americans to
find appropriate work in a global economy (Karoyl & Panis, 2004). Findings from recent
standardized mathematical assessments leave the sentiment that African-Americans and
other underrepresented minorities will not be the ones filling those vacancies (Tsui,
2007). Solidifying that revelation is the fact that, although African-American students
conveyed that it was their desire to attain science and mathematics careers, they made no
mention of taking the necessary courses in high school. In fact, they appeared to be
disengaged from even taking the courses (Brand, Glasson, & Green, 2006). Indeed,
African-American students’ performance on previous and current standardized
mathematics assessments certainly contradicts their realities of what is needed when
exploring global career options.
Due to their personal belief that science and technical fields are White dominated
professions, Tobias (1987) posited that it is, in fact, African-American students who
exclude themselves from these career fields. This revelation was evident in Tobias’
(1987) findings which revealed that many African-American students held the belief that
a person pursuing science or technical careers had to be a person of high intelligence.
Unconsciously, their unrealistic view ostracized them from taking the required math
classes necessary to secure any type of science or technical positions in the future,
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 31
incidentally making it a challenge to be competitive citizens who are able to function in a
global economy. Their unrealistic views about mathematics stood in strong contrast to
the goal of the Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (2005). Systemic
leadership failure in mathematics was once again sabotaging African-Americans.
Inferiority – fact or fiction. Although some individuals may ascribe to the belief
that African-American students’ underachievement is due to genetic inferiority, King,
Houston and Middleton (2001) asserted that due to the countless years of recurrent
educational inequities imposed upon African-American students, the “white supremacy
ideology” was perpetuated in the curriculum and assessments. This type of ideology
breeds educational inequities and inferiority when in fact African-American students are
capable of academic success. Hartford (2008) rejected the inferiority theory by positing,
“…the genetic potential within races is identical, or nearly so” (p. 17).
Wiggan (2007) also discarded the inferiority theory by revealing that, in
comparison to the White and European counterparts, at the age of two years old, Africans
and African-American infants demonstrated a greater increase of mental maturity. White
and Parham (1990) also pointed out that, when African-American students enter schools,
they are, in fact, cognitively equal to their White counterparts. White and Parham’s
(1990), Wiggan’s (2007), and Hartford’s (2008) findings stand in strong contrast to
standardized test scores of African-American students at the middle school level. Since it
has been revealed that African-American children are not genetically inferior to their
White counterparts, and they do, in fact, enter school cognitively prepared, it would
behoove educational leaders to critically examine the quality of instruction that African-
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 32
American children receive as opposed to the quantity of instruction they receive (Hale,
2001).
Placing accountability on school leadership and its correlation to student
achievement, Gutierrez (2000) posited that school environment and practices determined
African-American students’ success in mathematics. Gutierrez’s (2000) belief is
plausible when examining and acknowledging the fact that African-American students
excel in mathematics in the middle grades in many urban school districts. Williams,
Kirst, Haertel, et al. (2010) revealed that, when school leadership placed an emphasis on
increasing performance for all students, student achievement did, in fact, improve. This
fact is evident when schools designed a rigorous instructional program to prepare all
students for academic success in high school (Williams et al., 2010). Realizing that
African-American students enter school cognitively equal to their counterparts and that
the achievement disparity has increased through the years, it is evident that principal
leadership may be the determining factor in increasing and sustaining African-American
students’ mathematical achievement. When principal leadership placed an emphasis on
academic success for all students, African-American students were able to excel even in
schools with potential societal threats that could have negatively affected student
achievement (Williams et al., 2010).
Effective Principal Leadership
Undoubtedly, middle school can be used as an influential educational tool in
saving millions of students who have fallen academically behind their peers (Carnegie
Council on Young Adolescents, 1989; Williams et al., 2010). Williams, et al. (2010)
revealed that it is in the middle grades that struggling students can be identified and
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 33
serviced for mathematics proficiency. Knowing this, principal leaders must first
understand the meaning of an effective leader.
Defining effective leadership. Effective leaders exhibit certain behaviors and
responsibilities, and their leadership is apparent in their systems and processes at their
school site. All of these components are integral in increasing and sustaining student
achievement.
Literature abounds regarding the definition of leadership (Northouse, 2010; Yukl,
2002). Leadership is multifaceted, and defining it is not an easy task (Northouse, 2010).
Due to its various definitions, Yukl (2002) suggested that leadership denotes the
influence that one has on others to perform and achieve a task collectively. Such
leadership “requires courage, commitment, risk and empathy. It builds on concentrated
dedication and constructive participation” (McGowan & Miller, 2001, p. 2). Marzano,
Waters, and McNulty (2005) asserted, “…an effective principal is thought to be a
necessary precondition for an effective school (p. 5). An effective school is always
moving and changing while trying to maintain momentum (Fink, 2005).
Since leadership can be challenging to define, when examining the plight of
African-American students in regards to increasing mathematics achievement, it would
benefit principals to have a leadership frame to examine and utilize as they navigate to
create and implement school-wide systems and practices to increase African-American
students’ mathematic achievement. Bolman and Deal (2008) define a frame as:
a mental model—a set of ideas and assumptions—that you carry in your head to
help you understand and negotiate a particular ‘territory.’ A good frame makes it
easier to know what you are up against and, ultimately, what you can do about it.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 34
Frames are vital because organizations don’t come with computerized navigation
systems to guide you turn-by-turn to your destination. (p. 11)
Since African-American students have consistently underperformed on standardized
mathematics assessments for numerous years, examining and utilizing a frame in regards
to school leadership would be an important component in the formula to increase student
achievement amongst African-American students at the middle school level.
The 21 Responsibilities of a School Leader (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty,
2005). Defining leadership can be complex. Although a principal leader’s role involves
a multiplicity of tasks (O’Donnell & White, 2005), in order to increase student
achievement, they must serve as instructional leaders and advocates for students’
knowledge acquisition. This can be a daunting task considering the many responsibilities
entrusted to the school principal. In an effort to assist principal leaders in becoming
effective leaders able to increase student achievement, Marzano, Waters, and McNulty
(2005) reviewed over 300 studies on leadership and its connection to student achievement
from the years 1978 to 2001. Synthesizing their findings, Marzano, Waters, and
McNulty (2005) revealed 21 responsibilities that effective leaders exemplified while
increasing student achievement. These 21 behaviors were termed The 21 Responsibilities
of a School Leader. Table 1 provides a list of these responsibilities. Although the 21
responsibilities defined the role of an effective school leader, the 21 responsibilities were
not compiled to be used in isolation.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 35
Table 1
The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005)
Responsibility The Extent to Which the Principal…
1 Affirmation Recognizes and celebrates accomplishments and
acknowledges failures
2 Change Agent Is willing to challenge and actively challenges the
status quo
3 Contingent Rewards Recognizes and rewards individual
accomplishments
4 Communication Establishes strong lines of communication with and
among teachers and students
5 Culture Fosters shared beliefs and a sense of community
and cooperation
6 Discipline Protects teachers from issues and influences that
would detract from their teaching time or focus
7 Flexibility Adapts his or her leadership behavior to the needs
of the current situation and is comfortable with
dissent
8 Focus Establishes clear goals and keeps those goals in the
forefront of the school’s attention
9 Ideals/Beliefs Communicates and operates from strong ideals and
beliefs about schooling
10 Input Involves teachers in the design and implementation
of important decisions and policies
11 Intellectual Stimulation Ensures faculty and staff are aware of the most
current theories and practices and makes the
discussion of these a regular aspect of the school’s
culture
12 Involvement in
Curriculum, Instruction,
and Assessment
Is directly involved in the design and
implementation of curriculum, instruction, and
assessment practices
13 Knowledge of
Curriculum, Instruction,
and Assessment
Is knowledgeable about current curriculum,
instruction, and assessment practices
14 Monitoring/Evaluating Monitors the effectiveness of school practices and
their impact on student learning
15 Optimizer Inspires and leads new and challenging innovations
16 Order Establishes a set of standard operating procedures
and routines
17 Outreach Is an advocate and spokesperson for the school to
all stakeholders
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 36
Table 1, continued
18 Relationships Demonstrates an awareness of the personal aspects
of teachers and staff
19 Resources Provides teachers with materials and professional
development necessary for the successful execution
of their jobs
20 Situational Awareness Is aware of the details and undercurrents in the
running of the school and uses this information to
address current and potential problems
21 Visibility Has quality contact and interactions with teachers
and students
To assist school leaders with the effectiveness necessary to increase student
achievement, Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) highlighted five action steps which
should be implemented in addition to the 21 responsibilities (p. 98). Together, the 21
responsibilities and the five action steps are vital to increasing student and staff
achievement. Marzano, Waters, and McNulty’s, (2005) five action steps are:
1) Develop a strong leadership team;
2) Distribute some responsibilities throughout the leadership team;
3) Select the right work;
4) Identify the order of magnitude implied by the selected work; and
5) Match the management style to the order of magnitude of the change initiative.
Understanding and implementing the 21 responsibilities of a school leader, coupled with
the five action steps, will support principal leaders in creating and implementing school
effectiveness that will assist them in increasing their students’ academic success
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Review of literature beyond The 21 Responsibilities of the School Leader
supported Marzano, Waters and McNulty’s (2005) findings and exposed additional
leadership behaviors of principal leaders who were instrumental in producing positive
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 37
student academic outcomes. This resonation of constructive leadership behaviors
included:
Creating a Positive School Culture
Serving as an Instructional Leadership
Building a Strong Leadership Team
Utilizing Data-Driven Decision Making and Goal Setting for Student
Achievement
Selecting Professional Development that’s Purposeful
Each of these five leadership behaviors was significant in the stimulation and sustainment
of students’ academic achievement.
Creating a positive school culture. Effective principal leaders are skilled at
creating a positive school culture. This leadership characteristic is well studied in the
literature (Eilers & Camacho, 2007; O’Donnell & White, 2005; Pepper & Hamilton,
2002). Pepper and Hamilton (2002) pointed to professionalism, collaboration, productive
feedback, judicious achievement, goals, and a shared vision as components of a positive
school culture conducive to increasing student achievement. Pepper and Hamilton’s
(2002) school culture components parallel Marzano, Waters and McNulty’s (2005)
findings in relation to a well-built school culture. Marzano, Waters. and McNulty (2005)
posited that a soundly constructed school culture that is advantageous to student
achievement is cohesive, displays a sense of well-being, and possesses knowledge and
understanding of purpose and the clarity of a shared vision.
An effective principal leader is competent and masterful in building a positive
school culture aimed at stimulating and sustaining student achievement. This mastery of
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 38
principal leadership is capable of altering the vibe of a negative school culture into one
that is encouraging, collaborative, and progressive in students’ achievement. Eilers and
Camacho (2007) revealed that transformation in school culture was the stimulus in
encouraging and intervolving professionalism and collaboration amongst teachers and
student performance. When assessing student achievement and staff relationships,
principal leaders should assess the school’s culture. Denbo and Moore-Beaulieu (2002)
suggested that the culture of a school is the catalyst to increasing student achievement.
There is no competition amongst staff in a positive school culture, as all stakeholders are
focused on the shared vision of the school (Littrell et al., 1994).
Serving as an instructional leader. An effective principal leader is an
instructional leader. Teachers view the principal leader as an expert in curriculum
content, and this is why teachers will seek out the principal leader for instructional
concerns (Friedkin & Slater, 1994). Knowing this, it is imperative for principal leaders to
possess knowledge beyond the business practices of the school. An effective principal
leader has knowledge and expertise of the school’s curriculum, effective lesson planning,
assessment practices, and the business workings of the school (Alvy & Robbins, 2005;
Friedkin and Slater, 1994; Gaziel, 2007; O’Donnell & White, 2005). Alvy and Robbins
(2005) stated, “Successful principals must lead bifocally—taking care of both learning
and business as they move through the day” (p. 51).
Heck (1992) posited that academic outcomes are the result of a principal’s instructional
leadership. Therefore, even though principal leaders are faced with multiple responsibilities
each day, acquisition of the school’s instruction and assessment practices should be at the
forefront of their leadership agenda (Alvy & Robbins, 2005). This can be a challenging
task due to the principal leader’s multiple roles. To assist principal leaders with
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 39
maintaining focus and becoming effective instructional leaders, Hallinger (2005) framed
an Instructional Leader Model. Hallinger’s (2005) model derived from research on
effective instructional leadership practices from the past 25 years. Figure presents for an
outline of Hallinger’s (2005) Instructional Leadership Model.
Figure 1. Instructional Leadership Model (Hallinger, 2005)
Building a strong leadership team. As reflected in Marzano, Waters, and
McNulty’s (2005) findings, 21 responsibilities of a school leader were identified as tasks
that school leaders are expected to carry out during their tenure as school leaders.
Undeniably, it would be challenging for a principal leader to be able to implement these
tasks alone (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). In this current No Child Left Behind
Instructional
Leadership
Creating a
shared sense of
purpose in the
school with clear
goals focused on
student learning
Fostering
continuous
improvement of
the school
through cyclical
school
development
planning
Developing a
climate of high
expectations
and a school
culture aimed at
innovation and
improvement
Coordinating the
curriculum and
monitoring
student learning
outcomes
Shaping the
reward structure
to reflect the
school’s mission
Organizing and
monitoring a
wide range of
activities aimed
at continuous
staff
development
Being a visible
presence in the
school, modeling
desired values
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 40
(2002) school climate of responsibility and accountability, a principal leader cannot
expect to lead alone (Lambert, 2002). A principal leader must build leadership capacity
within the school’s community to accomplish the voluminous tasks placed upon her/him
(O’Donnell, R. & White, G., 2005).
