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The contributions of the theory of group dynamics to employee and employer relations

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The contributions of the theory of group dynamics to employee and employer relations

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Content THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE THEORY OF GROUP DYNAMICS TO EMPLOYES A N D EMPLOYER RELATIONS A T h e s is P re s e n te d t o th e F a c u lty o f th e S ch o o l o f Econom ics The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a lif o r n ia I n P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R e q u irem en ts f o r t h e D egree M aster of A rts by R ic h a rd George Van V o rst A ugust 1956 U M I Number: EP44751 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP44751 Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 U N IV E R SITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K L O S A N G E L E S 7 ‘SI This thesis, written by Richard G. Van Vorst under the guidance of h Faculty Committee, and approved by all its members, has been pre sented to and accepted by the Faculty of the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of .......................... m S T E H ...Q E ..J iB .T a .................................. ............................................JOM ..D,...COOKE................... A c tin g Dean n September, 1956 Faculty Committee Chairman frfJ, / wj TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I . THE SCOPE OF THE THESIS O N GROUP DYNAMICS . . . 1 H i s t o r i c a l M ethodology .................................................... 1 G e n e ra liz in g M ethodology ........................................... 2 Case S tudy M e th o d o lo g y ..................................... 3 P u rp o se o f th e T h e s i s .............................................. 4 I I . HISTORY OF THE H A W TH O RN E EXPERIMENT IN GROUP DYNAMICS................................................................................ ..... 5 The W estern E l e c t r i c C a s e ..................................... 7 The W estern E l e c t r i c Company O rg a n iz a tio n . . 9 C h ro n o lo g ic a l O rd er o f th e E x p erim en t . . . 9 The T e s t Room M ethod ....................................... 11 S e le c tio n o f th e o p e r a t i o n .......................................11 S e le c tio n o f th e o p e r a t o r s .......................................12 The t e s t room o b s e rv e r . ....................................... 14 The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e t e s t room . . . 14 The m easurem ent o f o u tp u t .................................. 16 D a ily h i s t o r y r e c o r d .............................................17 P h y s ic a l e x a m in a tio n s ........................................... 17 I I I . ACTUAL EXPERIMENTS IN GROUP DYNAMICS..................... 19 E x p erim en t w ith R e st P au se s . . . . . . . . . 19 R e s u lts and c o n c lu s io n s o f th e r e s t p e rio d e x p e r i m e n t s ................................................................2 3 i v CHAPTER PAGE E x p erim en t w ith S h o rte r W orking Days and Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 P e rio d E ig h t . ............................. 25 P e rio d N ine ........................... 25 P e rio d T e n ....................................................................... 2S P e rio d E lev en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 P e rio d Twelve .............................................................. 30 The R e la tio n s h ip betw een th e T e s t Room O p e ra to rs and t h e O b s e r v e r ....................... . 31 P e rio d T h i r t e e n ....................... 33 E x p e rim e n ta l P e rio d s and O utput R a te . . . . 35 E x p e rim e n ta l P e rio d s an d T o ta l W eekly O utput 39 R e st P au se s and P e rs o n a l Time ........................ 41 A tte n d an ce i r r e g u l a r i t i e s among th e o p e r a t o r s ................................................................... 4 2 A ttitu d e o f O p e ra to rs Toward D if f e r e n t E x p e rim e n ta l F e a t u r e s ..................................... . 43 A ttitu d e o f O p e ra to rs Toward One A n o th er and th e W orking G r o u p ..................................... . 44 H ypotheses t o E x p la in M ajor Changes . . . . 44 T e s tin g th e F a tig u e and M onotony H y p o th eses. 4& T e s tin g t h e E f f e c t s o f Wage I n c e n tiv e . . . 50 S u p e rv is io n in t h e R elay A ssem bly T e s t Room. 54 V CHAPTER PAGE IV . DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERVIEWING PROGRAM . . . $8 The I n te r v ie w in g M ethod .................... 62 S u p e rv is o ry O rg a n iz a tio n and th e I n t e r v ie w in g . . . . . 64 S u p e rv is o ry A ttit u d e s Toward th e I n t e r view s .............................................................. . . . 66 A ttit u d e o f S u p e rv is o rs in G e n e ra l . . . . 67 C o n c lu sio n s Drawn from I n te r v ie w in g P rograqu 69 V. STUDY OF SM ALL GROUPS FOR SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF EMPLOYEES.......................................... 74 P roblem s in S tu d y in g S m all G roups ...................... 76 C hoosing t h e D epartm ent to be S tu d ie d . . . SO The O utput S i tu a t i o n in th e Bank W iring Observation loom ........... ...... S3 S o e ia l O rg a n iz a tio n in th e Bank W irin g Group and th e P l a n t ...................... S6 A verage H ourly O u tp u t in th e O b s e rv a tio n Room a s Compared t o t h e Main D ep artm en t. S6 A ttit u d e s o f th e Men i n th e O b se rv a tio n Room Compared w ith t h e i r A ttit u d e s w h ile in th e M ain D e p a r tm e n t.................. S7 V I. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS ............................ 90 The S o c io lo g ic a l A spect o f S o c ia l D ista n c e ------------ in-E m ployee— R e la tio n s — < 1 —.—._ .— . . . ._____9-0- v i CHAPTER PAGE The E co lo g y o f S ta tu s ........................................... 92 The Symbols o f S t a t u s ............................................ 93 G e n e ra l F a c to rs U n d e rly in g S ta tu s O rg a n iz a t i o n s ................................ 95 Age S ta tu s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 E th n ic G roups and S ta tu s ...................................... 96 O cc u p atio n s and S ta tu s S tr u c tu r e .. .. . 97 B e lo n g in g n e ss and Group S o l i d a r i t y in Employee R e la tio n s h ip s . ............................. 97 The R o le o f th e Group in th e D evelopm ent o f B e lo n g in g n e ss ....................................... 101 C o o p e ra tio n . . . . . . . . . ........................ 103 Group B a r r i e r s in Employee R e la tio n s h ip s . . 104 F orm al O rg a n iz a tio n s a n d In fo rm a l R e la tio n s 105 C liq u e s in Group B a r r ie r s .................................. 106 H o riz o n ta l C leavage a s B a r r i e r s ................... IQS Women in M en's Jo b s a s a B a r r ie r . . . . . 109 R a c ia l B a r r ie r s ......................................................... 110 V II. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS . . . I l l Group A ccep tan ce in Em ployee R e la tio n s . . . I l l I n d u c tio n o f New Em ployees in A cceptance . 112 Im p o rtan ce o f Group A ccep tan ce t o th e E m p lo y e e ................................................................. . . 114 v i i CHAPTER PAGE In fo rm a l G roups an d Group A ccep tan ce . . . 115 Group P re s s u r e in Employee R e la tio n s . . . . 116 C o n tro l o f O utput ........................................... 117 M ain ten an ce S ynergy ..................................... 11$ M is in te r p r e ta tio n s o f R e s t r i c t i o n o f O utput 119 C h a ra c te r o f I n d iv id u a ls and Group P r e s s u r e 120 P ropaganda in Employee R e la tio n s ............................ 121 The G rapevine in Employee R e la tio n s . . . <^122. F a ilu r e o f P ro p ag an d a in Com m unication w ith in I n d u s tr y . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Good C o m m u n ic a tio n ................................................ .... (J125„ C o n fig u ra tio n s and S o c ia l C lim ate in Em ployee R e la tio n s h ip s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 S o cio m e try ......................................................... 12$ V I I I , THE G. B. V A N VORST COMPANY...................................... 135 H i s t o r i c a l B ackground and Type o f I n d u s tr y . 135 H i s t o r i c a l B ackground o f t h e Company . . . 135 Type o f I n d u s tr y i n R egard to P e rs o n n e l and Labor ..................................... . 136 P e rs o n n e l P r a c t i c e s o f th e Company .................. 13$ S e le c tio n P o l i c y ................................ 13$ Employee B e n e f its . ........................... 140 G riev an ce P ro c e d u re a n d L e a d e rsh ip in ; _________G e n e ra l__ ._._._____ ._._._,_._._,_._,_. . 142 v i i i CHAPTER PAGE The R e s t r i c t i o n o f O utput in th e Company . . 143 The Box S p rin g Problem ....................................... 144 A Box S p r i n g ......................................... ..................... 146 The Box S p rin g D epartm ent P e rs o n n e l . . . . 147 Members o f t h e Group ....................... 146 P e rio d One o f th e Box S p rin g D epartm ent P r o b l e m ................................. . ..................................... 151 P e rio d Two o f t h e Box S p rin g D epartm ent P r o b l e m ............................................................................ 154 The F i r s t Change in P ro d u c tio n .. ... . 154 R e s t r i c t i o n o f O utput ........................................... 157 The T im estu d y Program . ................................. 160 P e rio d T hree o f t h e Box S p rin g Problem . . . 166 The Box S p rin g Conveyor System ...... 16S IX . GROUP DYNAMICS IN ACTION A CONCLUSION . . . . 174 The C. B. Van V o rst Company P roblem . . . . 1 7 6 C o n c lu sio n ............................................... 177 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . ....................................................................... ISO LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I , C om position o f th e Group R e lay A ssem bly T e s t R o o m ....................................................................... 15 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1 . A verage H ourly O utput p e r Week, E x p e rim e n ta l P e rio d s I - X I I I R e la y A ssem bly T e s t Room . . 36 2 . T o ta l W eekly O u tp u t, E x p e rim e n ta l P e rio d s I - X III R e lay A ssem bly T e s t R o o m ........................ 40 CHAPTER I THE SCOPE OF THE THESIS O N GROUP DYNAMICS Group dynam ics i s a b ro ad s u b j e c t . In d e a lin g w ith s o c i a l s c ie n c e i t becom es d i f f i c u l t t o p ro v e o r d is p ro v e t h e o r i e s o r h y p o th e s e s by j u s t one ty p e o f m ethodology a lo n e . An a tte m p t was made in t h i s t h e s i s t o th ro w more l i g h t on some o f t h e l e s s known f a c t o r s t h a t ca u se o r a r e u n d e rly in g i n dynam ic g ro u p s i t u a t i o n s . T h is stu d y was co n cern ed m a in ly w ith group dynam ics a s i t i s r e l a t e d to i n d u s t r i a l s t a t u s g ro u p s i t u a t i o n s . The t h r e e m ain ty p e s o f m ethodology w hich have been c o n s id e re d a r e : (1) h i s t o r i c a l , (2 ) g e n e r a liz in g , and (3 ) c a se s tu d y . I . HISTORICAL M ETHODOLOGY H i s t o r i c a l m ethodology was p r e s e n te d e a r l y in th e t h e s i s t o a c q u a in t th e r e a d e r w ith t h e b ackground o f one o f th e f i r s t and c e r t a i n l y th e m ost im p o rta n t e x p e rim e n ts i n g ro u p d y n am ics. The h i s t o r i c a l c a s e p re s e n te d was t h a t o f th e H aw thorne ex p e rim en t a t th e W estern E l e c t r i c Company. C o v erin g a p e rio d o f f i v e y e a r s , t h i s e x p e rim e n t d e a l t w ith th e c o n tr o ll e d ty p e ex p e rim en t i n g ro u p d y n am ics. The f i r s t c o n s id e r a tio n in t h i s s tu d y was th e B e la y A ssem bly 2 G roup ex p e rim en t w ith r e s t p a u s e s , one o f t h e e a r l y e x p e rim e n ts in so c io m e try i n w h ich e v e ry p e rso n in t h e g roup was e i t h e r ask ed o r v o lu n te e re d t o p a r t i c i p a t e . N ex t, some o f th e t h e o r i e s advanced by o th e r s a s t o why th e r e s u l t s o f t h e ex p e rim e n t tu r n e d o u t a s th e y d id have been p r e s e n te d i n d e t a i l . The n e x t phase o f th e t h e s i s was d ir e c t e d t o t h a t p e r io d o f t h e Hawthorne e x p e rim e n t p e r ta in in g t o t h e M ica S p l i t t i n g T e s t Room and Bank W irin g T e s t Room e x p e rim e n ts . An a c c o u n t o f th e h ap p e n in g s w ith in th e s e e x p e rim e n ts was d e s c r ib e d a s w e ll a s th e g ro u p r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The m ost im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e s e two t e s t s was th e i n t e r a c t i o n s and i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een members and g ro u p s w ith in th e two t e s t room s i t u a t i o n s . I n te r v ie w in g te c h n iq u e , t h e l a s t p h ase o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l m ethodology to b e p r e s e n te d in t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s t h e s i s , was d e s c r ib e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l n o t o n ly t o i l l u s t r a t e to th e r e a d e r th e p r i n c i p l e s in em ployee r e l a t i o n s h i p s in v o lv e d b u t a l s o t o em phasize t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h i s te c h n iq u e i n s o lv in g c e r t a i n p ro b lem s i n g roup d y n am ics. I I . GENERALIZING M ETHODOLOGY The seco n d m ain p a r t o f t h i s stu d y was co n cern ed w ith th e g e n e r a liz in g m ethodology u se d t o i l l u s t r a t e some o f th e h y p o th e se s i n g ro u p d y n am ics. The g e n e r a liz in g p ro c e s s em braces b o th t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l an d p s y c h o lo g ic a l t h e o r i e s advanced by some a u t h o r i t i e s a s t h e b a s ic c a u se s o f g ro u p d y n am ics. I n th e g e n e r a liz in g p r o c e s s , t h r e e ty p e s o f s o c io lo g ic a l h y p o th e se s an d f o u r ty p e s o f p sy c h o lo g ic a l h y p o th e s e s w ere d e s c r ib e d in d e t a i l . I I I . CASE STUDY M ETHODOLOGY The c a se s tu d y ty p e o f m ethodology was p re s e n te d a s th e l a s t m ain p a r t o f t h i s s tu d y . The a c t u a l c a se in v o lv in g th e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t o f th e G. B. Van V o rs t Com pany was th e c a s e s tu d y d e s c r ib e d . T h is p a r t i c u l a r c a se was chosen by t h e a u th o r o f t h i s s tu d y b e c a u se o f h is c lo s e a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e problem an d t h e p e r s o n a l f a c t s s u rro u n d in g th e c a s e . N et u n lik e many o th e r c a s e s i n g ro u p d y n am ics, th e b a s ic pro b lem in t h e c a se c i t e d w as due t o th e r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t. A co m p lete h i s t o r y o f t h e c a se h as b een p r e s e n te d a lo n g w ith th e s o lu t io n o f t h e p ro b lem . B u t, more im p o r ta n t, an a tte m p t was made t o p o in t o u t th e c a u s e s , e f f e c t s , an d d i f f i c u l t i e s in v o lv e d in t h e s o lv in g o f th e problem i n g ro u p d y n am ics. IV . PURPOSE OF THE THESIS 4 A c o n s id e r a b le am ount o f m a te r ia l h a s b ee n p u b lis h e d r e g a r d in g g ro u p d y n am ics. M ost o f t h e s tu d ie s i n t h i s f i e l d have been made t o e x p la in why d i f f e r e n t th in g s hap pened d u rin g c e r t a i n c a se s t u d i e s in g ro u p dynam ics and to e la b o r a te on th e s e c a se s t u d i e s . The g e n e ra l t r e n d o f th e g ro u p dynam ics s tu d i e s h a s b een t o g iv e t h e s o lu t i o n s and a p p ro a c h e s t o c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c p ro b lem s in g ro u p d y n am ics; f o r exam ple, c a s e s i n w hich p ro b lem s o f r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u t p u t o r o th e r g e n e r a l ty p e s o f g ro u p pro b lem s a r e known f a c t o r s . I t i s t h e au th o r;* s c o n te n tio n t h a t n o t enough em p h a s is h a s b een p la c e d on t h e b a s ic n e e d s , w a n ts , f e e l i n g s , and o th e r a n x i e t i e s o f t h e in d iv i d u a ls who co m p rise dynam ic g ro u p s in i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s to d a y . He f e e l s t h a t i f more c o n c e n tra te d e f f o r t was made on t h e human s id e o f g ro u p dynam ics i n each o f t h e in d iv i d u a l c a s e s , t h e p ro b lem s o f t h e g ro u p s th e m s e lv e s c o u ld be more e a s i l y u n d e r s to o d and s o lv e d . As lo n g a s human r e l a t i o n s e n te r i n t o g ro u p dynam ic s i t u a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n t p ro b lem s w i l l a r i s e . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , w ith t h e e x p re s s io n to th e s e en d s t h a t t h i s t h e s i s h a s been d e d ic a te d . CHAPTER I I HISTORY OF THE H A W TH O RN E EXPERIMENT IN GROUP DYNAMICS In o rd e r t o u n d e rs ta n d some o f t h e v a s t problem s i n t h e f i e l d o f g ro u p dynam ics, i t was n e c e s s a r y t o re v ie w t h e h i s t o r y o f some o f th e more im p o rta n t e x p e rim e n ts . F o r a c o n s id e r a b le p e r io d o f tim e i n v e s t i g a t o r s in th e f i e l d o f i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s r e a l i z e d t h e r e was a con s id e r a b le d e f ic ie n c y in th e know ledge o f t h e in ta n g ib le f a c t o r s in th e work s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a f f e c t th e m o rale and p ro d u c tiv e e f f i c i e n c y o f sh o p w o rk ers. The v e ry e a r l y s t u d i e s r e v e a le d t h a t th e human r e a c t i o n s o f p e o p le en gaged in p ro d u c tiv e work have a much more im p o rta n t e f f e c t on t h e i r m o rale and e f f i c i e n c y th a n had p r e v io u s ly been r e a l i z e d . The f i r s t r e a l l y o rg a n iz e d e f f o r t t o expand t h e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e human r e a c t i o n s o f em ployees began in 1 927. T h is ex p e rim en t was p erfo rm ed u n d er th e a u s p ic e s o f th e D ep artm en t o f I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a rc h , G rad u ate S ch o o l o f B u s in e s s A d m in is tra tio n , H arvard U n iv e r s ity . The D epartm ent o f I n d u s t r i a l R e se a rc h was form ed in 1926 when a r e s e a r c h com m ittee ( l a t e r c a lle d th e Com m ittee on I n d u s t r i a l P h y sio lo g y ) was a p p o in te d a t H arv ard U n iv er s i t y w ith th e f i n a n c i a l h e lp o f th e L au ra Spelm an 6 R o c k e f e lle r F o u n d a tio n . The R o c k e f e lle r F o u n d a tio n was t o o rg a n iz e an d d i r e c t r e s e a r c h i n e f f o r t and f a t i g u e in in d u s t r y a n d in th e i n d u s t r i a l e f f i c i e n c y o f in d i v i d u a l s . From th e v e ry in c e p tio n o f t h e r e s e a r c h , i t w as c l e a r t h a t t h e r e w ere two v e ry c l o s e ly r e l a t e d f i e l d s o f i n q u ir y . One ty p e o f in q u ir y o f w o rk ers c o u ld be c o n d u c te d , u n d er l a b o r a t o r y c o n d itio n s , i n t o th e b io c h e m ic a l ch an g es o c c u r r i n g in th e b lo o d s tre a m u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s o f w ork, te m p e r a tu r e , e t c . The o th e r ty p e o f in q u ir y was co n c ern ed w ith w o rk e rs an d t h e i r work in an a c t u a l in d u s t r i a l p l a n t . T h is ty p e o f s tu d y c o u ld n o t b e c a r r i e d o u t in s t r i c t la b o r a to r y c o n d itio n s . A tte m p ts t o p la c e th e l a t t e r in q u ir y in l o g i c a l o r d e r and c o n tr o l became th e problem o f th e d a y . I n 1940 a t th e tim e when t h i s work f i r s t b e g a n , E lto n Mayo e x p la in e d t h e t y p i c a l c h a r a c te r i s t i c a c t i o n s o f human b e h a v io r in in d u s t r y . He s a id : The i n d u s t r i a l a r e n a was h au n ted by in d i v i d u a l s each o f whom seemed a s s u re d t h a t th e a b s t r a c t i o n s he e x p re s s e d , eco n o m ics, p o l i t i c s , p sy c h o lo g y o f e f f i c ie n c y w ere a d e q u a te t o th e s p e c i a l problem he s tu d i e d . A ll th e s e l o g i c s had t o be t e n t a t i v e l y s e t a s id e on t h e ground t h a t th e y m ight be d e r iv a tio n s r a t h e r th a n t h e ac h iev e m en t o f lo g ic o -e x p e r im e n ta l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In e v e ry in s t a n c e , th e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n had t o be s tu d ie d , and w ith o u t p re c o n c e iv e d d e te r m in a tio n . In e v e ry in s t a n c e , c a re had t o be e x e r c is e d t o a c c o u n t f o r th e sim p le and th e o b v io u s f a c t s a r e so f ir m ly e s ta b li s h e d in th e a w a re n e ss o f 7 i n d u s tr y t h a t th e y a r e a p t t o be d is re g a rd e d ,^ - The f i r s t work began w ith th e s e i n q u i r i e s in o r d e r t o d is c o v e r w hat th e o b v io u s human s i t u a t i o n s w ere and w hat th e im p o rta n t a s p e c ts o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s and w ork in g c o n d itio n s w e re . The a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e d ep a rtm en t w ere d iv id e d in to t h r e e p e r io d s . In t h e f i r s t p e r io d , 1926 t o 1932, e x te n s iv e and i n te n s iv e e x p lo r a to r y r e s e a r c h was c o n d u c te d . The seco n d p e r io d , 1932 t o 1936, a s s e s s e d t h e r e s u l t s o f th e e x p lo r a to r y p e r io d an d t e s t e d new ly fo rm u la te d h y p o th e se s th ro u g h more r e s e a r c h . S i t h e t h i r d p e r io d , b e g in n in g in 1936, th e members o f t h e d e p a rtm e n t began t o em phasize more th a n b e fo re th e e d u c a tio n o f th e d i f f e r e n t p o in ts o f view w hich t h e s t u d i e s had d e v e lo p e d . I . THE W ESTERN ELECTRIC CASE The m ost o u ts ta n d in g ex p e rim e n t p erfo rm e d by th e I n d u s t r i a l R e se a rc h D epartm ent o f H arvard U n iv e r s ity , con d u c te d from 1926 t o 1932, was w ith t h e W estern E l e c t r i e Company a t H aw thorne. F o r tu n a te ly , t h e p r e s id e n t o f th e Company, a r e t i r e d Army c o lo n e l, was w i l l i n g t o c o l la b o r a te "4siton Mayo, ^ I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a rc h ,” H arvard B u s in e s s A lum ni B u l l e t i n . V o l. XVI, No. 2 , 1940, p . #7* w ith th e I n d u s t r i a l R e se a rc h D epartm ent in t h e e x p e rim e n t. More im p o r ta n t, th o u g h , was th e f a c t t h a t he was n o t a f r a i d o f a c r u c i a l ex p e rim e n t a n d , upon co m p le tio n o f t h e e x p e r i m en t, w as n o t a f r a i d t o a c t on t h e r e s u l t s even th o u g h h i s a c t io n seemed t o be i n t h e w o rk e r* s f a v o r . A ls o , th e I n d u s t r i a l R e se a rc h D ep artm en t r e c e iv e d e x c e ll e n t c o o p e ra t i o n from a com p eten t g ro u p o f W estern E l e c t r i c e n g in e e rs who c o n tin u e d t o work d i l i g e n t l y even th o u g h t h e e x p e r i m en ts seem ed t o le a d now here. Such was th e c a s e in th e ill u m in a tio n e x p e rim e n t; when t h e l i g h t i n g was im proved in th e e x p e rim e n ta l room , p r o d u c tio n r o s e . However, i t a l s o r o s e i n th e c o n tr o l room . The l i g h t i n g , th e n , was d im in is h e d from 10 t o 3 f o o t- c a n d le s in th e e x p e rim e n ta l room , b u t p ro d u c tio n r o s e a g a in . At t h e same tim e , w ith illu m in a t i o n c o n s ta n t, p ro d u c tio n a l s o r o s e in t h e c o n t r o l room . T h ere w ere many o th e r e x p e rim e n ts , a l l in c o n c lu s iv e , y e t a l l had seem ed so e a s y t o d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t o f illu m in a t i o n on w ork. Soon a f t e r t h e in c e p tio n o f t h e ex p e rim e n t i t became o b v io u s t o th e o b s e rv e rs t h a t , in a d d i tio n t o t h e o b v io u s e n g in e e r in g a n d i n d u s t r i a l d e v ic e s , v e ry a c c u r a te r e c o r d s s h o u ld be k e p t o f e v e ry th in g t h a t happened i n th e room . T h e r e f o re , t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e e x p e rim e n t in c lu d e d n o t o n ly i n d u s t r i a l and e n g in e e rin g changes b u t a l s o p h y s io lo g ic a l o r m e d ic a l c h a n g e s, a n d , in a s e n s e , s o c i a l 9 and a n th r o p o lo g ic a l ch a n g e s. The W estern E l e e t r i c Company O rg a n iz a tio n The H aw thorne Works o f th e W estern E l e c t r i c Company i s lo c a te d in th e c i t y o f C h icag o , I l l i n o i s . At t h e tim e o f t h e e x p e rim e n t (1927) t h i s p la n t was t h e l a r g e s t u n i t o f t h e W estern E l e c t r i c Company. The H aw thorne Works i s t h e s u p p ly company f o r t h e te le p h o n e com panies o f th e B e ll S ystem . E v ery ty p e o f o c c u p a tio n im a g in a b le i s t o b e fo u n d a t t h e H aw thorne W orks, from ir o n w o rk e r, diam ond c u t t e r , t o o l m ak er, e n g in e e r , w ire d ra w e r, t e x t i l e d y e r s , t o a c c o u n ta n ts . In 1927, t h e p l a n t em ployed 2 9 ,0 0 0 em p lo y e e s , r e p r e s e n ti n g a b o u t s i x t y n a t i o n a l i t i e s . A bout 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e em ployees w ere A m erican b o rn . The P o le s and C z e c h o slo v a k ia n s made up th e l a r g e s t f o r e ig n / g ro u p s . C h ro n o lo g ic a l o rd e r o f t h e E x p erim en t The two men m ost r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f th e W estern E l e c t r i c Company e x p e rim e n t w ere F . J . R o e t h l i s - b e r g e r p f H arv ard U n iv e r s ity and W illia m J . D ickson o f t h e W estern E l e c t r i c Company. T hese tw o men w ere m a in ly r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e c o m p ilin g o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e r i m en t, a n d a l s o gave th e ex p e rim e n t t h e i n s i g h t and in g e n u ity n e c e s s a r y t o make i t s o b s e r v a tio n s s ta n d up a g a i n s t th e m ost c r i t i c a l i n s p e c t i o n . G. A. Pennock and M. L . Putnam w ere th e o f f i c e r s o f th e W estern E l e c t r i c Company who to o k a c t i v e c h a rg e o f t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e e x p e rim e n ts . C h r o n o lo g ic a lly , th e ex p e rim en t was d iv id e d i n to fo u r p a r t s . The m ost d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f th e ex p e rim e n t may b e found i n t h e b o o k , Management and t h e W orker, by F . J . R o e th lis b e r g e r and W illia m D ick so n , from w hich m ost o f th e f a c t s o f th e ex p e rim e n t r e l a t e d in t h i s t h e s i s w ere ta k e n . The f i r s t p a r t o f t h e book was co n c ern ed w ith an e x p e rim e n t on w o rk in g c o n d itio n s and em ployee e f f i c i e n c y . D u rin g t h i s p h ase o f th e in q u ir y th e " t e s t room m ethod" was d e v e lo p e d . An ex p e rim e n t i n in te r v ie w in g some 2 0 ,0 0 0 em ployees from a l l p a r t s o f th e H aw thorne p la n t w ith an o b je c tiv e o f l e a r n in g w hich a s p e c t s o f t h e i r w o rk in g en v iro n m en t th e y fa v o re d o r d i s l i k e d w as d e s c r ib e d in th e seco n d p a r t o f t h e b o o k . In th e t h i r d p a r t o f t h e book, an e x p la n a tio n o f t h e in te r v ie w s w ith r e g a r d to em p lo y ees1 s a t i s f a c t i o n an d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n was p r e s e n te d . The f o u r th and l a s t p a r t o f t h e book in tro d u c e d a s tu d y o f f o u r te e n m ale o p e r a to r s u s in g a l l t h e above m eth o d s, p lu s d i r e c t and s im u lta n e o u s ob s e r v a t i o n s . 11 The T e s t Room M ethod The f i r s t ex p e rim e n t a t th e W estern E l e c t r i c Company was an ill u m in a tio n ex p erim en t* The r e s u l t s o f t h i s t e s t d id n o t p ro v e c o n c lu s iv e , t h e r e f o r e , th e e x p e rim e n te rs r e a l i z e d t h a t i t was n e c e s s a ry t o s e t up a c o n t r o l i n o r d e r t o stu d y m ore s y s t e m a tic a lly t h e f a c t o r s t h a t c o n tr ib u te d t o em ployee e f f e c tiv e n e s s * I t was d e c id e d t o i s o l a t e a sm a ll g ro u p o f w o rk e rs from t h e r e g u la r w o rk in g f o r c e i n a s e p a r a te room* As a r e s u l t o f t h i s change i t was p o s s i b le t o s tu d y t h e g ro u p more c a r e f u l l y and t o k eep o u t some o f t h e v a r i a b l e s t h a t c re e p i n t o l a r g e groups* In a s m a ll g ro u p t h e r e w ould be l e s s v a r i a b l e s ; e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s c o u ld b e im posed w ith l e s s i n t e r r u p t i o n t o t h e t o t a l p l a n t ; a n d th e r e c o r d k e e p in g o f b o th p r o d u c tio n and t h e in d iv i d u a l c o u ld be f a c i l i t a t e d * F i n a l l y , and m ost im p o r ta n t, a s m a ll group made i t e a s i e r t o e s t a b l i s h a f e e l i n g o f m u tu al c o n fid e n c e betw een i n v e s t i g a t o r s and o p e r a t o r s , an d t h e o b s e rv a tio n s w ould n o t be a s l i k e l y t o be d i s t o r t e d by g e n e ra l m is tr u s t* S e le c tio n o f t h e o p e r a t io n . One o f t h e m ajo r con s i d e r a t i o n s g iv e n t o t h e e x p e rim e n t was t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e jo b to be c o n tro lle d * The jo b f i n a l l y ch o sen was t h e assem b ly o f te le p h o n e r e l a y s , o p e ra te d by women* I t 12 c o n s is te d o f p u t t i n g to g e t h e r some t h i r t y - f i v e p a r t s in an assem b ly f i x t u r e , and s e c u r in g t h e p a r t s w ith f o u r m achine screw s* A lth o u g h c o n s id e r a b le s k i l l i s in v o lv e d in th e assem b ly o f th e r e l a y , ta k in g a p p ro x im a te ly one m in u te , t h e jo b i s h ig h ly r e p e t i t i v e . T h is ty p e o f w ork, t h e r e f o r e , f i t t e d in p e r f e c t l y w ith t h e re q u ire m e n ts f o r a good c o n t r o l ex p e rim en t jo b . F i r s t , b e c a u se o f th e in c r e a s in g te n d e n c y i n in d u s t r y t o go more to w a rd s jo b s t h a t a r e r e p e t i t i o u s , th e f a c t o r o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n was im p o r ta n t. S eco n d , th e jo b made i t p o s s ib le t o b e t t e r s tu d y members o f a g ro u p in t h e same o p e r a tio n w here a more a c c u r a te co m p ariso n c o u ld be m ade. T h ird , t h e assem b ly o p e r a tio n made i t p o s s ib le t o k eep a s t a t i s t i c a l r e c o r d o f p ro d u c t i o n . And, s in c e a l a r g e sam ple was n e c e s s a r y , t h e s h o r t c y c le tim e o f t h e r e l a y a ssem b ly was d e s i r a b l e . F o u rth , t h e assem b ly o p e r a tio n was d e s i r a b l e b e c a u se t h e o p e r a tio n i s a lm o st w h o lly c o n t r o ll e d by t h e o p e r a t o r . F i f t h , th e r e l a y assem b ly jo b o f f e r e d a c o n tin u o u s am ount o f w ork, w ith em ploym ent s e c u r i t y . S e le c tio n o f t h e o p e r a t o r s . One o f th e m ost d i f f i c u l t p ro b lem s i n t h e e x p e rim e n t was t o s e l e c t th e b e s t o p e r a to r s f o r t h e t e s t room . O p e ra to rs c o u ld n o t be chosen who had t o l e a r n t h e o p e r a tio n a s t h a t w ould h av e n e c e s s i t a t e d a l e a r n in g p e r io d . S in c e p ro d u c tio n w ould be th e 13 c o n s ta n t t h a t w ould d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t o f v a r i a b l e s , o n ly e x p e rie n c e d o p e r a to r s c o u ld be c h o se n . The b ig g e s t t a s k f a c in g t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s was t h e p ro b lem o f g e t t i n g t h e r i g h t women who w ould b e w i l l i n g and c o o p e r a tiv e , so t h a t t h e i r r e a c t i o n s t o ch an g es w ould b e n o rm a l. Some o p e r a t o r s , i n t h e e a r l y e x p e rim e n t on il l u m i n a ti o n , w ere fo u n d t o b e o f a d e fe n s iv e o r s u s p ic io u s n a tu r e an d h e ld back on t h e i r o u tp u t, w h ile o t h e r s w ere o v e r ly a n x io u s t o c o o p e ra te an d t h e i r p ro d u c tio n becam e i r r e g u l a r . The m ethod f i n a l l y a d o p te d by th e e x p e rim e n te rs w as t o s e l e c t tw o o p e r a t o r s , who w ere known t o b e f r i e n d l y w ith e ach o t h e r , t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e ex p e rim en t and t o have them ch o o se th e o th e r members o f t h e g ro u p . T h u s, th e r e l a y assem b ly t e s t room p e rs o n n e l w as ch o sen , c o n s is tin g o f f i v e a s s e m b le rs and one i n d i r e c t o r la y o u t o p e r a t o r . The la y o u t o p e r a t o r ’ s d u t i e s w ere o f a m inor s u p e rv is o ry c h a r a c te r and s e r v ic in g o r p r o c u r in g p a r t s f o r each assem b l e r . The t e s t room la y o u t o p e r a t o r ’ s jo b was s i m i l a r to t h e f a c t o r y la y o u t o p e r a t o r ’ s jo b e x e e p t t h a t t h e t e s t room la y o u t o p e r a to r had l e s s o p e r a to r s t o s e r v ic e . E ach assem b l e r was a s s ig n e d a num ber from one t o f i v e f o r e a sy r e f e r ence f o r r e c o r d s and t o p r o t e c t th e i d e n t i t y o f t h e 14 o p e r a t o r s .^ The t e s t room o b s e r v e r . B e s id e s th e r e l a y a s s e m b le r o p e r a to r s a n d th e la y o u t o p e r a t o r , t h e r e was one p e rs o n in th e e x p e rim e n ta l room who was p la c e d i n ch a rg e o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e t e s t room o b s e rv e r was g iv e n t o t h e man who was r e s p o n s i b le f o r i n i t i a t i n g and p la n n in g , th e new e x p e rim e n ta l s t u d i e s . A lso , he was a tim e s tu d y man w ith c o n s id e r a b le e x p e rie n c e w ith p ie c e r a t e s . The t e s t room o b s e r v e r ’ s jo b was t o k eep a c c u r a te r e c o r d s o f a l l t h a t happened d u rin g th e e x p e rim e n t, and t o c r e a te and m a in ta in a f r i e n d l y a tm o sp h e re i n t h e t e s t room . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e t e s t room . The t e s t room w as lo c a te d on t h e to p f l o o r o f t h e W e stern E l e c t r i c Company P l a n t , f a r enough away fro m t h e r e g u l a r r e l a y a ssem b ly d e p a rtm e n t so t h a t th e t e s t o p e r a to r s d id n o t eorae i n c o n s ta n t o r d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith t h e m ain g ro u p , b u t w ere c lo s e enough f o r an e f f i c i e n t o p e r a t io n . The t e s t room , o ccu p y in g a p p ro x im a te ly 562 s q u a re f e e t o f f l o o r s p a c e , was th e same one t h a t was u se d i n t h e ill u m in a tio n e x p e r i m en t. T h e r e f o re , l i g h t i n g , v e n t i l a t i o n , and h e a tin g w ere 2 ''’See T a b le I f o r a g e , n a t i o n a l i t y , e d u c a tio n , an d e x p e rie n c e o f e a c h o f th e g i r l s in t h e t e s t room . TABLE I C o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e G r o u p RELAY ASSEMRLY TEST ROOM * O p e ra to r Y ear of B irth B irthplace B irthplaces of P arents F ath e r M other E ducation D ate of E m ploym ent W o rk E sp erien ce before A p ril, 1917 O th e r W estern E lectric C o m p a n ies C om pany lA* 1908 Chicago, Hi. Poland Poland Grade school Sept., 1925 Clerk in mail order house, 2 V i yrs. Relay assembler 1 yr., 8 mos. 2A * 1907 Chicago, III. Poland Poland 7th grade M y, 1923 None Relay assembler 3 yrs., to mos. i 1908 Pennsylvania Poland Poland Grade school June, 1925 None Paper insulating machine operator 3 mos. Relay assembler 1 yr., 8 mos. 4 1907 Cicero, III. Poland Poland 2 yrs. high school Oct., 1923 Shop work, filing gaskets 10 mos. Relay assembler 3 y«. Layout operator 6 mos. 5 1898 Norway Norway Norway 7th grade (Norway) March, 1926 Sardine canner (Norway) Relay assembler 1 yr.. 1 mo. Layout operator 1903 Chicago, III. Czecho slovakia Czecho slovakia Grade school Dec., 1920 None Relay assembler 2 yrs., 5 inos. Layout operator I v r s „ 11 mos. • There operators were replaced by two oiheri later in the test (iec Chapter IV and Table IA, p. 61). * A. J . R o e t h l i s b e r g e r an d W illia m J . D ic k s o n Mana g e m en t a n d t h e W orker (C a m b rid g e : H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y F r e s s , 1 9 5 0 ), p . 