University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

What teachers in a high-performing high school need to effectively manage workplace stress: an evaluation study

(USC Thesis Other)

What teachers in a high-performing high school need to effectively manage workplace stress: an evaluation study

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 1

WHAT TEACHERS IN A HIGH-PERFORMING HIGH SCHOOL NEED TO EFFECTIVELY
MANAGE WORKPLACE STRESS: AN EVALUATION STUDY

by

Jacqueline Ng Duncan

A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017

Copyright 2017 Jacqueline Ng Duncan
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 2

DEDICATION
To my husband, Nate Duncan, for his unconditional love, support, and patience.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Kathy Stowe, for your guidance through this
journey and beyond. I am extremely grateful to have your mentorship, encouragement, and
support. You have gone out of your way both in this program and in my professional life to
ensure my success, and for that, I am very thankful.
Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Darline Robles and Dr. David Cash, for
joining me on this journey and believing in my work. Your support is greatly appreciated.
Thank you to my classmates for the encouragement, comradery, and laughs along the
way. Thank you, especially, to my peer review partner Dr. Scott Neigel for keeping me on track
with great feedback.
Lastly, thank you to all the educators who work tirelessly and selflessly to help our
students learn, grow, and achieve their dreams.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication 2

Acknowledgements 3

List of Tables 7

List of Figures 8

Abstract 9

Chapter One: Introduction 10
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Organizational Goal 12
Related Literature 13
Importance of the Evaluation 15
Description of Stakeholder Groups 16
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 17
Stakeholder Group for the Study 18
Purpose of the Project and Questions 18
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 19
Definition of Terms 19
Organization of the Study 20

Chapter Two: Review of the literature 21
Teacher Stress and High-Performance Workplaces 21
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Organizational Problem Solving Framework 27
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Factors 28
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, Organization 43
Summary 46

Chapte Three: Methodology 48
Participating Stakeholders 48
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 5

Interview and Researcher-Constructed Document Sampling Criterion and Rationale 49
Interview and Researcher-Constructed Document Recruitment Strategy and Rationale 50
Data Collection and Instrumentation 51
Data Analysis 56
Credibility and Trustworthiness 59
Ethics 60
Limitations and Delimitations 62
Summary 63

Chapter Four: Findings 64
Participating Stakeholders 64
Findings 65
Knowledge Needs 72
Motivation Needs 75
Organizational Needs 80
Interaction of EHS Teachers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs 86
Summary 86

Chapter Five: Recommended Solutions and Conclusion 88
Knowledge Recommendations 88
Motivation Recommendations 92
Organization Recommendations 98
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 103
Evaluation Tools 115
Data Analysis and Reporting 117
Summary 118
Future Research 118
Conclusion 118

References 121

Appendix A: Informed Consent/Information Sheet 130
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 132
Appendix C: Researcher-Constructed Document Protocol 136
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 6

Appendix D: Sample Excerpt from Codebook 137
Appendix E: Workplace Stress Management Introductory Workshop Evaluation 138
Appendix F: Workplace Stress Program Evaluation 140

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 7

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder
Performance Goals 17

Table 2. Assumed Knowledge Needs and Assessments Related to Teacher Stress 33

Table 3. Assumed Motivation Needs and Assessments Related to Teacher Stress 38

Table 4. Assumed Organizational Influences and Assessments Related to Teacher Stress 42

Table 5. Summary of Assumed Needs for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Issues 47

Table 6. Participant Information 65

Table 7. Summary of Knowledge Needs and Recommendations 89

Table 8. Summary of Motivation Needs and Recommendations 93

Table 9. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 98

Table 10. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 104

Table 11. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for EHS Teachers 106

Table 12. Required Drivers to Support EHS Teachers’ Critical Behaviors 108

Table 13. Components of Learning for the Program 112

Table 14. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 114

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 8

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. EHS teachers' self-reported maladaptive behaviors that workplace stress triggered 13

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework in Examining Teacher Stress at a High-Performing School 45

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 9

ABSTRACT
While teacher stress is a topic that has been widely explored, there is a lack of research that
focuses on teacher stress at high-performing schools. This study used the Clark and Estes’ gap
analysis framework to examine what knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources
teachers at a high-performance high school need to effectively manage workplace stress.
Analysis of evidence from one-on-one interviews and researcher constructed documents revealed
that while teachers had declarative knowledge of workplace stress and coping, they lacked the
procedural and metacognitive knowledge needed to apply what they know. Furthermore, lack of
self-efficacy and attainment value impeded teachers’ ability to manage workplace stress,
especially in the face of high-performing expectations and work demands within a high-
performing culture and setting. Lastly, inadequate resources also served as barriers to effective
workplace stress management. To address these knowledge, motivation, and organizational
needs, a comprehensive workplace stress management program that includes training,
communities of practice, and peer model partnerships was recommended.
Keywords: teacher stress, high-performing school, stress management

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 10

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Workplace stress among public school teachers in the United States is an on-going
problem that negatively impacts teachers’ well-being, performance, longevity, and the overall
quality of education. The percentage of teachers who experience stress a few times a week
increased from 36% in 1985 to 51% in 2012 (MetLife, 2012). Recent findings from Gallup’s
State of America’s Schools (2014) reveal that 46% of kindergarten through 12
th
grade teachers in
the United States experience daily stress, which makes teaching one of the most stressful
professions of the fourteen that the Gallup poll surveyed. Teacher stress is one of many factors
that contribute to teacher attrition. Forty to fifty percent of new teachers leave the profession
within the first five years of teaching (Alliance for Excellent Education, July 2014), costing an
estimated $7 billion a year in attrition turnover nationwide (National Commission on Teaching
and America’s Future, 2007). Teachers leave the profession largely due to job dissatisfaction
that stems from workplace stressors such as work overload, poor student discipline, and
inadequate pay and support (Austin, Shah, & Muncer, 2005; Blase, 1986; McCarthy, Lambert,
Crowe, & McCarthy, 2010; Richards, 2012). If not properly addressed, teacher stress can have
detrimental effects on teacher performance, student learning, and the overall quality of
schooling.
Organizational Context and Mission
Eagle High School (EHS, pseudonym) is a four-year comprehensive public high school
located in Northern California. To protect the identity of the school of focus, I will slightly alter
identifying information in the proceeding descriptions of EHS. The mission of EHS is to provide
all students with a robust educational program that prepares them to meet the challenges of a
global society. EHS prepares students to be college and career ready through rigorous course
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 11

offerings that align with Common Core State Standards. EHS’s instructional strategies,
educational environment, and school culture center upon the following student learner outcomes:
Students will be able to solve problems, think independently, achieve academic success, gain
technological competency, communicate effectively, and be responsible individuals.
According to data from the California Department of Education, there were over 2,000
students enrolled at EHS in the 2015-16 school year. Slightly over half of the students are Asian,
approximately 20% are Latino, less than 10% are Filipino, around 5% are White, and close to
3% are African American. Approximately 30% of students are considered socioeconomically
disadvantaged, around 8% are English Language Learners, and a little over 9% are students with
disabilities. EHS has three administrators, four academic counselors, and twelve support staff
members. In the 2016-17 school year, EHS gained twelve new teachers due to teacher
retirement, resignation, and leave. Approximately 60% of EHS teachers are White, 11% are
Latino, 10% are Asian, 8% are Filipino, and 6% are African American. EHS teachers who teach
in core subject areas such as English, Math, History, and Science serve an average of 30 students
per class period, while Physical Education teachers might have over 40 students in each of their
classes. Class sizes for electives average at 25 students, with the exception of Performing Arts
electives such as Band, Orchestra, Choir, and Drama, which might have more than 50 students.
EHS boasts a 95% graduation rate, compared to 82% in the district and 85% in the state.
EHS students consistently achieve higher performance on standardized testing measures
compared to students in the other comprehensive high schools within the school district.
Approximately 30% more EHS students met or exceeded the California Assessment of Student
Performance and Progress’ (CAASPP’s) English Language Arts and Math standards in 2015
compared to students in the state. In addition to upholding a culture of high academic
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 12

achievement, EHS also strives for inclusion in all aspects of student life by offering students
open access to an award-winning visual and performing arts program, a variety of extracurricular
athletics, and over 80 student-initiated clubs on campus that provide every student the
opportunity to be involved.
Organizational Goal
Since teacher stress can negatively affect teachers’ job performance and well-being, EHS
must address teacher stress to accomplish its mission of providing all students with a robust
educational program that prepares them to meet the challenges of a global society. EHS’s
organizational goal is that by December 2018, EHS will improve the emotional climate and well-
being of both students and staff by decreasing teachers’ maladaptive behaviors that workplace
stress triggers. EHS’s administrators established this goal after reviewing data from a teacher
wellness survey given in the 2015-2016 school year. The wellness survey revealed that over
78% of EHS teachers experienced daily or weekly stress, and as a result engaged in maladaptive
behaviors. Maladaptive behaviors are negative behavioral responses used to adjust to a
particular situation that has more harmful than helpful long-term effects (Blase, 1986). EHS
teachers who experienced workplace stress reported that they engaged in maladaptive behaviors
such as impatience, aggression, absenteeism, and below-par teaching. Figure 1 displays the
maladaptive behaviors that EHS teachers self-reported in the 2015-2016 teacher wellness survey.
Approximately 85% of EHS teachers answered this question. Additional teacher feedback from
the survey suggested that teachers lacked organizational support in addressing workplace stress
and related concerns. As such, EHS administrators set an organizational goal to help teachers
decrease maladaptive behaviors that workplace stress triggers, which in turn will improve the
emotional climate and well-being of the students and staff.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 13

Figure 1. EHS teachers' self-reported maladaptive behaviors that workplace stress triggered
To achieve EHS’s organizational goal, EHS administrators will need to understand EHS
teachers’ stress-related needs. To measure progress towards achieving the organizational goal,
EHS administrators will need to seek teacher feedback and monitor teacher behavior. EHS
should also administer another teacher wellness survey after the completion of this evaluation
study to gauge the effectiveness of the implementation of suggested solutions.
Related Literature
Teacher stress, defined as an unpleasant experience in negative affect such as anger,
frustration, anxiety, or depression, triggered by some aspect of a teacher’s work, became a
prominent topic in the 1960s, and researchers began to publish studies on teacher stress in the
mid-1970s (Kyriacou, 2001). Over the past four decades, teacher stress has been cited as an on-
going and growing problem that continues to negatively influence teacher retention (Alliance for
Excellent Education, July 2014), teachers’ well-being, job performance, and the overall quality
58.2
26.9
16
39.4
19.5
22.4
10.3
9.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Am impatient with students
Become very short-tempered
Yell at students
Am less motivated to teach
Give students busy work to pass the day
Want to be alone
Call in sick
Dread all interactions at work
% of teachers
When I am stressed at work, I notice that I...
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 14

of education that students receive (Blase, 1986; Gallup, 2014; Klassen & Chiu, 2010; Kyriacou,
2001; MetLife, 2012). According to MetLife’s (2012) Survey of the American Teacher, teacher
stress is a problem that has contributed to the lowest teacher job satisfaction in twenty-five years.
As the educational climate in the United States continues to move in the direction of
high-stakes assessments and high-pressure accountability, teacher anxiety and stress also
continue to increase (Saeki, Pendergast, Segool, & von der Embse, 2015). The adoption of new
educational initiatives such as Common Core State Standards, which require teachers to utilize
new curriculum, instructional strategies, and assessments, create additional workload for teachers
that increases workplace stress (Saeki et al., 2015). New educational initiatives coupled with
decreased school budgets and increased class sizes have led to negative impacts on teacher
wellness, motivation, and morale (Alliance for Excellent Education, July 2014; Saeki et al.,
2015). Multiplying sources of stress inundate teachers’ lives, yet many teachers lack the
resources and support needed to address this problem.
In particular, there is a lack of research on teacher stress in high-performing schools,
resulting in a lack of thorough understanding of teacher stress within this setting. Teachers in
high-performing schools face different stressors due to the culture of high-performance
expectations that permeate these schools. For example, teachers in high-performing schools tend
to face pressure from administrators, parents, and the community-at-large to continually bring
about and exceed already high levels of student success and achievement (Conner, Miles, &
Pope, 2014). These high-performance expectations can create a very stressful, competitive, and
pressure-cooker environment for all members of the school (Conner et al., 2014). Current
literature on teacher stress does not specifically address how to mediate the different needs that
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 15

might exist in high-performing schools, resulting in the lack of data that might be useful in
helping teachers manage workplace stress effectively in this specific setting.
Importance of the Evaluation
The problem of teacher stress at EHS was important to evaluate for a variety of reasons.
A teacher wellness survey conducted at EHS in the 2015-2016 school year revealed that over
78% of EHS teachers experienced daily or weekly stress. Not properly addressing teacher stress
can affect teaching efficacy, leading to classroom management issues and decreased enthusiasm
for the profession (Collie et al., 2012; Klassen & Chiu, 2010; Richards, 2012). Teacher stress
also leads to a variety of maladaptive behaviors such as impatience, aggression, absenteeism, and
below-par teaching that affect school climate and student learning (Blase, 1986; Stevenson &
Harper, 2006; Yoon, 2002). Ignoring teacher stress can contribute to teacher attrition, which is
costly and disruptive to organizational structures (Alliance for Excellent Education, July 2014).
An evaluation of EHS teachers’ stress-related needs was necessary in order to properly
diagnose and address the problem of teacher stress at EHS. EHS teachers who experienced
stress manifested maladaptive behaviors such as impatience towards students and co-workers,
aloofness, apathy, absenteeism, and the use of below-par instructional strategies. These
maladaptive behaviors are detrimental to the emotional climate of EHS and affect students’ and
staff’s well-being. Identifying EHS teachers’ stress-related needs was a necessary step in
helping EHS teachers reduce their maladaptive behaviors, which in turn can help create a more
positive and collegial school environment.
The findings in this study contribute to existing literature on teacher stress, and further
inform educational leaders and practitioners of teachers’ stress-related needs. Specifically, this
evaluation study contributes to the gap in research that exists in the area of teacher stress in high-
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 16

performing schools. Insights from this study can also be adapted and utilized in other high-
performing organizations experiencing the same issues. Effectively addressing teacher stress
benefits the educational community as a whole because teacher stress reduction can improve
teacher performance, bring about positive school climate, and help decrease job dissatisfaction
and costly turnover.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The following stakeholders directly contribute to the achievement of EHS’s
organizational goal: administrators, school social worker, and teachers. There were three
administrators, one social worker, and approximately 90 teachers at EHS at the time of this
study. The three EHS administrators have the responsibility of managing all school-related
matters, ranging from student safety and discipline, curriculum, standardized testing, finances,
facilities, parent/community involvement, to school culture and climate. EHS hired an on-site
social worker in the 2014-15 academic year to support students’ rising social-emotional and
mental health related needs. EHS teachers’ daily responsibilities include preparing lessons,
educating students, assessing student performance, and maintaining the high-performance culture
of EHS. Additionally, EHS teachers spend time advising extracurricular clubs and supervising
after school activities. During the 2013-2014 school year, EHS teachers began preparing for the
transition into Common Core when the school district officially adopted these standards. At the
same time, EHS faced budget cuts that increased class sizes and decreased support staff. As part
of the implementation of Common Core, several core academic departments had to adopt new
textbooks in the 2014-2015 school year, which increased teachers’ workload, as they needed to
revise their curriculum, assessments, and instructional strategies to align with the new materials.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 17

Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
To achieve EHS’s organizational goal of improving the emotional climate and well-being
of students and staff by decreasing teachers’ maladaptive behaviors that workplace stress
triggers, the aforementioned stakeholder groups (also listed in Table 1) must meet their
respective stakeholder performance goals. EHS administrators can contribute to the
organizational goal by consulting the district’s professional development specialists, the district’s
Student Services department, and the school social worker to collectively review the findings of
this study and develop an action plan that helps teachers manage workplace stress effectively.
EHS’s social worker can contribute to the organizational goal by assisting problem students who
exhibit behaviors that provoke teacher stress. Lastly, EHS teachers can contribute to achieving
EHS’s goal by demonstrating the competencies necessary to manage workplace stress
effectively.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of Eagle High School is to provide all students with a robust educational program
that prepares them to meet the challenges of a global society
Organizational Performance Goal
By December 2018, EHS will improve the emotional climate and well-being of both students
and staff by decreasing teachers’ maladaptive behaviors that workplace stress triggers.

EHS Administrators EHS Social Worker EHS Teachers
By May 2018, EHS
administrators will develop an
action plan to help teachers
effectively manage workplace
stress.
By August 2018, EHS’s social
worker will implement a
process to assist students who
exhibit problem behaviors that
provoke teacher stress.
By August 2018, EHS
teachers will demonstrate the
competencies necessary to
manage workplace stress
effectively.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 18

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a full evaluation of the problem of and solution to teacher stress at EHS should
involve all stakeholders mentioned, for the purposes of this study, it was important to evaluate
EHS teachers to gain a better understanding of their stress-related needs. As such, the
stakeholders of focus for this study were EHS teachers. EHS teachers’ performance goal is to
demonstrate the competencies necessary to effectively manage workplace stress by August 2018.
Failure to meet this performance goal will lead to the continuing existence of stressed out
teachers at EHS who engage in maladaptive behaviors that are detrimental to the emotional
climate and well-being of both students and staff.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate what knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements EHS teachers need in order to effectively manage workplace stress and
meet EHS’s organizational goal. EHS’s organizational goal is to improve the emotional climate
and well-being of students and staff by decreasing teachers’ maladaptive behaviors that
workplace stress triggers. The focus of this evaluation was on EHS teachers.
I began the evaluation by generating a list of possible or assumed teacher needs. I then
examined the assumed needs systematically to focus on actual or validated needs. The questions
that guide this study were the following:
1. What is the current status of EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences needed to effectively manage workplace stress?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 19

Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis was the conceptual framework I adapted for use in
this evaluation study. The gap analysis framework provided a systematic way to analyze
interference of organizational goals by identifying the gap between actual and preferred
organizational performance (Clark and Estes, 2008). A qualitative case study that was
exploratory in nature served as the methodological approach. I used personal knowledge and
related literature and theory to identify assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
needs that influence the achievement of EHS’s stakeholder performance goal. I then examined
these needs through one-on-one interviews with EHS teachers and analysis of researcher-
constructed documents. I thematically coded, triangulated, and analyzed the qualitative data that
I collected. After thorough review, triangulation, and analysis of the data, I suggested research-
based solutions along with a comprehensive implementation and evaluation plan that EHS can
use to meet its organizational goal.
Definition of Terms
Distress. An individual’s negative perception and responses to stressors (Le Fevre, Kolt,
& Matheny, 2006).
Eustress. An individual’s positive perception and responses to stressors (Le Fevre et al.,
2006).
High-performing school. For the purposes of this study, a high-performing school is a
school with the following characteristics: (a) has met Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) and is not
in Program Improvement (PI) under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA); (b)
has a 90% or more graduation rate; (c) has a majority of its students meet or exceed standards in
statewide assessments.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 20

Maladaptive behaviors. A negative behavioral response used to adjust to a particular
situation that has more harmful than helpful long-term effects (Blase, 1986).
Teacher Stress. An unpleasant experience in negative affect such as anger, frustration,
anxiety, or depression, triggered by some aspect a teacher’s work (Kyriacou, 2011).
Organization of the Study
This study includes five chapters. The current chapter described the problem of teacher
stress at a high-performing school along with the organizational context. This chapter introduced
the organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the gap analysis framework that
was adapted for this evaluation study. This chapter also explained key concepts and terminology
related to teacher stress. Chapter two reviews the current literature, and learning and motivation
theories related to the problem of practice. Chapter two addresses topics such as the causes of
teacher stress, and stress in high-performing settings. Chapter two also describes the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs in effectively managing workplace stress.
Chapter three includes a detailed description of the research design and methodologies of this
study. Chapter four provides an assessment and analysis of the data and findings. Chapter five
suggests research-based and literature-based solutions to meet the validated knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs; it also includes an implementation and evaluation plan for
the recommended solutions.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 21