A leadership team consists of grade level chairpersons, department heads, or other
stakeholders at the school site who serve in informal leadership roles (Pounder & Crow,
2005). Typically, there are eight to 10 identified informal leaders on the leadership team
(Pounder & Crow, 2005). Recognizing the fact that the school leader does, in fact, have a
multiplicity of tasks, effective school leaders distribute and share leadership amongst
staff to carry out the school’s vision (O’Donnell & White, 2005; Pepper and Hamilton-
Thomas, 2002; Pounder & Crow, 2005). Sharing or distributing leadership allows a
school leader to accomplish insurmountable tasks through individuals at the school site
and, in the process, create a strong school culture of individuals who are able to carry out
the school leader’s vision (O’Donnell & White, 2005). Distributing and sharing
leadership as well as building a strong culture are major catalysts in increasing student
achievement (O’Donnell & White, 2005; Pepper & Hamilton-Thomas, 2002; Eilers &
Camacho, 2007). Moreover, Pounder and Crow (2005) suggested that sharing leadership
“creates a nonheroic image of the role of the principal because a number of people are
responsible for school leadership” (p. 59). Everyone is and feels responsible and
accountable for student achievement.
Utilizing data-driven decision making and goal setting to increase student
achievement. Since increasing student achievement is at the forefront of educational
agendas, data-driven decision making is a strategy utilized by effective principals to
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 41
increase student achievement (Bernhardt, 2004; Mednick, 2003). Since federal and state
accountability officials utilize summative assessment data to assess a principal leader’s
effectiveness, in this age of accountability, principal leaders have no choice but to use
data-driven decision making in their efforts to increase students’ achievement (Bernhardt,
2004). Multiple opportunities to increase and sustain student achievement are derived
from data-driven decision making. Identification of at-risk students and the creation of
school wide goals to assist with teacher effectiveness are included in these multiple
opportunities for change (Creighton, 2001). The analyzing of data provides principal
leaders with a starting point for decision making, goals, and professional development.
Undoubtedly, this strategy is an important tool to use as a principal leader (Mednick,
2003).
Professional development that is purposeful. Effective principal leaders
recognize the need for their teachers to secure more knowledge acquisition in the area of
mathematics (Burch & Spillane, 2003). Principal leaders are proactive in creating adult
learning environments so that teachers will be able to secure the knowledge necessary in
their area of expertise to increase student achievement (DuFour, 2001). Effective
principal leaders not only recognize that teachers should receive professional
development for teacher effectiveness, but they also know they must commit themselves
to the fact that, as principal leaders, they are life-long learners themselves. Therefore,
they involve themselves in learning about effective instructional and leadership strategies
(Alvy & Robbins, 2005). This is especially true for principal leaders at the middle school
level. O’Donnell and White (2005) posited that, at the middle school level, principals
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 42
should conduct professional development in areas that will assist the school’s staff in
better understanding students’ mental, social, and academic needs.
Summary
Although NCLB (2001) was designed to ensure that no child in America would
be left behind academically, America has, in fact, left thousands of African-American
students behind in the quest to receive a quality education. A comprehensive search of
literature revealed that countless African-American students have continuously failed at
the hands of ill-equipped principal leaders. These types of leaders have proven to be
ineffective in resolving the mathematical achievement issues plaguing African-American
students in the K-12 public education setting. To cease perpetuating this type of
mathematical disparity, principal leaders will need to implement proven effective
leadership strategies that encompass responsibilities and behaviors of principal leaders
who have proven to be successful in increasing and sustaining African-Americans’
mathematics achievement. This implementation of effective leadership is especially
critical at the middle school level since the middle grades are viewed as the grades where
students can acquire mathematics proficiency before transitioning to high school. By
implementing this type of leadership, principal leaders can create the required foundation
that is necessary to stimulate and sustain African-American students’ mathematics
achievement, thus giving African-American students a viable chance of being
employable and productive citizens in an ever changing global economy.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 43
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to examine leadership behaviors used by middle
school principals in the state of California who have shown to be successful in
stimulating and sustaining the achievement of African-American students on the CST in
mathematics in the years 2009 through 2011. Using CST performance as a guide
provided the researcher with a common frame of reference to compare performance
among schools across the state, as it is the test administered within California public
schools as a measure for both state and federal accountability systems. Determining the
leadership behaviors implemented by principal leaders of successful middle schools
allows for replication of these behaviors in schools where African-American students
have not exhibited similar levels of success in increasing mathematics achievement.
Research Questions
In exploring leadership behaviors of principal leaders successful in increasing and
sustaining African-American students’ achievement in mathematics, the following
research questions were used to guide the study:
1. How do middle school principal leaders stimulate and sustain mathematics
achievement in African-American students?
2. What school-wide systems and practices do middle school principal leaders
implement to promote mathematics achievement?
3. What are the expectations of middle school principal leaders for the monitoring
and assessment of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?
The first research question seeks information related to practices implemented to
stimulate mathematics achievement, specifically within the subgroup of African-
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 44
American students, while the second question addresses practices implemented on a
school-wide level designed to promote mathematics achievement for all students.
Separating these topics into two research questions allowed the researcher to differentiate
whether a practice was implemented to increase overall mathematics achievement or to
narrow the gap in mathematics achievement between African-American students and
their classmates of other ethnic backgrounds. The third question describes expectations
set forth by the principal leader for ongoing formative assessment and progress
monitoring of students throughout the year in preparation for the CST.
Design Summary
This was a mixed-methods study in which the researcher collected data both
quantitatively and qualitatively. The study was designed as a sequential procedure, which
uses one method to elaborate on the findings of another method (Creswell, 2003). In this
case, the researcher chose a sequential explanatory strategy, beginning with a quantitative
method of administering surveys to the larger sample and followed by a qualitative
method involving more detailed exploration of a smaller sample through the use of
interviews. This allowed the researcher to begin with a broad picture of the behaviors
being implemented by a larger population of middle school principal leaders who have
been successful in stimulating and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African-
American students and then go further into the details of these behaviors with a smaller
sample of principals. The steps of this type of design are pictured in Figure 2.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 45
Figure 2. Sequential Explanatory Design (Creswell, 2003)
Sample and Population
The selected study population consisted of 67 Middle School Principals in
California who have been successful in stimulating and sustaining African-American
students’ mathematics achievement on the CST in the years 2009 through 2011.
Purposeful sampling was used in selecting the principals for participation in the study.
The use of purposeful sampling allows the researcher to select information-rich cases
which provide a great deal of information regarding issues of central importance to the
study (Patton, 2002). The type of purposeful sampling used by the researcher is
categorized as intensity sampling, seeking excellent examples of principals succeeding in
increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African-American students,
but not cases so extreme that they may not be applicable to other settings.
Criteria for Selection. In selecting the sample population, the researcher
selected principal leaders of California middle schools which had both above-average
size populations of African American students as well as African American subgroups
with above-average performance in mathematics. To determine the sample, public
enrollment and performance data was obtained from the California Department of
Education (2012).
Quantitative Qualitative
Quantitative Data
Collection
Quantitative Data
Analysis
Qualitative Data
Collection
Qualitative Data
Analysis
Interpretation of
Entire Analysis
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 46
To be included in the study, schools met both of the following demographic
criteria:
Student population of at least 100 students; and
African-American students make up at least 9% of total student population
Additionally, all schools selected met one of the following two achievement
criteria:
In 2011, at least 33% of AA students scored Proficient or Advanced Proficient on
the mathematics CST in addition to at least a 10 percentage point growth in
African-American student proficiency from 2009-2011; or
In 2011, at least 50% of the school site’s AA students scored Proficient or
Advanced Proficient on the mathematics CST which reflected a positive growth
in proficiency from 2009-2011.
Table 2 shows a comparison of the schools included in the sample population
with the averages of California middle schools.
Table 2
Comparison of Sample Schools vs. California Averages
Selection Criteria
Selection Sample
Averages
California Averages
Grades 6-8
% African American Student Enrollment 19.2% 6.9%
African American % Proficient in
Mathematics 2011
49.2% 31.3%
Percentage Points Growth in African
American Mathematics Proficiency 2009-
2011
14.3% 4.7%
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 47
Instruments and Data Collection
Initial data collection began with public data being collected from the California
Department of Education to identify schools shown to be successful in stimulating and
sustaining the mathematics achievement of African-American students in the years 2009
through 2011. Demographic data was obtained for all California public middle schools to
identify schools where African-American students made up 9% or more of total student
enrollment. California Standards Test results and Adequate Yearly Progress data was
then compiled for each of these schools. Schools were identified as part of the sample
population if either 50% or more of African-American students scored at the proficient or
advanced proficient level in mathematics, or 33% or more scored at the proficient or
advanced proficient levels and those scores constituted at least a 10 percentage points
growth in the previous two years.
Using these schools as the identified sample, an application was submitted to and
approved by the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) for
approval to begin the research study. This is required for any study involving human
subjects to protect the rights and welfare of participants. This application included both a
survey instrument and interview protocol which would later be used to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data for analysis in the study.
With the study and instruments approved, the researcher began recruitment of
participants from the identified sample of middle school principals. A letter was sent out
by email to the principals of the 67 schools identified through the initial data to explain
the purpose of the study and request their participation in the study by completing a
survey (Appendix A).
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 48
The recruitment letter emailed to principals was accompanied by a link directing
participants to the survey instrument created by the researcher (Appendix B). The survey
instrument included introductory questions regarding demographic information on the
professional and educational background of the principals. Following the demographic
information, principals were asked to provide quantitative responses to 25 questions
related to the occurrence of leadership practices at their school sites. These questions
were designed to provide detail in response to the three research questions used to guide
the study. Each question regarding leadership behaviors used a 7-point Likert scale
indicating the frequency with which each practice was utilized in their school sites; a
response of “1” meant never, and a “7” meant daily.
As part of the survey, participants indicated their willingness to later participate in
a more detailed follow-up interview with the researcher. Of the willing participants, five
were selected by each researcher to participate in a face-to-face interview which was
tape-recorded. These interviews provided qualitative data related to leadership behaviors
being implemented by the principals in the efforts to both increase mathematics
achievement school-wide and to close the gap in achievement for African-American
students in particular. An interview guide was used by the researcher to provide structure
for the interviews and to ensure all necessary questions were asked (Appendix C). This
guide was also used to develop continuity and standardization among the interviews.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 49
Table 3
Timeline of Data Collection Process
Month Activity
February, 2012
Data collected from California Department of Education
for purposeful sampling of participants
March, 2012 Development of survey and interview instruments
April, 2012
Application for study submitted to and approved by
University of Southern California’s Institutional Review
Board
June, 2012
Recruitment letter sent out by email to selected sample of
middle school principals
June-July, 2012
Collection of survey responses from participating
principals
August, 2012 Follow-up interviews conducted with selected principals
Data Analysis and Reporting
The data collected in the study was analyzed by the researcher in relation to the
three guiding research questions. The survey responses were analyzed to provide the
researcher with a broad picture of leadership behaviors being implemented across the 67
schools in the study. The quantitative responses to the survey questions were analyzed
using SPSS Student Version 15.0 statistical analysis software. This provided the
researcher with descriptive statistics including the mean, variability, and frequency of
scores for each item contained in the survey instrument.
Following quantitative analysis, qualitative data was collected and analyzed by
the researcher to provide more detailed information regarding leadership behaviors
employed by the smaller group of principals participating in the interview portion of the
study. Notes were taken along with a tape-recording which was later transcribed for each
interview to provide the researcher with qualitative data for analysis. This qualitative data
was used to identify common themes across leaders in their efforts to increase the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 50
mathematics achievement of African-American students, as this was the primary purpose
of the study. The analysis of qualitative data took place utilizing Creswell’s (2003) steps
of qualitative data analysis. These steps are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Creswell’s 6 Steps of Qualitative Data Analysis
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to identify and explain the methods used in
collecting and analyzing data as part of this mixed-methods study. Public data was
collected to identify principal leaders of 67 public middle schools for participation. Each
of the 67 principals was then invited to further participate in the study through responses
to a survey instrument developed by the researcher. Survey responses were analyzed for
descriptive statistics using SPSS software. This was followed by an in-depth interview
with 5 selected principals to provide the researchers with qualitative data regarding the
leadership behaviors implemented within these schools. Research findings and an in-
depth analysis are presented in the following chapter.
1
• Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
2
• Read through all the data to get a general sense of the information.
3
• Organize the material through a coding process.
4
• Use the coding process to develop categories and themes for analysis.
5
• Convey the findings through narrative passages.
6
• Make an interpretation of the data.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 51
Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion
Chapter Four discusses and analyzes data gathered from a mixed-methods
approach. The purpose of this mixed-methods approach was to ascertain the leadership
behaviors utilized by 35 public middle school principals who were successful in
stimulating and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics achievement on the
California Standards Test (CST) during the academic years 2009, 2010, and 2011. This
chapter provides an analysis and discussion of the quantitative and qualitative data
gathered from surveys and interviews. The following research questions were the focus
of the study:
1) How do middle school principal leaders stimulate and sustain mathematics
achievement in African-American students?
2) What school-wide systems and practices do middle school principal leaders
implement to promote mathematics achievement?
3) What are the expectations of middle school principal leaders for the monitoring
and assessment of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?
Data and findings are presented in a sequential order based on the phases of a
mixed-methods study, quantitative followed by qualitative. The quantitative phase
consisted of the survey instrument and the qualitative phase consisted of follow-up
interviews.
Data Collection
The primary instrument used during the quantitative phase was a two-part Likert
Scale survey designed by the researcher. All prospective participants were given the
opportunity to participate in the qualitative phase of the study upon completion of the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 52
survey. The qualitative phase involved a follow-up interview with the school leaders
conducted by the researcher.
Eight Principal Background/Demographic questions were placed at the beginning
of the survey. Questions pertained to the selected principals’ years in education,
education attained, gender, ethnicity, and age. The second part of the survey consisted of
25 Principal Leadership Behavior questions. Prospective participants were instructed to
answer the survey questions by indicating the frequency with which they exhibited the
leadership behaviors. Survey answer choices included: Never (1), Once per Year (2),
Two to Three Times per year (3), Once per Month (4), Two to Three Times per Month
(5), Weekly (6), and Daily (7).
Quantitative phase – phase one. The first phase, the quantitative phase,
consisted of collecting and analyzing African-American public middle school students’
CST mathematics performance data for the 2009, 2010, and 2011 academic years. For
the purpose of this study, middle school students’ CST mathematics performance data
encompassed grades sixth, seventh, and eighth regardless of whether the schools were
labeled middle, junior, or elementary. Identifying African-Americans’ mathematical
performance as a group assisted the researcher in eventually narrowing the study’s focus
to the school principal’s leadership behaviors.