2 3 . a d e q u a te and t h e room a rra n g e m e n t was a b o u t t h e same a s t h a t in th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. The w ork b en ch from w h ich a l l f i v e o p e r a to r s w orked, a s w e ll a s t h e r e s t o f th e work p la c e la y o u t, was th e same a s t h a t in th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t, w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f a h o le t o t h e r i g h t o f th e o p e r a to r * s p o s i t i o n i n t o w h ich sh e d ro p p ed th e co m p leted r e l a y s f o r r e c o r d in g o f p ro d u c t i o n on a s p e c i a l a p p a r a tu s . The m easurem ent o f o u tp u t. The o p e ra to rs * p ro d u c t i o n was t a b u l a t e d th ro u g h an o ld ty p e p r i n t i n g t e l e g r a p h w hich o p e r a te d by p e r f o r a t i n g h o le s in a moving p a p e r t a p e . The h o le s w ere punched i n f i v e s e p a r a te ro w s, ea c h row o f h o le s r e p r e s e n tin g one o p e r a to r * s p r o d u c tio n , and e a c h h o le i n d i c a t i n g a co m p leted r e l a y . The ta p e moved th ro u g h th e r e c o r d e r a t th e r a t e o f o n e - f o u r th in c h p e r m in u te ; t h u s , th e sp a ce b etw een t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s r e p r e s e n te d th e tim e ta k e n t o assem b le a r e l a y . A c o u n te r on th e ta p e was i n s t a l l e d , m aking i t u n n e c e s s a ry t o c o u n t th e num ber o f h o le s in th e t a p e . A r e c o r d o f ea ch d ay * s p ro d u c tio n w as r e c o rd e d on a ta p e a b o u t t e n f e e t lo n g . The o p e r a to r * s p erfo rm a n ce r e c o r d , show ing th e num b e r o f r e l a y s a sse m b le d , p e r s o n a l tim e , r e p a i r tim e , and an y i n d i r e c t tim e s p e n t on t h e jo b , was d e te rm in e d from 17 t h e ta p e r e c o r d in g an d o b s e r v a tio n . The q u a l i t y o f th e a sse m b ly o f t h e r e l a y was check ed th ro u g h in s p e c t i o n , and a llo w a n c e s w ere made f o r d e f e c t i v e p a r t s , a s w e ll a s m is ta k e s made by th e a s s e m b le r. The t o t a l num ber o f good p a r t s was m u l t ip l i e d by a c o n v e rs io n f a c t o r b a s e d upon th e b a s e ty p e r e l a y . D a ily h i s t o r y r e c o r d . A d a i l y h i s t o r y r e c o r d was k e p t a lo n g w ith t h e d e t a i l e d p ro d u c tio n r e c o r d . T h is r e c o r d was d e s ig n e d t o g iv e a co m p lete a c c o u n tin g o f th e d a i l y h a p p e n in g s in th e t e s t room , w hich in c lu d e d t h e ch an g es made in th e room , rem a rk s o f a l l k in d s made by t h e o p e r a to r s ,, and any o th e r p ro b lem s o r p e r t i n e n t f a c t s con c e rn in g t h e t e s t room a n d i t s e f f e c t upon o u tp u t. A d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e h o u rly te m p e r a tu r e and h u m id ity o f th e room was a l s o k e p t. P h y s ic a l e x a m in a tio n s . The im p o rta n t q u e s tio n w hich g e n e r a lly a r i s e s i n s tu d y in g a w o rk er* s e f f i c i e n c y i s w h e th e r o r n o t in c r e a s e s in o u tp u t a r e o b ta in e d a t t h e ex p en se o f t h e g e n e r a l h e a l t h and w e ll-b e in g o f t h e o p e r a t o r . Due t o t h e in f lu e n c e h e a l t h h a s on t h e m e n ta l a s w e ll a s p h y s ic a l a t t i t u d e a n d c o n d itio n o f t h e w o rk e r, p h y s ic a l e x a m in a tio n s w ere made a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s o f s i x w eeks. I B The W estern E l e c t r i c Company em ploys t h e i r own company p h y s ic ia n s an d p h y s ic a l e x a m in a tio n s w ere e a s i l y a r r a n g e d . CHAPTER I I I ACTUAL EXPERIMENTS IN GROUP DYNAMICS I . EXPERIMENT WITH REST PAUSES " R e st p a u s e s ” was one o f th e f i r s t e x p e rim e n ts t o b e t r i e d i n t h e R e la y A ssem bly T e s t Room. H aving f o u r d i s t i n c t p e r io d s , ea c h o f w hich o f f e r e d a d i f f e r e n t a r ran g em en t o f r e s t p e r io d tim e , t h i s e x p e rim e n t was con d u c te d o v e r a p e r io d o f a p p ro x im a te ly se v en m o n th s. I t was deemed more p r a c t i c a l by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o b e g in w ith r a t h e r s h o r t r e s t p e r io d s , le n g th e n in g them l a t e r a f t e r th e o p e r a to r s had become more accu sto m ed t o th em . As a r e s u l t , two 5 - a in u te r e s t p e r io d s p e r day w ere ch o sen , one t o be e f f e c t i v e in t h e m orning and one in th e a f te r n o o n . The q u e s tio n a s t o t h e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f t h e tim e f o r t h e m orning an d a f te r n o o n r e s t p e r io d s was c o n s id e re d c a r e f u l l y . I t w as d e c id e d t h a t s in c e th e r e s t p e r io d s w ere b e in g i n s t i t u t e d t o h e lp r e l i e v e f a t i g u e , th e y s h o u ld be sc h e d u le d d u rin g th o s e p e r io d s o f t h e day when p ro d u c tio n was a t i t s lo w e s t eb b . The p r o d u c tio n r e c o r d s in d ic a t e d t h a t th e m ost f a v o r a b le tim e f o r th e m orning r e s t p e rio d w as betw een 9 :3 0 and 1 0 :0 0 a .m . However, t h e r e was no s a t i s f a c t o r y i n d i c a t i o n o f an a p p r o p r ia te tim e f o r th e a f te r n o o n r e s t p e r io d . The s u p e r in te n d e n t sc h e d u le d a m e e tin g o f t h e o p e r a to r s in h i s o f f i c e , showed them t h e p ro d u c tio n c u rv e s , a n d gave them t h e i r c h o ic e o f r e s t p e r io d s . They d e c id e d upon t h e 1© o 1c lo c k p e rio d in th e m orning an d t h e 2 o ' c lo c k p e r io d i n t h e a f te r n o o n . T h e re f o r e , t h e s ta n d a r d work week was re d u c e d by 1 .9 p e r c e n t from t h e s ta n d a r d f o r t y - e i g h t h o u r w ork w eek. When th e tw o 5-m in u te r e s t p e r io d s w ere in tr o d u c e d t h e r e was a n im m ediate r e a c t i o n o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . A ll o f t h e o p e r a to r s r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y f e l t b e t t e r a n d t h a t th e tim e seem ed t o go f a s t e r f o r th e m . However, t h e o p e r a to r s s t i l l e x p e rie n c e d p e r io d s o f d ro w s in e s s a t v a r io u s tim e s d u rin g th e d a y . A n o th er f a c t w hich t h e o p e r a to r s r e v e a le d was t h a t th e y f e l t th e y w ere u n a b le t o in c r e a s e t h e i r o u t p u t th ro u g h th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e r e s t p e r io d s . In f a c t , two o f th e o p e r a to r s e x p re s s e d d o u b t a s t o t h e i r a b i l i t y t o make up t h e l o s t tim e . I n answ er t o th e s e f e a r s , th e o b s e rv e r e x p la in e d t h a t one o f t h e p u rp o se s o f th e r e s t p a u s e s was t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r t h e same am ount o f work c o u ld be a c c o m p lish e d w ith l e s s e f f o r t . A n o th er p u rp o se o f t h e r e s t p e r io d was t o e n a b le th e o p e r a to r t o ta k e c a re o f p e r s o n a l n e e d s d u rin g t h a t tim e , w hich w ould a v o id s p l i t t i n g up t h e w ork p e r io d . The o n ly o th e r m ajo r comment d u r in g th e 5 -n iin u te 21 r e s t p e rio d e x p e rim e n t was t h a t a l l th e o p e r a t o r s f e l t t h a t th e r e s t p e r io d s w ere n o t lo n g enough. As soon a s i t becam e a p p a re n t t h a t t h e 5-m in u te r e s t p e r io d s te n d e d t o i n c r e a s e , r a t h e r th a n to d e c r e a s e , o u tp u t, two 1 0 -m in u te r e s t p e r io d s w ere in tr o d u c e d . The o p e r a to r s w ere a d v is e d , how ever, t h a t t h e r e s t p e r io d s m ig h t have an a f f e c t on t h e i r ta k e home e a r n in g s . In s p i t e o f t h i s f a c t , th e o p e r a to r s w ere a l l in f a v o r o f i n c r e a s in g th e r e s t p e r io d fro m 5 - t o 1 0 -m in u te s . T h e re was an im m ediate and p ro n o u n ced in c r e a s e in th e a v e ra g e p ro d u c t i o n r a t e th ro u g h t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e lo n g e r r e s t p e r io d . In t h e f i r s t week t h i s in c r e a s e am ounted t o a lm o st 10 p e r c e n t. The o b s e rv e r e x p la in e d t h a t t h e in c r e a s e d o u tp u t was due t o g r e a t e r e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f t h e o p e ra t o r s t o com pensate f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l tim e o f f th ro u g h t h e r e s t p e r io d . M ost o f t h e o p e r a to r s f e l t , how ever, t h a t th e in c r e a s e d p ro d u c tio n w as d u e t o lo n g e r r e s t p e r io d s . The seco n d e x p e rim e n t w ith r e s t p a u s e s was c a r r i e d on f o r a p e r io d o f o n ly f o u r w eek s. T h is was d u e , m a in ly , to t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o p e r a to r s w ere v e ry d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e s i x 5 -m in u te r e s t p e r io d s . On O c to b e r 1 0 , 1927;, th e s i x 5 -m in u te r e s t p e r io d s w ere s c h e d u le d a s f o llo w s : 3 :4 5 > 1 0 :0 0 , and 1 1 :2 0 in t h e m o rn in g , and 2 :0 0 , 3 :1 5 , an d 4 :3 0 in t h e a f te r n o o n . T h ese r e s t p e r io d s r e p r e s e n te d a r e d u c tio n o f 5*73 p e r c e n t from t h e s ta n d a r d f o r t y - e i g h t h o u r w ork w eek. B oth t h e company and th e o p e r a to r s w ere d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith t h i s e x p e rim e n t. The p r i n c i p a l o b je c tio n from t h e o p e r a t o r f s v ie w p o in t was t h a t th e f i v e m in u te s a llo w e d f o r ea ch r e s t p e r io d was to o s h o r t a p e r io d o f tim e . They f e l t t h a t th e p e r io d w as o v e r b e f o r e th e y had a chance t o do a n y th in g , p e r s o n a l o r o th e r w is e . The com pany*s ob j e c t i o n t o th e e x p e rim e n t was t h a t , i n many c a s e s , th e o p e r a to r s d e l i b e r a t e l y r e tu r n e d t o w ork l a t e a f t e r ea ch r e s t p e r io d . A lso , th e o p e r a to r s d id an e x c e s s iv e am ount o f la u g h in g an d t a l k i n g d u r in g t h e p e r io d , a s w e ll a s o th e r i n d i r e c t d is t u r b a n c e s , t o show t h e i r d is a p p r o v a l o f t h e s i x $ -m in u te r e s t p e r io d s . T h is e x p e rim e n t, t h e r e f o r e , was d is c o n tin u e d a f t e r o n ly one m onth*s t r i a l . The t h i r d r e s t p au se e x p e rim e n t t r i e d w as t h a t o f t h e 1 5 -m in u te r e s t p e r io d in th e m o rn in g , d u rin g w hich tim e a lu n c h was t o be s e rv e d , and a l© -m in u te r e s t p e rio d in t h e a f te r n o o n . I t w as a g re e d t h a t th e m idm orning r e s t p e r io d sh o u ld be a t 9 :3 0 , a s t h i s tim e was c l o s e r t o t h e h a lfw a y m ark b etw een b r e a k f a s t and lu n c h . And i t was f u r t h e r d e c id e d t o s e rv e lu n c h d u r in g t h e l a s t f i v e m i n u te s o f t h e p e r io d . The tim e o f t h e a f te r n o o n r e s t p e r io d was changed fro m 2 :0 0 t o 2 : 3 0 . T h is p e rio d was known a s p e r io d s e v e n , w h ich c o n tin u e d f o r a p e rio d o f e le v e n w eek s. The w eek ly w ork in g h o u rs w ere 4*36 p e r c e n t below th e s ta n d a r d f o r t y - e ig h t h o u r work w eek, b u t w ere s l i g h t l y m ore th a n t h e t o t a l h o u rs in t h e p e r io d s i x , p r e v io u s ly m e n tio n e d . T h ere was no d o u b t t h a t t h e o p e r a to r s fa v o re d t h e m idm orning lu n c h and lo n g e r r e s t p e r io d s . From th e f i r s t d ay t h e i r comments w ere f a v o r a b le an d rem a in ed so th ro u g h o u t t h e e x p e rim e n t. R e s u lts and C o n c lu sio n s o f t h e R e s t P e rio d E x p e rim e n ts The m ethod u se d t o i n t e r p r e t th e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y o f ea ch o p e r a to r and t h e g ro u p was t o f i n d t h e a v e ra g e h o u rly o u tp u t by w eek s. T h is a v e ra g e was o b ta in e d by d i v id in g th e t o t a l num ber o f r e l a y s a sse m b le d e a c h week by t h e t o t a l num ber o f h o u rs w orked d u rin g t h e w eek. The t o t a l num ber o f h o u rs w orked d u rin g t h e week in c lu d e d r e p a i r tim e , a s w e ll a s a l l p e r s o n a l t im e . E x clu d ed from th e t o t a l h o u rs f o r t h e week w ere r e s t p e r io d tim e an d a b s e n c e s from work a s o rd e re d by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s . The a c c u m u la te d o u tp u t f i g u r e s f o r th e sev en e x p e r i m e n ta l p e r io d s in d ic a t e d t h a t th e g e n e r a l im provem ent in t h e r a t e o f o u tp u t was d u e t o t h e in tr o d u c t io n o f r e s t p a u s e s . A ll o th e r c o n d itio n s w ere unchanged w hich w ould g iv e f u r t h e r e v id e n c e t h a t t h e in c r e a s e d p r o d u c tio n was due t o t h i s f a c t o r . The r e l a t i v e low p r o d u c tio n o f o p e ra t o r s l a and 2a in p e r io d se v en was due t o a p e r s o n a l 24 p ro b lem i n w hich t h e two o p e r a to r s w ere in v o lv e d . T h e ir c o n tin u e d p o o r a t t i t u d e and co n d u ct l e d t o ? th e ir r e p l a c e m ent l a t e r i n th e t e s t g ro u p . Two ty p e s o f ch an g es o c c u rre d d u rin g t h e e x p e rim e n t. One o f t h e s e c h a n g e s, r e a l i z e d by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s , was t h e in c r e a s e i n p ro d u c tio n ; t h e o th e r , u n n o tic e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s , was a g r a d u a l change in s o c i a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s among t h e o p e r a to r s th e m s e lv e s , w hich d is p la y e d i t s e l f in t h e form o f a new g ro u p dynam ics in v o lv in g g ro u p l o y a l t i e s and s o l i d a r i t i e s . E q u a lly im p o rta n t was t h e change i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e o p e r a to r s and th e t e s t room a u t h o r i t i e s . B oth o f t h e s e p o in ts a r e im p o rta n t in th e f u r t h e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f g ro u p d y n am ics, an d a s a p a r t i a l e x p la n a tio n o f c e r t a i n u n e x p e c te d r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e rim e n ts . I I . EXPERIMENT WITH SHORTER WORKING BAYS AND WEEKS Im m e d ia te ly a f t e r t h e r e s t p e r io d e x p e rim e n ts e n d e d , a new s e r i e s o f e x p e rim e n ts was b eg u n . The e f f e c t s o f s h o r te n in g th e w orking d ay o r week w ere s tu d i e d . B e fo re t h e b e g in n in g o f p e r io d e i g h t , th e o p e r a to r s w ere g iv e n a n o p p o r tu n ity o f c h o o s in g betw een e i t h e r s t a r t in g work o n e - h a lf h o u r l a t e r i n t h e m orning o r s to p p in g work o n e - h a lf h o u r e a r l i e r i n t h e a f te r n o o n . They a l l chose th e 25 l a t t e r . T h e r e f o re , t h e w o rk in g day was s h o r te n e d , d a r in g p e rio d e i g h t , by s to p p in g work a t 4 : 3 0 in th e a fte rn o o n in s t e a d o f a t 5 :0 0 . The r e s t p e rio d p ro c e d u re o f f i f t e e n m in u te s in t h e m orning and te n m in u te s in t h e a fte rn o o n was f o llo w e d . (T h is s c h e d u le o f r e s t p e r io d s was con tin u e d th ro u g h o u t th e r e s t o f th e e x p e rim e n ts w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f P e rio d T w elve, d u rin g w hich tim e t h e r e s t p e r io d s w ere rem oved c o m p le te ly .) P e rio d E ig h t P e rio d E ig h t began on J a n u a ry 2 3 rd , 192$, and con tin u e d th ro u g h M arch 1 0 th , 1 92$. D u rin g t h i s p e rio d o p e r a to r s l a and 2a w ere r e p la c e d by o p e r a to r s 1 and 2 , due t o t h e i r u n c o o p e ra tiv e a t t i t u d e s and m is c o n d u c ts w hich w ere m en tio n ed e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . A ll o f t h e o p e ra t o r s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f number 4 , p r e f e r r e d t h e s h o r t e r work d a y . I t was d is c o v e re d l a t e r t h a t o p e r a to r num ber 4 d id n o t l i k e t h e s h o r t e r w ork day b e c a u se i t m eant more tim e s p e n t a t home w here she was e x p e rie n c in g p e r s o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . The o th e r o p e r a to r s fo u n d t h a t th e y w ere s t i l l a b le t o make t h e i r r a t e o f p r o d u c tio n , even th o u g h w ork tim e w as le s s e n e d , and e n jo y more l e i s u r e tim e a l s o . P e rio d Mine The o r i g i n a l p la n o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s was t o f o llo w 2 6 t h e e x p e rim e n t i n P e rio d S ig h t w ith a r e t u r n t o t h e o r i g i n a l c o n d itio n s o f a f u l l 4& -hour work week w ith no r e s t p e r io d s . However, t h i s p la n was abandoned due t o th e i f a c t t h a t t h e o u tp u t o f th e o p e r a to r s d id n o t d im in is h | d u r in g P e rio d E ig h t. The o p e r a t o r s , th e n , w ere i n t e r e s t e d | in f in d in g o u t w hat w ould happen i f th e work day was s h o rte n e d a n o th e r h a l f h o u r, and t o d is c o v e r a t w hat p o in t th e w eekly o u tp u t f e l l o f f . T h e r e f o re , d u rin g P e rio d M ine, t h e work day was re d u c e d a n o th e r h a l f h o u r. As was th e cu sto m ary p r a c t i c e o f th e t e s t room , th e s u p e r in te n d e n t c a l l e d a m e etin g o f th e t e s t room o p e r a to r s to d is c u s s th e new e x p e rim e n t. They w ere a l l in f a v o r o f th e s h o r t e r i work d a y . In P e rio d M ine, th e n , a work day o f sev en and ; t h r e e - f o u r t h s h o u rs was e s t a b l i s h e d w ith f i f t e e n and te n m in u te r e s t p e r io d s a s in p re v io u s p e r io d s . The o p e r a to r s d id n o t f e e l t h a t th e s h o r t e r work day sh o u ld m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t t h e i r e a r n in g s . The t e s t room o b s e rv e r s u g g e s te d t o th e o p e r a to r s t h a t th e y n o t sp eed up t h e i r o u tp u t d u rin g p e rio d n in e , b u t w ork a t t h e i r n a t u r a l p a c e . However, a s th e p e rio d p r o g r e s s e d , t h e r e was e v id e n c e o f a d e c id e d sp eed up o f work in an e f f o r t t o m a in ta in e a r n in g s . W hile t h i s i n c r e a s e in o u tp u t was n o tic e a b le in m ost o f th e o p e r a t o r s , i t was e s p e c i a l l y n o tic e a b le in o p e r a to r number 2 . 27 d u rin g th e p e r io d sh e was u r g in g and p ro d d in g t h e o th e r o p e r a to r s t o in c r e a s e t h e i r p r o d u c tio n . T h is p ro d d in g was n o t p ro v o k ed w ith o u t c o n s id e r a b le o p p o s itio n , e s p e c i a l l y from o p e r a t o r s num ber 3 and 4 who w ere th e le a d e r s o f th e g ro u p b e f o r e th e a p p e a ra n c e o f o p e r a to r num ber 2 . O p e ra to r number 2 a tte m p te d t o in c r e a s e p r o d u c tio n o f th e g ro u p th ro u g h p ro d u c in g th e m ost and e n c o u ra g in g t h e o th e r s t o p ro d u ce m ore. F o r a w h ile , p ro d u c tio n i n c re a s e d and th e o p e r a to r s w ere in c o m p e titio n w ith each o t h e r . B ut e v e n tu a lly o p e r a to r s num ber 3 and 4 became in d ig n a n t w ith t h e commands o f o p e r a to r num ber 2 who w anted more w ork a c c o m p lish e d and l e s s t a l k i n g . The above in c i d e n t was e x c e e d in g ly i n t e r e s t i n g in view o f l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n ts, f o r i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f l e a d e r , w h ich o p e r a to r number 2 f i n a l l y a t t a i n e d w ith r e s p e c t t o b o th o u tp u t and p e r s o n a l i t y , was n o t s e c u re d w ith o u t some s t r u g g l e a n d c o n f l i c t w ith t h e p r e v i o us l e a d e r s , o p e r a to r s num ber 3 an d 4* P e rio d N ine c o n tin u e d from M arch 1 2 , 192$ t o A p r il 7 , 192B. In s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t a l l o f t h e o p e r a to r s w ere in f a v o r o f a s h o r t e r work d ay , t h i s p e r io d p ro v ed t o be to o d r a s t i c a c u t in t h e w o rk in g d a y . The t o t a l w eekly o u tp u t was lo w e re d , a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly , e a rn in g s w ere a f f e c t e d . However, th e s i g n i f ic a n c e o f p e r io d n in e was t h a t th e r a t e o f o u tp u t d id n o t d im in is h d u rin g t h i s p e r io d . P e r io d Ten T h is p e r io d b eg an ©n A p r il 9 th , 1928, and c o n tin u e d th ro u g h Ju n e 3 0 th , 1 9 2 8 . When i t becam e a p p a r e n t, a s i n d i c a t e d in th e p re v io u s p e r io d , t h a t t o t a l w eek ly o u tp u t and e a rn in g s w ere d e f i n i t e l y re d u c e d th ro u g h t h e s h o r t e r w ork w eek, p la n s w ere made t o r e t u r n t o t h e f u l l w o rk in g d a y . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s f e l t t h a t th e o r i g i n a l c o n d itio n s o f t h e w ork day sh o u ld be r e i n s t a t e d t o check th e r e s u l t s o f th e e x p e rim e n ts . T hese p la n s w ere d is c u s s e d w ith t h e t e s t g ro u p an d i t w as d e c id e d t h a t th e o r i g i n a l c o n d itio n s s h o u ld b e r e i n s t a t e d g r a d u a l ly . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s t p a u s e s w ere r e t a i n e d f o r th e T e n th P e r io d . T h is p e r io d , w hich l a s t e d tw e lv e w eek s, was t h e same a s P e r io d S ev en , t h a t i s , a f u l l 4 8 -h o u r work week w ith a f i f t e e n m in u te m orning r e s t p e r io d , d u rin g w h ich tim e a lu n c h w as s e rv e d by t h e com pany, and a t e n m in u te a f te r n o o n r e s t p e r io d . Due to . t h e b ack g ro u n d o f th e o p e r a to r s a n d t h e m anner i n w hich t h e q u e s tio n s w ere a n sw e re d , i t was d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t t h e i r comments on t h e c o n d itio n s o f w ork. D u rin g th e f i r s t few w eeks o f th e e x p e rim e n t t h e t e s t room o b s e rv e r n o tic e d an in c r e a s e d num ber o f comments and c o m p la in ts c o n c e rn in g f a t i g u e , a lth o u g h t h e r e had been no p a r t i c u l a r m en tio n o f t i r e d n e s s in P e r io d Seven w hich had 29 th e sam e w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s . However, t h e c o m p la in ts w hich w ere num erous and f o r c i b l e i n t h e e a r l y s ta g e s o f P e r io d Ten d is a p p e a re d c o m p le te ly d u r in g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e p e r io d . On May 2 , 1 9 2 8 , t h e t e s t room o b s e rv e r a sk e d th e o p e r a to r s w hat th e y th o u g h t a b o u t t h e in c r e a s e d e a rn in g s p ro d u ced by a lo n g e r work p e r io d a s opposed t o d e c re a s e d e a rn in g s p ro d u ced by a s h o r t e r work p e r io d . W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f o p e r a to r number 4 , th e y a l l f e l t t h a t th e in c r e a s e d e a rn in g s d id n o t co m p en sate f o r th e l e i s u r e tim e o f f . T h e r e f o r e , i t ean b e s a id o b j e c t i v e l y t h a t p o s s ib ly t h e o p e r a to r s r e s e n te d su ch a r a p id change i n th e w o rk in g p e r io d , a n d , i f s o , i t w ould b e o n ly n a t u r a l f o r them t o f e e l more t i r e d an d r e s e n t f u l , even th o u g h th e y w ere a l l aw are o f th e f a c t t h a t t h e e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d s w ere on a te m p o ra ry b a s i s o n ly . P e rio d E le v e n P e r io d E le v e n was o r i g i n a l l y s e t up t o r e t u r n t o a f u l l 4 8 -h o u r w ork week w ith o u t r e s t p a u s e s . However, th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s had p ro m ised th e o p e r a t o r s t h a t an ex p e rim en t w ould be co n d u cted on a f iv e - d a y w ork week b a s i s some tim e d u rin g t h e summer m o n th s. F o r n in e w eeks ( J u ly 2 , 1928 t o S eptem ber 1 , 192&) th e e x p e rim e n t on P e rio d E le v e n was c a r r i e d on w ith a two w eeks v a c a tio n a llo w e d f o r t h e e n t i r e g ro u p . The t e s t room o p e r a to r s w orked f i v e d ay s (S a tu rd a y m o rn in g s o f f ) w ith tim e a llo w e d f o r r e s t p e r i o d s . The e x p e rim e n ta l v a lu e « o f P e r io d E lev en was le s s e n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o p e ra t o r s w ere p a id t h e i r b a s ic h o u rly r a t e f o r S a tu rd a y m orn i n g s , a lth o u g h t h i s tim e was n o t w orked. Why t h i s c o n d i t i o n e x i s t e d was n o t a d e q u a te ly e x p la in e d . How ever, i t a p p e a rs t h a t management d id n o t w ant th e o p e r a to r s t o s u f f e r a d e c re a s e i n t h e i r e a r n in g s a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r e x p e rim e n t. P e rio d Tw elve On S eptem ber 3 r d , 192S , th e o p e r a to r s r e tu r n e d t o t h e o r i g i n a l s c h e d u le o f a 4 $ -h o u r work week w ith no r e s t p a u s e s . They w ere t o l d t h a t a lth o u g h th e d u r a tio n o f t h i s t e s t p e rio d w ould be tw e lv e w eek s, i t was j u s t a n o th e r e x p e rim e n ta l f e a t u r e , and w as in no way t o be r e g a r d e d a s th e end o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d . A g ain , th e y w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o w ork a t t h e i r n a t u r a l p a c e . The o p e r a to r s w ere n o t p le a s e d w ith t h e r e t u r n t o t h e f u l l 4& -hour work week w ith o u t r e s t p e r io d s , ev en th o u g h th e y r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r ex p erim en t w ould end i n t h r e e m onths tim e . A fte r S ep tem b er 3 r d , a g ra d u a l a d ju s tm e n t t o th e new w o rk in g c o n d itio n s was a f f e c t e d . At f i r s t , th e o p e r a to r s s a id th e y w ere h u n g ry a t noon tim e and fo u n d th e w o rk in g d ay q u i t e lo n g . S h o r tl y a f t e r th e p e r io d s t a r t e d , how ever, t h e r e w as a d e f i n i t e change in modes o f b e h a v io r . T h is change in d ic a t e d t h a t some s o r t o f a d j u s t m ent w as b e in g made to t h e new w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s . O p era t o r s num ber 1 an d 2 w ere d is c o v e re d r e a d in g a new spaper b etw een 3 :4 5 and 9 :0 0 a .m ., and on t h e a f te r n o o n o f t h e same d ay th e s e same o p e r a t o r s p a s s e d can d y aro u n d b etw een 1 :4 0 and 2 :0 5 p.m . The can d y , o f c o u r s e , made th e o p e ra t o r s t h i r s t y w hich n e c e s s i t a t e d num erous t r i p s t o th e d r in k in g f o u n t a i n . A ll o f t h e o p e r a to r s showed s ig n s o f r e s t l e s s n e s s f o r a lo n g p e r io d o f tim e . G ra d u a lly th e y s t a r t e d ta k in g tim e f o r r e s t p e r io d s v o l u n t a r i l y . T h is w as e v id e n c e d by th e f a c t t h a t t h e y w ould e a t so m e th in g a t a b o u t 9 :3 0 i n th e m orning i n th e same m anner t h a t o th e r r e s t p e r io d s had b een o b s e rv e d , and i n t h e a f te r n o o n t h e r e was a te n d e n c y t o slacken work a n d t a l k . The R e la tio n s h ip b etw een th e T e s t Room O p e ra to rs an d th e O b serv er I n P e r io d T w elve, th e d i f f e r i n g a t t i t u d e s o f th e t e s t room o b s e rv e r an d t h e o p e r a t o r s , on t h e one h an d , and th e o p e r a to r s a n d t h e t e s t room o b s e r v e r , on th e o th e r hand, 32 w ere n o t i c e d . Toward th e end o f t h e p e rio d t h e o b s e rv e r a tte m p te d t o s to p t h e e x c e s s iv e t a l k i n g among t h e o p e r a to r s . He even th r e a te n e d them by s a y in g t h a t i f t h e t a l k i n g d id n o t become more m o d e ra te i t w ould become n e c e s s a r y t o con t i n u e t h e e x p e rim e n t w ith o u t r e s t p a u se s f o r a lo n g e r p e r io d . T h e ir r e a c t i o n t o t h i s t h r e a t was i n t e r e s t i n g . The f o llo w in g c o n v e rs a tio n to o k p la c e when t h e t e s t room o b s e rv e r a d v is e d t h e o p e r a t o r s t h a t th e c o n d itio n s i n t h e t e s t room a t t h a t tim e w ere s i m i l a r t o th o s e i n t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. The r e p l i e s t o t h i s s ta te m e n t w ere: O p e ra to r 2 : "Y es, b u t you c a n ’t scream and h av e t h e good tim e s o u t t h e r e t h a t we do in th e t e s t room , an d th e fu n i n t h e t e s t room i s what m akes i t w o rth w h ile ." O p e ra to r 3* "Y es, t h e r e a r e to o many b o s s e s in th e d e p a rtm e n t." O p e ra to r 1 : "Y es, M r.___________( th e o b s e rv e r) i s t h e o n ly b o ss we h a v e ." O p e ra to r 2 : " S a y , h e ’ s no b o s s . W e d o n ’t h av e an y b o s s ." O b s e rv e r: ( S t a r t i n g t o sp eak ) "B ut you know. . ." O p e ra to r 3 : "S h u t u p ." O p e ra to r 2 : "Look a t t h a t . Look a t th e way sh e t e l l s h e r b o ss t o s h u t up."-*- ^■F. J . R o e th lis b e r g e r and W illia m J . D ic k so n , M anagem ent and t h e W orker (C am bridge: H arv ard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 5 0 ), p . 7 1 . 33 The above q u o ta tio n s ca n n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d to o l i t e r a l l y a s th e y w ere made i n t h e s p i r i t o f fu n an d on an o c c a s io n w here t h e r e w ere no fo rm a l r u l e s o f conduct* However, th e y in d ic a t e d n o t o n ly th e h ig h v a lu e th e o p e ra t o r s p la c e d on th e freed o m fro m o r d in a r y s u p e r v is io n in t h e t e s t room , b u t a l s o t h e i r a t t i t u d e to w ard t h e t e s t room o b s e r v e r . He was n o t r e g a rd e d by them a s a nb o s s ,w and h i s v e r b a l t h r e a t s w ere n o t ta k e n to o s e r i o u s l y . In many w ay s, t h e t e s t room o b s e rv e r showed h is p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t in t h e o p e r a to r s th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r p ro b le m s. He g r a n te d them more and more p r i v i l e g e s . F o r ex am p le, d u r in g P e rio d T w elve, th e o b s e rv e r d is c o v e re d th e o p e r a to r s w ere a tte m p tin g t o k eep p r o d u c tio n low t o e n s u re r e in s t a te m e n t o f t h e r e s t p e r io d s . He p ro m p tly in fo rm ed them t h a t no m a tte r w hat happened t o p ro d u c tio n , i n t h e n e x t e x p e rim e n t r e s t p a u s e s w ould a g a in b e made e f f e c t i v e . A lth o u g h t h e o u tp u t r a t e f o r a l l t h e o p e r a t o r s , e x c e p t o p e r a to r num ber 5 , d e c re a s e d i n t h i s p e r io d , th e t o t a l w eek ly o u tp u t re a c h e d a new h ig h l e v e l . P e rio d T h ir te e n P e rio d T h ir te e n began Movember 2 6 , 1 9 2 8 , and con tin u e d th ro u g h Ju n e 2 9 , 1929. D u rin g t h i s p e r io d t h e r e s t p a u s e s w ere r e i n s t a t e d , a c c o r d in g t o th e ag ree m en t made w ith t h e t e s t room o p e r a to r s d u rin g P e r io d Twelve 34 e x p e rim e n t. P e rio d T h ir te e n l a s t e d se v e n m onths w hich w as th e lo n g e s t i n t e r v a l o f tim e on a l l e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d s . The f a c t t h a t t h i s e x p e rim e n t l a s t e d so lo n g i n d i c a t e d a r a d i c a l change had ta k e n p la c e in th e in q u ir y . The e x p e r i m e n ta l f e a t u r e s w hich had i d e n t i f i e d e a c h p e r io d an d w hich had been c o n s id e re d t h e im p o rta n t ch an g es in w o rk in g c o n d i t i o n s f o r ea ch p e r io d , becam e i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n co m p ariso n t o o th e r f a c t o r s . The o p e r a to r s welcom ed t h e r e in s t a te m e n t o f th e r e s t p a u s e s . I t was d u r in g t h i s p e r io d , P e rio d T h ir te e n , t h a t t h e g ro u p re a c h e d i t s h ig h e s t peak in m o ra le , w hich w as e x p re s s e d i n v a r io u s w ays. One exam ple was t h e p r id e w ith w hich th e o p e r a t o r s a c c o m p lish e d t h e i r w o rk . T h is w as shown in t h e i r a tte m p ts t o im prove t h e i r p r e v io u s o u t p u t r e c o r d . A n o th er exam ple was t h a t o f h e lp in g one a n o th e r to m a in ta in a h ig h s ta n d a r d . F r e q u e n tly th e y t r i e d t o b re a k p r e v io u s r e c o r d s f o r a day * s w ork, a lth o u g h t h e r e was no p r e s s u r e b ro u g h t t o b e a r by an y one o p e r a to r t o i n c r e a s e o u tp u t a l l a lo n g th e l i n e . F or t h e f i r s t tim e t h e r e was a v e ry c o o p e r a tiv e a t t i t u d e among th e o p e r a t o r s . D u rin g t h i s p e r io d c o n c e rte d e f f o r t to w a rd a common g o a l was e v id e n c e d in s t e a d o f a n t a g o n i s t i c c o m p e titio n . The o p e r a to r s e x p la in e d t h i s c o o p e r a tiv e a t t i t u d e by 35 ack n o w led g in g t h e f a c t t h a t in t h e o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts i f an o p e r a to r w orked h a rd t h e o th e r o p e r a to r s w ould s la c k e n t h e i r p r o d u c tio n , w h erea s i n th e t e s t room a l l o p e r a to r s w orked h a rd to w a rd a common g o a l. I f an o p e r a to r was s i c k , h o w ev er, t h e o th e r o p e r a to r s w orked h a r d e r i n an e f f o r t t o be o f a s s i s t a n c e . W hile th e end r e s u l t o f t h e e x p e rim e n t p e r io d was t h a t o f a c o o p e ra tiv e a t t i t u d e , n e v e r t h e le s s t h e p e rio d had i t s f r e q u e n t c la s h e s o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s . O p e ra to r num ber 2 ( th e u n e le c te d le a d e r o f t h e o p e r a to r s ) f r e q u e n t l y re p rim a n d e d one o f t h e slo w e r o p e r a t o r s . She a l s o seem ed t o make a s p e c i a l p o in t o f a p p ly in g p r e s s u r e on o p e r a to r num ber 3 , T h is , o f c o u r s e , r e s u l t e d in n e i t h e r o p e r a to r s p e a k in g t o e a c h o th e r f o r s e v e r a l d a y s . L a te r on, how e v e r , a f t e r o p e r a to r num ber 3 in c r e a s e d h e r p r o d u c tio n , she becam e t h e c e n te r o f a c o n s id e r a b le am ount o f jo k in g fro m t h e g ro u p a s a w h o le. T h is j e s t i n g w as on a f r i e n d l y b a s i s and was t h e m ethod u se d b y th e g ro u p t o in f lu e n c e each o th e r t o p e rfo rm a s th e w hole g ro u p d id . I I I . EXPERIMMTAL PERIODS AN D OUTPUT RATE2 I n F ig u re 1 , th e a v e ra g e h o u rly o u tp u t by w eeks f o r 2 See F ig u re 1 f o r a v e ra g e h o u rly o u tp u t p e r w eek, e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d s One th ro u g h T h ir te e n . 36 tap. flrr.od* | | t ) S I a I s I r I T I » l » l 10 I I I I It I 70 0 0 $ 0 40 « 0 TO to SO 40 ID 00 SO 40 t o K to SO 40 TO to 3 0 X ip - ---- O pCrato* • « V 1 .F -JI 'f t- frt*S ' * - y K t f - • ------------0 p 2« - 0|M^ofor 2 r - ' I s * nN V * v - . !| - y C “ i i f ’ t v r 0aerator 3 n A I I 0 34i«fm 4 _______________________ ____• rW r * * 9 ^ s l r*->> i » r 0|► erafor & -------------------------- 1 lift. « ^ W ^ lA n V f f t f f ----- U t » w jw. * W B -*3 » 3 i ? s * 7 k 7 Oec 10 t o J * a ? • 1 S* f t 4 « b 3 r » S* l* P ‘5 7 a ? *1? IZ w to i f e to I I * r r a 7 7 *5? " ? ? 1927 I 1929 | 1928 F ig u r e 1 A v e r a g e H o u r l y O u t p u t p e r W e e k , E x p e r i m e n t a l P i r i o m I-X1II RELAY ASSEMBLY TEST ROOM * * A. J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson Management and the Worker (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950), p. 76. 37 each o p e r a to r d u rin g t h e f i r s t p e r io d s o f th e e x p e rim e n t i s shown, w hich i s in d ic a t e d by d o tte d h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s . E x am in atio n o f t h i s c h a r t i n s t a n t l y r e v e a l s no sim p le c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een t h e e x p e r im e n ta lly im posed ch an g es in w o rk in g c o n d itio n s a n d t h e r a t e o f w ork. The f o llo w in g o b s e r v a tio n s of t h e c h a r t r e v e a le d t h e e f f e c t o f t h e change in w o rk in g c o n d itio n s an d r a t e o f o u tp u t. W hile t h e r e was no c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t h e tw o , th e r a t e o f o u tp u t in g e n e ra l was h ig h e r in th e l a t t e r p e r io d s th a n in th e e a r l i e r o n e s . 1 . E x cep t i n P e r io d s T en, E le v e n , and T w elve, t h e o u tp u t r a t e f o r a l l th e o p e r a t o r s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f o p e r a to r s number l a and 2 a , s t e a d i l y r o s e from P e r io d Two o n . The o u tp u t o f o p e r a to r num ber 4 in P e rio d T h ir te e n in c r e a s e d a p p ro x im a te ly 40 p e r c e n t o v e r P e rio d One, th e b a s e p e r io d . 2 . In P e r io d s S ev en , T en, and T h ir te e n , i d e n t i c a l w o rk in g c o n d itio n s p r e v a i le d w ith a f i f t e e n m in u te r e s t p e rio d in th e m orning a t w hich tim e a lu n c h w as s e rv e d by t h e company, and a te n m in u te r e s t p e r io d in th e a f te r n o o n . Even th o u g h th e h o u r ly r a t e o f o u tp u t d e c lin e d s l i g h t l y a t th e b e g in n in g o f P e rio d T en, t h e a v e ra g e rem a in ed w e ll above t h a t o f P e rio d Seven f o r o p e r a to r s num ber 3 , 4 , and 5« I n P e rio d T h ir t e e n , t h e r e was an u n e x p e c te d s h a rp r i s e in h o u r ly r a t e f o r a l l o p e r a t o r s , w ith a n a v e ra g e much h ig h e r th a n i n e i t h e r P e r io d s Seven o r T en , P e r io d s T en, E le v e n , and T w elve a l s o f a i l e d to r e v e a l w hat m ig h t have been e x p e c te d . T hese t h r e e p e r io d s v a r ie d w id e ly i n c o n d itio n s o f w ork, r a n g in g from a f i v e d ay week w ith r e s t p e r io d s , on t h e one h an d , t o a f u l l 4 3 -h o u r work week w ith no r e s t p e r io d s , on t h e o th e r h a n d . N e v e r th e le s s , d u rin g t h e s e t h r e e p e r io d s t h e r e w as no a p p r e c ia b l e change i n t h e r a t e o f o u tp u t, e x c e p t w ith o p e r a to r s num ber 1 , 2 , an d 3 , i n P e rio d T w elv e. I n one c a s e o n ly ( in P e rio d Tw elve) d id th e h o u r ly r a t e behave in t h e way i t m ig h t have b een e x p e c te d t o . A lth o u g h t h e h o u r ly r a t e f o r a l l o p e r a to r s s t a r t e d t o d e c lin e when th e y r e tu r n e d t o a f u l l 4 3 -h o u r w ork week w ith no r e s t p a u s e s , i t n e v e r re a c h e d t h e l e v e l o f P e rio d T h re e , when s i m i l a r w o rk in g c o n d itio n s w ere in e f f e c t . 39 IV . EXPERIMENTAL PERIODS AND TOTAL W EEKLY OUTPUT The w eek ly h o u rs o f w ork in c lu d e d r e p a i r and p e r s o n a l tim e b u t e x c lu d e d r e s t p e r io d s , a s w e ll a s tim e r e q u ir e d f o r p h y s ic a l e x a m in a tio n s , c o n f e r e n c e s , and o th e r m is c e lla n e o u s a c t s n o t n o rm a lly r e q u ir e d in t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f t h e jo b .^ From F ig u re 2 , i t can b e se e n t h a t a l l t h e m ajo r d ip s in th e o u tp u t c u rv e s c o rre s p o n d t o l a r g e d e c r e a s e s in th e tim e w orked w h ich w ere n o t due p r im a r il y t o t h e e x p e r im e n ta l c h a n g e s. B ecause o f t h e s e d ro p s i n p r o d u c tio n so f r e q u e n t l y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e eye t o e a tc h t h e w eek ly o u tp u t ch an g es c o rre s p o n d in g to t h e e x p e rim e n ta l ch an g es i n w o rk in g tim e . H ow ever, th e c u rv e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r t o an sw er t h e in q u ir y a s t o w hat happened t o th e t o t a l w eek ly o u tp u t when r e s t p a u s e s w ere i n t r o duced an d t h e le n g th o f t h e d ay s h o r te n e d . I n F ig u re 2 , i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t : 1 . The t o t a l w eekly o u tp u t d id n o t d e c lin e when r e s t p a u s e s w ere in tr o d u c e d , b u t re m a in e d p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same d u r in g a l l t h e r e s t p e r io d e x p e rim e n ts . The a v e ra g e f o r P e r io d Seven ^S ee F ig u re 2 f o r t o t a l w eek ly o u tp u t, e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d s One th ro u g h T h ir te e n . * 3500 I £ 2500 I <5 1500 50 V , £ 1 4 30 * 3500 1 £ 2500 - 4 1500 x . 5 0 P 30 3500 £. 2 5 0 0 1 1500 50 30 3500 2500 X $ ** 1500 *s 5 0 I* „ J s S . ' k O fX to — 5 w j . * v f j ------0| f * pe rotor t - r ~ a T n J y v r - - p T r ' r i T n r ^ ^ - i p f Op 2 a ------ 0 1 pero to r 2. • .....- ....— ...... ....... ) h i f ■#*> ‘ « y P 'lT K f - f n r i . i f I T / " * . - r y r r r ' j r - ' u ' i -------0 perotor 3 r l » w . r i i l f • T T ' 1 . t r y — W *. r ' r ^ r ■ y w — u v - w - ' ^ - u --0 [>erotor 4 f i v f •r tf J - f » r ^ I , ^ i r < ,r T t I 'T V ,-TT r - r ~ r — -— u— ‘jf U t "1 3500 A 2500 I ** 1500 m 50 I I . ^ • 30 tfcp Rrnods Wr#«* r n d ^ g : , i ? T k + J + “ ^ W “ “ I » ® Y v ------ Of f * »em tor 5 ,11f i r L r r f " W ' ^ r , - ~ r r - i - m ■n p ^ V - w - U Y V 1 ^ A p, V _ ,i un as 4 1 A uq ¥> S ft | 7 O u Dtc •5 i.O & f*o N 1 1 10 or Mos * ?6 II July 2i U J**r Nov IS K > “ u Ja n Mar Apr Ju n , t , ...l,...._ 2 _ " S . W o , , “ •« J-J M r -» g T I 50 « ? 1927 | 1928 | 1929 F i g u r e 2 T o t a l W e e k l y O u t p u t , E x p e r i m e n t a l P e r io d s I - X I I I RELAY ASSEMBLY TEST ROOM * * h.. J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson kanagement and the V/orker (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1 ° 5 0 ) , p . 7 8 . showed a d ro p f o r e v e ry o p e r a t o r , a s com pared t o P e r io d s F iv e an d S ix . However, t h i s d e c r e a s e w as due t o a d e c re a s e in th e num ber of h o u rs w orked b e c a u se o f h o lid a y s and n o t b e c a u se o f r e s t p au ses* 2 . The in c r e a s e in th e r a t e o f p r o d u c tio n , a s se en in F ig u re 2 , page 4 0 , co m p en sated f o r t h e tim e l o s t b e c a u se o f s h o r t e r w o rk in g h o u rs in e v e ry p e r io d e x c e p tin g P e r io d s N ine and E le v e n . 3 . In P e rio d T w elve, t h e t o t a l w eek ly o u tp u t re a c h e d a new h ig h l e v e l f o r e v e ry o p e r a to r in s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t r a t e o f o u tp u t, a s se e n in F ig u re 2 , page 4 0 , d e c re a s e d d u rin g t h i s p e r io d . 1 . REST PAUSES A N D PERSONAL TIME One o f th e f a c t s w hich t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w ere i n t e r e s t e d in d is c o v e r in g was w h e th e r o r n o t r e s t p a u se s r e s u l t e d i n s h o r te n in g th e w o rk in g d ay , o r i f th e y o n ly d e c re a s e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y th e w o rk e r* s p e r s o n a l tim e o u t. The i n v e s t i g a t o r s le a r n e d , th ro u g h c h a r t a n a l y s i s , t h a t a lth o u g h p e r s o n a l tim e was a p p r e c ia b ly d e c re a s e d by r e s t p a u s e s th e r e d u c tio n was n o t in p r o p o r tio n to th e tim e ta k e n o u t by r e s t p e r io d s . H ow ever, from t h e f i g u r e s ob t a i n e d th ro u g h t h e t e s t room e x p e rim e n t, i t w as in d ic a t e d 42 t h a t r e s t p e r io d s in t h e t e s t room d id o r g a n iz e more e f f e c t i v e l y t h e p e r s o n a l tim e o f t h e o p e r a t o r s . A lso , r e s t p e r io d s a c t u a l l y s h o rte n e d t h e w o rk in g h o u r s , t h a t i s , th e y f u n c tio n e d a s r e s t p a u s e s and n o t m e re ly a s a d i s g u is e d fo rm o f p e r s o n a l tim e o u t. A tte n d a n c e I r r e g u l a r i t i e s Among th e O p e ra to rs The a tte n d a n c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f t h e t e s t room o p e r a to r s gave t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t h e i r f i r s t i n s i g h t i n t o t h e e f f e c t o f th e r e s t p a u s e s a n d w o rk in g c o n d itio n s upon th e a tte n d a n c e and a t t i t u d e o f t h e o p e r a t o r s . A r e c o r d w as k e p t o f t h e s e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s w h ich in c lu d e d an y c a s e in w h ich an o p e r a t o r was e i t h e r s i c k , l a t e , o r ex c u sed from w o rk . The g ro u p a v e ra g e d 1 5 .2 i r r e g u l a r i t i e s a y e a r in th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t an d o n ly 3*5 i r r e g u l a r i t i e s a y e a r i n t h e t e s t room , o r a b o u t o n e - f i f t h o f t h e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. T h ese f i n d i n g s prom pted t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o com pare t h e a tte n d a n c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f t h e t e s t room o p e r a to r s w ith th o s e p f t h e o p e r a to r s i n t h e r e g u l a r r e l a y assem b ly d e p a rtm e n t. They to o k a random sa m p lin g o f t h i r t y - t h r e e o p e r a to r s i n th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. A co m p ariso n w as made f o r a p e rio d o f s i x m onths b etw een t h e s i x o p e r a to r s in th e t e s t room and th e t h i r t y - t h r e e o p e r a t o r s i n t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. From t h i s r e c o r d i t was d is c o v e r e d t h a t th e 43 o p e r a t o r s in t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t had ab o u t t h r e e and o n e - h a l f tim e s a s many s i c k a b s e n c e s a n d a b o u t t h r e e tim e s a s many f a i l u r e s t o punch t h e tim e c a r d s . I n t a r d i n e s s , h o w ev er, t h e tw o © roups w ere s i m i l a r w ith th e r a t e i n th e t e s t room s l i g h t l y h ig h e r . V I. ATTITUDE OF OPERATORS TO W A RD DIFFERENT ' EXPERIMENTAL FEATURES "When t h e o p e r a to r s w ere q u e s tio n e d a s t o t h e i r f e e l in g s to w ard d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s o f t h e t e s t p e r io d s t h e r e w ere o n ly tw o p e r io d s o f unanim ous d is a p p r o v a l— P e r io d s S ix a n d N in e . T hey d id n o t ap p ro v e o f t h e s i x 5 - a in u te r e s t p e r io d s w h ich b ro k e up t h e i r d a y , a n d th e y w ere n o t in f a v o r o f s h o r te n in g t h e day by one h o u r a s i t s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r e a r n i n g s . When P e r io d T w elve was s t a r t e d an d when t h e o r i g i n a l 4 ^ -h o u r work week w ith no r e s t p a u s e s was r e i n s t a t e d , t h e r e w as a c o n s id e r a b le am ount o f grum bling. H ow ever, t h i s f e e l i n g d is a p p e a re d a s th e p e r io d p r o g re s s e d an d th e o p e r a to r s becam e r e c o n c ile d t o th e o ld c o n d itio n s . T h is r a p i d a d ju s tm e n t t o th e more u n f a v o r a b le w o rk in g c o n d itio n s was e n l ig h te n in g b e c a u se i t showed s ig n s o f a new g ro u p s p i r i t . 