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Chapter two provides a review of literature related to teacher stress and high-performing
settings. The first section focuses on a historical overview of the sources of teacher stress. The
second section addresses stress in high-performance workplaces. The chapter ends with an
examination of assumed needs in addressing teacher stress based on existing learning,
motivation, and organizational theories. This last section uses an adapted version of Clark and
Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework to identify assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs in effectively managing teacher stress in high-performing schools.
Teacher Stress and High-Performance Workplaces
Teacher stress has risen over the past four decades and new sources of teacher stress
continue to permeate the education system (Alliance for Excellent Education, July 2014; Gallup,
2014; MetLife, 2012). In addition to excessive workload and problems related to student
behavior (Austin et al., 2005; Blase, 1986; Geving, 2007; Richards, 2012), teachers face
additional stressors that affect their job performance and well-being. Increasing performance
demands, high-stakes assessments, public accountability measures, changing curriculum, and
inadequate school budgets and support for teachers are stressors that contribute to an exhausted
teaching workforce (Alliance for Excellent Education, July 2014; Gallup, 2014; MetLife, 2012;
U.S. Department of Education, March 2015). Teacher stress can stem from contextual stressors
(Kyriacou, 2001; Stauffer & Mason, 2013) and/or personal stressors (McCormick & Barnett,
2011).
Contextual Factors Influencing Teacher Stress
Key sources of teacher stress can stem from contextual factors that exist within the
educational system. Contextual stressors are factors that are within the educational system but
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 22

are outside of individual teachers (Stauffer & Mason, 2013). Stauffer and Mason (2013)
categorized teachers’ contextual stressors as follows: political and educational structures,
instructional factors, student factors, parent and family factors, and school climate. Unmotivated
students, student discipline, workload, time pressures, unsupportive administration/management,
and poor working conditions are all examples of contextual sources of teacher stress (Kyriacou,
2001). Examining each category of contextual stressors is necessary to understand the multiple
factors inside the educational system that contribute to teacher stress.
Instructional factors. Sources of teacher stress include factors related to instructional
preparation, delivery, and assessment (Austin et al., 2005; Klassen, 2010; Skaalvik & Skaalvik,
2015). Teachers experience stress due to the hours spent outside of work to complete instruction
and assessment related activities (Austin et al., 2005). Teachers attribute stress to high workload
and time pressures (Klassen 2010; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015). It is important to keep teachers’
existing workload in mind and carefully consider how new policies and procedures or additional
extracurricular requirements might increase teachers’ stress levels (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015).
Student factors. Issues related to student behaviors also serve as key sources of teacher
stress (Blase, 1986, Geving, 2007; McCormick & Barnett, 2011). Teachers attribute
occupational stress and burnout to issues related to the student domain, namely student
misbehavior (McCormick & Barnett, 2011). Teachers who report higher instances of student
misbehavior also report greater work stress (Geving, 2007). Specific student behaviors that
induce teacher stress include student hostility, lack of preparation, lack of effort, inattentiveness,
nosiness, disruption, and defiance (Geving, 2007). Other student related sources of teacher stress
include student apathy, low achievement, and absences (Blase, 1986). According to McCormick
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 23

and Barnett (2011), teachers need to be equipped with the necessary support to address negative
student behaviors in order to be able to manage workplace stress effectively.
School climate. School climate is another contextual factor that influences teacher stress
(Kyriacou, 2001; Richards, 2012; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015). Teachers attribute stress to
school climates in which teachers lack autonomy and experience values conflict (Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2015). Administrators and colleagues who establish poor working conditions and
negative relationships also contribute to teacher stress (Kyriacou, 2001). In a study of California
teachers, Richards (2012) found that key sources of stress include lack of support for teachers
within the school, and teachers’ inability to control school wide decisions. Schools with
supportive administrators who establish positive school climate are more likely to have a
collegial environment that alleviates teacher stress (Richards, 2012; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015)
Parent and family factors. Factors related to students’ parents and families, such as the
level of parental involvement, expectations, communication, and overall home environment,
influence teacher stress (Austin et al., 2005; Stauffer & Mason, 2013). Demanding parents of
students who attend high-performing schools are a key source of stress for teachers (Stauffer &
Mason, 2013). Parent expectations, home environment, and communication dynamics are
additional parent and family factors that influence teacher stress (Austin et al., 2005).
Establishing positive relationships and aligning expectations with parents and families to
promote mutual support in helping students succeed will help teachers alleviate stress that stems
from students’ parents and families (Austin et al., 2005; Stauffer & Mason, 2013).
Political and educational policies. Changes and mandates in political and educational
policies are also contextual sources of teacher stress (McCormick, 1997; Richards, 2012; Saeki
et al., 2015). High-stakes accountability and assessments have negative impacts on teachers’
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 24

well-being (Richards, 2012; Saeki et al., 2015). Teachers attribute stress to educational policies,
unrealistic demands, and the rate at which educational authorities impose changes (McCormick,
1997). Political and educational policies such as the Race to the Top initiative, No Child Left
Behind, and now Common Core State Standards lead to counterproductive instructional practices
and negative psychosocial outcomes for teachers, such as increased stress and decreased job
satisfaction (Saeki et al., 2015). Current changes and mandates in political and educational
policies create a climate of high-stakes accountability and pressure that contribute to teacher
stress. Saeki et al. (2015) suggest that educational policymakers factor in the rate of change and
demands that they impose upon teachers, and be mindful of how these changes affect teachers’
stress and well-being.
Personal Factors Influencing Teacher Stress
In addition to contextual factors, personal factors that stem from within individual
teachers also contribute to teacher stress. Personal stressors are factors that are specific to
individual teachers, and can include teachers’ personality, perceptions, skills, and goals (Stauffer
& Mason, 2013). Teachers who attribute stress to the personal domain might have feelings and
perceptions of personal failings and inadequacy that contribute to stress and burnout
(McCormick & Barnett, 2011). Personal factors, such as teachers’ attitudes and perceptions
toward stress, and occupational identity and commitment, influence teacher stress. In addition to
understanding contextual stressors, it is also important to recognize and help teachers address the
personal factors that contribute to the stress they experience.
Teachers’ attitudes and perceptions toward stress. Teachers’ attitudes and
perceptions toward stress are personal factors that influence teacher stress. Teachers who are
trained to understand, be aware of, and cope with stress can improve their attitude towards
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 25

workplace stress and engage in effective stress management (Sneyers, Jacobs, & Stuyf, 2016).
Teachers who exhibit positive affect and attitude are also successful in adapting to stress, have
higher resilience, and experience lower burnout (Gloria, Faulk, & Steinhardt, 2013). Teachers
who perceive that they are in control of their stressors experience less stress and emotional
exhaustion (Wang, Hall, & Rahimi, 2015). To help teachers manage stress, it is important to
consider personal factors such as attitude and perceptions toward stress as these are individual
elements that influence whether one is able to adapt to stress successfully (Gloria et al., 2013;
Sneyers et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2015).
Occupational identity and commitment. Occupational identity and commitment are
other personal factors that influence teacher stress. Teachers who have high self-esteem in their
occupational identity (i.e. feel proud and competent in their roles as teachers) are less stressed
(Alizadegani, Zaini, & Delavari, 2014). Teachers with strong occupational commitment also
perceive less work-related stress (Jepson & Forrest, 2006). Perceived stress was strongest in
teachers whose occupational identity reveals higher levels of achievement striving and “Type A”
behaviors (Jepson & Forrest, 2006). Personal factors such as occupational identity and
commitment need to be considered when addressing teacher stress as they play a role in
influencing the way that individual teachers experience stress (Alizadegani et al., 2014; Jepson &
Forrest, 2006).
Stress in High-Performance Workplaces
Employees in high-performance workplaces can experience eustress (positive stress)
and/or distress (negative stress) depending on their job demands and work climate. Eustress is
an individual’s positive perception and responses to stressors, while distress is an individual’s
negative perception and responses to stressors (Le Fevre et al., 2006). Employees experience
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 26

eustress when faced with challenging yet achievable job demands; they experience distress when
faced with undesirable and restrictive job demands that interfere with personal performance
goals (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000). Different work practices and
climates within high-performance workplaces can contribute to either employee eustress and/or
distress. It is important to examine the various factors that contribute to stress in high-
performance workplaces to understand how eustress can be encouraged and distress eliminated
within the demanding nature of high-performance work settings (Cavanaugh et al., 2000; Le
Fevre et al., 2006).
Job demands. Job demands in high-performance workplaces produce higher levels of
perceived stress among employees. High-performance work practices in the form of challenge
demands, such as performance evaluations and professional development training, increase
perceived stress among employees (Topcic, Baum, & Kabst, 2016). This is because high-
performance work practices tend to lead to role overload, thereby impacting employees’ ability
to effectively regulate stress (Topcic et al., 2016). When job demands are perceived to be
unattainable or undesirable, employees will experience distress (Cavanaugh et al., 2000).
Work climate and relationships. Employees in high-performance workplaces who
experience positive work climates and relationships are more successful in managing workplace
stress. Work climates that support individually focused stress management interventions are
effective in encouraging positive responses toward stress (Le Fevre et al., 2006). School
climates and relationships that are emotionally supportive minimize negative stress (McCarthy et
al., 2010). Creating positive work climates, relationships, and an overall supportive work
atmosphere will help employees manage stress in high-performance workplaces (Le Fevre et al.,
2006; McCarthy et al., 2010).
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 27

Teacher stress in high-performing schools. While research on teacher stress is
plentiful, there is a lack of research that specifically examines teacher stress in high-performing
schools. Teachers experience stress differently, so it is important to examine stress perceptions
and responses at the individual level (Mujtaba & Reiss, 2013). Key factors that support effective
teacher stress management include: trust, high self-efficacy, social support, reflection,
motivation, good role models/leadership, and workplace collegiality. Key factors that bring
about teacher stress are the opposite: mistrust, low self-efficacy, social isolation, lack of
reflection, lack of motivation, poor role models/leadership, and lack of workplace collegiality
(Mujtaba & Reiss, 2013). The factors that influence teacher stress described in Mujtaba and
Reiss’s (2013) findings parallel existing literature related to factors that influence employees’
stress in high-performance workplaces, and can serve as a useful starting point in examining
teacher stress in high-performing schools.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Organizational Problem Solving Framework
As mentioned in chapter one, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis is a conceptual
framework that is useful in identifying performance issues within organizations. Clark and Estes
(2008) argue that in order to find the root causes of and solutions to performance problems, an
organization should first identify its organizational and supporting stakeholder goals. After
identifying goals, a performance gap analysis can ascertain whether employees have the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational support needed to achieve their performance goals.
For this study, I used an adapted version of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
framework to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements EHS teachers
need in order to manage workplace stress effectively. Identifying EHS teachers’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs related to workplace stress was a necessary step in
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 28

contributing to EHS’s goal of improving the emotional climate and well-being of both students
and staff.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), gaps in knowledge can be measured by examining
whether one has the factual, conceptual, and procedural information needed to know how to
achieve a goal. Motivation, which is an internal psychological process that involves whether one
begins, persists through, and expends mental effort on a task, can be assessed through
motivational indicators such as self-efficacy, expectancy-value, and affect. Gaps in
organizational elements can be identified by examining organizational culture, climate,
processes, policies, and resources. All three factors—knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements—must exist in alignment with organizational goals in order to achieve successful
performance outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Factors
In the following sections, I examine literature related to the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that influence EHS teachers’ needs in managing workplace stress. I also
address approaches in assessing EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs.
Lastly, I include a visual conceptual framework to depict the interactions between the
stakeholders’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs in relation to achieving the
stakeholders’ goal.
Knowledge
A critical step in Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis process is to determine the
knowledge-related influences that affect the achievement of an organizational goal. In order for
EHS to meet its organizational goal of improving the emotional climate and well-being of both
students and staff by decreasing teachers’ maladaptive behaviors that workplace stress triggers, it
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 29

was important to first identify key stakeholders’ knowledge of workplace stress and coping. The
stakeholder goal for this study is to have EHS teachers demonstrate the competencies necessary
to manage workplace stress effectively. As such, EHS teachers’ knowledge of workplace stress
and related needs were assessed. Identifying potential gaps in stakeholders’ knowledge and
skills can help organizations better understand their stakeholders’ knowledge-related needs in
achieving stated performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge types. To examine EHS teachers’ knowledge needs as they relate to
managing workplace stress, I applied Krathwohl’s (2002) revision of the knowledge dimension
in Bloom’s taxonomy. In this revision, Krathwohl (2002) provides a model of examining
knowledge through four knowledge types: factual (knowledge of specific facts, basic elements,
or terminology); conceptual (more complex forms of knowledge that involves interrelationships,
classifications, categories, principles, generalizations, theories, models, and structures);
procedural (knowledge of how and when to do something); and metacognitive (knowledge of
one’s own cognitive processes). These knowledge types provide a lens through which to
examine knowledge-related needs. The following sections provide a literature review of relevant
knowledge needs related to teacher stress, categorized by knowledge types. These knowledge
needs are assumed knowledge needs that guided the gap analysis of EHS teachers’ knowledge of
workplace stress and coping.
Factual and conceptual knowledge related to teacher stress and coping. Teachers who
are able to describe different causes of stress have higher success in combatting workplace stress
(Richards, 2012; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015; Sneyers et al., 2016). Teachers who can identify
and name various stressors have a broader understanding of stress, and are better able to pinpoint
their own causes of stress (Sneyers et al., 2016). Those who can describe their stressors are also
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 30

more effective in adapting to stressful circumstances (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015). Possessing
knowledge of stress helps teachers manage workplace stress effectively.
Teachers who can name positive coping strategies for stress are also better able to adapt
to workplace stress (Richards, 2012; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015; Sneyers et al., 2016). Positive
coping strategies for stress include exercising, spending time with supportive family members
and friends, using humor, and believing that problems can be solved (Richards, 2012). Teachers
who have conceptual knowledge of these positive coping strategies possess basic understanding
that is helpful in effectively managing stress (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015). In a study where
teachers responded to vignettes that depict stressful teaching-related circumstances, those who
simply named positive coping strategies in their responses were more successful in combatting
their own workplace stress (Sneyers et al., 2016). Knowledge of positive stress-coping strategies
equips teachers with the foundational information needed to manage stress successfully.
Procedural knowledge related to teacher stress. Along with factual and conceptual
knowledge, teachers also need to have procedural knowledge to be able to apply different
approaches to manage workplace stress effectively. Teachers who know how to apply their
knowledge of positive coping strategies experience less stress in both their professional and
personal functioning (Blase, 1986; McCormick & Barnett, 2011; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015).
Those who lack understanding of how to respond to and cope with stress engage in maladaptive
behaviors that lead to increased stress and exhaustion (McCormick & Barnett, 2011; Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2015).
Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2015) found that teachers who can apply their knowledge of
positive coping strategies and address stress through physical exercise and proper sleeping habits
have higher success in managing workplace stress. Those who have the procedural knowledge
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 31

needed to address stress in a positive manner maintain better mental health and experience less
psychosomatic and physiological symptoms of stress (Blase, 1986; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015).
On the other hand, teachers who do not know how to address their stressors engage in negative
coping strategies and experience what Blase (1986) coined as “Performance Adaptation
Syndrome (PAS).” PAS refers to the maladaptive cognitive and behavioral responses that take
place when teachers do not have the procedural knowledge needed to manage stress effectively
(Blase, 1986). Symptoms of PAS include emotional and social withdrawal, repetitive use of old
materials and teaching techniques, and rote and/or lower cognitive learning—all of which are
contradictory to effective instruction and meaningful student learning (Blase, 1986). Teachers
who experience PAS engage in additional maladaptive behaviors, such as absenteeism or
aggression, which ultimately create more stress to the point of physical and emotional exhaustion
(Austin, Shah, & Muncer, 2005; Blase, 1986; McCormick & Barnett, 2011). Possessing
knowledge of how to effectively respond to and cope with stress is extremely important as those
who do not know how to deal with stressors experience higher levels of stress that eventually
leads to burnout (McCormick & Barnett, 2011).
Metacognitive knowledge related to teacher stress. Teachers who are aware of how
stress affects them are more capable of managing their stressors, and experience less workplace
stress (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015; Sneyers et al., 2016). Metacognitive knowledge involves
both knowledge of self and control of one’s own cognitive progress through planning,
evaluation, and self-regulation (Baker, 2006). Teachers who engage in metacognitive thinking
understand how stress affects them, and have greater awareness of their own thinking and
reactions; they are able to see the relationship between their own and others’ behaviors (Sneyers
et al., 2016). Teachers who reflect upon their own stress and its impacts are better able to assess
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 32

stress triggers and adapt to stressful circumstances with greater insight, patience, and
perspective—key attitudes and factors that contribute to their success in overall stress reduction
(Sneyers et al., 2016). Those who reflect upon how stress impacts them are also more likely to
realize their need to be proactive in using positive coping strategies. These teachers will expend
more effort in controlling their cognitive functions and apply self-regulation to manage stress
effectively (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015).
In addition to reflecting upon the impact of stress on self, teachers also need to reflect
upon how stress might affect their teaching. Teacher stress can lead to below-par teaching
(Stevenson & Harper, 2006), and highly stressed teachers might create an impatient, aggressive,
or hostile teaching environment (Austin et al., 2005). Teachers who have awareness of the
negative impacts that stress has upon their teaching are more likely to expend effort in planning
and re-evaluating their teaching practices to reduce their stressors (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2005).
In a study where teachers noticed that stress caused below-par teaching, they proactively sought
strategies to address their own stress to improve both their teaching and overall well-being
(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2005). Teachers who have metacognitive knowledge of how stress
negatively impacts their teaching have more awareness of the need to address stress, and are
more likely to seek and engage in stress reduction strategies to improve their personal and
professional functioning.
Table 2 summarizes the assumed factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge needs and their corresponding knowledge types found in the literature reviewed.
These assumed knowledge needs were relevant when examining workplace stress at EHS. Table
2 also includes potential knowledge needs assessments that were used to identify EHS teachers’
actual knowledge needs.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 33

Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Needs and Assessments Related to Teacher Stress
Assumed Knowledge Needs Knowledge Needs Assessment

Factual and Conceptual Knowledge: Teachers
need to be able to describe various causes of
workplace stress; Teachers need to be able to
name positive coping strategies for workplace
stress.

Interview: “What are some common
workplace stressors for teachers?” and “What
are examples of positive coping strategies for
workplace stress?”

Journal prompt: “What was stressful about
today?”

Procedural Knowledge: Teachers need to
know how to apply positive coping strategies.
Interview: “Tell me about a time when work
really stressed you out. How did you cope
with this situation, if at all?”

Metacognitive Knowledge: Teachers need to
be aware of how workplace stress impacts
them and their work performance.
Interview: “How do you know when you are
stressed at work?” and “How does stress
impact you and your work as a teacher, if at
all?”

Journal prompt: “How did you react/behave
under the stress you experienced?”

Motivation
According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivation influences are important to examine
because they are one of the biggest factors in either facilitating or hindering the achievement of
performance goals. Motivation involves a personal process that moves, activates, and energizes
an individual towards accomplishing goal-oriented tasks (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003;
Rueda, 2011). Motivation influences an individual’s active choice in beginning a task,
commitment to persist through a task despite challenges, and investment of mental effort in
completing a task (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
Multiple motivational theory-based generalizations exist that are critical to examine in
the study of teacher stress. Self-efficacy, expectancy-value, and affect are motivational variables
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 34

that can affect teachers’ active choice, persistence, and mental effort in accomplishing a goal
such as managing workplace stress effectively. In the following sections, I examine self-efficacy
theory, expectancy-value theory, and affect as assumed motivation needs that affect teachers’
ability to engage in, persist through, and utilize mental effort in combatting workplace stress.
The assumed motivation needs found in the literature reviewed guided the assessment of EHS
teachers’ actual needs in managing workplace stress effectively.
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy is a motivation-related aspect of social cognitive
theory (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2006). Self-efficacy beliefs refer to individuals’ self-
perceptions of their capability to accomplish tasks effectively (Pajares, 2006). Self-efficacy
greatly influences an individual’s performance and motivation in achieving goals. Individuals
who feel efficacious in performing a task are more likely to engage, persist, and use mental effort
to complete a task even when faced with challenges and distractions (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Pajares, 2006). Modeling and targeted feedback can increase an individual’s self-efficacy, which
positively influences motivation (Pajares, 2006).
Teacher stress and self-efficacy. Teachers who possess higher self-efficacy in their roles
as teachers are better able to adapt to stressful circumstances (Taylor et al., 2016; Wang, Hall, &
Rahimi, 2015). Efficacious teachers are able to control stressors and regulate emotions (Taylor
et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2015). When teachers feel efficacious in their roles as teachers, their
ability in managing stress increases, they are healthier, and they experience less stress and
emotional exhaustion (Wang et al., 2015). Wang, Hall, and Rahimi (2015) studied the
relationship between teacher self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and burnout. They found that
teachers who feel efficacious in engaging their students and managing their classrooms—factors
that are perceived as potential stressors—have better adjustment outcomes for stress. Teachers
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 35

who are confident in their roles are able to control their stressors and thus experience less
workplace stress.
Interpersonal self-efficacy. Taking a different approach in exploring the relationship
between teacher efficacy and teacher stress, García-Ros, Fuentes, and Fernández (2015)
examined interpersonal self-efficacy, which involves individuals’ beliefs in their capability to
elicit help and support from others. Teachers who felt efficacious in seeking help (i.e. those who
had higher interpersonal self-efficacy) experienced less stress and burnout (García-Ros et al.,
2015). Teachers’ confidence in their ability to exercise interpersonal self-efficacy through help-
seeking is a factor that impacts teachers’ ability to effectively manage workplace stress.
Expectancy-value theory. Expectancy-value theory addresses an individual’s
expectation in successfully completing a task, and the value that an individual places on the task
itself (Eccles, 2006). An individual’s expectancy for success influences persistence and mental
effort in accomplishing tasks, whereas the value that an individual attaches to tasks strongly
predicts active choice (Eccles, 2006). There are four critical components of task value beliefs
within expectancy-value theory that impact motivation: attainment value, intrinsic value, utility
value, and perceived cost (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). Attainment value stems from an
individual’s perception of whether a task confirms or disconfirms self-identity. Intrinsic value
refers to an individual’s personal interest and enjoyment of a task. The usefulness of a task in
helping individuals meet their goals determines utility value. Perceived cost is an individual’s
perception of the cost-benefit in engaging in a task, and involves an individual’s analysis of the
perceived effort, emotional investment, time, and/or energy needed to accomplish a task.
Expectancy-value is important to examine because it greatly influences an individual’s
motivation towards completing tasks and achieving goals.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 36

Teacher stress and expectancy-value: Utility and attainment. Teachers who expect
success and find value in addressing workplace stress demonstrate better work performance and
experience less stress (Alizadegani, Zaini, & Delavari, 2014; McCarthy et al., 2010). This is
likely because those who find value in a task are more motivated to accomplish the task (Eccles,
2006). Teachers who find value in addressing stress are more likely to engage in, persist
through, and expend mental effort in combatting stress. Teachers who see utility value in
addressing workplace stress are motivated to perform efficiently at work; they exert effort to
control their emotions and deal with their stressors so that they can succeed in achieving their
work performance goals (Alizadegani et al., 2014). Teachers who find utility value in preventive
coping resources experience increased job satisfaction, decreased stress, and less intention to
leave the profession (McCarthy et al., 2010).
In addition to utility value beliefs, teachers who expect success in their occupational
identity possess attainment value that motivates them to engage in effective stress management
(Alizadegani et al., 2014). Teachers who perceive themselves as highly effective will take
necessary measures to protect their self-image and not allow stress to affect their work
performance negatively (Alizadegani et al., 2014). They prioritize managing stress so that they
can perform effectively at work, which corresponds to their self-schema as efficacious teachers.
Both utility and attainment values influence teachers’ motivation and success in managing
workplace stress effectively, and result in better work performance and less overall stress.
Affect and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. According to Tomkins
(1984), affect is an innate biological response and central motivating mechanism that is either
positive or negative. Tomkins (1984) categorized the following affects as positive: interest or
excitement, enjoyment or joy, and surprise or startle. He identified the following affects as
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 37

negative: distress or anguish, fear or terror, shame or humiliation, contempt, disgust, and anger
or rage. Affect can have a major influence on individuals’ motivation and behavior, and plays a
central regulatory role in cognitive processing (Pintrich, 2003).
Fredrickson (2001) expanded on the concept of positive affect in her broaden-and-build-
theory of positive emotions. This theory states that positive affect can broaden-and-build an
individual’s cognitive scope, thereby enabling more flexibility in thinking. According to
Frederickson (2001), an individual with broadened cognition has room to build psychosocial
resources that promote resilience. As such, individuals who experience high levels of positive
affect have broader cognitive scope that gives room to build enduring personal resources,
whereas individuals with lower levels of positive affect tend to have narrower cognitive capacity,
and might be less able to engage in effective and thoughtful decision-making.
Impact of positive affect and the broaden-and-build theory on teacher stress. Teachers
who have positive affect have broader cognitive scope that allows for successful adaptation to
workplace stress (Gloria et al., 2013). Gloria, Faulk, and Steinhardt (2013) studied the
relationship between positive affect and adaptation to stress. In their study, they measured
successful adaptation to stress through resilience and unsuccessful adaptation to stress through
burnout. Gloria et al. (2013) used Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory as a
framework and found that positive affect mediated the relationship between stress and resilience
and predicted successful adaptation to stress. They found that teachers with positive affect have
higher resilience, and experience less overall stress and burnout, while teachers who display
negative affect experience more stress and have lower self-efficacy. Gloria et al.’s (2013) study
brings to light the importance of positive affect as a motivational indicator that can influence
teachers’ resilience and successful management of workplace stress. Continued growth in
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 38

positive affect can help expand one’s cognitive capacity, leaving more room to process
information, think clearly, and build the cognitive flexibility needed to engage in successful
adaptation towards stress (Fredrickson, 2001; Gloria et al., 2013). Positive affect is an important
motivational influencer that teachers need in order to manage workplace stress effectively.
Table 3 summarizes the assumed motivation needs related to teacher stress found in the
literature reviewed. The assumed motivation needs guided the motivation needs analysis in this
study. The assessments suggested were used to help identify EHS teachers’ actual motivation
needs related to effective management of workplace stress.
Table 3
Assumed Motivation Needs and Assessments Related to Teacher Stress
Assumed Motivation Needs

Motivation Needs Assessment

Self-Efficacy: Teachers need to feel efficacious
in their roles as teachers to control stressors;
Teachers need to exercise interpersonal self-
efficacy in managing workplace stress.
Interview question: “How do you feel about
your role as a teacher and your ability to
manage workplace stress?” and “How do you
feel about your ability to elicit support and
help from others when dealing with stress?”