CST mathematics performance data was obtained from the California Department
of Education (2012). Upon entering the search parameters, the researcher initially
identified 319 public middle schools in California that indicated that African-Americans
were included in their student body population. Since some of the identified public
middle schools did not contain a sizeable number of African-Americans in their student
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 53
body, the researcher utilized purposeful sampling to select schools that met both of the
following demographic criteria:
Student population of at least 100 students; and
African-American students make up at least 9% of the total student population
To ensure a viable sample that would assist the researcher in identifying principal leaders
who were stimulating and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics
achievement on the CST, selected schools also had to meet one of the following two
achievement criteria:
In 2011, at least 33% of AA students scored Proficient or Advanced Proficient on
the mathematics CST in addition to at least a 10 percentage point growth in
African American student proficiency from 2009-2011; or
At least 50% of the school site’s AA students scored Proficient or Advanced
Proficient on the mathematics CST in the year 2011 which reflected a positive
growth in proficiency from 2009-2011.
Creating the demographic and achievement criteria provided the researcher with a refined
participant sample of 67 public middle schools in California whose African-American
students, as a group, increased and sustained their mathematics performance on the CST
during the 2009, 2010, and 2011 academic years.
Response rate. Accessing the statistical database provided by the California
Department of Education (2012) allowed the researcher to obtain the name of the
principal leader at each of the identified 67 public middle schools. Each of the 67
principal leaders was emailed a letter of invitation to participate in the study along with a
link to access the survey online. Nineteen of the 67 middle school principals returned
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 54
their surveys electronically. After numerous attempts to secure more surveys by email,
phone calls were made by the researcher to the principal leaders who had not responded
to the letter of invitation. Phone calls assisted the researcher in determining whether the
principal leaders’ email addresses were correct, and it also allowed the researcher to
confirm whether the selected principal leaders were, in fact, still the principal leaders at
the middle schools identified through the California Department of Education (2012).
Phone calls yielded the following data:
Four of the 47 principal leaders who had not responded to the survey had been
reassigned to different school sites;
All but one of the 47 principal leaders who had not responded to the survey had
taken a position in the district’s central office; and
Of the 47 principal leaders who had not responded to the survey three of them
were no longer employed in their school districts
The principals who left the district were not sent another survey, and the newly
assigned school principals were not sent invitations to participate in the study because the
increase in CST mathematics achievement occurred during their predecessor’s tenure.
Remaining prospective participants were resent the invitation letter along with a link to
access the survey online. Reminder emails to the prospective participants preceded and
succeeded the invitation letter. The invitation letter, survey, and a self-addressed
stamped envelope was subsequently printed and placed with the United States Postal
Service (USPS) to be mailed to the principals who had not answered the survey
electronically. These methods of data collection yielded the remaining 17 participants.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 55
Participant characteristics. Thirty five of the identified 67 middle school
principal leaders completed the survey. These 35 principal leaders became the
participants in the study. Table 4 identifies the participants’ ethnicities. The gender
breakdown of the participants was 63% female and 37% male. The average age of the
participants was 45 years old.
Table 4
Participants’ Profile: Ethnicity (%)
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
African American 26% 9
Asian 14% 5
Caucasian 57% 20
Hispanic/Latino 3% 1
Participants’ experience as principal leaders averaged eight years; one year was
the fewest and 15 years was the greatest number of years for principal leadership
experience. Participants’ tenure at their current middle school site averaged four years.
On average, the selected participants served in the capacity of teacher for seven years
before becoming an administrator.
Table 5 identifies the teaching credentials held by the participants. Table 6 shows
the highest degree earned by the participants.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 56
Table 5
Participants’ Profile: Teaching Credentials (%)
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Multiple Subject 43% 15
Social Studies 23% 8
Physical Education 11% 4
English 34% 12
Fine Arts/Music 0% 0
Mathematics 6% 2
Other 11% 4
Science 3% 1
Table 6
Participants’ Profile: Highest Degree Earned (%)
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Bachelors 0% 0
Masters 74% 26
Doctorate 26% 9
School Characteristics. As Table 7 indicates, participants were given the
opportunity to classify their school as regular public, magnet, public charter, or other
school. A breakdown of the different grade levels for the participants’ schools is
illustrated in Table 8. Although five of the 35 participants’ schools contained fourth and
fifth grades, the mathematics achievement data for this study pertained only to sixth,
seventh, and eighth grades.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 57
Table 7
Participants’ Profile: School Classification (%)
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Regular Public School 89% 31
Magnet School 3% 1
Public Charter School 6% 2
Other 3% 1
Table 8
Participants’ Profile: School Grade Levels (%)
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Fourth Grade 6% 2
Fifth Grade 9% 3
Sixth Grade 86% 30
Seventh Grade 100% 35
Eighth Grade 100% 35
The average population of the participants’ middle schools was 980 students. The
lowest student population at a participant’s school site was 275 students while the highest
peaked at 2,200 students. When examining participants’ responses regarding free or
reduced-price lunch, 67% of the participants’ student body populations qualified.
Examining and analyzing the quantitative data pertaining to their school site’s
mathematics support for new and veteran teachers, the 35 participants revealed the
following about their mathematics departments:
83% of the participants surveyed stated that their school site utilized a common
grading scale for mathematics.
83% of the participants surveyed reported that there are no Academic Coaches for
mathematics
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 58
60% of the participants reported that they assign mentors for new mathematics
teachers.
This information was revealing since the participants’ mathematics teachers’ experience
of teaching mathematics varied (Table 9).
Table 9
Years of Experience for Mathematics Teachers (%)
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
1-3 years 0% 0
4-6 years 26% 9
7-9 years 34% 12
10 or more years 40% 14
Qualitative phase – phase two. Following the quantitative phase, four of the 35
participants participated in an in-depth exploratory interview with the researcher. The
four participants were selected not only because of their willingness to be interviewed,
but also because these four participants represented various demographic characteristics
of the participants and a leadership ethic of high expectations for student achievement,
particularly African-American students, as indicated in their survey responses.
Interviews were conducted individually; there were no group interviews with the
participants. Interview questions consisted of 13 exploratory questions that provided the
researcher with a lens to view the leadership behaviors implemented by the participants
which have stimulated and sustained African-American students’ mathematics
performance on the CST for three consecutive years. Table 10 contains the demographic
profile of the participants in the qualitative phase of the study. All interviews were
recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. The interviews lasted between 30 and 45 minutes.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 59
Characteristics of participants. Before becoming principal leaders, each
participant served as a teacher and then proceeded to serve as an administrator in various
capacities in their current or other districts in California or neighboring states. As
indicated in Table 11, with the exception of one participant, participants in the qualitative
phase appeared to only hold one position as a principal leader, which was their current
assignment at the time of this study. A review of the data indicated that all participants
held the position of Assistant Principal for a few years before attaining the position of
School Principal (Principal Leader). Table 10 provides demographic information
regarding participants’ age, ethnicity, and gender.
Table 10
Participant’s Profile: Participants’ Demographics
Participant Age Ethnicity Gender
Principal A 35 Caucasian Male
Principal B 48 Caucasian Female
Principal C 38 Caucasian Female
Principal D 42 African American Female
Table 11
Participant’s Profile: Education and Professional Experience
Participant Education
Level
Teaching
Credential
Years as
Teacher
Years as
Principal
Years at
Current
School
Principal A Doctorate Mathematics 4 5 5
Principal B Doctorate Multiple
Subject
8 4 4
Principal C Masters Multiple
Subject
6 4 4
Principal D Doctorate ELA and
Social
Studies
8 10 2
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 60
As indicated in Table 12, all but one participant revealed that a common grading
scale for mathematics is not used. The one participant, who indicated that her
mathematics department did not use a common grading scale, stated her mathematics
teachers’ years of experience were fewer than those of the other participants’
mathematics teachers. Only one of the four participants indicated that the number of
students taking Algebra was below 50%. The other three participants reported that more
than 98% of their eighth graders took Algebra I. Participants’ school populations ranged
from 900-1200, and, as indicated in Table 13, each participant indicated that their
African-American student population was more than 9% of their total student population.
Table 12
Participants Profile: Common Math Grading Scale and Teacher Math Experience
School Common Mathematics
Grading Scale
Average Years of Experience of
Mathematics Teachers
School A Yes 7-9
School B Yes 7-9
School C No 4-6
School D Yes 7-9
Table 13
Student Populations at Schools of Interviewed Participants (%)
School School
Population
% African
American
% Receiving Free/
Reduced Lunch
% of 8
th
Graders
in Algebra 1
School A 900 14.4% 90% 100%
School B 1070 14.8% 98% 100%
School C 1200 10% 85% 98%
School D 1000 25.7% 95% 50%
Research Findings
In triangulating with the literature and both quantitative and qualitative data, all
results and findings were synthesized to answer the three research questions. Although
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 61
the participants’ responses to the survey instrument were used to gather the quantitative
data, the interview responses constructed definition, clarity, and purpose to these
statistical findings, which the quantitative instrument was unable to do. Both instruments
assisted in explaining the significance and influence of the participants’ leadership
behaviors upon African-American middle school students’ mathematics achievement.
Research question one. Research question number one asks, “How do middle
school principal leaders stimulate and sustain mathematics achievement in African-
American students?” Unlike the quantitative instrument, the qualitative findings were
rich, robust, and narrative. Therefore, these produced an in-depth examination of how
these principal leaders stimulated and sustained student achievement from the ground up.
For this reason, only the qualitative results were used to answer research question one.
These principal leaders’ ground-up approach was evident throughout the
interview phase. Although the use of surveys to assess the school’s culture was not
expounded upon during the principal leaders’ interviews, the fact that each principal
leader was cognizant of the imperative need to periodically survey the school’s culture is
worth mentioning in this discussion. Surveys were used as feedback for the principal
leader to ascertain the staff’s temperature in regards to the school’s culture, expectations,
instruction, achievement, and principal leadership. Results from the surveys allowed the
principals to review, revise, and restructure the school’s systems, practices, and human
capital if possible. Most importantly, the survey results guided the principal leader in
creating social and educational infrastructures of student achievement while
simultaneously caring for student and staff needs. Evidence of the support systems that
stimulated and sustained African-American students’ mathematics achievement resonated
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 62
throughout the principal leaders’ interviews and was indicative of four motifs. These
four motifs were planned, purposeful, and aimed at supporting and educating the whole
child. More importantly, these four motifs revealed the leadership behaviors necessary to
stimulate and sustain African-American students’ mathematics achievement. Figure 4
outlines the four motifs.
Figure 4. Systems of Support: Four Motifs
Given that the principal leaders pointed to direct correlations to the motifs and
their impact upon African-American students’ mathematics achievement, it was apparent
that these four motifs were integral in their mathematics achievement. Discovery of the
four motifs in the discussion and findings for research question one provided insight as to
the potency of these motifs in building sustainable school-wide systems and practices that
assist with the monitoring and assessment of instruction to promote African-American
students’ mathematics achievement at the middle school level. Research questions two
and three explore interrelatedness of the motifs, systems, practices, monitoring, and
assessment in greater detail later in the study. For anonymity purposes and for the
remainder of this discussion, principal leaders are identified through pseudonyms:
Principals, A, B, C, D, and interviewed participants.
AA Students' Math Achievement
Building and
Upholding
High
Expectations
Constructing
and Maintaining
a Culture of
Achievement
Creating and
Sustaining
Student
Accountability
Forming School
Connectedness
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 63
Building and upholding high expectations for all students. In order for students
to achieve, the persons responsible for their learning must expect that they can achieve.
During the qualitative phase, each of the four interviewed participants recognized and
understood the significance of high expectations and a positive school culture. These
components have such an impact on student achievement that Hallinger (2005)
highlighted both as components in his Instructional Leadership Model.
Each interviewed participant identified high expectations as a twofold process.
Hence, stakeholders should have high expectations for student achievement, and all
students should have high expectations for themselves. Interviewed participants
commented that students should be aware of the expectations imposed upon them.
Principal A stated, “I think it’s the high expectations, the kids knowing what those
expectations are, and kids who don’t necessarily meet the expectations the first time, they
have other opportunities to meet those expectations.” This was a profound statement
since, oftentimes, students are presented with only one opportunity to meet the
expectation. Principal A’s elaboration of “other opportunities” was in reference to the
school’s Merit System which arose from collaborative culture building conversations that
he had with his staff. The Merit System provided students with the opportunity to retake
assessments. Retaking the assessments not only improved their comprehension of
previously taught material, but the students also had the opportunity to improve their
class grade. Principal A’s Merit System will be discussed in more detail during the
discussion and findings of research question two.
Principal B believed that having and maintaining high expectations were both
important when examining the stimulation and sustainment of student achievement.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 64
Principal B commented that, when students know that you expect nothing but the best,
they will try their hardest to give you nothing but the best. If they are unable to give you
your best, Principal B believed students would, at least, verbalize to you the tools that
they believe are necessary to assist them. Some of their requested tools may be
unrealistic, but at least they formulate conversations and become advocates for their
success. All of the interviewed participants voiced that high expectations for staff and
students were modeled by administration throughout the school year. Interviewed
participants also revealed that they were comfortable having discussions with teachers
who were not upholding the established norm of high expectations. Principal C
mentioned that, in some cases, teachers were unaware of the application of high
expectations. Some teachers need to hear it, and it has to be modeled. Principal C
expressed that the high expectations were embedded in the school-wide goals, and
teachers and departments were responsible for providing her with viable plans as to how
they plann3e to reach and, in some cases, exceed those expectations. Like the other
principal leaders in the qualitative phase of this study, Principal C maintained she had an
open door policy whereby her teachers were able to communicate their needs in reaching
the established expectations.
Principal D stated she greeted her students each day with her daily mantra of no
excuses, only high expectations. Concurring with Principal C, her expectations were
visible throughout the school and they were embedded in the school-wide goals. These
expectations were articulated to the students during every opportunity of the day.