44 V I I , ATTITUDE OF OPERATORS TOW A RD G M E ANOTHER A N D THE WORKING GROUP New and im proved a t t i t u d e s o f g ro u p s p i r i t w ere much in e v id e n c e f o llo w in g P e r io d T en , F o r t h e f i r s t tim e , t h e r e was a d e f i n i t e f e e l i n g o f g ro u p a c t i o n . Each o f th e members o f t h e g ro u p began t o have t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c i a l im p l ic a tio n s o f a g ro u p w o rk in g a s a u n i t . They h ad u n a n im o u sly e l e c t e d o p e r a to r num ber 2 a s t h e i r g roup l e a d e r , A c o o p e r a tiv e a t t i t u d e o f m a in ta in in g a common g o a l was much i n e v id e n c e . T h at i s t o s a y , when an o p e ra t o r was i l l o r f e l l b e h in d in p r o d u c tio n , t h e o th e r o p e ra t o r s v o l u n t a r i l y p ic k e d up t h e p ac e t o h e lp h e r o u t . A ls o , t h e i r c o n v e r s a tio n s becam e m ore s o c ia b le an d more o u ts i d e s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s w ere p la n n e d t o g e t h e r . I n w o rk in g t o g e t h e r , t h e g ro u p had d e v e lo p e d common s e n tim e n ts , m ain t a i n e d a common o b je c t o f p u rp o s e , a n d d e v e lo p e d a f e e l i n g o f g ro u p l o y a l t y . V I I I . HYPOTHESES TO EXPLAIN MAJOR CHANGES T h ere w ere many a s p e c t s o f t h e t e s t s w hich w ere p u z z lin g t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s . The g e n e r a l upw ard t r e n d i n o u tp u t in d e p e n d e n t o f an y p a r t i c u l a r change in r e s t p a u s e s o r s h o r t e r w o rk in g h o u rs was a s t o n i s h i n g . A ls o , t h e im proved m e n ta l o u tlo o k th ro u g h o u t th e f i r s t tw o y e a r s o f t h e e x p e rim e n t was p e r p le x in g . I n g e n e r a l , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s th o u g h t t h a t t h e r i s e i n o u tp u t c o u ld be r e l a t e d t o t h e im proved o u tlo o k o f t h e o p e r a to r s to w a rd t h e i r work an d w o rk in g e n v iro n m e n t. B ecau se t h e s e tw o c h a n g e s had gone hand i n hand i t was r e a s o n a b le t o assum e t h a t t h e r e was some c o n n e c tio n . The b ig q u e s tio n w h ich w as n o t a n sw ered w as: How c o u ld t h e im proved o u tp u t, on t h e one h an d , an d im proved m e n ta l a t t i t u d e o r m o ra le , on t h e o th e r h an d , be r e l a t e d ? The f i r s t h y p o th e s is p o in te d t o t h e im proved m a t e r i a l c o n d itio n s a n d m ethods o f work t h a t h ad b een in tr o d u c e d i n p la n n in g t h e t e s t room . The t e s t room had * s l i g h t l y b e t t e r l i g h t i n g and v e n t i l a t i o n th a n t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. The c h u te m echanism a t ta c h e d t o e a c h o p e ra t o r ’ s w ork ben ch f o r r e c o r d in g p r o d u c tio n an d h a n d lin g assem b led r e l a y s was s l i g h t l y e a s i e r th a n t h a t o f t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. A ls o , t h e t e s t room o p e r a t o r s h a n d le d t h e r e p a i r i n g o f t h e r e l a y s d i f f e r e n t l y a n d assem b led fe w e r d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f r e l a y s th a n t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. The f i r s t h y p o th e s is was n e v e r v e ry c o n v in c in g t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . The p r e v io u s i l l u m i n a t i o n e x p e rim e n ts seem ed to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s l i g h t l y more u n i fo rm l i g h t i n t h e t e s t room d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e im p ro v em en t. A lth o u g h t h e t e s t room was e q u ip p e d w ith f a n s , th e y w ere o n ly i n o p e r a tio n a s m a ll p a r t o f t h e y e a r . T h e r e f o r e , i n l i g h t i n g and v e n t i l a t i o n , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s d id n o t b e l i e v e th e y c o u ld f i n d t h e a n s w e r. The m inor a l t e r a t i o n i n t h e m ethod o f a s s e m b lin g t h e r e l a y s seem ed t o b e i n s i g a i f i c a n t • The o n ly f a c t o f t h e f i r s t h y p o th e s is t h a t c o u ld n o t b e e n t i r e l y ig n o re d was t h a t m ost o f th e o p e r a t o r s i n t h e t e s t room assem b led fe w e r ty p e s o f r e l a y s . O p e ra to r num ber 5 had more ty p e s o f r e l a y s t o a sse m b le th a n t h e o th e r o p e r a to r s an d h e r o u tp u t r a t e h ad shown t h e l e a s t im p ro v em en t. The se c o n d h y p o th e s is was t h a t t h e r e s t p a u s e s and s h o r t e r w o rk in g h o u rs had p ro v id e d a r e l i e f fro m c u m u la tiv e f a t i g u e . T h is th e o r y was s u p p o rte d by th e f a c t t h a t th e t o t a l volum e o f p r o d u c tio n d id n o t d ro p d u r in g P e r io d T w elve, When t h e o r i g i n a l c o n d itio n s o f w ork w ere r e i n s t a t e d , an d s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e p h y s ic a l h e a l t h o f t h e o p e r a to r s had im proved s u f f i c i e n t l y t o s ta n d t h e s t r a i n o f f u l l w o rk in g h o u rs w ith o u t r e s t p e r i o d s . I f P e r io d Tw elve had c o n tin u e d lo n g en o u g h , i t w as a rg u e d , p r o d u c tio n m ight hav e d e c r e a s e d . I n f a c t , t h e r e was c o n s id e r a b le e v id e n c e t o s u p p o rt t h i s a rg u m e n t. The r a t e o f p ro d u c tio n f o r a l l o p e r a t o r s , e x c e p t number 5 , was a t a lo w e r l e v e l d u r in g t h i s p e r io d th a n in t h e p r e v io u s p e r io d . 47 The t h i r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e in tr o d u c t io n o f r e s t p a u s e s an d s h o r t e r w o rk in g h o u rs had b een e f f e c t i v e n o t so much i n r e d u c in g f a t i g u e a s in r e d u c in g t h e m onotony o f th e w ork. The i n v e s t i g a t o r s b e lie v e d t h a t t h e a s s e m b lin g o f r e l a y s was t h e ty p e o f work^ a s W yatt an d F r a s e r i n d i c a t e d , t h a t ^ r e q u ir e d a t t e n t i o n t o p re v e n t m in d -w an d erin g b u t n o t enough f o r th e co m p lete a b s o r p tio n o f m e n tal a c t i v i t y . T h e r e f o r e , a s se m b lin g r e l a y s can b e c o n s id e re d a s a jo b w hich i s con d u c iv e t o boredom . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s f e l t t h a t th ro u g h t h e in tr o d u c t io n o f r e s t p a u s e s d u r in g t h e w o rk in g day and o f a llo w in g t h e w o rk e rs t o w ork i n a com pact s o c i a l g ro u p , r a t h e r th a n a s i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e m onotony o f t h e i r work had b een d i s s i p a t e d w hich c r e a te d t h e s te a d y im p ro v e m en t. The f o u r t h h y p o th e s is was co n c ern ed w ith t h e i n c re a s e d wage i n c e n ti v e t h a t had fo llo w e d fro m th e a l t e r a t i o n in m ethod o f paym ent i n P e rio d T h re e . A c c o rd in g t o t h i s h y p o th e s is , t h e o p e r a to r s w ere p r im a r il y m o tiv a te d by econom ic c o n s id e r a ti o n s an d came t o t h e company n o t t o be members o f a s o c i a l g ro u p b u t t o e a rn a s much money a s ^ S . W yatt and I . A. F r a s e r , The E f f e c t s o f M onotony in Work (London: G re a t B r i t i a n I n d u s t r i a l F a tig u e R e s e a rc h B o a rd , R e p o rt No. 56, 1 9 2 9 ), p . 4 2 . a s p o s s i b l e . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s f e l t t h a t t h e t e s t room gave th e o p e r a to r s th e o p p o r tu n ity o f e a rn in g w ages more d i r e c t l y i n p r o p o r tio n t o t h e e f f o r t ex p en d ed . A lth o u g h th e y had been on a g ro u p p ie c ew o rk b a s i s in t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t, th e wage in c e n ti v e had b een v e r y n o m in al due t o th e l a r g e s i z e o f t h e g ro u p . The t e s t room b e in g s m a ll, t h e wage in c e n ti v e had become more im p o r ta n t; h e n c e , p ro d u c tio n r o s e . The f i f t h h y p o th e s is was t h a t b e t t e r m ethods o f s u p e r v is io n and s o c i a l ch an g es w h ich acco m p an ied t h e change i n s u p e r v is io n w ere th e c h i e f f a c t o r s i n in c r e a s e d o u tp u t and th e s o c i a l f a c t o r s w ere th e m ain c irc u m s ta n c e s l i m i t i n g o u t p u t . IX . TESTING THE FATIGUE A N D M ONOTONY HYPOTHESES The f i r s t h y p o th e s is w h ich t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w ish e d t o exam ine was t h e im proved m a t e r i a l c o n d itio n s and m ethods o f work t h a t had b een in tr o d u c e d in th e t e s t room . P rev io u s t e s t s on i l l u m i n a t i o n , h a n d lin g , and v e n t i l a t i o n in t h e t e s t room had p ro v ed in c o n c lu s iv e . However, t h e f a c t t h a t m ost o f th e o p e r a t o r s in th e t e s t room assem b led fe w e r ty p e s o f r e l a y s c o u ld n o t b e e n t i r e l y ig n o r e d . O p e ra to r num ber 5 f s p erfo rm a n ce o f f e r e d a c o n v in c in g ex am p le. She had more ty p e s o f r e l a y s t o asse m b le th a n th e o th e r 49 o p e r a t o r s , and h e r o u tp u t r a t e had shown t h e l e a s t im p ro v e m en t. To t e s t t h e f a t i g u e and m onotony t h e o r y , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s made a s e r i e s o f f a t i g u e and m onotony c u r v e s . T hese c u rv e s w ere u se d t o show t h e a l t e r a t i o n s in t h e sh ap e o f w ork c u rv e s due t o ch a n g es in w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s , a s w e ll a s v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e r a t e o f o u tp u t f o r c o n s e c u tiv e d ay s i n th e w eek. A lso , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s u s e d b lo o d p r e s s u r e r e a d in g s t o f i n d t h e r e l a t i o n t o o u tp u t, f a t i g u e , an d e f f i c i e n c y . The b lo o d p r e s s u r e t e s t was u se d in c o n ju n c t i o n w ith th e v a s c u la r s k in r e a c t i o n t e s t i n r e l a t i o n t o f a t i g u e . On th e b a s i s o f t h e s t u d i e s , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s co n c lu d e d t h a t t h e o p e r a to r s w ere a t a l l tim e s w o rk in g w e ll w ith in t h e i r p h y s ic a l c a p a c i ty . T h e re w as no e v id e n c e fo u n d t o s u p p o rt th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e in c r e a s e d o u tp u t r a t e o f a l l t h e o p e r a t o r s d u r in g t h e f i r s t t h i r t e e n p e r io d s was due t o r e l i e f fro m f a t i g u e . T h is h y p o th e s is , w hich a t f i r s t seem ed m ost p l a u s i b l e , was ab an d o n ed . I n th e c a se o f t h e m onotony h y p o th e s is , no d e f i n i t e c o n c lu s io n c o u ld be draw n. In th e m onotony c u rv e s draw n o n ly i n one c a se c o u ld i t be c la im e d t h a t a m onotony cu rv e e x i s t e d , an d t h a t w as in t h e c a se o f o p e r a to r num ber 1A, who was ex cu sed fro m th e e x p e rim e n t in t h e e a r l y s t a g e s . M onotony i n work i s p r im a r i l y a s t a t e o f m ind and ca n n o t be e v a lu a te d on th e b a s i s o f o u tp u t c u rv e s a l o n e . S in c e o b s e rv e r^ r e c o r d s gave l i t t l e e v id e n c e o f boredom or ap ath y , i t was d e c id e d t h a t m ore e x a c tin g i n q u i r i e s i n t o th e o p e r a t o r s ’ a t t i t u d e s sh o u ld be made in o r d e r t o make t h e e v id e n c e m ore c o n c lu s iv e . M onotony i s s u b je c t t o so many i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t a lm o st an y im provem ent in m e n ta l a t t i t u d e may be s a i d t o be due t o r e l i e f fro m i t . S in c e t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w ere more i n t e r e s t e d , a t t h e tim e , in th e k in d o f ch an g es i n th e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e o p e r a t o r s , and o f t h e r e l a t i o n o f su ch ch an g es t o a l t e r a t i o n s i n th e work s i t u a t i o n , th e d e c is io n a s t o w h e th e r o r n o t m onotony was b e in g e x e r c is e d an d , i f s o , t o w hat d e g re e seem ed l e s s im p o r ta n t. X. TESTING THE EFFECTS OF W A G E INCENTIVE In an a tte m p t t o t e s t t h e e f f e c t s o f wage in c e n tiv e s , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s e s t a b l i s h e d tw o new t e s t g ro u p s . The f i r s t g ro u p w as c a l l e d th e S econd R e la y A ssem bly G roup. T h is g ro u p o f f i v e e x p e rie n c e d o p e r a t o r s was s e l e c t e d by t h e fo rem an o f t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. The change i n wage in c e n ti v e was to b e e x a c tly th e same a s t h a t in tr o d u c e d in th e t e s t room a t t h e b e g in n in g o f P e rio d T h re e . The ex p e rim e n t c o n tin u e d a t t h e in c r e a s e d wage l e v e l f o r a p e r io d 51 o f n in e w eek s. I t th e n becam e n e c e s s a ry t o r e s o r t t o t h e o ld m ethod o f wage paym ent. The e x p e rim e n t in th e Second R e la y G roup l a s t e d f o r a p e r io d o f two y e a r s . A c a r e f u l r e c o r d was k e p t o f th e ch an g es in o u tp u t o f th e o p e r a t o r s . U n f o r tu n a te ly , t h e paym ent sy stem was a l t e r e d s l i g h t l y b e ca u se o f a "b o g ey ” sy stem in tr o d u c e d p r e v io u s ly in th e o r i g i n a l g ro u p . The "b ogey” sy stem p a id e a c h o p e r a to r on h e r p e rfo rm a n c e in te rm s o f an o u tp u t s ta n d a r d . T h is s y s tem su p p lem en ted th e g ro u p paym ent p la n . The seco n d e x p e rim en t was c a l l e d th e M ica S p l i t t i n g T e s t Room. The o b je c ti v e was t o c r e a t e a new t e s t room s i t u a t i o n w h e re in ch an g es in w o rk in g c o n d itio n s s i m i l a r to th o s e im posed in t h e R e lay A ssem bly Room c o u ld be i n t r o duced w ith o u t ch a n g in g th e wage in c e n ti v e m ethod. The d i f f e r e n c e b etw een t h e pay in c e n ti v e sy ste m s in t h e two room s was r e c o g n iz e d when t h e M ica S p l i t t i n g T e s t Room w as o r g a n iz e d . In t h e M ica S p l i t t i n g T e s t Room th e o b je c ti v e in p la n n in g t h i s e x p e rim e n t was t o c r e a t e a new t e s t room s i t u a t i o n w h e re in ch an g es in w orking c o n d itio n s s i m i l a r t o th o s e im posed i n t h e R elay A ssem bly T e s t Room c o u ld be in tr o d u c e d w ith o u t ch an g in g th e wage in c e n ti v e m ethod. The im p o rta n t c o n s id e r a tio n had been t o re d u c e a d e p a rtm e n t o f w o rk e rs t o a g ro u p o f f i v e w ith o u t e f f e c t i n g a change in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a n in c r e a s e d f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e . T h e r e f o r e , a d e p a rtm e n t on i n d iv i d u a l p ie c e w o rk seem ed to o f f e r th e b e s t p o s s i b i l i t y . One im p o rta n t f a c t o r w hich seem ed to be o v e rlo o k e d was t h a t o f m o r a ls . I n th e R elay A ssem bly Room t h e in c e n ti v e was on th e g ro u p , w h erea s in th e M ica S p l i t t i n g T e s t Room th e in c e n ti v e w as i n th e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f a c t o r o f a common g o a l and g ro u p s o l i d a r i t y was m is s in g i n t h e M ica T e s t g ro u p . In view o f a l l th e e v id e n c e , i t w as d i f f i c u l t t o d e te rm in e w hat e f f e c t t h e Second R elay A ssem bly g ro u p and t h e M ica S p l i t t i n g T e s t Room had on th e q u e s tio n o f th e e f f e c t o f ch a n g in g t h e wage i n c e n t i v e . In t h e Second Re la y A ssem bly G roup th e o u tp u t r o s e on t h e a v e ra g e o f 12 p e r c e n t. H ow ever, t h e r e w ere f a c t o r s o th e r th a n wage in c e n ti v e t h a t c o n t r ib u t e d t o t h i s i n c r e a s e . The c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a l l o th e r t h i n g s re m a in th e same h ad f a i l e d t o m a t e r i a l i z e . T h ere was some e v id e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t th e o p e r a t o r s i n th e Second R e lay A ssem bly G roup h ad s e iz e d upon th e t e s t a s an o p p o r tu n ity t o p ro v e t o ev e ry o n e t h a t th e y c o u ld do a s w e ll a s t h e R e la y A ssem bly T e s t G roup. T h e r e f o r e , th e in c r e a s e i n p r o d u c tio n w ould have t o be r a t e d a t l e s s th a n 12 p e r c e n t . The co m p iled d a t a a ls o s u g g e s te d t h a t th e e f f e c t o f th e wage i n c e n t i v e , f o r some i n e x p lic a b le r e a s o n , had w orked i t s e l f o u t r a p i d l y . A f te r a p o in t o f e q u ilib r iu m w as re a c h e d th e o p p o r tu n ity f o r 53 in c r e a s e d e a r n in g s c e a s e d t o f u n c t i o n a s an in c e n tiv e ® The M iea S p l i t t i n g T e s t Roois, w h ich was su p p o sed t o d u p lic a t e th e R e la y A ssem bly T e s t Room e x c e p t f o r th e change i n wage i n c e n t i v e , a l s o f e l l f a r s h o r t o f t h e r e q u ir e d e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d i tio n s . The d i f f e r e n c e s w ere due t o th e f a c t t h a t th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s d id n o t r e a l i z e t h e i r im p o rta n c e a t th e tim e . The b ig g e s t f a c t o r s seem ed t o be t h a t th e m ic a s p l i t t e r s w ere on an i n d i v i d u a l p ie cew o rk p la n r a t h e r th a n on a g ro u p p ie c e w o rk b a s i s . T h e r e f o re , th e y d id n o t have a v i t a l i n t e r e s t i n one a n o t h e r ’ s o u tp u t aro u n d w hich to o rg a n iz e a s a s o c i a l g ro u p . I t w ould seem , th e n , t h a t u n d e r s t r a i g h t p ie c ew o rk th e o p e r a t o r s w ould te n d to w ork c l o s e r t o t h e i r maximum c a p a c ity th a n th e y w ould u n d e r g ro u p p ie c e w o rk . And, t o o , th e m ica s p l i t t e r s p ro b a b ly d id n o t h av e t h e same r e s e r v e s o f s k i l l and e n e rg y t o c a l l upon a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e t e s t a s t h e r e l a y a s s e m b le rs h a d . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e in c r e a s e in o u tp u t w hich o c c u rre d i n th e m ica g ro u p was p ro b a b ly l e s s th a n i t w ould h ave b een had t h e o p e r a t o r s b een on a g ro u p p ie ce w o rk p la n . From th e d a t a i t w ould seem t h a t t h e c o n d i tio n s in th e M iea S p l i t t i n g T e s t Room w ere n o t so co n d u c iv e to an i n c r e a s e i n o u tp u t a s th e y w ere i n t h e R e la y A ssem bly T e s t Room. But t h e o u tp u t had r i s e n an a v e ra g e o f 15 p e r c e n t i n f o u r te e n m o n th s. I f t h i s i s ta k e n a s t h e minimum due t o ch a n g es in w o rk in g c o n d itio n s and s u p e r v is io n (n o t i n c lu d in g wage in c e n t i v e ) i s s u b s t r a c te d from t h e am ount o f in c r e a s e in th e R elay A ssem bly T e s t Room, i t sh o u ld le a v e t h e am ount a t t r i b u t e d t o th e change i n wage i n c e n t i v e . O ut p u t i n th e R e la y A ssem bly T e s t Room r o s e an a v e ra g e o f 30 p e r c e n t, t h e r e f o r e , i t m ig h t be s a id t h a t t h e wage in c e n t i v e c o u ld have a t t r i b u t e d t o 1$ p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l i n c r e a s e . T h is d e d u c tio n depended on so many a s su m p tio n s w hich m ig h t o r m ig h t n o t be t r u e t h a t i t f a i l e d in any s e n se to be c o n c lu s iv e « X I. SUPERVISION IN THE RELAY ASSEMBLY TEST RO O M The g e n e r a l im provem ent i n o u tp u t o f th e R e lay Assem b ly T e s t Room o p e r a t o r s , to some o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s , was th o u g h t to be b ro u g h t a b o u t by im proved s o c i a l c o n d itio n s o f w o rk . As i n many ty p e s o f e x p e rim e n ts , ch a n g es a r e made and t h e r e i s a g r e a t num ber o f u n e x p e c te d ch a n g es p ro d u c e d . I n s e t t i n g th e c o n d itio n s o f th e R elay A ssem bly T e s t Room, num erous ch an g es w ere in tr o d u c e d w hich a t f i r s t w ere ta k e n f o r g r a n te d o r w ere p a s s e d u n n o tic e d . The m ost im p o rta n t o f th e s e i n a d v e r t e n t l y in tr o d u c e d ch a n g es w as t h e new M ethod o f s u p e r v is io n . At th e b e g in n in g o f th e e x p e rim e n t t h e o ld fo rem an o f th e r e g u l a r r e l a y d e p a rtm e n t s t i l l p e rfo rm e d many o f t h e s u p e r v is o r y f u n c tio n s o f t h e new g ro u p . The fo rem an ev en re p rim a n d e d th e o p e r a t o r s f o r low o u tp u t o r p o o r a t t i t u d e s . H is a t t i t u d e , w h ile e x p r e s s in g a s in c e r e d e s i r e t o o b ta in more o u tp u t and d i s c i p l i n e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , d i s tu r b e d w hat th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s re g a r d e d a s one o f th e m ost im p o rta n t f a c t o r s o f th e c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n t; t h a t i s , t h e a t t i t u d e s on th e p a r t o f t h e o p e r a t o r s w hich sh o u ld n o t be s u b je c t t o t h i s k in d o f e x t e r n a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . As t h e e x p e rim e n t p r o g re s s e d and became m ore o f a th in g i n i t s e l f , s u p e r v is io n was g r a d u a lly ta k e n o v e r by th e e x p e rim e n te rs th e m s e lv e s . The s h i f t o f c o n t r o l t o t h e e x p e rim e n te rs was o f a c o m p le te ly d i f f e r e n t o r d e r . The r e s u l t was a r a d i c a l a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . The t e s t room o p e ra t o r s had an e n t i r e l y new s u p e r v is o r y p e r s o n n e l im p ly in g more o f an o f f i c e th a n o f a shop c h a r a c t e r . I n a d d i t i o n , th e y becam e th e f o c u s o f c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n from to p m anagem ent• P o r a t r u l y c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n t, i t was n e c e s s a r y t o have w i l l i n g and c o o p e r a tiv e s u b je c ts who w ould re s p o n d t o th e d i f f e r e n t e x p e r im e n ta lly im posed co n d i t i o n s , u n in f lu e n c e d by s o - c a l l e d p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s . Toward t h i s e n d , th e e x p e rim e n te rs d i r e c t e d t h e i r e f f o r t s w ith t h e r e s u l t t h a t a lm o st a l l o f t h e r e g u l a r shop p r a c t i c e s w ere a l t e r e d . The o p e r a t o r s w ere a d v is e d o f and c o n s u lte d ab o u t c h a n g es t o be m ade. S e v e r a l o f t h e p la n s s u g g e s te d by th e e x p e rim e n te rs w ere n o t t r i e d on t h e **say s o w o f th e o p e r a t o r s . The o p e r a t o r s w ere q u e s tio n e d sympa t h e t i c a l l y a b o u t t h e i r r e a c t i o n s to th e d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s o f w o rk . They w ere a llo w e d to t a l k w h ile th e y w o rk ed , and th e w b o g ey w sy stem was e l im in a te d . T h e ir p h y s ic a l h e a l th was ch eck ed and ta k e n i n t o c o n s id e r a ti o n . The o p e r a to rs * f e a r s , qualm s and a n x i e t i e s w ere m a tte r s o f c o n e e rn t o b o th t h e e x p e rim e n te rs an d m anagem ent. I n s h o r t , th e o b s e rv e r h ad a r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e o p e r a t o r s t h a t a b u sy s u p e r v i s o r i n a r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t w ould n o t have t h e tim e to d e v e lo p . T h ro u g h o u t th e e x p e rim e n t ch a n g es w ere made by th e e x p e rim e n te rs t h a t made th e e x p e rim e n t. T h e ir a c tio n s h ad b een alm o st to o s y m p a th e tic w ith th e f e e l i n g s and s e n tim e n ts o f th e o p e r a t o r s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e x p e rim e n t w hich had been p la n n e d o r i g i n a l l y w as q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from th e one t h a t was a c t u a l l y p e rfo rm e d . The e x p e rim e n te rs had n o t s tu d ie d th e r e l a t i o n b etw een o u tp u t and f a t i g u e , m onotony, e t c . , b u t had p e rfo rm e d a p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l e x p e rim e n t. I n t h e p r o c e s s o f s e t t i n g th e c o n d itio n s o f th e t e s t , th e y h ad a l t e r e d c o m p le te ly th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f th e o p e r a t o r s and t h e i r cu sto m ary a t t i t u d e s and i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . The c h i e f r e s u l t o f th e f i r s t tw o y e a r s o f e x p e r i m e n ta tio n i n t h e R e lay A ssem bly T e s t Room had b een t o 57 d e m o n s tra te th e im p o rta n c e o f em ployee a t t i t u d e and p r e o c c u p a tio n s . A ll a tte m p ts t o e l im in a te su ch c o n s id e r a ti o n s h ad b ee n u n s u c c e s s f u l . M anagement now b eg an t o q u e s tio n h e r e t o f o r e a s s u m p tio n s and saw t h a t many o f them w ere o v e r s i m p l i f i e d . They b eg an t o se e t h a t such f a c t o r s a s h o u rs o f w ork and wage i n c e n t i v e s w ere n o t th in g s i n th e m s e lv e s , h a v in g an in d e p e n d e n t e f f e c t upon em ployee e f f i c i e n c y . * I n s t e a d , th e s e f a c t o r s w ere no m ore th a n p a r t s o f a t o t a l s i t u a t i o n and t h e i r e f f e c t s c o u ld n o t be p r e d i c t e d a p a r t from t h e t o t a l s i t u a t i o n . The one t h i n g t h a t im p re s se d m anagem ent m ost was th e trem e n d o u s s t o r e o f e n e rg y and p r o d u c tiv e c o o p e r a tio n w hich c o u ld b e o b ta in e d from th e w o rk in g f o r c e u n d e r th e r i g h t c o n d i tio n s . And managem ent th o u g h t t h a t th e a t t i tu d e s o f th e em ployees s to o d o u t a s th e p re d o m in a n t f a c t o r . E v ery a tte m p t o f m anagem ent to c o r r e l a t e c h an g es in o p e r a to rs * o u tp u t, a p a r t from t h e o p e r a to rs * a t t i t u d e , had b een in c o n c lu s i v e . The m anagem ent d e c id e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o o b ta in more r e s e a r c h on em ployee a t t i t u d e s an d th e f a c t o r s to w h ich th e y c o u ld be r e l a t e d . T h u s, t h e s tu d y o f th e d evelopm ent o f t h e in te r v ie w in g program was b eg u n . CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERVIEWING PROGRAM The in te r v ie w in g program b eg an e s s e n t i a l l y a s a p la n f o r im p ro v in g s u p e rv is io n * T h is n eed was d e m o n s tra te d by t h e t e s t room s t u d i e s , w hich showed t h a t t h e r e w as a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een em ployee m o ra le and s u p e r v is io n . S u p e rv is o ry t r a i n i n g w as n o t new in th e com pany. F o r y e a r s th e company h a s had a program o f t r a i n i n g th e s u p e r v is o r s w ith r e g a r d to company r o u t i n e s and p o l i c i e s . H ow ever, t h i s program d id n o t t r a i n t h e s u p e r v is o r s in th e a r t s o f u n d e r s ta n d in g and h a n d lin g t h e p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l p ro b lem s o f th o s e w o rk e rs u n d e r t h e i r g u id a n c e . The i n t e r v ie w in g program was d e v e lo p e d on tw o d i f f e r e n t l i n e s . The t e s t room e x p e rim e n t s u g g e s te d a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een s u p e r v is io n and m o ra le , and i n d i c a t e d t h a t some o f th e s u p e rv is o ry m ethods i n th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t w ere u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . The s u p e r v is o r y t r a i n i n g g ro u p had l i t t l e o r no d a t a upon w hich t o d e v e lo p t h e i r c o u r s e . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p re d ic a m e n t, th e id e a o f o b ta in in g f a c t s th ro u g h i n t e r v ie w s w ith em p lo y ees w as e v o lv e d . The r e s u l t s o f t h e in te r v ie w s w ere t o be a p p lie d in tw o w ay s. F i r s t , th e y w ere t o be p a s s e d on t o th o s e o rg a n i z a t i o n s i n th e company r e s p o n s i b le f o r p la n t c o n d i tio n s . 59 T hese o r g a n iz a tio n s w ere t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c o n d itio n s co m p lain ed ab o u t and ta k e t h e n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n s . S eco n d , t h e in te r v ie w s w ere to be g iv e n t o th e s u p e r v is o r y t r a i n i n g g ro u p f o r u se i n t h e i r c o n fe re n c e d is c u s s i o n s . The p r a c t i c a l fo rm a tio n o f th e p la n to o k tim e and c o n s id e r a b le th o u g h t. The f i r s t s te p w as t o o b ta in th e c o o p e r a tio n o f t h e s u p e r v is o r s who had t o be s e l e c t e d ; ex p l i c i t i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e in te r v i e w e r s h ad t o be p re p a re d ; and a c o n s i s t e n t a p p ro a c h to w a rd in te r v ie w in g th e em ployees h ad t o be d e v e lo p e d . The f i r s t in te r v ie w in g w as p e rfo rm e d in t h e I n s p e c t i o n B ranch w hich b eg an in S ep te m b er, 192& and w as com p l e t e d i n F e b ru a ry , 1 929. The in te r v i e w e r s w ere s e l e c t e d , m ethod o f c o n ta c t w as a p p ro v e d , and em p lo y ees w ere i n t e r v iew ed and f a c t s r e c o r d e d . T h ere was no d o u b t t h a t many o f t h e em p lo y ees e n jo y e d th e o p p o r tu n ity o f e x p r e s s in g th e m s e lv e s . Many f e l t q u ite r e l i e v e d when th e y w ere g iv e n t h i s o p p o r tu n ity . O th e rs w ere h e s i t a n t ab o u t e x p r e s s in g th e m s e lv e s , and s t i l l o t h e r s d id i t w ith a k in d o f s a t i s f a c t i o n by im a g in in g w hat w ould happen t o c e r t a i n s u p e r v is o r s i f th e company a c te d upon t h e i r c o m p la in ts . E q u a lly i n t e r e s t i n g w ere t h e Com m e n ts o f many o f th e em p lo y ees who f e l t t h a t th e s u p e r v i s i o n had im proved b e c a u se o f th e in te r v i e w s . Even th o u g h 60 th e company d id n o t a c t upon th e c o m p la in ts a b o u t any p a r t i c u l a r s u p e r v is o r , a change o f s u p e r v is io n som etim es r e s u l t e d w ith th e s u p e r v is o r r e a l i z i n g th e h i s m ethods w ere b e in g made th e s u b je c t o t r e s e a r c h . A ls o , many o f th e ch an g es o c c u r r in g w ere th e r e s u l t o f c h a n g es in t h e o p e r a t o r s a t t i t u d e s r a t h e r th a n t h a t o f th e s u p e r v is o r . Many o f t h e s u p e r v is o r s r e a c t e d f a v o r a b ly t o th e p ro g ra m . W hile t h e r e w ere some u n f a v o r a b le comments from some o f th e s u p e r v i s o r s , t h e c o n s e n su s o f o p in io n w as t h a t th e p la n had i n no way e m b a rra sse d th em . The m a t e r i a l o b ta in e d th ro u g h th e in te r v ie w s was d is c u s s e d i n s u p e rv is o ry c o n f e r e n c e s . B ecau se o f s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , i t was d e c id e d t o c o n tin u e th e p la n . I t w as a l s o a g re e d t h a t th e in te r v ie w in g program sh o u ld be e x te n d e d to t h e o th e r p r g a n i- z a tio n s o f t h e p l a n t . When an em ploye was in te r v ie w e d i t was fo u n d t h a t m e re ly a s k in g th e em ployee to s t a t e h i s l i k e s o r d i s l i k e s w ith r e g a r d to h i s w o rk in g c o n d itio n s was f r e q u e n tly m is u n d e rs to o d ; th e em ployee m ig h t b e g in t o t a l k a b o u t h i s jo b o r so m e th in f e l s e . F o r t h i s re a s o n th e in te r v i e w e r was i n s t r u c t e d to a sk s p e c i f i c q u e s tio n s ab o u t th e p la n t and w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s . Even th o u g h i t h ad b een t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f th e in te r v i e w e r s t o m e re ly i n v i t e th e em ployee t o e x p r e s s h i s o p in io n s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , th e i n te r v i e w e r w as m e n ta lly V e q u ip p e d w ith a s e t o f q u e s tio n s w hich he e x p e c te d e v e ry one in te r v ie w e d t o a n s w e r. By t h i s m eth o d , i t becam e c l e a r t h a t th e in te r v i e w e r w as r e c o r d in g th o s e comments o f th e em ployee w hich h e , r a t h e r th a n th e em p lo y ee, th o u g h t im p o r t a n t . I n d u ly , 1 929, i t w as d e c id e d t o t r y th e i n d i r e c t a p p ro a c h . U nder t h i s p la n t h e em ployee was a llo w e d t o ch o o se h i s own t o p i c . The i n te r v i e w e r was n o t t o change th e t o p i c b u t w as t o l i s t e n a t t e n t i v e l y t o a n y th in g th e em ployee had t o sa y a b o u t any t o p i c and t o ta k e p a r t i n th e c o n v e r s a tio n o n ly i n s o f a r a s i t w as n e c e s s a r y to keep th e em ployee t a l k i n g . The in te r v ie w in g program w as e x te n d e d to th e r e s t o f th e d e p a rtm e n ts and by M arch, 1 9 3 0 , s u f f i c i e n t m a t e r i a l had b een g a th e r e d t o s t a r t s u p e r v is o r y c o n fe re n c e s i n a l l b ra n c h e s o f t h e H aw thorne W orks. The program in c lu d e d 2,4& 7 s u p e r v i s o r s , and in t h e t h r e e y e a r p e r io d , 2 1 , 1 2 6 in te r v ie w s w ere m ade. I n 1 931, b e c a u se o f t h e g e n e r a l d e c lin e i n b u s in e s s , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o l a y o f f a c o n s id e r a b le num ber o f em p lo y ees i n th e p l a n t . I t was d e c id e d to su sp en d th e in te r v ie w in g program u n t i l th e b u s in e s s o u tlo o k was m ore f a v o r a b l e . The in te r v ie w in g e x p e rim e n ts w ere o f i n t e r e s t f o r two m ain r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e in te r v ie w in g r e f l e t t e d c e r t a i n d o u b ts a s t o th e ad eq u acy o f th e in te r v ie w in g 62 program w hich w as b e in g c o n d u c te d . And, se c o n d , t h e i n t e r v ie w in g e x p e rim e n ts w ere o f i n t e r e s t b e c a u se th e y le d d i r e c t l y t o th e s tu d y o f t h e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f em p lo y e e s . I . THE INTERVIEWING M ETHOD D u rin g th e in te r v ie w in g p ro g ram , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s becam e more and m ore i n t e r e s t e d i n th e in te r v ie w a s a m ethod o f i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h . At f i r s t , th e in te r v ie w in g m ethod w as c o n s id e re d a sim p le c o n v e n ie n t m ethod t o o b ta in m a t e r i a l on th e e m p lo y e e ’ s f e e l i n g s . H ow ever, a s th e i n q u ir y p r o g r e s s e d , i t soon becam e a p p a re n t t h a t t o o b ta in t h e in ti m a t e th in k i n g o f th e w o rk e r w as no sim p le m a tte r . The t a s k o f in te r v ie w in g w as m ore te d io u s and a rd u o u s an d r e q u i r e d more s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g th a n th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s had r e a l i z e d . O nly a f t e r 2 0 ,0 0 0 em ployee in te r v ie w s h ad b een ta k e n was a p e r s o n n e l c a p a b le o f d o in g su ch a jo b t r a i n e d . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s becam e more c e r t a i n t h a t t h e c h i e f v a lu e o f in te r v ie w in g as a m ethod o f i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h la y i n t h e f a c t t h a t su ch a m eth o d , when e x e r c is e d w ith c a re and s k i l l , c o u ld o b ta in w ith some a c c u ra c y t h e emo t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o th e w o rk e r o f p a r t i c u l a r e v e n ts in h i s w ork e x p e r ie n c e . F o r, a s t h e in te r v i e w e r s became more s k i l l e d , th e y w ere a b le t o t a p t h i s s o u rc e o f m a t e r i a l more 63 o f t e n . They w orked to w a rd t h i s end in t h e i r a t t e n t i o n s . The r e s u l t w as t h a t ev en th o u g h t h e m ethod was s t i l l c a l l e d th e i n t e r v i e w i n g m e th o d ,tt i t d i f f e r e d i n many r e s p e c t s from in te r v ie w in g a s i t was o r i g i n a l l y p la n n e d . As th e in te r v i e w e r s becam e m ore aw are o f t h e k in d o f m a t e r i a l th e y w ere t r y i n g t o g e t from th e w o rk e r, th e y fo u n d t h a t , f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , th e q u e s tio n n a i r e m eth o d , o r d i r e c t ty p e o f in te r v i e w in g , w as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . The d i r e c t ty p e o f in te r v ie w in g te n d e d t o o b ta in from th e w o rk er o p in io n s on t o p i c s w hich th e i n t e r v i e w e r , r a t h e r th a n th e em p lo y ee, th o u g h t t o be o f im p o rta n c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e in te r v i e w e r had c e r t a i n id e a s and h y p o th e s e s w h ich he a tta c h e d m ore im p o rta n c e t o th a n he d id o t h e r s and f r e q u e n tly th e y d i f f e r e d fro m th o s e o f t h e em ployees b e in g in te r v ie w e d . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s fou n d t h a t i f th e in te r v ie w e r s w ere t o c o n d u c t in te r v ie w s s k i l l f u l l y , i t was n e c e s s a r y f o r them t o h av e some sim p le c o n c e p tu a l schem e. T h is con c e p tu a l scheme depended on some id e a o f w hat to o k p la c e when tw o p e o p le w ere t a l k i n g t o g e t h e r , and pbe way i n w h ich an in te r v ie w d i f f e r e d from a n o r d in a r y s o c i a l c o n v e r s a tio n . The r u l e s f o r t h e schem e, a s th e y w ere d e r iv e d f o r t h e in t e r v i e w e r s ,w e r e , b r i e f l y , a s f o llo w s : (1 ) th e in te r v i e w e r s h o u ld t r e a t w hat i s s a i d i n an in te r v i e w a s an ite m in a c o n t e x t; (2 ) th e i n te r v i e w e r s h o u ld l i s t e n n o t o n ly t o w hat a p e rs o n w a n ts to s a y b u t a l s o to w hat he d o es n o t w ant t o sa y o r c a n n o t say w ith o u t h e lp ; (3 ) th e i n t e r v ie w e r sh o u ld t r y t o se e k t o f i n d , th ro u g h th e em ployee*s w o rd s, t h e p e r s o n a l r e f e r e n c e t h a t i s t r y i n g t o be r e v e a le d ; (4 ) th e in t e r v i e w e r s h o u ld keep th e p e r s o n a l r e f e r en ce i n i t s s o c i a l co n tex t; and (5 ) above a l l , th e i n t e r v ie w e r s h o u ld see t o i t t h a t th e s p e a k e r f s s e n tim e n ts do n o t a c t on h i s own. The i n v e s t i g a t o r s fo u n d t h a t s u c c e s s f u l in t e r v i e w e r s m ust be s e r i o u s l y and s i n c e r e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n human s i t u a t i o n s . E q u a lly im p o rta n t t o th e in te r v i e w e r i s t r a i n i n g and e x p e r ie n c e . S e v e r a l y e a r s t r a i n i n g and e x p e rie n c e a r e n eed ed to become p r o f i c i e n t . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s fo u n d t h a t ev en th o u g h an in te r v i e w e r became v e ry p r o f i c i e n t i n i n t e r v ie w in g a c e r t a i n c l a s s o r g ro u p o f p e o p le , th e more e x p e rie n c e he h a s w ith d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l c o n te x t th e m ore p r o f i c i e n t he becom es a s an i n t e r v ie w e r. S u p e rv is o ry O rg a n iz a tio n and th e I n te r v ie w in g . E a r ly i n 1931 th e s u p e r v is o r s o f th e O p e ra tin g B ranch w ere a sk e d i f th e y w an te d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e in te r v ie w in g p ro g ra m . M ost o f them d id . T h e r e f o r e , th e 65 in te r v ie w in g p ro g ram w as e x te n d e d t o t h e s u p e r v is o r s o f t h e O p e ra tin g B ra n c h , w hich beg an on May 1 5 , 1951* A lth o u g h , in g e n e r a l, t h i s in te r v ie w in g was done on th e same b a s i s a s f o r em p lo y ee s, t h e r e w ere some d i f f e r e n c e s . F i r s t , in o r d e r n o t t o have th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m is u s in g th e in f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d , i t w as d e c id e d t o have th e in te r v ie w in g p e rfo rm e d by tw o men o u ts i d e th e W estern E l e e t r i c Company. 