Expectancy-Value Theory: Teachers need to find
utility and attainment value in successfully
managing workplace stress.

Interview question: “Is managing workplace
stress a priority for you? If yes, what makes
it a priority? If no, what prevents it from
being a priority?”

Positive Affect and Broaden-and-Build Theory:
Teachers need positive affect to broaden and
build their cognitive scope to adapt to stress
successfully.

Interview question: “What are some of the
most common emotions that you experience
in your role as a teacher?”

Journal prompt: “How did you feel today?”

Organization
Organizational issues can serve as major barriers to effective work performance (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Organizational elements such as workplace policies and procedures, resources,
leadership, and organizational culture can greatly influence the achievement of organizational
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 39

goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational culture, in particular, plays a significant role in
influencing employee behavior and performance outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 1992).
An organization’s culture develops over time from the shared norms, meanings, values, behavior,
learning, and experiences of its members (Schein, 1992). In the following sections, I examine
organizational culture, specifically an organization’s cultural models and settings, as assumed
influences that affect teacher stress at a high-performing school. The assumed organizational
influences guided the examination of EHS teachers’ perceived organizational needs in managing
workplace stress.
Cultural models. Cultural models develop through shared values and beliefs that drive
normative understandings, interpretations, and behavior (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Cultural models are generally invisible within an organization as they are embedded norms that
organizational members have become accustomed to and take for granted (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Shared perceptions, behavior, thinking, and affective responses develop
because of the cultural models that exist within organizations. The shared mental schemas that
arise from an organization’s cultural models can greatly affect work performance as these
cultural models guide an individual’s or a group’s perceptions and behavior. Cultures of
competition, performance orientation, or trust/distrust are examples of cultural models that might
exist within a workplace.
Culture of high-performance expectation contribute to workplace stress. Organizations
with a culture of high-performance expectations uphold a cultural model that contributes to
workplace stress. Employees who work in organizations in which high-performance
expectations are the norm face distress when they perceive these expectations as undesirable,
unachievable, or restrictive (Cavanaugh et al., 2000). High-performance work practices, such as
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 40

professional development training and performance evaluations, also increase employees’
perceived stress (Topcic et al., 2016).
Teachers, especially those at high-performing schools, tend to face high-performance
expectations from administrators, students, families, and the community at large (Conner et al.,
2014; Stauffer & Mason, 2013). Political and educational accountability systems that encompass
high-stakes performance expectations and demands also induce teacher stress (McCarthy et al.,
2010; Stauffer & Mason, 2013). High-performing schools that have a history of high-
performance outcomes maintain a culture of high-performance expectations that can be stressful
for its teachers.
Culture of unsupportive leadership increases teacher stress. Organizations that have a
culture of unsupportive leadership further increase employee stress. Employees perceive leaders
or supervisors who are unsupportive due to their inaccessible, authoritarian, and/or non-
communicative nature as a major source of workplace stress (Berger, 2014; Burke, 2002;
Morrison & Milliken, 2000). Organizations with a cultural model in which unsupportive
leadership is the norm will have difficulty building trust and employee satisfaction—
organizational elements that can reduce workplace stress (Berger, 2014).
Teachers who work in schools that have a culture of unsupportive leadership face
administrators who do not provide the needed support and resources that can help alleviate
workplace stress (McCarthy et al., 2010; Mujtaba & Reiss, 2016; Richards, 2012). Unsupportive
administrators who do not provide support to its staff create school cultures that induce negative
stress (McCarthy et al., 2010). In high-performing schools that already possess a culture of high-
performance expectations, poor leadership further contributes to teacher stress, especially when
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 41

administrators are unsupportive in establishing policies and procedures that protect teachers from
stressful environments (McCarthy et al., 2010; Mujtaba & Reiss, 2016).
Cultural settings. Cultural settings refer to the visible displays of cultural models that
take place in particular environments (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings include
the concrete activities that occur every day within an organization, and drive the mental schemas
of cultural models (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). When examining cultural settings, it is
important to be aware of the absence of cultural settings that might affect performance outcomes
and the achievement of organizational goals (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). For example, a
school that does not have a cultural setting in which teachers receive social support might see a
decline in work performance in teachers who need social support. The cultural setting of an
organization greatly influences employees’ day-to-day norms and behaviors, which can
positively or negatively affect the organization’s success.
Teachers’ daily work structure and work demands lead to role overload and create silos
that prevent help-seeking. Teachers often work in silos and face overwhelming work demands
(Stauffer & Mason, 2013). The typical work setting of a school makes it difficult for teachers to
interact and seek help from one another (Austin et al., 2005; McCarthy et al., 2005). In a high-
performing school where work expectations and responsibilities are demanding, teachers
experience role overload and have little to no time left to seek help (Mujtaba & Reiss, 2013). In
addition to standard work practices such as curriculum preparation, daily instruction, student
assessments and grading, parent meetings, committee participation, and staff collaboration, many
teachers also provide after-school support for struggling students, supervise extracurricular
activities, and attend professional development trainings. All of these responsibilities even when
monetarily compensated will lead to role overload, as they require teachers to work excessive
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 42

hours outside the workday (Austin et al., 2005; McCarthy et al., 2010; Stauffer & Mason, 2013).
Even teachers who understand the importance of engaging in positive stress responses might not
be able to do so if their daily work demands cause role overload, leading to a lack of cognitive
capacity to successfully cope with stress (Frederickson, 2001). It is important to examine
teachers’ daily work structure and work demands as these are organizational influences that can
lead to role overload and create silos that will negatively impact teachers’ ability to manage
workplace stress.
Inadequate organizational resources contribute to teacher stress. Clark and Estes
(2008) believe that inadequate resources create organizational barriers that negatively impact
employees’ work performance. Organizations need to provide resources such as tangible
supplies and equipment to help employees successfully achieve their goals (Clark & Estes,
2008). Teachers who work in schools with inadequate resources tend to experience more
workplace stress (Richards, 2012). Lack of resources such as up-to-date technology and
materials that support teachers’ daily work contribute greatly to teacher stress (Richards, 2012).
Assessing whether resources are inadequate or lacking in schools is important as it will help
identify the organizational barriers that contribute to workplace stress for teachers.
Table 4 summarizes the assumed organizational influences related to teacher stress found
in the literature reviewed. The assessments suggested were used to help identify EHS teachers’
actual organizational needs related to managing workplace stress effectively.
Table 4
Assumed Organizational Influences and Assessments Related to Teacher Stress
Assumed Organizational Influences

Organizational Influences Assessment

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 43

Cultural Model Influence 1: There is a culture of
high-performance expectations that induce
teacher stress.
Interview: “Are there any workplace
stressors that you think are unique to being a
teacher at a high-performing school like
EHS?”

Cultural Model Influence 2: Culture of
unsupportive leadership increases teacher stress.

Interview: “What resources does EHS offer
to help teachers manage workplace stress, if
any?” and “Do you feel comfortable reaching
out to administrators for support in dealing
with workplace stress?”

Cultural Setting Influence 1: Teachers’ daily
work structure and work demands lead to role
overload and create silos that prevent help-
seeking.
Interview: “How do you think the job
demands as a teacher here impact workplace
stress, if at all?” and “How do job demands
affect teachers’ opportunities to engage in
self-care, if at all?”

Journal prompt: “What was stressful about
work today?”

Cultural Setting Influence 2: Insufficient
organization resources contribute to workplace
stress.

Interview: “What resources does EHS offer
to help teachers manage workplace stress, if
any?”

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework is a theoretical model that informs, justifies, supports, and
frames a study; it offers a structure to examine phenomena by providing insights into underlying
assumptions, key factors, concepts, and variables that might influence a research topic (Maxwell,
2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Conceptual frameworks guide the development of research
questions, methodology, and data analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Merriam &
Tisdell (2016), conceptual frameworks develop from experiential knowledge, existing theory,
pilot research, or thought experiments.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 44

As mentioned, I used an adapted version of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model,
along with relevant concepts related to teacher stress from learning and motivation theories, to
form the conceptual framework for this study. While I discussed the potential knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs for the stakeholders in this study as separate entities, these
potential needs were not isolated from each other. EHS’s high-performing organizational culture
and setting played a key role in influencing EHS teachers’ knowledge and motivation, ultimately
impacting EHS teachers’ experience of and ability to manage workplace stress effectively.
Figure 2 provides a visual conceptual framework depicting the interaction of
stakeholders’ knowledge and motivation and the organizational context. As seen in Figure 2, I
examined constructs related to EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences in order to determine what EHS teachers need to meet their stakeholder goal. Existing
literature related to high-performance workplaces reveals that high-performing organizational
culture and settings can facilitate and/or hinder employees’ experience of stress (Cavanaugh et
al., 2000; Mujtaba & Reiss, 2013). Additionally, learning and motivation theories on teacher
stress suggest that individual knowledge and perception of stress (Richards, 2012; Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2015; Sneyers et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2015), along with motivational elements such
as self-efficacy (Pajares, 2006; Taylor et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2015), expectancy-value
(Alizadegani et al., 2014; Eccles, 2006; McCarthy et al., 2010), affect (Fredrickson, 2001; Gloria
et al., 2013; Pintrich, 2003), and occupational identity and commitment (Alizadegani et al., 2014;
Jepson & Forrest, 2006), can also influence teachers’ experience of workplace stress. As such, I
connected existing literature on stress in high-performance workplaces with learning and
motivation theories related to teacher stress to examine how factors in a high-performing school
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 45

might influence EHS teachers’ knowledge and motivation needs in meeting the goal of managing
workplace stress effectively.
The conceptual framework displayed in Figure 2 guided the study of teacher stress at
EHS. Figure 2 shows that EHS teachers exist within a high-performing organizational
culture/setting at EHS, and face various influences within this unique environment. The

Figure 2. Conceptual Framework in Examining Teacher Stress at a High-Performing School
double-ended arrows connecting the constructs related to high-performing organizational
culture/setting, knowledge, and motivation represent the reciprocal influences that these
constructs have upon each other. For example, factors within a high-performance organization
such as job demands, work climate and structure, high-performance expectations, and lack of
resources, can facilitate and/or hinder EHS teachers’ knowledge and motivation needs as they
relate to workplace stress. In turn, EHS teachers’ knowledge of and motivation behind stress and
High-performing organizational culture and setting:

-Job demands
-Work climate and structure
-High-performance expectations
-Lack of resources

EHS Teachers
EHS teachers will
demonstrate the
competencies needed
to effectively manage
workplace stress.
EHS
Motivation:
-Self-efficacy
-Utility/attainment value
-Affect
-Occupational
identity/commitment
Knowledge of:
-Stressors
-Coping
-Impact of stress

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 46

coping can influence the constructs within EHS’s high-performing organizational culture and
setting. EHS teachers’ knowledge of stress and coping can also affect their motivation in
addressing workplace stress, and vice versa.
The nature of interactions between the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
elements depicted in Figure 2 helped determine whether EHS teachers have the competencies
necessary to manage workplace stress effectively. The goal of this study was to examine EHS
teachers’ specific knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs related to workplace stress,
within the context of the variables depicted in the conceptual framework. I analyzed data
gathered from EHS teachers regarding their knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to
create an implementation and evaluation plan that helps EHS teachers effectively manage
workplace stress. If EHS teachers are able to effectively manage workplace stress, maladaptive
behaviors that workplace stress triggers will decrease, and the emotional climate and well-being
of both teachers and staff will improve.
Summary
Increasing performance demands, high-stakes testing, decreased budgets, and changing
accountability measures contribute greatly to teacher stress (McCarthy et al., 2010; Stauffer &
Mason, 2013). These problems at times might be more pronounced in high-performing schools
that impose higher expectations and demands upon their teachers. In this chapter, I examined
literature related to teacher stress and high-performance settings to provide insights into the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements that EHS teachers might need to
manage workplace stress effectively. I also discussed learning and motivation theories to
provide further insights into EHS teachers’ assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 47

needs. Table 5 provides a summary of assumed needs found in the related literature and learning
and motivation theories.
Table 5
Summary of Assumed Needs for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Issues
Assumed Needs
Sources Knowledge Motivation Organization
Related
Literature
 Need knowledge of
contextual and
personal stressors.
 Need to be aware of
own attitudes and
perceptions toward
stress.
 Need high self-
esteem and to
expect success in
occupational
identity.
 Need to feel strong
occupational
commitment.
 Need challenging
yet achievable job
demands.
 Need positive and
supportive work
climate and
relationships.

Assumed Needs
Sources Knowledge Motivation Organization
Learning
and
Motivation
Theory
 Need knowledge of
positive coping
strategies for stress.
 Need ability to
apply coping
strategies in
response to stressful
circumstances.
 Need to be aware of
the impact of stress
on self and on work
performance.

 Need to feel
efficacious in role
as teacher.
 Need to exercise
interpersonal self-
efficacy.
 Need to find utility
and attainment
value in
successfully
managing
workplace stress.
 Need positive affect
to broaden and
build cognitive
scope.
 Need to manage
high-performance
expectations.
 Need supportive
leadership.
 Need workplace
structure that is
conducive to help-
seeking.
 Need organizational
resources that
alleviate workplace
stressors.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 48

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach EHS’s organizational goal of
improving the emotional climate and well-being of students and staff by decreasing teachers’
maladaptive behaviors that workplace stress triggers. To meet this organizational goal, EHS
teachers need to demonstrate the competencies necessary to manage workplace stress effectively.
In this chapter, I describe the research design, methodologies, sampling procedures, and
recruitment rationale of this study. I also describe two primary data collection methods, one-on-
one interviews and researcher-constructed documents, in detail. The chapter concludes with a
discussion on the credibility/trustworthiness, ethics, and limitations/delimitations of this study.
The design of this study addressed the following research questions:
1. What is the current status of EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences needed to effectively manage workplace stress?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions?
Participating Stakeholders
EHS teachers were the stakeholders of focus in this study. In the 2016-2017 school year,
there were approximately 85 full-time teachers at EHS. I selected a nonprobability purposeful
sample of participants for this qualitative study in order to elicit in-depth descriptions and
insights (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I used the following criteria in the sampling selection
process: EHS teachers who are full-time and are general education (as opposed to special
education) teachers. Only full-time general education teachers were selected because the
existing research on teacher stress used to develop the conceptual framework of this study were
based on data related to full-time general education teachers; using a similar subset of
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 49

participants in this study allowed for potential corroboration and better comparison of findings
with the existing research. The decision to examine only general education teachers and not
special education teachers was also based on purposeful intention to limit the scope of the
sample. Existing research on teacher stress reveals that special education teachers face stressors
that might be different from those that general education teachers face (Leko & Smith, 2010;
Male & May, 1997). Since general education and special education teachers’ stressors might be
different, limiting the scope of the sample to only general education teachers allowed for a
clearer focus in this study. Examining only general education teachers also served EHS well
since general education teachers represent close to 90% of the full-time teaching staff. A follow-
up on EHS’s special education teachers is recommended for future study.
Since I worked as the Associate Principal of the school under study, to lessen power-
conflict and undue influence, I also only recruited teachers who were not under my direct
supervision or formal evaluation. In the following sections, I provide additional criteria that I
used in the sampling selection process for both data collection methods. The sampling criteria
for the one-on-one interviews and researcher-constructed documents did not differ as I used the
same group of participants for both data collection methods to increase the credibility of the data.
Interview and Researcher-Constructed Document Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. I recruited an equal proportion of teachers who reported that they were
stressed daily, weekly, monthly, or rarely on a teacher wellness survey conducted at EHS in
2015-2016 for this study. Those who participated in the teacher wellness survey served as a
starting point for the research sample because they were the ones who expressed initial
willingness to respond to questions related to stress and wellness. Ensuring that the sample
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 50

contained those who experienced different frequencies of stress also helped gauge whether there
were differences in these teachers’ stress-related needs.
Criterion 2. In addition to the first criterion, I selected teachers who represented a range
of teaching experience. Specifically, I recruited four 1
st
to 5
th
year teachers, two 6
th
to 10
th
year
teachers, and three teachers who have taught for 15 or more years. Selecting teachers who
ranged from novice to seasoned in their teaching career allowed for what Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) calls maximum variation. Studies on teacher stress reveal that stress tends to influence
newer teachers’ intention to leave the profession more so than seasoned teachers (Alliance for
Excellent Education, July 2014). Examining teachers who represented a range of teaching
experience provided a wider range of perspectives.
Criterion 3. Lastly, I selected teachers who represented different subject areas.
Choosing teachers who taught in different subject areas further allowed for maximum variation
advocated by Merriam and Tisdell (2016). Teachers who teach in different subject areas might
face different stressors due to varied work demands. For example, English teachers might have
more essay grading to complete compared to Physical Education teachers, while Physical
Education teachers might have different stressors due to their larger class sizes. Differences in
work demands can lead to varying levels of stress, which was why it was important to include
teachers who taught different subject areas in the survey sample.
Interview and Researcher-Constructed Document Recruitment Strategy and Rationale
Prior to beginning recruitment, I obtained permission from EHS to conduct the study on
site. As an EHS administrator, I had insider knowledge of existing data that was helpful to this
study. To ensure that I did not violate protections and requirements set by the Institutional
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 51