Principal D communicated with students throughout the day. She called them by name
and will ask them about their benchmark or classroom assessment. Not only did
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 65
Principal D recognize her students by name, she was also aware of their academic and
personal struggles as well as the steps necessary to get that individual student to
proficiency. Principal D shared her expectation of having her students recognize and
understand the definitions of Far Below Basic (FBB), Below Basic (BB), Basic (B),
Proficient (P), and Advanced Proficient (AP). Principal C expressed that it was the
school culture’s expectation that students recognize and understand the definition of
proficiency. More importantly, students must understand and discern the steps necessary
to achieve proficiency. Having high expectations encompassed students’ and teachers’
knowing the definition, comprehension, and the application of proficiency. Principal D’s
high expectations encompassed a “No Excuses” mentality. She was adamant that all
students were capable of achieving, no excuses.
Constructing and maintaining a culture of achievement. A positive school
culture that stimulates student achievement unveils collaboration, communal support
amongst teachers, professionalism, collaboration, productive feedback, judicious
achievement goals, and a shared vision (Pepper & Hamilton, 2002). When discussing
African-American students’ mathematics achievement at the middle school level, all four
of the interviewed participants created a positive school culture that was significant in
stimulating and sustaining achievement.
Interviewed participants’ school cultures exemplified these characteristics. Before
his tenure as principal leader at his current school site, Principal A revealed that during,
his predecessor’s tenure, the school had a high suspension rate, continuous low academic
achievement, and extremely low student, staff, and community morale. Understanding
and recognizing the numerous challenges, Principal A commented that his first priority as
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 66
the school’s leader was to assist in the creation of a positive school culture that was
inclusive, collaborative, supportive, transparent, and focused. All staff and community
stakeholders were invited and encouraged to participate in this new culture of
achievement. Stakeholders possessed an active and participatory voice which allowed
systems of support for student achievement to be created collaboratively and not in
isolation. Since his school site was located in a high-risk poverty-stricken area, Principal
A considered the creation of a school culture which included community members vital
for his students’ success. Community members were able to communicate students’
needs to teachers and teachers were able to communicate students’ needs to community
members. Systems were created from these conversations that would benefit the mental
and physical well-being of the whole child and the eventuality of stimulating and
sustaining student achievement, particularly for African-American students. This
positive school culture laid the foundation for Principal A’s school to be recognized in
the year 2011 as a California Distinguished School.
Each interviewed participant emphasized the importance of establishing and
maintaining a school culture that encouraged, expected, and believed that all students can
achieve. This was evident during the discussions with these four principals. Not only did
each interviewed participant express similar expectations for establishing a positive
school culture, but each principal leader illustrated, by example, the establishing of
systems and practices to promote student achievement at their school sites.
Student accountability. Students should be held accountable for being aware of
their present and future academic progress. Principal D expressed that students should be
aware of their previous years’ CST performances as well as where they need to be on
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 67
future CSTs. Principal D revealed that she made it a purpose to review and remember
students’ performance scores. During the interview, she reflected upon numerous
classroom visits where she had impromptu brief, encouraging and caring conversations
with students’ regarding their individual performances on the CST. She mentioned that
not only were the students surprised that she was aware of their scores, but they actually
welcomed and embraced her awareness of their academic progress. She reflected upon
her campus encounters during passing periods when students approached her to inform
her about their academic progress. Principal D noted that the students were interested
and engaged, but, more importantly, they sought her out to make her aware of their
academic progress. They knew where they were, where they had to be, and had a plan to
get them where they needed to be. It was evident that student accountability was
becoming a part of their mindset and behavior.
During interviews, each principal leader commented not only on teachers’
accountability but also on students’ accountability for their own learning and academic
progress. The four interviewed participants appeared to teach students to be accountable
for their academic progress while, at the same time, making them an active participant in
the student achievement formula.
School connectedness. Principal leaders are instrumental in assisting students in
feel like they belonging in the school environment. This is especially important when
recognizing the variables that negate student achievement. Anderman (2001) revealed
that middle school students feel less connected to school when fairness and respect are
not a component of the school’s culture. Recognizing this fact, the interviewed
participants stressed the importance of including and connecting all students to the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 68
school’s environment, as this practice is vital when working with African-American
students.
Since his school’s surrounding community was plagued with violence, Principal
A recognized the importance of not only creating a community of positivity and high
expectations, but also the importance of his students’ feeling a sense of connectedness to
the school. Before his tenure, his school was plagued with a history of low achievement,
and the surrounding community was plagued with violence. He was faced with the
insurmountable task of promoting student achievement, providing a safe haven for his
students, nurturing his numerous students’ mental, physical, and social needs as well as
sending the message of respect and fairness throughout the school day. One of his many
tasks as the principal leader was to ensure that his students felt connected to the school.
Principal A stated, “We have to continuously find ways to make our students feel like
they are a part of the school community” and asked, “How can a student achieve if they
feel as if they are not a part of the school community?” Principal A commented that his
staff strived each day to connect with the students in an effort to make them feel a sincere
connectedness to the school’s community. Principal A noted that this feeling of
disconnectedness is especially true for African-American students.
Without fail, each of the four interviewed participants made reference to
observing African-American students’ being sometimes singled out for disciplinary
reasons or distrusting school personnel. These observations were extremely minimal at
their school sites, but one of the interviewed participants was openly honest about the
struggles of one teacher to connect with African-American students. Factors such as
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 69
these would undoubtedly have a negative impact upon African-American students’
connectedness at a school and, eventually, on their achievement.
Recognizing the strength of school connectedness on student achievement, it was
apparent that each of the interviewed principals recognized a correlation between school
connectedness and student achievement. Acknowledging the fact that cultural
insensitivities exist as well as that some possibly discriminatory practices are exhibited
by teachers, each interviewed principal leader devised a plan which involved the
inculcation of all stakeholders in genuinely connecting with African-American students
to their school community. Successful partnerships were created during the process of
building bridges to student and school connectedness. Interviewed participants
commented that such partnerships were needed and instrumental in African-American
students’ achievement. Principal leaders also credited teachers for being open and
trusting when verbalizing their concerns connecting with African-American students.
This open and trusting relationship, which was borne from the school’s culture, was the
catalyst in creating sincere relationships with students, staff, and teachers that had an
impact on African-American students’ mathematics achievement.
Principal A’s words about the alienation from the school community due to
discipline referrals appeared to validate the other three principals’ sentiments regarding
African-American students in particular. All four of the interviewed participants
empathized with the plight of all underrepresented students, but particularly with that of
African-American students. Each interviewed participant made mention of historical
accounts which were indicative of the high incidents of suspensions of African-American
students, the purposeful segregation of African-American students in the special
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 70
education system, and classroom ostracism due to a teacher’s inability to connect with
them culturally. Although these practices were not a problem at their site, the principal
leaders did acknowledge that, in some schools, the practices did and still exist today.
While reflecting upon some of the negative and unfair educational practices
imposed upon many African-American students nationwide, Principal B commented on
the importance of building positive relationships with students and the impact upon
student achievement. Principal B stressed, “…if you form connections with the kids, if
you actually get to know them, if they know that you’re there to help them, if they know
that you’re going to be fair, that you’re going to be respectful, they will try to achieve.”
Principal C’s views on school connectedness echoed Principal B’s comments.
Principal C also recognized the importance of the school’s responsibility to form positive
relationships with students. Principal C emphasized that learning cannot take place if
students do not have a sense of connectedness established first. To promote and sustain
African-American student achievement, Principal C provided her staff with professional
development in regards to culturally relevant responsive teaching and she also reviewed
discipline data to ascertain which students were repeatedly referred to the office.
Principal C had private conversations with teachers who repeatedly referred the same
student to the office. This was concerning because, as a principal leader, she knew that
learning was not taking place because the student was in the office most of the time.
Principal C revealed that some teachers shared with her that they were oblivious as to
how to handle African-American students. Principal C shared, “…one of the aspects that
we know for most African-American children is the strong sense of needing to belong
and rapport and trust with adults. They need to have that established before they can
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 71
learn.” This is why she viewed her professional development as crucial in promoting
student achievement and positive staff and student relationships. Principal C encouraged
and expected her administrative staff to model that desired behavior with students as
well.
Principal D also discussed the importance of school connectedness. She
mentioned that all students, but especially African-American students, need to feel a
connectedness to the school community. This is why she encouraged her staff to greet
students as they entered the classrooms and to have brief, but meaningful, cordial
conversation during passing, nutrition, or lunch times. Principal D believed that students
want to know that their teachers genuinely care about their well-being. If a teacher
ostracized a student, Principal D commented that she was not afraid to have an honest
conversation with her teachers about positive teacher student relationships. Principal D
concurred with Principal B, “When students, especially African-American students know
that you genuinely care about them, they will try their best for you.”
It was apparent that the four interviewed participants recognized the impact of the
four motifs upon African-American students’ mathematics achievement at the middle
school level. The four motifs impelled these four principal leaders to create school-wide
systems and practices that would encourage and support the learning and achievement of
not only African-American students but of all students. These four motifs formed the
foundation for the principals’ student achievement formula.
Research question two. Research question two provides more insight into the
workings of the systems and practices implemented by the participants in the study. This
question asked, “What school-wide systems and practices do middle school principal
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 72
leaders implement to promote mathematics achievement?” An examination of the
quantitative and qualitative data identified four systems and practices exhibited by the
participants that stimulated and sustained African-American students’ mathematics
achievement: Collaborative Lesson Planning, Purposeful Professional Development,
Incentive Systems, and Innovative Interventions. These four practices resonated
throughout the quantitative and qualitative data and responses. This consistent resonation
of data validated that these practices were prevalent in the principal leader’s leadership to
promote and sustain African-American students’ mathematics achievement in sixth,
seventh, and eighth grades.
Collaborative lesson planning. Hallinger (2005) highlighted that an effective
school leader is an instructional leader who is aware of curriculum and learning
outcomes. As Table 14 indicates, all of the surveyed participants responded that their
mathematics teachers met at some time during the month or the week to collaboratively
plan lessons. However, Table 15 indicates that only 63% of the surveyed participants
responded that their teachers purposely designed lessons based on the interest of African-
American students.
Table 14
Collaborative Math Lesson Planning (%)
Practice (1)
Never
(2)
Less Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3 Times
a Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3 Times
a Week
(7)
Daily
Mathematics
teachers meet
to
collaboratively
plan lessons
0% 9% 9% 20% 20% 31% 11%
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 73
Table 15
Lesson Plan Design for African-American Students (%)
Practice (1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3 Times
a Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3 Times
a Week
(7)
Daily
Mathematics
teachers meet to
collaboratively
plan lessons
37% 26% 9% 3% 9% 11% 6%
Although the frequency of lesson planning varied amongst the surveyed
participants, the surveyed participants viewed this type of purposeful planning as
essential for African-American students’ mathematics achievement. Even if the
participants’ teachers did not design mathematics lessons based on the sole interests of
African-American students, the mathematics teachers did meet to collaboratively plan
lessons for the achievement of all students. Teachers did not plan lessons in isolation,
however. They worked collaboratively for the academic betterment of all students as
evidenced by the sustained mathematics achievement for three consecutive years.
Interviewed participants provided the researcher with a comprehensive
examination into the systematic processes involved in their school’s culture of lesson
design and lesson collaboration. Systems and practices were implemented so that
teachers were able to collaborate and develop lessons during their department meetings or
their common prep periods. Meetings were monitored by the Department Head,
Principal, and Assistant Principals.
Each of the four interviewed participants stressed that they purposely created a
school culture of high expectations and trust whereby teachers were comfortable
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 74
collaborating and sharing the “what’s working” and “what’s not working” in their
classrooms. Participants emphasized that teachers had to be able to do that to promote
student achievement with not only African-American students, but with all students.
Principal B noted, “There are always a few students who work well in one class, but, in
another class, they fall apart behaviorally. Once that happens, student achievement cannot
take place because the student is in the office for discipline reasons.” Principal A
concurred with Principal B, stating, “Teachers have to have collaborative discussions
about how other teachers are able to deliver effective instruction even to the students who
are sometimes perceived as behavior problems. This is why collaborative planning is
important.” All interviewed participants agreed that this type of collaborative spirit was
embedded and was the foundation of the school’s culture.
Principal B stressed that collaborative lesson planning was even more rewarding
when the teachers were able to not only discuss their lesson designs, but were also able to
model their delivery of instruction. Principal B commented that he wants teachers to
have variation with the delivery of instruction. These variations create impactful
discussions with teachers and with the re-teaching of concepts to students. Each principal
stated s/he believed that collaborative planning makes re-teaching successful.
Principal C’s interview echoed Principal B’s sentiments. Principal C commented
that the practice of collaboration assists teachers improve both their mathematics
instruction and the implementation of best practices. This practice was done daily at
Principal C’s school site. Principal C also credited the common prep periods that each
department share with being instrumental in allowing teachers the opportunities to plan
collaboratively. Teachers were required to collaboratively plan during these common
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 75
prep periods. Principal C utilized the mathematics department as an example to provide
the researcher with a visual picture of how this system works. Math teachers were
expected to meet at least once a week during their prep period. These meetings were
designed to assist teachers with developing common lesson plans, common assessments
and pacing. Since all students were exposed to the same assessments for their grade
level, Principal C viewed these collaboration meetings as being integral in promoting
student achievement. Data from the previously administered assessments were discussed,
and these discussions provided teachers with the opportunities to discuss “what worked”
and “what didn’t work” in regards to their students’ success on the assessments. If one
teacher’s students were successful, this teacher could share his/her approaches in
delivering instruction. These collaboration meetings were especially important when
discussing common and formative assessments. Principal C expected teachers to ask
such questions as, “What did you do?” “How did you do this?” In an effort to assist them
in re-teaching previously taught material. Principal C also highlighted that the math
department’s collaboration in regards to the common plan which was developed by the
math department was instrumental in promoting not only African-American students’
mathematics achievement, but that of all students. Principal C believed that collaboration
within the common prep periods incorporated systems and practices that contributed to
their increased and sustained achievement in mathematics, especially in regards to
African-American students.
The creation, implementation, and practice of collaboration evolved from a school
culture that valued teacher collaboration and purposeful innovative lesson designs. By
creating such a culture, all students, particularly African-American students, were able to
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 76
achieve in the area of mathematics. In sum, several key points of alignment resonated
during the interviews with the principals. Figure 5 highlights these key points.