0 . S . L o v ek in and F . J . R o e th lis b e r g e r o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e se a rc h D ep artm en t o f th e H arv ard B u s i n e s s S ch o o l k e p t t h e o r i g i n a l d a ta b e c a u se o f t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f d a t a on b o th p e r s o n a l and company m a t t e r s . T h is m ethod p r o t e c t e d th e i d e n t i t y o f t h e s u p e r v is o r s i n t e r v ie w e d . S econd, t h e r e was d i f f e r e n t m ethod o f a r r a n g in g f o r in te r v ie w s w ith th e s u p e r v i s o r s . I n a l e t t e r t o ea ch s u p e r v i s o r , t h e r e was a c a r d e n c lo s e d f o r m aking an a p p o in tm e n t f o r an in te r v ie w f o r th o s e who w ish e d t o be in te r v ie w e d . At a s p e c i f i e d tim e , th e n , t h e s u p e r v is o r w ould come t o th e o f f i c e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e r , who in tr o d u c e d h im s e lf and e x p la in e d th e program to th e s u p e r v is o r . T h ir d , e a c h o f t h e s u p e r v is o r s had h e a rd o f th e in te r v ie w in g te c h n iq u e s f o r a y e a r o r m o re. T h e ir em ployees h ad b een in te r v ie w e d and th e t o p i c s had b ee n d is c u s s e d many tim e s i n s u p e r v i s o r s c o n f e r e n c e s . T h e r e f o r e , th e 66 s u p e r v is o r s w ere a c q u a in te d w ith t h e in te r v ie w in g p ro c e # d u r e s . F o u rth , t h e in te r v ie w in g o f th e s u p e r v is o r s had a d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e . The in te r v ie w in g program h ad b e e n , p r i m a r i l y , a p la n f o r t h e im provem ent o f p la n t c o n d itio n s an d em ployee r e l a t i o n s ; ,, th e in te r v ie w in g o f s u p e r v is o r s w as m ore i n t h e n a tu r e o f a r e s e a r c h program t o f i n d o u t w h e th e r by m eans o f an im proved te c h n iq u e o f in te r v ie w in g t h e in t e r v i e w e r s c o u ld d e te rm in e m ore p r e c i s e l y th e m ean in g s an d th o s e f a c t o r s e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e i r d e te r m in a tio n w h ich th e s u p e r v is o r s a s s ig n e d t o t h e i r w o rk in g e n v ir o n m e n t. T h is made no p r o v is io n f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g c o m p la in ts . S u p e r v is o r s A ttitu d e s to w a rd th e I n te r v ie w s Many o f t h e s u p e r v is o r s w elcom ed t h e in te r v ie w s a s an o p p o r tu n ity t o g e t a lo a d o f f t h e i r m in d s; o t h e r s came i n a s e n s e o f d u ty o n ly , an d s t i l l o th e r s w ere d e f i n i t e l y a n t a g o n i s t i c . H ow ever, a s t h e in te r v ie w s p r o g r e s s e d , o n ly a few rem a in ed a n t a g o n i s t i c a t th e e n d . O v ert b e h a v io r o f t h e s u p e r v is o r s h e lp e d t h e in te r v i e w e r s d e te rm in e an o p in io n o f a m an’ s a t t i t u d e . T h ere w ere o n ly a few , a b o u t 5 o r 10 p e r c e n t , who seem ed to be w o rrie d and w ere g la d t o have an o p p o r tu n ity o f u n b u rd e n in g th e m s e lv e s i n th e in t e r v i e w s . I n t h i s s m a lle r g ro u p , t h e r e w ere a num ber o f a s s i s t a n t fo re m an , some g ro u p c h i e f s , and some s e c t i o n c h i e f s , b u t no r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from h ig h e r r a n k s . T h ere w as a l a r g e r g ro u p who seem ed to welcom e w h o le h e a r te d ly th e ch an ce t o be i n t e r v ie w e d , ev en th o u g h th e y d id n o t h av e any p a r t i c u l a r g r i e v a n c e s . The g e n e r a l o p in io n seem ed t o be t h a t th e w o rk er c o u ld n o t g e t s a t i s f a c t i o n from h i s g ro u p c h i e f o r s e c t i o n c h i e f t h a t t h e l a t t e r c o u ld n o t g e t from h i s fo re m a n . A lso , th e w o rk e r c o u ld n o t go t o t h e p e r s o n n e l d e p a rtm e n t w ith o u t a n ta g o n iz in g th e s u p e r v is o r . T h is comment was made by s u p e r v is o r s from a l l r a n k s , w ith a s l i g h t l y h ig h e r i n c id e n c e among t h e h ig h e r r a n k s . I t i s s a f e t o sa y t h a t m ost o f th e s u p e r v is o r s f e l t t h a t t h e in te r v ie w s w ere a w o rth w h ile p ro g ra m . I t was a ls o i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t m ost o f them f e l t t h a t s in c e a p r o f e s s o r w as i n c h a rg e o f t h e in te r v ie w s th e y w ere g o in g to r e c e iv e l e c t u r e s on "how to be a good s u p e r v i s o r ." A ttit u d e o f S u p e r v is o r s in g e n e r a l On one c o u n t, a l l s u p e r v is o r s a g re e d and e x p re s s e d th e same s e n tim e n ts . They f e l t t h a t th e d ay s o f t h e h a rd b o i l e d , s l a v e - d r i v i n g m ethods o f h a n d lin g s u b o r d in a te s w ere o v e r . T h is th o u g h t im proved w ith r a n d , and t h e s e n tim e n ts 6$ o f t h e g ro u p c h i e f s c o u ld n o t be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from th o s e o f t h e a s s i s t a n t s u p e r in t e n d e n t s . M ost o f t h e s u p e r v is o r s a g re e d t h a t s u b o r d in a te s c o u ld n o t be f o r c e d i n t o c o o p e ra t i o n , Some f e l t t h a t p la n n e d s t r a t e g y was n e e d e d , o t h e r s f a v o re d t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l a p p ro a c h , and a few f e l t t h a t u n d e r s ta n d in g h ad t o be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r f o r c e i n human r e l a t i o n s . I t was a l s o n o te d t h a t an im p o rta n t p o in t em p h asiz ed w as t h a t o f A going o v e r th e head* o f e i t h e r a s u p e r v is o r o r s u b o r d in a te w h ich was deemed a t e c h n i c a l v i o l a t i o n . I t was more common f o r a s u p e r v is o r " to go a ro u n d ” h i s im m ed iate s u b o r d in a te by d e a lin g d i r e c t l y w ith an o p e r a to r tw o o r more ra n k s below him th a n i t was f o r a s u p e r v is o r ”t o go o v e r th e h e a d " o f h i s im m ed iate s u p e r v is o r by d e a lin g d i r e c t l y w ith a man two o r more r a n k s h ig h e r . A ls o , t h e r e was th e p ro b lem o f how o f t e n a s u p e r v i s o r s h o u ld m ix s o c i a l l y , o u ts id e t h e p l a n t , w ith h i s su b o r d i n a t e s . T h is pro b lem was d is c u s s e d . Some s u p e r v is o r s f e l t t h a t th e p r a c t i c e w as l i k e l y t o be m is u n d e rs to o d and t o p ro v o k e c r i t i c i s m s o f p a r t i a l i t y an d f a v o r it i s m from o t h e r s u b o r d in a t e s . But i t was t h e im p re s s io n o f t h e i n t e r v ie w e rs t h a t i t w as n o t uncommon t o f i n d g ro u p c h i e f s , s e c t i o n c h i e f s , and o p e r a t o r s a s s o c i a t i n g o u ts id e o f w ork in g h o u r s . 69 I I . CONCLUSIONS D R A W N FROM INTERVIEWING PROGRAM A f te r a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o m p la in ts o f t h e em ployees and s u p e r v is o r s a l i k e , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s f e l t t h a t th e y had f i n a l l y d e v e lo p e d an a d e q u a te c o n c e p tu a l scheme f o r u n d e r s ta n d in g f a c t o r s d e te rm in in g s a t i s f a c t i o n o r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a t w ork. I n t h e b e g in n in g o f th e in te r v ie w in g p ro g ram , s t a t e m en ts r e f l e c t i n g em ployee s a t i s f a c t i o n and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ere r e f e r r e d t o t h e e m p lo y eef s p h y s ic a l e n v iro n m e n t. The i n v e s t i g a t o r s th o u g h t t h a t by ex am in in g t h e p la n s o r p o l i c i e s upon w h ich th e em p lo y ees e x p re s s e d th e m s e lv e s , e i t h e r f a v o r a b ly o r u n f a v o r a b ly , m anagem ent c o u ld u se t h e s e o p in io n s t o a r r i v e a t a b a s i s f o r m aking any im p ro v em en ts. A c tu a lly an i n v e s t i g a t i o n showed t h a t r e l a t i v e l y few o f th e e m p lo y e e s1 comments c o u ld be u se d i n t h e m anner in w h ich th e y w ere p r e s e n te d . D if f e r e n t em ployees w o rk in g in th e same w ork s i t u a t i o n r e a c te d d i f f e r e n t l y t o th e same s i t u a t i o n . As in a l l c l a s s e s o f p e o p le , some e x p re s s e d s a t i s f a c t i o n , some- d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith s i m i l a r p l a n t w ork in g c o n d i tio n s , w ag es, and p la n t c o n d itio n s a s a w h o le. I n a d d i tio n to th e s e d is a g re e m e n ts , th e p ro b lem o f u s in g th e in te r v ie w m a t e r i a l was made s t i l l more d i f f i c u l t by th e v e ry n a tu r e o f th e com plex an sw e rs th e m s e lv e s . The 70 i n te r v ie w e r s fo u n d t h a t th e comments e x p re s s e d w ere an y t h in g b u t c l e a r and sim p le and w ere a c t u a l l y f u l l o f v a g u e n e ss and e m o tio n s . W hile em o tio n i s v a lu a b le in co n v e y in g f e e l i n g s , i t , by i t s v e ry h a tu r § i s n o t co n d u c iv e t o d e f i n i t e f o rm u la te d p la n s . As th e i n te r v i e w e r s w orked m ore and more w ith th e in te r v ie w in g m a t e r i a l s , th e y r e a l i z e d t h a t th e y w ere w ork in g w ith tw o ty p e s o f s ta te m e n ts — f a c t and n o n f a e t u a l. They a l s o r e a l i z e d t h a t th e tw o had t o be h a n d le d d i f f e r e n t l y . B e fo re th e n o n f a e tu a l s ta te m e n ts c o u ld be u se d th e y had to be i n t e r p r e t e d by h a v in g t h e m a t e r i a l r e l a t e d t o some c o n te x t o t h e r th a n t h e e x p l i c i t y s t a t e d o n e . The i n te r v i e w e r s b eg a n f i r s t t o r e l a t e t h e c o n te x t t o t h e p e r s o n a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e em p lo y ee. T h is le d th e i n t e r v ie w e rs t o r e l a t e em ployee s a t i s f a c t i o n s an d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s to th e p r e v io u s s o c i a l c o n d itio n in g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . H ow ever, th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s fo u n d t h a t th e l i m i t a t i o n t o t h i s a p p ro a c h was t h a t i t le d them f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r away from th e im m ed iate i n d u s t r i a l s i t u a t i o n and t o an o v e r-e m p h a s is o f i r r a t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s . The in te r v i e w e r s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e y had made an im p o rta n t d is c o v e r y ; t h a t i s , th e s t e p from th e p u r e ly p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n te x t to th e s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t. I t becam e c l e a r t h a t many em ployee comments w hich had 71 fo rm e rly b een i n t e r p r e t e d i n te rm s o f th e em p lo y ee* s p e r s o n a l s i t u a t i o n c o u ld be b e t t e r u n d e rs to o d i f th e y w ere i n t e r p r e t e d in t h e l i g h t o f t h e em ployee*s e x i s t i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i th i n th e p l a n t . I n o th e r w o rd s, th e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e g ro u p w ith w hich he w orked and h i s p o s i t i o n in t h a t g ro u p w as o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h is , t h e n , e n a b le d th e in t e r v i e w e r s t o g e t b ack t o t h e shop s i t u a t i o n in th e p l a n t . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s e v o lv e d a f i g u r e f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g c o m p la in ts in v o lv in g s o c i a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f em p lo y e e s . The f i g u r e a tte m p te d t o show i n te r m s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n to one a n o th e r th o s e f a c t o r s w hich have to be ta k e n i n t o c o n s id e r a ti o n i n a tte m p tin g t o u n d e r s ta n d em p lo y e e s a t i s f a c t i o n o r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . The i n te r v i e w e r s f e l t t h a t : . . .A c c o rd in g t o t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o t r e a t , a s in th e m ore a b s t r a c t s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , m a t e r i a l g o o d s, p h y s ic a l e v e n ts , w ag es, and h o u rs o f w ork a s t h i n g s i n th e m s e lv e s , s u b je c t t o t h e i r own la w s . I n s t e a d th e y m ust be i n t e r p r e t a t e d a s c a r r i e r s o f s o c i a l v a lu e . F o r t h e em ployee in i n d u s t r y , t h e w hole w o rk in g e n v iro n m en t m ust be lo o k e d upon a s b e in g p e rm e a te d w ith s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A p art from t h e s o c i a l v a lu e s in h e r e n t i n h i s en v iro n m e n t th e m eaning t o th e em ployee o f c e r t a i n o b j e c t s o r e v e n ts c a n n o t be u n d e r s to o d .' ^ R o e th lis b e r g e r and D ic k s o n , o p . c i t •, p . 3 7 4 . 72 The in te r v i e w e r s fo u n d t h a t t o u n d e rs ta n d an em p lo y e e f s g r ie v a n c e s o r c o m p la in ts i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t h i s p o s i t i o n o r s t a t u s w ith in t h e com pany. T h is p o s i t i o n w as d e te rm in e d by t h e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e com pany, th e n th e sy ste m s o f p r a c t i c e and b e l i e f s by m eans o f w h ich t h e human v a lu e s o f t h e o r g a n iz a tio n w ere e x p r e s s e d , and th e sym bols aro u n d w h ich th e y w ere o rg a n i z e d . T h e r e f o r e , in th e s e te r m s , i t w as p o s s i b le t o u n d e r s ta n d th e e f f e c t upon th e i n d i v i d u a l o f - o r t h e m ean in g s a s s ig n e d by t h e in d i v i d u a l t o - th e e v e n ts , o b j e c t s , and f e a t u r e s o f h i s e n v iro n m e n t, su ch a s w ork h o u r s , w ag es, e t c . A lso , i t w as p o s s i b le to se e w hat e f f e c t ch an g es in w o rk in g e n v iro n m e n t had upon th e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n to w hich t h e em ployee h ad become ac c u sto m e d , o r upon t h e i d e a l ty p e o f s o c i a l e q u ilib r iu m w hich th e em ployee w a n te d . I n h i s r e l a t i v e o p in io n i n th e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n c o u ld be se e n th o s e v a lu e s su c h ch an g es em p h a siz e d . The i n te r v i e w e r s soon fo u n d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e i n d i v i d u a l em ployee was n o t a sim p le one n o r was i t a c lo s e d s y s te m . And n o t a l l t h e v a lu e s o f an i n d i v id u a l c o u ld be a c c o u n te d f o r i n t h e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f a com pany. The u lti m a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e em p lo y ee’ s w ork was n o t d e f in e d so much by h i s r e l a t i o n t o th e company a s by h i s r e l a t i o n t o th e w id e r s o c i a l r e a l i t y . 73 The i n te r v i e w e r s fo u n d t h a t th e te c h n iq u e s th e y had em ployed i n in te r v ie w in g w ere in a d e q u a te t o c a tc h t h e ^iore sp o n ta n e o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e e m p lo y ee’ s s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , i t w as d e c id e d t h a t a m ore i n t e n s i v e s tu d y o f s m a ll g ro u p s w ould have t o be made b e f o r e an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e em ployee and t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n i n w hich th e em p lo y e e f u n c tio n e d e o u ld be o b ta in e d . W ith t h i s o b j e c t i v e in m in d , th e r e s e a r c h e n t e r e d i t s f i n a l p h a s e . CHAPTER V STUDY OF SMALL GROUPS FOR SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF EMPLOYEES The f i n a l p h ase o f th e Hawthorne ex p erim en t c o n s is te d o f a d e t a i l e d s tu d y o f a shop s i t u a t i o n from a s o c i o l o g i c a l p o in t o f view . T h is phase o f t h e s tu d y was u n d e rta k e n b e cause i t was p o s s i b le to stu d y an in fo rm a l s o c i a l o r g a n i z a tio n w ith in th e fo rm a l company fram ew ork. A lso, i t gave th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s an o p p o r tu n ity t o c a r r y o u t th e scheme o f th e r e s u l t s re a c h e d th ro u g h th e o t h e r r e s e a r c h e s . Due t o a s e r i e s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s con d u cted e a r l y i n 1931, th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s found t h a t s o c i a l g ro u p s w ith in th e d ep artm en t w ere a b le t o e x e r c is e s tr o n g c o n t r o l o v e r t h e work b e h a v io r o f t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l members. The d e p re s s io n was b e in g f e l t d u rin g t h i s p e r io d and t h e management f e l t t h a t a change o f p ro c e d u re would be b e n e f i c i a l from a r e s e a r c h p o in t o f view . T h e r e f o r e , th e management approved th e assig n m e n t o f s p e c ia liz e d i n te r v i e w e r s t o s m a ll g ro u p s „ f o r t h e p u rp o se o f in te r v ie w in g each p e rs o n o f s m a lle r g ro u p s a s o f t e n a s n e c e s s a r y . P r i o r t o t h i s , how ever, th e in te r v ie w e r s had b een in te r v ie w in g em ployees o n ly about once a y e a r . By in te r v ie w in g t h e em ployees more o f te n th e 75 i n v e s t i g a t o r s and management f e l t t h a t a b e t t e r p e r s p e c tiv e o f t h e human problem s in v a r io u s d e p a rtm e n ts c o u ld be o b ta in e d * T h is , i n t u r n , would h e lp t o make t h e f in d in g s more m e a n in g fu l a s w e ll a s more u s e fu l* As th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s began t o work to w ard t h i s g o a l , t h e i r a t t e n t i o n was d i r e c t e d to th e problem s o f employee i n t e r r e l a t i o n s and group o r g a n i z a t i o n . One o f th e f i r s t p roblem s e n c o u n te re d was th e r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t. W hile t h i s c o n d itio n i s common in most i n d u s t r i a l work s i t u a t i o n s , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s had n o t been aware o f i t s im p l ic a tio n s r e l a t i v e t o management p r a c t i c e and em ployee s a t i s f a c t i o n . Some o f th e e v id e n c e o b ta in e d s u g g e s te d t h a t th e wage i n c e n tiv e system u n d e r w hich some o f th e g ro u p s w orked had been r e n d e re d i n e f f e c t u a l th ro u g h group p r e s s u r e f o r con t r o l l e d o u tp u t. In fo rm a l p r a c t i c e s by means o f w hich c e r J * t a i n o p e r a t o r s were k e p t i n l i n e were b ro u g h t t o l i g h t . T here was a l s o ev id e n c e o f in fo rm a l le a d e r s h ip on th e p a r t o f v a r io u s o p e r a t o r s who to o k i t upon th e m se lv e s t o p r o t e c t th e members o f t h e i r group from r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o t h e r g ro u p s w ith in th e company who c o u ld i n t e r f e r e w ith t h e i r a f f a i r s . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s q u ic k ly r e a l i z e d th e need o f ob t a i n i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n betw een a c t i o n s and w ords. U n til t h i s tim e , how ever, th e y had o b ta in e d o n ly s ta te m e n ts o f 76 how th e em ployees s a id th e y f e l t and a c te d to w a rd s d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s * New in n o v a tio n s n o t u se d p r e v io u s ly i n o b ta in in g a d i s t i n c t i o n betw een o v e r t and v e r b a l b e h a v io r were in tr o d u c e d . T h is was ac co m p lish ed by su p p le m en tin g th e in te rv ie w in g m ethod w ith d i r e c t o b se rv a tio n * The Bank W irin g O b s e rv a tio n Room s tu d y was p la n n e d w ith two p u rp o se s i n m ind: (1) t o d ev elo p th e new m ethod; and (2) to o b ta in more e x a c t in fo rm a tio n ab o u t s o c i a l g ro u p s w ith in t h e company. T h is p h ase o f th e r e s e a r c h was con d u c te d w ith a group o f f o u r te e n m ale o p e r a t o r s who w ere w o rk in g , a s th e y were accustom ed t o , u n d er shop c o n d i tio n s . The s tu d y l a s t e d from November, 1931 t o May, 1932, when i t was te r m in a te d due to la c k o f work* D uring th e c o u rse o f t h e ex p erim en t no i n t e n t i o n a l changes w ere made. I . PROBLEMS IN STUDYING SMALL GROUPS One o f t h e , f i r s t problem s p r e s e n tin g i t s e l f in t h i s f i e l d was t h e q u e s tio n o f s iz e o f th e d e p a rtm e n t. The i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e la r g e d e p a rtm e n t, s e v e r a l hundred em ployees, w ould be more d i f f i c u l t t o su rv e y due to th e f a c t t h a t more i n v e s t i g a t o r s would be needed a s w e ll a s an u n u su a l amount o f t o l e r a n c e on th e p a r t o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r s and em ployees. A lso , t h e r e was th e rpoblem o f com p l e x i t y w ith th e t e c h n i c a l , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , s u p e r v is o r y , 77 and p e r s o n a l problem s a l l m ixed i n t o one i n t e r a c t i n g g ro u p . A nother problem e n c o u n te re d was t h a t o f changes w ith in th e d e p a rtm e n ts . Due t o th e dynam ics o f th e work g ro u p s , t h e p e rs o n n e l was f r e q u e n t l y in c r e a s e d o r d e c re a se d , t e c h n i c a l changes w ere made, and p e o p le w ere s h i f t e d from one d ep a rtm en t to a n o th e r . The s o c i o l o g i c a l n a tu r e o f w orking g ro u p s was a n o th e r problem e n t e r in g i n t o th e s tu d y o f s m a ll group s i t u a t i o n s . So o f t e n , t h i s problem i s o v e rlo o k e d by i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n i n d u s t r y . A p r o t e c t i v e o r d e f e n s iv e a t t i t u d e o f te n s u r rounds many shop d e p a rtm e n ts . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s soon r e a l iz e d t h a t a s an i n d i v i d u a l unknown t o th e group b ein g s tu d ie d th e y w ere o f t e n re g a rd e d w ith s u s p ic io n . T h is s u s p ic io n had t o be d i s p e l l e d i f t h e em ployees w ere t o behave a s t h e y o r d i n a r i l y d id . I n view o f th e s i z e and c o m p le x ity o f t h e av erag e shop d e p a rtm e n t, th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s d e c id e d t h a t i t would be b e t t e r t o c o n c e n tr a te on one s m a ll group engaged i n one p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f work th a n t o sp re a d t h e i r e f f o r t s o v er a number o f g ro u p s w ith d i s s i m i l a r jo b s . Inasm uch a s d e p a r tm e n ta l r u l e s , p o l i c i e s , and p r a c t i c e s a p p lie d t o e v e ry w o rk e r, i t was b e lie v e d t h a t th e y c o u ld be a s s e s s e d i n r e l a t i o n to one group a s w e ll a s a n o th e r . 78 I t was d e c id e d , by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s , to p la c e th e s e l e c t e d group in a s e p a r a te room, which was done w ith r e lu c ta n c e on th e p a r t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s i t meant a change i n w orking en v iro n m e n t. The re a s o n why t h i s change was n e c e s s a r y was due to th e f a c t t h a t th e o u ts id e shop was n o t c o n v e n ie n tly a rra n g e d f o r an o u t s i d e r t o m ingle r e a d i l y w ith th e w o rk e rs o r t o s i t a t a desk n e a r them . A lso , i t was f e l t t h a t th e group s tu d i e d m ight f e e l uneasy i n th e p re s e n c e o f a c q u a in ta n c e s n o t in c lu d e d in th e s tu d y . They m ight f e e l o b lig a te d t o do o r r e f r a i n from doing c e r t a i n t h i n g s in o r d e r to keep in good s ta n d in g w ith t h e g ro u p . A nother im p o rta n t f e a t u r e o f t h i s l a s t ex p e rim en t was t h a t no r e c o r d s were t o be k e p t w hich m ight te n d t o make t h e w o rk ers o v e r ly c o n s c io u s o f th e f a c t t h a t th e y w ere b e in g s t u d i e d . T h e r e f o r e , th e i n v e s t i g a t i n g work i t s e l f was f u n c t i o n a l l y d iv id e d betw een an o b s e rv e r and an i n t e r v i e w e r . T h is was done i n th e b e l i e f t h a t ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l o b ta in e d by two p e o p le would d i f f e r , an d , f u r th e r m o r e , b o th ty p e s o f m a t e r i a l c o u ld n o t be o b ta in e d e q u a lly w e ll by one p e r s o n . i The o b s e rv e r was s t a t i o n e d w ith th e group i n th e r o l e o f a d i s i n t e r e s t e d s p e c t a t o r . H is f u n c tio n was to keep n e c e s s a r y r e c o r d s o f p erfo rm an ce a s w e ll a s r e c o r d s o f e v e n ts and c o n v e r s a tio n s w hich he c o n s id e re d s i g n i f i c a n t . T h is was a d i f f i c u l t a s s ig n m e n t. I n o r d e r t o b b ta in th e 79 c o n fid e n c e o f t h e g ro u p , t h e o b s e rv e r had t o e s t a b l i s h f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith e v e ry member* At th e same tim e , he had t o keep h i s own p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s , p r e j u d i c e s , and p e r s o n a l i t y from a f f e c t i n g th e s i t u a t i o n u n d e r o b s e rv a t i o n . T h is r e q u ir e d a h ig h d e g re e o f p e r s o n a l i n s i g h t and o b j e c t i v i t y . The i n t e r v i e w e r , a s c o n t r a s te d w ith th e o b s e r v e r , was to rem ain an o u t s i d e r t o th e group a s much a s p o s s i b l e . A lthough he was to be i n d a i l y to u c h w ith th e o b s e r v e r , he was n o t t o e n t e r th e o b s e rv a tio n room e x c e p t when n e c e ss a ry . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s f e l t t h a t i f th e in te r v i e w e r was a s much l i k e an o u t s i d e r a s p o s s i b le th e w o rk ers would f e e l more f r e e to t e l l him ab o u t th e m s e lv e s , and t h e i r work i n th e o b s e rv a tio n room. I n t h i s way, many f a c t s c o u ld be r e v e a le d t h a t o th e rw is e m ight be c o n s id e re d a s common know le d g e t o th e w o rk e r. The f u n c tio n o f th e in te r v i e w e r , a s c o n t r a s te d w ith t h a t of t h e o b s e rv e r who was to d e s c r ib e th e a c t u a l v e r b a l and o v e r t b e h a v io r o f t h e o p e r a t o r s , was to g a in some i n s i g h t in to t h e i r a t t i t u d e s , th o u g h ts , and f e e l i n g s . The in te r v i e w e r was t o l e a r n what he co u ld about each o n e f s p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y , fa m ily s i t u a t i o n , and s o c i a l l i f e o u t s id e th e p l a n t . The in te rv ie w in g te c h n iq u e was th e same a s t h a t employed i n th e f i r s t e x p e rim e n t. The m ethod o f s tu d y d ev e lo p ed was t h a t o f th e w orker i n a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in h i s d ep a rtm en t and, t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , in th e l a r g e r company s t r u c t u r e was s u b je c t t o d i r e c t o b s e r v a tio n . The w o rk e rs ’ p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e w id e r community and t h e i r s u b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , and f e e l i n g s to w ard t h e i r im m ediate s u rro u n d in g s c o u ld n o t, how ever, be o b s e rv e d . T h is m a t e r i a l had t o be o b ta in e d from t h e em ployee h im s e lf th ro u g h t h e in te r v ie w in g t e c h n iq u e . The f u n c tio n s o f th e o b s e r v e r and in te r v i e w e r , t h e r e f o r e , were co m p lim en tary . T h e ir a t t e n t i o n s were fo c u se d upon th e same group b u t th e in f o rm a tio n which each was t o o b ta in d i f f e r e d . I I . CHOOSING THE DEPARTMENT TO BE STUDIED The ty p e o f d ep a rtm en t t o s tu d y , which was a d i f f i c u l t d e c is io n t o make, was d e te rm in e d by t h e ty p e o f work p erfo rm ed i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t. The jo b r e q u ire m e n ts were a s f o llo w s : (1) t h a t a l l o p e r a t o r s be engaged in th e same t a s k ; (2) t h a t th e o u tp u t be e x a c tl y d e te rm in a b le f o r each o p e r a t o r ; (3) t h a t th e u n i t tim e f o r each com pleted u n i t be n o t more th a n one m in u te ; (4) t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r ’ s work pace be d e te rm in e d by h i s own e f f o r t and n o t by conveyors o r m a ch in e s; ($) t h a t t h e r e be a r e a s o n a b le c o n tin u a n c e o f 3 1 em ploym ent; and (6) t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r s be m ale and e x p e r i enced in t h e i r work. Due to th e d e p re s s io n t h e company had t o re d u c e i t s f o r c e m aking i t more d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d th e i d e a l d e p a rtm e n t. The d ep a rtm en t f i n a l l y chosen was engaged in th e asse m b lin g o f s w itc h e s f o r s t e p - b y - s te p c e n t r a l o f f i c e eq u ip m en t. The one o p e r a tio n p erfo rm ed i n th e d e p a rtm e n t, t h a t o f con n e c to r and s e l e c t o r bank w ir in g , was p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e to th e s tu d y . Men from t h i s d ep a rtm en t w ere cho sen f o r th e group t o be s tu d i e d . The t a s k o f s e l e c t o r and c o n n e c to r bank w irin g was d iv id e d among t h r e e g ro u p s o f workmen: w ireraen, so ld e rm en , and i n s p e c t o r s . Each o f th e s e g ro u p s perform ed a s p e c i f i c t a s k and c o l la b o r a te d w ith th e o th e r two g ro u p s i n th e c o m p le tio n o f e a c h u n i t o f eq u ip m e n t. The work r a t e o f a workman i n any o f t h e s e g ro u p s was n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d t o th e r a t e s o f two o t h e r workmen. The o u tp u t o f th e i n s p e c to r was l i m i t e d t o t h e number o f w ire d and s o ld e re d te r m i n a ls co m p leted . The so ld e rm a n ’ s o u tp u t was l i m i t e d to t h a t o f t h e wirem an w ith whom he w orked. The wiremen g e n e r a l l y s e t t h e pace f o r t h e o th e r two g ro u p s, b u t i t was q u i t e p o s s i b le f o r th e l a t t e r t o l i m i t o u tp u t by r e f u s in g t o work a s f a s t a s th e w irem en. O b ta in in g c o o p e ra tio n in th e Bank W iring O b s e rv a tio n 8 2 Room was n o t a s d i f f i c u l t a s i t m ight hafae seem ed. The o b j e c t i v e s o f th e two s t u d i e s (R elay T e st loom and Bank W irin g Group) b ro u g h t o u t th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e ty p e s o f c o o p e ra tio n r e q u ir e d i n th e two e a s e s . I n th e bank w irin g gro u p a l l t h a t was r e q u ir e d was a w i l l i n g n e s s on t h e p a r t o f t h e em ployees t o c a r r y on in t h e i r u s u a l way and t o e x p re s s th e m se lv e s f r e e l y i n th e p re s e n c e o f t h e i n te r v i e w e r and th e o b s e r v e r . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s d id n o t e x p e c t them t o work any h a r d e r o r t o do a n y th in g to w hich th e y w ere unaccustom ed. They were i n t e r e s t e d o n ly i n p erfo rm an ce a s f a r a s i t c o u ld t e l l them a n y th in g re g a r d in g th e d e p a rtm e n ta l s i t u a t i o n . I f t h e o u tp u t had changed m a t e r i a l l y , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s would have f e l t t h a t th e d ep a rtm en t s i t u a t i o n had changed some w h a t. I n th e r e l a y g ro u p , on th e o th e r h an d , i t was d e s ir e d t h a t t h e group resp o n d t o changes in d u c e d , and c e r t a i n inducem ents had b een o f f e r e d t o in s u r e a n a t u r a l , w h o le h e a rte d r e s p o n s e . T h e r e f o r e , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s d e c id e d t o a llo w th e bank w ir in g group no s p e c i a l f a v o r s . The em ployees w ould s t i l l r e p o r t t o t h e i r r e g u l a r s u p e r v i s o r s , be p a id o u t o f th e d e p a rtm e n ta l e a r n i n g s , and be s u b je c t t o th e same r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s a s b e f o r e . The p roblem , th e n , would be o n ly t h a t o f e s t a b l i s h i n g th e r i g h t k in d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s and th e group. 33 At f i r s t , th e group r e a c t e d v e ry d i f f e r e n t l y from th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t, b u t a f t e r a week o r two th e y s e t t l e d down and t h e o b s e rv e r was t r e a t e d a s one o f them . I I I . THE OUTPUT SITUATION IN THE BA N K WIRING OBSERVATION ROOM In t h e Bank W irin g O b se rv a tio n Room, t h e men were w o rk in g u n d er a system o f group p ie c e w o rk , a c c o rd in g t o w hich t h e e n t i r e d ep a rtm en t was c o n s id e re d a u n i t f o r p u rp o se s o f paym ent• For each u n i t o f equipm ent th e de p artm e n t assem b led and sh ip p e d o u t i t was p a id a f ix e d sum. T hus, th e amount e a rn e d each week c o n s t i t u t e d th e fu n d o u t o f w hich a l l wages were p a id . T h e re fo re , th e more u n i t s p ro d u ced , th e more money in th e fund t o be d i s t r i b u t e d . The i n d i v i d u a l 's pay would be d e te rm in e d by h i s e f f i c i e n c y and by h i s d a i l y work r a t e . The s u r p lu s o f t h e gro u p would be d iv id e d on a p e rc e n ta g e b a s i s w hich was th e s u r p lu s d iv id e d by t h e t o t a l day-w ork v a lu e . The o n ly way th e group co u ld in c r e a s e i t s e a rn in g s was by in c r e a s in g t o t a l o u tp u t. P a r t l y b ec au se o f t h i s , a "bogey" was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r each jo b . The bogey was an o u tp u t s ta n d a r d in term s o f w hich an i n d i v i d u a l 's e f f i c i e n c y co u ld be m easu red . I t was s t a r t e d a s a r e c o r d " t o sh o o t a t , " so t h a t th e c l o s e r th e y came to i t th e h ig h e r t h e i r e a rn in g s 34 becam e. Of c o u r s e , t h e r a i s i n g o r lo w e rin g o f th e bogey would in no way a f f e c t e a r n in g s e x c e p t i n s o f a r a s i t m ight in f lu e n c e o u tp u t. R a is in g th e bogey had none o f t h e e f f e s t o f r e d u c in g a p ie c e r a t e o r h o u rly r a t e . T h e r e f o re , i f an i n d i v i d u a l in c r e a s e d h i s o u tp u t m e asu rab ly d u rin g th e week and t h e o th e r s o f th e group d id n o t , th e one i n d i v i d u a l w ould o n ly in c r e a s e h i s e a r n in g s s l i g h t l y . F. J . R o e th lis b e r g e r and W illia m D ickson r e p o r te d i n t h e i r book, Management and t h e W orker, t h a t a f t e r many t e s t s w ere made on q u a l i t y , d e x t e r i t y , and o u tp u t many i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s w ere o b ta in e d . F i r s t o f a l l , i t was found t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i n th e group was r e s t r i c t i n g h i s o u t p u t . T h is m a n ife s te d i t s e l f in two ways: (1) t h e group had a s ta n d a r d o f a d a y ’ s work w hich was c o n s id e r a b ly lo w er th a n th e ’’bogey” and w hich f ix e d an u pper l i m i t t o each p e r s o n ’ s o u tp u t. T h is s ta n d a r d was n o t im posed upon them , b u t a p p a r e n tly had been f o rm u la te d by th e workmen them s e l v e s ; and (2) i n ea ch ca se t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s o u tp u t r a t e rem ain ed f a i r l y c o n s ta n t from week to week. T hus, th e d e p a rtm e n ta l c u rv e s were d ev o id o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y and w ere a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e i n sh a p e. A nother i n t e r e s t i n g c o n c lu s io n was t h a t th e d e p a r t m e n ta l r e c o r d s were i n a c c u r a t e . T h is was cau sed by two f a c t o r s : (1) t h e r e were d i f f e r e n c e s betw een a c t u a l o u tp u t 85 ; and r e p o r te d o u tp u t, and (2) t h e r e w ere d if f e r e n c e s betw een s ta n d a r d w orking tim e and r e p o r te d w orking tim e . The ob s e r v e r d is c o v e re d t h a t none o f t h e o p e r a t o r s r e p o r te d t h e i r a c t u a l p ro d u c tio n f o r th e d a y ; some days th e y r e p o r te d more and some days th e y r e p o r te d l e s s . I t was a ls o d is c o v e re d t h a t m ost o f t h e wirem en f r e q u e n tly claim ed t h a t sto p p a g e s beyond t h e i r c o n t r o l p re v e n te d them from w orking when in r e a l i t y th e r e was l i t t l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e i r c la im s . An a n a l y s i s o f q u a l i t y r e c o r d s showed t h a t n o t o n ly was th e q u a l i t y o f th e work done by th e w irem entand s o l d e r - men re c o rd e d b u t a l s o th e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s betw een th e w o rk e rs and t h e i n s p e c t o r were r e p o r t e d . The a n a l y s i s showed t h a t an in s p e c to r * s r a t i n g o f a solderm an v a r ie d w ith d i f f e r e n t wiremen even tho u g h th e solderm an was s o l e l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e d e f e c t s . I t was n o te d , a l s o , t h a t i n s p e c to r s d i f f e r e d w id e ly i n t h e i r g ra d in g s o f a s p e c i f i c solderm an*s w ork. A nother c o n c lu s io n re a c h e d by t h e o b s e rv e r was t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n w eekly a v e ra g e s h o u rly o u tp u t r a t e s f o r d i f f e r e n t wirem en d id n o t r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c a p a c ity t o p e rfo rm . A ll o f th e t e s t s i n d e x t e r i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e showed no r e l a t i o n betw een c a p a c ity t o p erfo rm and a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e . To u n d e rs ta n d th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s and p e c u l a r i t i e s | t h e a u th o r s found t h a t i t would be n e c e s s a r y t o have a i ' th o ro u g h u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s | e x i s t i n g betw een s u p e r v is o r s and em ployees and among th e i em ployees th e m s e lv e s . S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n i n th e Bank W iring Group and th e P la n t The v a r io u s members o f th e Bank W irin g O b se rv a tio n Room made up an i n t r i c a t e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n i n te rm s o f which much o f t h e i r conduct was d e te rm in e d . The r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t was th e g ro u p ’ s c h i e f o u t e r m a n if e s ta tio n o f t h e i r in te rh u m an r e l a t i o n s . The i n t e r n a l f u n c tio n o f th e Bank W irin g Group was t o c o n t r o l and r e g u l a t e th e b e h a v io r o f i t s members. Ex t e r n a l l y , how ever, i t f u n c tio n e d a s a p r o t e c t i v e m echanism . T h is group s e rv e d t o p r o t e c t th e group from o u ts id e i n t e r - i i f e r e n c e . T h is was done by p u t t i n g up a s tr o n g r e s i s t a n c e I ! to change, o r th e t h r e a t o f change, n o t o n ly i n work b u t . a ls o i n th e c o n d itio n s o f work and p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . The problem f o r th e o b s e rv e r s was one o f gro u p d ynam ics. What w ere th e e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s w hich gave r i s e to t h e g ro u p ’ s r e s i s t a n c e ? i Average H ourly Output i n th e O b se rv a tio n Room a s compared • to t h e M ain D epartm ent 1 The i n v e s t i g a t o r s f e l t t h a t i f t h e r e w ere an a p p r e c ia b le change i n th e b e h a v io r o f t h e o p e r a to r s i t co u ld be d e te rm in e d i n s e v e r a l w ays, one o f w h ich was t o compare th e av e ra g e h o u rly o u tp u t i n t h e o b s e r v a tio n room w ith t h a t i n th e m ain d e p a rtm e n t. When th e f i g u r e s were com piled i t was fo u n d t h a t th e y w ere d i s t o r t e d , and i n com paring th e s e f i g u r e s w ith th e b ase p e r io d i t was found t h a t th e y were d i s t o r t e d a l s o . However, t a k in g th e d i s t o r t e d f i g u r e s i n t o c o n s id e r a ti o n , th e o b s e rv e rs found t h a t t h e r e w ere s i g n i f i c a n t in c r e a s e s i n two o f th e o p e r a t o r s 1 o u tp u t and p r o nounced d e c re a s e s in th e r a t e s o f o u tp u t o f tw o o f th e o th e r o p e r a t o r s . A lso , th e mean r a t e s o f th e o th e r f i v e o p e r a t o r s rem ained a p p ro x im a te ly th e same, so t h a t w h ate v er d i f f e r e n c e s t h e r e were m ight have o c c u rre d even i f th e group had n o t been s e g re g a te d . The f i n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e o b s e rv e rs was t h a t i n th e c a se o f one o p e r a to r th e e v e n ts a s s o c ia te d w ith h i s rem oval to t h e o b s e r v a tio n room d id have an e f f e c t upon h i s a t t i t u d e , and i n d i r e c t l y upon h i s o u tp u t r a t e . The o u tp u t r a t e s o f th e o t h e r e i g h t wiremen w ere n o t g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d . A t t i t u d e s o f t h e men i n th e o b s e r v a tio n room compared w ith t h e i r a t t i t u d e s w h ile i n th e m ain d e p a rtm en t The o b s e r v e r s found t h a t th e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e o p e r a t o r s a s o b se rv e d th ro u g h in te r v ie w s ta k e n b e fo re and a f t e r th e s tu d y rem aind s u b s t a n t i a l l y th e sam e. Some o f t h e o p e r a t o r s rem arked t h a t th e o b s e r v a tio n room was th e same a s t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. O th e rs e x p re s s e d t h e f e e l i n g th e y w ere more s h u t i n and c o n fin e d in th e o b s e r v a tio n room, how ever, when ta k e n back t o th e r e g u l a r d ep artm en t th e y ask ed t o be t r a n s f e r r e d back t o th e o b s e r v a tio n room* The g r e a t e s t change n o tic e d by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s was i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o workmen in t h e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t. They f e l t t h a t th e y were f u r t h e r removed from them and t h a t th e y w ere a gro u p by th e m s e lv e s . T h is i n t e r n a l s o l i d a r i t y and i n c r e a s e d o p p o s itio n t o th e o u ts id e d ep a rtm en t was m a n ife s te d i n many w ays. I t was a l s o d is c o v e r e d t h a t o v e r t b e h a v io r in t h e o b s e r v a tio n room a s com pared t o t h a t in th e r e g u l a r d ep artm en t d id n o t v a ry to o much. The w orkers in th e o b s e r v a tio n room w ere more b o i s t e r o u s and t a l k a t i v e th a n th o s e i n th e r e g u l a r d e p a rtm e n t, b u t th e d if f e r e n c e i n b e h a v io r was more in th e d eg ree th a n i n th e k in d o f b e h a v io r . As to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e i n te r v i e w e r and th e o b s e rv e r t o th e g ro u p , th e o b s e r v e r was much more c l o s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e o p e r a to r s an d , t h e r e f o r e , was more a p t t o in f lu e n c e t h e i r b e h a v io r . At f i r s t , he was re g a rd e d w ith d i s t r u s t b u t i n tim e he became v e ry f r i e n d l y w ith I a l l th e o p e r a t o r s . The same c o n d itio n s e x i s t e d w ith th e i n t e r v i e w e r . At f i r s t , th e o p e r a t o r s f e l t t h a t b ec au se he was w ith th e group o n ly once i n a w h ile he was an o u t s i d e r w ith in f lu e n c e w ith th e m anagem ent. However, th e w o rk e rs l i k e d t o be in te rv ie w e d and so t h e i r f e a r s were soon d i s s i p a t e d . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s , t h e y co n c lu d ed , were n o t o b s e rv in g a s i t u a t i o n o f t h e i r own m aking. CHAPTER VI SOCIAL ASPECTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS I n o r d e r t o u n d e rs ta n d more f u l l y th e s o c i o l o g i c a l a s p e c ts o f em ployee and em ployer r e l a t i o n s , th e r e a d e r sh o u ld u n d e rs ta n d some o f t h e m o tiv a tin g f a c t o r s i n th e i n d u s t r i a l group s i t u a t i o n . One o f th e f a c t o r s o f th e s o c i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t i s t h e c o n d itio n o f s o c i a l d is ta n c e i n t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f g ro u p s o f w orking p e o p le in an i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n . I . THE SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SOCIAL DISTANCE IN EMPLOYEE RELATIONS S o c ia l d i s t a n c e , i n t h i s c a s e , r e f e r s t o a c o n d itio n in w hich a group o r an i n d i v i d u a l i s e i t h e r rem ote o r c lo s e i n te rm s o f a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s sh a re d w ith o th e r g ro u p s o r i n d i v i d u a l s . Normal3.y, s o c i a l d is t a n c e i n an i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n i s th o u g h t o f a s a r e s u l t o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T hat i s , w o rk e rs te n d to be more rem ote from management th a n from t h e i r l o c a l u n io n l e a d e r s . * The work p la n t s o c i e t y i s u s u a lly a b a la n c e o f power betw een u n io n and management o r g a n i z a t i o n s , on t h e . nnft h a n d T and_a netw ork o f i n fo rm a l i n t e r a c t i n g g ro u p s on 91 th e o th e r hand* How p e o p le f u n c tio n i n t h e i r work p o s i t i o n s and s o c i a l r o l e s i s d e te rm in e d by th e s o c i a l p o s i^ t i o n s in th e g ro u p s i n w hich th e y f u n c tio n . W. F . Whyte e x p re s s e d t h i s p o in t w e ll when he s a id : I n t h i s s o c i a l system o f th e f a c t o r y we f in d a g r e a t d e a l o f i n t e r e s t in knowing j u s t where p e o p le f i t , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e g a r d t o s t a t u s . As a r e s u l t anyone i n an o r g a n iz a tio n can r e a d i l y t e l l where o th e r s f i t i n r e l a t i o n to h im s e lf . And any change t h a t u p s e ts th e s e s t a t u s sym bols i s a p t t o c r e a te s e r io u s pro b lem s i n m o r a le .1 The s t § t u s o f a p e rs o n may be d e f in e d a s th e p o s i t i o n he o c c u p ie s i n an o r g a n iz a tio n o r g ro u p . I t i s con v e n ie n t t o th in k o f p e o p le l i v i n g in s t a t u s s i t u a t i o n s . Som etim es, i t i s e a sy to co n fu se a s t a t u s s i t u a t i o n w ith a power p o s i t i o n . The two sh o u ld be k e p t d i s t i n c t . P o s i t i o n s w ith g r e a t e r power te n d t o have g r e a t e r s t a t u s , how e v e r, two i n d i v i d u a l s h av in g th e same fo rm a l a u t h o r i t y may occupy d i f f e r e n t s t a t u s p o s i t i o n s . T hate i s , th e y have u n eq u a l r e s p e c t o r p r e s t i g e in th e g ro u p s i n w hich th e y p a r t i c i p a t e . Why such d if f e r e n c e in p r e s t i g e e x i s t be tw een two o r more o f f i c e s may n o t be a p p a re n t a t f i r s t . Some o f th e f a c t s , h av in g to do w ith t h e t r a d i t i o n o f th e s i t u a t i o n , p e r s o n a l i t i e s , and c l a s s l e v e l s , t h a t acco u n t % . F. W hyte, I n d u s tr y and S o c ie ty (Mew York: McGrawHill Book .Company, 194©)> p . 1 0 . 92 f o r th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s in p r e s t i g e w i l l be o u tli n e d i n t h i s c h a p te r . I I . THE ECOLOGY OF STATUS Sometimes t h e s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e o f a p la n t r e f l e c t s i t s e l f i n sp a c e . F o r exam ple, i f a p l a n t i s a t a l l o f f i c e b u ild i n g , a w o r k e r 's s t a t u s ro u g h ly c o rre sp o n d s t o th e f l o o r on w hich h i s o f f i c e i s l o c a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , th e h ig h e r th e f l o o r th e h ig h e r h i s r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n . Even a p a rk in g l o t may r e f l e c t th e s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e s . Those p e o p le who have p ro v a te p a rk in g sp a c e s c lo s e t o th e m ain e n tra n c e t o th e work p l a n t have t h e h ig h e s t s t a t u s . The A m erican S o c io lo g ic a l Review r e p o r t s t h a t th e s t a t u s d i s t r i b u t i o n in a p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t was r e f l e c t e d i n th e in f o rm a l s e a t i n g arran g em en t in a company c a f e t e r i a , w hich i s t y p i c a l o f many s t a t u s s i t u a t i o n s in work p l a n t s . The r e p o r t f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t , The o f f i c e p e r s o n n e l c u s to m a r ily s i t s i n t h e u p p e r h a l f o f t h e room and th e m ale s u p e r v is o r s s i t t o g e t h e r in one c o r n e r . Next t o them a re s e a te d th e w h ite fem ale o f f i c e w o rk e rs . The w o rk ers s i t a t t a b l e s in th e lo w er h a l f o f t h e c a f e t e r i a . The s t a t u s o r d e r among them i s a ls o r e f l e c t e d in s p a c e , t h e w h ite m ales coming f i r s t , th e n th e w h ite fe m a le s , fo llo w e d by Negro m ales and f e m a l e s .2 % v e r e t t C. Hughes, ”The K n itti n g o f R a c ia l Groups i n I n d u s t r y , ” A m erican S o c io lo g ic a l R eview . O c to b e r, 1946, L p ._ 5 1 4 .----------- : ------ ,_______ 93 The work flo w i n a p la n t may n o t show such a c l e a r p a t t e r n o f s t a t u s d i s t i n c t i o n , but s t a t u s may be seen n e v e r t h e l e s s . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , im p o rta n t f o r m anagers t o be aw are o f t h e e c o lo g y o f s t a t u s when th e y d e c id e t o change th e o r d e r o f p r o d u c tio n o r i n th e p la c in g o f p e o p le i n th e f a c t o r y o r o f f i c e sy stem . F or w o rk e rs can n o t be moved around w ith o u t d i s t u r b i n g c liq u e m em berships and s t a t u s r e l a t i o n s . I I I . THE SYMBOLS OF STATUS Those who have s t a t u s u s u a lly r e c e iv e o t h e r rew ard s a s w e l l : in c r e a s e d i n f l u e n c e , f i n a n c i a l r e t u r n , c o n s u lta t i o n , a d m ir a tio n , o r th e r i g h t t o w ear a b ad g e . Symbols o f s t a t u s a r i s e f o r a number o f r e a s o n s . One ad v a n ta g e i s t h a t th e y h e lp th e newcomer t o lo c a t e th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who sh o u ld be aw arded r e c o g n i t i o n . Symbols a r e , th e n , a form o f a d v e r t i s i n g and a r e q u e s t f o r d e f e r e n c e . W orkers s t r i v e a s much f o r t h e sym bols o f s t a t u s a s th e y do f o r th e f a c t o r s t h a t u n d e r lie i t . Too o f t e n , m anagers n e g le c t t o g iv e s t a t u s t o lo w er income g ro u p s w hich o f t e n cause d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s . O fte n t h e w o rk ers would r a t h e r have a s t a t u s symbol th a n an in c r e a s e i n p ay . By t h e same to k e n , a s t a t u s symbol o f te n b r in g s th e b e a r e r c o n s id e r a b le i n convenience* As i l l u s t r a t e d e a r l i e r , h av in g t o t r a v e l t o 94 tipper f l o o r s e v e ry day i s a g r e a t in c o n v e n ie n c e , y e t i n v a r i a b l y th e s e w o rk e rs w ould r a t h e r be in c o n v e n ie n c e d th a n have t h e i r o f f i c e r e l o c a t e d on a lo w e r f l o o r . D i f f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n s and work p l a n t s e v o lv e u n iq u e sym bols o f s t a t u s . Some sym bols a r e r a t h e r w id e s p re a d . One o f th e s e i s t h a t o f c l o th in g w hich som etim es i s c a r r i e d t o e x tre m e s . G e n e ra lly p e o p le who w ear good c l o t h e s have a h ig h e r s t a t u s th a n th o s e w e a rin g o c c u p a tio n a l c l o t h e s . T hus, w h i t e - c o l l a r jo b s g e n e r a l l y have more p r e s t i g e th a n w o rk e rs i n o v e r a l l s . Some c o r p o r a tio n s have fo u n d th e s t a t u s s tr u g g l e w ith r e g a r d t o c l o t h i n g so in te n s e t h a t th e y have is s u e d u n ifo rm s t o s e t t l e th e q u e s tio n . The h o u rs o f work sym bolize s t a t u s p o s i t i o n . U su ally th e l a t e r t h e w orker a r r i v e s and th e e a r l i e r he le a v e s h i s jo b , th e h ig h e r h i s s t a t u s . W hether he punches a tim e c lo c k o r n o t i s a l s o a m a tte r o f p r e s t i g e . The o f f i c e r e f l e c t s s t a t u s . The s i z e o f t h e d e s k , th e l o c a t i o n o f th e d e s k , t h e d is p l a y o f a name p l a t e , t h e p r i v a t e o f f i c e , th e s iz e o f t h e o f f i c e , th e number o f s e c r e t a r i e s , th e r e l a t i o n t o th e c h i e f e x e c u tiv e , p ro v a te e n t r a n c e s , p r i v a t e t e l e p h o n es, r e c e p t i o n room, a l l a r e sym bolic o f r e l a t i v e p r e s t i g e . W hite c o l l a r w o rk e rs d ev e lo p a g r e a t amount o f r i t u a l i s t i c s t a t u s b e h a v io r, p ro b a b ly b ec a u se th e work o f th e w h ite c o l l a r w orker i s n o t e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e . 95 R e c e n tly a s tu d y was co n d u c ted w hich co n c ern ed i t s e l f w ith t h e e s tim a tio n and com m unication o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a u th o r i t y , and d e l e g a t io n o f a u t h o r i t y by t h r e e s u p e rv is o ry l e v e l s o f f a c t o r y em ployees i n a u t i l i t i e s company. C. G. Browne found t h a t , The t r e n d o f mean s c o re s i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e su b j e c t s e s tim a te d th e d eg ree o f t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a u t h o r i t y , and d e l e g a t io n o f a u t h o r i t y i n r e l a t i o n to t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t h e company. T hat i s , th e c l o s e r ,th e s u p e rv is o r y l e v e l o f a group was t o th e f o c a l p o in t o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e h ig h e r th e e s tim a te s o f e a c h o f t h e f a c t o r s w a s .3 IV . GENERAL FACTORS UNDERLYING STATUS ORGANIZATIONS Age S t a t u s T r a d i t i o n a l l y , p r e s t i g e h as gone t o t h e o l d e r w o rk e r, b ec au se he h a s had tim e t o a c q u ir e s k i l l s . Age p r e s t i g e s t i l l s u r v iv e s i n A m erican i n d u s t r y . The a v e ra g e age o f th e s k i l l e d w o rk er i s h ig h e r th a n f o r o t h e r l a b o r e r s . How e v e r , t h e p r e s t i g e o f age i s b e in g underm ined by t h e a c c e n t on y o u th . S k i l l i s becom ing l e s s im p o rta n t b e c a u se o f th e u se o f a u to m a tic and se m i-a u to m a tic m a c h in e ry . I t becomes e a s i e r t o t r a n s f e r from one jo b t o a n o th e r , and from one d ep a rtm en t to a n o th e r . As t h i s a u to m a tio n s e t s i n and jo b s 3q. B. Browne and B. J . N e i t z e l , nCom m unication, S u p e r v is io n and M o ra le ,” J o u r n a l o f A pplied P sy c h o lo g y . A p r i l , 1952, p . 8 7 . a r e b ro k en down, young men who can s ta n d th e pace o f t h e m achine a r e sought i n c r e a s i n g l y . They a r e i n demand p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e p re s s e d econom ic c o n d i t i o n s . T h is t r a n s fo rm a tio n and a c c e n t on y o u th h a s p ro d u ced an e m b itte re d and o f t e n m a la d ju s te d p e r s o n a l i t y . The w hole a r e a , th e r e l a t i o n o f age o f w o rk e rs to age e x p e c t a t i o n o f th e o c c u p a tio n , i s an i n t e r e s t i n g problem w hich n ee d s s o c i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . E th n ic Groups and S t a t u s I t i s common knowledge t h a t th e f o r e i g n b o rn and th o s e o f o th e r r a c e s g e n e r a lly have l o w e r - s t a t u s jo b s th a n th e n a t i v e b o rn C a u c a s ia n s . Many jo b s become a s s o c ia te d w ith one r a c e o r a n o t h e r . T h e r e f o r e , when e t h n i c jo b e x p e c ta tio n s a r e th r e a t e n e d , c o n f l i c t may r e s u l t . O rvin C o llin s d e s c r ib e d a s tr o n g e th n ie s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e i n a Hew E ngland f a c t o r y . The management and p e r s o n n e l o f f i c i a l s were Y ankee, th e forem an I r i s h , and th e w o rk e rs o t h e r e t h n ic b a c k g ro u n d s. When a Yankee was a p p o in te d forem an, a w ild c a t s t r i k e was c a l l e d b ec au se management had v i o l a t e d th e e t h n ic p a t t e r s o f p ro m o tio n . Only when management changed th e jo b t i t l e d id i t su c c e e d i n g iv in g th e Yankee a jo b com mensurate w ith th e fo re m an f s job.** ^Q rvin C o l l i n s , “E th n ic B e h a v io r i n I n d u s t r y , ” Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y . J a n u a ry , 1946, p . 293. 97 O c c u p a tio n s and S ta tu s S tr u c tu r e O cc u p a tio n i s th e m ost im p o rta n t f a c t o r w hich u n d e r l i e s th e s t a t u s t s t r u c t u r e o f b o th th e community and e s p e c i a l l y i n d u s t r y . S ta tu s te n d s t o a c c ru e to o c c u p a tio n s alm o st in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p e o p le i n them . O fte n when p eo p le a r e p r e s s e d f o r r e a s o n s why a jo b i s more im p o rta n t th a n a n o th e r , th e y u s u a lly r e p l y t h a t one jo b demands more s k i l l , g r e a t e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , o r lo n g e r t r a i n i n g . These f a c t s som etim es can be b o rn e o u t by jo b e v a lu a t io n s o r by o b s e r v a tio n . However, o f te n no r e a s o n can be found v a l i d f o r c e r t a i n s t a t u s d i s t i n c t i o n . I t can be con clu d ed th e n t h a t o f t e n t r a d i t i o n i s th e m o tiv a tin g f a c t o r i n s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e , o r t h a t one jo b i s more im p o rta n t b ec au se men sa y i t i s • V. BELONGINGNESS AND GROUP SOLIDARITY IN EMPLOYEE RELATIONSHIPS A nother s o c i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f gro u p dynam ics i s th e c o n d itio n o f b e lo n g in g n e s s . T h is i s a c o n d itio n w hich e x i s t s betw een a w o rk er and v a r io u s g ro u p s o f p e o p le w ith i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t i s a c o n d itio n t h a t e n a b le s one to say **1 b e lo n g ” o r ”1 am a m em ber.” I t i s a c o n d itio n t h a t i s f e l t and u n d e rsto o d by th e i n d i v i d u a l w o rk e r, who i s t h e b a s ie u n i t o f a s o c i a l g ro u p . I t i s a ls o a c o n d itio n w hich 9 3 in f lu e n c e s th e a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s o f th e w orker to w ard th e group to w hich he b e lo n g s , an d , to w ard o t h e r g ro u p s , in c lu d in g management and th e firm a s a w h o le .5 A w o rk er o f t e n b e a r s m em bership s ig n s o f t h e group t o w hich he b e lo n g s and t h e s e s ig n s o f t h e g ro u p show t h a t he i s a c c e p te d and ap p ro v ed . The g e n e r a l form o f a o h f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e , a s i n d i c a te d ab o v e , i s fo u n d i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , group s o l i d a r i t y , a n d /o r th e f e e l i n g o f b e lo n g in g n e s s . P eo p le who work t o g e th e r i n th e same d e p a rtm e n t o r p la n t a r e bound t o g e t h e r by a common p u rp o se and common r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . They a re a ls o s u b je c t to t h e same w orking c o n d i tio n s , th e same s u p e r v is io n , and th e same company p o l i c i e s and p ro c e d u re s . F o r th e s e v a r io u s r e a s o n s , w o rk e rs te n d t o i d e n t i f y c l o s e ly w ith e a c h o t h e r , w ith t h e i r l o c a l d e p a rtm e n t, and w ith t h e company i n w hich th e y w ork. To be a c c e p te d by th e group i s i n i t s e l f a s tr o n g m o tiv a tin g f a c t o r f o r m ost w o rk e rs . The i n d i v i d u a l w o rk er w i l l u s u a l l y do h i s u tm o st t o conform to t h e b e h a v io r p a t t e r n o f th e group i n o r d e r t o be r e g a rd e d a s none o f th e b o y s ,” r a t h e r th a n a s an o u t s i d e r . T h e r e f o r e , i t can 5r . M. B ello w e, P sy ch o lo g y o f P e rs o n n e l i n B u s in e ss and I n d u s tr y (Hew Y ork: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1949)» P* 293 • 99 r e a d i l y be seen by th e r e a d e r t h a t t h e group can e x e r t a p o w e rfu l in f lu e n c e upon th e i n d i v i d u a l Ts o u tp u t, a t t i t u d e s , and o t h e r work b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s . It, R, F . M aier s t a t e s t h a t s in c e a work group a c t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s a sm a ll s o c i e t y , a new em ployee f i n d s h im s e lf i n a s i t u a t i o n s i m i l a r to t h a t o f a p e rs o n who moves i n t o a new community. T hat i s , "when t h e r e a r e s t a t u s f a c t o r s o r e l iq u e s i n th e group th e s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te d , and i n work g ro u p s th e s i t u a t i o n i s o f te n c o m p lic a te d ,"6 Many i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n s f a c e a s p e c i a l problem i n th e c a se o f f i e l d w o rk e rs. Such i s th e c a se o f th e salesm en and t r u c k d r i v e r s who a re o u t on t h e i r own f o r a c o n s id e r a b le p a r t o f t h e w orking d a y . T hus, th e s e em ployees a re u n a b le t o have t h e o p p o r tu n ity o f d e v e lo p in g th e c lo s e p e r s o n a l t i e s and a se n se o f b e lo n g in g n e s s so conducive t o s tr o n g group i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Lack o f b e lo n g in g n e s s can cause c o n s id e r a b le tim e k i l l i n g and i n a c t i v i t y among f i e l d w o rk e rs . P r o g r e s s iv e management u s u a l l y t r i e s t o draw th e s e em ployes i n t o t h e group th ro u g h d i f f e r e n t group t e c h n iq u e s . Teamwork and m o rale e n a b le s w o rk e rs t o r i s e t o R. F . M a ie r, P r i n c i p l e o f Human R e la tio n s (Hew York: W iley and S ons, 1 9 5 2 ), p , 369. 100 re m a rk a b le l e v e l s o f achievem ent* M orale h a s b een d e s c r ib e d as a w b y -p ro d u c t o f a group and may be g e n e r a te d by sm a ll segm ents o f t h e group* I t h a s f o u r d e te r m in a te s ; group c o o p e r a tio n , need f o r a g o a l , o b s e rv a b le p r o g r e s s t o ward th e g o a l , and s p e c i f i c t a s k s o f a m e a n in g fu l and p a r t i c i p a t i n g n a tu r e w hich can move t h e group to w ard th e M orale and b e lo n g in g n e s s a r e synonymous, and th e h ig h e s t m o rale i s found i n a w e l l - i n t e r g r a t e d g ro u p w hich has a p e rs o n who i s b o th th e fo rm a l and in fo rm a l le a d e r* E very forem an f a c e s a r e a l c h a lle n g e i n p rom oting such team s p i r i t ©n t h e p a r t o f t h e w o rk ers i n h i s d epartm ent* T here i s h a r d ly a t h i n g t h a t th e forem an sa y s o r d o es w hich does n o t d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y in f lu e n c e th e w o rk er* s f e e l i n g o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n * Mot to o much can be s a id r e l a t i v e t o th e im p o rta n t' r o l e o f g ro u p symbols* A g r e a t se n se o f s o l i d a r i t y o f t e n r e s u l t s from t h e w ea rin g o f a u n ifo rm , a s e r v ic e p i n , a b ad g e , o r o th e r o f f i c i a l in s ig n ia * G e n e ra lly sp e a k in g , t h e w o rk e r t h a t w ears a symbol i s more l i k e l y t o f e e l c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith h i s co-w orkers* F r e q u e n tly , common l i n g o , s a y in g s , o r g e s t u r e s come t o have a sym bolic m eaning 7m* L* Blum, I n d u s t r i a l P sy ch o lo g y and I t s S o c ia l I m p lic a tio n s (Bew York: H a rp e r, 1949)> p * 1 3 Q * _______ 101 f o r th e group* A ll o f th e s e group sym bols g iv e th e i n d i v id u a l t h e f e e l i n g t h a t he i s a c c e p te d by and h a s s ta n d in g i n th e group* They em phasize common p u rp o s e s , g o a l s , and l o y a l t i e s . They a ls o r e i n f o r c e th e i n d i v i d u a l s f e e l i n g o f group i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . At t h e same tim e , em ployee handbooks, company news l e t t e r s , and o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s te n d t o f o s t e r a r e a l se n se o f b e lo n g in g n e s s , s o l i d a r i t y , and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n * The f e e l i n g o f b e lo n g in g n e s s may be c o n s id e re d from two a n g le s . T h is f a e t was em phasized by <J. S. Gray when he s t a t e d : I n t h e one c a s e , t h e w o rk er may d e v e lo p such an o v e r - a l l a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e m a n u fa c tu rin g con c e rn and r e f e r t o i t a s ”o u r ” p l a n t . Again th e w orker may r e g a r d h im s e lf a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o n ly o f th o s e who a r e in v o lv e d i n th e m a n u fa c tu rin g o f c e r t a i n ty p e s o f m a te r ia ls .® The Hole o f t h e Group i n t h e Development o f B e lo n g in g n e ss Each i n d i v i d u a l b e lo n g s t o a number o f d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s w ith w hich he s h a re s b e h a v io r . T y p ic a l o f th e s e a r e t h e s o c i a l , f r a t e r n a l , r e c r e a t i o n a l , r e l i g i o u s , and o t h e r g ro u p s o u ts id e t h e p l a n t . W ith in th e p l a n t t h e r e a r e lik e w is e a number o f d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s i n w hich th e w o rk e r may p a r t i c i p a t e . T hus, he i s u s u a l l y a member o f ^ J . S. G ray, P sy ch o lo g y i n I n d u s tr y (New York: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 5 2 ), p . 332. U n iv e rs ity o f S # u t t i e r n C a lifo rn ia U D ra ry 1G2 a s p e c i f i c g ro u p o f c o -w o rk e rs . He may b e lo n g t o a p a r t i c u l a r u n io n . He may s e rv e on t h e s a f e t y o r some o t h e r c o m m itte e . He may h av e p r e s c r ib e d c o n t a c t s o f v a r io u s s o r t s w ith a num ber o f o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , w ith whom h e co o p e r a te s i n v a r io u s w ay s. B e s id e s t h e s e m ore fo rm a l and e a s i l y r e c o g n iz e d g r o u p s , h o w ev er, t h e r e a r e a num ber o f in f o r m a l c l iq u e s and o t h e r su b g ro u p s w ith in th e p la n t s i t u a t i o n . Many o f th e s e g ro u p s a r e o f t e n o v e rlo o k e d . I n a l a r g e num ber o f i n s t a n c e s , m anagem ent i s n o t aw are o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e . Y e t, c a r e f u l s tu d y o f t h e b a s ic s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f any company w i l l r e v e a l t h e e x i s te n c e o f t h e s e in f o rm a l s u b g ro u p s . An i n t e r e s t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f su c h g ro u p s i s fo u n d i n th e a t t i t u d e s o f members o f th e g ro u p to w a rd o t h e r members an d to w a rd nonm em bers. U s u a lly , a s h a rp d i s t i n c t i o n i s made b etw een t h e s e tw o c l a s s e s o f p e r s o n s : t h e i n g ro u p and th e o u t- g r o u p . P e rs o n s who b e lo n g t o th e same g ro u p a r e u s u a l l y ju d g e d by d i f f e r e n t s ta n d a r d s from th o s e o u ts i d e t h e g ro u p . I n t h e p l a n t s i t u a t i o n , w o rk e rs w i l l be l e s s l e n i e n t an d t o l e r a n t i n ju d g in g th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f an o u t s i d e r . Gn th e o t h e r h a n d , th e y w i l l be m ore sympa t h e t i c i n r e g a r d to a member o f t h e i r own g ro u p o r c l i q u e . 103 Group i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and b e lo n g in g n e s s h a s many- o t h e r a s p e c t s . F o r ex a m p le , any t h r e a t t o t h e r i g h t s o r s ta n d in g s o f one member o f th e g ro u p i s l i k e l y t o b e r e g a rd e d a s a t h r e a t t o t h e r i g h t s o r s ta n d in g s o f t h e g ro u p a s a w h o le . Such a p e r c e iv e d t h r e a t th u s te n d s t o become g e n e r a liz e d and i d e n t i f i e d , and may le a d t o s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s . H ow ever, t h i s same p r o c e s s may o p e r a te i n a f a v o r a b le d i r e c t i o n , a s i n th e c a se w here th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f one member o f a g ro u p l e a d s t o a f a v o r a b le r e a c t i o n on th e p a r t o f t h e e n t i r e g ro u p . C o o p e ra tio n E very n ew sp ap er and m ag azin e r e a d e r i s f a m i l i a r w ith a c c o u n ts o f se e m in g ly f a n t a s t i c a c c o m p lish m e n ts o f i n s p i r e d c o o p e r a tiv e g r o u p s . U n f o r tu n a te ly , a g r e a t am ount o f su c h s p o n ta n e o u s c o o p e r a tio n seem s to b e la c k in g i n m odern i n d u s t r y . A c c o rd in g t o E lto n Mayo, la c k o f p r e s e n t - day c o o p e r a tio n may be a t t r i b u t e d , in p a r t , t o t h e b re a k down o f t h e s o c i a l c o d e s t h a t f o rm e rly d i s c i p l i n e d u s t o e f f e c t i v e w o rk in g t o g e t h e r . T h at i s , many m odern in d u s t r i a l w o rk e rs do n o t now re s p o n d t o s i t u a t i o n s a s a u n i t a s th e y d id in th e p a s t . R e f e r r in g to t h e H aw thorne s t u d i e s on g ro u p c o l l a b o r a t i o n , T . N. W h iteh ead p o i n t s to t h e in c r e a s e d p ro d u c t i o n w h ich p a r a l l e l e d t h e fo rm in g o f f r i e n d s h i p s among 104 women w o rk e rs . T h is in c r e a s e i s a t t r i b u t e d to th e f a c t t h a t p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere o rg a n iz e d ao a s to pro m o te th e econom ic p u rp o s e s o f t h e p l a n t . Many m ore o f t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e n ee d ed i n a c h ie v in g c o o p e r a tio n and b e lo n g in g n e s s among em p lo y ees f o r th e f u l f i l l i n g o f t h e em p l o y e e ^ n e e d s f o r s e c u r i t y w ith in a g ro u p and f o r th e a c co m plishm ent o f m anagem ent o b j e c t i v e s . T h ere seem s t o be no q u e s tio n t h a t c o o p e r a tiv e team w ork, w h e re v e r fo u n d , i s m arked by im provem ent i n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s w e ll a s h ig h e r p r o d u c tio n s ta n d a r d s . V I, GROUP BARRIERS IN EMPLOYEE RELATIONSHIPS A n o th er s o c i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t i n em ployee r e l a t i o n s h ip s i n g ro u p dynam ics i s known a s g ro u p b a r r i e r s . B ar r i e r s a r e t h e h u r d le s o r th e m u sts f o r m em bership t h a t t h e g ro u p r e q u i r e s t h e new member t o m eet b e f o r e he i s a c c e p te d , T hese h u r d le s a r e s e t up by t h e g ro u p t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e m s e lv e s fro m o th e r g ro u p s and o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s . M ost g ro u p s i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s a r e in f o rm a l and h av e few r i g i d re q u ir e m e n ts f o r a d m itta n c e . H ow ever, t h e m em bership b a r r i e r s som etim es a r e a lm o st in s u rm o u n ta b le . An a p p l i c a n t may be o u s te d from a u n io n i f he d o es n o t a b id e by t h e r u l e s , o r p la c e d on t h e u n io n ’ s b la c k l i s t i f s u s p e c te d a s a m anagem ent s to o g e . I n l e s s fo rm a l 105 g r o u p s , su c k a s f a c t o r y c l i q u e s , o r c l u b s , o r e n t i r e l y w ith o u t a nam e, a c c e p ta n c e may mean sim p ly e a t i n g t o g e t h e r , o r h a v in g r e s t p e r io d s t o g e t h e r . F o r an i n d u s t r i a l w o rk e r t o n o t b e a member o f any in f o r m a l g ro u p , a c o m p le te o u t c a s t , i s a lm o st u n th in k a b le . F o rm al O r g a n iz a tio n s and I n fo rm a l R e la tio n s I n an i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , su c h a s t h e H aw thorne p l a n t , one w i l l n o ti c e t h a t t h e m em bers o f e a c h d i v i s i o n o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n h av e f e e l i n g s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r own p a r t i c u l a r d i v i s i o n . A lso , th e y u s u a l l y h av e a h ig h d e g re e o f i n t e r a c t i o n w ith t h e i r f e llo w members a s com pared w ith members o f o th e r d i v i s i o n s , and th e y may e x p r e s s f a i r l y u n ifo rm a t t i t u d e s to w a rd t h e f u n c tio n s an d b e h a v io r o f t h e members o f o t h e r d i v i s i o n s . A lso , p a t t e r n s can be fo u n d o f w e ll-d e v e lo p e d a n ta g o n is m s b etw een m a jo r d i v i s i o n s , e a c h b e in g v e ry c r i t i c a l o f t h e o t h e r s an d d e f e n s iv e o f t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t may be o b s e rv e d , t o o , t h a t t h e r e a r e s h a rp c le v e r a g e s b etw een t h e s t a f f and l i n e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b e c a u se o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s i n f u n c t i o n s . Even when c o n f l i c t s an d a n ta g o n is m s do n o t a c t u a l l y e x i s t , l i n e s o f c le a v a g e te n d t o d e v e lo p b etw een o r g a n i z a t i o n s , so t h a t t h e i r m em bers re m a in a s d i s t i n c h g r o u p s . P . F . D rucker d e s c r ib e d t h e s i t u a t i o n b e s t when he s t a t e d : "Any s te p 106 to w a rd t h e s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e p la n t com m unity w i l l be s u p p o rte d by t h e n a t u r a l f o r c e s w ith in t h e e n t e r p r i s e . ”^ C liq u e s i n G roup B a r r i e r s W ith in th e n o n s u p e rv is o ry g ro u p o f any o r g a n iz a tio n t h e r e a r e f o r c e s a c t i n g to s p l i t i t i n t o s m a lle r g ro u p s . O fte n t h e s e l i n e s o f c le a v a g e may f o llo w f u n c t i o n a l l i n e s , a s in t h e c a s e o f a c l e r i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n i n w hich th e t y p i s t s form ed one g ro u p an d f i l e c l e r k s a n o t h e r . I n t h e H aw thorne c a s e , R o e th lis b e r g e r an d D ick so n c i t e d a p e r f e c t exam ple o f a c l iq u e i n t h e i r s tu d y o f t h e s m a ll g ro u p o f f o u r te e n w ir in g o p e r a t o r s . The w ir in g o p e r a t o r s w ere n o t i n t e g r a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f o c c u p a tio n f o r t h e y d id n o t form o c c u p a tio n a l c l i q u e s . T h ere seem ed t o be no c e r t a i n co n f i g u r a t i o n s o f r e l a t i o n s i n t h i s g ro u p . B ut w h e th e r th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s lo o k e d a t gam es, jo b t r a d i n g , q u a r r e l i n g o v e r t h e w indow s, o r f r i e n d s h i p s and a n ta g o n is m s , tw o g ro u p s seem ed t o s ta n d o u t . T hese g ro u p s w ere known by t h e common te rm s o f d e s ig n a tio n a s t h e g ro u p in f r o n t and t h e g ro u p i n b ac k by a l l th e w o rk e rs . F o r p u rp o s e s o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e c l i q u e i n t h e f r o n t o f t h e room w i l l be 9 p . F . D ru c k e r, The Hew S o c ie ty (Hew Y o rk : H a rp e r, 1 9 5 0 ), p . 166. 107 known a s c l iq u e A. The c liq u e i n t h e b ack o f t h e room w i l l be known a s c l iq u e B. T h at t h e m em bers o f C liq u e A r e g a rd e d th e m s e lv e s a s s u p e r i o r to c liq u e B members w as i n d i c a te d i n many w ays. C liq u e A d id o r r e f r a i n e d from d o in g t h i n g s w hich w ere done by c l iq u e B. They d id n o t t r a d e jo b s n e a r l y a s o f t e n an d th e y d id n o t , a s a w h o le , e n t e r i n t o c o n t r o v e r s i e s ab o u t t h e w indow s. C liq u e A en g ag ed i n gam es o f c h a n c e , w h e re a s c l iq u e B en g ag ed o f t e n in " b in g i n g . ” B oth g ro u p s b o u g h t can d y from t h e c lu b s t o r e , b u t t h e p u r c h a s e s w ere made s e p a r a t e l y and n e i t h e r e liq u e s h a re d w ith th e o t h e r . C liq u e A a rg u e d more and in d u lg e d i n l e s s h o r s e p la y th a n c l i q u e B. T h u s, we h av e a p e r f e c t exam ple o f th e ev e ry d a y o c c u re n c e o f c l i q u e s i n any ty p e o f b u s i n e s s . The a u th o r b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e b e s t e x p la n a tio n o f th e r e a s o n f o r th e e x i s te n c e o f c l i q u e s i s o f f e r e d by E . W. B akke, when he s t a t e d t h a t . . . c l i q u e s a r i s e i n re s p o n s e t© p e r s o n a l n e e d s o f t h e m em bers w h ile o th e r c l i q u e s a r i s e from th e n e e d s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . I d e n t i c a l p e o p le i n t h e i r c liq u e r e l a t i o n s h i p m ay, i n t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l n e e d s o r a m b itio n s , e i t h e r f u r t h e r and r e e n f o r c e o r r e t a r d and u n d erm in e th e f u n c t i o n a l p u r p o se o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n a s a w h o le . W. B akke, Bonds o f O r g a n iz a tio n . An A p p r a is a l o f C o rp o ra te Human R e la t io n s ~TNew Y ork: H a rp e r, 1 9 5 0 } , p . 1 2 . log H o r iz o n ta l C leav ag e a s B a r r i e r s I n many c a s e s h o r i z o n t a l c le a v a g e s b etw een th e v e r t i c a l l e v e l s w i t h i n an o r g a n iz a tio n a r e n o t i c e d . The m ost common c le a v a g e o f t h i s s o r t i s b etw e e n t h e w o rk e rs and t h e s u p e r v i s o r s . T h is s e p a r a te s them i n t o tw o a n ta g o n i s t i c g r o u p s , w ith t h e w o rk e rs f e e l i n g t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a ry f o r th em t o u n i t e i n d e fe n s e a g a i n s t fo rem an o r s u p e r v i s o r s . T h is d e f e n s iv e a t t i t u d e o f t h e w o rk e rs ' c a u s e s them to a v o id c o n t a c t s and i n t e r a c t i o n w ith t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s . A lso , i t m akes them w ith h o ld in f o r m a tio n , c o v e r up m is ta k e s , r e s t r i c t o u tp u t , an d o th e r p r o t e c t i v e m e a su re s. Forem en re s p o n d t o t h i s b e h a v io r th ro u g h c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s , a v o id in g s o c i a l c o n v e r s a tio n , an d r e s t r i c t i n g co n t a c t s w ith t h e w o rk e rs . C o n ta c ts a r e on a s t r i c t l y b u s i n e s s l e v e l , w h ich m akes c o n ta c t on b o th s i d e s u n c o m fo rt a b l e . H o r iz o n ta l c le a v a g e s may o c c u r a t many l e v e l s and o f te n w o rk e rs and fo re m en g ro u p th e m s e lv e s a g a in s t h ig h e r l e v e l s . Som etim es h o r i z o n t a l b a r r i e r s a r e s o lv e d by th e u s e o f r o l e p la y in g , w h ich b r in g s o u t t h e r e a s o n s f o r a c t i o n b a r r i e r s , f o r The m a jo r a r e a s in w hich a c t i o n b a r r i e r s a r e fo u n d a r e i n p e r c e p t i o n , a t t i t u d e s , t h e p re s e n c e o f f r u s t r a t i o n s , w h ich p r e v e n ts a p e r s o n from s o lv in g p ro b le m s , and i n s t e a d m akes a p e r s o n a c t i n a h o s t i l e o r n o n c o n s tr u c tiv e w ay, t h e f e a r o f c h a n g e, la c k o f c o n fid e n c e i n o n es a b i l i t i e s t o u s e new m e th o d s; an d th e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f o ld h a b i t s o f a c t i o n . H a r e b u t a few o f t h e c a u s e s o f c le a v a g e s i n g ro u p dynam ics o f g ro u p r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Women i n Men * s J a b s a s a B a r r i e r When women r e c e n t l y b eg a n m oving i n t o m en’ s j o b s , many co m p an ies m anaged t o m a in ta in t h e women i n t h e a c c e p te d i n f e r i o r r o l e by m eans o f a s y s te m a tic p ay d i f f e r e n t i a l . T h ese tw o f a c t o r s —t h e i n f e r i o r s t a t u s o f w o m an s w ork a n d t h e lo w e r r a t e o f p ay — g av e r i s e t o c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s when in tr o d u c in g women i n t o men’ s jo b s . Men a lm o st a lw a y s r e a c t u n f a v o r a b ly when a woman t a k e s a m an’ s j o b . I f th e company p a y s h e r th e same r a t e , th e y f e e l th e y have l o s t s t a t u s , o r t h a t women a r e g o in g to t a j e t h e i r p l a t e s . W ith t h i s ty p e o f a tm o sp h e re th e woman o f t e n f a i l s in h e r jo b o r g i v e s u p . Women h av e lo n g b een a b a r r i e r i n i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s i n f a c t o r i e s o r i n o f f i c e s . But f i n d in g o r c r e a t i n g t h e p r o p e r s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t s h o u ld be th e f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f m anagem ent when p la c in g women on new jo b s a s women c a n g e n e r a l l y be e x p e c te d t o su c c e e d when th e s e t t i n g i s c o n d u c iv e t o s u c c e s s . l i f t . R. F . M a ie r, P r i n c i p l e o f Human R e la t io n s (Mew Y ork: W iley and S o n s, 1 9 5 2 ), p . 1 0 1 . 11© R a c ia l B a r r i e r s The n ee d f o r w o rk e rs i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e c o u n tr y , e s p e c i a l l y d u rin g t h e w a r an d i n r e c e n t y e a r s , h a s s ti m u la te d a movement o f p e o p le from r u r a l a r e a s t o i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s , much o f w hich h a s b ee n fro m t h e r u r a l s o u th . Much h a s b een w r i t t e n on c l a s s b a r r i e r s an d th e a u th o r w i l l n o t a tte m p t t o e x p lo re a l l o f i t s p ro b le m s i n t h i s s tu d y . H ow ever, i t s h o u ld be m e n tio n e d t h a t i t i s p r o b a b ly th e b ig g e s t b a r r i e r i n t h i s i n d u s t r i a l a g e . I t h a s b een s a i d t h a t Much o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l s t r i f e o f o u r ag e ca n be e x p la in e d i n te rm s o f c l a s s m is u n d e r s ta n d in g s . We m e re ly assum e th a t) e v e ry o n e t h i n k s and a c t s a s we d o , and t h a t a l l c l a s s e s have th e same f o l k w ays and lores. 12 T h is i s b e c a u se we a r e ju d g in g o th e r p e o p le and g ro u p s by o u r s t a n d a r d s . A ll h av e t h e same b a s ic n e e d s b u t o t h e r s may n o t h av e h ad t h e same e x p e r ie n c e s o r a d v a n ta g e s . T h e r e f o r e , i f b a r r i e r s a r e t o be rem o v ed , d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s m ust f i n d t h e i r common v a lu e s and n e e d s and l e a r n t o w ork t o g e t h e r . 1 % . W. F in l a y . A. Q. S a ta in and W. M. T a te , Human B e h a v io r i n I n d u s tr y (Mew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, , p . if A . CHAPTER V II PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS l a th e t h r e e p re c e d in g c h a p te r s o f t h i s s tu d y an a tte m p t w as made to c o v e r t h e b a s ic f a c t o r s t h a t a r e th e m o tiv a tin g s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i n i n d u s t r i a l g ro u p dynam ic s * I n t h e n e x t f o u r c h a p te r s some o f t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s w i l l be e x p lo r e d . The p s y c h o lo g ic a l s tu d y o f g ro u p d y n am ics i s th e s tu d y o f t h e b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e p a t t e r n s o f p e o p le w ith em p h asis on t h e i r i n d u s t r i a l s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t. I . GROUP ACCEPTANCE IN EMPLOYEE RELATIONS P s y c h o lo g ic a l en v iro n m e n t i s b e s t d e s c r ib e d by t h e E n c y c lo p a e d ia B r i t a n n ic a w h e re in i t s t a t e s t h a t e a c h p e rs o n i n a d d i t io n t o b e in g an i n d i v i d u a l i s a member o f one o r more g r o u p s , and t h e r e i s e v id e n c e t h a t a g ro u p t h i n k s , f e e l s and a c t s d i f f e r e n t l y fro m th e i n d i v i d u a l . G roups h av e i n d i v i d u a l i t y , a p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e i r own; a n d , i f we knew en o u g h , we m ig h t be a b le t o g ra d e them a s we g ra d e i n d i v i d u a l p e o p l e .1 T h e r e f o r e , b e f o r e an i n d i v i d u a l can be a member o f an i n d u s t r i a l g ro u p he m ust be a c c e p t a b l e , i n some w ay, t o ^ E n c y c lo p e d ia B r i t a n n i c a . " I n d u s t r i a l P s y c h o lo g y ," V o l. 1 2 , p . 2 9 0 . 