Review Board (IRB) overseeing this study, I obtained permission from EHS to use existing data
such as EHS’s 2015-2016 teacher wellness survey to help with the recruitment process.
I used the list of EHS teachers who completed EHS’s 2015-2016 teacher wellness survey
as a starting point to recruit participants for this study. From this list, I narrowed down the
potential participants based on the additional sampling criteria. Once I had a list of EHS teachers
who met the sampling criteria of this study, I contacted these teachers through email to gauge
their participation interest. I asked for a brief in-person meeting with those who showed interest
to explain the details of the study. I then used convenience sampling to select nine EHS teachers
who met the sampling criteria to participate in this study. Although convenience sampling might
lead to informant bias (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), the purpose of this study was to obtain EHS
teachers’ experiences and perspectives in order to better understand their needs in effectively
managing workplace stress. As such, I selected candid participants who were comfortable
expressing their concerns to me to help facilitate this study.
I informed all participants that I would keep their identities anonymous and that they
could withdraw from the study at any time. I gave informed consent forms to potential
participants who met the sampling criteria in person and explained the content of the informed
consent forms (See Appendix A). I then asked those who agreed to participate in the study to
return signed informed consent forms to verify that they understood the nature of this study. I
also obtained permission in advance to record the one-on-one interviews.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
I used two different data collection methods, one-on-one interviews, and researcher-
constructed documents, to evaluate what EHS teachers need to manage workplace stress
effectively. I used one-on-one interviews to gain a deeper understanding of EHS teachers’
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 52

knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to workplace stress. Additionally,
I used researcher-constructed documents in the form of short journal prompts to track EHS
teachers’ experiences of and reflections on workplace stress during the course of the study. The
same nine teachers participated in the interviews and responded to researcher-constructed
documents so that I could obtain deeper qualitative insights into their thoughts and experiences,
and triangulate the findings.
Interviews
One-on-one interviewing is one of the most common data collection methods in
qualitative research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), and served as the primary data collection method
in this study. I conducted interviews to gain deeper understanding of the participants’
experiences and perspectives on workplace stress. Interviews allow researchers to gain an in-
depth insight into the participants’ perspectives, thoughts, and feelings; interviews can also lead
to data that cannot be observed, such as past experiences and behavior (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Purposeful, qualitative interviews can help researchers develop detailed and holistic
descriptions of events, describe process, and better understand how participants interpret their
experiences (Weiss, 1994). Since the purpose of this study was to evaluate EHS teachers’ stress-
related experiences and needs, one-on-one interviews were useful in eliciting rich descriptions
and deeper insights into EHS teachers’ thoughts, feelings, and perspectives on workplace stress
and coping.
According to Weiss (1994), it is desirable to interview participants more than once; as
such, I conducted two one-on-one interviews with each of the nine participants in this study. The
first interview was semi-formal, and lasted from 45 minutes to an hour. The second interview
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 53

was a follow-up interview that lasted approximately 30 to 45 minutes. Both interviews were
digitally recorded with the participants’ permission.
All interviews took place inside the participating teacher’s classroom because the
classroom represents teachers’ natural setting and is a place of familiarity. Weiss (1994) notes
that it is desirable to conduct interviews in a space that is familiar and comfortable for the
participant. Conducting the interviews inside teachers’ classrooms, which is an environment that
is not as private as a home yet also not as formal as an office, and is a space that teachers spend a
lot of time in, helped promote ease, comfort, and interaction. To avoid potential distractions, I
asked participants to select an interview time that is convenient for them, and asked them to
close and lock their classroom door during the course of the interviews.
I used a semi-structured protocol during the interview sessions (see Appendix B). A
semi-structured protocol is useful because it outlines key questions that should be addressed
during the interview, but is also flexible enough that the researcher can adapt and adjust the
conversation according to the participants’ responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I asked
questions that focused on evaluating EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
needs as they relate to workplace stress during the interview sessions. The first interview
included various types of questions that Patton (2002) suggests for qualitative research, such as
experience and behavior, opinion and values, feelings, and background questions. During the
first interview, I asked the participants about their background as an EHS teacher, their
experiences of workplace stress and coping at EHS, and also their perspectives on organizational
resources that EHS teachers need in order to manage workplace stress effectively. Questions one
through four were background questions that I asked to gain an understanding of the school and
the participants’ experiences teaching at EHS. Questions five through nine addressed
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 54

knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to workplace stress and coping.
Questions ten and eleven were related to organizational resources that might contribute to or help
decrease workplace stress. Question twelve was a broad question that aimed to gather
perspectives on what knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources EHS teachers need to
manage workplace stress effectively. Question thirteen allowed teachers to provide any
additional thoughts or comments they might have related to workplace stress at EHS.
The responses from the first interview guided the questions in the second interview.
During the second interview, I addressed lingering questions and asked for clarifications. I spent
most of the time during the second interview reviewing preliminary findings and a summary of
data collected in the first interview with the participant to ensure that I captured his/her
perspectives accurately. Reviewing data and preliminary findings with participants is a process
known as member checking, which Merriam and Tisdell (2016) describes as an effective method
to ensure internal validity.
Researcher-Constructed Documents
I also used researcher-constructed documents in this study (see Appendix C).
Researcher-constructed documents are documents that the researcher or participants create
during the course of a study, and can include diaries, logs, reflections, or any other form of
documentation that captures more information about the topic under investigation (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Researcher-constructed documents are helpful because they specifically address
the research purpose, and provide relevant data that can “illuminate the present situation”
(Merriam and Tisdell, 2016, p. 174).
I used researcher-constructed documents in the form of anonymous journal responses to
capture participants’ experiences of workplace stress during the course of this study. I created a
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 55

set of journal prompts related to workplace stress that I sent out at three pre-determined work
dates during the months of February through April of 2017. I sent the journal prompts to the
participants’ work email at the end of the workday on the pre-determined dates. Prior to the
study, I informed participants that they will receive three journal prompts during the months of
February through April, but did not tell them the exact dates. I encouraged participants to
respond to the anonymous journal prompts immediately after receiving them, if possible, so that
they can describe their experiences with accuracy. I selected the three dates that I sent the
prompts based on the following criteria: different workdays of the week to capture potential
differences in workplace stress experiences based on the day of the week, and a balance of busy
school days (e.g. during grading deadlines) and not as busy school days to see if participants’
experiences of workplace stress are different during different times of the school year.
I used the same set of journal prompts every time for consistency. I wrote the prompts
as open-ended questions that sought the participants’ experience of and reaction towards
workplace stress on the day that they received the prompts. These were the journal prompts that
I asked participants to respond to:
If you experienced workplace stress today:
1) What was stressful about today?
2) How did you react/behave under the stress you experienced?
3) Is there anything the school could have done or provided to help you manage your
stress today?
If you did not experience workplace stress today:
1) How did you feel today?
2) Please give a brief description of what your day was like.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 56

All participants responded on the first occasion that I sent the prompts. On the second and third
occasions, only seven of the nine participants responded. Since the responses were anonymous, I
was not able to tell who did not respond.
The participants’ responses to these prompts captured their experiences of workplace
stress and were useful in corroborating interview responses. Question three, in particular, gave
the participants an opportunity to express their immediate needs in managing the specific
experience(s) of workplace stress that they described. Even if the participants reported that they
did not experience stress, their description of their workday and how they felt was still useful in
better understanding what a stress-free day is like, as this helped calibrate the participants’
threshold for what they considered stressful.
Data Analysis
I began data analysis while in the field by writing analytic memos after each interview.
Analytic memos are useful because they help researchers think about how they personally relate
to the data, note emerging codes and patterns, and document initial reactions and curiosities
regarding the data collected (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). The analytic memos that I
wrote after each interview documented my reflections and thoughts about what the participants
said, and allowed me to sort through my own biases. Through the process of writing analytic
memos, I drew initial conclusions regarding the data collected and how they relate to the
conceptual framework and research questions of my study.
Once I left the field, I followed Creswell’s (2008) six-step model of qualitative data
analysis to analyze data. Creswell’s (2008) six-step model involves the following process:
1. Organize and prepare data by transcribing interviews, reviewing field notes, and
sorting data sources.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 57

2. Read through data to get a general sense of what participants are saying.
3. Code data and develop a codebook to capture and define emerging categories.
4. Generate descriptions of the setting/people and themes (five to seven major findings)
through the coding process.
5. Interrelate descriptions and themes to be represented in qualitative narrative.
6. Make interpretations of the findings and results.
I began step one of Creswell’s (2008) process after I completed my first set of interviews
with all nine participants, which spanned through two and a half weeks. After all the interviews
were transcribed, I read through the transcriptions along with the analytic memos that I wrote to
get a general sense of what participants said and what I thought about the data. I then began the
coding process using Corbin and Strauss’ (2008) analytic tools, which included asking questions,
making comparisons, drawing upon personal experiences, looking at language, meanings, and
emotions expressed, and looking for negative cases. Corbin and Strauss’ analytic tools helped
me interact with and think deeper about the data that I was examining.
My coding process included multiple phases of analysis. In the first phase, I used open
coding to summarize/highlight important and relevant ideas presented in the data. During this
first phase, I looked for empirical codes and a priori codes from the conceptual framework.
Empirical codes are in vivo codes that are derived directly from the data, while a priori codes are
deductive codes that reflect ideas of interest found in relevant literature and have been identified
in the conceptual framework (Harding, 2013). After I open coded all the interviews, I began the
second phase of my coding process by engaging in axial coding, which goes beyond descriptive
coding. Axial codes are generated by relating and aggregating open codes into categories and
emerging themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 58

I consolidated and further aggregated the open codes into axial codes. I documented
these codes into a codebook so that I can organize the data into more defined categories and
capture typicality. I captured typicality by noting the frequency at which each participant
mentioned and elaborated upon each code. Once I completed the axial coding process, I met
with my participants for the second/follow-up interview in which I conducted respondent
validation and asked any needed clarifying questions. When member checks were completed, I
went back to my codebook to make changes as needed based on any new data that I collected or
any data that was misinterpreted.
As responses from the researcher-constructed documents came in, I reviewed, organized,
and analyzed that data as well. I triangulated the responses from the researcher-constructed
documents with the data I collected from the interviews. I made additional notes in my
codebook to indicate whether the responses from the researcher-constructed documents
supported the interview findings. The responses from the researcher-constructed documents
tended to be very short, but I was able to use the responses to further confirm some of the codes
that were developed from the interview data.
I then used what I captured in my codebook to help me identify pattern codes. I
identified patterns codes by examining typicality and relevance of the codes to the conceptual
framework and research questions. According to Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014), pattern
codes should reveal themes, causes/explanations, relationships among people, and other
theoretical constructs. I examined pattern codes by interrelating what was found in the data with
my own interpretation and with outside literature (e.g. what was identified in the conceptual
framework) to develop themes that were relevant to the research questions. I synthesized the
identified themes into four major findings that addressed the purpose of my research. As a final
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 59

phase of my data analysis process, I interpreted and made meaning of the major findings that I
identified. Appendix D shows an excerpt of the codebook I created, which includes examples of
empirical, a priori, and axial codes of this study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In qualitative research, credibility refers to the believability of the study and the rigor of
its approaches, whereas trustworthiness refers to the ethics of the researcher and how reliable the
researcher is as the key instrument of the study (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To
increase credibility and trustworthiness, I carefully designed the recruitment, data collection, and
data analysis processes of this study to align with the research purpose and conceptual
framework.
I used strategies Maxwell (2013) suggests, such as maximum variation, typical sampling,
and purposeful selection, during the sampling and recruitment process to increase the credibility
and transferability of findings. I also used two different data collection methods so that I was
able to collect data in varied ways and triangulate the findings for credibility. Triangulation
increases credibility because it allows researchers to use multiple data collection methods and
data sources to corroborate and crosscheck their findings (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014
To ensure that data was credible in that it truly represented what participants thought, felt,
and believed, I used respondent validation/member checks to allow participants to review and
confirm that the data I collected reflect their experiences accurately. Member checks are useful
because they can help researchers verify participants’ meanings and avoid misinterpretations
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Once I analyzed the findings and developed initial conclusions, I
shared the conclusions with my participants to obtain feedback as to whether they believed that
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 60

the conclusions were accurate—which is another form of member checking that Miles et al.
(2014) suggest.
Other strategies Miles et al. (2014) encourage, which I incorporated to increase the
trustworthiness and dependability of my study, were to log issues related to the quality of the
study and findings, create an audit trail, and use thick descriptions so that the data collection and
analysis process was fully captured and presented in detail. Throughout the study, I engaged in
researcher reflexivity to be more conscious of my thinking and filtered my own biases and
assumptions to increase the trustworthiness of my role as a researcher. According to Merriam
and Tisdell (2016), researcher reflexivity is a critical thought process in which researchers think
deeply and note the ways that they affect or are affected by the processes they engage in during a
study. Reflexivity allowed me to clarify my own thoughts and better understand how my
dispositions might affect the research process. I filtered out my biases by writing researcher
memos, a strategy Maxwell (2013) suggests, to increase the trustworthiness of the study.
Ethics
Ethical considerations are extremely important when conducting qualitative research that
examines participants’ thoughts, perspectives, and behaviors in depth (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
To ensure the protection of human subjects, I requested informed consent from all participants to
indicate the voluntary and confidential nature of this study. Informed consent forms provide
participants awareness of the purpose, data collection methods (including the use of audio
recordings), and potential risks and benefits of a study (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). I
collected signed informed consent forms from all participants to indicate that participants are
aware of their human subject protections under the guidelines of the Institutional Review Board
(IRB).
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 61

As the Associate Principal of the organization under study, I ensured that I differentiated
my role as a supervisor at EHS and a principal investigator of this study to avoid power conflicts
during the course of my research. To ensure that my role as a principal investigator was clear, I
always reminded participants that I was switching over to the principal investigator role
whenever I engaged in interaction or conversation related to the study. As a researcher who held
a leadership position within EHS, I understood that it was extremely important that participants
were aware of my dual role. I clearly described my dual role in the participants’ informed
consent forms, and verbalized this information at the beginning of every interview session or any
participant outreach related to the study. I also ensured that I did not recruit any teachers who
were under my direct supervision or formal evaluation to eliminate undue influences.
Since the purpose of this study was to examine what EHS teachers need to manage
workplace stress effectively, I took what Glense (2001) calls an “advocate role” (p. 170) as I
obtained teachers’ narratives to better understand how I could help them manage their stress. As
an advocate, an EHS administrator, and also a former EHS teacher, I understood that I might
have had biases regarding the sources and consequences of teacher stress based on what I have
witnessed or experienced myself at EHS. Since my personal experiences at EHS might have
influenced my perception of workplace stress and related needs, I consciously separated my
personal biases from this study to ensure that I obtained EHS teachers’ and not my own
perspectives. In order to be deliberate in separating my personal biases, I engaged in what
Maxwell (2013) describes as reflexivity and created a “researcher identity memo” (p. 34) to
thoroughly examine my own experiences and assumptions as they relate to workplace stress at
EHS. While I did not share my researcher identity memo with participants, the process of
writing this memo helped me sort out my biases and assumptions related to teacher stress at a
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 62

high-performing high school. I reviewed this memo prior to every interview session that I
conducted as a reminder that I should focus on capturing the participants’ experiences and
meanings, and not influence their responses with my own biases.
To uphold ethical integrity, I did not coerce EHS teachers in any way to participate in this
study. To help EHS teachers avoid feeling pressured into participating in this study because I am
an administrator at EHS, I only recruited participants from a group of teachers who have
previously taken a teacher wellness survey at EHS and indicated that they are interested in
further discussing teacher stress. I informed teachers who volunteered as participants that they
could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. I also let participants know that their
participation would not result in any privileges or preferential treatment at EHS. During the data
collection process, which included one-on-one interviews and researcher-constructed documents,
I followed Rubin and Rubin’s (2012) suggestions in upholding ethical responsibilities by
showing respect, honoring promises, eliminating any form of pressure, and doing no harm to the
participants.
I informed EHS teachers who chose to participate in this study that the intent of this
research was to collect their perspectives to better understand their needs in managing workplace
stress effectively. As such, there was “reciprocity” (Glesne, 2011, p. 177) embedded into the
purpose of this study. The participants were informed that the data I collect and analyze would
be used to suggest solutions that are meant to benefit EHS teachers’ well-being, and improve the
overall emotional climate of the school.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of this study included the inability to control participants’ willingness to
share information and the truthfulness of their responses. Due to the qualitative focus of this
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 63

study’s design, the sample might not have been truly representative, and the findings were not
generalizable beyond the organization examined. Being the only investigator of this study was
also a limitation as there was a degree of subjectivity with only one researcher leading and
engaging in the entire research process. Lastly, the timeframe for data collection was a
limitation as it only allowed me to collect data during the second semester of an academic school
year, thereby excluding experiences and findings that might differ if data were also collected
during the first semester.
Delimitations of this study included the way in which I designed the sampling criteria to
include only general education teachers. The scope of this study was also a delimitation as it
focused only on one specific setting: a high-performing public high school in Northern
California. Other delimitations included the strong dependence on qualitative methodologies to
collect data, using an adapted version of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework as an
evaluation model, and the choices I made to delimit the constructs that I examined through the
conceptual framework of this study.
Summary
Chapter three described the research design and methodologies that I used in this study. I
explained the sampling and recruitment rationale along with data collection procedures in detail.
I described the purposeful convenient sampling process that I used to select the nine EHS
teachers who participated in this study. I also described issues of credibility/trustworthiness,
ethics, and limitations/delimitations of this study. The next chapter will present the data,
analysis, and the findings of this study.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 64

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to evaluate what knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements EHS teachers need to effectively manage workplace stress and meet
EHS’s organizational goal. EHS’s organizational goal is to improve the emotional climate and
well-being of students and staff by decreasing teachers’ maladaptive behaviors that workplace
stress triggers. The questions that guided this study were:
1. What is the current status of EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences needed to effectively manage workplace stress?
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
One-on-one interviews and researcher-constructed documents in the form of short journal
prompts were used to collect data in this study. This chapter will present findings that address
the first research question, while findings related to the second research question will be
addressed in Chapter five.
Participating Stakeholders
A nonprobability purposeful sample of participants was used for this qualitative study to
elicit in-depth descriptions and insights into EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs related to effective workplace stress management. The participating
stakeholders of this study were nine full-time EHS teachers at a high-performing high school
who represented a wide range of teaching experiences and subject areas. Apart from the first-
year teachers whose workplace stress experiences were unknown prior to the start of this study,
participants also represented a range of workplace stress levels experienced based on their
responses from a teacher wellness survey conducted at EHS during the 2015-2016 school year.
All nine teachers participated in two 30-45 minutes one-on-one interviews and responded to
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 65

three researcher-constructed documents that elicited their perspectives and experiences of
workplace stress. Table 6 reflects participant information.
Table 6
Participant Information
Name (Pseudonym) Years of Teaching

Linda, Maria, Vickie 15 or more
Ray, Nate 6 to 10
Alex, Ed, Scott, Kim 1 to 5

Findings
Findings from this study revealed four major factors that influenced EHS teachers’ ability
to effectively manage workplace stress. These factors included EHS’s high-performance
expectations, variance in years of teaching experience, EHS teachers’ daily work structure and
work demands, and inadequate organizational resources. In addition to identifying factors that
influenced EHS teachers’ ability to manage workplace stress, evidence from this study also
validated or did not validate the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
presented in the conceptual framework and literature review. If an assumed knowledge,
motivation, or organizational need was found to be present in at least five out of the nine teachers
(over 55%) who participated in the study, then the assumed need was considered validated.
Validated needs were found in the following areas: teachers’ procedural knowledge,
metacognitive knowledge, self-efficacy, and expectancy-value. Additional needs related to
EHS’s cultural model and cultural setting also emerged.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 66

Factors Currently Influencing EHS Teachers’ Ability to Manage Workplace Stress
To determine EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs, it was
important to first identify the factors that influence effective workplace stress management at
EHS. Based on data analyzed from the interviews and researcher-constructed documents, four
major factors emerged that currently influence EHS teachers’ ability to manage workplace stress:
 EHS’s high-performance expectations.
 Years of teaching experience.
 EHS teachers’ daily work structure and work demands.
 EHS’s inadequate organizational resources.
All four of these factors served as barriers to EHS teachers developing the competencies
necessary to effectively manage workplace stress.
EHS’s High-Performance Expectations
EHS’s high-performance expectations, especially those that were seen as unachievable or
undesirable, served as barriers to workplace stress management for EHS teachers. This finding
was consistent with Cavanaugh et al.’s (2000) finding that high-performance expectations that
are unachievable or undesirable tend to induce workplace stress. Every EHS teacher interviewed
commented on the high-performance expectations at EHS when asked to describe the school.
They also all agreed that the high-performance expectations at EHS imposed unachievable
demands on teachers. For example, Ed, a novice teacher, noticed:
I think in general, the community, the students and parents, expect a lot from teachers.
Because the students work so hard, that makes me want to work even harder to be a better
teacher, and so I think, in turn, it makes me more stressed out, because I want to make
sure I give them [the students] their work back on time and make sure that they are living
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 67

up to their potential. But it kind of becomes a cycle that never ends because once you
have addressed an issue and helped one student, then another needs your attention, then
another, and another. It’s kind of impossible to meet everyone’s needs.
Ed’s feeling that it is “impossible” to meet all of his students’ needs contributed to his workplace
stress. The expectations that his parents and students placed on him were seen as unachievable.
Maria, a veteran teacher, shared similar sentiments with Ed in regards to feeling stressed
over meeting expectations that seem to be never ending. Additionally, Maria described a
different kind high-performance expectation that caused workplace stress when she explained,
“Parents and students can have unreasonable expectations here. They think that every student
deserves an A. If they don't have an A, it's the teachers fault. They all think they should get As
and that's stressful.” Every teacher interviewed mentioned high expectations and pressure from
“overbearing” or “helicopter” parents as a source of workplace stress.
Ed and Maria’s comments reveal that the unachievable and undesirable high-performance
expectations at EHS contributed to workplace stress for teachers. On one hand, wanting to meet
the high-performance expectations of work led to stress when the demands seemed unachievable;
on the other hand, there were additional forms of expectations from parents and students that
were undesirable, which further contributed to workplace stress.
Years of Teaching Experience
Years of teaching experience is a significant predictor of workplace stress; as teaching
experience increases, stress tends to decrease (Fisher, 2001). It is evident that years of teaching
experience impacted EHS teachers’ priorities, and influenced their ability to effectively manage
workplace stress. While the more seasoned EHS teachers made managing workplace stress a
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 68

priority, novice EHS teachers (one to five years of teaching) tended to prioritize job demands
over stress management and self-care. Maria stated:
Managing workplace stress is definitely a priority for me. I have like 5,000 things on my
plate at a time and not just at work but my personal life. I have got it down to a system
now and what I try to do is just stay very focused when I'm here because that is what I
need to do to be able to have a life outside of work. For me, my school day ends when
the school day ends. I try to put it in a compartment, like work is this time and I try to be
very efficient during that time.
Kim, who is novice teacher, felt differently:
Managing stress is a priority but I haven’t made it. I know it’s a priority and I haven’t
acted on as much as I should but it definitely is because I don’t want to burnout. I want
to be here for the kids and I want fulfill my goal of helping my community and changing
my community. I find myself falling into stress a lot because you want to do a good job.
Ed, also a novice teacher, echoed Kim’s thoughts. When asked whether managing workplace
stress is a priority, Ed said:
It should be, but I don’t think so, so much. I feel like I push it to the side and I'm just
saying, "Okay, I need to get this work done." That's all I care about right now, it’s just
getting the work done, making sure that my students are learning and that I'm grading on
time….So, in terms of making sure that I'm also balancing my life, I feel like I'm not
doing such a good job with that.
Wanting to “do a good job” at work was a recurrent focus for the novice teachers. These
novice teachers found more value in successfully meeting job demands than managing
workplace stress, even though they understood the importance of the latter. For EHS teachers,
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 69

years of teaching experience influenced whether they made managing workplace stress a
priority, which ultimately impacted their ability to effectively manage workplace stress.
EHS Teachers’ Daily Work Structure and Work Demands
Stauffer and Mason (2013) found that teachers who work in isolation on a day-to-day
basis become overwhelmed, do not know how to ask for help, and perceive higher levels of
workplace stress. Consistent with Stauffer and Mason’s (2013) findings, EHS teachers’ daily
work structure and work demands led to role overload and created a culture of working in silos.
This culture of working in silos prevented help-seeking and impeded EHS teachers’ ability to
manage workplace stress. All nine EHS teachers interviewed agreed that their daily work
structure and work demands contributed to workplace stress and prevented workplace stress
management. Vickie noted:
Teachers mostly stay in their classrooms all day because we are busy grading or helping
students. We don’t chat anymore during our free times. The minute there’s free time,
well there’s no free time really. Seems like we just get busier and busier and busier. I
used to interact and find out stuff about people and connect, but that’s gone.
Linda added:
I feel like the staff doesn't do enough together because of the way our schedules are and
because of how our day is set up. Most of the teachers here don’t get a break or lunch
because they are helping students. It makes it hard to get to know each other. I feel like
the staff is too broken apart. If I don’t know someone well, I am not going to ask them
for help or tell them my problems.
As Vickie and Linda’s comments revealed, EHS teachers’ daily work structure and work
demands caused role overload and created silos that made it difficult to seek help and support
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 70

from colleagues. It is difficult to minimize workplace stress when there is a lack of meaningful
interaction amongst staff (McCarthy et al., 2010). The day to day work demands of EHS
teachers kept them inside their classrooms and did not allow opportunities for teachers to connect
with one another. The nature of EHS teachers’ work structure and work demands created a
culture of working in silos that served as a barrier to effective workplace stress management.
EHS’s Inadequate Organizational Resources
According to all nine teachers interviewed, EHS’s inadequate organizational resources
contributed to workplace stress. Consistent with Clark and Estes’ (2008) argument that
providing needed resources is critical in supporting employees in meeting their performance
goals, EHS teachers felt that if adequate resources were provided, they would be more
capacitated to meet their workplace stress management goals. The most frequently mentioned
types of resources that impacted EHS teachers’ workplace stress experiences were technology
and equipment. Kim explained, “We don't have as many resources as a lot of people think we
do. Technology is not really up to speed. A lot of times, we make do with what we have.” Ray
added:
From my own personal experience, not having Chromebooks [laptops] or not having
access to technology in every class is a real challenge. When you're trying to educate
students for the next level in a totally technological world and they're not having those
pieces of information because equipment is lacking or technology doesn't work is a
challenge. Things like even the staff printer is not working right now.
Ray’s sentiments were repeated in the responses to the journal prompts that were sent out
to obtain EHS teachers’ real-time workplace stress experiences. Four teachers, on different
occasions in which the prompts were sent, reported experiencing workplace stress when they
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 71

were unable to obtain access to Chromebooks for their students. Another teacher reported that
they had access to Chromebooks but the internet was not working properly for students to
complete an online lesson in class that day. Inadequate access to technological equipment and
issues with technology presented challenges to EHS teachers and contributed to workplace
stress.
Seven out of nine teachers interviewed also commented that having only two copy
machines on campus, which often malfunctions, was a constant source of workplace stress.
Scott related the following:
I just gave up on the copy machines. I try not to use them because they're always
breaking down….There's always a long line because there's just two. I try and avoid
making copies. You go there and you're making your copies and all of the sudden the
thing just stops and starts beeping and there's a paper jam. You only have X amount of
time because you have to get back to your class before the bell rings, so I just try to avoid
it and save myself the frustration.
It was evident that the inadequate copy machines were a source of workplace stress for EHS
teachers. When the teachers were asked, “If you had the power to change anything you wanted
about working as a teacher at EHS, what might you want to change to make work less stressful,”
two teachers said “copy machines,” and three others mentioned other types of technological
resources. EHS’s inadequate organizational resources, specifically equipment and technology,
was a key barrier to effective workplace stress management for teachers. Without key resources,
such as functioning and available Chromebooks, reliable internet, and copy machines, EHS
teachers experienced unnecessary frustration and workplace stress.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 72