Figure 5. Collaborative Lesson Planning Process
These key points were credited to the collaborative lesson planning process which was
instrumental in increasing and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics
achievement.
The school culture helped to identify the need, and the principal leader
implemented systems which included common prep times and release days for half-day
or all-day planning. These practices assisted in the promotion and sustainment of
African-American students’ mathematics achievement.
Purposeful professional development. O’Donnell and White (2005) revealed that
effective leaders at the middle school level should provide professional development that
presents teachers with the necessary tools to assist and understand their students’ needs.
Recognizing and understanding the importance of professional development and its
relevance to students’ needs, student achievement and positive student outcomes, the
participants in this study provided their staff with constructive professional development
Common Planning
Periods
(Departments)
Unpack and
Deconstruct
Standards
Develop
Assessments
Review Assessment
Data After
Administering to
Students
Share Assessment
Data and Strategies
Check on Individual
Students
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 77
that would allow them to acquire effective mathematics instructional strategies, increase
their awareness and knowledge of cultural relevant instruction, and increase their math
content knowledge.
The participants in this study placed professional development for their staff as a
priority. This was evidenced by their staff’s participation in staff development as
indicated in Table 16. Even more revealing was the participants’ emphasis on culturally
relevant professional development. Sixty-nine percent of the participants reported that
teachers participated in professional development activities directly related to culturally
relevant instruction for African-American students, while 97% of the participants
reported that teachers participated in professional development related to effective
instructional strategies in math. Increasing teachers’ mathematics content knowledge
also appeared to be of great importance as evidenced by 94% of the participants’
reporting that professional development was held to increase teachers’ knowledge. To
assist parents in the understanding that mathematics is important, 74% of the participants
reported that evening activities were held for parents to understand the importance of
mathematics achievement.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 78
Table 16
Professional Development (%)
Practice (1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3
Times a
Week
(7)
Daily
Teachers
participate in
professional
development
related to effective
instructional
strategies in
mathematics
3% 26% 43% 26% 3% 0% 0%
Teachers
participate in
professional
development
activities directly
related to cultural
relevant
instruction
31% 51% 14% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Teachers
participate in
professional
development
related to
increasing their
mathematics
content knowledge
6% 34% 34% 20% 6% 0% 6%
The qualitative findings revealed that the four interviewed participants had similar
systems and practices for professional development. Professional development consisted
of on- and off-campus activities. Professional development was provided to the entire
staff at least once a week. The interviewed participants’ days for professional
development varied due to their being in different districts. Three principals’ districts
provided them with an early release day for the school-wide professional development
and one interviewed participant revealed that, instead of having an early release day for
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 79
professional development, her school site had one day out of the week where the school
day began late due their school-wide meeting’s being held in the morning instead of the
afternoon. Departments also held professional development once a week at one
participant’s site and every other week at another participant’s site. Two interviewed
principals commented that their department meetings rotated with the grade level
meetings. All four interviewed participants commented that each meeting was planned,
focused, and notes were taken for accountability. Each of the four interviewed
participants also revealed that the professional development was developed by the
school’s leadership team. Table 17 outlines Principal C’s meeting schedule for
professional development. Each of the interviewed participants’ outlines was congruent
or similar to Principal C’s professional development schedule.
Principal C commented that she also focused on professional development that
teaches staff about human learning. She tried to target that type of professional
development at least two to three times a year or when needed. Principal C commented,
“Instructional framework to understand human learning is needed instead of an ABCD
type of lesson plan.” Each of the three participants mentioned that, due to his/her staff’s
needs, s/he utilized some of their days for discussion involving Gardner’s Theory of
Multiple Intelligences. Each interviewed participant commented that the professional
development was relevant, necessary, and instrumental in his/her teachers’ perspectives
in reaching and teaching students. This professional development was provided to the
entire staff.
Professional development in the areas of the common core, rigor and relevance
was the focus for many of the participants’ professional development. All the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 80
interviewed participants agreed that, if a teacher was struggling with the implementation
of professional development training in the classroom, one-on-one professional
development then occurred and to provide the teacher with assistance in order to be
successful. Professional development for subjects such as Mathematics and English
Language Arts were implemented in the teachers’ department meetings.
Table 17
Professional Development Schedule – Principal C
Professional
Development
Target
Audience
Goal When Length
District Wide
Staff Development
School Site To disseminate
district info to
the schools
Every Monday
Late Start Days
1.5 hours
Mini PD
Whoever
needs it
Instructional
Strategies
Every Monday
after School
.5 hour
Mini PD
Whoever
needs it
Behavior
Management
Every Thursday
after School
.5 hour
Department
Departments
Effective and
Collaborative
Lesson Planning
Rotating
Mondays
1.5 hours
Principal C also discussed that teachers utilized their common conference periods
for lesson planning and professional development. Common conference periods allowed
teachers in the same department to have collaborative planning together. Teachers were
able to utilize one conference period for grading papers, parent conferences, and other
miscellaneous teaching duties. The other conference period was called their Professional
Development and Collaboration period. This was the time where the department took
part in their department’s staff development.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 81
Principal D commented that her professional development for mathematics was
planned by the district’s math office. Her site received support in the middle school’s
office through the cognitive coaching model, and they were in the process of moving
towards common core. Lead teachers were identified to attend content level professional
development training, and those teachers, in turn, return to the site to share the best
practices with teachers at their grade level and with the entire teaching staff. Principal D
stressed that her professional development’s focus was on content knowledge,
comprehension, proving behavior and application of learning that goes beyond rote
learning.
This type of learning is especially important when learning Algebra. Principal C
expressed that her mathematics professional development assisted teachers in
understanding the “mental and physical modeling” of Algebra. Professional development
pertaining to Algebra involved assisting teachers with the delivery of instruction that will
aid them in helping students understand the mathematics foundational skills necessary for
Algebra. Principal C expressed:
Algebra is so theoretical and conceptual in nature that if students are missing
some basic understanding of math concepts, where it’s going to show up is in
algebra. They can get away with procedural gimmicks and tricks all the way
through seventh grade. Once you hit algebra you can’t do any gimmicks or tricks.
There’s no plug-in chug with an X squared. You either know it or you don’t.
You know what to do with an X squared or you don’t.
Principal C also credited the CAP Grant, which is the California Partnerships Grant. The
focus of these grants is on pedagogy and formative assessments. Teachers are released
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 82
one day out the month to work on lesson plan study and collaborative teaching to assist
students on how to work collaboratively. In essence, the grants assist teachers in helping
them be better instructors of mathematics. The Cal-Pass standards for Algebra were also
instrumental at Principal C’s school site with increasing student achievement. The Cal-
Pass standards assist teachers with identifying and distinguishing new Algebra skills and
the review skills. Principal C noted:
What we found is that in a lot of our algebra classes they spent a lot of time re-
teaching seventh grade math. Re-teaching slope, they already had slope intercept
form in seventh grade so re-teaching it in eighth grade is not helping our students
get to that next level of proficiency…really taking a look at what are the
prerequisite skills and what are the new skills. That’s helped them become better
at differentiating what they teach in their core class and then what they teach in
their support class.
The interviewed participants selected professional development based upon
teachers’ needs. Their needs were obtained from the administration’s informal and
formal observations. Principal B revealed that professional development involving
students learning in a social context was one area that was beneficial and incorporated
into their weekly professional development. Principal B commented that this type of
learning is especially beneficial for African-American students.
Interviewed participants implemented systems and practices to assist teachers
with the delivery of effective mathematics instruction, the identification of pedagogical
gaps, and the scope and sequence of lesson delivery. The interviewed participants were
keenly aware of their teachers’ instructional needs and of their students’ academic needs.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 83
Principals in the study utilized school-wide, department, or grade-level professional
development to assist teachers in receiving the necessary skills to produce positive
student outcomes.
Incentives. A review of the earlier findings regarding research question one
hinted at incentive systems employed by the participants at their school sites. The
findings revealed that the participants focused more on intrinsic rewards such as
obtaining an elective class in lieu of an academic support class. When surveyed
participants were asked if students were celebrated for increasing achievement in
mathematics, 94% of the participants answered in the affirmative as indicated in Table
18.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 84
Table 18
Incentives for Students and Teachers (%)
Practice
(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3
Times a
Week
(7)
Daily
Students are
offered
incentives for
increasing
their
performance in
mathematics
17% 26% 29% 11% 3% 6% 9%
Students are
celebrated for
increasing
their
achievement in
mathematics
6% 37% 31% 11% 3% 3% 9%
Teachers are
celebrated for
increasing
student
achievement in
mathematics
3% 66% 23% 3% 6% 0% 0%
Only 6% of the surveyed participants revealed that, at their school sites, students
who increased their achievement in mathematics were not celebrated. For 6% of the
surveyed participants to report that they did not celebrate their students increasing their
achievement in mathematics again points to other leadership factors that are stimulating
and sustaining students’ mathematics achievement on the CST.
Although the surveyed participants’ responses varied regarding the providing of
incentives and celebration of students for increasing their achievement in mathematics,
97% reported that teachers were celebrated for increasing student achievement in
mathematics. Sixty-eight percent of the surveyed participants reported that teacher
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 85
celebrations happened less than once a month, and 23% reported that the teacher
celebrations occur about once a month. Evidently, surveyed participants observed an
imperative need to celebrate teachers for increasing student achievement in mathematics.
The survey instrument did not question participants about the types of award systems that
they implemented. The four participants who were interviewed during the qualitative
phase provided examples of the rewards implemented at their school sites.
When questioned about the successful school-wide systems and practices
implemented at their school sites, all four interviewed participants focused more on the
intrinsic than the extrinsic. Although there was mention that certificates, “free dress
passes” or “go to the front of the lunch line passes” were distributed to the students for
increased achievement, more emphasis was placed upon teaching students to be
accountable and making them aware of where they were academically and where they
should be. Each interviewed participant stressed that it was important to teach students to
be aware of their academic progress. Therefore, systems were implemented that
celebrated students, but these systems were also honest with students in making them
aware of their current and future academic progress and providing them with the tools
necessary to get to where they needed to be.
Principal B noted that his school’s Merit System was successful in stimulating
and sustaining students’ mathematics achievement. Principal B noted that his teachers
expressed the same sentiment about the Merit System. Principal B described the Merit
System as a celebratory type of system for the students. Principal B stated, “…students
typically were in trouble in school, and we focused on a lot of negatives, we flipped that
around and said, ‘We're going to celebrate kids, all day every day.’” A few of the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 86
incentives included in The Merit System included increase in assessment scores, good
behavior, community service, extracurricular activities, parent participation, and
attendance at school activities. Principal B noted that students were celebrated all the
time. Principal B revealed that students were provided with “privileges and incentives”
for their achievement on the CST, behavior and parent involvement. The Merit System
also recognized students for not being doubled blocked for mathematics. If a student
achieved proficiency, the student could receive the opportunity of becoming an office
aide since a double-block class was no longer needed. Privileges could also include the
issuance of classroom certificates or a free-dress pass. Rewarding students went beyond
just CST. Principal B described the system as “a very integrated system” where children
were always celebrated.
Principal C expressed that students were celebrated at her school site, but she also
made students aware of where they were academically and where they needed to be.
Principal B commented that, when students were double blocked at her school site, her
students had an understanding of why their classes were double blocked. Principal C
stated, “When they have an understanding of why they’re there, and they have a specific
goal as to what they need to do to get out, you don’t need any other kind of external
rewards or motivation. That in and of itself is the motivation.”
All four of the interviewed principals held the ideology of nonmonetary
celebrations for students. Interviewed principal participants revealed that students were
given free lunch and dress passes for increased achievement. There were trimester and
achievement celebrations and newsletters went home to parents regarding achievement
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 87
and celebrations at Principal D’s school. Principal D made it a point to know where each
student was so she could have conversations with them about their achievement data.
All the interviewed participants expressed that teachers were also celebrated for
increasing student achievement. Teachers who made significant gains were recognized in
Weekly Bulletins or at the staff meeting. The participants also revealed that they had
personal conversations with teachers about their increase or decrease in student
achievement. Celebrations were not always centered on achievement data. Principal B
emphasized that his school culture really puts forth the effort to celebrate the whole child.
His school site celebrates CST achievement, classroom achievement, community service,
and character education. At the time of this study, the school was in the process of
assisting the students develop a “growth mindset” instead of a “fixed mindset.” Principal
B commented, “We’re trying to reward effort and overcoming obstacles. I’m trying to
start kind of a weekly award for kids who just displayed a lot of sort of tenaciousness.”
Innovative Interventions. For student achievement to take place, teachers must
be given the necessary tools to assist them achieve positive student outcomes. Marzano,
Waters, and McNulty (2005) posited that an effective school leader must be able to
provide staff with the necessary resources to be effective in helping their students
achieve. A review of the data indicates that a number of participants viewed resources as
a necessary element in stimulating and sustaining African-American students’
mathematics achievement.
Forty-six percent of the surveyed participants surveyed stated that they did not
specifically select mathematics resources based upon the needs and interests of African-
American students as indicated in Table 19. Although an excessive number of surveyed
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 88
participants stated that they did not select resources for that purpose, 54% of the
participants surveyed stated that they did, in fact, select resources for that purpose. A
more careful examination into the qualitative findings revealed other resources that lent
themselves to a system at the school site that was conducive to student achievement.
All school-wide systems and practices implemented by Principal A’s site
incorporated all students; no specific sub-groups were targeted. Principal A also
commented that, when he presented the obstacles that his students were facing each day
to his staff, his staff became instrumental and participatory in creating systems and
practices that would provide their students with opportunities for success. Fridays were
utilized to team with community members specifically to assist African-American
students. At these meetings, behavior and academic goals were created and students
were rewarded for meeting them
Table 19
Mathematics Resources (%)
Practice
(1)
Neve
r
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3
Times a
Week
(7)
Daily
Mathematics
resources are
selected
specifically to
meet the needs
and interests of
African-
American
students
46% 26% 11% 0% 9% 6% 3%
All but one of the interviewed participants stated that they seek out resources with
African-American students in mind. Although the interviewed participants stated that
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 89
they seek out such resources, they did stress that all students have access to the resources.