112 one g ro u p o r a n o t h e r . F o r t h e a c c e p ta n c e o f an i n d i v i d u a l w o rk e r by h i s d e p a rtm e n t, by m anagem ent, by t h e u n io n , o r m e re ly by in f o r m a lly o r g a n iz e d c l i q u e s o f w o rk e rs , t o a c o n s id e r a b le e x t e n t , i n f l u e n c e s h i s jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n a s w e ll as h i s o v e r - a l l a f f e c t i v e n e s s . Upon a c c e p ta n c e i n any g ro u p th e i n d i v i d u a l becom es a ch an g ed p e rs o n w ith r e g a r d t o h i s a t t i t u d e and b e h a v io r to w a rd s o th e r i n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s . A ccep tan ce i s n o t alw a y s v e r b a l o r f o r m a lly r e c o g n iz e d , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e g ro u p i s an in f o rm a l o n e , so t h a t m anagem ent o f t e n n e g l e c t s , o r d o e s n o t o b s e r v e , th e r e a s o n s f o r changed a t t i t u d e o r b e h a v io r . In d u c t io n o f Mew E m ployees i n A ccep tan ce An i n d u s t r i a l w ork g ro u p a c t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s a s m a ll s o c i e t y , t h e r e f o r e , a new em ployee f i n d s h im s e lf i n a s i t u a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e p e rs o n j u s t m oving i n t o a new n e ig h b o rh o o d . O th e rs a r e lo o k in g o v e r t h e new n e ig h b o r o r em ployee t o se e w hat ty p e o f p e rs o n h e i s and e v a lu a t in g h i s e v e ry move t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r he i s a c c e p ta b le o r n o t . When t h e r e a r e s t a t u s f a c t o r s o f c l i q u e s i n t h e g ro u p th e s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te d . S om etim es, i n r a r e i n s t a n c e s h o w ev er, an i n d u s t r i a l g ro u p m em bership can b e a t t a i n e d by one o f t h e f o llo w in g m e th o d s: (1 ) by b i r t h - n a t i o n a l i t y - o r la n g u a g e o r o th e r b i o l o g i c a l b a s e d g r o u p s , (2 ) by v o lu n ta r y a c tio n a s . i n a 113 c lu b o r o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p , and (3 ) by a s s ig n m e n t by o n es 2 a s s o c i a t e s o r f e llo w c i t i z e n s # H ow ever, a s t h e a u th o r s t a t e d , a c c e p ta n c e i n i n d u s t r i a l g ro u p s i s p a r t i c u l a r r a r e l y h ap p en i n t h i s m an n er. The new em ployee m ust n o t a t t a c h h im s e lf t o any g ro u p to o e a r l y b e c a u s e h i s f u t u r e p o s i t i o n may depend upon how he r e c e i v e s o v e r tu r e s from one g ro u p o r a n o t h e r . B eing to o f r i e n d l y w ith one g ro u p may mean r e j e c t i o n by a n o th e r g ro u p . The w ork g ro u p f o r t h e new em ployee c a n b e g r e a t l y c o m p lic a te d by th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . I f th e new em ployee i s r e p l a c i n g a p e rs o n i t m akes a d i f f e r e n c e w h e th e r o r n o t t h a t p e rs o n w as d is c h a r g e d o r ad v an ced o r q u i t . A ls o , i f t h e o t h e r p e rs o n was p o p u la r o r u n p o p u la r, w h e th e r he b e lo n g e d t o one g ro u p o r a n o th e r a r e im p o rta n t f a c t o r s t o c o n s id e r . F o r th e s e and many o t h e r r e a s o n s i t i s q u i t e n a t u r a l f o r a g ro u p t o n e g le c t o r p la c e a new em ployee in a s i t u a t i o n w here he w i l l be lo o k e d o v e r c a r e f u l l y . E i t h e r o f t h e s e b e h a v io r s w i l l make th e new em ployee f e e l s tr a n g e and in s e c u r e . I t i s common e x p e rie n c e t o f i n d em ployees q u i t t i n g s h o r t l y a f t e r th e y e r e h i r e d . Where la b o r t u r n o v e r i s h ig h e s t a t t h e o u t s e t , t h i s p o in t h a s b een p ro v en % . Dewey and W. J . Humber, D evelopm ent o f Human B e h a v io r (Hew Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1951T7 P* 347* 1 1 4 i n many s u r v e y s . A lth o u g h many f a c t o r s in f lu e n c e th e r a t e o f t u r n o v e r , i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t one o f t h e f a c t o r s , a t l e a s t , i s th e p ro b lem o f b e in g a c c e p te d and f in d i n g a p la c e i n a w ork g ro u p . One o f th e c a u s e s f o r t h i s p ro b lem i s u n d o u b te d ly b e e a u s e " p e o p le i n g ro u p s a c t d i f f e r e n t l y from p e o p le n o t in g r o u p s . F or s o c i a l b e h a v io r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s g ro u p b e h a v io r* Im p o rta n c e o f G roup A c c e p ta n c e t o th e E m ployee I t i s n o t enough f o r a w o rk e r t o be s e c u re i n h i s l a b o r , o r t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s w o rk , and t o be r e s p e c te d a s a p e r s o n . M e m ust f e e l t h a t he b e lo n g s , t h a t he i s u n d e r s to o d , t h a t he i s w e ll l i k e d by h i s a s s o c i a t e s , h i s s u b o r d in a t e s , and h i s s u p e r i o r s . The s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h i s n eed i s n o t in c o m p a tib le w ith e f f i c i e n t b u s in e s s p r a c t i c e . P e o p le w or^ t o g e t h e r in p la c e s o f b u s in e s s , b u t th e y a l s o i n t e r a c t a s s o c i a l b e in g s . L in e s o f f o rm a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r l i e a m ore in f o rm a l o r g a n i z a t i o n b a s e d on l i n e s o f c o o p e r a tio n . The m ain im p o rta n c e o f a c c e p ta n c e i s t h a t p e o p le a r e n o t o n ly o r g a n iz e d i n te rm s o f t h e i r jo b r e q u ire m e n ts and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , b u t i n te rm s o f t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p s , s o c i a l c u sto m s, and p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s . 3 l b i d . , p . 162 115 T h e r e f o r e , t h i s s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e e x i s t s a lo n g s id e t h e f o r m al o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e com pany. Im p o rta n c e o f a c c e p ta n c e a l s o d ep e n d s t o a g r e a t e x te n t on t h e ty p e o f p e r s o n e n t e r i n g a g ro u p . P e rs o n s o f h ig h e s p r i t do n o t n ee d t h e g ro u p r e s o u r c e s t h a t p e r s o n s o f low e s p r i t d o . When th e fo rm e r i s a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e a p r e f e r e n c e , he s e l e c t s som eone l i k e h im s e lf — n o t f o r p u rp o s e o f i n t e r a c t i o n h u t t o k ee p i n to u c h w ith a m ore d i s t a n t and n o n sy m b o lie ty p e o f c o n ta c t A ls o , by c o n t r a s t , th e man o f low e s p r i t d o e s n o t s e l e c t anyone i n p a r t i c u l a r t o c o rre s p o n d w ith f o r h i s n e e d s a re im m e d ia te . He n e e d s o t h e r s o f low p e r s o n a l e s p r i t and th e y a l l s e e k g ro u p s u p p o r t. I n fo r m a l G roups an d G roup A ccep tan ce The d is c o v e r y t h a t b u s in e s s o r g a n i z a ti o n s h a s a s o c i a l as w e ll a s a fo rm a l s t r u c t u r e sh e d s c o n s id e r a b le l i g h t upon t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n s and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s o f p e o p le a t w o rk . A cc ep ta n c e by an in f o rm a l g ro u p i s v i t a l t o th e w ork r o u t i n e o f a s u c c e s s f u l i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a t i o n . T hese in f o r m a l g ro u p s p ro v id e t h e s e t t i n g s w h ich make men w i l l i n g t o c o o p e ra te * In fo rm a l g ro u p s c a n n o t be p r e v e n te d , b e c a u s e th e y a r e t h e p r o d u e t o f raanTs d e s i r e G ro s s , “P rim a ry F u n c tio n s o f th e S m all G ro u p ,” A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y . V o l. 60, J u l y , 1953» p* 29. 116 f o r in ti m a t e a s s o c i a t i o n . By b e in g a c c e p te d by t h e i n fo rm a l g ro u p s g iv e s p e o p le t h e f e e l i n g o f b e lo n g in g n e s s , a p l a c e , an d a s e n s e o f im p o rta n c e . Such in f o rm a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t a t a l l e c h e lo n s i n i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n is a tio n s * T h ere a r e c l iq u e s and in - g r o u p s i n m anagem ent a s w e ll a s o n t h e f a c t o r y f lo o r * The in f o rm a l and f o rm a l s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e o r g a n iz a tio n may o r may n o t be com pat ib le * H ow ever, th e r e a d e r m ust rem em ber t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b le to d e v e lo p an e f f i c i e n t an d p r o d u c tiv e o r g a n iz a t i o n s o l e l y on th e b a s i s o f t h e s e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h ere m ust be a u t h o r i t y a n d l e a d e r s h i p t o g e t t h e jo b d o n e. I I * GROUP PRESSURE I I EMPLOYEE RELATIONS More and m ore i n d i v i d u a l s a s w e ll as m anagem ent have come to r e a l i z e th e e x tre m e p r e s s u r e o f g ro u p e x p e c ta tio n on human b e h a v io r . From t h e v e ry moment one i s b o rn he i s c h a in e d w ith s o c i a l c o n v e n tio n s . E v ery day th e l o c a l p a p e rs t e l l s t o r i e s o f p e o p le who by t h e i r v e ry c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a c t a s th e y a r e su p p o se d t o b e c a u s e o f g ro u p p r e s s u r e . T h at i s t o s a y , j u v e n i l e b o y s w ith to u g h lo o k in g f a c e s o f t e n a c t to u g h b e c a u se th e y a r e su p p o se d t o be to u g h . I t can b e s a i d t h a t a p e rs o n p le a s e s th e g ro u p 117 b e c a u s e h e w an ts to com ply. M ost c o n fo rm ity i s n o t done t o r e c e i v e f a v o r s b u t i s sp o n ta n e o u s* A ls o , i t i s n o t done g e n e r a l l y to a v o id s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s . W A p e rs o n i s m e re ly m ore c o m fo rta b le when he p l e a s e s o t h e r s . We l i k e b e in g l i k e d . * * 5 Jn th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , one d o es w hat th e g ro u p w a n ts b e c a u s e he h a s a c c e p te d th e g ro u p *s id e a s a s h i s own, p ro v id e d he i s an a c c e p te d member o f t h e g ro u p . B e h a v io r i s e x p la in e d i n te rm s o f p r e s s u r e o f t h e g ro u p . A ll to o o f t e n , i n i n d u s t r y , th e in f o rm a l o r g a n iz a t i o n a t t h e w ork l e v e l s e t s i t s e l f i n o p p o s itio n t o t h e dem ands com ing from s u p e r io r s and w orks c o u n te r t o t h e o b j e c t s s e t by m anagem ent. T h ese h av e b ee n r e c o g n iz e d a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f human o r g a n i z a t i o n s w hich can be u n d e r s to o d an d m o d ifie d b u t n e v e r done away w ith . C o n tro l o f O u tp u t F . J . R o e th li s b e r g e r and W illia m J . D ic k s o n , in t h e i r book M anagement an d th e W o rk er, s p e n t a g r e a t d e a l o f tim e on th e s u b je c t o f g ro u p p r e s s u r e . D u rin g th e f i n a l p h a s e o f t h e r e s e a r c h p ro g ram o f t h e W e stern E l e c t r i c c a s e t h e i r a t t e n t i o n s w ere c a l l e d t o p ro b le m s o f em ployee i n t e r r e l a t i o n s and g ro u p o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e ir r e p o r t s 5w. W. F i n l e y , Soman B e h a v io r i n I n d u s tr y (New Y ork: McGraw - H ill Book Company, 1 9 5 4 ), p . 41*__________ _____________ 1 1 8 showed v e ry c l e a r l y t h a t th e y w ere e n c o u n te r in g s e v e r a l r e l a t e d phenom ena, th e im p o rta n c e o f w h ich h ad e s c a p e d them b e f o r e . C h ie f among t h e s e w as o u tp u t. T h ere was some e v id e n c e t h a t t h e wage i n c e n t i v e sy ste m s u n d e r w hich some o f t h e g ro u p s w orked h ad b e e n r e n d e re d i n e f f e c t u a l by g ro u p p r e s s u r e f o r c o n t r o l l e d o u tp u t. A ls o , t h e r e was e v id e n c e o f in f o rm a l le a d e r s h ip on t h e p a r t o f some o p e r a t o r s who to o k upon th e m s e lv e s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s e e in g t h a t th e members o f a g ro u p c lu n g t o g e t h e r an d p r o t e c t e d th e m s e lv e s from r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o th e r g ro u p s w ith in th e company who i n t e r f e r e d w ith t h e i r a f f a i r s . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e i t w as m a in ta in e d t h a t " a g ro u p l i k e s to k eep t h e o u tp u t l e v e l a t a p o in t w here t h e i n d i v i d u a l can m a in ta in a c c e p ta b le p r o d u c tio n w ith o u t su c h e f f o r t . ” ^ U s u a lly , a s i n th e W e ste rn E l e c t r i c c a s e , th e g ro u p a r r i v e s a t an ag reem en t on p r o d u c tio n an d th e n p r e s s u r e i s e x e r te d upon i t s mem b e r s a n d i f th e s ta n d a r d i s n o t a c c e p te d t h e n t h e i n d i v id u a l member r e j e c t i n g i t i s an o u t c a s t . U s u a lly t h e c a s e i s t h a t th e d i c t a t e s o f t h e g ro u p a r e a c c e p te d o r th e i n d i v i d u a l i s so unhappy t h a t he i s e i t h e r t r a n s f e r r e d o r q u i t s . U s u a lly a r a t e - b u s t e r i s n o t ev en p o p u la r w ith h i s fo re m a n . The p ro b lem o f a c tio n may become c o m p lic a te d % . B. G a rd n e r and D. G. M oore, Human R e la tio n s i n I n d u s tr y (C h ic a g o : I r w in , 1 9 5 0 ), p . 1 5 3 . 119 f o r o f t e n na h o s t i l e a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f an i n d i v i d u a l o r g ro u p may a ro u s e c o u n te r h o s t i l i t y a s t h e im m ed iate re s p o n s e t o th e p r o p e r s t i m u l u s .” 7 M a in ten a n ce S y n erg y M a in te n a n c e sy n e rg y h a s o f t e n b een d e f in e d a s t h e i n t e r n a l m a c h in e ry t h a t k e e p s t h e g ro u p i n b e in g . I n th e W e ste rn E l e c t r i c c a s e , t h e r e w ere s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t k e p t th e g ro u p i n b e in g . The s u p e r v is o r y c o n t r o l s e t up by m anagem ent t o r e g u l a t e and g o v e rn th e w o rk e rs e x e r c is e d l i t t l e o r no c o n t r o l e x c e p t t o s e e t h a t th e y w ere s u p p lie d w ith w o rk . The g ro u p w as p r o t e c t e d from th e o u ts id e by one o f t h e w o rk e rs . He a b s o rb e d t h e b ru n t o f t h e arg u m e n ts t h a t m ig h t have u p s e t t h e g r o u p ’ s m o ra le . A n o th er member o f t h e g ro u p r e g u l a t e d i t s b e h a v io r . He ta u g h t them t h e i r w ork and saw t o i t t h a t t h e i r b e h a v io r d id n o t je o p a r d is e th e g r o u p ’ s s e c u r i t y . G roup p r e s s u r e i n t h i s c a s e w as ta k e n c a re o f by tw o o f i t s m em bers; one p r o t e c t e d them from w ith o u t, and one a d m in is te r e d p u n ish m en t f o r an y v i o l a t i o n o f th e g ro u p s ta n d a r d s from w i th i n . 7e , M. D. L indem ann, ^ I n d iv id u a l H o s t i l i t y and G roup I n t e r a c t i o n , 1 1 Human O r g a n iz a tio n . W in te r , 1949, p . 6 . 120 M i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f R e s t r i c t i o n o f O u tp u t The s ta n d a r d s o f w ork g ro u p s when p r e s s u r e i s e x e r t e d may change and u s u a l ly d o es i n r e s p o n s e t o ch an g es i n t h e r e l a t i o n o f th e g ro u p t o i t s e n v iro n m e n t. O fte n a w o rk e r i s blam ed f o r l i m i t e d o u tp u t on th e g ro u n d s t h a t he i s d e l i b e r a t e l y and w i l f u l l y o p p o sin g m anagem ent. T h is c o n d itio n can v e r y r a r e l y be p ro v e n a s i t i s u s u a l ly b e c a u se t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e w o rk e rs in t h e g ro u p a re d i r e c t e d in w ard to w a rd m a in ta in in g t h e i r own s o c i a l o rg a n i z a t i o n . The w o rk e rs a r e u s u a l l y y i e l d i n g t o a p r e s s u r e f a r s t r o n g e r th a n f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e . A n o th er common m is c o n c e p tio n i s t o c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e b e h a v io r o f t h e em p lo y ees i s a m a n i f e s t a ti o n o f o v e r t h o s t i l i t y b e tw een m anagem ent an d t h e w o rk e rs . T h is e r r o r a r i s e s b e c a u s e o f a f a i l u r e t o r e l a t e t h e b e h a v io r o f th e em p lo y ees t o t h e i r s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . I n s t e a d , t h e i r b e h a v io r i s u s u a l l y ju d g e d i n te rm s o f w h at i t s h o u ld be a c c o rd in g to th e fo rm a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . A t h i r d e r r o r i s to assum e t h a t t h e im m ed iate s u p e r v i s o r was r e s p o n s i b le f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n . The e r r o r h e r e i s th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t t h e s u p e r v is o r by s h e e r f o r c e can make t h e s i t u a t i o n c o rre s p o n d to w hat i t sh o u ld b e . The i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e s u p e r v is o r i s 121 m a n a g e m e n ts r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . The s u p e r v is o r i s , t h e r e f o r e , th e v ic tim r a t h e r th a n t h e c o n t r i v e r o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . C h a r a c te r o f I n d i v i d u a l s an d G roup B re s s u re I t s h o u ld be rem em bered i n d is c u s s in g g ro u p p r e s s u r e t h a t t h e i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n a s i n a l l g ro u p s i s s t i l l d e a lin g w ith th e i n d i v i d u a l . A n o th er th in g w h ich s h o u ld be rem em bered i s t h a t a p e rs o n * s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p m ust be k e p t i n m in d . I n d iv i d u a l s w i l l a c c e p t p r e s s u r e i f t h e r e i s a h ig h pow ered member i n t h e g ro u p m ore r e a d i l y th a n i f t h e r e i s n o n e . The m ost p o w e rfu l g ro u p w i l l ch o o se th e l e a d e r t h a t w i l l c r e a t e th e f u n c tio n s o f f o r c e s to w a rd u n if o r m ity . I n d i v i d u a l s w i l l h e lp th e g ro u p a c c o m p lis h i t s p u r p o s e s , a s w e ll a s m a in ta in i t s e l f a s a group* I I I . PROPAGANDA IN EMPLOYEE RELATIONS A n o th er o f t h e b a s ic f a c t o r s i n i n d u s t r i a l p s y c h o l o g ic a l g ro u p d y n am ics i s t h e u se o f p ro p a g a n d e . T h is i s t h e g e n e r a l t o o l u s e d by p r e s s u r e g r o u p s . T h ese p r e s s u r e g ro u p s may c o n s i s t o f e i t h e r m anagem ent o r w o rk e rs . P ro p a g an d a i s th e o r g a n iz e d e f f o r t o f one i n d i v i d u a l o r g ro u p t o in f lu e n c e th e a t t i t u d e o r b e h a v io r o f a n o th e r i n d i v i d u a l o r g ro u p t o a c h ie v e a p a r t i c u l a r e n d . T h is 122 d e f i n i t i o n i s i n l i n e w ith t h e g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f ed u c a tio n ^ H ow ever, t h e te rm p ro p a g a n d a i s u se d i n s i t u a t i o n s w here f a c t s a r e s u p p re s s e d i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n a c e r t a i n g o a l , w h e re a s e d u c a tio n a l en d s a r e d e r iv e d from f a c t s o n ly . P ro p a g an d a i s n o t alw a y s b a d , r a t h e r i t i s u s u a l l y a q u e s tio n o f m o ra ls an d e t h i c s r a t h e r th a n m eth o d . The G ra p ev in e i n Em ployee R e la t io n s The g ra p e v in e i s one o f th e o l d e s t sy ste m s o f com m u n ic a tio n s . I n g ro u p dynam ics i t o p e r a t e s u n d e r i t s m ost f a v o r a b le c o n d itio n s f o r i t t h r i v e s u n d e r r e s t r a i n t o r a tte m p te d s u p p r e s s io n . A ls o , t h e g ra p e v in e o p e r a te s b e s t when in f o r m a tio n i s t o go aro u n d som eone f o r whom th e i n f o rm a tio n w as n o t in te n d e d . The g ra p e v in e c a n n o t be su p p r e s s e d n o r c o n t r o l l e d . l o r can i t b e s c h e d u le d on tim e . I t i s u n tr a c e a b le a s w e ll a s u n p r e d i c t a b l e . M anagement s h o u ld r e a l i z e t h a t i t e x i s t s f o r i t i s p e c u l i a r l y a p o s s e s s i o n . ”I t h a s b ee n t h e s e c r e t and s a c r e d p r o p e r ty o f t h e g ro u p , u n t a i n t e d by t h e in f lu e n c e o f th e b o s s , c a p a b le o f ta p p in g h i s s t o r e o f h id d e n f a c t s , c a p a b le o f circ u m v e n tin g h i s c e n s o r s h i p .” ^ The g ra p e v in e seem s t o have f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : ^A. R. H ero n , S h a rin g I n f o r m a tio n w ith E m ployees ( S ta n f o r d : S ta n f o r d U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1949) , p. 165• ’ 123 (1 ) i t i s s e l f - s t a r t i n g ; (2 ) i t c a r r i e s in f o r m a tio n r a p id ly ; (3 ) t h e in f o r m a tio n becom es more and m ore enorm ous and d i s t o r t e d t h e f a r t h e r i t g o e s ; and (4 ) i t f l o u r i s h e s v i g o r o u s ly i n t h e a b se n c e o f o th e r e f f e c t i v e c h a n n e ls o f com m u n ic a tio n . The above m e n tio n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e g ra p e v in e s u g g e s t i t s in a d e q u a c y a s a medium o f com m unica t i o n . I t o f t e n s o l i d i f i e s t h e w a ll s o f m is u n d e r s ta n d in g . I t a c t s a s an o b s ta c l e t o th e s h a r in g o f in f o r m a tio n w ith e m p lo y e e s. I t i s a medium o f a w h is p e rin g cam paign o r one ©f p ro p a g a n d a . I f , h o w ev er, human u n d e r s ta n d in g b etw een w o rk e r and m anagem ent h a s b een a c c o m p lis h e d , th e g ra p e v in e can a i d i n t h e s h a r in g o f in f o r m a tio n . S in c e i t i s f a c t , i t i s an e f f e c t i v e medium . Mews d o e s n o t become so d i s t o r t e d i f i t h a s a b a s i s i n f a c t . I f f a c t u a l in f o r m a tio n e x i s t s , t r u t h becom es d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t o r t . The g r a p e v in e may be h e l p f u l i n t h e s h a r in g o f in f o r m a tio n o n ly i f o t h e r m ed ia a r e e f f e c t i v e . I t may be h a rm fu l i n th e a b se n c e o f o t h e r m ed ia o r i n th e p re s e n c e o f e rro n e o u s in f o r m a tio n b ro u g h t to t h e w o rk e rs i n an e m o tio n a l a tm o s p h e re . F a i l u r e o f P ro p ag an d a i n C om m unication w ith in I n d u s tr y M anagem ent, a s a w h o le , now r e g a r d s th e s o l u t i o n o f t h e co m m u n icatio n p ro b lem a s i t s f i r s t o b j e c t i v e i n p e r s o n n e l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The w ays o f com m unication have 124 b een i n e x i s te n c e f© r th o u s a n d s o f y e a r s . B ut to d a y th e m eans have b ee n r e f i n e d and v a r ie d t o th e e x t e n t t h a t a man i s bom barded from a l l s i d e s by c h a r t s , p o s t e r s , p i c t u r e s , s in g in g co m m ercia ls u n t i l he i s n o t s u r e w hat i s t h e t r u t h . C om m unication i s no lo n g e r j u s t a m eans f o r th e sim p le ex change o f in f o r m a tio n , b u t i s a l s o th e p r e s s u r e t o c o n v in c e , sw ay, and d r iv e p e o p le i n t o t h e d e s i r e d p a t t e r n s o f th in k i n g and a c t i o n . W ith t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l i s m t h e em ployee h a s l o s t much o f h i s s t a t u s and s i g n i f i c a n c e i n b u s in e s s . To a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e em ployee h a s fo u n d i n u n io n is m th e r e c o g n i t i o n , f e e l i n g o f b e lo n g in g n e s s he h a s l o s t i n h i s jo b . C om m unication b etw een em p lo y ees and e m p lo y e rs h a s b een made m ore d i f f i c u l t by t h e n a tu r e o f i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s io n , b u t su p e rim p o s in g t h i s s tr u g g l e o v e r u n io n is m h a s made t h e d i f f e r e n c e g r e a t e r . V io le n t e m o tio n a l r e a c t i o n s and i n t e n s i f i e d p ro p a g a n d a p ro g ram s by b o th s i d e s h av e made c l e a r th in k i n g d i f f i c u l t . E m p lo y ers do a b ad jo b o f com m u n ic a tio n f o r th e y t h i n k i t i s none o f th e em p lo y ees b u s in e s s . U nions do th e same t h i n g f o r th e same r e a s o n s . E m ployees r e c e i v in g in f o r m a tio n do n o t w ant i n a c c u r a t e in f o r m a tio n from e i t h e r m anagem ent o r t h e i r u n io n f o r The d e s i r e t o h av e f u l l w a rn in g o f im pending ch a n g es i s w h o lly l e g i t i m a t e , and th e r e a l fo c u s f o r a t t e n t i o n i s n o t t h e c u r i o s i t y o f t h e p e rs o n s 125 who t r a n s m it su c h ru m o rs b u t th e s e c r e t i v e n e s s o f m anagem ent (o r u n io n s ) t h a t w ith h o ld s th e in fo rm a t i o n . 9 Good Gommunicat io n Good co m m u n icatio n p re s u p p o s e s a tw o-w ay flo w o f in f o r m a tio n , b o th from th e to p down and t h e b o tto m u p . A c tu a lly i n th e m odern i n d u s t r i a l sy stem i t i s a m u l t i d i r e c t i o n a l flo w among s to c k h o ld e r s , to p m anagem ent, em p lo y e e s , c u s to m e rs , s u p p l i e r s , g o v e rn m e n t, an d th e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . W ith o u t good co m m u n icatio n a n t .i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a t i o n c a n n o t f u n c t i o n . C om panies have gone a lo n g way t o im prove c o m m u n ic a tio n s, a s th e H aw thorne c a s e r e v e a le d . G. E . R e d f ie ld o b s e rv e d from t h e H aw thorne c a s e t h a t The s e c u r in g o f b e t t e r and m ore a c c u r a te in fo rm a t i o n i s a l o g i c a l com m unication o b je c t f o r an em p lo y in g o r g a n iz a t i o n , w h ile th e o b je c t o f c o u n s e l in g i s t o h elp ., em p lo y ees make a b e t t e r a d ju s tm e n t t o t h e i r w o rk . u U nions do n o t l i k e t h i s e x p a n s io n o f c o u n s e lin g b e c a u s e i t h e lp s t o s to p m is u n d e r s ta n d in g s b e f o r e th e y have a c h an ce t o g e t s t a r t e d . Many com panies h av e a d e q u a te m ethods f o r in fo rm in g e m p lo y e e s, b u t n o t f o r o b ta in in g em ployes R. T a y lo r , Are W orkers Human? (B o sto n : H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1 9 5 2 ), p . 6 0 . 10 C. E . R e d f i e ld , C om m unication i n M anagement (C h ic a g o : U n iv e r s it y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1954)> 1 6 3 . 126 t h in k i n g on a r e g u l a r and s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s . I n o u r i n d u s t r i a l d em o cracy , p o lic y -m a k in g g ro u p s m ust be aw are o f t h e r e a c t i o n s o f a l l p a r t i e s who may be a f f e c t e d by d e c i s i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e r e a c t i o n s o f em p lo y ees who f e e l t h e i r im p act im m e d ia te ly and d i r e c t l y , H T h is p ro b lem i s p a r t i a l l y b e in g s o lv e d to d a y by t h e u se o f c o n fe re n c e p r o c e s s e s , r o l e p la y in g f o r d e m o n s tr a tio n s , and d is c u s s i o n s , w h ich a l l le a d t o so u n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . A ls o , s u g g e s tio n s y s te m s , em ployee p o l l s , an d a t t i t u d e s u rv e y s h av e b een d e v e lo p e d e s p e c i a l l y t o t r a n s m i t in f o r m a tio n and r e a c t i o n s from t h e ra n k and f i l e t o to p m anagem ent. T h e re f o r e , m eth o d s w h ich a llo w th e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e em ployee a r e l i k e l y t o be t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e i n im p ro v in g m o ra le . C om m unication i n g ro u p d y n am ics i s a p a r a l l e l b e tw een t h e p r o c e s s o f in d u c tio n and a c t u a l co m m u n icatio n . F o r i n g ro u p d y n a m ic s, C om m unication o f in d u c tio n an d a e t u a l com m unica t i o n i s th e m echanism by w h ich pow er i s e x e r t e d . T h e r e f o r e , one m ethod by w hich d e v i a t i o n from a g ro u p s ta n d a r d may be m a in ta in e d i s t o be c u t o f f th e d e v i a te from co m m u n icatio n w ith th e g r o u p .12 H r . ¥ . P e t e r s , Communi c a t io n W ith in I n d u s tr y (New Y ork: H a rp e r, 1 9 5 0 ), p . 4 1 . ^ D . C a r tw r ig h t, G roup D ynam ics R e se a rc h and T h eo ry (E v a n sto n : Row, P e te r s o n , 1 9 5 3 ), p . 224. 127 IV . CONFIGURATIONS AN D SOCIAL CLIMATE IN EMPLOYEE RELATIONSHIPS The s tu d y o f g ro u p dynam ics i n em ployee and em p lo y er r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s p r i n c i p a l l y t h e s tu d y o f human r e l a t i o n s i n i n d u s t r y . The f a c t s o f m em b ersh ip , g ro u p b a r r i e r s , group s o l i d a r i t y , and f e l t l o y a l t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l to w a rd a g ro u p s u g g e s t t h a t t e n s i o n s e x i s t . T hese te n s i o n s o r s t r e s s e s a r e t h e d e te r m in e r s o f a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r . T hese a r e n o t e m o tio n a l o r n e rv o u s t e n s i o n s , n o r a r e th e y s ig n s o f p e r s o n a l an d s o c i a l m a la d ju s tm e n t. H ow ever, su ch s t r e s s e s and t e n s i o n s m ig h t r e s u l t i n p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l m a la d ju s tm e n t u n d e r v a r y in g c o n d i t i o n s . The s o c i a l c lim a te o f t h e s o c i a l en v iro n m e n t i n w h ich an em ployee w orks i s dyn am ic. The t e n s i o n s and s t r e s s e s o f t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s a r e t h e d e te r m in e r s o f th e p o t e n t i a l and a c t u a l b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s . The s o c i a l c lim a te and s o c i a l en v iro n m e n t d e te rm in e how t h e em ployee f e e l s to w a rd m anagem ent, how much p r o d u c tiv e w ork he a c c o m p lis h e s , how he w i l l v o te on company and u n io n i s s u e s , how lo n g he re m a in s on t h e jo b , how he r a t e s h i s b o s s , t h e f ir m , t h e w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s and o th e r r e l a t e d i s s u e s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s s a f e to s t a t e t h a t t h e s e t e n s i o n s r e l a t e t o t h e t o t a l w ork p e rfo rm a n c e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . 12# Sociometry J . L. M oreno was t h e p io n e e r i n th e s tu d y and m easurem ent o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . He c a l l e d t h i s a r e a s o c io m e try . I f one was t o a c c e p t t h e a s su m p tio n t h a t p e o p le w ork b e t t e r when i n t h e i r own g ro u p , w ith f r i e n d s , w o rk in g c o o p e r a t i v e ly , th e n i t can be c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e i s a l o t t o be g a in e d by m aking i t p o s s i b l e f o r w o rk e rs t o w ork t o g e t h e r w ith o r n e a r o th e r s f o r whom th e y have shown a p r e f e r e n c e . S o c im e try , t h e s c ie n c e o f m a tc h in g p e o p le on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s f o r c o -w o rk e rs , h a s b e e n u se d i n c h i l d s tu d y , i n arm ed f o r c e s a s s ig n m e n ts , and in i n d u s t r i a l w ork s i t u a t i o n s . By m eans o f s o c io m e try , t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e s tu d y o f g ro u p r e l a t i o n s and o f th e r e l a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o t h e g ro u p and o t o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s i s made p o s s i b l e . A w o rk e r’ s p r o d u c t i v i t y i s g r e a t l y i n f lu e n c e d by h i s a t t i t u d e and A w o rk e r ’ s f e e l i n g s c a n o n ly be m easu red i n co n n e c tio n w ith h i s w o rk . W e c a n n o t s e p a r a te a w o rk er from h i s jo b , t e s t h im , and e x p e c t any c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t h e r e s u l t o f t h e t e s t and t h e p e rfo rm a n c e on t h e j o b . 1^ S o c io m e try h a s b een u se d t o r e v e a l th e f e e l i n g s t h a t p e o p le have to w a rd e a c h o t h e r , a s a t t r a c t i o n , r e p u l s i o n , 13John H. J a c o b s , ”The A p p lic a tio n o f S o c io m e try to I n d u s t r y , ” S o c io m e try . V o l. V I I I , Ho. 2 , May, 1 945, _p.__l#4.______ :______________ ; ________ . ______________________ _ 129 o r i n d i f f e r e n c e . T h ese i n t e r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s a r e lo o k e d upon a s a dynam ic p s y c h o lo g ic a l n etw o rk w h ich en co m p asses a l l t h e fo rm a l and in f o r m a l g ro u p in g s w ith in th e i n d u s t r i a l human s o c ie ty * The p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s i d e a l a r e e x t e n s iv e . The C u r t i s P u b lis h in g Company h a s r e c e n t l y s o u g h t t o d is c o v e r th e key l e a d e r s i n a com m unity t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r in f lu e n c e o v e r o t h e r s i n t h e c h o ic e o f g r o c e ry s t o r e s and b ra n d p u r c h a s e s . The r e s e a r c h showed t h a t t h e c e n t e r s o f a d v e r t i s i n g pow er r e s i d e in th e n a t u r a l l e a d e r s o f a com m unity. The n a t u r a l l e a d e r s c a n a l s o be lo c a te d i n t h e w ork g r o u p s . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o c io m e tr ic te e h k n iq u e s m akes p o s s i b l e b o th im p ro v ed s e l e c t i o n o f s u p e r v i s o r , p e r s o n n e l, and l a b o r l e a d e r s a s w e ll a s t h e b u i l d in g o f g r e a t e r c o o p e r a tio n w ith in t h e w ork g ro u p . S o c io m e try w i l l w o rk , h o w ev er, o n ly u n d e r t h e f o llo w in g c o n d i t i o n s : 1 . The u s e o f s o c io m e try p re s u p p o s e s an i n t e r e s t i n w o rk e r’ s p r e f e r e n c e s and f e e l i n g s a s w e ll a s a r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e im p o rta n c e o f group r e l a t i o n s and m e m b ersh ip s. 2 . The u se o f s o c io m e try s e r v e s a s a d e m o c r a tic , a s o p p o sed t o a u t h o r i t a r i a n , a p p ro a c h t o p e r s o n n e l m anagem ent and governm ent o f w o rk e rs . 3 . The u se o f s o c io m e try e s t a b l i s h e s a c o n d itio n 13 0 t h a t w o rk e rs may be s h i f t e d i n l o c a t i o n w ith o u t change i n jo b d u t i e s . S o c ia l C lim a te and O c c u p a tio n a l B a se s The f o rm a tio n o f c l iq u e s i n a w ork p l a n t may o f te n be e x p la in e d i n te rm s o f o c c u p a tio n a l o r t e c h n i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s among th e w o rk e rs . T hose who have s i m i l a r o cc u p a t i o n s te n d t o form s t a t u s g ro u p s w ith in f o rm a l m em bership r u l e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n o c c u p a tio n s w h ich h av e a h ig h d e g re e o f s k i l l . H ere a g a in , s o c io m e try i s u se d f o r ”t h e s o c io m e tr ic p r o f i l e i s an a n a l y t i c a l t o o l w hich p e r m its exam in a t i o n o f t h e c o m p a ra tiv e s o c i a l s k i l l s o f a g iv e n jo b and p r o v id e s e s t i m a t e s o f th e s k i l l i n t e n s i t y w h ich i s d e m an d ed .” ^ I n a d d i t i o n to o c c u p a tio n , th e s o c i a l b a s e s o f i n fo rm a l g ro u p m em bership may be a g e , n a t i o n a l i t y , s e n i o r i t y , o r o th e r f a c t o r s . S o l i d a r i t y , a s d e s c r ib e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s s tu d y , a r i s i n g from t h e s e t i e s may th a n be e x p re s s e d th ro u g h o c c u p a tio n a l p r i d e , o r o t h e r su c h f a c t o r s . As t o p h y s ic a l s k i l l and w ork e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n o c c u p a tio n s an ”a n a l y s i s o f T . N. W h ite h e a d , b a s e d on e x p e rim e n ta l l^ D e lb e r t C. M i l l e r , ”The S o c ia l F a c to r s o f t h e Work S i t u a t i o n , ” A m erican S o c io lo g i c a l R eview . V o l. I I , No. 3 , d u n e, 1 9 4 6 , p . 3 1 2 . 131 f i n d i n g s , p o i n t s c o n c lu s iv e ly t o t h e s o c i a l s e t t i n g a s t h e c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e , w ith in l i m i t s o f p h y siq u e an d s k i l l , in w ork e f f e c t i v e n e s s * ” 15 S o c ia l C lim a te i n S o c ia l C o n tro l One o f th e p rim a ry f u n c tio n s o f in fo rm a l s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s o c i a l c o n t r o l . I t i s common know ledge i n i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t t h e m ere p re s e n c e o f o t h e r p e o p le in f lu e n c e s o r r e s t r a i n s t h e a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r o f in d iv id u a ls * In fo rm a l o r g a n iz a ti o n s e x i s t from th e to p t o t h e b o tto m o f th e i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e ; i t f o llo w s th e n t h a t e v e ry o n e ’ s b e h a v io r i s somewhat in f o r m a lly co n t r o l l e d * The in f o rm a l i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n i s made up o f many s m a ll th o u g h in te r c o n n e c te d g ro u p s , o p e r a t in g w ith i n a fo rm a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , from th e p o in t o f v iew o f th e s m a ll i n d i v i d u a l g r o u p s , s o c i a l c o n t r o l i s e x e r te d ( a ) in w a rd ly to w a rd i t s own m em bers, and (b ) o u tw a rd ly to w a rd o t h e r in f o rm a l g ro u p s and to w a rd th e f o rm a l o rg a n iz a ti o n s * I n d u s t r i a l S o c ia l P sychology A p p lie d The H aw thorne P la n t o f t h e W e ste rn E l e c t r i c Company l^ H e le n J e n n in g s , L e a d e rs h ip and I s o l a t i o n (Mew Y ork: Longm ans, G reen and Company, 1943)> p* 17- 132 w as t h e b e s t e a r l y s o c i o - i n d u s t r i a l c l a s s i c a l exam ple o f so c io m e try * E a r l i e r i n t h i s s tu d y , t h e a u th o r d e s c r ib e d th e s t u d i e s o f E o e th l is b e r g e r and D ick so n i n th e W estern E l e c t r i c e x p e rim e n t on w o rk in g c o n d i t i o n s , em ployee e f f i c ie n c y , w o rk e r’ s s t a t e d r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i r w o rk in g e n v iro n m e n t, a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r s t a t e d r e a c t i o n s , and t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f f i n d i n g s . I t w i l l be rem em bered t h a t in t h e r e l a y a sse m b ly room s t u d i e s , w h ich f i n a l l y c o v e re d a p e r io d o f f i v e y e a r s , a c ru d e s o c io m e tr ic p ro c e d u re was u se d i n s e l e c t i n g th e o r i g i n a l w o rk e rs who p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e ex p e rim en t* I n t h e t e s t room w ith t h i s g ro u p , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s and t h e s u p e r v is o r s w orked w ith t h e w o rk e ts in an in fo rm a l way i n p la n n in g and d i s c u s s in g t h e e x p e rim e n t. T h is was an e x p e rie n c e t h a t t h e w o rk e rs had n o t had p r e v io u s t o t h i s tim e# A f te r a p p ro x im a te ly f o u r m onths o f e x p e r im e n ta tio n , th e w o rk e rs f i l l e d o u t a q u e s tio n n a ir e c o n ta in in g some t h i r t e e n q u e s tio n s d e a lin g w ith home e n v iro n m e n t and g ro u p r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t was d is c o v e re d t h a t t h e w o rk e rs f e a r e d a u t h o r i t y . They p r e f e r r e d th e t e s t room s o c i a l c lim a te a s com pared t o t h e r e g u l a r r e l a y a ssem b ly d e p a rtm e n t. The w o rk e rs had fo rm ed a g ro u p w h ich m et o u ts id e o f w o rk in g h o u rs f o r s o c i a l a c t i v i t y , s u g g e s tin g a c o o p e r a tiv e g ro u p s p i r i t , a s w e ll a s e s t a b l i s h i n g a new s e t o f a t t i t u d e s 133 to w a rd s s u p e r v is io n . Hew g ro u p m em b ersh ip s and c o n f ig u r a t i o n s o f s o c i a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere fo u n d . T hese r e s u l t e d i n a new s o c i a l c lim a te i n th e w ork s i t u a t i o n . P ro d u c tio n in c r e a s e d . When th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e v e r t e d t o t h e o r i g i n a l w ork s i t u a t i o n o f a 4 ^ -h o u r w ork week w ith o u t r e s t p a u s e s , th e p r o d u c tio n , a lth o u g h d e c r e a s in g s l i g h t l y , w as a p p ro x im a te ly 1 2 t o 3 0 p e r c e n t h ig h e r th a n b e f o r e . A s e r i e s o f a d d i t i o n a l e x p e rim e n ts and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w ere c o n d u c te d t o t e s t c e r t a i n o r i g i n a l h y p o th e s e s , in c lu d in g th e e x tre m e ly co m p reh en siv e and c a r e f u l l y p la n n e d in te r v ie w in g p ro g ram . From t h i s o r i g i n a l s o c io m e tr ic s i t u a t i o n , t h r e e b a s ic f a c t o r s w ere d is c o v e r e d by t h e i n t e r v i e w e r s . F i r s t , a t r a i n e d in t e r v i e w e r can s e n s e and i n t e r p r e t m e a n in g fu lly th e re s p o n s e s o f t h e in te r v ie w e e i n a f r e e hype o f i n t e r v ie w . S eco n d , a change i n s u p e r v is o r y a t t i t u d e and m ethod o f s u p e r v is io n s h o u ld r e s u l t from a s tu d y o f t h e s e a t t i t u d e s and m e th o d s. T h ir d , w o rk e rs change i n r e l a t i o n to m anagem ent when g iv e n an o p p o r tu n ity t o p a r t i c i p a t e and t o e x p r e s s t h e i r f e e l i n g s , p r e f e r e n c e s , an d a t t i t u d e s . A g r e a t d e a l o f e f f o r t h a s b e e n ex p en d ed on th e p a r t o f in d u s t r y r e l a t i v e t o th e s c i e n t i f i c c o n t r o l o f m a jo r em ployee m o ra le f a c t o r s . Much tim e and e f f o r t h av e b e e n 134 s p e n t on b e h a lf o f t h e em ployes i n th e s e t t l i n g o f la b o r c o n t r a c t s r e g a r d in g w ag es, b o n u s e s , v a c a t i o n s , and many o t h e r m o rale f a c t o r s . H ow ever, l i t t l e o r no tim e h a s b een s p e n t on t h e d ev elo p m en t o f m eth o d o lo g y t o m easu re th e f a c t o r o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s . S o c io m e try i s a p a r t i a l an sw er to t h i s p ro b lem a s g ro u p s a r e s o c i o l o g i c a l w h o le s . The u n i t y o f t h e s e s o c i o l o g i c a l w h o les can b e d e f in e d i n th e same way a s th e u n i t y o f any o t h e r dynam ic w h o le , n am ely , by f i n d i n g th e in te rd e p e n d e n c e o f i t s p a r t s . K u rt Lew in d e s c r ib e d s o c i a l c lim a te a c c u r a t e l y when he s t a t e d : The g ro u p th e p e rs o n i s a p a r t o f , and th e c u l t u r e in w hich he l i v e s , d e te rm in e t o a v e ry h ig h d e g re e h i s b e h a v io r and c h a r a c t e r . T h ese s o c i a l f a c t o r s d e te rm in e w hat sp a c e o f f r e e move m ent he h a s , and how f a r he ca n lo o k ah e a d w ith some c l a r i t y i n t o th e f u t u r e . In o t h e r w o rd s, th e y d e te rm in e t o a la r g e d e g re e h i s p e r s o n a l s t y l e o f l i v i n g and th e d i r e c t i o n and p ro d u c t i v i t y o f h i s p l a n n i n g .16 ^ K u r t L ew in, R e s o lv in g S o c ia l C o n f l i c t s (New Y ork: H a rp e r, 194& ), p . $ 2 . CHAPTER T i l l THE C. B. TAN TORST CO M PA N Y The a u th o r o f t h i s s tu d y h as ch o sen t h e C. B. Tam T o r s t Company a s a t y p i c a l exam ple o f a s t a t u s s i t u a t i o n i n g ro u p d y n a m ic s. The p re c e d in g c h a p te r s have i l l u s t r a t e d t h e v a r io u s s o c i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s i n g ro u p d y n am ics, a s w e ll a s t h e i r c a u s e s and e f f e c t s * I n th e re m a in in g c h a p te r s o f t h i s s tu d y , t h e a u th o r w i l l a tte m p t t o p r e s e n t an exam ple o f g ro u p dynam ics i n a c t i o n i n a n o th e r a c t u a l c a s e h i s t o r y . The c a se o f t h e C. B. Tan T o r s t Company h a s heen c i t e d f o r tw o m ain r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e a u th o r i s c l o s e l y a s s o c ia t e d w ith t h e Company. S econd, t h e exam ple o f g ro u p dynam ics i n t h i s c a se c o v e rs a lo n g p e r io d o f tim e in v o lv in g s e v e r a l p e r io d s o f ch an g es i n b o th jo b and p e r s o n n e l m e th o d s. I I . H ISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND TYPE OF INDUSTRY H i s t o r i c a l B ackground o f t h e Company The C. B. Tan T o r s t Company^ was fo u n d ed by t h e a u th o r * s g r a n d f a th e r a t Los A n g e le s, C a l i f o r n i a i n 1091* ^-The C. B. Tan T o r s t Company w i l l h e r e a f t e r be r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e com pany. 136 At t h e p r e s e n t tim e th e company m a n u fa c tu re s m a ttr e s s e s an d box s p r in g s o n ly f o r t h e w h o le s a le t r a d e . The company d o es n o t a d v e r t i s e i t s p ro d u c t n o r d o es i t h av e a b ra n d nam e. I n s t e a d , a q u a l i t y ite m i s m a n u fa c tu re d a n d s o ld to t h e w h o le s a le t r a d e , g e n e r a lly u n d e r th e c u s t o m e r s nam e. The company d ep en d s m o s tly on t h e q u a l i t y o f i t s m erchan d i s e and t h e v e r s a t i l i t y and s e r v i c e o f i t s s a l e s a n d p ro d u c tio n d e p a rtm e n ts t o s e l l i t s m e rc h a n d is e . A long w ith th e com pany’ s p h y s ic a l f a c i l i t i e s , th e f ir m r e l i e s t o a g r e a t e x te n t on i t s name and c h a r a c t e r , a s w e ll a s th e s a le s m a n s h ip o f i t s r e t a i l d e a l e r s . A few o f th e com pany’ s c u s to m e rs a r e B a rk e r B r o s ., B u llo c k ’ s , The May Company, The B roadw ay, R o b in so n ’ s , D eard en ’ s , W. &. J . S lo a n e , M ontgom ery W ard, McMahon’ s , and S e a rs R oebuck. I t may be r e a l i z e d by th e r e a d e r o f t h i s stu d y t h a t in o rd e r t o m ain t a i n t h i s ty p e o f c l i e n t e l e th e company m ust have a p e rs o n n e l c a p a b le o f s u p e r io r s a l e s an d t e c h n i c a l a b i l i t y . A lso , q u a l i t y ite m s m ust be p ro d u ce d and e f f i c i e n t s e r v i c e m ain t a i n e d . Type o f I n d u s tr y in R eg ard t o P e rs o n n e l and L abor The C. B. Van V o rs t Company i s , in some r e s p e c t s , f o r t u n a t e t o be in t h e m a ttr e s s i n d u s t r y w ith r e g a r d t o la b o r and g ro u p d y n am ics. In th e f i r s t p la c e , th e m a ttr e s s i n d u s t r y , in m ost c a s e s , i s made up o f a g ro u p o f f ir m s who 137 a r e m o s tly a s s e m b le r s o f m a ttr e s s e s an d do n o t m a n u fa c tu re a l l o f t h e com ponent p a r t s o f th e m a t t r e s s e s . T h a t i s t o s a y , th e w ire i n n e r s p r i n g s , s i s a l p a d s , c l o t h t i c k i n g , box s p r in g fra m e s , an d o th e r f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e made o r p ro c e s s e d in o th e r p l a n t s ( e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e w e s t ) . T hese raw m a t e r i a l s a r e p u rc h a s e d an d th e n a sse m b le d i n t o f i n is h e d p r o d u c ts . T h e r e f o r e , m ost o f th e c o s t o f t h e f i n is h e d p ro d u c t t o t h e m a ttr e s s m a n u fa c tu re r i s in th e raw m a t e r i a l s . W h ile t h i s te n d s t o make c o m p e titio n e x tre m e ly k ee n i n r e g a r d t o t h e p u rc h a s e o f raw m a t e r i a l s , la b o r n e c e s s a r i l y i s a r e l a t i v e l y low p e r c e n ta g e o f t h e c o s t p r i c e . I n one r e s p e c t , t h i s i3 a d is a d v a n ta g e due t o th e f a c t t h a t la b o r e f f i c i e n c y o f one f a c t o r y d o e s n o t r u l e o u t a l t o g e t h e r a n o th e r f a c t o r y w hich i s l e s s e f f i c i e n t . How e v e r , i n to d a y 1s la b o r m a rk e t, e a c h in c re m e n t o f la b o r sa v ed i s im p o rta n t i n b o th d o l l a r s an d g ro u p d y n am ic s. The m a t tr e s s i n d u s t r y , a s a w h o le , i s a b le t o e n t e r t h e la b o r m a rk e t and b a r g a in f o r s e r v i c e s f a v o r a b ly . W ith r e l a t i v e l y low la b o r c o s t s , th e f ir m s a r e a b l e t o o f f e r h ig h e r w ages a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a r e more a b le t o p ic k an d ch o o se t h e i r em p lo y ee s. T h is c o n d itio n l e s s e n s t h e p ro b lem o f g ro u p d y n am ics i n tw o w ays. F i r s t , t h e la b o r f o r c e in th e m a ttr e s s i n d u s t r y i s s m a lle r a n d , t h e r e f o r e , g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n i s re d u c e d b y th e s m a lle r w ork f o r c e . S eeond, 13 8 t h e h ig h e r wage l e v e l m akes i t p o s s i b le t o p ic k and ch o o se b e t t e r q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l. The l a t t e r p o in t i s made e a s i e r due t o th e f a c t t h a t th e jo b e v a lu a t io n l e v e l , e s p e c i a l l y in r e g a r d t o s k i l l in t h e i n d u s t r y , i s v e ry low i n co m p ariso n t o o th e r i n d u s t r i e s . M ost o f t h e m a ttr e s s i n d u s t r i e s a r e u n d e r o rg a n iz e d l a b o r . The C. B. Tan T o r s t Company i s p ro b a b ly t h e m ost o u ts ta n d in g exam ple on th e W est C o ast o f a n o n u n io n f a c t o r y i n t h e i n d u s t r y . Some o f t h e r e a s o n s why t h e company i s n o t u n io n iz e d a r e due t o t h e n a tu r e o f t h e b u s in e s s . The management o f t h e company f e e l s , how ev er, t h a t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t so many o th e r com panies in t h e i n d u s t r y a r e u n io n iz e d t h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e c a s e . However, t h e a u th o r o f t h i s s tu d y f e e l s t h a t t h e r e a r e many r e a s o n s why t h e company i s n o t u n io n iz e d . The m ain r e a s o n i s due p r i n c i p a l l y t o a lo n g h i s t o r y o f e n lig h te n e d le a d e r s h i p an d p e r s o n n e l p r a c t i c e s . I I . PERSONNEL PRACTICES OF THE COM PANY S e le c ti o n P o lic y The s e l e c t i o n an d h i r i n g p o lic y i s one o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f em ployee an d em p lo y er r e l a t i o n s h ip s in t h e C. B. Tan T o r s t Company. As s t a t e d i n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p te r , s e l e c t i o n o f w o rk e rs i s made e a s i e r 139 th ro u g h t h i s ty p e o f i n d u s t r y ’ s lo w la b o r c o s t s . A lth o u g h s e l e c t i o n o f w o rk e rs i s e a s i e r i n t h i s ty p e o f i n d u s t r y , n e v e r t h e l e s s , s tu d e n ts o f g ro u p d y n am ics know t h a t i n an y g ro u p w h ere i n t e r a c t i o n t a k e s p la c e s e l e c t i o n a lo n e d o e s n o t s o lv e th e g ro u p a c t i o n s o r r e a c tio n s * E ase o f s e l e c t i o n h e lp s o n ly i n th e q u a n t i t a t i v e and n o t n e c e s s a r i l y q u a l i t a t i v e f a c t o r s o f h i r i n g . The company h a s an e x c e p t i o n a l l y h ig h lo n g e v ity r a t e among i t s f a c t o r y em p lo y ees, and i n some y e a r s t h i s lo n g e v ity h a s a v e ra g e d t h i r t e e n y e a r s p e r em p lo y ee. A g r e a t d e a l ©f c r e d i t f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n can b e a t t r i b u t e d t o one man— t h e f a c t o r y s u p e r in t e n d e n t . F o r t h e l a s t tw e n ty -s e v e n y e a r s , t h i s man h a s b ee n s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b le 2 f o r t h e h i r i n g and f i r i n g o f t h e f a c t o r y p e r s o n n e l. T h is in i t s e l f i s a u n iq u e s i t u a t i o n due t o t h e f a c t t h a t m ost o f te n fo rem en a r e r e s p o n s i b le f o r h i r i n g em p lo y ees an d u s u a l l y f o r la y in g o f f o r f i r i n g em p lo y ee s. T h ere a r e some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t h im s e lf r e f l e c t e c i n e a c h p e rs o n he h i r e s . The s u p e r in te n d e n t i s o f a v e ry h ig h m o ra l c h a r a c te r , a s w e ll a s h a v in g a h ig h s ta n d a r d o f c le a n l i v i n g . T hese same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may b e fo u n d i n ^The a u th o r w ould l i k e t o comment t h a t tw e n ty -s e v e n y e a r s o f s e r v i c e a s s u p e r in te n d e n t o f one p a r t i c u l a r com p an y i s a r e c o r d i n i t s e l f . e v e ry one o f t h e p e o p le he h a s h ire d .. S u p e r v is io n o f t h e em ployees i s made e a s i e r b e c a u se o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e o n ly a b o u t 115 em p lo y ee s. The s u p e r in te n d e n t p e r s o n a lly in te r v ie w s and i n s t r u c t s ea c h and e v e ry new em ployee, a n d , due t o h i s l e n g th o f s e r v ic e w ith t h e com pany, t h e r e a r e few em ployees i n t h e eompany who h av e n o t b ee n h ir e d by him . I n p la c in g t h e em ployee in h i s p ro p e r w ork p o s i t i o n , h i s a b i l i t y , b ac k g ro u n d , an d p e r s o n a l c h o ic e o f w ork a r e c a r e f u l l y c o n s id e r e d , P r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry r a c e an d c re e d a r e r e p r e s e n te d i n t h e em ployees o f t h i s com pany, an d c o l o r , r a c i a l , o r p e r s o n a l d is c r i m in a tio n i s p r a c t i c a l l y u n h e a rd o f , S o c io m e try h a s b een an d i s p r a c t i c e d w henever p o s s i b l e . O fte n t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t i s a s k e d by th e em ployees t o h i r e t h e i r f r i e n d s , r e l a t i v e s , o r a c q u a in ta n c e s w henever w o rk e rs a r e n e e d e d . As a r e s u l t t h e company h a s many f a m i l i e s o f f a t h e r and s o n s , b r o t h e r s , o r o th e r r e l a t i v e s . The em ployees a r e p la c e d i n w o rk in g te am s o f t h e i r own p r e f e r e n c e w henever and w h e re v e r p o s s i b l e . Em ployee B e n e f its A n o th er f a c t o r w hieh h a s a id e d em ployee m o ra le and em ployee and em p lo y er r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t h e em ployee f r i n g e b e n e f i t s , a s w e ll a s t h e g e n e r a l w o rk in g c o n d i t i o n s . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e em p lo y ee’ s work week i s e q u iv a le n t t o th e 141 n a t i o n a l a v e ra g e o f 3 9 •4 h o u rs p e r w eek. M anagement h as in tr o d u c e d in n o v a tio n s an d p e r s o n n e l p r a c t i c e s w hich have b een v e ry e f f e c t i v e in s t a b i l i z i n g em ploym ent. M ost o f t h e tim e t h e em ployees can be a s s u r e d o f tw o d ay s a week o f f f o r r e s t th ro u g h o u t t h e y e a r — a s i t u a t i o n w hich t h e com pany f e e l s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e h ig h e s t p r o d u c t i v i t y d u r in g t h e work w eek. On th e o th e r h an d , t h e m a ttr e s s b u s i n e s s i s q u i t e s e a s o n a l, e n a b lin g t h e em ployee t o r e c e i v e enough o v e rtim e d u r in g t h e y e a r t o g iv e him th e f e e l i n g t h a t he h a s t h e o p p o r tu n ity o f m aking more money. Wages w h ich a r e alw ay s a m ajo r f a c t o r a r e a l s o c a r e f u l l y c o n s id e r e d . The em p lo y ees a r e v e ry w e ll p a id f o r t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f jo b e v a l u a t i o n . As com pared t o t h e in d u s t r y a s a w hole t h e wage s c a le o f t h i s company i s c o n s id e r a b ly h ig h e r . T h is , o f c o u r s e , i s an im p o rta n t f a c t o r i n e s t a b l i s h i n g em ployee r e l a t i o n s and b u ild in g m o ra le . The wage s c a l e i s c a r e f u l l y c o n s id e re d an d r e view ed f r e q u e n t l y in t h i s com pany. A lth o u g h th e company d o e s n o t have a fo rm a l y e a r-e n d C h ristm a s b o n u s, i t d o es p ay a bo n u s b a s e d on le n g th o f s e r v i c e an d wage s t a t u s . I t i s n o t uncommon f o r a n em ployee t o r e c e iv e c o n s id e r a b ly m ore th a n a n a v e ra g e m o n th s s a l a r y in t h e fo rm o f a b o n u s. A sid e fro m t h e u s u a l v a c a tio n - w ith - p a y b e n e f i t s , t h e r e a r e many o t h e r b e n e f i t s o f f e r e d by t h e com pany, su c h 142 a s se v en p a id h o lid a y s p e r y e a r ( th e a v e ra g e f o r t h i s ty p e i n d u s t r y i s s i x o r l e s s ) , p r e p a id l i f e in s u r a n c e p o l i c i e s on each em p lo y ee, p r e p a id g ro u p h e a l t h and w e lf a r e p o l i c i e s and many more* The h e a l t h an d m e d ic a l p la n i s a s l i b e r a l a s an y t h a t can b e p u rc h a s e d r e a s o n a b ly f o r an y g ro u p o f i t s s i z e . B e n e f its o f th e t y p e m en tio n ed ab o v e a r e n o t o n ly c o s t l y t o m anagem ent, b u t a r e o f te n o v e rlo o k e d . How e v e r , th e y n o t o n ly s a t i s f y t h e b a s ic h e e d s o f t h e em ployees b u t h e lp t o s o lv e a n x i e t i e s o f in d i v i d u a l s n o t u s u a l l y r e c o g n iz e d in em ployee r e l a t i o n s . G rie v a n c e P ro c e d u re an d L e a d e rs h ip in G e n e ra l One o f t h e b a s ic f a c t o r s f o r t h e t r a n q u i l i t y o f em ployee an d em p lo y er r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e company i s due t o t h e q u ic k a d j u d ic a tio n o f g r ie v a n c e s . I t h a s alw a y s b een an u n w r itte n r u l e i n th e C. B. Van V o rs t Company t h a t " th e P r e s i d e n t s d o o r i s a lw a y s o p e n .” The em p lo y ee s, a s w e ll a s t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t, know t h a t i f t h e i r c o m p la in ts a r e n o t h a n d le d in a m anner s a t i s f a c t o r y t o them th e y can ta k e i t t o a h ig h e r a u t h o r i t y . Top m anagem ent o f t h e company makes i t a p o lic y t o s e e ea ch a n d e v e ry em ployee a lm o s t e v e ry d a y . T h is g iv e s t h e em ployee an o p p o r tu n ity t o become a c q u a in te d w ith to p m anagem ent an d m akes th e " s t e p i n t o t h e b o s s 1 o f f i c e e a s i e r t o t a k e . " G rie v a n c e s , 143 a s w e ll a s g ro u p c o n f l i c t , a r e u s u a l l y h a n d le d a s q u ic k ly a s p o s s i b l e ; how ever, a s i s t r u e i n e v e ry f a e t o r y s i t u a T t i o n , some a r e n o t b ro u g h t o u t i n t o th e open im m e d ia te ly . Top m anagem ent l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e C. B. Van V o rs t Company aim s to be p a t e r n a l i s t i c . T hro u g h o u t th e h i s t o r y o f t h e company i t h a s a p p l ie d a f ir m a t t i t u d e w ith r e g a r d t o m anagem ent, e s p e c i a l l y in r e g a r d t o su c h ite m s a s m o ral c h a r a c t e r , a c c u ra c y o f in f o r m a tio n an d f i g u r e s , t a r d i n e s s , i n t e g r i t y , an d em ployee r e l a t i o n s . W ith r e g a r d to em ployee b e n e f i t s , w ag es, le n ie n c y i n p e r s o n a l m a t t e r s , and t h e m a in te n a n c e o f h ig h p r o d u c t i v i t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e em p lo y e e s , t h e company h a s b een v e ry p a t e r n a l i s t i c . T h is a t t i t u d e o f t o p m anagem ent h a s p a id o f f e x tre m e ly w e ll f o r t h e company in t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a l o y a l , c o n g e n ia l, a s w e ll a s h a rd w o rk in g , c o o p e r a tiv e g ro u p o f em p lo y ee s. I I I . THE RESTRICTION OF OUTPUT IN THE COM PANY G roup dynam ics h a s th e same fu n d a m e n ta l f a u l t t h a t a l l s u b j e c t s in s o c i a l s c ie n c e h a v e , t h a t i s , t h e r e i s no one a n sw e r t o th e p ro b lem s a r i s i n g . Many books have been w ro tte n on t h e c a u s e s a n d e f f e c t s o f g ro u p d y n am ics, w ith many a p p ro a c h e s t o t h e s i t u a t i o n s and none o f them e x a c tl y a l i k e . T h e re i s no one an sw er t o g ro u p s i t u a t i o n s . As lo n g a s t h e r e a r e p e o p le , an d e s p e c i a l l y g ro u p s o f p e o p le , 144 t h e r e w i l l h e d i f f e r e n c e s in id e a s and a c t i o n s . P e o p le r a i s e d i n t h e same f a m ily o r even m a rrie d p e o p le do n o t a lw a y s a g r e e . T h e r e f o r e , i t c a n n o t b e e x p e c te d t h a t a g ro u p w i l l a lw a y s r e a c t an d work h a rm o n io u s ly t o g e t h e r . F o llo w in g t h e s tu d y o f t h e b a s i c c o n c e p ts o f w hat c a u s e s g ro u p d y n am ics, some o f w hich h av e b ee n em p h asized in p re v io u s c h a p te r s , t h e n e x t s t e p i s t h e s tu d y o f c a s e h i s t o r i e s . C ase h i s t o r i e s p r e s e n te d o b j e c t i v e l y w i l l n o t o n ly b r in g o u t some o f t h e c a u s e s o f g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n s b u t w i l l show p o s s i b le a p p ro a c h e s t o t h e a n sw e rs o f t h e p ro b le m s . The Box S p rin g P roblem R ev iew in g p r e v io u s c h a p te r s o f t h i s s tu d y r e l a t i v e t o th e C. B. Van V o rs t Company, one w ould be l e d t o b e l ie v e t h a t th e company h a s n e v e r had an y g ro u p p ro b le m s . O b je c t i v e l y s p e a k in g , a s f a r a s i n d u s t r i a l g ro u p s g o , t h e com pany i s a b o u t a s sm ooth r u n n in g a s i s fo u n d a n y w h e re . H ow ever, p ro b lem s do a r i s e . F o r a n exam ple o f a e a s e h i s t o r y t o b e p r e s e n te d i n t h i s s tu d y , th e a u th o r h a s ch o sen p ro b a b ly t h e com pany1s m ost d i f f i c u l t and c e r t a i n l y t h e m ost i n t e r e s t i n g s o c i a l p ro b lem i t h a s been c a l l e d upon t o s o lv e . The box s p r in g p ro b lem was ch o sen b e c a u se i t h a s a lo n g h i s t o r y c o n n e c te d w ith i t , a g ro u p dynam ics b ac k g ro u n d , s in c e more th a n one s o l u t i o n w as t r i e d , an d b e c a u s e 145 t h e p ro b lem w as s o lv e d m a in ly b e c a u s e o f t h e f i n a l s o l u t i o n u s e d . The box s p r in g p ro b lem a p p e a re d t o be a sim p le o n e— a t y p i c a l p ro b lem i n i n d u s t r y . I t c o n c e rn e d th e g ro u p r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t. M anagem ent was aw are o f t h e p ro b le m 1s e x is te n c e i n th e e a r l y s ta g e s b u t d id n o t r e a l i z e t o w hat e x t e n t i t e x i s t e d u n t i l a tim e s tu d y program w as d e v e lo p e d in t h e l a s t few y e a r s o f i t s e x i s t e n c e . The e v e n ts t h a t b ro u g h t a b o u t th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e box s p r in g p ro b lem a r e r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g a n d v e ry t y p i c a l o f many c a s e s w ith o ld e r f ir m s becom ing more m odern. I n t h e p a s t , m anagem ent to o k c o n s id e r a b le tim e an d e f f o r t i n a tte m p tin g t o e s t a b l i s h p o l i c i e s and p r a c t i c e s t h a t w ere f a i r and b e n e f i c i a l t o b o th em ployees and e m p lo y e r. W hile m anagem ent had p r o g re s s e d and had becom e m odern in many o f i t s m a n a g e ria l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , i t h a d , a t th e same tim e , n o t k e p t up w ith s e v e r a l o f i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . Two o f t h e s e w ere p r o d u c tio n m ethods and te c h n iq u e s o f g ro u p d y n am ics. The p r o d u c tio n m ethods i n c lu d in g la b o r e v a lu a t io n , u t i l i z a t i o n , s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , a n d , m ost im p o r ta n t, la b o r m ethod te c h n o lo g y p r e s e n te d a p ro b lem w h ich was p a r t i a l l y s o lv e d by t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a tim e s tu d y p ro g ram in c lu d in g t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a jo b e v a lu a t io n p ro g ra m . A work m easurem ent program w ith f ix e d s ta n d a r d s o f b o th s to p w atch and m ethod tim e m easurem ent w ere i n s t a l l e d . T hen, an e x te n s iv e p h y s ic a l s tu d y o f p r o d u c tio n m ethods w as m ade, r e s u l t i n g in th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new equipm ent and m a n u fa c tu rin g in n o v a tio n s . The seco n d m a n a g e ria l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w hich m anage m ent had n o t m o d ern ized w as t h e te c h n iq u e s o f g ro u p d y n am ics. W hile m anagem ent w as aw are o f c e r t a i n g ro u p s i t u a t i o n s i t d id n o t r e a l i z e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e s e g ro u p s i t u a t i o n s w ith r e g a r d t o p r o d u c tio n , m o ra le , and t h e g e n e r a l e f f i c i e n c y o f th e w hole p l a n t . T h u s, a s in t h e c a s e o f t h e box s p r i n g p ro b le m , m anagem ent som etim es p e r m itte d a p ro b lem t o c o n tin u e l e s t a m ore s e r i o u s one d e v e lo p e d , n o t r e a l i z i n g t h a t o f te n t h e c a u s e s an d e f f e c t s o f v a r io u s g ro u p dynam ic s i t u a t i o n s a r e t h e c a u s e o f m ost o f t h e p ro b le m s . T hrough u n d e r s ta n d in g t h e fu n d a m e n ta l c a u s e s o f t h e s e g ro u p dynam ic s i t u a t i o n s t h e s e p ro b lem s w ere s o lv e d . N ot u n t i l t h i s a p p ro a c h was u se d d id t h e company s o lv e i t s box s p r in g p ro b le m . T h u s, m anagem ent fo u n d a n o th e r v a lu a b le m anagem ent t o o l . The e v e n ts an d c o n d itio n s le a d in g up t o t h e s e p ro b lem s a n d t h e i r s o lu t i o n s a r e d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p te r . A Box S p rin g T oday, a m a ttr e s s an d box s p r in g a r e s o ld a s a 147 co m p lete s e t o r s le e p in g u n i t . The box s p r in g s e r v e s a s a f ir m s u p p o rt f o r t h e m a ttr e s s a s w e ll a s a d d in g h e ig h t; and co m fo rt q u a l i t i e s t o t h e m a t tr e s s . I t c o n s i s t s o f a wooden fram e on th e u n d e r s id e t o w hich a r e s t a p l e d h eav y gage c o i l s p r in g s jo in e d t o g e t h e r w ith w ir e . The s p r in g s a r e th e n i n s u l a t e d w ith e i t h e r a s i s a l i n s u l a t i o n pad o r o th e r ty p e s o f i n s u l a t i o n . I t i s th e n c o v e re d w ith a c o tto n l i n t e r s b a t t o f c o tto n w hieh i s p la c e d on to p o f th e i n s u l a t i o n . The w hole b o x s p r in g , e x c e p t th e b o tto m s i d e , i s th e n c o v e re d w ith a c l o t h t i c k i n g and s ta p le d to th e wooden fra m e . A m u slin c l o t h i s s t a p l e d to t h e b o tto m s id e o f t h e box s p r in g , s e r v in g a s a d u s t c o v e r a s w e ll a s a c o v e r o v e r th e b a r e wooden fra m e . IV . THE BOX SPRING DEPARTMENT PERSONNEL F o r p u rp o s e s o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e box s p r in g p ro b lem w i l l b e d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e b a s ic p e r i o d s . The f i r s t p e r io d w i l l be fro m 1 9 2 5 t o 1 9 3 5 * I h e se c o n d p e r io d w i l l b e from 1 9 3 5 t o 1955- The t h i r d and l a s t p e r io d w i l l b e fro m 1955 t o 1 9 5 6 . A lth o u g h t h e p e rs o n n e l d e s c r ib e d in t h i s c h a p te r w ere n o t a l l i n t h e g ro u p s in c e 1 9 2 5 , th e y w ere i n t h e g ro u p d u rin g t h e s t r a t e g i c p e r io d o f c o n f l i c t , r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t, an d d u r in g t h e m ain p e r io d o f e f f e c t i v e c h a n g e s . 1 4 3 I n t h i s s tu d y , t h e num ber o f members in t h e g ro u p d u rin g e a c h p e r io d w i l l be g iv e n and e a c h member w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d . Members o f t h e Group The number o f em ployees i n t h e g ro u p d u r in g t h e t h r e e b a s ic p e r io d s o f t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t p ro b lem v a r i e d . D u rin g a l l t h r e e p e r io d s , how ever, t h e r e w ere t e n em ployees who c o u ld be i d e n t i f i e d w ith t h e g ro u p . T h ese t e n em p lo y ees c o n s t i t u t e d t h e b a s ic g ro u p members th r o u g h to t h e p r e s e n t g ro u p m em bership. Em ployee 4 was th e o l d e s t member o f t h e g ro u p in b o th s e n i o r i t y an d a g e . M e was p r o te c te d by t h e g ro u p an d s e t t h e p r o d u c tio n p ac e f o r t h e g ro u p . B ein g t h e s lo w e s t member o f t h e g ro u p , th e y conform ed t o h i s p ac e s e t t i n g s ta n d a r d s . A i s now 65 y e a rs o f ag e an d h a s b e e n w ith t h e f ir m f o r o v e r tw e n ty -tw o y e a r s . Em ployee B was A 's p a r t n e r in m aking box s p r in g s d u r in g t h e p e r io d o f r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t• B i s now 6 1 y e a r s o f ag e an d h a s b een w ith t h e company f o r t h i r t e e n y e a r s . He w as h i r e d d u r in g t h e W orld War I I p e r io d when manpower s h o r ta g e was c r i t i c a l , and b e c a u se o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n h e w as a llo w e d t o slum p i n t o p o o r w o rk in g h a b i t s . B was t h e n a t u r a l p a r t n e r f o r A s in c e b o th w ere a b o u t t h e same ag e an d s i z e , a c o n d i t i o n w hich i n th e box s p r in g s i n d u s t r y m akes i t e a s i e r to w ork t o g e t h e r . Em ployee C was t h e son o f em ployee A, an d h a s b een w ith t h e eompany f o r tw e n ty y e a r s . He i s 3# y e a r s o ld . D u rin g t h e w a r, G w as in t h e arm ed f o r e e s . He r e tu r n e d t o h i s o ld jo b a f t e r he was r e l e a s e d from s e r v i c e . The b e s t w o rk er o f th e g ro u p , a s w e ll a s th e f a s t e s t , was em ployee C. Em ployee D w as t h e p a r t n e r o f em ployee G in t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t. D i s A 1 y e a r s o f ag e and h a s been w ith t h e company s e v e n te e n y e a r s . He w as th e n a t u r a l a g i t a t o r f o r t h e g ro u p a n d w as t h e one who p r o te c te d t h e g ro u p members fro m t h e o u t s i d e . A ll o f t h e c o m p la in ts and g r ie v a n c e s f o r t h e g ro u p w ere h a n d le d b y him . He i s o f I t a l i a n e x t r a c t i o n and i s a n a t u r a l b o rn le a d e r — th ro u g h t a l k b u t n o t th ro u g h w o rk . A lth o u g h he was a good workm an, he n e v e r was a good company man. Em ployee E , 37 y e a r s o ld , h a s b ee n w ith t h e company sev en y e a r s . He t r i e d to le a d t h e g ro u p i n p r o d u c tio n on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s b u t was b e a te n down b e c a u se he d id n o t w ant t o become u n p o p u la r w ith t h e g ro u p , and so he w ent a lo n g w ith t h e g ro u p . Em ployee F was t h e p a r t n e r o f em ployee E . He i s o f J a p a n e s e h e r i t a g e an d was a v e ry good workman. He was v e ry p o p u la r w ith h i s f e llo w em p lo y e e s. H aving b een w ith 150 t h e company o n ly tw o y e a r s , he t r i e d t o make h i s jo b more s e c u re by b r e a k in g th e p r o d u c tio n s ta n d a r d s e t b y th e g ro u p on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s o n ly t o be s u p p re s s e d by them . Em ployee 2 , o f M exican d e s c e n t, i s 2 7 y e a r s o ld and h a s been w ith t h e company se v en y e a r s . He had t h e jo b o f i n s u l a t i n g t h e box s p r in g s b e f o r e th e y w ere a sse m b le d and h i s p r o d u c tio n w as l i m i t e d t o t h e number o f b o x s p r in g s th e o th e r t h r e e tw o-m an crew s f i n i s h e d . A ls o , em ployee 2 d id some s e r v i c e w ork. He was v e ry p o p u la r w ith h i s f e llo w w o rk e rs , a n a t u r a l a t h l e t e , a m b id e x tro u s , a n d v e ry e a s y g o in g . Em ployee 3 i s 22 y e a r s o f age an d h a s b een w ith th e company l e s s th a n tw o y e a r s . He w as in tr o d u c e d t o th e g ro u p i n t h e l a s t p h a s e o f t h e t h i r d p e r io d and w as th e f a s t e s t workman o f t h e new g ro u p . Em ployee 4 , 2S y e a r s o f a g e , h a s b ee n w ith t h e com pany a l i t t l e o v e r tw o y e a r s . He a l s o jo in e d th e box s p r in g g ro u p d u rin g p e r io d t h r e e . Em ployee 1 h a s b een w ith th e company n in e y e a r s and i s 29 y e a r s o f a g e . He h a s h ad more fo rm a l e d u c a tio n th a n t h e o th e r members o f t h e g ro u p a n d was c o n s id e re d th e le a d e r ©f t h e g ro u p by t h e m anagem ent. He h a s alw ay s b een a ” company m an,” p o s s e s s in g a w e ll- o r g a n iz e d m in d . W hile he w as n o t th e b e s t workm an, n e v e r t h e l e s s , h e w as l a t e r 151 prom oted, to t h e p o s i t i o n o f forem an b e c a u s e o f h is many c a p a b i l i t i e s and o r g a n i z a ti o n a l t a l e n t s . Em ployee 1 was p r i n c i p a l l y a s e r v ic e man f o r t h e d e p a rtm e n t in t h e se co n d p e r io d , a n d , l a t e r o n , d id t h e o r d e r in g o f box s p r i n g s . At a l a t e r d a t e , how ever, h e became fo rem an o f th e d e p a r t ment . A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an d w ork p o s i t i o n s o f t h e p e r s o n n e l i n t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t d u r in g i t s b a s ic p e r io d o f o u tp u t r e s t r i c t i o n a s w e ll a s th e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p ro b lem h a s b een p r e s e n te d i n th e p re c e d in g p a r a g r a p h s . A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f each member o f t h e g ro u p w ould ta k e many p a g e s o f w r i t i n g , b u t th e i n t e r a c t i o n s an d r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een th e members o f th e g ro u p w i l l be p r e s e n te d in th o s e c h a p te r s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e t h r e e b a s i c p e r io d s o f th e p ro b lem . V. PERIOD ONE OF THE BOX SPRING DEPARTMENT PROBLEM The box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t, a s s u c h , o f t h e C. B. Van V o rs t Company had i t s b e g in n in g a p p ro x im a te ly in 1 925. P r i o r t o t h i s tim e , m ost o f t h e m a ttr e s s e s s o ld w ere o f t h e ty p e t h a t w ere p la c e d on c o i l s p r in g s o r some o th e r ty p e o f s u p p o r t. I n 1925, t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t had tw o em ployees i n i t . T h ere w as t h e m il lw r i g h t, whose jo b was t o make t h e wooden fra m e f o r t h e box s p r in g . Then 152 t h e r e was t h e box s p r in g m aker whose jo b c o n s is te d o f m aking t h e box s p r i n g . Em ployee A was t h e com pany 1 s o n ly box s p r in g u p h o l s t e r e r in 1 9 2 5 . H is Job was t o ta k e th e wooden fra m e and s t a p l e w ire c o i l s t o i t . N e x t, he w ould hand t i e c o rd fro m s p r in g t o s p r in g t o s u p p o rt t h e c o i l s an d k ee p them in p l a c e . A f te r t h i s t a s k was co m p leted he w ould i n s u l a t e t h e box s p r in g s w ith one o f s e v e r a l t y p e s o f i n s u l a t i o n on to p o f w hich a b a t t o f c o tto n l i n t e r s was l a i d . The box s p r i n g c o v e r ( c l o t h t i c k i n g c o v e rin g t h e c o i l s an d fra m e) was th e n s t a p l e d o n to t h e fra m e a n d m u slin w as s t a p l e d t o th e b o tto m s id e o f th e fra m e . The f i n a l t a s k i n t h e o p e r a tio n was t o n a i l h a n d le s o n to t h e com p l e t e d box s p r in g . The box s p r in g w as th e n r e a d y t o be p ack ed f o r s h ip p in g . T h is t a s k was a ls o p e rfo rm e d by em ployee A i n 1925* Em ployee A w ould have a n e x c e p ti o n a ll y good d a y 1s p r o d u c tio n i f h e co m p leted tw o b o x s p r in g s p e r d a y . By 1 9 3 5t a change i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e box s p r in g s h a v in g b een m ade, and s e v e r a l m ore em ployees ad d e d t o t h e d e p a rtm e n t, t h e p ro d u c tio n o f t h e d e p a rtm e n t w as in c r e a s e d t o a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty - f o u r box s p r in g s p e r d a y . A lth o u g h t h e b o x s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t d id n o t have a g ro u p a t t h i s tim e , p e r io d one was im p o rta n t i n t h e a n a ly s i s o f t h e p ro b lem i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . I n th e f i r s t p la c e , th e m ethod o f c o n s t r u c ti n g box s p r in g s sh o u ld b e o b s e rv e d . T h is d e p a rtm e n t was t y p i c a l o f oany o t h e r s in i n d u s t r y . In 1925, t h e r e w ere o n ly one o r tw o box s p r in g s c o n s tr u c te d i n a d ay an d a l l w ork was done by s k i l l e d l a b o r . A ls o , th e box s p r i n g m aker was c l a s s i f i e d a s an u p h o l s t e r e r . The journeym an r a t e f o r an u p h o l s t e r e r w as a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty c e n ts an h o u r more th a n f o r an y o f t h e o th e r p r o d u c tio n e m p lo y e e s. T oday, a s in p e r io d t h r e e , t h e box s p r in g m ak er’ s jo b i s c l a s s i f i e d a s s e m i - s k i l l e d l a b o r . The e v a lu a tio n o f th e jo b i s r a t h e r low in co m p ariso n t o many o th e r p r o d u c tio n jo b s in t h e p l a n t . E m ployees A and B w ere t h e o n ly s k i l l e d u p h o l s t e r e r s i n t h e g ro u p d u rin g p e r io d tw o . Em ployee B was d o in g th e same ty p e o f w ork a s em ployee A in 1925, o n ly in a n o th e r p l a n t . T h is jo b d e s c r i p t i o n and e v a lu a tio n w as an im p o r t a n t f a c t o r in t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t i n p e r io d tw o . P e rio d one can b e s t be d e s c r ib e d a s a p e r io d o f low p r o d u c tio n , w ith a h ig h d e g re e o f s k i l l e d la b o r , and a p e r io d w here t h e r e was l i t t l e o r no g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n p e r s e , b u t a p e r io d i n w h ich h a b i t s w ere fo rm ed hy th e o ld e r s k i l l e d em ployees t h a t w ere t o a f f e c t t h e f o llo w in g p e r i o d ’ s o u tp u t and a t t i t u d e . 154 V I, PERIOD T W O OF THE B O X SPRING DEPARTMENT PROBLEM The seco n d p e r io d o f t h e box s p r in g p ro b lem was from 1935 t o 1955* D u rin g t h i s p e r io d , s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t ch an g es w ere made in th e d e p a rtm e n t. F i r s t , t h e r e was a change in t h e m ethod o f c o n s tr u c t i n g box s p r i n g s . S econd, t h e r e was t h e in t r o d u c t io n o f a la b o r e v a lu a tio n and tim e s tu d y p ro g ram . T h ir d , an d p ro b a b ly th e m ost s ig n i f ic a n t f a c t o r d u r in g t h i s p e r io d , a dynam ic g ro u p was form ed i n th e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t. The g ro u p ’ s s o l i d a r i t y , b a r r i e r s , a c c e p ta n c e s , and p r e s s u r e s w ere t o a f f e c t th e d e p a rtm e n t an d t h e company f o r t h e n e x t t e n t o f i f t e e n y e a r s w ith o u t a m a jo r change ta k i n g p la c e i n t h e g ro u p ’ s i n t e r a c t i o n s o r p r o d u c tio n . The F i r s t Change in P ro d u c tio n The f i r s t m ajo r change in t h e p ro d u c tio n o f box s p r in g s s in c e th e company beg an c o n s tr u c tio n o f them was i n 1935* At t h i s tim e , an o u ts id e f ir m behan t o p ro d u c e t h e b a s i c box s p r in g . T h at i s , th e y made t h e wooden box s p r in g fram e and a tta c h e d t h e w ire c o i l s an d b o rd e r w ire t o t h e fra m e . T hen, when t h e C. B. Van V o rs t Company r e c e iv e d t h e box s p r i n g s , th e y w ere a l r e a d y p a r t i a l l y a s s e m b le d . The com pany’ s jo b was t o i n s u l a t e th e s p r in g , c o v e r t h e i n s u l a t i o n w ith c o t to n , ta e k on th e t i c k i n g , 155 an d a t t a c h 't h e h a n d le s . B eeau se o f i t s s p e c i a l i z e d n a t u r e , t h e f i r s t o p e r a tio n was c o n tr a c te d on t h e o u t s i d e . And t o o , th e company n eed ed more d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f p r o d u c ts a s w e ll a s t h e a b i l i t y t o m eet t h e n eed o f in c r e a s e d demand f o r t h e box s p r i n g s . At t h e b e g in n in g o f p e r io d tw o , t h e r e w ere f i v e em p lo y ees in t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t o f t h e com pany. One em ployee was fa c e d w ith t h e t a s k o f i n s u l a t i n g t h e box s p r i n g s , a s w e ll a s p e rfo rm in g t h e s e r v i c e w ork f o r t h e d e p a rtm e n t. I t w as h i s d u ty t o d e l i v e r a l l t h e b a r e box s p r in g s t o t h e d e p a rtm e n t and t o rem ove a l l t h e co m p leted box s p r in g s t o t h e s h ip p in g d e p a rtm e n t. T h is same o p e ra t o r a l s o p la c e d th e i n s u l a t i o n on to p o f th e box s p r in g , s e c u r in g i t w ith t h e u s e o f a hog r i n g g u n . The re m a in in g f o u r em ployees in t h e d e p a rtm e n t w orked t o g e t h e r i n p a i r s . The d e p a rtm e n t had tw o box s p r in g assem b ly t a b l e s eq u ip p e d w ith tw o a i r o p e r a te d p r e s s e s . A f te r t h e i n s u l a t i o n o p e r a tio n was c o m p le te d , th e box s p r in g w as d e l i v e r e d to t h e a sse m b ly t a b l e on a p ip e t r u c k . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e tw o assem b ly t a b l e o p e r a t o r s w ould s t r e t c h t h e p re -se w e d box s p r in g t i c k i n s i d e o u t on th e a sse m b ly t a b l e , w hich w as made t h e same s i z e a s th e box s p r in g t h a t was t o be p ro d u c e d , an d th e n s p re a d a b a t t o f c o tto n o v er t h e le n g th o f th e t a b l e . N ex t, th e o p e ra to rs w ould p la c e th e i n s u l a t e d box s p r in g on t h e assem b ly t a b l e w ith th e to p s id e o f th e box s p r in g f a c i n g down. An a i r o p e r a te d p r e s s w ould th e n be lo w ered o n to th e box s p r in g t o com press i t so t h a t when th e t i c k i n g was on an d th e p r e s s r e le a s e d th e t i c k i n g w ould be s tr e t c h e d t i g h t . The n e x t o p e r a tio n was t o pad t h e c o rn e rs w ith c o tto n and p u l l t h e t i c k i n g up o v e r t h e wooden fra m e s . W ith s t a p l e ham m ers, t h e o p e r a to r s w ould s t a p l e t h e t i c k in g a l l aro u n d t h e wooden fra m e , a f t e r w hich t h e p r e s s w ould be r e l e a s e d and e i t h e r p l a s t i c o r c l o t h h a n d le s a t ta c h e d t o t h e fra m e . A m u slin c l o t h was th e n s ta p le d t o t h e b o tto m o f t h e box s p r in g fra m e . The co m p leted box s p r in g was th e n p la c e d on a f l a t tr u c k and d e liv e r e d t o t h e s h ip p in g d e p a rtm e n t. F o r o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s , d u r in g p e r io d tw o , th e box s p r in g s w ere a sse m b le d in t h i s m anner. As p r e v io u s ly s t a t e d , th e maximum p ro d u c tio n d u rin g p e r io d one was a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty - f o u r box s p r in g s p e r d ay . In 1935, a t th e b e g in n in g o f p e r io d tw o , th e d e p a rtm e n t was a v e ra g in g s i x t y box s p r in g s p e r t a b l e p e r d a y , o r a p p ro x im a te ly 1 2 0 box s p r in g s p e r d a y f o r t h e two t a b l e s and one s e r v ic e an d i n s u l a t i n g man. I n 1935, t h e r e was o n ly one o p e r a to r c o m p ris in g t h e dynam ic g ro u p t h a t was t o be form ed l a t e r . T h is w as em ployee A. The o th e r members o f t h e o r i g i n a l 157 g ro u p w ere e i t h e r moved t o o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts o r l e f t th e com pany. R e s t r i c t i o n o f O u tp u t The r e a l o p e r a tio n o f t h e b a s i c box s p r in g d e p a r t m ent g ro u p s t a r t e d in th e e a r l y 1940*s . The s e r v ic e and i n s u l a t i o n o p e r a t o r ’ s p r o d u c tio n w as g r e a t l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e box s p r in g a s s e m b le r s . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e box s p r i n g d e p a rtm e n t p ro b lem t h i s p r o d u c tio n p ro b lem d id n o t e x i s t . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e 1 9 4 0 ’ s , th e g ro u p con s i s t e d o f an i n s u l a t i o n o p e r a to r an d tw o a ssem b ly t a b l e o p e r a t o r s who w ere em ployees A-B an d C-D. Em ployee A, a s d e s c r ib e d e a r l i e r , was t h e o l d e s t i n ag e and company s e n i o r i t y . Em ployee B was h i r e d from a n o th e r m a ttr e s s com pany. Em ployee G was th e so n o f A and a l s o t h e f a s t e s t w o rk e r. Em ployee D was t h e le a d e r o f t h e g ro u p an d p ro t e c t e d th e f r o u p fro m t h e o u t s i d e . B a s i c a l l y , t h e box s p r in g p ro b lem s t a r t e d w ith em p lo y ees A an d B. T hese tw o em ployees w ere th e o n ly o n es o f t h e g ro u p who had o r i g i n a l l y b een c la s s e d a s box s p r in g u p h o l s t e r e r s . T h e r e f o r e , th e y w ere u se d t o p e rfo rm in g s k i l l e d w o rk . They f e l t t h a t th e new m ethod o f se m i- t s k i l l e d a b i l i t y w ith in c r e a s e d e a s e i n p ro d u c tio n w as a r e l a t i v e l o s s in p r e s t i g e f o r th em . They a l s o f e l t t h a t 153 t h e new m ethod was n o t t h e way t o make box s p r i n g s . T h e ir p ro d u c tio n had r i s e n fro m one t o tw o p e r day (1925 t o 1935) t o s i x t y p e r d ay (1 9 4 0 ). Em ployee C, t h e son o f A, an d em ployee D w ere th e o th e r members o f th e g ro u p . They fo llo w e d t h e exam ples o f A and B, m aking o n ly s i x t y box s p r in g s p e r d a y . When more th a n 120 box s p r in g s w ere n ee d ed f o r t h e d a y , a n o th e r box s p r in g t a b l e was ad d ed t o t h e d e p a rtm e n t. Two more o p e r a to r s w ere b ro u g h t i n t o t h e g ro u p fro m a n o th e r d e p a r t ment o r , when t h e b u sy se a so n was on, o p e r a to r s w ould be h ir e d from o u t s i d e . From 1935 u n t i l 1943 t h e p r o d u c tio n m ethods o f t h e d e p a rtm e n t w ere r e l a t i v e l y unchanged an d t h e p ro d u c tio n r a t e o f t h e s e same o p e r a t o r s was a l s o u n ch a n g ed , t h a t i s , s i x t y box s p r in g s w ere co m p leted p e r d a y . M anagem ent, d u r in g t h i s tim e , r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e d e p a rtm e n t w as r e s t r i c t i n g o u tp u t, A lth o u g h th e y had no f o rm a l w ork m eas u rem en t program by w hich t o gauge p r o d u c tio n . They ob s e rv e d t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e ty p e o r s i z e o f box s p r in g b e in g c o n s tr u c te d t h e o p e r a t o r s in th e g ro u p tu r n e d o u t t h e same p ro d u c tio n r e c o r d f o r each d a y . M anagement r e a l i z e d t h a t so m e th in g had t o b e d o n e. D u rin g t h e y e a r 1944 o r 1945, t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t o f t h e com pany, a c t i n g upon t h e re q u e s t;- o f t h e m anagem ent, c a l l e d a m e e tin g o f 159 th e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t g ro u p and c o n fro n te d them w ith t h e f a c t s o f t h e c a s e , a s k in g t h a t th e y s t e p up p r o d u c tio n . He, i n t u r n , was a s k e d w hat he c o n s id e re d a f a i r d a y ’ s w o rk . The r e p l y was an i n c r e a s e o f tw e n ty o r a t o t a l o f e i g h ty box s p r in g s p e r t a b l e p e r d a y , a t l e a s t . As a r e s u l t , t h e n e x t b ig change w as made in th e d e p a rtm e n t. Many a t te m p ts , p r i o r to t h i s tim e , had b een made by t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t and d e p a rtm e n t fo rem an t o in c r e a s e p ro d u c t i o n . The d u t i e s o f t h e fo rem an o f th e d e p a rtm e n t w ere su c h t h a t h e was u n a b le t o g iv e much in d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n to t h e members o f th e g ro u p . He w as n o t a v e ry f o r c e f u l ty p e o f person*. C o n s e q u e n tly , h e was t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o th e r d e p a rtm e n t a t a l a t e r d a t e . T h is change ad d ed t o t h e p e r p le x in g p ro b lem o f t h e b o x s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t, t h a t i s , la c k o f a f u l l tim e s u p e r v i s o r . T h is c o n d itio n was n o t a l t o g e t h e r th e f a u l t o f t h e managem ent a s th e d e p a r t m ent was lo c a te d in a s e p a r a te p a r t o f th e f a c t o r y and i t w as deemed u n ec o n o m ic al t o h i r e a forem an f o r f i v e em p lo y ee s. A n o th er f a c t o r w h ich l e d t o th e s p re a d o f th e p ro b lem and t h e g ro w th o f t h e g ro u p ’ s pow er was th e p a t e r n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e o f t h e com pany. F o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s m anagem ent d id n o t r e q u e s t th e s u p e r in te n d e n t t o te r m in a te t h e s e r v i c e s o f t h e tro u b le m a k e rs o f t h e g ro u p . I n a l l o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts w ith in t h e com pany, a t t h i s tim e , s u p e r- 1 b 160 v is i o n was a d e q u a te and p ro d u c tio n was n o rm a l. The o u tp u t o f t h e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t rem ain ed a t e ig h ty p e r d ay p e r t a b l e from 1944 t o 1951* The T im estu d y P rogram From 1935 t o 1 951, th e p ro d u c tio n o f t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t in c r e a s e d s l i g h t l y , t h a t i s , tw e n ty a d d i t i o n a l box s p r in g s p e r t a b l e p e r day o r te n box s p r in g s p e r man p e r d ay . I n 1951, th e a u th o r o f t h i s s tu d y was g ra d u a te d from c o lle g e an d th e company d e c id e d t h a t one o f t h e b e s t ways f o r him to l e a r n th e m a ttr e s s b u s in e s s was t o s u p e r v i s e th e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a tim e s tu d y program an d work m easurem ent sy ste m . T h is i d e a , a t t h e same tim e , was su g g e s te d by one o f th e m ajo r c u sto m e rs o f t h e com pany, t h a t i s , th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a s ta n d a r d c o s t sy stem w hich v o u ld a i d in th e f o r m u la tio n o f a c o n t r a c t u a l p u rc h a s e a g re e m e n t.3 The s e r v i c e s o f a n i n d u s t r i a l e n g in e e r in g f irm w ere s e c u re d and th e a u th o r o f t h i s s tu d y , w ith an a s s i s t a n t , head ed t h e tim e s tu d y d e p a rtm e n t. S e v e r a l o f t h e o f f i c e em ployees a lo n g w ith t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t, fo re m e n , and a l l •5 •'N e ith e r th e knovn c o s t c o n t r a c t n o r t h e s ta n d a r d c o s t sy stem w ere e v e r consum m ated. 161 em ployees of t h e f a c t o r y w ere i n v i t e d by th e m anagem ent t o ta k e a c o u rs e in tim e s tu d y a t n ig h t s c h o o l. D u rin g th e n e x t s e v e r a l y e a r s , th e a u th o r o f t h i s s tu d y a n d h i s a s s i s t a n t , w ith t h e h e lp o f th e s u p e r in te n d e n t a n d t h e fo re m e n , an d u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f th e o u ts i d e i n d u s t r i a l e n g in e e r in g s t a f f , made a c o m p le te work m easurem ent program f o r t h e com pany. The r e s u l t s o f t h e tim e s tu d y w ere r a t h e r e n l i g h t e n in g . The company p ro v e d to be f a i r l y e f f i c i e n t , a lth o u g h i t w as n o t u n io n iz e d an d d id n o t have an in c e n ti v e sy ste m f o r t h e i r em p lo y ees. U nder th e sy ste m i n s t a l l e d , i f a f a c t o r y w as o p e r a tin g a t $5 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y , and was n o t on an in c e n ti v e sy ste m , t h e f a c t o r y w as c o n s id e re d q u i t e e f f i c i e n t . The i n t r o d u c t io n o f t h e tim e s tu d y d e p a rtm e n t, i t s e f f e c t s on m o ra le , p r o d u c tio n , an d th e ch an g es i n g ro u p s an d g ro u p i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o u ld be w r i t t e n i n t o a t h e s i s i t s e l f . Many ch an g es w ere made in p r o d u c tio n an d p r o d u c tio n m ethods a s a r e s u l t o f t h e tim e s tu d y p ro g ra m . A f te r th e em ployees becam e accu sto m ed t o t h e sy stem and w ere r e a s s u r e d t h a t t h e com pany*s p o lic y had n o t b a s i c a l l y changed i n i t s p a t e r n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e to w a rd s em p lo y e e r e l a t i o n s , p r o d u c tio n in c r e a s e d and m ost o f t h e em ployees welcom ed th e c h a n g e s . I t was n o t, a s a w h o le, 16 2 d i f f i c u l t t o in c r e a s e p r o d u c tio n i n th o s e d e p a rtm e n ts t h a t w ere b elo w 35 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y . Some o f t h e d e p a rtm e n ts w ere above 35 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y and th e im p e tu s o f t h e program r e s u l t e d in a s t i l l g r e a t e r in c r e a s e in p r o d u c tio n . As t h e r e a d e r h a s p ro b a b ly s u rm is e d , th e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t was s t i l l p ro d u c in g a t th e r a t e o f e ig h ty box s p r in g s p e r day o r a p r o d u c tio n o f a p p ro x im a te ly 60 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y . F o r th e f i r s t tim e management r e a l i z e d w hat t h e s ta n d a r d p r o d u c tio n in t h e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t s h o u ld b e . The s ta n d a r d f o r t h i s d e p a rtm e n t on an a v e ra g e p r o d u c tio n o f tw in o r f u l l s i z e box s p r in g s was 120 p e r assem b ly t a b l e p e r day o r , f o r an a c c e p ta b le r a t e o f 35 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y , i t w ould be an a v e ra g e o f 105 box s p r i n g s p e r d a y . W ith th e o t h e r d e p a rtm e n t p ro d u c in g a t 35 p e r c e n t and t h e b o x s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t p ro d u c in g a t 60 p e r c e n t, th e p ro b lem g rew . M anagement had t o e i t h e r in c r e a s e p r o d u c tio n o r have a co m p lete breakdow n o f s ta n d a r d s and m o ra le . But w hat was h a p p e n in g t o t h e g ro u p a t t h i s tim e ? S a le s and p r o d u c tio n r o s e an d m ore box s p r in g s w ere n e e d e d . A t h i r d a sse m b ly t a b l e a n d so m etim es a f o u r t h w ere s e t u p . As a r u l e , th o u g h , t h r e e a sse m b ly t a b l e s w ere s u f f i c i e n t . The box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t w as, a s in 1 935, p ro d u c in g 240 163 bo x s p r in g s p e r d ay w ith t h e a i d o f t h r e e assem b ly t a b l e s . F o r t h e t h i r d t a b l e , em ployee E was t r a n s f e r r e d from a n o th e r d e p a rtm e n t. Em ployee F , a J a p a n e s e man, was h ir e d fro m a n o th e r f a c t o r y . W ith in c r e a s e d p r o d u c tio n , a f u l l tim e s e r v i c e man was n e e d e d , a s w e ll a s a f u l l tim e i n s u l a t i o n man. Em ployee 1 becam e t h e f u l l tim e s e r v ic e man an d a l s o o rd e re d a l l o f th e box s p r in g s fro m th e o u t s id e s u p p l i e r . E v e n tu a lly , em ployee 1 becam e forem an of t h e d e p a rtm e n t, p e rfo rm in g o t h e r d u t i e s a s w e l l . Em ployee 2 , d e s c r ib e d e a r l i e r a s b e in g v e ry a m b id e x tro u s , becam e t h e f u l l tim e i n s u l a t o r . D u rin g t h i s tim e , t h e g ro u p became o u t c a s t s w ith t h e i r f e llo w w o rk e rs in o t h e r d e p a rtm e n ts , a s w e ll a s w ith m anagem ent. The g ro u p becam e ev en more d e te rm in e d i n t h e i r r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t. Em ployee D was s t i l l p r o t e c t i n g th e g ro u p fro m th e o u ts i d e an d t a k i n g t h e l e a d in f i g h t i n g t h e p r e s s u r e f o r in c r e a s e d p r o d u c tio n . M ost o f th e w o rk e rs i n t h e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t and h ig h e r p e r s o n n e l, in c lu d in g m anagem ent, f e l t t h a t t h e s ta n d a r d s a s s e t by th e tim e s tu d y d e p a rtm e n t w ere to o s e v e r e . T h e r e f o r e , e x t r a c a r e was ta k e n in s e t t i n g t h e s ta n d a r d s f o r t h e box s p r in g s b le p a rtn ie n t. M oving p i c t u r e s w ere ta k e n o f t h e o p e r a tio n a n d th e fra m e s w ere c o u n te d and ch eck ed a g a in s t r a t i o d e la y s t u d i e s . M otion p a t t e r n s u n d e r M. T . M. w ere a l s o ta k e n t o in s u r e a c c u ra c y , y e t t h e s ta n d a r d came o u t t h e sam e. The m ovies i n slo w m o tio n and fram e t o fram e w ere shown t o t h e em ployees in an e f f o r t t o show th em w here th e y w ere w a s tin g tim e , b u t s t i l l th e p ro d u c tio n re m a in ed t h e same i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t. Once a g a in th e g ro u p w as c a l l e d t o g e t h e r a n d w arned by t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t t h a t t h e same p r o d u c tio n c o u ld n o t b e tu r n e d i n b y e a c h g ro u p b e c a u se o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in s i z e s an d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e box s p r in g s b e in g assem b le d . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s m e e tin g b ro u g h t o u t an i n t e r e s t in g f a c t . L a t e r , t h e em p lo y ees t o l d t h e s u p e r v is o r t h a t th e y w ere r e s t r i c t i n g t h e i r o u tp u t t o p r o t e c t em ployee A, t h e o l d e s t member. They d id n o t w ant him t o be d is c h a r g e d b e c a u s e he was u n a b le t o k eep u p . T h e r e f o r e , th e y s t a r t e d r e s t r i c t i n g o u tp u t. Em ployee A th e n a g re e d to be ta k e n o u t o f t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t and t o become a j a n i t o r . W h ile h i s p o s i t i o n and p r e s t i g e m ig h t-h a v e b een lo w e re d , h i s pay was d e c re a s e d o n ly t e n c e n ts an h o u r. The members o f t h e g ro u p r e a l i z e d t h a t m anagem ent ' had d e c id e d t o ta k e t h e n e c e s s a r y a c t i o n t o c o r r e c t th e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e box s p r i n g s d e p a rtm e n t, and p ro d u c tio n b eg an t o r i s e som ew hat. I t w as d is c o v e re d t h a t t h e p ro d u c tio n r e c o r d s o f th e t h r e e t a b l e s w ere n e v e r t h e same am ount on t h e same d a y ? The p r o d u c tio n o f e a c h a sse m b ly 165 t a b l e v a r ie d an d so m etim es r o s e a s h ig h a s 100 box s p r in g s p e r d a y . But t h e n e x t d a y , th e same t a b l e w ould be down a g a in t o e i g h ty , e m p h a siz in g th e f a c t t h a t th e h ig h e r o u t p u t r a t e c o u ld n o t be a c c o m p lish e d e v e ry d a y . Em ployee D, th e g ro u p l e a d e r , th e n becam e th e p ace s e t t e r an d w h a te v e r te rm s he d i c t a t e d becam e t h e l e v e l o f p r o d u c tio n . He w as a b le t o c o n t r o l p r o d u c tio n th ro u g h c o n v e r s a tio n and so in ti m id a te h i s f e l l o w w o rk e rs u n t i l th e y co n fo rm ed . One d a y , em ployee D w as c a l l e d i n t o t h e o f f i c e by t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t an d m anagem ent, an d g iv e n t h e u ltim a tu m . At f i r s t m anagem ent h ad in te n d e d d is c h a r g in g em ployee D, b u t th e n i t was d e c id e d t h a t a more e f f e c t i v e way t o h a n d le t h e s i t u a t i o n w ould b e to make an exam ple o f him . A lso , m anagem ent f e l t t h a t t o a g r e a t e x te n t i t w as t h e i r f a u l t t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t p ro b lem becam e so in v o lv e d and l a s t e d so lo n g . A f te r t h e re m o v a l o f em ployee D from th e d e p a rtm e n t, s e v e r a l o th e r members o f t h e g ro u p d e c id e d t h a t t h e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t was a r a t h e r u n h e a lth y p la c e t o b e i n , an d a s k e d t o be t r a n s f e r r e d . T h e ir r e q u e s ts w ere d e n ie d , h o w ev er, and a n e f f o r t t o in c r e a s e th e d e p a rtm e n t * s a v e ra g e was c o n tin u e d . The g ro u p resp o n d e d t o t h e s tim u lu s o f a new forem an an d p r o d u c tio n in c r e a s e d s l i g h t l y . Hot more th a n 100 o r l e s s th a n &5 box s p r in g s w ere p ro d u ced p e r d a y . The s i t u a t i o n c o n tin u e d on 1 6 6 a p p ro x im a te ly t h e same l e v e l f o r a n o th e r y e a r o r tw o . T h is was due p r i n c i p a l l y t o th e f a c t t h a t managem ent was con c e n t r a t i n g on a new co n v ey o r sy ste m i n th e m a ttr e s s d e p a r t m en t. A f te r c o n s id e r a b le s tu d y and a n a l y s i s , a co n v ey o r sy stem was d e v is e d and a l l a t t e n t i o n was fo c u s e d on th e o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts . The le a d e r s h ip a s f a r a s p r o d u c tio n and c o n t r o l w ere c o n c e rn e d was th e n e x e r c is e d by em ployee B, t h e seco n d o l d e s t em ployee and fo rm e r p a r t n e r o f em ployee A. He p ro t e c t e d t h e g ro u p fro m t h e o u ts id e and to o k o v e r w here em p lo y e e D l e f t o f f . Em ployee B*s c o n t r o l was more u n d e r g ro u n d th a n em ployee D*s had b e e n , b u t was n o t a s a n ta g o n i s t i c , w hich made i t s c o n t r o l a s w e ll a s e v id e n c e more d i f f i c u l t t o d e te r m in e . W ith t h e p ro d u c tio n up t o a b o u t 60 p e r c e n t an d t h e u n ifo rm p r o d u c tio n r e c o r d s o f t h e g ro u p b ro k e n u p , m anage m ent tu r n e d i t s a t t e n t i o n to o th e r g ro u p s . M anagement f e l t t h a t i n o r d e r t o in c r e a s e p r o d u c tio n i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t a change i n m ethod w ould h av e to be i n i t i a t e d . V I I . PERIOD THREE OF THE BOX SPRING PROBLEM P e rio d t h r e e , c o v e rin g a p e r io d o f a p p ro x im a te ly s i x m o n th s, w as t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t w ith r e g a r d t o b o th g ro u p r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n t e r a c t i o n s , a s w e ll a s in th e p ro d u c tio n o f box s p r i n g s . A f te r f i f t e e n y e a r s o f e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f m anagem ent, t h e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t p ro b lem was f i n a l l y s o lv e d d u rin g p e r io d t h r e e . A f te r t h e m a ttr e s s d e p a rtm e n t eonv ey o r sy stem was i n s t a l l e d and s e v e r a l ch a n g e s in m ethods u se d in t h e d e p a rtm e n t w ere t r i e d , i t becam e more and m ore a p p a r e n t to m anagem ent t h a t t h e b e s t way t o in c r e a s e p ro d u c tio n i n t h e box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t w ould b e th ro u g h a ch an g e i n m ethod. A f te r a c c e p tin g e ig h ty box s p r in g s p e r day p e r t a b l e f o r so many y e a rs and now (1954) a v e ra g in g a p p ro x im a te ly n in e ty p e r t a b l e p e r d a y , m anagem ent f e l t t h a t t o a s k f o r a n i n c r e a s e i n p ro d u c tio n w ith o u t g iv in g an in c r e a s e i n pay c o u ld n o t be d o n e. A change in m ethod w as n eed ed f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , a s i d e fro m t h a t o f t r y i n g t o g e t an in c r e a s e i n p ro d u c tio n p e r w orker* F i r s t o f a l l , t h e i n s u l a t i o n o p e r a t o r f o r t h e t h r e e t a b l e s , em ployee 2 , was b e g in n in g t o f a l l b e h in d in p r o d u c tio n e v e ry d a y , w hich m eant b r in g in g i n a n o th e r i n s u l a t i o n o p e r a to r w hich n o t o n ly added a n o th e r em ployee to t h e d e p a rtm e n t b u t made em ployee 2 l e s s e f f i c i e n t in h i s o u tp u t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t he had h e lp w it!) h i s jo b and w as n o t on an in c e n ti v e b a s i s . A n o th er p ro b lem r e a l i z e d by m anagem ent was t h a t em ployees w o rk in g in p a i r s w ere a t a d is a d v a n ta g e . I t w as n o tic e d t h a t when tw o 168 o p e r a to r s w orked t o g e t h e r t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n a s w e ll a s t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n s w ere g r e a t e r . H ence, t h e d e p a rtm e n t had a c o n s id e r a b le am ount o f t a l k i n g b etw een o p e r a t o r s on th e same t a b l e , a s w e ll a s betw een t a b l e s . A n o th er f a c t o r was t h a t t h e e le m e n ta l breakdow n o f th e tw o a sse m b ly o p e r a to r s had a c o n s id e r a b le am ount o f u n b a la n c e d tim e . T h is m eant t h a t e i t h e r one o r t h e o th e r o f t h e tw o a s s e m b le rs w o rk in g t o g e t h e r had a l o t o f w a itin g tim e d u r in g th e o p e r a tio n u n t i l h i s p a r t n e r f i n i s h e d h i s o p e ra t i o n . I d l e n e s s , o f c o u r s e , p ro v o k ed w a ste o f tim e and h en ce i n e f f i c i e n c y . The Box S p rin g C onveyor S ystem One m ig h t f e e l t h a t t o d e v is e a n e a s i e r sy stem i s a r a t h e r sim p le t a s k in t h i s ty p e o f o p e r a tio n . H ow ever, t o d e v is e an d j u s t i f y an e l a b o r a t e conv ey o r sy stem f o r an o p e r a tio n w hose c y c le tim e i s l e s s th a n f i v e m in u te s i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t . I n f a c t , t h e tim e s tu d y d e p a rtm e n t s p e n t a p p ro x im a te ly f o u r y e a rs t r y i n g t o d e v is e an e a s i e r m ethod. U sin g t h e i n d u s t r i a l e n g in e e r in g p r i n c i p l e o f s e p a r a tin g t h e s k i l l e d and th e u n s k i l l e d o p e r a t io n s , and a l s o m aking t h e co m p lete c y c le tim e a s s m a ll a s p o s s i b l e , a new m ethod was f i n a l l y d e v is e d . The box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t up u n t i l th e summer o f 1 6 9 1955 had e ig h t o p e r a t o r s and one forem an i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t; t h r e e assem b ly t a b l e s w ith tw o men a t ea c h t a b l e , tw o i n s u l a t o r s , a n d th e fo re m an . Between th e fo rem an an d one o f t h e i n s u l a t i o n o p e r a t o r s , a l l o f t h e s e r v i c i n g f o r th e d e p a rtm e n t was p e rfo rm e d . U nder th e new sy stem t h e r e w ere o n ly s i x o p e r a to r s an d one fo rem an i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t, an e lim in a tio n o f tw o o p e r a to r s in t h e d e p a rtm e n t. A c tu a lly one o p e r a to r a n d h a l f t h e tim e o f t h e fo re m an , w hich e n a b le d him t o p e rfo rm o th e r s e r v ic e s f o r th e d e p a rtm e n t, w ere e lim in a te d . The new d e p a rtm e n t now h a s a p re -a s s e m b ly t a b l e o p e r a te d by tw o o p e r a t o r s . The s e r v ic e em ployee d e l i v e r s t h e raw box s p r in g s t o t h e p re -a s s e m b ly t a b l e a n d t h e two o p e r a to r s i n s u l a t e t h e box s p r in g f i r s t , e lim in a tin g th e hog r i n g i n g m ethod o f th e i n s u l a t i o n . N e x t, t h e p r e a sse m b ly crew p la c e s t h e c o tto n on t h e u n i t , th e n p la c e s t h e t i c k i n g on t h e u n i t s e c u r in g th e m a t e r i a l in e a c h o f t h e f o u r c o r n e r s by ta c k in g i t . Then th e box s p r in g i s s e n t on a co n v ey o r t o t h r e e o th e r co n v e y o rs w hich p r e s e l e c t s a u to m a tic a lly th e one th e s p r in g i s t o go on an d th e s p r in g i s c o n v e y o riz e d r i g h t t o a n a ssem b ly o p e ra t o r . T h is m eans t h a t t h e r e i s no h eav y hand l i f t i n g o f t h e h eav y box s p r in g s by t h e o p e r a to r s a s t h i s o p e r a tio n i s p erfo rm e d a u to m e c h a n ie a lly . The f i n a l a s se m b ly o p e r a to r 17 0 m e re ly t a c k s th e m a t e r i a l o n to th e wooden fram e w ith th e o r i g i n a l ty p e p r e s s . The h a n d le s a r e th e n p u t on t h e u n i t , th e m u s lin i s ta c k e d o n to th e b o tto m o f th e u n i t , and t h e co m p leted box s p r in g i s pushed o n to a n o th e r co n v ey o r w hich t a k e s i t to t h e s h ip p in g d e p a rtm e n t. The o p e r a tio n o f t h e p re -a sse m b ly - t a b l e can be p e rfo rm e d by tw o o p e r a t o r s . Where t h e f i n a l assem b ly t a k e s p la c e o n ly one o p e r a to r on ea ch t a b l e ( t h r e e s e p a r a te t a b l e s ) i s r e q u i r e d . E v ery o p e r a to r w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f th o s e on t h e a s se m b ly t a b l e w orks b y h im s e lf a n d h i s r e c o r d i s ju d g e d by h i s p e rfo rm a n c e o n ly . The p r e a ssem b ly o p e r a tio n t a k e s a s h o r t e r p e r io d o f tim e an d t h e two o p e r a t o r s can keep th e s e t a b l e s b u sy a t a l l tim e s , an d a l i t t l e e x t r a t o o . T h is m eans t h a t t h e f i n a l assem b l e r s do n o t have an y w a itin g tim e . The box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t now h as se v en em p lo y e e s. They a r e em ployees G, E, 1 , 2 , 3> 4 , an d a f u l l tim e s e r v ic e man. The d e p a rtm e n t now h a s em ployees C, E , an d 1 o f th e o r i g i n a l g ro u p . Em ployee 1 i s t h e fo rem an r e t a i n e d fro m th e o th e r g ro u p . The a s se m b ly o p e r a to r s a r e em ployees G a n d E . Em ployee G w as t h e f a s t e s t o p e r a to r o f t h e o ld box s p r in g d e p a rtm e n t who a s k e d to be t r a n s f e r r e d fro m t h a t d e p a rtm e n t and was p la c e d a s a n a s s e m b le r f o r th e new g ro u p . Em ployee E w as one o f t h e new er em p lo y ees o f 171 th e d e p a rtm e n t and a l s o a h a rd w o rk e r. E m ployees 2 , 3> and 4 w ere new em ployees in t h e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t and a s su c h d id n o t have a p r e v io u s ly s e t p a c t . Em ployee F o f t h e o ld d e p a rtm e n t l e f t t h e company v o l u n t a r i l y b e c a u se o f a p h y s ic a l a ilm e n t. Em ployee B o f t h i s same g ro u p , and i t s l a s t l e a d e r , w as t r a n s f e r r e d t o a new jo b i n a new ly c r e a te d d e p a rtm e n t w ith a p re d e te rm in e d q u o ta t o m eet t h a t had a lr e a d y b een p ro v en to t h e m anadem ent*s s a t i s f a c t i o n . S in c e em ployee B h a s b ee n w o rk in g by him s e l f in th e new d e p a rtm e n t h i s p r o d u c tio n h a s b ee n a c c e p t a b l e , c o n s id e r in g h i s a g e a n d a b i l i t y . W ith th e change in m ethod u se d w hich h a s made th e jo b e a s i e r f o r t h e em ployee, h a s sav ed money f o r t h e com pany and h a s j u s t i f i e d t h e c o s t o f t h e new eq u ip m e n t, th e r e s u l t s i n p ro d u c tio n have been v e ry g r a t i f y i n g . P ro d u c t i o n h a s in c r e a s e d f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . The new m ethod h a s in tr o d u c e d a s p i r i t o f c o m p e titio n b e c a u s e o f th e s p l i t up c re w s. The new m ethod i s e a s i e r on e a c h em p lo y ee. M ost im p o rta n t o f a l l , t h e r e h a s been a co m p lete change in v o lv in g th e box s p r in g s d e p a rtm e n t g ro u p . The ch an g es made i n p ro d u c tio n s in c e t h e f i r s t p e r io d began were?,. 1 . The a v e ra g e d a i l y p r o d u c tio n o f box s p r in g s f o r ea ch o p e r a to r i n th e d e p a rtm e n t in c r e a s e d from tw o p e r d ay 172 in 1925 t o tw e n ty - f o u r p e r day by th e en d o f p e r io d o n e , 2 . The in tr o d u c t io n o f tw o-m an crew s and box s p r in g p r e s s e s , a s w e ll a s h a v in g t h e fra m e s m a n u fa c tu re d by a n o u ts id e f ir m , c a u sed p ro d u c tio n t o in c r e a s e t o a p p ro x im a te ly n in e ty box s p r in g s p e r t a b l e p e r d a y . T h is change was made d u rin g p e r io d tw o , fro m 1935 to 1 9 5 5 . The s ta n d a r d s e t f o r t h i s p e r io d was 12G box s p r in g s p e r t a b l e f o r a 100 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y , o r 10$ box s p r in g s p e r t a b l e f o r an S$ p e r e e n t e f f i c i e n c y . D u rin g p e r io d tw o , w hich l a s t e d tw e n ty y e a r s , th e d e p a rtm e n t in c r e a s e d i t s p ro d u c t i o n fro m s i x p e r assem b ly t a b l e i n 1935 t o e i g h ty p e r a sse m b ly t a b l e in 1946 t o an a v e ra g e o f n in e ty p e r assem b ly t a b l e i n 1 955. T h is w ould m ean, th e n , t h a t th e a v e ra g e p e r o p e r a to r i n t h e d e p a rtm e n t i n p e r io d two was tw e lv e box s p r i n g s p e r d ay . 3 . I n p e r io d t h r e e , t h e d a i l y a v e ra g e f o r t h e sev en members o f t h e g ro u p h a s b een tw e n ty box s p r in g s p e r. o p e r a t o r . T h is p e r io d h a s been i n e f f e c t a p p ro x im a te ly s i x m o n th s, o r s in c e A ugust 1 9 5 5 . The s ta n d a r d f o r th e new change i n m ethod i s 16$ p e r f i n a l asse m b ly t a b l e f o r 100 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n c y , an d 13$ f o r a r a t i n g o f 6$ p e r c e n t. The t h r e e f i n a l assem b ly t a b l e s a r e now p ro d u c in g on th e a v e ra g e o f o v e r 130 box s p r in g s p e r o p e r a to r p e r d a y . D u rin g p e r io d tw o a r a t i n g o f 6$ p e r c e n t was 173 re a c h e d o n ly once o r tw ic e d u r in g th e e n t i r e p e r io d . In p e r io d t h r e e , th e r a t i n g f o r t h e w hole d e p a rtm e n t h a s n e v e r b een lo w er th a n 83 p e r c e n t , and one o p e r a to r h a s re a c h e d a h ig h o f 98 p e r c e n t s e v e r a l tim e s . I n s h o r t , s in c e th e change i n m ethod u se d in th e d e p a rtm e n t w hich h as o n ly re d u c e d t h e o v e r - a l l s ta n d a r d o f t h e o p e r a tio n a s m a ll f r a c t i o n betw een p e r io d s tw o and t h r e e , p r o d u c tio n h a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y in c r e a s e d . At t h e end o f p e r io d tw o , t h e a v e ra g e maximum p r o d u c tio n o f t h e o ld g ro u p o f e i g h t em p lo y ees w as 270 box s p r in g s p e r d a y . I n p e r io d t h r e e , w ith a new g ro u p , t h e a v e ra g e p ro d u c tio n f o r se v e n o p e r a to r s i s 420 box s p r in g s p e r d a y , o r a n i n c r e a s e o f 150 box s p r in g s d a i l y o v e r p e r io d tw o . CHAPTER I I GROUP DYNAMICS IN ACTION: A CONCLUSION I n t h i s s tu d y , <fefee~-ant>te©r~Its® a tte m p te d t© p o in t o u t some o f t h e t h e o r i e s , p ro b le m s , p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , a s w e ll a s o th e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e th e o r y o f g ro u p -dynam ies. I n th e f i r s t s e v e r a l c h a p te r s t h e f i r s t h i s t o r i c a l e x p e rim e n t i n g ro u p dynam ics was o u tlin e d # The W estern E l e c t r i c c a s e w as th e f o u n d a tio n f o r many o f th e a b s t r a c t s o f th e la r g e s o c i a l s c ie n c e f i e l d o f g ro u p dynam ics# Out o f t h i s c a s e was d e v e lo p e d n o t o n ly a m u ltitu d e o f t h e o r i e s a s t o w hat c a u se d th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d i n t h e s tu d y b u t a ls o th e f i r s t p la n n e d s tu d y o f s o c io m e try . T h is c a se a ls o r e v e a le d t h e in te r v ie w in g te c h n iq u e # From t h i s e a r l y e x p e rim e n t, th e in te r v ie w in g te c h n iq u e h a s grown i n to one o f th e m ost v a lu a b le t o o l s f o r em ployee r e a c t i o n s and f e e l in g s i n th e f i e l d o f em ployee r e l a t i o n s to d a y . F o llo w in g th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g ro u n d o f th e W e ste rn E l e c t r i c c a s e , i t was t h e a u t h o r 1s d e s i r e t o re v ie w , i n d e t a i l , some o f th e u n d e r ly in g s o c io l o g i c a l a s w e ll a s p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s i n g ro u p d y n am ics. T h is w as done i n an e f f o r t t o e x p la in why g ro u p s a c t a s 175 th e y d o . The s o c i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s d e te rm in e , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , w hat th e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f th e g ro u p w i l l b e . A co m p lete and o b je c ti v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e f a c t o r s can be v e ry e f f e c t i v e i n s o lv in g some o f th e g ro u p dynam ics p ro b lem s i n i n d u s t r i a l s i t u a t i o n s . B e lo n g in g n e ss and g ro u p s o l i d a r i t y w ere d e s c r ib e d m a in ly t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h e f e e l i n g o f b e lo n g in g t o a g ro u p in s o c ie ty o r i n d u s t r i a l s t a t u s s i t u a t i o n s . G roup b a r r i e r s i s a n o th e r s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n d itio n w hich h a s c a u sed th e l o s s o f i n d u s t r i a l harm ony i n g ro u p s a s w e ll a s th ro u g h o u t e n t i r e o r g a n iz a ti o n s . A c tio n b a r r i e r s , su ch a s i n p r e c e p tio n o r a t t i t u d e , h av e c a u se d a s much d i s s e n t i o n a s have many s i t u a t i o n s o f c l a s s b a r r i e r s . G roup a c c e p ta n c e w as i l l u s t r a t e d m a in ly t o show t h a t a c c e p ta n c e i n a g ro u p o r by a g ro u p may mean t h e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een th e m aking o r b re a k in g o f e i t h e r th e em p lo y e e s i n th e g ro u p o r o f t h e g ro u p i t s e l f . G roup p r e s s u r e , o f c o u r s e , r e l a t e s t o e v e r y th in g from s a t i s f a c t i o n o f s o c i a l c o n v e n tio n t o s u p p r e s s io n o f o u tp u t. G roup p r e s s u r e w as a l s o shown a s t h e r e a l m ain te n a n c e sy n e rg y o r th e i n t e r n a l m a c h in e ry w hich k e e p s th e g ro u p a c t i v e . P ro p ag an d a i n g ro u p dynam ics w as shown m a in ly t o r e l a t e th e im p o rta n c e o f th e i n t e r n a l m a ch in e ry o f su ch f a c t o r s a s th e g r a p e v in e . Good p ro p a g a n d a i s im p o rta n t a s e v id e n c e d i n th e s h a r in g o f in f o r m a tio n by m anagem ent w ith s u p e r v is o r s a s w e ll a s w ith em p lo y ee s. S o c ia l c l i m ate a s w e ll a s s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s w ere shown t o r e l a t e th e im p o rta n c e o f o t h e r f a c t o r s i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h ip s . I . THE C. B. V A N VGESf C O M PA M Y PROBLEM The a u th o r p u rp o s e ly u se d th e G. B. Van V o rs t Company r e s t r i c t i o n o f o u tp u t p ro b lem a s a c a s e exam ple f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e a u th o r had a p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n th e pro b lem c i t e d . S eco n d , th e p ro b lem p r e s e n te d a s tu d y in g ro u p d y n am ics. T h ir d , and m ost im p o r ta n t, th e m ethod u se d i n th e f i n a l p h a se o f s e t t l i n g th e p ro b le m . The more p e r s u a s iv e th e company became i n an e f f o r t t o in c r e a s e p r o d u c tio n o u tp u t, th e m ore c l o s e ly k n i t th e g ro u p becam e. A ls o , i n t e r a c t i o n s b etw een v a r io u s members o f t h e g ro u p becam e more n o t i c e a b l e . Even w ith th e com p a n y ^ p a t e r n a l i s t i c p o l i c i e s and e f f e c t i v e m anagem ent, th e r e was th e dynam ic fo rm a tio n o f a g ro u p o f em ployees who d e f ie d n o t o n ly t h e i r f e llo w w o rk e rs b u t m anagem ent 1 77 i t s e l f * Mot u n t i l th e g ro u p i n q u e s tio n was c o m p le te ly b ro k e n up and i t s members s e p a r a te d d id t h e g ro u p c e a s e t o f u n c tio n a s an in d e p e n d e n t body* Even a f t e r th e le a d e r s o f th e gro u p had b ee n t r a n s f e r r e d , th e p r e s s u r e s and s o l i d a r i t y o f th e b a s ic g ro u p w as s t i l l s tr o n g enough t o k eep i t s h o ld on even t h e new members o f t h e g ro u p . The f a c t re m a in s t h a t n o t u n t i l a c o m p le te ly new g ro u p w as in tr o d u c e d t o th e o p e r a tio n w ith a co m p lete change i n m ethod d id th e p ro b lem c o r r e c t i t s e l f . I I . CGNCLUSIGM Ip w ould be p r a c t i c a l l y im p o s s ib le t o draw any co n c lu s io n , on p ro b lem s i n g ro u p d y n am ics. As— kaa b e e n s t a t ®dr b e f o r e , g ro u p dynam ics i s b a s i c a l l y a s o c i a l s c ie n c e d e a l in g w ith human r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s . As lo n g a s th e human elem en t e n t e r s i n t o any s u b je c t and i n d i v i d u a l f e e l i n g s , p r e j u d i c e s , and p h y s ic a l and s o c i a l b ac k g ro u n d s a r e f a c t o r s t h a t h av e t o be ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t, t h e r e w i l l n e v e r be o n ly one s o l u t i o n t o th e prefc'lea n o r w i l l t h e r e e v e r be b u t one id e a o r p ro b lem . t r o u b l e w ith em ployee an d em p lo y er r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( o th e r th a n p o l i t i c a l ) to d a y stem s from t h e la c k o f human 1 7 $ u n d e r s ta n d in g . The co m p lete d is r e g a r d by b o th p a r t i e s f o r e a c h o th e r * s f e e l i n g s , i d e a s , and many o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t e n t e r i n t o a c t i o n s —n a t u r a l o r o th e r w is e — c a u s e s a g r e a t d e a l o f th e i n d u s t r i a l s t r i f e to d a y . B oth p a r t i e s m e re ly assum e t h a t ev e ry o n e th in k s and a c t s a s th e y d o , and t h a t a l l c l a s s e s and p e o p le have th e same fo lk w a y s and m o re s. The p ro b lem to o o f te n seems t o be t h a t each g ro u p i s ju d g in g t h e o t h e r by t h e i r own s ta n d a r d s . B oth em ployees and e m p lo y e rs h av e th e same b a s ic n e e d s , b u t th e e x p e rie n c e s o f th e tw o g ro u p s a r e n o ta b ly d i f f e r e n t . T h e r e f o r e , u n t i l common v a lu e s and n ee d s a r e r e c o g n iz e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f w o rk in g to g e t h e r h a rm o n io u s ly i s n e x t t o im p o s s ib le . - I h e — a u ^ h o r - f e e l s - t h a t th e b a s ic w eak n ess i n th e a tte m p te d s o l u t i o n t o many p ro b lem s i s t h a t i t d o e s n o t d e a l s t r i c t l y w ith th e human elem e n t in th e g ro u p dynam ics s i t u a t i o n . I t i s t h e human e lem e n t t h a t m akes up th e b a s ic g ro u p . W ith o u t d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n d i v i d u a l s t h e r e w ould n o t be any dynam ic g ro u p s . The a u th o r h a s n o t se en any a tte m p t made by anyone t o t r y and j u s t i f y t h e m e r it s o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n g ro u p d y n am ics. May be i t i s due t o th e s e d if f e r e n c e s and dynam ics s i t u a t i o n s t h a t h e lp t o k eep th e em p lo y ers and em ployees b o th on t h e i r t o e s . Maybe i t i s th e s t r i f e b etw een th e tw o g ro u p s t h a t i s r e s p o n s i b le f o r o u r r a p id i n d u s t r i a l g ro w th . May be co m p lete harm ony b etw een th e two g ro u p s i s n o t th e answ er t o g ro u p d y n am ics. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , so lo n g a s t h e r e a r e f r e e t h in k in g and a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t co m p rise w o rk in g g ro u p s , th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f human b e in g s n o t fo rm in g g ro u p s and h a v in g dynam ic g ro u p p ro b lem s i s q u ite re m o te . BIBLIOGRAPHY ( a ( - \ 181 ) B akke, E . W. Bonds o f O r g a n iz a tio n , An A p p ra is a l o f C o rp o ra te Human d e l a t i o n s . Hew Y ork: H a rp e r, X950. B e llo w s, R . M. P sy ch o lo g y o f P e rs o n n e l in B u s in e s s and I n d u s t r y . Hew Y ork: P re n tic e -H a lT , I n c . , 1949* Blum, M. L . I n d u s t r i a l P sy ch o lo g y and I t s S o c ia l I m p lic a t i o n s * Hew Y ork: H a rp e r, 1949* Browne, C. B ., and B. J . N e i t s e l . " C om m unication, S u p e r v is i o n and M o r a le ,1 1 J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P sy c h o lo g y , A p r i l, 1952, p p . 8 2 -9 0 . C a rtw r ig h t, D. Group Dynam ics R e se a rc h and T h e o ry . E v a n sto n : Row, P e te rs o n and Company, 1953» x .C o llin s , O rv in . " E th n ic B e h av io r in I n d u s t r y ," A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y . J a n u a ry , 1946, p p . 2 9 3 -9 8 . Dewey, R ., and ¥ . J . Humber. D evelopm ent o f Human Be h a v io r . Hew Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1951. D ru c k er, P . F . The New S o c ie ty . Hew Y ork: H a rp e r, 1950. E n c y c lo p aed ia B r ita n n ic a . " I n d u s t r i a l P s c y h o lo g y ." V o l. 12, p . 2 9 0 . { |./F in la y , ¥ . W. Human B e h a v io r in I n d u s t r y . Mew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1954- A. Q. S a t a in , and ¥ . M. T a te . Human B eh av io r i n I n d u s t r y . Hew Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, ^ G a rd n e r, B. B ., and D. G. M oore. Human R e la tio n s i n I n d u s t r y . C h icag o : I r w in , 1 9 5 ^ G ray, J . S . P sy ch o lo g y i n I n d u s tr y . Hew Y ork: McGraw- H i l l Book Company, 1952. G ro s s, E. " P rim a ry F u n c tio n s o f th e S m all G ro u p ," A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , V o l. 6 0 , 2 4 -2 9 , J u ly , 1953- H eron, A. R. S h a rin g In fo rm a tio n w ith E m p lo y ees. S ta n f o r d : U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 .~ 132 , E v e r e t t C. "The K n ittin g o f R a c ia l G roups in I n d u s t r y ," A m erican S o c io lo g i c a l R eview , O c to b e r. 1946. p p . 5 1 2 -1 9 . ' y Ja c o b s, John H. "The A p p lic a tio n o f Sociomefcry t o In d u s t r y , " S o c io m e try . V o l. V I I I , No. 2 , May, 1945, 132- 19 0 . J e n n in g s , H e le n . L e a d e rs h ip and I s o l a t i o n . New Y ork: Longraanns, G reen and Company, 1 9 4 3 . L ew in, K u rt. R e s o lv in g S o c ia l C o n f l i c t s . New Y ork: H a rp e r, 1 943. L indem ann, B. M. D. " I n d iv id u a l H o s t i l i t y and Group I n t e r a c t i o n , " Human O r g a n iz a tio n . W in te r, 1949, p p . 5 - 9 . M a ie r, N. R. F . P r i n c i p l e o f Human R e l a t i o n s . New Y ork: W iley an d S o n s, 1952. Mayo, E lto n . " I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a rc h ," H arv ard B u s in e s s S c h o o l Alum ni B u l l e t i n , V o l. XVI, No. 2 , 1940, 3 4 -9 2 . M i l l e r , D e lb e rt C. "The S o c ia l F a c to r s o f th e Work S i t u a t i o n , " A m erican S o c io lo g ic a l R ev iew , V o l. I I , No. 3 , J u n e , 1946, 3 0 0 -1 4 . P e t e r s , R. W. Com m unieation w ith in I n d u s t r y . New Y ork: H a rp e r, 1950. R e d f ie ld , C. E. C om m unication i n M anagem ent. C h icag o : U n iv e r s it y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 . ft'-f J t o e t h l i s b e r g e r , F . J . , an d W illia m J . D ic k so n . M anagement ^ an<* bhe W orker. C am bridge: H arv ard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , O ' “ T a y lo r , G. R. A re W orkers Human? B o sto n : H oughton- J M i f f l i n Company, 1952. W h y te , W. F . I n d u s tr y and S o c ie ty . New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill ' Book Company, 1946. W y att, S ., and I . A. F r a s e r . The E f f e c t s o f M onotony i n W ork. R e p o rt No. 5 6 , G re a t B r i t a i n F a tig u e R esearcH B o a rd . London: 1929. u n iv e r s ity a t southern California uorary

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Creator Van Vorst, Richard George (author)

Core Title The contributions of the theory of group dynamics to employee and employer relations

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Economics

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag business administration, management,economics, labor,OAI-PMH Harvest,sociology, industrial and labor relations

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Pollard, Spencer D. (committee chair), Garis, Roy L. (committee member), Phillips, E. Bryant (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c20-445835

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Rights Van Vorst, Richard George

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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