The four factors described above—EHS’s high-performance expectations, years of
teaching experience, teachers’ daily work structure and work demands, and inadequate
organizational resources—were barriers that impeded EHS teachers’ ability to effectively
manage workplace stress. Identifying these factors led to a better understanding of the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences EHS teachers need to meet their
workplace stress management goals. These knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs are
described in the following sections.
EHS Teachers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Resources Needed to
Effectively Manage Workplace Stress
While most of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs found in this study
aligned with the conceptual framework and literature reviewed in Chapter two, there were some
assumed needs that were not validated. Data analysis revealed that EHS teachers had the
declarative knowledge, utility value, and affect, but lacked the procedural and metacognitive
knowledge, self-efficacy, and attainment value needed to effectively manage workplace stress.
Additionally, while most teachers felt that there was supportive leadership on campus, EHS
lacked the organizational culture, structure, and resources needed to help teachers develop the
competencies necessary to meet their workplace stress management goals.
Knowledge Needs
The assumed knowledge needs evaluated in this study were EHS teachers’ knowledge of
workplace stress and coping (declarative knowledge), how to apply coping strategies (procedural
knowledge), and awareness of how workplace stress impacts work performance and self
(metacognitive knowledge).
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 73

Declarative knowledge. Teachers who can describe causes of stress and name coping
strategies have higher success in managing workplace stress (Richards, 2012; Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2015; Sneyers et al., 2016). All nine teachers in this study possessed the declarative
knowledge needed to effectively manage workplace stress. They were all able to describe causes
of workplace stress and name coping strategies such as exercising, relaxing alone, or spending
time with loved ones. Ray summarized his thoughts on coping by stating, “I think anything that
allows you to step away and pause your brain, pause your thoughts for a little bit would work.”
Since EHS teachers already had knowledge of workplace stressors and coping strategies, the
assumed declarative knowledge needs were not validated.
Procedural knowledge. While all nine teachers were able to name coping strategies for
workplace stress, not all had the procedural knowledge needed to be able to apply what they
know. Knowing how to apply coping strategies is important because teachers who have this
procedural knowledge experience less stress in both their professional and personal lives (Blase,
1986; McCormick & Barnett, 2011; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015). Part of EHS teachers’
challenge in being able to successfully apply coping strategies stemmed from a lack of
motivation and a lack of know-how in fitting these strategies into a day-to-day routine. Ed, for
example, said:
I know that going outside and exercising helps, but it’s just like you’re so tired
[laughs] from work that you don’t really make the effort to go out or work out. I
think that we need to learn some strategies of coping with stress, dealing with stress that
are like quick, simple solutions that we can actually use in our everyday lives.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 74

While EHS teachers were able to name coping strategies, they did not necessarily know how to
apply them at work and into their lives. EHS teachers will need to develop this procedural
knowledge to be able to effectively manage workplace stress.
Metacognitive knowledge. Teachers who engage in metacognitive thinking regarding
the impact of stress on self are more capable of managing their stressors and experience less
stress (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2015; Sneyers et al., 2016). All EHS teachers interviewed were
very aware of how workplace stress impacted them. They were able to describe physiological
and emotional changes experienced when faced with workplace stress. Linda, for example,
knew that she gets “tired, worried, overwhelmed” when stressed. Ed said he loses sleep. Vickie
said, “I get headaches, tired, and have to drag myself down to work.” Teachers who reported
that they experienced workplace stress in their journal responses described that they felt tired,
anxious, rushed, or lost focus. Overall, it was apparent that all EHS teachers were very aware of
how workplace stress impacted their personal well-being.
While EHS teachers had metacognitive knowledge of how workplace stress impacted
them, they were not as aware of how workplace stress impacted their work performance. This
lack of awareness is important to address because teachers who recognize the negative impacts
that stress has upon their teaching are more likely to expend effort in managing their stressors
and adjusting their teaching practices to meet their students’ needs (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2005).
Even though all of the teachers interviewed were aware of the physiological and emotional
changes they experienced when stressed, many of them did not see the connection between these
changes and the impact on their work performance. For example, they did not acknowledge how
being tired, overwhelmed, or stressed led to maladaptive behaviors such as impatience with
students or below-par teaching. Only three of the teachers interviewed were aware of the impact
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 75

that workplace stress had on their work performance. Kim was one of the teachers who
admitted:
When I’m stressed and having a bad day, the students know it and their behavior will
change. If I’m really upset, they’re not messing with me. It changes the way I teach and
I lose confidence when that happens. Even though I’m confident in myself as a person
and as an instructor, it’ll chip away your confidence if that continues to happen and you
become more apathetic. When there is a lot going on, I feel like I am less effective as a
teacher and I feel like I would care about students less.
Kim was clear that workplace stress impacted her work as a teacher. However, her description
of how stress made her less effective and confident was only echoed by two teachers.
The six other teachers claimed that they interacted with students in the exact same
manner even when they were tired, lost sleep, had headaches, or felt anxious from workplace
stress. However, when these six teachers were asked to describe a workplace stress experience
in detail in another part of their interview, many of their remarks revealed that workplace stress
did indeed impact their work performance. For example, one teacher mentioned yelling at
students and another teacher described giving students busy work. Their conflicting responses
revealed that they were not as clear or aware of the impact workplace stress had on their work
performance and how stress led to maladaptive behaviors. EHS teachers will need additional
metacognitive knowledge—specifically, awareness of how workplace stress impacts work
performance—to develop the competencies necessary to effectively manage workplace stress.
Motivation Needs
The assumed motivation needs evaluated in this study were EHS teachers’ confidence in
their roles as teachers and their ability to help-seek (self-efficacy), whether they find managing
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 76

workplace stress useful (utility value), whether they expect success in their occupational identity
(attainment value), and whether they have the positive affect needed to effectively manage
workplace stress (affect).
Self-efficacy. Teachers who are confident in their roles as teachers and are efficacious in
classroom management and student engagement are better at adapting to workplace stress
(Wang, Hall, & Rahimi, 2015). Many of the novice EHS teachers interviewed lacked self-
efficacy in their roles as teachers, and were less confident and capable of effectively managing
workplace stress. Ed and Alex, who are both novice teachers, shared very similar experiences
with regards to lacking confidence in their roles as new teachers. Ed described his sentiments in
detail:
There were times this school year where I would just breakdown. I felt like I was dealing
with some classroom management issues and then grading and lesson planning....I think
it felt worse was when I was planning at night. It would get late and I was really
exhausted. All of the sudden, I would just breakdown because I felt like going into
tomorrow, I didn't know what the heck I was doing….the fact that I've never taught these
lessons before and I have no idea if it's going to work….So just feeling like I didn't know
what I was doing even though I did….I think I was just not very confident in my ability.
Alex felt the same way as he explained:
A lot of times I got this weird feeling when I felt like I wasn't 100% prepared if there
were some things that maybe I wanted to try out that I was uncertain if they would work
or not. I stressed out a lot about things like that….It was just kind of a feeling I had that
trying something new today and it might not go well, kind of a weird feeling of
uncertainty and anxiety.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 77

Both Ed and Alex questioned their ability in their roles as teachers and spoke less confidently
than more seasoned teachers about various aspects of their work such as classroom management,
lesson planning, and engaging students in curriculum. This lack of confidence in their work
made managing workplace stress a challenge as they had to expend effort in fulfilling their
teacher responsibilities as opposed to focusing on their own well-being.
Scott, another novice teacher, felt stress and uncertainty as well when he described a
situation in which a student and parent disputed the student’s grade in his class:
I had butterflies in my stomach and didn’t want to go to work. I hated feeling that way.
Why should I feel like I have to hide from a student or parent because they are
questioning me? It made me think, "Are they right? Did I fail him? Am I not a good
teacher? Am I not teaching what I'm supposed to be teaching?" Situations like this make
me question myself.
Ed, Alex, and Scott, who are all novice teachers, lacked self-efficacy in their work, which was
not as evident in the more seasoned teachers interviewed. Without confidence in their roles, the
novice teachers were less able to control their workplace stressors. Lack of self-efficacy in
delivering lessons, engaging students, and managing their classrooms made managing workplace
stress difficult for the novice teachers at EHS. It would benefit EHS teachers, especially those
who are less experienced, to increase their self-efficacy and be more confident in their work to
develop the competencies necessary to effectively manage workplace stress.
Interpersonal self-efficacy. Teachers who have higher interpersonal self-efficacy,
defined as confidence in reaching out to others for help, experience less stress and burnout
(García-Ros et al., 2015). Six out of the nine EHS teachers interviewed struggled with
exercising interpersonal self-efficacy at work. All six teachers expressed that EHS’s high-
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 78

performance expectations and culture contributed greatly to their lack of confidence in help-
seeking, especially in matters related to workplace stress. Maria summarized these teachers’
perspectives well when she said:
I think we have this culture at our school where if you share that you're stressed at this
school, it goes to the stigma of why can't you handle it? Maybe it's just also because
we're a higher performing school, people feel that the teachers here have it easier….so
there is this sense of why should you be stressed when we have the most amazing
students and it’s so good here? It makes you not want to say anything or share that you
are stressed. I don’t say anything because if I do, I feel like there will be this
condescending ‘why would you be stressed’ type of thing. I just don’t feel comfortable.
But I think it would be good for teachers to know that all teachers probably have
experienced something like what you’re going through.
Maria’s perception that the high-performance expectations and culture at EHS created negative
stigma for those who reached out for help prevented her from exercising interpersonal self-
efficacy. Even though Maria believed that it would be helpful to share what she was going
through, she did not feel comfortable doing so. Lack of interpersonal self-efficacy served as a
barrier for EHS teachers to effectively manage workplace stress. Increasing EHS teachers’
confidence and comfortability in help-seeking will help EHS teachers reach their workplace
stress management goals.
Utility Value. Teachers who expect success and find value in managing workplace stress
perform better at work and experience less stress (Alizadegani, Zaini, & Delavari, 2014;
McCarthy et al., 2010). All EHS teachers interviewed expressed that there is utility value in
effectively managing workplace stress. Nate, for example, found managing workplace stress
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 79

useful because it allows him to spend more time with his family. Scott shared similar sentiments
when he said, “Managing workplace stress is definitely useful and is a priority because at the end
of the day, you don't want to take that home with you to affect your personal life and how you
are at home.” Ray and Kim both mentioned that managing workplace stress is important because
they want to stay healthy and do not want to burnout. Since all teachers already acknowledged
that there is utility value in effectively managing workplace stress, this motivation influence was
not validated as a need.
Attainment value. Teachers who expect success in their occupational identity possess
attainment value that motivates them to effectively manage workplace stress. Specifically, those
who perceive themselves as highly effective teachers will do what it takes to protect their self-
image and not allow stress to negatively impact their work (Alizadegani et al., 2014). Only two
of the nine teachers interviewed displayed the attainment value needed to effectively manage
workplace stress. These two teachers expected success in their occupational identity and took
necessary measures to ensure that they did not allow workplace stress to impact their work
performance. Maria displayed this attainment value when she explained:
I make myself stay very focused at work because I want to make sure that I'm doing a
good job. I guess it’s just who I am. No matter how much work I have, I somehow
manage to get it all done because I do care about fulfilling my responsibilities. I will
work like a work horse while I am here. I see myself as someone who gets things done,
so I always make sure I take care of all of my work. Don’t get me wrong because it does
get stressful, but I don’t let it affect me.
Nate expressed a similar attainment value when he said:
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 80

I have a very clear sense of what I am here to do and I set realistic expectations that I can
meet. It's all about creating systems that are productive so that you set yourself up for
success. I don’t let the work overwhelm me. If things don't work the way that they're
supposed to work out, I move on to plan B….there are so many variables that you have to
deal with every day so I just make sure that I am always ready. I know what I am doing
and I think I do a pretty good job at it.
While Maria and Nate expected success in their occupational identity and possessed the
attainment value needed to effectively manage workplace stress, there was no evidence that the
other seven teachers possessed the same attainment value. As such, attainment value was
validated as a motivation need in this study. EHS teachers will need to expect success in their
occupational identity as part of their attainment value to be able to effectively manage workplace
stress.
Affect. Teachers who possess positive affect tend to have broader cognitive scope, and
have higher capacity to successfully adapt to workplace stress (Gloria et al., 2013). All EHS
teachers who participated in this study showed signs of positive affect, especially with regards to
their work as teachers. They all expressed feelings of excitement, interest, and joy when asked
to describe how they felt about their occupation. Since all teachers displayed signs of positive
affect, affect was not validated as a motivational need in this study.
Organizational Needs
The assumed organizational needs evaluated in this study involved EHS’s cultural model
and setting. The cultural model influences examined were EHS’s high-performing
organizational culture and the extent to which EHS teachers had supportive leadership. The
cultural setting influences examined were EHS teachers’ daily work structure and availability of
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 81

resources. The organizational needs that were validated correspond directly to three of the four
major factors that influenced workplace stress at EHS described earlier in the chapter. These
findings indicate that EHS’s organizational culture and setting not only contributed to workplace
stress at EHS, but also had a major impact on EHS teachers’ ability to effectively manage
workplace stress.
High-performing cultural model. As previously mentioned, every EHS teacher
interviewed was very conscious and aware of the unachievable and undesirable high-performing
expectations and culture at EHS. This high-performing culture created a pressure cooker
environment that negatively impacted EHS teachers’ ability to manage workplace stress. All of
the teachers interviewed agreed that the high-performing cultural model at EHS must be
redefined to include a stronger focus on the well-being of students and staff. Alex described the
teachers’ sentiments well when he said:
You could tell there is a certain level of dedication that students have here that requires
teachers to modify accordingly to meet those needs of the students….When the students
and parents expect more, you do more, then they expect even more, and then you do even
more. It gets stressful when that happens but it seems like this is the norm here. Maybe
we need to figure out how to change this norm a bit because I can see the stress in
students as well as in teachers, and I don’t think that is healthy.
Ray, who had experience teaching at a lower performing school prior to teaching at EHS said
something similar:
Here, the students are higher achieving and I always feel like I could be doing more, that
I could be teaching more, explaining more, talking about more. I feel like I have to meet
higher standards, which I think is a great thing, but at the same time it can also be
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 82

draining….Maybe it’s because I am not fully used to the culture here yet, but I feel like
there needs to be a better balance between being high-achieving and our general well-
being. Students seem overly stressed and I have seen teachers overly stressed. I think we
can do better at helping relieve some of that stress and pressure.
Both Alex and Ray described what the other teachers felt regarding the need to redefine
the high-performing culture at EHS so that both teachers and students experience less stress.
Like Ray, the teachers appreciated that there was a focus on academics and high standards, but
they also felt that the high-performance expectations needed to be matched with an equal focus
on well-being. It is critical for EHS to redefine its high-performing culture and make necessary
changes so that teachers are able to work in an environment in which they can control their
stressors and effectively manage workplace stress.
Culture of unsupportive leadership. Teachers who work in schools with unsupportive
and inaccessible leaders work in a school culture that induces workplace stress (McCarthy et al.,
2010; Mujtaba & Reiss, 2016; Richards, 2012). Six of nine EHS teachers interviewed reported
that EHS’s leadership was generally supportive. Ray mentioned that the administrators
communicated well with staff. Linda said that the administrators were always helpful when she
had issues with students. Many of the novice teachers stated that they found the administrators
accessible whenever they had questions. Only three of the teachers interviewed mentioned that
they felt a lack of support from administration, particularly with issues related to district
mandates. Since most of the EHS teachers interviewed felt that there was supportive leadership
at EHS, a culture of unsupportive leadership was not validated.
Lack of community-building. A shared belief amongst EHS teachers was that their
daily work structure and work demands led to a culture of working in silos, which prevented
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 83

community-building amongst staff. All EHS teachers interviewed felt that a stronger sense of
community and meaningful interaction were needed to create a more open and supportive work
climate in which teachers could help each other through their workplace stress experiences. This
finding is consistent with McCarthy et al.’s (2010) findings that creating positive work climates,
relationships, and an overall supportive work atmosphere will help employees manage stress in
high-performance workplaces. Vickie, for example, mentioned, “We need to know each other
more, maybe compartmentalize less.” Maria added, “I think the whole team building and
building up comradeship is needed. If I got to know my co-workers better, then if I was feeling
stressed, I'd be more likely to go talk to them.” Ray went to the extent of saying, “I almost wish
I had more interaction with colleagues structured.”
Scott further described the need to build community so that teachers can share
experiences in support of one another when he said:
[Teachers] need to know that they're not the only ones who are stressed. They're not
alone. We might feel isolated, but there are other teachers who are probably feeling the
same way or who have felt the same. I know it’s hard to get together because of our
schedules and how busy we are, but we need a tighter community here, a network where
we are able to talk to someone or vent. Having the opportunity to share with other
teachers what our stresses are would be nice. We need to get to know each other more to
be able to come together.
Kim summarized it well when she said:
We need more time together. If you see other teachers go through same stuff as you and
see how they manage it, then you’ll be more effective at managing it yourself because a
lot of times us as instructors feel like maybe I'm the only one who's anxious right now.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 84

Maybe I'm the only one who's in over my head. But if you never open up to another
teacher, you'll never understand that everyone goes through that. Everyone's anxious,
everyone feels overworked, but you need to find the ones that have found a way to
manage that and try to use their strategies if you don't already have your own.
All EHS teachers interviewed described the need to build a stronger sense of community
amongst the staff so that they can support each other in managing workplace stress. Remaining
in isolation and working in silos, which oftentimes happen because of the nature of a teacher’s
work structure, make it difficult to build connections and be open with colleagues. Getting to
know each other better and building a stronger sense of community would allow teachers to feel
less alone in facing and managing workplace stress. Similar to McCarthy et al.’s (2010) finding
that a supportive work atmosphere is needed to help employees manage stress in high-
performance workplaces, EHS teachers felt that through community-building with colleagues, a
more open and supportive work climate would develop, which would lead to more opportunities
for teachers to support each other in effectively managing workplace stress.
Additional organizational resources. Consistent with Clark and Estes’ (2008) theory
that providing needed resources to employees will help ensure successful goal achievement, EHS
teachers felt that they needed the following types of resources to be able to effectively manage
workplace stress: equipment, technology, time, and space. Evidence that imply the need for
adequate equipment and technology such as functioning Chromebooks, internet, and copy
machines was presented earlier in this chapter. While equipment and technology were most
frequently cited as resources that impacted EHS teachers’ ability to manage workplace stress,
there was evidence that EHS teachers also needed additional types of resources such as time and
space to be able to meet their stress management goals.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 85

Time and space. Five of the nine teachers interviewed mentioned the need for time and
space to share workplace stress experiences and help each other develop the competencies
necessary to manage workplace stress. Maria, for example, stated:
If we had more time and more channels to share our thoughts on things, then you might
find like if you're stressed about this student, this other teacher who has that same student
is stressed about him too.…I just think that having the opportunity to talk about kids we
share or other things that might be causing us stress will help us figure out how to deal
with them better.
Ed, similarly, suggested:
It might help if we had time for teachers who actually practice successful coping
strategies for stress…for them to share that with other teachers who are really stressed
out. Maybe we can use some of our collaboration time to just have them tell us, “These
are simple, easy solutions that you can incorporate in your daily life, and this is how it
has worked for me.” It would motivate me to try some of those techniques….And it
would be so much more convenient if we can do this type of stuff within our work day.
If there is a place that I can just go to here to find someone who can share and help.
Maria and Ed described the importance of having time and space for teachers to share workplace
stress experiences and coping strategies. For Ed, being provided this time and space at work
would make him more motivated to try out different stress management techniques, which in
turn would help him improve his workplace stress management competency. The provision of
resources, such as the time and space mentioned here, is an organizational need that EHS should
address to help teachers effectively managing workplace stress.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 86