Their experiences provided insight into how such resources are beneficial for all students.
The three interviewed participants shared systems and practices that they put in place
specifically for African-American students in an effort to increase and sustain African-
American students’ mathematics achievement.
Principal A highlighted that the school’s Saturday Academy allowed students the
opportunity to retake assessments or obtain missed instruction in an effort to increase
student proficiency. Students were also allowed to retake assessments through this
intervention to increase their proficiency. Principal A also noted that the school teamed
with the community on Friday afternoons to assist African-Americans students with goal-
setting. Students were rewarded for meeting their goals through the school’s Merit
System, and they were also monitored closely through their Common Assessments. This
Friday forum also allowed for the identification of students who were in need of group or
one-on-one counseling. Student Study Team (SST) meetings, behavioral support plans,
and the possibility of testing students for learning disabilities could evolve from this
Friday forum.
Principal B believed that he was fortunate to have eight African-American male
teachers on staff at his school site. These African-American male teachers were not only
teacher, but they also served as role models for students. When asked if he purposely
recruited the teachers, Principal B commented that the teachers’ coming to his school site
happened because of the displacement of teachers due to budget cuts. Principal B
considered these African-American teachers as a “blessing” since he believed that they
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 90
were, in fact, assisting with student achievement as they also served as role models for
African-American students.
Principals B and C both discussed their Math Academies. When the Math
Academies were designed, they were designed for all students. However, it was soon
apparent that the academies were not reflective of the school’s student population. As the
Math Academies received students, both interviewed participants noticed that the
academies had few African-American students. Both interviewed participants purposely
sought out African-American students for the Math Academies. In the Math Academy,
students received sixth and seventh grade math in sixth grade, Algebra in the seventh
grade, and Geometry in the eighth grade. Outreach was done by the staff to enlist more
African-American students in the academy. Principal C highlighted the advanced and
accelerated geometry program as a practice implemented to increase student achievement
amongst students.
Principal C believed that for students to achieve their school must be structured
according to their needs. This was evident through Principal C’s implementation of an
eight-period day. Principal C credited the eight period days as one of her caveats that led
to increased and sustained mathematics achievement for students, particularly for
African-American students. An eight-period day allowed students to be double blocked
so that they could have an intervention period. Students were kept in grade level
appropriate courses, and then a period of support was added to the student’s schedule.
Students who were significantly below in Language Arts were given three blocks of
Language Arts. Even with the intervention, students were still given science, social
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 91
studies, physical education, and a core math class. Even with such an intense
intervention students are still provided with the opportunity of selecting an elective.
Principal C also credited the construction of curriculum alignment with the
neighboring feeder schools. Neighboring feeder schools and Principal C’s middle school
were communicative in discussing the mastery skills needed for students entering 6
th
grade. Since Principal C’s younger teachers did not have a strong foundation in
mathematics, Principal C had each math teacher who had never taught Algebra teach
Algebra. Once the teacher taught Algebra, the teachers then moved backwards and
taught seventh or sixth grade math. Principal C revealed that this type of backwards
teaching assisted math teachers in understanding the mathematics concepts needed for
students to be successful in Algebra. Principal C commented, "They knew the
misconceptions of the students and they could better understand how the sixth grade and
seventh grade curriculum was built.”
Principal D did not credit any strategy that targeted African-American students
specifically. However, Principal D suggested that all strategies implemented which
targeted student achievement were put in place for all students in an effort to stimulate
and sustain student achievement. No ethnicity was specifically targeted.
During the interviews, each participant discussed a culture that had high
expectations, goal, collaboration, and transparency. The school culture appeared to play
a pivotal role in the creation of systems that promoted student achievement which was
sustained for three consecutive years. When questioned about the specifics of African-
American students, overall the interviewed participants had systems in place for African-
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 92
American students. However, these systems were accessible and beneficial for all
students at their school sites.
Research question three. Research question three asked, “What are the
expectations of middle school principal leaders for the monitoring and assessment of
mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?” Despite the hardships and
societal ills that some students encounter each day, principal leaders remain responsible
for students’ attaining mathematics proficiency. This can be a challenging task when
establishing and maintaining high expectations and ambitious goals for student
achievement. Despite students’ and teachers’ personal influences that can negate positive
student learning outcomes, principal leaders are accountable for maintaining and
inculcating a culture of high expectations and positive student outcomes for all students.
To ensure that the principal leader’s high expectations are being upheld, Figure 6
highlights the systems identified by the interviewed participants that assist each of them
with the monitoring and assessment of learning prior to the CST. Within each of these
systems, the principal leaders have subsystems that support their process of monitoring
and assessment. These subsystems of support include classroom observations, data
conferences with the principal leader and the teacher and the creation of interventions if
necessary. These systems work collaboratively to assist the principal leader in ensuring
that goals are created, monitored, and achieved, and data is continuously analyzed to
increase student proficiency for all students prior to the CST. This systematic process is
continuous and important in school-wide, department, and individual students’
achievement progress. Each interviewed participant maintained s/he was participatory
and visible in this systematic process.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 93
Figure 6. Monitoring and Assessing Systems
Data analysis and goal setting. Data analysis and goal setting could be discussed
separately. However, since they are interrelated, continuous, and directly involved and
connected to the student achievement formula, these subjects are discussed together.
Each interviewed participant conversed in-depth about the relevance and importance of
analyzing data and goal-setting. Analyzing data assisted the principal leaders in
formulating school-wide, department, and individual goals for student achievement.
After analyzing the data from the common formative assessments, school-wide and
department goals were established. These goals were monitored and assessed by the
principal leader to ensure that his/her expectations for positive student outcomes in
mathematics were upheld and implemented in the classroom. Subsystems within these
central systems assisted the principal leaders with their monitoring and assessment. Mini
subsystems included informal and formal classroom observations, effective
communication, and data meetings. Participants in the study were interactive in these
processes as evidenced in the quantitative and qualitative findings.
The quantitative findings revealed that surveyed participants overwhelmingly
reported that goal setting for mathematics learning was implemented in the classrooms,
with individual students, and subgroups. Hence, all students appeared to be included in
Data
Analysis
Goal
Setting
C/F
Assess.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 94
the analyzing of data and the goal setting process for student achievement. Ninety-seven
percent of the surveyed participants reported that data was disaggregated and analyzed by
ethnic subgroup. Data was not only disaggregated for ethnic subgroup purposes, but the
analyzing of data also assisted with the setting of the school’s goals. An overwhelming
91% of the surveyed participants reported that classroom goals were set and monitored
for performance on common assessments in mathematics. As indicated in Table 20, an
excessive number of surveyed participants agreed upon the importance of goal setting in
increasing students’ mathematics achievement. This was evidenced by 97% of
participants reporting that individual student goals were set and monitored for
performance on common assessments in mathematics. Seventy-seven percent of the
surveyed participants also reported that goals were created school-wide and individually
to assist students increase their achievement in mathematics. Not only did teachers set
goals for students school-wide, but 71% of the surveyed participants reported that
teachers also set goals for the mathematics achievement of African-American students in
their classes. The data analysis process was significant in the goal setting process.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 95
Table 20
Goal Setting for Mathematics Learning (%)
Practice
(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3 Times
a Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3
Times a
Week
(7)
Daily
Individual student
goals are set and
monitored for
performance on
common assessments
in mathematics.
3% 31% 31% 17% 17% 0% 0%
Students track their
own progress in
meeting mathematics
performance goals.
6% 29% 31% 17% 6% 3% 9%
Classroom goals are
set and monitored for
performance on
common assessments
in mathematics.
9% 23% 13 17% 6% 0% 9%
It was evident during the qualitative phase that the participants monitored and
assessed teachers’ goals in regards to students’ mathematics learning prior to the CST.
The process of monitoring and assessing teachers’ goals ensured that the principal
leaders’ expectations and established goals were upheld. Interviewed participants’
responses were transparent regarding their monitoring and assessment practices of
students’ mathematics outcomes. During the interviews, there was no need to ask for
clarification. Hence, these principal leaders were the nucleus of these systems, and this
was apparent through their ability to discuss their established monitoring and assessment
systems prior to the CST at length during the interviews. Interviewed participants were
able to discuss their systems and expectations for protocol, goals, data, and evidence of
attained goals judiciously. There was no need to bring in a third party to assist the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 96
principal leader in explaining the monitoring and assessment systems. During the
interviews, the principal leaders’ knowledge was evident by their ability to remember
past year’s CST mathematics data, Safe Harbor minimum targets for the current and past
year, and current established targets without any assistance from notes or a third party.
This was an indicator of their hands-on approach in analyzing data and goal setting as a
mode in monitoring and assessing mathematics learning prior to the CST.
Their monitoring and assessment systems provided them with the opportunity to
meet and review with teachers to discuss common and formative assessment data, goals
of instruction, lesson planning, and instructional delivery. Each interviewed participant
stressed the importance of having teachers and departments reflect upon the past and
present data, goals, and plan of instruction during their meetings. Interviewed
participants maintained records of their meetings with the teachers and the departments.
Principal C discussed her use of binders for each department which contained meeting
notes, CST data, and other pertinent information pertaining to CST. These binders were
kept in her office. All the interviewed participants appeared to be interactive, goal-
oriented and data-driven in the monitoring and assessment of learning prior to the CST.
Interviewed principals appeared to each share the formula of “working
backwards.” Principal B explained, “SMART goals are set. Then, the staff works
backwards in an effort to determine how, as a staff, those goals are going to be obtained.
This task is done by grade level and school-wide. Subgroups are also examined during
this data analysis and goals are set.” Each interviewed participant commented s/he
examined the data because students move in and out of proficiency.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 97
Interviewed participants appeared to also monitor and assess students by working
directly with students and visiting classrooms. This allowed principal leaders the
opportunity to observe the needs of students and teachers during the quest for student
proficiency. These observations also allowed the principal leader to implement
interventions if necessary. All interviewed participants were active in the intervention
system created, acting not only as the principal leader but as an instructional leader who
modeled responsible and effective instruction while providing academic support to
students prior to the CST.
Figure 7 describes the interviewed participants’ process of monitoring and
assessing mathematics learning prior to the CST. Although the interviews occurred
separately, the process for monitoring and assessment were congruent to one another.
Each interviewed participant revealed that data is highlighted and constantly monitored in
view of the goal. Interviewed participants participated in the data analysis, goal setting,
and re-teaching process as a means to monitor and assess to ensure that their expectations
were upheld as principal leaders striving to achieve full student proficiency.
Figure 7. Monitor and Assessing Mathematics Learning
Interviewed participants monitored and assessed student learning prior to the CST
by meeting with teachers on a regular and scheduled basis to review assessment data,
Data Analysis
Meeting
• School-Wide
• Department
• Grade Level
• Individual Students
Goal Setting
• School Wide
• Department
• Grade Level
• Individual Students
Assessments
Review of Missed
Skills & Reteaching
Data Meeting with:
• Principal
• Department
• Grade Level
• Individual Students
Assessments
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 98
goals, and the process of re-teaching missed skills to increase student achievement.
Attendance and minutes were taken at all meetings and protocol plans to increase student
achievement after the reviewing of the item analysis was submitted to the principal for
review to discuss at the principal teacher meeting. Each interviewed participant stressed
the importance of effective communication with teachers. Communication was important
because it allowed teachers the ability to communicate their instructional and resource
needs to the principal in their quest to achieve their data and achievement goals. These
meetings were significant in stimulating and sustaining student achievement not only for
African-American students, but for all students.
Common and formative assessments. The quantitative findings revealed the
extensive use of school-wide common formative assessments to monitor and assess
student learning. This was apparent, since 97% of the surveyed participants reported
using common and formative assessments. Ninety-seven percent of the surveyed
participants reported that teachers analyzed the common assessment data and the data
was disaggregated and analyzed by ethnic subgroup. All of the participants reported
administering periodic district assessments. Teachers maintained records of individual
student performances as reported by 97% of the surveyed participants. All of the
surveyed participants reported that parents were informed of students’ performance.
The qualitative findings revealed the extent to which the interviewed participants
utilized the common formative assessments. Common formative assessment data were
regularly utilized to measure students’ acquisition of content knowledge prior to the CST.
Interviewed participants monitored and assessed students’ learning on these assessments
by meeting with teachers individually and by department when assessment results were
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 99
scored and analyzed. Interviewed participants each had a system to record teachers’
assessment data, plans for re-teaching, and goals for follow up assessments.
Quarterly and trimester benchmarks were utilized at each principal’s site.
Teachers were provided with pacing plans from the district office so that students were
exposed to the necessary skills for the benchmark assessment and prepared for the CST.
One interviewed participant mentioned that, at his site, the district assessments were
sometimes referred to as a CST mirror. CST mirrors were a reflection of a full length
CST even in regards to the time constraints. The CST mirrors allowed the principal to
ascertain where students were academically in relation to the content standards. One
interviewed participant mentioned that his site had a test generator to create test questions
similar to the CST for students to practice. All assessment results were reviewed and
discussed with the principals. Protocol and item analysis of frequently missed questions
were reviewed for re-teaching purposes.
Monitoring and assessing the benchmarks involves the teachers and principal
leaders’ receiving the students’ scores and an item analysis of the number of correct and
incorrect answers. Principal D commented that the item analysis was important because
it guided a teacher in instruction so that the teacher can focus on teaching the skills that
were most commonly missed by the students. During the qualitative phase, interviewed
participants emphasized the importance of meeting with teachers after the administering
and grading of the benchmarks to discuss and plan for student proficiency. Protocol
sheets were used during department meetings when analyzing the results of the
department’s data on the benchmark and trimester exams. The protocol sheets were
completed by the department and contained information pertaining to missed items, plan
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 100
of action, and other concerns. Principal B coined the term “Movement Matters” to assist
teachers with analyzing data and celebrating increases in student achievement.
Principal C revealed that her Department Chairs monitored the teachers and the
Department Chairs met with the Principal. Principal C and her Assistant Principal also
visited the department meetings. Principal C referenced these visits as “intermittent
drop-ins as a system of accountability.” Teachers at Principal C’s site maintained binders
which contained their expectations. The teachers’ expectations dictated what was placed
in the binder. Teachers’ evidence of progress and effectiveness was compared to their
reflection during the principal leader’s conference.
Principal D commented that she monitored and assessed mathematics instruction
through classroom visitations. Principal D made classroom visitations purposeful and
meaningful by visiting teachers’ classrooms during their scheduled Problem of the Day
(POD) time. POD was time set aside for teachers to review items that were most
commonly missed on the common and formative assessments. Principal D stated that she
viewed these classroom visitations as critical since she was informally observing
teachers’ instructional practices. Principal D commented that, since the teacher was
reviewing commonly missed items on an assessment, she really wanted to assess what the
teacher could be doing incorrectly instructionally, since students did not initially grasp
the concepts on the previously administered assessment. Figure 8 highlights Principal
D’s philosophy in regards to delivery of instruction.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 101
Figure 8. Structure of Expectation
If need be, Principal D stated that she would have conversations with a teacher
and offer suggestions or some mini professional development to assist with instructional
delivery. Principal D also stressed the importance of a school leader visiting classrooms.
Having a planned schedule kept her accountable in visiting classrooms. To assist with
monitoring and assessment, Principal D also had conversations with students when she
visited classrooms. Principal D checked students’ understanding during and after the
teachers’ lessons by having brief and casual conversations with the students as she
walked around the classroom.
Principal D also monitored and assessed by having teachers share their best
practices on the protocol sheet. Principal D commented that, if teachers were willing to
share on paper, they had to be willing to share with others in an open forum. Principal D
commented, “Oftentimes, people will say what they’re doing, but, in reality, when asked
to share it, they are unable to do so. This type of practice holds them accountable. If they
say they are doing it, they must be prepared to do so.” Principal D stated, if a teacher
said that s/he was using myriad resources during his/her best practices, she expected to
see him/her do it in an open forum during the staff meeting if she asked him/her to share.
Principal D emphasized, “Show me the resources, the instruction chart, all different
Expectation of the Principal Leader for Teachers
Identify
What Is
Expected of
Teachers
Identify
How You
Expect
Teachers to
Get There
Show
Teachers
How to Get
There
Teachers
Understand
the
Expectation
Teachers
Implement
the
Principal
Leader's
Expectation
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 102
pieces to the meeting and be prepared to share it.” Principal D typically held monitoring
and assessment conferences during teachers’ prep periods where she and the teacher
could discuss department and individual teacher’s data and proficiency is discussed.
These were follow-up meetings regarding Best Practices. This was when her
conversations of “what worked and didn’t work” were explored. The interviewed
participants suggested that re-teaching happens during these types of conversations.
CST preparation. It was the expectation of the participants that their teachers
provided their students with opportunities to solve mathematics problems in formats
similar to the CST. This was apparent, since all of the surveyed participants reported that
the practice occurred as indicated in Table 21. As described in Table 21, the frequency of
this practice varied. The quantitative survey did not ask how close to CST testing this
type of practice took place.
Table 21
Opportunities for Students to Solve Math Problems Similar to CST (%)
Practice
(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3 Times
a Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3
Times a
Week
(7)
Daily
Students are
given
opportunities
to solve
mathematics
problems in
formats
similar to the
CST
0% 3% 3% 6% 20% 45% 23%
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 103
Since teachers may have various perspectives regarding student proficiency,
participants expected their teachers to understand the definition of proficiency as detailed
in Table 22. Participants revealed that their mathematics teachers met regularly to
ascertain the meaning of mathematics proficiency. Teachers were expected to meet,
collaborate, and analyze student work samples to determine a common definition of
proficiency.
Table 22
Student Proficiency Meetings (%)
Practice
(1)
Never
(2)
Less
Than
Once a
Month
(3)
Once a
Month
(4)
2-3
Times a
Month
(5)
Once a
Week
(6)
2-3
Times a
Week
(7)
Daily
Mathematics
teachers
collaboratively
analyze
student work
samples to
determine a
common
definition of
proficiency
3% 0% 31% 17% 20% 23% 6%
The qualitative findings highlighted the participants’ expectations for students in
regards to the utilization of learned CST practice strategies in the classroom. Interviewed
participants discussed the various mathematics problem solving strategies that they
expected to see as they visited classrooms. All four of the interviewed participants
stressed that CST problem solving extended beyond teaching students how to bubble
properly or always choose one specific letter as an answer when in doubt. Principal D
commented, “CST preparation is ongoing cyclical review. Quizzes and assessments have
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 104
to be analyzed and students have to be prepared and exposed to problems in formats
similar to the CST.” The interviewed participants stated that, when they visited
classrooms, they wanted to observe teachers actively engaging students and students
applying taught skills to problem solve. Each interviewed principal commented that
his/her established school culture of trust and collaboration allowed him/her the
opportunities to have honest conversations with teachers who did not implement effective
instructional strategies for student achievement. This practice allowed principal leaders
to improve upon ineffective instructional strategies prior to the CST.
Summary
Although CST is the accountability measure, research questions one, two and
three revealed that the principal leaders in this study were focused on students’ learning
not solely for CST purposes, but for life-long learning purposes. The results regarding
research question one revealed and discussed four motifs which formed the foundation
for the creation and implementation of four systems and practices that promoted African-
American students’ mathematics achievement. As discussed in research question two,
these motifs assisted in the creation of systems and practices that compelled the principal
leaders to create monitoring and assessment systems to ensure that their expectations
were being upheld by teachers and students.
These monitoring and assessment systems included: data analysis, goal setting,
and common formative assessments. Subsystems within these central systems included:
informal and formal classroom observations, effective communication, and data meetings
to aid the teachers and students in acquiring proficiency. These monitoring and
assessment systems were integral components in the principal leader’s achievement
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 105
formula prior to the CST. Although CST is the current accountability measure, principal
leaders appeared to be preparing students for not only the CST but for high school and
beyond. Although the focus of this study was on a particular subgroup, implemented
interventions by the principal leaders in this study were assessable to all students. CST
preparation is ongoing and not isolated, data is transparent, and a culture of achievement
was established to encourage and implement open communication. These principal
leaders stated their expectations and modeled their expectations throughout the school
year.
In sum, the findings revealed four motifs which resonated with the principal
leaders who were interviewed during the qualitative phase. The four motifs were
Building and Upholding High Expectations for all Students, Constructing and
Maintaining a Culture of Achievement, Creating and Sustaining Student Accountability
and Forming School Connectedness. These four motifs propelled the principal leaders to
create and implement school-wide systems and practices to promote students’
mathematics achievement. These school-wide systems and practices were evident in the
participants’ quantitative findings which yielded an overwhelming response that
indicated participation in the following areas: Collaborative Lesson Planning, Purposeful
Professional Development, Incentive Systems, and Innovative Interventions. The
quantitative and qualitative findings revealed that data analysis, goal setting, and
common and formative assessments systems along with subsystems were used as
pathways for the principal leaders to ensure that their expectations for student proficiency
and teachers’ instructiveness were being upheld thus stimulating and sustaining African-
American students’ mathematics achievement.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 106
Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications of the Findings
A recent report on California’s African-American students’ mathematical
progress showed no significant gain in closing the mathematics achievement gap between
this group and their counterparts (National Center on Education Statistics, 2011). This
fact is disheartening, particularly after the passing of the Brown vs. Board of Education
legislation more than 50 years ago, as African-American students continue to fail. If
school leaders are serious about increasing African-American students’ mathematics
performance, effective school leadership and its impact upon student achievement should
be examined. Waters, Marzano and McNulty (2004) asserted that student achievement is
stimulated by effective school leadership. Williams et al. (2010) disclosed that
principals set the tone for increasing student achievement with their vision of increasing
student achievement. By far, principal leadership plays a major part in producing
effective teachers who can increase student achievement.
Since mathematics is the gatekeeper for students desiring to attend college, it is
imperative for school leaders to examine successful leadership behaviors of school
principals who increase and sustain mathematics’ achievement at the middle school level,
particularly with African-American students. Ignoring this matter and allowing
leadership ineffectiveness to run its course with African-American students may, in fact,
prevent African-American students from experiencing future economic prosperity. If
America continues to allow ineffective school leaders to navigate the educational future
of African-American students, African-American students will be in this same dismal
state in the near and distant future.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 107
The purpose of this study was to examine and reveal the leadership strategies
exhibited by middle school principal leaders in the state of California who have shown
success in stimulating and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics
proficiency for three consecutive years on the California Standards Test (CST).
Revealing these leadership practices will allow for replication of these practices in
schools where African American students have not exhibited similar levels of success in
increasing mathematics achievement. It is also hoped that the uncovering of these
strategies will be of service to school leaders in assisting all students who have similar
struggles in the area of middle school mathematics.
This was a mixed-methods study in which the researcher collected data both
quantitatively and qualitatively. The study was designed as a sequential procedure, which
uses one method to elaborate on the findings of another method (Creswell, 2003). In this
case, the researcher chose a sequential explanatory strategy, beginning with a quantitative
method of administering surveys to the larger sample and followed by a qualitative
method involving more detailed exploration of a smaller sample through the use of
interviews. This allowed the researcher to begin with a broad picture of the strategies
being implemented by a larger population of middle school principals who have been
successful in increasing and sustaining the mathematics achievement of African
American students and then go further into the details of these strategies with a smaller
sample of principals.
The findings were analyzed according to the three research questions developed
to guide this study:
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 108
1) How do middle school principal leaders stimulate and sustain mathematics
achievement in African-American students?
2) What school-wide systems and practices do middle school principal leaders
implement to promote mathematics achievement?
3) What are the expectations of middle school principal leaders for the monitoring
and assessment of mathematics learning prior to the California Standards Test?
Key Findings
Research question number one asked, “How do middle schools principal leaders
stimulate and sustain mathematics achievement in African-American students?” The
study revealed four motifs implemented by the middle school principals in the study that
stimulated and sustained African-American students’ mathematics achievement. These
four motifs were:
Building and Upholding High Expectations for all Students
Constructing and Maintaining a Culture of Achievement
Creating and Sustaining Student Accountability
Forming School Connectedness
Each principal leader was aware of the need to establish and maintain high
expectations for all students. This level of high expectations was to be held for every
student. This could be a daunting task when students live in communities plagued with
violence, domestic issues at home, homelessness, or truancy. The principal leaders in the
study, due to their constant dealings with outside community issues which directly affect
their students, had to have the mentality that, no matter the life circumstance that’s
burdening the students, the high level of expectations must still be established and
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 109
maintained. Despite the struggles in their personal lives, the principal leaders were
instrumental in caring for their students’ personal needs so student achievement could
take place. This need to nurture their students’ personal needs propelled these school
leaders to construct a culture of achievement.
The evidence of a school culture was present at each participant’s site. When the
interview questions were asked, it appeared that the principal leaders’ answers would
reflect back to the school’s culture and established norms. One principal leader
mentioned how the school culture of achievement was so ingrained in teachers’ psyches
that, when achievement discussions occur, he could take a step back because the teachers
hold each other accountable, especially when it comes to grading and assessment
practices. The conversations always return to, “That’s not what we established.” This
practice was viewed as highly important when stimulating student achievement.
Not only did the principal leaders expect teachers to be accountable, but the
principal leaders also expected students to be accountable for their learning. The
interviewed principal leaders were very hands-on with their students. Like a teacher,
principal leaders would conference with non-proficient students to create a plan of
achievement. Students were taught and held accountable for knowing their past, present,
and future proficiency levels. Interventions such as the Merit System and the Saturday
Academy were created as academic support for students to learn skills that were
previously taught in their classrooms.
It was evident that these principal leaders assisted students in being connected to
their school. There appeared to be a student and staff connection. The principal leaders
strived to have staff members form honest and genuine relationships with students on
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 110
campus. This type of connectedness assisted students in being a part of the school
community in that they were comfortable in communicating their feelings of needing
assistance with the lesson being taught.
These four motifs assisted the school leaders in creating and implementing
school-wide systems and practices that would achieve the goal of student proficiency in
mathematics.
Research question number two asked, “What school-wide systems and practices
do middle school principal leaders implement to promote mathematics achievement?”
Data revealed that the principal leaders in the study revealed the following systems and
practices that they implement to promote mathematics achievement:
Collaborative Lesson Planning
Purposeful Professional Development
Incentive/Merit System
Innovative Interventions
The participants’ systems and practices resonated in the quantitative and
qualitative findings of the study. The quantitative results revealed that the participants
responded unanimously to their practice of having their mathematics teachers meet to
collaboratively plan lessons. Although the frequency of these collaborative lessons
varied, overall, all the participants in the study implemented the practice of collaborative
math planning. Although the quantitative results were not unanimous in the practice of
having teachers design mathematics lessons specifically for African-American students,
63% of the participants noted that their teachers design mathematics lesson in that
manner.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 111
The qualitative findings highlighted systematic approaches for effective
collaborative lesson planning for mathematics departments. Participants noted varied
frequency in mathematics department collaborative meetings, but, overall, the systematic
practice was the same. Mathematics teachers collaborated and planned lessons in their
department meetings or during their common core conference period. Each participant
emphasized that the school culture transcended into the department meetings with set
norms that established and maintained high expectations and accountability. One
participant commented that he could take a stand-back approach during the meetings
when teachers collaborated since they were in the practice of holding one another
accountable.
Purposeful professional development was emphasized by the participants during
the qualitative findings. An overwhelming 97% of the participants reported that teachers
participated in professional development that pertained to effective instructional
strategies in mathematics. The frequency of this type of professional development
varied. However, the participants observed an imperative need to implement this type of
professional development. Although 31% of the participants noted that their staff was
not exposed to culturally relevant professional development, 69% of the participants
surveyed stated that culturally relevant professional development was a part of their
professional development for their staff. Parents’ need to understand the importance of
mathematics was seen as important by 74% of the participants, and they indicated that
they held evening activities to educate parents about the importance of mathematics.
The qualitative findings revealed in-depth information regarding the participants’
implementation of their professional development systems and practices. Some of the
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 112
professional development happened school-wide, in departments, off-site, or one-on -one.
Participants indicated that professional development was created by the school’s
leadership team, the district, and the administrators’ evaluation and observation of
teachers’ needs. Three of the four participants during the qualitative discussions revealed
that Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences was the focus of a few of their
professional development activities during the year. Professional development for
subjects happened during the school’s department meetings or during their common
planning conference periods. Professional development’s main aim was to assist teachers
in their awareness, understanding, and implementation of the different learning
modalities and modes of instruction.
Participants recognized the need for celebrating their students and teachers’
mathematics achievements. Ninety-seven percent of the surveyed participants reported
that teachers were celebrated for increasing student achievement while 94% of the
surveyed participants reported that students were celebrated for increasing their
achievement in mathematics. Although 94% of the participants recognized their
students’ achievement through celebrations, during the qualitative phase, the four
participants cautioned the researcher that these celebrations were not elaborate and
consisted only of free objects such as certificates, “free-dress pass” or a “go to the front
of the line lunch pass.” The qualitative participants also all agreed that, since they were a
uniform-only school, students were excited to get a “free-dress” pass which allowed them
to dress in district appropriate clothes, other than their uniform, for school. All of the
qualitative participants stressed that the students appreciate free activities.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 113
Interestingly, one point that definitely needs to be highlighted when speaking of
incentives is that the four interviewees revealed that their school culture taught their
students how to appreciate intrinsic awards. Students were taught to recognize and
understand where they were academically and were taught how to plan and set goals to
take them where they need to be. If students were double blocked for mathematics due to
their need for academic support as determined by their score on the CST, their incentive
was doing well in the class and the upcoming CST so they could get out of a double
blocked mathematics class for the next year. One of the four participants mentioned that,
when the students were freed up from having to take a double block mathematics class,
they could take an elective course. This participant also commented that students were
overjoyed when they became an office aide or took an elective after attaining
mathematics proficiency. Teachers were celebrated through principal mentions in the
staff or department meetings.
Participants viewed the implementation of interventions to promote student
achievement school-wide as instrumental in promoting student achievement. Although
the discussion focused on African-American students, each of the four participants during
the qualitative phase emphasized that all students have access to the interventions. This
appears to be a possible reason as to why only 54% of the survey participants reported
that mathematics resources were selected to specifically meet the needs and interests of
African-American students. Participants during the qualitative phase highlighted their
Saturday Academy and their Math Academies as interventions and resources that are
beneficial for all students, particularly African-American students.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 114
Research question number three asked, “What are the expectations of middle
school principal leaders for the monitoring and assessment of mathematics learning prior
to the California Standards Test?” Participants’ expectations for mathematics learning
prior to the California Standards Test (CST) was monitored and assessed through data
analysis, goal setting, and common and formative assessment systems. Analyzing data
and the creation of goals can be utilized as a benchmark measurement while common and
formative assessments evaluate students’ progress as they work to attain established
goals. To ensure that their expectations were upheld, subsystems within the central
system of monitoring and assessment provided participants with an interactive lens that
allowed them to monitor and assess student proficiency. Subsystems within the data
analysis, goal setting, and common formative assessment systems included informal and
formal classroom observations, effective communication, and data meetings.
Surveyed participants recognized the importance and need of goal setting prior to
the implementation of the CST. This was evident in that 91% of the participants reported
that classroom goals were set and monitored for performance on common assessments.
Even more revealing was that 97% of the participants reported that individual student
goals were set and monitored for performance on common assessments. The qualitative
findings uncovered how the principals monitor and assess these practices. Participants
during the qualitative discussions revealed that they were hands-on with the creation of
goals and data discussions involving common and formative assessments. Participants
stated that they review the data with teachers in their department and staff meetings.
After the arrival of benchmark and trimester data, teachers were responsible for creating
action plans to acquire student proficiency. Participants were active in this process.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 115
Implications for Practice
Principal leaders who possess the desire to stimulate and sustain African-
American middle school students’ mathematics achievement on the CST should examine
the leadership behaviors of principal leaders who have been able to reach that
accomplishment. In order to increase African-American students’ mathematics
proficiency at the middle school level, school superintendents should support their
principal leaders in the following ways:
Principal leaders should be provided with mentors. These mentors are principals
who have been effective in promoting student achievement, especially at low-
performing schools.
Principal leaders should be allowed some release time so that they can visit other
school sites within and outside their district to observe an effective school
principal.
Principal leaders should be allowed to attend professional conferences that will
enhance their leadership skills.
Recommendations for Further Research
Although the findings of this study uncovered specific behaviors and systems
implemented by principal leaders to stimulate and sustain African-American middle
school students’ mathematics proficiency on the CST, there still exists an imperative
need for further research to augment the number of African-American students at the
middle school level scoring proficient and above on the CST statewide. In light of this,
the following recommendations for future research are suggested:
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 116
1. There is a need to continue to study how middle school principal leaders are
effective in stimulating and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics
proficiency, particularly at schools that were once identified as underperforming.
2. There is a need to further study effective middle school principal leaders’
implementation and utilization of strategies, systems, and practices in its school
culture to promote African-American students’ mathematics proficiency and its
correlation to increased and sustained mathematics proficiency for African-
American students on the CST.
3. There is a need to study how effective middle school principal leaders’
expectations are monitored and assessed prior to the administering of the CST.
Concluding Remarks
Identifying 67 middle school principal leaders in California who have been
successful in not only stimulating African-American students’ mathematics proficiency
on the CST but in sustaining it for three consecutive years is a promising find. Even
though only 35 of the 67 identified middle school principals participated in the study, the
researcher gathered vital information pertaining to their leadership practices which
appeared to be integral in stimulating and sustaining African-American students’
mathematics proficiency on the CST. Four motifs evolved from discussions with the
principal leaders. The revealing of the four motifs appeared to be instrumental in their
creation and implementation of practices and systems that stimulated and sustained not
only the mathematics achievement of African-American students, but for all students.
Despite the sometimes insurmountable obstacles facing these principal leaders,
they consistently reflected, strategized, and collaborated with their staff to convey and
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 117
remind stakeholders of their high expectations for students and teachers. This was
evident from the four motifs which created their systems and practices of accountability.
At times, the principal leaders appeared to be briefly discouraged when discussing a few
veteran teachers’ idle mindsets or the training of new teachers because of a high influx of
displaced teachers being assigned to their school sites as a result of budget cuts. They
never languished and complained about what others were not doing at their school sites.
However, they discussed a plan of action to assist staff members in becoming active
participants in the school culture of high expectations. Since these principal leaders were
effective for three consecutive years in stimulating and sustaining African-American
students’ achievement, future research should incorporate an exploratory discussion and
analysis of the principal leaders’ mental and physical well-being as it relates to medical,
psychological, and family issues. The amount of time spent at work and at home to
accomplish the task of increasing and sustaining student achievement should also be
examined in future studies.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 118
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Appendix A
Participant Recruitment Letter
Dear [Name],
Our names are Rebecca Clark and Jacqueline Williams. We are doctoral candidates in the
Rossier School of Education at University of Southern California, completing our
dissertations under the guidance of Drs. Pedro Garcia and Rudy Castruita. We are
conducting a research study focusing on leadership strategies exhibited by middle school
principals in increasing and sustaining African American students’ achievement in
mathematics. Because of the growth in achievement of African American students in
your school, you are invited to participate in the study by completing an online survey.
The survey is anticipated to take 15-20 minutes to complete. By completing the survey,
you are giving your consent to participate in this study. Participation is voluntary and
your identity as a participant will remain confidential at all times during and after the
study. During the survey, please indicate whether you may also be willing to participate
in a more in-depth interview to further discuss these successful leadership strategies.
The link to the survey can be found at the bottom of this email. If you have questions,
please contact us by replying to this email.
Thank you for your participation,
Rebecca Clark and Jacqueline Williams
University of Southern California
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 125
Appendix B
Principal Survey
Dissertation Survey- African American Mathematics Achievement
How many years have you been in the position of principal at any school?
__________ years
How many years have you been principal of your current school?
__________ years
How many years did you serve as a teacher prior to becoming an administrator?
__________ years
In what subject(s) do you hold a teaching credential? Select all that apply.
Multiple Subject
English/Language Arts
Mathematics
Science
Social Studies
Physical Education
Fine Arts/Music
Other
What is your highest level of education completed?
Bachelor’s Degree
Master’s Degree
Doctoral Degree
What is your gender?
Male
Female
What is your ethnicity? Select all that apply.
Caucasian
Hispanic/Latino
African American
Asian
Other
What is your age?
__________ years
How would you classify your school?
Regular public school
Magnet school
Public charter school
Other
Clark/Williams- 1
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 126
What grade levels does your school serve? Select all that apply.
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
What is your approximate student population?
__________ students
Approximately what percent of your student population qualifies for free or reduced lunch?
__________ percent
How many mathematics teachers do you currently have in your school?
__________ mathematics teachers
On average, how many years teaching experience do your mathematics teachers have?
1-3 years
4-6 years
7-9 years
10 or more years
Approximately what percent of your 8th grade students take Algebra 1?
__________ percent
Does your mathematics department use a common grading scale?
Yes
No
Do you have a leadership team at your school?
Yes
No
If yes, how many of each of the following people serves on the leadership team?
__________ Administrators
__________ Teachers
__________ Counselors
__________ Other
Does your school have an academic coach for mathematics?
Yes
No
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 127
Do you assign mentors for new mathematics teachers?
Yes
No
Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each
practice occurs at your school.
Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3
Times a
Week Daily
Teachers design
mathematics lessons based
on the interests of African
American students.
Mathematics resources are
selected specifically to meet
the needs and interests of
African American students.
Mathematics teachers meet
to collaboratively plan
lessons.
Time is set aside during the
school day to practice test-
taking skills and strategies.
Students are given
opportunities to solve
mathematics problems in
formats similar to the CST.
Mathematics teachers
collaboratively analyze
student work samples to
determine a common
definition of proficiency.
Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each
practice occurs at your school.
Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3
Times a
Week Daily
Teachers administer school-
wide common formative
assessments in
mathematics.
Teachers administer
periodic district assessments
(i.e. benchmarks).
Teachers keep a record of
individual student
performance growth on
common assessments.
Parents are informed of
students' performance on
mathematics assessments.
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 128
Teachers analyze common
assessment data to
determine best practices in
mathematics instruction.
Data is disaggregated and
analyzed by ethnic
subgroup.
Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each
practice occurs at your school.
Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3
Times a
Week Daily
Goals are set for the
mathematics achievement of
African American students
school-wide.
Goals are set by each teacher
for the mathematics
achievement of African
American students in their
classes.
Individual student goals are
set and monitored for
performance on common
assessments in mathematics.
Students track their own
progress in meeting
mathematics performance
goals.
Students are offered
incentives for increasing their
performance in mathematics.
Students are celebrated for
increasing their achievement
in mathematics.
Classroom goals are set and
monitored for performance
on common assessments in
mathematics.
Teachers are celebrated for
increasing student
achievement in mathematics.
Respond to the following statements using the scale below to indicate how often each
practice occurs at your school.
Never
Less Than
Once a
Month
Once a
Month
2-3 Times
a Month
Once a
Week
2-3
Times a
Week Daily
Teachers participate in
professional development
activities directly related to
culturally relevant instruction
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 129
for African American students.
Teachers participate in
professional development
related to effective
instructional strategies in
mathematics.
Teachers participate in
professional development
related to increasing their
mathematics content
knowledge.
Evening activities are held for
parents to understand the
importance of mathematics
achievement (i.e. math
nights).
Would you be willing to participate in a follow-up interview with the researcher?
Yes
No
If yes, please provide the best phone number or email address to contact you for scheduling.
_______________________________________________________
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 130
Appendix C
Interview Guide
1) What strengths do you see in your school?
a) What challenges has the school overcome? How?
b) What are some challenges that remain?
2) Describe the practices at your site that you believe have contributed to the gains in
mathematics achievement.
a) Which 3-5 things have you implemented that you consider the most effective in
increasing performance in this area?
i) How do these practices benefit African American students in particular?
ii) If you are new to this school (1-2 years), what practices did your predecessor
implement that you consider most effective?
b) What made you implement these practices? What was your rationale?
3) Describe your site’s professional development program.
a) As it relates to mathematics instruction?
b) As it relates to mathematics content knowledge?
c) As it relates to learning styles and preferences of African American students
(culturally responsive instruction)?
4) How (and how often) do teachers collaborate to improve mathematics instruction?
a) Common planning?
b) Sharing of best practices?
5) How are students prepared with test-taking skills and strategies prior to the CST?
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 131
a) In what ways are they exposed to problems in formats similar to the CST?
6) How are goals for mathematics achievement set at your school site?
a) School-wide?
b) By subgroup?
c) Individual students?
7) What, if any, incentives are offered to students for increasing their mathematics
performance?
8) How is achievement monitored and assessed throughout the school year?
a) Classroom assessments?
b) Common formative assessments?
c) District assessments?
9) How is growth in achievement communicated and celebrated throughout the year?
a) With staff?
b) With students?
c) With parents?
10) In what ways is data analyzed and used to improve mathematics achievement?
a) By classroom?
b) By subgroup?
c) For individual students?
SUCCESSFUL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS 132
11) How are teachers held accountable for increasing mathematics achievement?
a) Overall?
b) By subgroup?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this research study was to examine leadership behaviors of middle school principals who have been successful in stimulating and sustaining African-American students’ mathematics achievement on the California Standards Test. Specifically, this research sought to answer the following questions: 1) How do middle school principal leaders stimulate and sustain mathematics achievement in African-American students
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Williams, Jacqueline
(author)
Core Title
An examination of successful leadership behaviors exhibited by middle school principals in stimulating and sustaining African-American students' achievement on the California Standards Test in ma...
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
02/27/2013
Defense Date
02/11/2013
Publisher
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(original),
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(digital)
Tag
achievement,African-American,assessment,at-risk,behaviors,California Standards Test,leadership,low achieving,mathematics,middle school,OAI-PMH Harvest,principals,Students,TEST
Language
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Electronically uploaded by the author
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Advisor
García, Pedro Enrique (
committee chair
), Castruita, Rudy Max (
committee member
), Howard, Tyrone (
committee member
)
Creator Email
jmwilliams@lbschools.net,willi16@usc.edu
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Tags
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