Interaction of EHS Teachers’ Validated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Needs
While the validated knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs found in this study
were presented as separate entities above, it was evident that these needs interacted with each
other to influence EHS teachers’ ability to manage workplace stress. The key interactions found
between EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs were:
 EHS teachers’ declarative knowledge of workplace stress and coping alone did not
improve their workplace stress management ability when procedural knowledge and
motivation were lacking.
 While EHS teachers possessed motivation influences such as utility value and positive
affect, their lack of self-efficacy and attainment value impeded their ability to effectively
manage workplace stress, especially in the face of job demands that stem from EHS’s
high-performance expectations and culture.
 EHS’s high-performing culture, daily work setting, and inadequate resources were
organizational needs that greatly impacted EHS teachers’ ability to apply their knowledge
and motivation to effectively manage workplace stress.
This last interaction between organizational needs and knowledge and motivation is consistent
with Clark and Estes’ (2008) theory that organization-related barriers will often prevent goal
achievement even if employees possess outstanding knowledge, skills, and motivation. It is
critical that organizational needs be addressed as these needs might suppress knowledge and
motivation influences that would otherwise aide in successful goal achievement.
Summary
This chapter presented data that addressed the first research question: What is the current
status of EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences needed to
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 87

effectively manage workplace stress? Both validated and non-validated knowledge, motivation,
and organizational needs were revealed through evidence from data analysis. The findings
reveal that EHS teachers needed procedural knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, self-efficacy,
attainment value, and multiple organizational elements to effectively manage workplace stress.
The correct identification of these needs was necessary to recommend appropriate solutions to
help EHS teachers meet their stated performance goals. In the next chapter, I will address the
second research question of this study by presenting the recommended knowledge, motivation,
and organizational solutions.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 88

CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDED SOLUTIONS AND CONCLUSION
Chapter four addressed the first research question of this study by presenting findings
related to EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs in effectively
managing workplace stress. This chapter will address the second research question by presenting
the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to address EHS teachers’
needs. Using the New World Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) as a
framework, an integrated implementation and evaluation plan will also be suggested to execute
the recommended solutions.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Data collection and analysis of the interviews and open-ended surveys
revealed various knowledge needs related to achieving the stakeholders’ goal using Krathwohl’s
(2002) revision of Bloom’s taxonomy as a model for examining knowledge influences and
identifying knowledge-related needs. According to Krathwohl (2002), there are four knowledge
types to consider when examining knowledge influences: factual (knowledge of specific facts,
basic elements, or terminology); conceptual (more complex forms of knowledge that involves
interrelationships, classifications, categories, principles, generalizations, theories, models, and
structures); procedural (knowledge of how and when to do something); and metacognitive
(knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes and thinking). Factual and conceptual knowledge
can be grouped as declarative knowledge. Table 7 describes the validated and non-validated
knowledge needs in this study; it also specifies the knowledge needs that should be prioritized
along with the context-specific recommendations for those needs based on theoretical principles.
Findings reveal that EHS teachers need procedural (knowing how to apply coping strategies) and
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 89

metacognitive (being aware of how stress impacts work performance) knowledge in order to
effectively manage workplace stress.
Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Needs and Recommendations
Knowledge Need

Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)

Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers need to be
able to describe causes
of workplace stress.

N N Not a priority.
Teachers need to be
able to name positive
coping strategies for
workplace stress.

N N Not a priority.
Teachers need to know
how to apply positive
coping strategies to
manage workplace
stress.
V Y To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them,
and know when to
apply what they
have learned
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Targeting training
and instruction
between the
individual’s
independent
performance level
and their level of
assisted
performance
promotes optimal
learning (Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).

Provide workplace
stress management
training in which a
wellness expert
demonstrates specific
coping steps, and
teachers practice how
and when to use these
steps in authentic
workplace stress
scenarios.

Provide various levels
of aforementioned
workplace stress
management training
(e.g. beginner,
intermediate, expert)
to allow options that
align with teachers’
current workplace
stress coping ability.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 90

Teachers need to be
aware of how
workplace stress
impacts themselves.

N N Not a priority.
Teachers need to be
aware of how
workplace stress
impacts work
performance.

V Y Self-regulatory
strategies, including
goal setting,
enhance learning
and performance
(Denler, et al.,
2009).

Modeled behavior is
more likely to be
adopted if the model
is credible, similar
(e.g., gender,
culturally
appropriate), and the
behavior has
functional value
(Denler et al., 2009).

Provide education
regarding how
workplace stress
impacts work
performance, and ask
teachers to reflect
upon how their own
workplace stress
experiences might
have impacted their
work performance.

Provide training in
which peer models
share the process of
how they utilize self-
regulatory strategies to
effectively manage
workplace stress, then
engage teachers in
goal setting to plan
and monitor their own
self-regulatory
strategies.

Declarative knowledge solutions. The assumed declarative knowledge needs in this
study were not validated as actual needs. EHS teachers are already able to describe causes of
workplace stress and name positive coping strategies. Therefore, declarative knowledge needs
are not a priority.
Procedural knowledge solutions. This study found that teachers lacked procedural
knowledge in how to apply positive coping strategies to manage workplace stress. According to
Schraw and McCrudden (2006), individuals must acquire component skills, practice integrating
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 91

them, and know when to apply what they have learned to develop mastery. This would suggest
that providing training in which learners receive and practice procedural knowledge step-by-step
to address authentic problems would support their learning. The recommendation then is to
provide EHS teachers with workplace stress management training in which a wellness expert
demonstrates specific coping steps, and EHS teachers practice how and when to use these steps
to address authentic workplace stress scenarios. Additionally, since targeting training and
instruction between the individual’s independent performance level and their level of assisted
performance promotes optimal learning (Scott & Palincsar, 2006), another recommendation is to
provide various levels of the aforementioned workplace stress management training (e.g.
beginner, intermediate, expert) to allow options that align with EHS teachers’ current workplace
stress coping ability.
Sneyers, Jacobs, and Stuyf (2016) found that teachers who are able to describe step-by-
step positive coping responses when given a workplace stress vignette showed higher success in
effectively managing their own workplace stress. Furthermore, Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2015)
found that teachers who received training and practiced how to apply positive coping strategies
in their daily lives experienced less stress and maintained better mental health. For example,
teachers who integrated physical exercise and proper sleeping habits (positive coping strategies
that were taught) into their personal routine were better able to manage their stress (Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2015). The findings in these studies support the recommendation that EHS teachers
should be provided with training in which step-by-step positive coping strategies are taught and
practiced using authentic workplace stress scenarios. It is recommended that EHS allocates
professional development time towards an introductory workshop led by a workplace stress
management expert. This expert will provide stress management education, walk teachers
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 92

through how to address different workplace stress scenarios, and engage EHS teachers in
practicing coping strategies. EHS should schedule this workshop at the beginning of the school
year as a starting point of a year-long comprehensive workplace stress management program.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. While EHS teachers were aware of how
workplace stress impacted their own well-being, they were not aware of how workplace stress
impacted their work performance. To address metacognitive knowledge needs, self-regulatory
strategies, including goal setting are useful in enhancing learning and performance (Denler, et
al., 2009). Denler et al. (2009) found that modeled behavior is more likely to be adopted if the
model is credible, similar, and the behavior has functional value. This would suggest that asking
peer models to provide education and training related to self-regulatory strategies would support
learners in developing metacognitive knowledge. The recommendation then is to provide EHS
teachers with education regarding how workplace stress impacts work performance, then ask
teachers to reflect upon how their own workplace stress experiences might have impacted their
performance as a teacher. An additional recommendation is to provide EHS teachers with
training in which peer models share the process of how they utilize self-regulatory strategies to
effectively manage workplace stress, then engage teachers in goal setting to plan and monitor
their own self-regulatory strategies.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Findings of this study revealed multiple motivation needs related to
developing the competencies necessary for EHS teachers to effectively manage workplace
stress. According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivation plays a significant role in either
facilitating or hindering goal achievement. Motivation influences an individual’s active choice
in starting a task, commitment to persist through a task, and investment of mental effort in
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 93

completing a task (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). This study identified self-efficacy,
expectancy-value, and affect as motivational constructs that can impact teachers’ active choice,
persistence, and mental effort in accomplishing the goal of managing workplace stress
effectively. Table 8 reveals the actual validated and non-validated motivation needs, and
provides context-specific recommendations to address the prioritized needs based on theoretical
principles. While EHS teachers’ self-efficacy and attainment value were validated as motivation
needs, utility value and affect were not.
Table 8
Summary of Motivation Needs and Recommendations
Motivation
Need

Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers need to
feel efficacious
in their roles as
teachers to
control their
stressors.

V Y Feedback and
modeling
increases self-
efficacy (Pajares,
2006).
First, identify efficacious
teachers to model and
demonstrate effective work
practices and stress
management strategies to those
who lack self-efficacy. Then,
create partnerships between
these teachers to encourage
collaborative goal-setting,
monitoring, and feedback
related to workplace stress
management progress.

Teachers need to
feel comfortable
exercising
interpersonal
self-efficacy
(help-seeking) to
manage
workplace stress.

V Y Individuals who
do not perceive
any support in
their environment
“tend to be
hopeless”
(Ambrose, 2010).

Provide opportunities (time
and space) for teachers to seek
help, share workplace stress
experiences, and learn
effective stress management
strategies from each other.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 94

Teachers need to
expect success in
their
occupational
identity as part
of their
attainment value.

V Y Feedback as well
as actual success
on challenging
tasks positively
influences
people’s
perceptions of
competence
(Borgogni et al.,
2011).

Provide positive feedback and
acknowledgement of good
work whenever possible to
build teachers’ self-esteem and
encourage positive perception
of their job performance.

Teachers need to
find utility value
in successfully
managing
workplace stress.

N N Not a priority.
Teachers need
positive affect to
broaden and
build their
cognitive scope
to adapt to
workplace stress
successfully.

N N Not a priority.

Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy is a motivation indicator related to an individual’s
perception of his or her ability to accomplish a task (Pajares, 2006). The findings in this study
revealed that EHS teachers need to feel efficacious in their roles as teachers to control stressors
and effectively manage workplace stress. According to Pajares (2006), feedback and modeling
increases self-efficacy and encourage individuals to feel more capable in accomplishing a
task. The recommendation then is to first identify efficacious teachers to model effective work
practices and stress management strategies. Then, create peer partnerships between model
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 95

teachers and teachers who lack self-efficacy to encourage collaborative goal-setting, monitoring,
and feedback related to workplace stress management progress.
When teachers feel efficacious in their roles, they are better able to control their stressors
and experience less stress and emotional exhaustion (Wang et al., 2015). Wang et al.’s (2015)
study on teacher self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and burnout revealed that teachers who are
confident in their roles experienced more job satisfaction and less workplace stress. Specifically,
teachers who felt efficacious in areas such as managing classroom discipline, delivering lessons,
or engaging students were better able to control their stressors, and thus experience less stress.
Wang et al.’s (2015) findings support the above recommendation that EHS teachers who lack
self-efficacy in regulating workplace stress should be partnered with efficacious peer models.
These efficacious peer models can demonstrate effective work practices and stress management
strategies, and provide appropriate feedback to increase the confidence of those who lack self-
efficacy in their roles.
Interpersonal Self-Efficacy. Interpersonal self-efficacy refers to an individual’s
perception of his or her ability to elicit help from others (García-Ros, Fuentes, and Fernández,
2015). The findings in this study revealed that EHS teachers need to feel comfortable exercising
interpersonal self-efficacy, or help-seeking, to manage workplace stress effectively. Ambrose
(2010) found that individuals who do not perceive any support in their environment “tend to be
hopeless” (p. 81). This would suggest that creating an open and supportive work environment in
which help-seeking is the norm would encourage individuals to feel more comfortable in
exercising interpersonal self-efficacy. The recommendation for EHS then is to establish
opportunities (time and space) for teachers to seek help, share workplace stress experiences, and
learn effective stress management strategies from each other.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 96

García-Ros, Fuentes, and Fernández (2015) examined interpersonal self-efficacy amongst
teachers and found that teachers who felt efficacious in eliciting help and support from others
experienced less stress. Interpersonal self-efficacy served as a protective factor against teacher
stress and burnout as it provided teachers with confidence that they have the social support
necessary to fulfill their job responsibilities. Specifically, García-Ros et al. (2015) found that
teachers who showed higher interpersonal self-efficacy in eliciting support from colleagues and
principals experienced less emotional exhaustion and a higher sense of personal accomplishment,
which resulted in less workplace stress. Garcia-Ros et al.’s (2015) findings support the
recommendation that EHS should establish a work environment in which there are opportunities
incorporated in the work day for teachers to seek help and support from each other. Creating a
more supportive work environment where help-seeking is the norm would encourage higher
levels of interpersonal self-efficacy amongst EHS teachers, which would increase EHS teachers’
ability to manage workplace stress effectively.
Expectancy-Value. Expectancy-value theory refers to an individual’s expectation in
successfully completing a task, and the value that is placed on the task itself (Eccles, 2006). Two
critical components of task value beliefs within expectancy-value theory are utility and
attainment value. Utility value refers to the usefulness of a task in meeting personal goals,
whereas attainment value is derived from an individual’s perception of whether a task confirms
or disconfirms self-identity (Eccles, 2006). While utility value was not validated as a motivation
need in this study, findings revealed that EHS teachers need to expect success in their
occupational identity (e.g. their self-image as teachers) as part of their attainment value to be
able to manage workplace stress effectively. Borgogni et al. (2011) found that feedback as well
as actual success on challenging tasks positively influences people’s perceptions of
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 97

competence. This would suggest that positive acknowledgement and feedback for completing
challenging work would improve individuals’ self-identity and perceptions of their ability to
succeed. The recommendation then is for EHS administrators and staff to acknowledge teachers’
successful work performance whenever possible, and provide praise and feedback to encourage
self-esteem and positive perceptions of competence in their occupational identity.
Alizadegani et al. (2014) found that teachers with high self-esteem in their occupational
identity and feel competent in succeeding in their roles as teachers hold attainment value that
motivates them to make adjustments to better manage workplace stress. Teachers who perceive
themselves as effective in their work performance will take the necessary steps to protect their
self-image and utilize strategies to successfully adapt to workplace stress so that stress does not
negatively impact their work (Alizadegani et al., 2014). Alizadegani et al.’s findings support the
recommendation that EHS administrators should acknowledge and praise successful work
performance and provide constructive feedback whenever possible to increase teachers’ self-
esteem, confidence, and perception of competence in their ability to fulfill their
responsibilities. EHS teachers who are groomed to expect success and feel competent in their
occupational identity will be motivated to manage workplace stress so that they can uphold their
self-image as efficacious teachers.
Affect. Affect was not validated as a motivation need in this study. The EHS teachers
who participated in this study already possess positive affect, which when not faced with
additional barriers such as lack of self-efficacy or expectancy-value, facilitated their ability to
manage workplace stress.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 98

Organization Recommendations
Introduction. Findings of this study revealed several critical organizational needs
related to EHS teachers’ goal of developing the competencies necessary to effectively manage
workplace stress. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organizational elements such as workplace
policies and procedures, resources, and organizational culture can greatly influence effective
work performance and achievement of organizational goals. Organizational culture, which is
developed over time through shared norms and values, plays a significant role in influencing
employee behavior and performance outcomes (Schein, 1992). Gallimore and Goldenberg
(2001) view organizational culture through the lens of cultural models and cultural
settings. While cultural models refer to the invisible shared values and beliefs that drive
normative understandings, interpretations, and organizational behavior, cultural settings refer to
the visible displays of cultural models and include the concrete activities that occur every day
within an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This study examined two cultural
models (EHS’s culture of high-performance expectations and whether there is a culture of
unsupportive leadership) and additional cultural settings related to work structure and resources
as organizational needs that influence EHS teachers’ ability to effectively manage workplace
stress. Table 9 reveals the actual validated and non-validated organizational needs, and provides
context-specific recommendations to address the prioritized needs based on theoretical
principles.
Table 9
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Organization
Influence

Validated
Yes, No
(V, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 99

There is a culture
of high-
performance
expectations that
contribute to
workplace stress.

V Y A strong
organizational
culture controls
organizational
behavior and can
block an
organization from
making necessary
changes for
adapting to a
changing
environment
(Schein, 2004).

Adult learners resist
learning when they
feel others are
imposing
information, ideas
or actions on them
(Fidishun, 2000).

Conduct whole school
discussions to talk over the
pros and cons of the current
culture of high-performance
expectations at EHS, and
collaboratively brainstorm
what might be needed to
better support teachers’
well-being and stress
management within the
high-performing
organizational culture.

Allow teachers to freely
discuss concerns, clarify
performance expectations,
and make suggestions for
improvement.

There is a culture
of unsupportive
leadership that
increases teacher
stress.

N N

Not a priority.
Teachers’ work
structure and
work demands
create a culture of
working in silos
that make it
difficult to seek
help in managing
workplace stress.

V Y Organizational
performance
increases when
individuals
communicate
constantly and
candidly to others
about plans and
processes (Clark &
Estes, 2008)

Creating positive
relationships with
one’s staff is
correlated with
gains in student
learning outcomes
Schedule consistent times
for teachers to
communicate with each
other (whether in person or
through an online forum)
regarding their workplace
stress experiences.

Create more opportunities
for meaningful staff
interaction and community-
building.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 100

in schools (Waters,
Marzano &
McNulty, 2003).

Lack of
organizational
resources
contribute to
workplace stress.

V Y Organizational
performance
increases when
processes and
resources are
aligned with goals
established
collaboratively
(Clark & Estes,
2008).

Create a survey to collect
feedback from teachers
regarding the resources that
are the most critical in
reducing workplace
stress. Then, ask staff to
vote on their top three
priorities and revisit school
budget to allocate funding
to support the prioritized
resources. Hold
fundraising campaign if
needed to ensure that the
prioritized resources are
provided.

Culture of high-performance expectations. EHS’s strong culture of high-performance
expectations contributed to teachers’ workplace stress. According to Schein (2004), a strong
organizational culture controls organizational behavior and can block an organization from
making necessary changes for adapting to a changing environment. Additionally, Fidishun
(2004) found that adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information,
ideas or actions on them. This would suggest that it is difficult to change a strong organizational
culture if the change process is top down. To help employees better manage workplace stress
within an organizational culture of high-performance expectations, Cavanaugh et al. (2000) and
Topcic et al. (2016) suggest that employees be given appropriate organizational support and
opportunities to discuss and clarify work-related expectations. The recommendation then is for
EHS to conduct whole school discussions in which teachers have the opportunity to freely talk
about the benefits, disadvantages, and/or concerns related to the current culture of high-
performance expectations. During these discussions, teachers can brainstorm what might be
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 101

needed to better support teachers’ well-being and stress management within the high-performing
organizational culture, clarify performance expectations, and make suggestions for improvement.
Culture of Unsupportive Leadership. A culture of unsupportive leadership was not
validated in this study. EHS teachers who participated in this study felt that the leadership at
EHS was generally supportive. They described EHS administrators as communicative, helpful,
and accessible.
Work structure and work demands. EHS teachers’ work structure and work demands
led to role overload and created a cultural setting in which teachers worked in silos. Working in
silos made it difficult to seek help in managing workplace stress. According to Clark and Estes
(2008), organizational performance increases when individuals communicate constantly and
candidly to others about plans and processes. Additionally, Waters, Marzano, and McNulty
(2003) found that creating positive relationships with one’s staff is correlated with gains in
student learning outcomes in schools. This would suggest that creating opportunities for
communication and positive community building can contribute to improving organizational
performance. The recommendation then is to schedule consistent times for EHS teachers to
communicate with each other (whether in person or through an online forum) regarding their
workplace stress experiences, and create more opportunities for meaningful staff interaction and
community-building that bolster positive relationships amongst staff.
Stauffer and Mason (2013) found that teachers’ work setting and daily work demands can
be overwhelming and induce stressful work environments. Furthermore, the way in which a
school day is structured does not allow for meaningful interactions to take place, resulting in a
lack of community and teachers working in silos (Austin et al., 2005; Stauffer & Mason,
2013). In Austin et al.’s (2005) study, teachers who felt unsupported and alone perceived higher
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 102

levels of workplace stress, whereas teachers who had more opportunities to communicate and
collaborate with each other perceived less workplace stress. Similarly, McCarthy et al. (2010)
found that a strong sense of community amongst colleagues and positive work climate in schools
were crucial in helping teachers minimize workplace stress. These findings support the
recommendation that EHS should provide more opportunities for meaningful interaction and
communication amongst teachers so that a stronger sense of community and positive work
climate can be built. Increasing meaningful interaction and communication will enable EHS
staff to support each other in effectively managing workplace stress.
Organizational Resources. Lack of organizational resources such as equipment and
funding contributed to workplace stress for EHS teachers. Clark and Estes (2008) found that
organizational performance increases when processes and resources are aligned with goals
established collaboratively. This would suggest that it is important for organizations to work
with its employees to identify goals and put in order the resources that are necessary in meeting
these goals. The recommendation for EHS then is to create a survey to collect feedback from
teachers regarding the resources that they believe are the most critical in helping them manage
workplace stress. Then, ask EHS teachers to vote on the top three resources and have
administration revisit the school budget to allocate funding (or host fundraising campaigns as
needed) to support the prioritized resources.
Clark and Estes (2008) stressed the importance of providing needed resources, such as
tangible supplies and equipment, to ensure that employees are able to successfully meet
organizational goals. Richards (2012) conducted a study on workplace stress and coping with
California teachers that suggest similar findings in regards to the importance of providing
adequate resources to teachers at schools. In Richards’ (2012) study, teachers reported that lack
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 103

of resources such as updated technology and materials to support their daily work contributed
negatively to their workplace stress experiences. The findings of these studies support the
recommendation that EHS should survey its teachers to identify the critical resources needed to
improve their ability to manage workplace stress, and then reallocate funding to provide these
resources.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), which is an
updated version of Kirkpatrick’s Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2006), was used as a framework to develop the implementation and evaluation plan for this
study. The original Kirkpatrick model uses four levels of evaluation to assess training outcomes:
Level 1: Reaction, Level 2: Learning, Level 3: Behavior, and Level 4: Results. The New World
Kirkpatrick Model reverses the order of the original model and begins with Level 4: Results to
emphasize the importance of tightly aligning implementation and evaluation plans with
organizational goals. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggests the use of leading indicators
which include both internal and external outcomes and metrics to assess whether an organization
is on track in meeting the desired results. Clearly identifying Level 4: Results along with leading
indicators help guide the development of the rest of the implementation and evaluation plan,
which includes the identification of Level 3: Behaviors (the critical behaviors and required
drivers that are necessary in achieving organizational goals), Level 2: Learning (the knowledge,
skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment of participants), and Level 1: Reaction (program
engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction). Focusing early attention on Level 4: Results
allows the New World Kirkpatrick Model to provide a sound framework for developing
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 104

implementation and evaluation plans that ensure organizational goal alignment and stakeholder
buy-in.
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The mission of EHS is to provide all students with a robust educational program that
prepares them to meet the challenges of a global society. To fulfill EHS’s mission, the emotional
climate and well-being of both students and staff at EHS must improve. Currently, workplace
stress has caused EHS teachers to exhibit maladaptive behaviors that are counteractive to a
positive learning environment. As such, EHS teachers’ performance goal is to demonstrate the
competencies necessary to effectively manage workplace stress. This study examined the
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences needed to help EHS teachers
effectively manage workplace stress. The proposed solutions, which include a comprehensive
workplace stress management program, consistent opportunities for meaningful interaction and
communication amongst staff, and coaching from peer models, should improve EHS teachers’
competency in effectively managing workplace stress and decrease their maladaptive behaviors.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 10 reveals the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators for EHS in the
form of external and internal outcomes, metrics, and assessment methods. The short-term
observations and measurements shown in Table 10 will indicate whether EHS is achieving its
desired results. If the internal outcomes are met as a result of the recommendation solutions,
then the external outcomes will also be achieved.
Table 10
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 105

External Outcomes

1. Improved overall
emotional climate at
school.

1. Schoolwide positive/negative
feedback.
1. Conduct bi-annual school
climate survey with all
students/staff, and compare
results.

2. Redefined high-
performing expectations
and school culture that
include a stronger focus on
the well-being of everyone
at school.

2a. The number of student,
staff, and parent
concerns/complaints/incidents
related to high-performing
expectations and school culture.

2a. Monitor and track
concerns/complaints/incidents
related to high-performing
expectations and school culture.

2b. Schoolwide
positive/negative feedback.

2b. Set aside time during staff
collaboration and parent/student
council meetings to solicit
feedback from these
stakeholders.

3. Improved learning
environments for students.

3a. Increased student
engagement in learning.
3a. Administrator conducts
informal walk-throughs of
classroom to observe level of
student engagement.

3b. Positive/negative student
feedback regarding learning
environment.

3b. Randomly select students
from different classrooms and
ask them to give feedback
related to their learning
environments.

Internal Outcomes

5. Increased teacher
competency in managing
workplace stress.
5a. The frequency of teacher
engagement in stress
management strategies.
5a. Solicit data through
administrator/ peer observations
and teacher self-reports.

5b. Results on key questions
from teacher wellness survey.
5b. Compare annual teacher
wellness survey results.

6. Decrease in teachers’
maladaptive behaviors that
are caused workplace
stress.

6a. The number of teacher
absences due to workplace
stress.
6a. Review teacher absence
reports.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 106

6b. The number of workplace
stress-related teacher
concerns/incidents (e.g. short-
temperedness, outbursts, below-
par teaching, etc.).

6b. Monitor and track stress-
related teacher concerns,
incidents, and relevant
student/parent/colleague
complaints.

6c. Results on key questions
from teacher wellness survey.

6c. Compare annual teacher
wellness survey results.
7. Improved work
environment and a stronger
sense of
community/interaction
amongst staff.

7a. Positive/negative feedback
from teachers.
7a. Administrator observation
and open-door conversations.
7b. The number of complaints
from teachers regarding their
work environment/climate.
7b. Administrators track
number of complaints they
receive from teachers.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus in this study are EHS teachers. For EHS
teachers to meet their goal, it is important that they consistently engage in several critical
behaviors while on the job. The first critical behavior is that EHS teachers must apply positive
coping strategies when faced with workplace stress. The second critical behavior is that they
must share workplace stress experiences along with successful stress management strategies with
each other. The third critical behavior is that they must ask for help when they experience
workplace stress. Table 11 details the specific metrics, methods, and timing for each critical
behavior described.
Table 11
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for EHS Teachers
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Apply positive
coping strategies.
The percentage of
teachers who apply
1a. Administrators will
observe, track, and also
1a. Monthly.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 107

positive coping
strategies.

set time aside to check-in
with teachers regarding
their engagement in
positive coping strategies.

2. Share workplace
stress experiences
along with successful
stress management
strategies with each
other.

The percentage of
teachers who share
experiences and
strategies with each
other.
2a. Administrators will
survey teachers every
grading period (6 weeks).
2a. Every
grading period
(6 weeks).

The number of
times teachers meet
with each other to
share experiences
and strategies.
2b. Peer models will track
the number of times they
meet with colleagues
every grading period (6
weeks).

2b. Every
grading period
(6 weeks).

2c. Administrators will
survey teachers every
grading period (6 weeks).

2c. Every
grading period
(6 weeks).

3. Ask for help when
experiencing workplace
stress.
The number of
teachers who ask for
help.
3a. Peer models will
report the number of
times they have given
help to another colleague.

3. Every
grading period
(6 weeks).

3b. Administrators will
survey teachers every
grading period (6 weeks).
3b. Every
grading period
(6 weeks).

Required drivers. Required drivers are systems and processes that support and build
accountability into the performance of critical behaviors (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). EHS teachers require the support of administrators and colleagues to reinforce the stress
management strategies that they learn, and to encourage them to apply these strategies on the
job. EHS administrators along with teachers who are peer models (those who are already
competent in managing workplace stress) should reinforce, encourage, and help monitor the
stress management progress of their colleagues. Rewards and recognition systems should also be
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 108

set up to acknowledge those who are able to meet their stress management related goals. Table
12 shows the required drivers that are recommended to support EHS teachers’ critical
behaviors.
Table 12
Required Drivers to Support EHS Teachers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
(1, 2, 3, etc.)

Reinforcing

Meetings between teachers and peer models to
establish stress management goals and time frames.

Bi-weekly 2, 3
Use online forum to reinforce communication between
teachers.

Ongoing 2, 3
Create communities of practice focused on stress
management strategies.

Monthly 1, 2, 3
Email refreshers and reminders related to stress
management strategies and goals.

Monthly 2, 3
Encouraging

Collaboration and peer modeling during staff meetings.

Bi-weekly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from administrators and peer
models.

Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding

Public acknowledgement at all staff meetings to
recognize teachers who have utilized and/or shared
successful stress management strategies.

Monthly 1, 2, 3

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 109

Monitoring

Administrators and peer models can touch bases with
teachers and ask them to self-report their confidence
and competence level in managing workplace stress.

Monthly 1, 2, 3
Administrators can survey teachers regarding their
engagement and progress in utilizing workplace stress
management strategies.

Every grading
period
1, 2, 3
Peer models can observe and help monitor/guide
teachers’ stress management progress.

Ongoing 1, 2, 3

Organizational support. EHS should allocate time and resources that are necessary to
ensure that the required drivers are consistently implemented, and EHS teachers are supported in
engaging in the Level 3 critical behaviors previously mentioned. EHS should support its
teachers by modifying its current staff collaboration schedule to create consistent opportunities
for teachers to learn, practice, and share workplace stress management strategies. EHS
administrators should also adjust current organizational practices to reshape its high-performing
school culture with a renewed focus on teacher well-being and opportunities for staff to
communicate and interact with each other in meaningful ways.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. After completing the recommended solutions, notably the workplace
stress management training program, EHS teachers will be able to:
1. Recognize signs of workplace stress.
2. List positive coping strategies for workplace stress,
3. Know who/where to go to seek help in managing workplace stress.
4. Apply appropriate positive coping strategies to manage workplace stress.
5. Be conscious and aware of how workplace stress impacts work performance.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 110

6. Plan and monitor workplace stress management goals.
7. Indicate confidence that they can effectively manage workplace stress.
8. Indicate confidence that they can exercise interpersonal self-efficacy (help-seeking) to
manage workplace stress.
9. Value the importance of workplace stress management within a high-performing work
culture.
10. Value the planning and monitoring of their workplace stress management goals.
Program. The learning goals stated above will be achieved through a comprehensive
workplace stress management training program that includes workplace stress related education,
expert demonstrations, goal setting, practice, and peer model partnerships. The learners, EHS
teachers, will learn about workplace stress management strategies from wellness experts and
peer models. The comprehensive workplace stress management program will include three
major components: an introductory in-person workshop, follow-up communities of practice
sessions determined by level of workplace stress management competency, and ongoing peer
model partnerships designed for continual guidance and accountability. The entire program will
take place over the course of the school year. The introductory workshop will be 60-90 minutes
long and will be scheduled as part of EHS’s professional development activities. The follow-up
communities of practice sessions will take place once a month for 10 months for 30 minutes
each. These communities of practice will replace some of EHS’s regularly scheduled
professional development hours. The ongoing peer model partnerships will take place least bi-
weekly through brief check-ins during teachers’ prep periods.
During the introductory in-person workshop, EHS administrators will introduce teachers
to a new organizational plan that addresses teacher wellness. Wellness experts will be hired to
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 111

provide EHS teachers with education regarding stress and coping, and how workplace stress
impacts work performance. During the workshop, wellness experts will demonstrate specific
coping strategies and steps, and will ask teachers to practice these steps in re-created authentic
workplace stress scenarios. The wellness experts will also observe and provide feedback and
guidance to teachers throughout the workshop. At the end of the workshop, there will be a
discussion and reflection session to address questions and concerns. EHS teachers will also be
asked to create an initial workplace stress management plan, and complete a survey. This survey
will serve as both a check for understanding and a way to determine where teachers should be
placed in the follow-up communities of practice sessions that are grouped by perceived
workplace stress management competency levels. EHS administrators and the wellness experts
will work together after the workshop to identify teachers who show high levels of competency
in managing workplace stress, based on observation of behavior and survey responses, to
become peer models; those who accept the role of a peer model will be compensated for their
work with other teachers.
During the follow-up communities of practice sessions, the focus will be on applying
what teachers have learned through the introductory workshop with the guidance of peer
models. Peer models will facilitate the communities of practice sessions where teachers can seek
additional assistance, share their workplace stress experiences, and practice or share successful
stress management strategies. The communities of practice sessions will serve as a consistent
time and place for teachers to seek help and develop their workplace stress management
skills. The sessions will also serve as opportunities for meaningful staff interaction and
community-building.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 112

Peer model partnerships will be created within the communities of practice so that peer
models can give more focused attention to smaller groups of teachers who might require
additional support. Theses ongoing peer model partnerships that are created within the
communities of practice will allow tailored focus and support of teachers’ individual workplace
stress management goals. A peer model will be partnered with five to eight teachers and will
serve as a workplace stress management coach. Peer models will check in with their teachers bi-
weekly to ensure that teachers are following through with their workplace stress management
plan. Peer models will share their experiences of workplace stress management success with
their teachers and help teachers develop and monitor self-regulatory strategies to effectively
manage workplace stress. The peer model partnerships are designed to encourage collaborative
goal-setting, monitoring, and feedback related to teachers’ workplace stress management
progress. Peer models will coach teachers through the process of meeting their workplace stress
management goals, help reinforce strategies learned, and report successful progress to
administration.
Components of learning. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), declarative
and procedural knowledge are both critical components of learning that must be evaluated to
properly assess whether a learner is able to apply what is learned to solve problems. Additional
components of learning that are critical to goal achievement and should be evaluated within
training programs include a learner’s values, confidence, and commitment in applying their
acquired knowledge and skills on the job. Table 13 lists the methods and timing that will be
used to evaluate the components of learning in EHS’s workplace stress management training
program.
Table 13
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 113

Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

Declarative/conceptual knowledge checks
embedded in workshop evaluation survey.
One day after the workshop.
Formative checks for understanding. Wellness expert observations
throughout the introductory workshop
and observations during ongoing
communities of practice and peer
model meetings.

Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

Procedural knowledge checks embedded in
workshop evaluation survey.

One day after the workshop.
Demonstration of positive coping strategies in
groups and/or individually.

During the introductory workshop and
communities of practice sessions.
Quality of the feedback from wellness
experts/peer models/colleagues during group
sharing.

During the introductory workshop,
communities of practice sessions, and
peer model meetings.
Individual application of workplace stress
management strategies.

After introductory workshop.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Attitude check embedded in workshop
evaluation survey.

One day after the workshop.
Observation of participants’ statements and
actions demonstrating that they see the benefit
of engaging in workplace stress management
strategies.

During the workshop, communities of
practice sessions, and peer model
meetings.
Discussions of the value of successfully
engaging in workplace stress management.

During the workshop, communities of
practice sessions, and peer model
meetings.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 114

Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Confidence related items embedded in
workshop evaluation survey.

One day after the workshop.
Discussions following practice and feedback.

During the workshop, communities of
practice sessions, and peer model
meetings.

Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Commitment related items embedded in
workshop evaluation survey.

One day after the workshop.
Discussions following practice and feedback.

During the workshop, communities of
practice sessions, and peer model
meetings.

Create an individual workplace stress
management plan.

During the workshop.

Level 1: Reaction
It is important to obtain ongoing feedback from participants during and after training
programs to evaluate whether participants are engaged, find the program content relevant, and
are satisfied with what they are learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Evaluating
participants’ reaction to the program provides trainers immediate feedback, and allows for
adjustments to ensure that the program succeeds in leading to on-the-job application of what is
being taught. Table 14 lists the methods or tools and timing that will be used to evaluate EHS
teachers’ reaction (in the form of engagement, relevance, and satisfaction) to the workplace
stress management training program.
Table 14
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 115

Engagement

Observation by wellness experts/peer
models.

During the workshop, communities of practice
sessions, and peer model meetings.

Pulse checks by wellness experts. During the workshop.

Attendance and participation. During the workshop, communities of practice
sessions, and peer model meetings.

Workshop evaluation. One day after the workshop.

Relevance

Brief pulse-check with teachers via
ongoing discussions.
During the workshop and every communities of
practice session and peer model meeting.

Workshop evaluation. One day after the workshop.

Customer Satisfaction

Brief pulse-check with teachers via
ongoing discussions.
After the workshop and every communities of
practice session and peer model meeting.

Workshop evaluation One day after the workshop.

Evaluation Tools
During and immediately following the program implementation. During the
introductory workshop and at all communities of practice and peer model meetings, Level 1
(engagement, relevance, customer satisfaction) outcomes will be evaluated through observations
and periodic pulse checks. The respective facilitators (e.g. wellness experts, administrators, peer
models) will observe teachers and track attendance to gauge engagement. Pulse checks will also
be conducted to indicate whether teachers are satisfied with the program and find the content
relevant to their work. Similarly, Level 2 (knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, commitment)
outcomes will be evaluated during the introductory workshop and at all communities of practice
and peer model meetings by the respective facilitators. Facilitators will observe teachers’ actions
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 116

and engage them in discussions and demonstrations to evaluate their knowledge, skills, attitude,
confidence, and commitment in understanding and applying the program content back on the
job. Evaluating teachers’ reaction and learning during program implementation will allow
facilitators to obtain for immediate feedback and make necessary adjustments before it is too
late.
One day after the workplace stress management introductory workshop, an anonymous
survey will be sent to participants to evaluate both Level 1 and Level 2 outcomes. This
workshop evaluation survey will include both open and Likert-scaled items (see Appendix
E). Survey results will be used to determine areas of needs that were not adequately addressed
through the introductory workshop. The areas of needs that are identified through the survey
results will be shared with peer models so that they can help address these needs during their
facilitation of the ongoing communities of practice and peer model meetings.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately six weeks
after the introductory workshop and implementation of the communities of practice and peer
modeling program, and every six weeks thereafter, EHS administrators will administer a
program evaluation survey to assess Level 1 through 4 outcomes. The survey will include open
and Likert-scaled items that measure, from the teachers’ perspectives, overall satisfaction and
usefulness of the program (Level 1), knowledge and commitment to applying their learning
(Level 2), application and sharing of strategies learned (Level 3), and the overall extent to which
they have developed the competencies necessary to effectively manage workplace stress (Level
4). A sample program evaluation survey is located in Appendix F.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 117

Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of teachers is measured by the extent to which they develop the
competencies necessary to effectively manage workplace stress, and as a result, help improve the
overall emotional climate of the school and well-being of both students and staff. At the end of
every month, EHS administrators will email teachers two questions that help gauge teachers’
stress management engagement and their perspective of the overall emotional climate at work.
One question will ask teachers to indicate their level of engagement in stress management from
poor, fair, good, to excellent. The other question will use the same scale for teachers to rate the
emotional climate at work that month. The survey results will be reported to staff every month
using a dashboard with the two indicators shown below. The results indicated on the dashboard
will also be discussed at monthly whole school collaboration meetings. Capturing these two data
points monthly will allow EHS to evaluate the effectiveness of its workplace stress management
program on an ongoing basis and analyze how various levels of stress management engagement
correlate with the emotional climate at EHS.

Stress Management Engagement Indicator Emotional Climate Indicator
These monthly dashboards will also be charted into an annual report so that EHS can better
understand stress management engagement and emotional climate trends throughout the school
year.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 118

Levels 1, 2, and 3 outcomes will be monitored through the workplace stress management
program evaluation surveys (sent every six weeks) previously described. The survey findings
will be summarized, emailed to staff, and also discussed during whole school collaborations.
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model, which thoroughly addresses Level 1 through 4
outcomes, allowed me to develop a comprehensive workplace stress management training
program that optimizes stakeholder and organizational goal achievement. By including methods
to monitor teachers’ reaction (Level 1), learning (Level 2), behavior (Level 3), and overall
desired results (Level 4) throughout the planning, execution, and demonstration of value phases
of the program, I was able to establish ongoing accountability and leave room for necessary
adjustments.
Following Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) recommendation to focus on learning
interventions that target measurable and desired outcomes should also greatly improve the
impact of the program, leading to EHS teachers’ transfer of knowledge and skills, and positive
changes in their performance and results. Successfully implementing the suggested workplace
stress management training program will allow EHS teachers to develop the competencies
necessary to effectively manage workplace stress, thereby decreasing their maladaptive
behaviors, and improving the overall emotional climate and well-being of both students and
staff.
Future Research
This study served as an initial step in addressing the gap in research of teacher stress in
high-performing schools. Due to limitations such as the size, scope, and duration of this study,
future research is needed to provide a more in-depth examination and generalizable findings
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 119

related to teacher stress in high-performing settings. Research that includes a larger and more
diverse sample is recommended to allow more detailed comparisons between teachers who teach
in different subject areas, those who teach different achievement levels (i.e. advance placement),
and those who teach in different socio-economic communities and varied geographic regions. In
addition to expanding the participant size and scope, future longitudinal research is
recommended as this study took place during the second half of the school year and there might
be differences in teacher stress levels throughout the entire school year. An examination of data
related to student academic performance should also be included in future studies. It would be
fascinating to examine students’ grades or test performance during timeframes where teachers
indicate that they are highly stressed, and during timeframes when teachers indicate that they are
not stressed to see if there is correlation between teacher stress and student learning outcomes.
Since teacher stress can have significant impact on teacher retention, data related to
teacher turnover should also be examined. Future research should include collaboration with the
human resource departments of school districts to better understand the impact of teacher stress
and also the potential benefits of implementing the workplace stress management program
suggested in this study.
Conclusion
As teacher stress continues to increase amidst an educational climate of high-stakes
assessments and high-pressure accountability, it is important to understand what teachers need to
be able to effectively manage workplace stress. This study found that teachers in a high-
performing school faced unique stressors derived largely from its high-performing organizational
culture and setting. EHS’s high-performing culture and expectations created unachievable and
undesirable demands that served as barriers to effective workplace stress management for its
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 120

teachers. EHS teachers’ daily work structure and work setting also created silos that prevented
the community-building and help-seeking needed to relieve workplace stress. These
organizational barriers coupled with a lack of procedural knowledge, metacognitive knowledge,
self-efficacy, and expectancy-value, made workplace stress management difficult for EHS
teachers.
To help EHS teachers develop the competencies necessary to effectively manage
workplace stress, a comprehensive workplace stress management program was recommended to
address EHS teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs. It is critical that EHS,
and other high-performing high schools like EHS, explore the recommended solutions in study to
provide the needed support for its teachers to meet their stress management goals. Scott, one of
the teachers interviewed in this study, summarized this need well when he noted:
We want to know that our administrators, colleagues, students, and parents care about us
and that they care about how we feel. Just because I’m working at a good school and we
look good on paper, doesn’t mean that I don’t need help. At the end of the day, I'm
human, you’re human, and we need to watch and care about each other. There are so
many things that schools can do to make work less stressful for teachers. There are so
many things that we can do ourselves too, but we can use a little push, a little structure
and support.
Without the support that Scott described, teachers will continue to experience increasing
workplace stress and engage in maladaptive behaviors that negatively impact student learning—
an outcome that is contrary to the purpose of schooling.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 121

REFERENCES
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2014, July). On the path to equity: Improving the effectiveness
of Beginning Teachers. Retrieved from http://all4ed.org/reports-factsheets/path-to-equity
Alizadegani, F., Zaini, M. F., & Delavari, G. (2014). Stress free and high self-esteem:
Approaches of motivation towards teachers and school students. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 114, 711–714.
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How
learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. John Wiley & Sons.
Austin, V., Shah, S., & Muncer, S. (2005). Teacher stress and coping strategies used to reduce
stress. Occupational Therapy International, 12(2), 63–80.
Baker, L. (2006). Metacognition. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/
metacognition/.
Bandura, A. (2005). The evolution of social cognitive theory. In K. G. Smith & M. A. Hitt
(Eds.), Great minds in management (pp. 9–35). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Berger, B. (2014). Read my lips: Leaders, supervisors, and culture are the foundations of
strategic employee communications. Research Journal of the Institute for Public
Relations, 1(1).
Blase, J. J. (1986). A qualitative analysis of sources of teacher stress: Consequences for
performance. American Educational Research Journal, 23(1), 13–40.
Bloom, C. M., & Owens, E. W. (2013). Principals’ perception of influence on factors affecting
student achievement in low- and high-achieving urban high schools. Education and
Urban Society, 45(2), 208–233.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 122

Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theories and methods (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Burke, W. (2002). Leading organization change. Organization Change: Theory and Practice.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 239–272.
Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical
examination of self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of applied
psychology, 85(1), 65.
Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions. Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.
Collie, R. J., Shapka, J. D., & Perry, N. E. (2012). School climate and social–emotional learning:
Predicting teacher stress, job satisfaction, and teaching efficacy. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 104(4), 1189–1204.
Conner, J. O., Miles, S. B., & Pope, D. C. (2014). How Many Teachers Does It Take to Support
a Student?: Examining the Relationship between Teacher Support and Adverse Health
Outcomes in High-Performing, Pressure-Cooker High Schools. The High School Journal,
98(1), 22-42.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory
(3rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE.
Crawford, J. R., & Henry, J. D. (2004). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS):
Construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non‐clinical
sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43(3), 245-265.
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 123

Denler, H., Wolters, C., & Benzon, M. (2006). Social cognitive theory. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/social-cognitive-theory/.
Eccles, J. (2006). Expectancy value motivational theory. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/expectancy-value-motivational-theory/.
Fimian, M. J. & Fastenau P. S. (1990). The validity and reliability of the Teacher Stress
Inventory: A re-analysis of aggregate data. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11(2),
151–157.
Fink, A. (2013). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications.
Fisher, M. H. (2011). Factors Influencing Stress, Burnout, and Retention of Secondary Teachers.
Current Issues in Education, 14(1).
Flook, L., Goldberg, S. B., Pinger, L., Bonus, K., & Davidson, R. J. (2013). Mindfulness for
Teachers: A Pilot Study to Assess Effects on Stress, Burnout, and Teaching Efficacy.
Mind, Brain, and Education, 7(3), 182–195.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-
and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226.
Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect
minority achievement and school improvement research. Educational Psychologist,
36(1), 45–56.
Gallup. (2014). State of America’s Schools: The Path to Winning Again in Education. Retrieved
from http://www.gallup.com/services/178769/state-america-schools-report.aspx
García-Ros, R., Fuentes, M. C., & Fernández, B. (2015). Teachers’ interpersonal self-efficacy:
Evaluation and predictive capacity of teacher burnout. Electronic Journal of Research in
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 124

Educational Psychology, 13(3), 483–502.
Geving, A. M. (2007). Identifying the types of student and teacher behaviours associated with
teacher stress. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(5), 624–640.
Glesne, C. (2011). Chapter 6: But is it ethical? Considering what is “right.” In Becoming
qualitative researchers: An introduction (4th ed.) (pp. 162-183). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Gloria, C. T., Faulk, K. E., & Steinhardt, M. A. (2013). Positive affectivity predicts successful
and unsuccessful adaptation to stress. Motivation and Emotion, 37(1), 185–193.
Harding, J. (2013). Qualitative data analysis from start to finish. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Publications.
Jepson, E., & Forrest, S. (2006). Individual contributory factors in teacher stress: The role of
achievement striving and occupational commitment. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 76(1), 183-197.
Johnson, R.B. and Christensen, L.B. (2015). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed approaches. (5
th
ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Kashefi, M. (2009). Job satisfaction and/or job stress the psychological consequences of working
in ‘high performance work organizations’. Current Sociology, 57(6), 809–828.
Kirkpatrick, J. D., & Kirkpatrick, W. (2016) Evaluation blunders and missteps to avoid. Training
and Development, November, 36-40.
Klassen, R. M. (2010). Teacher stress: The mediating role of collective efficacy beliefs. Journal
of Educational Research, 103(5), 342–350.
Klassen, R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction:
Teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress. Journal of Educational Psychology,
102(3), 741–756.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 125

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An overview. Theory Into
Practice, 41(4), 212–218.
Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2009). Chapter 4: Participants in a focus group. In Focus
groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.) (pp. 66-68). Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE Publications.
Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: Directions for future research. Educational Review, 53(1),
27–35. http://doi.org/10.1080/00131910120033628
Le Fevre, M., Kolt, G. S., & Matheny, J. (2006). Eustress, distress and their interpretation in
primary and secondary occupational stress management interventions: which way
first?. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(6), 547-565.
Leko, M. M., & Smith, S. W. (2010). Retaining beginning special educators: What
should administrators know and do? Intervention in School and Clinic, 45(5),
321-325.
Male, D. B. & May, D. (1997). Stress, burnout and workload in teachers of children with
special educational needs. British Journal of Special Education, 24(3), 133–140.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
McCarthy, C. J., Lambert, R. G., Crowe, E. W., & McCarthy, C. J. (2010). Coping, stress, and
job satisfaction as predictors of advanced placement statistics teachers’ intention to leave
the field. NASSP Bulletin, 94(4), 306–326.
McCormick, J., & Barnett, K. (2011). Teachers' attributions for stress and their relationships with
burnout. International Journal of Educational Management, 25(3), 278–293.
McLeod, S. A. (2014). Type A Personality. Retrieved from
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 126

www.simplypsychology.org/personality-a.html
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
MetLife. (2012). The MetLife survey of the American teacher: Challenges for school leadership.
Retreived from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED542202.pdf
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Chapter 11: Drawing and verifying
conclusions. In Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Morrison, E., & Milliken, F. (2000). Organizational silence: A barrier to change and
development in a pluralistic world. Academy of Management Review, 25(4), 706–725.
Mujtaba, T., & Reiss, M. (2013). Factors that lead to positive or negative stress in secondary
school teachers of mathematics and science. Oxford Review of Education, 39(5), 627–
648.
National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (2007). Policy Brief: The High Cost of
Teacher Turnover.
Pajares, F. (2006). Self-efficacy theory. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/self-efficacy-theory/.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE Publications.
Pekrun, R. (2011). Emotions as drivers of learning and cognitive development. In R. A.
Calvo & S. K. D’Mello (Eds.), New perspectives on affect and learning technologies (pp.
23–39). New York: Springer. doi 10.1007/978-1-4419-9625-1_3
Richards, J. (2012). Teacher stress and coping strategies: A national snapshot. The
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 127

Educational Forum, 76(3), 299–316.
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2012). Chapter 6: Conversational partnerships. In Qualitative
interviewing: The art of hearing data (3rd ed.) (pp. 85-92). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Publications.
Rueda, R. (2011). The 3 dimensions of improving student performance. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Saeki, E., Pendergast, L., Segool, N. K., & von der Embse, Nathaniel P. (2015). Potential
Salkind, N. J. (2014). Statistics for people who (think they) hate statistics (5th ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Contemporary School Psychology, 19(2), 89–97.
Schwarzer, R., & Hallum, S. (2008). Perceived teacher self-efficacy as a predictor of job stress
and burnout: Mediation analysis. Applied Psychology, 57, 152–171.
Shannon, G. S., & Bylsma, P. (2007). Nine characteristics of high-performing schools: A
research-based resource for schools and districts to assist with improving student
learning. Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction.
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2015). Job satisfaction, stress and coping strategies in the
teaching profession—What do teachers say? International Education Studies, 8(3), 181–
192.
Sneyers, E., Jacobs, K., & Struyf, E. (2016). Impact of an in-service training in neurocognitive
insights on teacher stress, teacher professionalism and teacher student relationships.
European Journal of Teacher Education, 1–14.
Stauffer, S. D., & Mason, E. C. M. (2013). Addressing Elementary School Teachers’
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 128

Professional Stressors Practical Suggestions for Schools and Administrators. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 49(5), 809–837:
Stevenson, A., & Harper, S. (2006). Workplace stress and the student learning experience.
Quality Assurance in Education, 14(2), 167–178.
Taylor, C., Harrison, J., Haimovitz, K., Oberle, E., Thomson, K., Schonert-Reichl, K., & Roeser,
R. W. (2016). Examining ways that a mindfulness-based intervention reduces stress in
public school teachers: A mixed-methods study. Mindfulness, 7(1), 115–129.
Tomkins, S. S. (1984). Affect theory. Approaches to emotion, 163, 195.
U.S. Department of Education. (2015, March). Teacher shortage areas: Nationwide listing 1990-
1991 through 2015-2016. Retrieved from
https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/pol/tsa.pdf
Topcic, M., Baum, M., & Kabst, R. (2016). Are high-performance work practices related to
individually perceived stress? A job demands-resources perspective. The International
Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(1), 45–66.
Wang, H., Hall, N. C., & Rahimi, S. (2015). Self-efficacy and causal attributions in teachers:
Effects on burnout, job satisfaction, illness, and quitting intentions. Teaching and
Teacher Education, 47, 120–130.
Watson, D., Clark, L.A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and Validation of Brief
Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.
Weiss, R. S. (1994). Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative interview
studies. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Yoon, J. S. (2002). Teacher characteristics as predictors of teacher-student relationships: Stress,
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 129

negative affect, and self-efficacy. Social Behavior and Personality: An International
Journal, 30(5), 485–493.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 130

APPENDIX A
Informed Consent/Information Sheet

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

What Teachers in a High-Performing High School Need to Effectively Manage Workplace
Stress: An Evaluation Study

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge, motivation,
and organizational resources necessary to enable Eagle High School’s (pseudonym) teaching
staff to demonstrate the competencies needed to manage workplace stress effectively. This study
aims to address the issue of teacher stress, which past research reveals can lead to maladaptive
behaviors, attrition, and poor performance outcomes. This study is unique in that it addresses
teacher stress at a high-performing school, which is an issue that has not been widely explored.
The findings in this study might also be beneficial and relevant for other similar organizations
with high-performing settings.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60 minutes semi-
structured one-on-one interview, and a 30 minutes one-on-one follow-up interview (if necessary).
All interviews will be audio-taped. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to
during the interviews. If you do not want to be taped during the interview, handwritten notes will
be taken. You will also be asked to respond to researcher-constructed documents in the form of
short journal prompts at three randomly selected dates during the course of this study. These
prompts will be sent to your work email at the end of workday on the randomly selected dates.
You do not have to answer any questions that you do not want to answer when you receive the
journal prompts, and your responses will be anonymous and confidential.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected
whether you participate or not in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 131

Jacqueline Ng will be the Principal Investigator of this study. Any identifiable information
obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your interview responses will be
coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. You will have the right to review
and edit the audio recordings or transcripts of the one-on-one interviews. All audio-tapes related
to this study will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. The transcripts will be stored on
a password protected computer, which only the Principal Investigator can access.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact the following individuals:

Principal Investigator
Jacqueline Ng
Email: jacquekn@usc.edu
Phone: (510) 684-5508

Faculty Advisor
Dr. Kathy Stowe
Email: kstowe@rossier.usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 132

APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this interview today! I appreciate your
willingness to join this study. The primary goal of today’s interview is to have you share your
experiences and perspectives of workplace stress. Your participation today is very important
because the goal of this study is to use the data that I collect to make recommendations regarding
how EHS can support its teachers in managing workplace stress. Your responses will contribute
greatly to this goal.
Before we begin, I want to remind you that I will record this interview so that I can
capture your responses accurately. I will delete the recording after it is transcribed. During the
transcription process, all personal identifiers will be removed to protect your identity. I will be
the only one with access to the recording and transcript, and I am happy to review my
transcriptions with you at our next meeting. If at any time during this interview, you no longer
want to participate, do not want to answer certain questions, or want to withdraw from the study,
please let me know. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I would like to start by asking you some background information.
I. Background Information
1. How long have you worked at EHS?
2. Did you have any other jobs prior to teaching here?
3. How would you describe EHS to others who do not know about the school?
4. How would you describe your experiences as an EHS teacher to someone who wants
to know more about working at this school?
a. What do you enjoy most about being a teacher at EHS?
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 133

b. What is most challenging about being a teacher at EHS?
c. What are some of the most common emotions that you experience in your role
as a teacher here?
Now, I would like to ask some questions about workplace stress and coping.
II. Experiences of workplace stress and coping
5. Based on your observations, what would you say are some of the most common
workplace stressors for teachers here?
a. Have you experienced any of these? If so, which ones?
a. How often do these stressors appear for you?
b. Which one is/ones are the most stressful to you and why?
c. Are there any workplace stressors that you think are unique to being a
teacher at a school like EHS?
6. How do you know when you are stressed at work?
7. Tell me about a time when work really stressed you out.
a. How did you feel at the time?
b. Did you experience any emotional changes at the time? If so, please describe.
c. Did you experience any physiological changes at the time? If so, please
describe.
d. How did this experience impact your work as a teacher, if at all?
e. How did this particular experience affect your interaction with your students or
staff, if at all?
f. How did you cope with this situation, if at all?
8. Walk me through how you currently manage workplace stress.
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 134

a. How do you feel about your ability to manage workplace stress?
b. What support system do you have to help you manage workplace stress?
c. Do you feel comfortable reaching out to someone at work for support in
dealing with workplace stress? If yes, please elaborate on how you go about
doing this and who you have reached out to in the past. If not, why not?
d. Do you feel comfortable reaching out to administrators for support in dealing
with workplace stress? If yes, please elaborate on how you go about doing this
and who you have reached out to in the past. If not, why not?
e. Is managing workplace stress a priority for you? If yes, what makes it priority?
If no, what prevents it from being a priority?
9. How do you think the job demands as a teacher at this school impact workplace stress,
if at all?
a. How do job demands affect teachers’ opportunities to engage in self-care, if at
all?
I would like to switch gears now and ask you about what is currently available at work to
help teachers manage stress, and also what you think teachers might need in order to
manage workplace stress effectively.
III. Current organizational status and perspectives on stress-related needs
10. What resources does EHS offer to help teachers manage workplace stress, if any?
a. Are there resources offered by the school district? If so, please describe.
b. If resources are available, have you used them? If yes, do you mind sharing
with me what that process was like?
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 135

11. If you had the power to change anything you wanted about working as a teacher
here, what might you want to change to make work less stressful for teachers?
12. What do you think EHS teachers need to be able to manage workplace stress
effectively?
a. What do they need to know?
b. What skills do they need?
c. What kind of training and resources do they need?
d. For teachers who have difficulty managing stress, what do you think will
empower them to feel more capable?
e. Are there any organizational policies or procedures that you would
recommend that might be useful in helping teachers manage workplace stress?
13. Is there anything else you would like to add that is related to workplace stress at
EHS?
TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 136

APPENDIX C
Researcher-Constructed Document Protocol

Dear Teacher:

Please think about your workday today and respond to the appropriate set of prompts below. In
order to capture what you experienced today accurately, please respond as soon as possible.
Your responses are anonymous and confidential. I will be only one who has access to your
responses.

If you experienced workplace stress today:
1) What was stressful about today?
2) How did you react/behave under the stress you experienced?
3) Is there anything the school could have done or provided to help you manage your
stress today?
If you did not experience workplace stress today:
1) How did you feel today?
2) Please give a brief description of what your day was like.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 137

APPENDIX D
Sample Excerpt from Codebook
Key:
Black = empirical codes
Red = a priori codes from conceptual framework
Blue = axial codes

KNOWLEDGE INFLUENCES Vickie Maria Linda Nate Ray Kim Scott Ed Alex
Have skills needed to manage stress X X X X X

Time management is important X X X X X

X

Set realistic goals/expectations X X X X

Clear about priorities X X X X X

Have classroom management X X X X X X

MOTIVATION INFLUENCES Vickie Maria Linda Nate Ray Kim Scott Ed Alex
Find stress management useful in
helping reach other goals (utility value)
X X X X X X X X X
Managing stress/work means more time
with family
X X X X X X X X X
Managing stress/work means more time
to do things I enjoy
X X X X X X X X X
Have/recognizes utility value, but not
put in practice

X X X X X
Have clear sense of occupational
identity/commitment X X X X X X X X X
Love being teacher/my job X X X X X X X X X
Occupational identity/commitment
deemed as top priority to meet high-
performance expectations

X X

X X X X
ORGANIZATIONAL INFLUENCES Vickie Maria Linda Nate Ray Kim Scott Ed Alex
Job demands as challenging yet
achievable X X X X X

X

Job demands prioritized over self-care

X X X X

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 138

APPENDIX E
Workplace Stress Management Introductory Workshop Evaluation
This survey assesses the effectiveness of the workplace stress management introductory
workshop you attended last week. Your responses will help us better understand the factors that
facilitated or hindered your learning. Your participation in this survey is critical in helping us
improve the quality of future workshops, and gain a better understanding of needs that the
workshop did not adequately address.
SD = Strongly Disagree; D = Disagree; A = Agree; SA = Strongly Agree

SD D A SA
Level 1: Engagement
1. The workshop facilitator held my attention.

2. I was encouraged to participate throughout the workshop.

Level 1: Relevance
3. What I learned was applicable to my work.

Level 1: Customer Satisfaction
4. I would recommend this workshop to others.

5. The workshop was a good use of my time.

Level 2: Knowledge
6. I am clear about how to recognize signs of workplace stress.

7. I am clear about how workplace stress can impact my work performance.

Level 2: Skills
8. I am clear about how to apply workplace stress management strategies on
the job.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 139

9. I am clear about how I can additional help related to workplace stress
after I get back to my job.

Level 2: Attitude
10. I believe it will be worthwhile for me to apply what I learned.

Level 2: Confidence
11. I feel more confident in my ability to apply workplace stress
management strategies on the job.

12. I feel more confident about my ability to seek help when I am stressed at
work.

Level 2: Commitment

13. I am committed to following through with the workplace stress
management plan that I created.

14. Please indicate how the workshop can be improved:

15. Please share any additional comments you may have:

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 140

APPENDIX F
Workplace Stress Management Program Evaluation
This survey assesses the effectiveness of the ongoing workplace stress management
program you are participating in, which includes the workplace stress management communities
of practice and peer model meetings. Your responses will help us better understand your
satisfaction level with the program, your level of learning, whether you have applied what you
learned on the job, and how successful the program is in helping you develop the competencies
necessary to effectively manage workplace stress. Please rate the two strands of the program
(the communities of practice and the peer modeling separately).
SD = Strongly Disagree; D = Disagree; A = Agree; SA = Strongly Agree

Communities of
Practice
Peer Modeling

SD D A SA SD D A SA
Level 1: Reaction
1. The program is useful to me.

2. Overall, I am happy with the program.

Level 2: Learning
3. I understand how to apply workplace stress
management strategies as a result of the program.

4. The program has helped me commit to completing
my workplace stress management plan/goals.

Level 3: Behavior
5. I have implemented at least one workplace stress
management strategy as a result of the program.

TEACHER STRESS IN HIGH-PERFORMING SCHOOL 141

6. I have shared my workplace stress experiences with
my colleagues as a result of the program.

7. I have shared successful workplace stress
management strategies with my colleagues as a result
of the program.

Level 4: Results
8. The program has helped me develop the
competencies necessary to effectively manage
workplace stress.

9. How can the communities of practice sessions be improved?

10. How can the peer model meetings be improved?

11. Please share any additional comments you may have:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract While teacher stress is a topic that has been widely explored, there is a lack of research that focuses on teacher stress at high-performing schools. This study used the Clark and Estes’ gap analysis framework to examine what knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources teachers at a high-performance high school need to effectively manage workplace stress. Analysis of evidence from one-on-one interviews and researcher constructed documents revealed that while teachers had declarative knowledge of workplace stress and coping, they lacked the procedural and metacognitive knowledge needed to apply what they know. Furthermore, lack of self-efficacy and attainment value impeded teachers’ ability to manage workplace stress, especially in the face of high-performing expectations and work demands within a high-performing culture and setting. Lastly, inadequate resources also served as barriers to effective workplace stress management. To address these knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs, a comprehensive workplace stress management program that includes training, communities of practice, and peer model partnerships was recommended.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

An evaluation of project based learning implementation in STEM

PDF

Implementation of strategies to address the fiscal impacts of declining enrollment on school resources: an evaluation study

PDF

Collaborative instructional practice for student achievement: an evaluation study

PDF

Assessing the meaning and value of traditional grading systems: teacher practices and perspectives

PDF

Calibrating the college preparation bridgeway for independent study program students at Amazing Independent High School District: a multisite evaluation study through the teachers' lens

PDF

An evaluation study of... What do teachers know about gifted students?

PDF

Leadership readiness: evaluating the effectiveness for developing managers as coaches

PDF

The use of differentiation in English medium instruction in Middle Eastern primary schools: a gap analysis

PDF

Spiritual persistence of high school alumni: an evaluation model

PDF

Teacher retention influences: an evaluation study

PDF

The knowledge, skills, motivation and organizational factors that teachers need to support African American boys in public preschool: an evaluation study

PDF

Manager leadership skills in the context of a new business strategy initiative: an evaluative study

PDF

Curriculum mapping initiative: an evaluation study

PDF

Nourish to flourish: strengthening social emotional wellness of teachers to mitigate stress, enrich engagement, and increase efficacy: an evaluation study

PDF

Affluent teens and school stress: an evaluation study

PDF

The knowledge, motivation, and organization influences affecting the frequency of empathetic teaching practice used in the classroom: an evaluation study

PDF

High attrition rate of preschool teachers in Hong Kong: an evaluation study

PDF

The role of international school teacher leaders in building leadership capacity within their teams

PDF

Improving Hispanic student performance in English language arts and math: a small California school case study

PDF

Impact of mindfulness on early education teacher well-being: an evaluation study

Asset Metadata

Creator Duncan, Jacqueline Ng (author)

Core Title What teachers in a high-performing high school need to effectively manage workplace stress: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 10/06/2017

Defense Date 10/05/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag high-performing school,OAI-PMH Harvest,stress management,teacher stress

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Robles, Darline (committee member)

Creator Email jacquekn@usc.edu,jacquelineng@berkeley.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-442934

Unique identifier UC11264083

Identifier etd-DuncanJacq-5821.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-442934 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-DuncanJacq-5821.pdf

Dmrecord 442934

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Duncan, Jacqueline Ng

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA