An investigation into the causes of accidents in private flying

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Content AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CAUSES OP ACCIDENTS IN PRIVATE FLYING A T hesis j P re se n ted to | the F a c u lty of the Departm ent of Trade and T r a n s p o r ta tio n i U n iv e r s ity of S o u th e rn C a li f o r n ia In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t of the Requirem ents f o r th e Degree M aster of B usin ess A d m in is tr a tio n fey S h i r l e y A. B locki June 1953 U M I Number: EP43348 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP43348 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 C.o«v m l3 A S i This thesis, written by ^ Shirley A. Blocki ............................................. ! . ^ r> I under the guidance of h$T.....Facuity Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on ^ ^ 0 Graduate Study and Research in partial fullfill- ment of the requirements for the degree of Jifeat.ar-..Q£..Pai§iineaa. A ^ .in istx a t ion.......... Date JuneJm1953 Committee a c\ . . f i t Chairmi TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER I . INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... The problem .......................................................... D e f in i t io n s of term s u sed .............................. I I . STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OP PRIVATE PLYING ACCIDENTS ...................................................................... I n j u r y Index . . . . ............................................. A i r c r a f t Damage ....................................................... P i l o t C e r t i f i c a t e . . . ........................................ Kind of P ly in g ................................................................. C o n d itio n of F l i g h t . . . . .............................. Prim ary Cause ....................................................... O p e ra tio n a l Phase . . . . . . . . . . . Type o f A c cid e n t ....................................................... C onclusions . . . . . . • I I I . PILOT ERROR IN CAUSING ACCIDENTS ..................... R eck less P ly in g . . ............................................. A c cid en t P r o n e n e s s .................................. . . . C onclusions . . . . . ..................................... . IV. OTHER FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO ACCIDENTS . . C o l li s io n s . . . . . ...................... . . . . A ttem pted N ight or In stru m e n t P l i g h t |_______________ by u n q u a l i f i e d P i l o t s ____. _ • __. l i i CHAPTER PAGE In te n d e d Normal O p eratio n . . . . . . 43 Emergency Landings • • • • • . . . . 44 I n - F l i g h t C o l l i s i o n w ith O ther A i r c r a f t • • . • ................................... 45 I n t o x i c a t i o n .................................................. 46 Crop B u s t i n g ......................................... 46 E x h ib i t io n . ............................................. 47 Ground C o l l i s i o n s ........................................ 47 A i r c r a f t Design .................................................. 50 S a f e ty B e lts and Shoulder H arnesses . . 58 C on clusio ns ................................................. 62 V. ACCIDENT EXAMPLES ..................................... . 66 Summary ...................................................................... 75 VI. CONCLUSIONS . . . . .. . . ............................... 78 Recommendations ............................................. 80 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................... . 85 APPENDIX........................................................................................................ p o LIST O F FIGURES FIGURE PAGE I . I n ju r y Index and A i r c r a f t Damage . . . . 6 I I . P i l o t C e r t i f i c a t e ........................................................ 9 I I I . C o nd itio n of F l i g h t .............................................. 11 IV. Prim ary Cause .............................................. 13 V. O p e ra tio n a l Phase .......................... 15 V. O p e ra tio n a l Phase ( C o n t . ) ................................‘ . 16 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The p ro b lem . Each tim e you p ic k up th e new spapers your eyes f i n d an a r t i c l e co n ce rn in g an a i r c r a s h . The new spapers p la y them up to th e utm ost w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t to th e l a i t y , f l y i n g i s v e ry d a n g ero u s. Most of th e sp e c t a c u l a r c ra s h e s have in v o lv e d a i r l i n e s or th e m i l i t a r y , j however, the sm all p r i v a t e a i r c r a f t do n o t escape th e news ! columns and t h e i r v i v i d d e s c r i p t i o n s . U s u a lly th e newsmen I o b t a i n t h e i r s t o r i e s from s o - c a l l e d w i tn e s s e s , who n e v er i a g r e e , or from f i r s t I n s p e c tio n by a i r l i n e , m i l i t a r y , or C. A. B. o f f i c i a l s . The f i r s t a c c o u n ts may be in a c c u r a te and re a so n s f o r th e c r a s h a re n o t a v a i l a b l e u n t i l a f t e r | a tho rough in v e s tig a tio n * ! As a r e s u l t , th e w r i t e r s have • i , o n ly th e a c t u a l c ra sh to r e p o r t upon and th e c ra sh e s le n d them selves to s p e c t a c u l a r w ords. By th e tim e the i n v e s t i g a to r s do f i n d out the c au se s of th e a c c i d e n t , th e s t o r y i s o ld i n th e p u b lic mind and th e r e a d e r s have l o s t i n t e r e s t . Most do n o t seem t o care to re a d lo n g r e p o r t s anyway, i j and so th e p a p ers make b r i e f note of the f i n d i n g s on some i \ ; obscure page or omit i t e n t i r e l y . And so the p u b lic goes i ] on to r e a d th e more s p e c t a c u l a r item s of o th e r c ra s h e s on I 1 th e f r o n t p a g e s. 2| P r iv a te f l y i n g i s th e type of f l y i n g t h a t would co n cern th e av erag e r e a d e r w ith th e view t h a t he may some day tak e up th e a r t of f l y i n g . The a i r l i n e s concern him to o , b u t he knows t h a t th e i n d u s t r y i s e v er a t work i n c r e a s i n g s a f e t y a t e v ery t u r n . He does n o t know a s much ab o u t p r i v a t e f l y i n g because i t i s n o t d e s c rib e d as o f t e n i n news a r t i c l e s . 111/hat i f a p e rso n wanted to l e a r n to f l y ? What would I i be th e chances f o r s a f e t y ? Are th o se l i t t l e clo u d -h o p p e rs r e a l l y s a f e to f l y ? The f a c t t h a t th e y a re r e l a t i v e l y sm all le a d s people to b e lie v e th e y cannot be s a f e , where a c t u a l l y i i ! t h e i r sm a lln e ss i s an a d v a n ta g e . | This s tu d y w i l l endeavor to show the main causes of J i a c c id e n ts in p r i v a t e f l y i n g , w ith th e re a so n s e x p la in e d , i n i an e f f o r t to show t h a t p r i v a t e a v i a t i o n on the whole i s n o t d a n g ero u s. With b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e causes of a c c i d e n ts , i t i s hoped t h a t r e a d e r s w i l l o b t a i n in fo rm a tio n l e a d in g to a more se c u re and s a fe f l y i n g l i f e . S u g g e stio n s to f u r t h e r improve a i r c r a f t and p i l o t i n g te c h n iq u e a re i n - | j i * e lu d e d f o r any b e n e f i t t h a t may be d e r iv e d . , I Most of the d a ta u se d i n the stu d y i s from m a t e r i a l 1 1 i ! c o l l e c t e d by the C. A. B. and the C. A. A ., a r t i c l e s w r i t - | I | ' te n by people q u a l i f i e d i n th e i n d u s t r y , and from the p ro - ! f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e of the w r i t e r who has been in the 1 3 f i e l d of a v i a t i o n f o r n in e y e a rs to d a te . I t w i l l be n o te d t h a t most of the in fo rm a tio n con c e rn s th e y e a rs 1948 and 1949, the re a s o n b e in g t h a t d a ta f o r th o se y e a rs i s now com plete, whereas f i g u r e s f o r l a t e r d a te s were n o t w holly a v a i l a b l e a t th e time of p re p a rin g the th e s is * The p e rio d i s modern enough to be a p p li c a b l e to p r e s e n t c irc u m sta n c e s and l i m i t e d enough n o t to p r e s e n t an in su rm o u n tab le task* DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED C* A* A. C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s A d m in is tr a tio n i s a u th o r iz e d to e s t a b l i s h , m a in ta in , and o p e ra te c i v i l a i r ways, t e s t a i r c r a f t , m a in ta in r e g i s t r a t i o n of airm en, i n s p e c t and c e r t i f y r e p a i r s t a t i o n s , a i r c r a f t f a c t o r i e s , and f l y i n g s c h o o ls . I t has th e added f u n c tio n s of p r e s c r i b i n g and e n fo r c in g of s a f e t y m e a su re s, and of su sp en d in g and r e voking of c e r t i f i c a t e s of v i o l a t o r s . C. A. B. C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s Board i s a s e p a r a te in d ep e n d en t agency w ith in the g o vern ing b o d ie s of a v i a t i o n . I t s s p e c i f i c f u n c tio n s are to i s s u e the C i v i l A ir R egula t io n s and to pass upon a p p l i c a t i o n s of a i r l i n e s f o r r o u t e s and r a t e s . I t i n v e s t i g a t e s a i r a c c id e n ts f o r e x i s t i n g v i o l a t i o n s of C i v i l A ir R e g u la tio n s . 4 I . F , R . i s the term u sed to d e s ig n a te in s tru m e n t f l i g h t r u l e s in b r i e f form . These r u l e s p erm it in s tru m e n t f l i g h t when v i s i b i l i t y i s below th r e e m ile s a n d /o r c e i l i n g i s below one thousand f e e t . V. F . R . i n d i c a t e s v i s u a l f l i g h t r u l e s which l i m i t v i s u a l f l i g h t to c o n d itio n s of c e i l i n g one thousand f e e t or more and v i s i b i l i t y t h r e e m ile s or more. P r i v a t e f l y i n g i s th e term a p p li e d to a l l non a i r - c a r r i e r o r n o n - m i l i t a r y f l i g h t . P r i v a t e l i c e n s e i s a l i m i t e d l i c e n s e e n a b lin g i t s owner to f l y and c a r r y p a sse n g e rs b u t n o t f o r h i r e . This may be o b ta in e d f o llo w in g th e co m p letio n o f a p p ro x im a te ly t h i r t y - f i v e to f o u r t y hours of f l y i n g tim e . i Commercial l i c e n s e i s th e l i c e n s e g ra n te d i t s h o ld e r to f l y and c a r r y p a s s e n g e rs f o r h i r e . I t may be o b ta in e d upon the com p letio n of a p p ro x im a te ly one hundred s i x t y to two hundred hours o f f l i g h t tim e . CHAPTER I I STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OP PRIVATE PLYING ACCIDENTS A c tu a l f a c t s and f i g u r e s form a good b a s i s on which to b e g in a s tu d y . For t h i s re a s o n th e w r i t e r h as com piled s e v e r a l com parative graphs so the r e a d e r may e a s i l y v i s u a l i z e any r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the f a c t o r s where th e y e x i s t . The in f o r m a tio n was o b ta in e d from " S t a t i s t i c a l D e t a i l s of Non-Air C a r r i e r A c c id e n ts by I n d i v id u a l S t a t e s , " c a le n d a r y e a rs 1948 to 1949, com piled by the C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s 11 jBoard. The w r i t e r chose tw elve s t a t e s , which seemed to be ! i r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of v a rio u s a r e a s of the U n ited S t a t e s , and A la sk a, f o r t h i s s p e c i f i c s tu d y . More would have been too ; I voluminous f o r th e scope of t h i s p a p e r .j The raw f i g u r e s | p r e s e n te d in the C. A. B. t a b u l a t i o n were tra n sfo rm e d i n t o p e rc e n ta g e s t o b e s t p r e s e n t comparable v a lu e s on a s i m i l a r l e v e l . In .jury In d e x . In 80 to 85 per c e n t of th e a c c id e n ts e i t h e r m inor or no damage to th e o ccu pants was s u s t a i n e d . I |T h is perhaps may s t a r t l e an i n d i v i d u a l n o t f a m i l i a r w ith t 1 sm a ll a i r c r a f t o p e r a t i o n s . The g e n e r a l o p in io n seems to i ; be t h a t a l l a c c id e n ts r e s u l t in some s e r i o u s i n j u r y or j i | d e a th . In fre q u e n c y of o c c u rre n c e , a c c id e n ts r e s u l t i n g in \ Lminor I n j u r y appear to predom in a t e , f o l l owed by th e l e s s ! M R CARRIER 1CCIDE n P A R I S I Q M Q F GRAPH C___C Q Kokbsst UUttl X ^ T o r Y S erious i> \or Aircimfft Tdtdl Nq or A rc iilc A i 3 1 8 I g - 7 1 SMI. 335 F i 6 U & E _ J : L f r e q u e n t f a t a l a c c id e n t, l e a s t f r e q u e n t , those in which s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s a re s u s ta i n e d . S ince only ab o u t 10 per c e n t of a l l the a c c id e n ts in the U nited S t a te s and Alaska r e s u l t e d in f a t a l i t i e s , i t a p p ea rs t h a t th e g r e a t m a j o r it y of n o n - a ir c a r r i e r a c c id e n ts in the over a l l p i c tu r e a re s u r v i v a b le , and w ith l i t t l e i n j u r y s u s t a i n e d . Alabama, C a l i f o r n i a , North Dakota, and W ashington had the h i g h e s t number of f a t a l i t i e s . In com parison to the n a t i o n a l a v e ra g e , a c c id e n ts o c c u r r in g in Alaska were 85 per c e n t (1948) and 91 .4 per c e n t (1949) minor a c c i d e n t s , which i n d i c a t e s a b e t t e r re c o r d than the n a t i o n a l av erage f o r b o th y e a r s . There seems to be no d i s t i n g u i s h i n g p a t t e r n of the o ccu rren c e of s e r io u s i n j u r y a c c id e n ts betw een the s t a t e s . A i r c r a f t Damage. In c o n t r a s t to the e x te n t of i n ju r y to o c c u p a n ts , a i r c r a f t s u s t a i n e d heavy damage. This p a r t i a l l y e x p la in s why the occu pants f a r e so w e l l . The a i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e a b so rb s shock. When an a i r c r a f t s t r i k e s the ground or an o b je c t i t u s u a l l y bo u n ces, h a l f f l i e s , and a g a in bounces b e fo re i t f i n a l l y comes to r e s t . This a c t i v i t y se rv e s to ab sorb shock more g r a d u a lly than i f m otion were stopped im m ediately as i n most autom obile a c c i d e n t s . The f a c t t h a t a i r c r a f t occupants wear s a f e t y b e l t s and. sometimes sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s e s f u r t h e r in c r e a s e s 8 t h e i r s a f e t y . A pproxim ately 70 per c e n t of the a i r c r a f t in v o lv ed i n a c c id e n ts r e c e iv e s u b s t a n t i a l damage. About 25 to 30 per c e n t a re d e s tr o y e d , and l e s s th an one p e r c e n t r e c e iv e l i t t l e or no damage. This l a s t f i g u r e may be m is le a d in g somewhat, because many of the a c c id e n ts in v o lv in g minor or no damage may no t have been r e p o r t e d . P i l o t C e r t i f i c a t e . Over f i f t y per c e n t of the a c c id e n ts a re committed by p i l o t s h o ld in g p r i v a t e l i c e n s e s . There a r e , of c o u rs e , more p r i v a t e l i c e n s e s in c i r c u l a t i o n than comm ercial l i c e n s e s which would a f f e c t t h a t f i g u r e . I t may be s u r p r i s i n g to n o te , a t f i r s t , t h a t commercial l i c e n s e h o ld e rs show a g r e a t e r fre q u e n c y of a c c id e n ts th an s tu d e n t p i l o t s . I t must be remembered t h a t s tu d e n t p i l o t s a re under r a t h e r c lo s e s u p e r v is io n and do n o t have the wide number of o p p o r t u n i t i e s to commit e r r o r s t h a t the commercial p i l o t do es. Commercial p i l o t s caused more of th e a c c id e n ts in Alaska th an d id the p r i v a t e p i l o t s . A g r e a t d e a l of the f l y i n g done in Alaska Is of a comm ercial n a tu r e and would p r e s e n t o p p o rtu n ity f o r t h i s f i g u r e to ru n h ig h e r th an f o r the s t a t e s . l e a t h e r c o n d itio n s a re f r e q u e n t l y hazardous in Alaska which may s u b s t a n t i a t e the h ig h e r f i g u r e . Alabama fs p r i v a t e p i l o t s e r r e d more p e rc en ta g ew ise P i I o _Cert r f » S t u d e n t G R A P H IC COMPARISON O f MOM LLA z o 4 1 1 1 .7 ALL U to J U ' A& z \ 9.0 A r»-tLp>va #53 d a Csk j t a 3.1 Ca 14.7 A1 0.3 F lor«il 4fi. 21.0 4 a ii.r AIR CARRIER ACCIDENTS X1 L n s JbL 118 K sJkkt 1 7 uckv 45. s r n a 230 12L 4 a 1+5 Ur U L 4 4 la i d L ± a 1 0 .4 1 9 4 8 - 1 3 4 3 , " NDo-boto- &£. _W»ulk 4 8 4 a 48 4 a 4 4 4 a Alnjrfeo, 4 4 4 a 20.7 H.0 i3 .r n . r n . t i i .i 12.0 0 4 +1+ ELUM Lfll. i*Vtprcn U C 17.0 1 1 A ir TikvvsPort 4 L 7 7 • ° ^L\J_ - i ? . L £ 21 151+ 2+ H I 13 1*3 37 1 1.+ o ./ .0 O 30 1 9 .0 214 .3 L 8 2 .5 * O 10. S 1+ H i IVI 1 1 .4 .9 i l l M 14.1 vrj- 12.1 39 20 n r 5*0 00.4 I.Z . S' .S 1 .3 .7 i - < 5 o I © C ow ^crcia. 1 Nfli%-Covrwvfercia.l • 3.1 n / 0.0 5.9 IfcX 13 0.5 9 .7 147 I t 4.3 83 24.0 3 .1 ns 4-4 27.7 03 *13 t-3 17.0 t s 13 217 1 9 .7 (.9 11.4 3.7 10.0 1.1 18.7 •18 r.l H.0 13 8.9 7.6 II.+ 1.9 o.r *i.i i f 8.4 •3.0 74.0 Cf*Pr<-{*«0 V * v P«r*tnt df F 16U R E H 10 th an p r i v a t e p i l o t s of the o th e r sample s t a t e s . The f i g u r e runs f i v e to te n per c e n t above the n a t i o n a l a v e r ag e. The a u t h o r fs c o n clu d in g rem arks m ight i n d ic a t e why. Frequency of a c c id e n ts e v id e n tl y occur in t h i s o rd e r; p r i v a t e , com m ercial, s t u d e n t , and a i r l i n e t r a n s p o r t r a t i n g . Kind of F l y i n g . Non-commercial or m erely p le a s u r e f l y i n g took the l i m e l i g h t w ith betw een s i x t y and se v e n ty per c e n t of the a c c id e n ts f a l l i n g in t h i s c a te g o r y . A laska shows more comm ercial f l y i n g a c c id e n t th an any of the sample s t a t e s , which t i e s i n w ith the f i n d in g s of th e p re v io u s s e c t i o n of ty p es of c e r t i f i c a t e s h e ld per a c c i d e n t . However, non-com m ercial a c c id e n ts r a t e h ig h e r in Alaska in o v e r a l l p e rc e n ta g e , as in the sample s t a t e s . C o n d itio n of F l i g h t . Almost a l l of the a c c id e n ts o c c u rre d in d a y li g h t v i s u a l o p e r a tio n s . N ight and i n s t r u ment c o n d itio n s accoun t f o r very l i t t l e of th e a c c i d e n t s , which shows the w eather i s n o t the g r e a t e s t f a c t o r , though some of the a c c id e n ts may have been the r e s u l t of in te n d e d v i s u a l o p e r a tio n s t h a t i n s t e a d tu rn e d ou t to be w eather a c c i d e n t s . On the w hole, the w eath er was n o t a f a c t o r in more than f i v e to te n per c e n t of a l l i n c i d e n t s . A v ia tio n a u t h o r i t i e s have lon g re c o g n iz e d the need f o r more i n t e n s iv e w eather t r a i n i n g in the s tu d e n t p i l o t s * c u rric u lu m . GRAPHIC. C D M M 5 0 N - -OE JlQfiL JU E CARRltR. ACCIDENI1 1 9+ 8 1949* C c h d i T i B t i Q f rii*k t.. r-Uul |A U n b fc H > fc IAnxilfc C fcllf. C ftlo. FlarJ*. Illlfaa.j 4-R I4 9 14-ft 14*) l'4ft l'4^ I'4ft I'4-< 5 1'4-A 1+9 + 8 1 + 9 +8 1+9 . 1 KtvAucM Ha.p« [Mm.Y»rl>lMiWt»faj TeTL«.J |W a .ttl. IA *4A l4»9 * 4 . 8 ‘ 4 . 0 k ' 4 . ft l ' 4- Q 'tA l+ Q '4A '4 9 4A 4 A T * 9 r 4 f t I + 9 1+8 + 5 J* r a 3 r 7 t r t r * v ir » 1 / tr f r 3 1 i 1 7 r 4 1 jr i» f r 1* 11 f f T f m r m T T T m m T T m T i 17 T 1 E ^ f r tlic i iv * . Of t*tU « FIG U R E H L 12 Most of the f l y i n g was of a l o c a l n a tu re and n o t c ro s s c o u n tr y . C ross c o u n try i s c o n sid e re d to be a f l i g h t i n ex cess of tw e n ty - f iv e m il e s , so the a c c id e n ts o c cu rred c lo s e to t a k e - o f f a r e a , though i t i s alm o st a f i f t y - f i f t y p ro p o s itio n * Alaska shows a marked d i f f e r e n c e in t h a t most of the a c c id e n ts o c c u rre d w h ile on a t r i p in ex cess of tw e n ty - f iv e m ile s . Prim ary C au se. P i l o t e r r o r s t a r e s from the page as th e most p r e v a l e n t cause o f a l l a c c i d e n t s . The n e x t l a r g e s t f a c t o r s a re engine f a i l u r e and w eath er f a c t o r . A ir p o r t t e r r a i n a c c o u n ts f o r a few of the m ish ap s. P i l o t e r r o r i s more th o ro u g h ly d is c u s s e d in a sub seq u en t c h a p te r because of i t s predominance in c a u sin g a c c i d e n t s . Alaska i s a g a in unique where p i l o t e r r o r i s l e s s in per c e n t than any of the sample s t a t e s . Other f a c t o r s e n te r i n more f r e q u e n t l y , n o ta b ly p o w e rp la n t f a i l u r e and a i r p o r t t e r r a i n . F lo r id a a ls o shows a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e of p o w erp lan t f a i l u r e s . Perhaps atm o sp h eric c o n d itio n s e n t e r i n to b o th c a s e s ; the extrem e c o ld in Alaska as con t r a s t e d w ith the h ig h h u m id ity and s a l t a i r in F l o r i d a . * . r Alabama p i l o t s showed th e w o rst r e c o r d th an any s t a t e s t u d ie d f o r b o th y e a r s , s u r p a s s in g even the n a t i o n a l a v e ra g e . In most of the p re v io u s graphs the s t a t e of Alabama has made the p o o re s t show ing. W eather was a l a r g e r GRAPHIC CEHJEARISQH-C L.-MQ.1I AIR • m .9 B A C C IDENT.) 8 t M i t l s i a S L S a S Eri>t>a.r^ Comx* O ther r c x a v w l U L iliJ f tC J Ci i if if c itf ti f• A u j t m J i ££££UfcQCJS R«U_~tgA ^ a u t^ W h t W c f l - t b c r AirPoirt Tgrra.lVv- 1 &ik Frufc4 ih P erc«*Jt o f , T»'K V 14 f a c t o r f o r Colorado than most s t a t e s because of r a p i d changes of a i r te m p e ra tu re s and c u r r e n t s , as w e ll as h a z a rd s i n h e r e n t in m ountain f l y i n g a t h ig h a l t i t u d e s . A r iz o n a fs d e s e r t h ig h winds and low te m p e ra tu re s in N orth Dakota p r e s e n te d w eather d i f f i c u l t i e s . A ir p o r t t e r r a i n seemed to b o th Alaska most w ith the s in g le e x c e p tio n of 1948 in Maine when i t a p p ea rs t h a t p i l o t s were la n d in g around the a i r p o r t i n s t e a d of on i t . O p e ra tio n a l P h a s e . Most a c c id e n ts o c c u rre d in what o th e rw ise would, have been ’’norm al f l i g h t . ” Runner-up was ’’la n d in g r o l l . ” T ax iin g d id n o t a c c o u n t f o r many of the r e p o r t a b l e a c c i d e n t s . Of th ose o c c u rrin g d u rin g t a k e - o f f most happened in the clim b im m ediately a f t e r the a c t u a l t a k e - o f f . T his may have Deen the r e s u l t of im proper ground p r e p a r a tio n of the engine or of the p i l o t t r y i n g to clim b too s t e e p l y and s t a l l i n g th e e n g in e . Many of the a c c id e n ts t h a t o ccur a f t e r t a k e - o f f because of engine f a i l u r e r e s u l t i n p i l o t s a tte m p tin g to r e t u r n to the t a k e - o f f a re a w ith o u t s u f f i c i e n t room or a l t i t u d e in which to perform t h i s o p e r a t io n . Though r e c k l e s s f l y i n g a c c id e n ts were n o t t a b u l a t e d i n 1948, the f i g u r e s of 1949 show t h a t Alabama r a t e d h ig h e s t in t h i s c a t e g o r y - - n o t a very good i n d i c a t i o n a lo n g w ith o th e r f i n d i n g s . T o .lt tlM c la JE A M . I I U n r & Ek*. T n b , O— Lo.'fcA.^ Ta ilf III < JU*. L i m b , n ♦.4 »>7 « .ft a i GRAPHIC COnPARIKnM OF M O M A IR CflRRIFR 1 . 1 1ft *4 19 1.7 A LI* * & r i a 11 1 .1 11 19 (.% 9.6 c t ■vr 6» 48 t l IT 9.7 •4-9 n u 4.« 4.6 U.t 9fc £ * 1 ul 2 . 1 1T 99 l( .1 14 * r 9 .1 f * 4.1 it lU ±2 4.9 1.6 U f . lt.f I.T fU riiii 48 IS r.i r.i ifti I t l 1.9 i t .6 r . L 199 1.6 14 T9 4.4 19 1.4- 49 t.i r.t 46 144 1.1 J£l* IS. 535 n i .i nur 91 L ||£ la 4.1 •T 6* 1 4 * 6 IC C ID fK Itt Ha M 1.6 (•r 1 7 .1 5E 49 4.» 11 9.6 4-9 3 4 8 I 3 4 9 1 1am M & 4.7 6.4 9.1 w * .t it 4.4 4. 196 *-4 M ».» 6.6 1 9 .7 11 14 17 1 1 11.4 f.9 M 1 1 r.6 4.1 11-7 1 .9 93 t .t H 1.7 1 5 5a 16 .T 43 44 (.1 17 1.1 HI tr 74 91 t i 4.9 146 hr 6.X M i T.X E i .,w t 1 1 4 11.9 ir 19 u r u i 114 IT Z6| 14.9 1*4 U i 19 .9 149 14.9 11 11.9 19.9 lft«r 1 6 11.4 14T 1# 11 1*1 •X I J& £££ 3.1 9.7 1 .9 1.1 1.4 7 .1 16 1 .6 6-6 L 6 14 1.7 1 . 1 . 1 14 t r 1.9 •9 - 1.4 h r n 6.3 1 1 .6 IT .6 .9 .4 1 6 9.6 i«r 63 4.3 . 1 i.f c M 1 . 1 V I TTS3 T P " lT*EM ltE9 ilt 194ft. 1.7 FIGURE 3 C k fiftP W L COMPARISON QFf NQhLAlfLCAfiBlER ACCIDENTS c * u fcl& JE s APProath Le»<l Off 6_c| Around EyfrutU ih i’frccikt O F FIGURE 3ZI CONTINUED 17 A laska shows q u ite a few a c c id e n ts in th e t a k e - o f f c lim b . T his may be because of in a d e q u a te or im proper ground p r e p a r a t i o n , which, co upled w ith the engine and w e ath er f a c t o r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t low te m p e ra tu re s must be g iv en p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n by p i l o t s . Prom the f i g u r e s i t a p p e a rs t h a t p i l o t s become l e s s a d e p t w ith t h e i r a i r p l a n e s th e m inute th ey to u c h th e ground. A irp la n e s a re a b o u t the m ost unmanageable v e h ic le a t t h i s tim e, p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se w ith c o n v e n tio n a l la n d in g g e a r . P i l o t s have a tendency to r e l a x t h e i r v i g i l a f t e r the la n d in g and become p rey to the id io c y n c r a c i e s of a i r c r a f t . This i n d i c a t e s a need f o r g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n i n t h i s a re a of t r a i n i n g to o f f s e t d e f i c i e n c i e s in d e s ig n and s t r u c t u r e of th e c r a f t . I t would be wise to s t r e s s t h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y |i n windy r e g i o n s . I i < Type of A c c id e n t. A lthough t h i s c a te g o ry i s n o t i n c lu d e d in the p r e s e n t a t i o n of g ra p h s; s t a l l s , n o s e - o v e r s , and h a rd la n d in g s occur i n sequence m ost f r e q u e n t l y . A pproxim ately f i f t e e n per c e n t a re the r e s u l t of s t a l l s , . f i f t e e n p er c e n t the r e s u l t of n o s e - o v e r s , and tw elve p er c e n t the r e s u l t o f h a rd l a n d i n g s . The rem a in in g a c c id e n ts i a re sp re a d over numerous o th e r ty p e s . I t a p p ea rs t h a t more ; i p i l o t s o v e rsh o o t an a i r p o r t th a n u n d e rsh o o t one by abo u t | two p er c en t ._ Groundloops a cc o u n t f o r abou t f i v e _ p e r c e n t j 18 of th e e r r o r s in la n d in g o p e ra tio n s * P i l o t s seem to c o l l i d e w ith the ground, w ires and p o le s , t r e e s , fe n c e s and p o s ts w ith e q u a l i n t e n s i t y , due to l a c k of c o n tr o l or ad equ ate p r e - f l i g h t b r i e f i n g where th e s e o b s ta c le s e x i s t . C o n c lu s io n s . A i r c r a f t a re s a f e r th an most l a y people t h i n k . In th e a c c id e n ts t h a t d id occur only a sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e of the occup ants were h u r t i n more th a n a minor way. The a i r c r a f t them selves s u f f e r th e i n j u r i e s i n s t e a d of t r a n s m i t t i n g them to th e o c c u p a n ts . The r e c o r d would be even b e t t e r i f more p i l o t s and p a s s e n g e rs wore s h o u ld e r h a r n e s s e s • P r i v a te p i l o t s caused most of th e a c c i d e n t s , and i |com m ercial p i l o t s caused more a c c id e n ts th a n s tu d e n t p i l o t s . A la s k a fs commercial p i l o t s c r e a t e d th e g r e a t e s t number of e r r o r s f o r t h i s a r e a , p ro b a b ly b ecause most of th e o p e r a tio n s t h e r e a re of a comm ercial n a t u r e , a lth o u g h th e r e was a g r e a t e r p e rc e n ta g e of non-com m ercial a c c i d e n t s . P i l o t s do n o t lo g g r e a t d i s t a n c e s to g e t i n t o t r o u b l e . They do i t c lo s e to home on good days e i t h e r by i s t a l l i n g , n o sin g o v e r, or la n d in g too h a r d . The p i l o t i I | h im s e lf g e ts most of th e blam e, a lth o u g h some a c c id e n ts l i s t e d as p i l o t e r r o r s would more p r o p e r ly be c l a s s i f i e d under m a n u f a c t u r e r s 1 e r r o r s . A c cid e n ts caused by the p i l o t s p u l l i n g the wrong knob c ould be le s s e n e d by the 19 m a n u fa c tu re r, in f a b r i c a t i n g v a ry in g c o lo r s and t e x t u r e s where needed; and s a f e r ground m a n e u v e r a b ility could be a s s u re d throu gh b e t t e r d e sig n and e n g in e e r in g . A r e d u c tio n i n p i l o t e r r o r a c c id e n ts may perhaps r e s u l t from p e rio d ic b u t i n t e n s i v e r e - e h e c k s on te c h n iq u e s employed by p r i v a t e l i c e n s e d p i l o t s . Of a l l of the sample s t a t e s Alabama p r i v a t e p i l o t s showed th e p o o r e s t r e c o r d . They were th e g r e a t e s t cause of a c c id e n ts i n com parison w ith o th e r sample s t a t e s , and a h e a v ie r preponderance of r e c k l e s s f l y i n g a c c id e n ts o ccu rred t h e r e . This may be due to poor p i l o t i n s t r u c t i o n , in a d e quate c o n tr o l of g ra d u a te p i l o t s by law en fo rcem en t a g e n c ie s in l o c a l a re a s , or b o th . i I When one c o n s id e r s th e e x te n t of m ech an ical f a c t o r s in h e r e n t in f l i g h t o p e r a tio n , as w e ll as p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r p i l o t e r r o r , i t i s f o r t u n a t e t h a t th e f o llo w in g p e rc e n ta g e of m ile s p e r a c c id e n t i s n o t c o rre s p o n d in g ly le s s e n e d : in 1948, 187,202 m ile s p e r a c c i d e n t - - i n 1949, 206,813.-*- A laska showed the g r e a t e s t d e v ia ti o n s from n a t i o n a l and s t a t e f i g u r e s in a l l d e p a rtm e n ts. T his i s u n d e rs ta n d a b le i n view of th e com prehensive d i f f e r e n c e s i n the type 1 C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s A d m in is tr a tio n , S t a t i s t i c a l I Handbook of C i v i l A v ia tio n (U. S . , A. P. 0 . , W ashington, |D . C ., 1 950), p. 105. of t e r r a i n , w e a th e r, equipm ent, p u rposes and c o n d itio n s f l y i n g done th e re in com parison w ith t h e S t a t e s . 1 I j CHAPTER I I I PILOT ERROR IK CAUSING ACCIDENTS Of the 850 f a t a l non a i r c a r r i e r a c c id e n ts i n 1948 n i n e t y p er c e n t were th e r e s u l t of p i l o t e r r o r . ^ W ithin t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , se v en ty p e r c e n t of them f a l l i n t o th r e e c a t e g o r i e s , namely: o p e ra tin g r e c k l e s s l y , f a i l u r e to m a in ta in f l y i n g sp e ed , and c o n tin u e d V. P. R. f l i g h t i n in s tru m e n t w e a th e r. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to n o te t h a t s t a l l s were in v o lv e d in s i x t y p er c e n t of th e above, and i n h a l f of a l l p i l o t e r r o r a c c i d e n t s . ^ I t i s d e p lo r a b le , b u t t r u e , t h a t r e c k l e s s f l y i n g f a r exceeds any o th e r f a c t o r in f a t a l non a i r c a r r i e r a c c i d e n t s . The developm ent of a v i a t i o n i t s e l f i s h in d e re d by ] th e s e f o o l - h a r d y a c t s . Under th e h ead in g " f a i l u r e to m a in ta in f l y i n g speed," f i f t e e n p e r c e n t of p i l o t s so c i t e d were l i c e n s e d f o r com m e r c ia l o p e r a t io n . Most a c c id e n ts of t h i s type o c c u rre d d u rin g th e clim b f o llo w in g t a k e - o f f ; how ever, alm ost as g r e a t a p e rc e n ta g e o c c u rre d d u rin g norm al f l i g h t . The i ^ Edward B. H eyl, "The Human E q u a tio n in A i r c r a f t : A c c id e n ts ," C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s B o ard , Bureau of S a f e ty ; I n v e s t i g a t i o n , p . 1, January 1, 1950. 2 Loc. C i t . 22 la n d in g approach i s p la c e d t h i r d in o rd e r of o c c u rre n c e . These th r e e groups com prise over se v e n ty per c e n t of th e a c c id e n ts in c a s e s where the p i l o t f a i l e d to m a in ta in f l y i n g sp e e d . Of a t o t a l of 141 a c c i d e n t s , th e r e were s ix engine f a i l u r e s on t a k e - o f f , seven in normal f l i g h t , and one on the la n d in g ap p ro a ch , which i n d i c a t e s r a t h e r d e f i n i t e l y t h a t f a c t o r s o th e r than m ech an ical f a i l u r e i s the m ajor cause of t h i s type of a c c i d e n t . W ithin the scope of c r o p - d u s tin g a c c i d e n t s , numbering e i g h t , a l l p i l o t s s t a l l e d o u t of t u r n s , which would i n d i c a t e a l o s s of r e c o g n i t i o n of one of the b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s of f l i g h t — t h a t i the s t a l l i n g speed of an a i r c r a f t in c r e a s e s in a t u r n . W ith the heavy lo ad s c a r r i e d f o r t h i s o c c u p a tio n a l f l y i n g , jg r e a te r s t r e s s sh ould be p lac ed on th e se p r i n c i p l e s d u rin g i f l i g h t th e o ry p r e s e n t a t i o n . I t i s d is c o u ra g in g to n ote from the r e p o r t , t h a t of the 115 a c c id e n ts r e s u l t i n g from c o n tin u in g f l i g h t i n t o in s tru m e n t c o n d it i o n s , only seven had f i l e d f l i g h t p l a n s . i The f a t a l i t y . r a t i o could p ro b ab ly have been red u c ed i f th e I p i l o t s had ta k e n the few m inutes i t ta k e s to f i l e a f l i g h t | i p l a n . A few m inu tes i s w orth a l i f e . i The rem ain in g c a t e g o r i e s of p i l o t e r r o r a c c id e n ts * a cc o u n te d f o r only tw e n ty - fiv e p er c e n t of th e a c c i d e n t s , tThe l a r g e s t group of th e s e i s l i s t e d as ’’f a i l u r e to observe j 23 o th e r a i r c r a f t or o b j e c t s . ” C ro p -d u stin g h e lp e d sw e ll th e s e r a n k s . R eck less f l y i n g . A ccid en ts o c c u r rin g due to r e c k l e s s f l y i n g a re u s u a l l y th e r e s u l t of p i l o t s ig n o rin g t h i s i n ju n c tio n : !,d o n , t show o f f , pay a t t e n t i o n , and keep out of bad w e a t h e r . I n e x p e r i e n c e d as w e ll as e x p e rie n c e d p i l o t s g e t i n t o the b u z zin g a c t , p ro b ab ly because of o v e r - c o n f i dence i n t h e i r a b i l i t y . P s y c h o lo g is ts i n f e r t h a t t h i s group would as l i k e l y be as r a s h in h o t ro d s or o th e r con tr iv a n c e s as w e ll as In f l i g h t . E x h i b i t i o n i s t s end t h e i r c a r e e r s by p erform ing a t to o -lo w a l t i t u d e s . P l i g h t i n s t r u c t o r s can im press upon t h e i r s tu d e n ts the s t u p i d i t y of b u z zin g , s t r i n g e n t law enforcem ent in some s t a t e s can h e lp , th e C. A. A. can p e n a liz e v i o l a t o r s , and o p e ra to r s can r e f u s e to i n s t r u c t or r e n t p lan e s to i such f o o l s • i I n a t t e n t i o n cau ses c o l l i s i o n s w ith o b je c ts and o th e r a i r c r a f t . Most c o l l i s i o n s occur In th e t r a f f i c p a t t e r n a t the a i r p o r t . 4 In c re a s e d v i s i b i l i t y In a i r c r a f t i I « ® H arlan d W ilson, ”Those N eedless A c c i d e n t s ,” | F l y i n g j p. 26, J u ly , 1949. j 4 I b i d . , p . 27. 24 would c e r t a i n l y reduce th e number of m id - a ir c o l l i s i o n s , b u t g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n d i r e c t e d to the su rro u n d in g s would do much more. I f h i s a i r c r a f t h as a b l i n d - s p o t , the p i l o t sho uld be c o n s t a n t l y aware of i t and be doubly w a tc h fu l. The C. A. B. found t h a t the a c c id e n t t h a t occurs when p i l o t s f l y i n t o bad w eather i s abou t te n tim es worse than o th e r ty p es of a c c i d e n t s .^ In most c ases the p i l o t had no i n t e n t i o n of f l y i n g i n t o bad w e a th e r. He J u s t d id n o t re c o g n iz e a bad s i t u a t i o n b e fo re i t was too l a t e , i n d i c a t i n g poor judgem ent. In P ennsy lvan ia the buzz boys have m a t e r i a l l y de c re a s e d in number due to the e f f o r t s of th e s t a t e p o l i c e . ^ A rem arkable r e d u c tio n in b u zzin g a c c id e n ts took place a f t e r the a u t h o r i t i e s e x e r c is e d g r e a t e r v i g i l a n c e . P l a i n c lo t h e s men i n v e s t i g a t e co m p lain ts on low and r e c k l e s s f l y i n g and apprehend the c u l p r i t s . Charges may be f i l e d and recommendations made to th e C. A. A. t h a t l ic e n s e s be suspended or rev o k ed . A c cid e n ts in v o lv in g p r o p e r ty damage in excess of i flOO or l o s s of l i f e were h a n d led by s p e c i a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s , t h e i r r e p o r t s b e in g a v a i l a b l e to C. A. A. and C. A. B. In 5 I b i d , , p. 74. 6 W illiam W inter, "Pennsylvan ia T ackles th e P ly in g J Hoodlum," F l y i n g , p. 14, March, 1948. 25 a d d i t i o n to s l e u t h i n g , the f o r c e g iv e s t a l k s to c l a s s e s in an e f f o r t to o b v ia te r e c k l e s s te n d e n c ie s in some s t u d e n t s . A n u c le u s of f i v e key men was g iv e n an i n t e n s i v e c o u rse in r e l a t e d a e r o n a u t i c a l s u b j e c t s w ith the c o o p e r a tio n of C. A. B. and C. A. A. l e g a l , s u p e r v i s o r i a l and o th e r a u t h o r i t i e s . These men, in tu r n , i n d o c t r i n a t e d o t h e r s . R e p o rts a re of two ty p e s , those whose c o m p la in ts stemmed from a v i o l a t i o n , and th o se o r i g i n a t i n g i n a c r a s h . The r e p o r t i n g o f f i c e r c o v ers s i x p o i n t s : sy n o p sis of v io l a t i o n , l o c a t i o n of v i o l a t i o n , s ta te m e n t of p i l o t , s t a t e ment o f d i s i n t e r e s t e d w i tn e s s e s , o p in io n of i n v e s t i g a t i n g o f f i c e r , and p r o s e c u t i o n . Sources of c o m p la in ts a re n o te w o rth y . T roopers o f f d u ty and o p e ra to r s of a i r p o r t s who have r e c o u r s e , now t h a t th e s t a t e has a u t h o r i t y to check v i o l a t o r s , a re p a r t i c u l a r - i l y good r e p o r t e r s . Most buzz p i l o t s accum ulate tw e n ty -f iv e to t h i r t y h ours of f l y i n g time and then go out to do some low and r e c k l e s s f l y i n g . 1 ^ Most of them do n o t r e a l i z e u n t i l to o j . l a t e t h a t th e y a re en d an g e rin g t h e i r a i r c r a f t , and have t o o ‘ ! : j l i t t l e e x p e rie n c e to g e t out of the r e s u l t a n t d i f f i c u l t i e s . | j i | More e x p e rie n c e and b e t t e r judgment would have k e p t them i i I 7 P* 6 4 - 1 26 out of a dangerous s i t u a t i o n i n the f i r s t p la c e . P e n n sy l v an ia is s u e s w arnings to th o se who a re n o t f l a g r a n t v io l a t o r s , h u t r e p e a t e d v i o l a t i o n s are s e v e r e l y p r o s e c u te d . F a t a l a c c id e n ts a re i n v e s t i g a t e d c a r e f u l l y , each r e g i o n a l in s p e c t o r b e in g equipped w ith a camera and tape m easure. He g iv e s a com plete r e p o r t of th e a c c id e n t and any i n j u r i e s . The s t a t e i s a u th o r iz e d to le v y a f i n e and recommend su sp e n sio n or r e v o c a tio n of th e p i l o t * s c e r t i f i c a t e . The p i l o t can rem ain t h e r e and c o n tin u e f l y i n g or go to a n o th e r s t a t e . B ut, w ith th e a u t h o r i t y the s t a t e h a s , i t has done i i a g r e a t d e a l to c o r r a l the fIf la t - h a t t i n g ” p i l o t s . A c cid e n t p r o n e n e s s . Sjbudy has been made by the Hew York U n i v e r s i ty C enter of S a f e ty E d u c a tio n on th e ty pe of p e rso n h a v in g a c c i d e n t s . The C. A, A . fs M edical S e rv ic e B u l l e t i n b ro u g h t f o r t h the r e p o r t on th e re c o rd s of person s hav in g a c c i d e n t s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t c e r t a i n people a re c o n s id e re d to be r,a c c id e n t p r o n e . n The r e p o r t was o b ta in e d from a stu d y made by the Hew York U n iv e r s ity C enter of S a f e ty E d u ca tio n in d r i v e r c l i n i c s in th e s t a t e s i of C o n n e c tic u t and M ichigan d u rin g 1948. The r e s u l t s can I I 1 be a p p lie d to f l i e r s a s w e ll as to d r i v e r s . j 27 Among the most s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d in g s a r e : 8 1. R e p ea te rs te n d t o he l e s s w e ll-in fo rm e d w ith r e g a r d to sa fe p r a c t i c e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , 2 . R e p ea te rs ten d to have more p e r s o n a l i t y m alad ju stm e n ts than the a c c i d e n t - f r e e . More s e r io u s r e p e a t e r s ten d to have g r e a t e r m a la d ju stm e n ts. 3 . R e p e a te rs te n d to have po o rer motor c o n tr o l under normal and under f r u s t r a t i n g c o n d it i o n s . They a re n o t a s w e ll b a la n c e d e m o tio n a lly . . 4. A t t it u d e s toward c e r t a i n a s p e c ts of d r iv in g were s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o orer among the r e p e a t e r s . 5 . The r e p e a t e r s show a p re fe re n c e f o r h ig h e r speeds b o th a t n i g h t and d u rin g the day. 6. R e p e a te rs were shown to e rr o n e o u s ly judge t h e i r a b i l i t y to consume i n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u i d s w ith o u t i t a d v e r- . s e l y a f f e c t i n g t h e i r d r i v in g s k i l l . 7. R e p e a te rs have shown a g r e a t e r number of a r r e s t s on c h arg es o th e r th a n t r a f f i c v i o l a t i o n s more o f t e n than the a c c i d e n t - f r e e . 8 . R e p ea te rs have more v i o l a t i o n s charg ed a g a i n s t them, which may in d ic a t e th e p o s s i b i l i t y of a f u t u r e j i i 8 AOPA P i l o t , ”A c cid e n t-P ro n en e ss C onfined to Pew P e o p le, A Recent Survey D i s c l o s e s , ” F l y i n g , p . 50, November, 1949. 28 a c c id e n t o c c u r r in g , 9 . The d i f f e r e n c e 'in v i s u a l a c u i t y , r a t e of dark a d a p t a t i o n , e d u c a tio n , blood p r e s s u r e , income, and s i m il a r com parisons d id n o t prove s i g n i f i c a n t betw een the two g ro u p s. Both groups were s i m i l a r l y v a r i e d . This stu d y , though conducted in d r i v e r c l i n i c s , c o u ld prove to be an i n d i c a t i o n of a c c id e n t- p ro n e n e s s in a i r p l a n e s as w e ll as in a u to m o b ile s. I t i s q u ite p o s s ib le t h a t an a c c id e n t- p r o n e d r i v e r w i l l alp/o be an a c c id e n t- prone p i l o t . I f a c c id e n t prone t e s t i n g was conducted in a l l of the s t a t e s p e r i o d i c a l l y , the r e s u l t s co u ld be used a d v a n ta g e o u sly f o r d r i v e r s and p i l o t s a l i k e . The s e rio u s o ffe n d e rs c o u ld be p r o h i b it e d from o b ta in in g e i t h e r a d r i v e r fs l i c e n s e or a p i l o t fs l i c e n s e , th e re b y l e s s e n in g !p o t e n t i a l a c c i d e n t s . The t e s t s co uld be u se d as a b a s i s f o r e li m in a ti o n from f l i g h t t r a i n i n g , or the r e v o c a tio n of a v a li d l i c e n s e , i f conducted a f t e r a v i o l a t i o n or an a c c i d e n t • i C o n c lu s io n s . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t n in e ty per c e n t j of a l l f a t a l non a i r c a r r i e r a c c id e n ts were caused by p i l o t | e r r o r .9 These e r r o r s f a l l i n t o th r e e main g rou ps, namely; l i ' r e c k l e s s f l y i n g , f a i l u r e to m a in ta in f l y i n g speed, and 29 c o n tin u e d V. P . R. f l i g h t i n t o in stru m e n t w e a th e r. S ix ty per c e n t of the a c c id e n ts in t h i s group in v o lv e d s t a l l s . I t i s n e c e s s a ry , th e n , t h a t th e a i r c r a f t m a n u fa c tu re r r e d e sig n h i s p ro d u c t w ith th e o b je c t of r e d u c tio n in s t a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . From C. A. A. f i g u r e s , the o v e r a l l av erag e of s t a l l s f o r s i n g l e engine a i r c r a f t was more th an !four tim es the r a t e of s t a l l - r e s i s t a n t a i r c r a f t . The s t a l l w arning i n d i c a t o r h a s, no d o u b t, a id e d in p r e v e n tin g s t a l l a c c id e n ts to some e x t e n t . J u s t how much has n o t as y e t been d e te rm in e d . The in s tru m e n t i s c e r t a i n l y an a i d to the p i l o t in te a c h in g him some of th e l i m i t a t i o n s of h i s c r a f t . There would seem to be a need f o r a g ra d u a te d tim in g d e v ic e , f o r the s t a l l - w a r n i n g i n d i c a t o r as used today i s b u t the f i n a l e f f o r t to warn the p i l o t t h a t he has a lr e a d y rea ch e d a p o s i t i o n of d a n g er, a p p a r e n tly of jwhich he had no p rev io u s knowledge. A lthough i t may warn him of impending d ang er, w i l l the p i l o t have tim e to r e c o v e r, and more im p o rta n t, w i l l he know how? I f the p i l o t i s unaware of how he g o t h im s e lf i n t o a dangerous c o n d itio n , jchances a re he w i l l no t know how to re c o v e r s u f f i c i e n t l y and i n tim e . A ccid en ts w i l l n o t occur in normal f l i g h t th ro u g h the a i r ; th e y do occur in c o l l i s i o n w ith o b j e c t s . When th e s e o b je c ts c o n fr o n t him, th e p i l o t has n o t tim e to r e a s o n . He must q u ic k ly on t r a i n e d r e f l e x e s , r e a c t . 50 He must know what to do i n s t i n c t i v e l y , th ro u g h r e p e a te d exposure to sound p r i n c i p l e s embodied i n h i s t r a i n i n g . He must have th e knowledge and know-how, i n keen c o n t r o l , i n o rd e r to keep out of dangerous s i t u a t i o n s * I f he sho uld s l i p and g e t i n t o a t i g h t s p o t, the s t a l l w arner may warn him in tim e , b u t i t w i l l n o t save a l l p i l o t s s i m i l a r l y con fro n ted -—f o r some, i t may be to o l a t e . * A c o n s c ie n tio u s f l i g h t i n s t r u c t o r can i n c u l c a t e sa fe h a b i t s , te a c h a s t u d e n t to re a s o n in d e p e n d e n tly , h e lp him p la n , and a s s i s t him i n form ing good judgm ent; b u t he w i l l alw ays e n c o u n te r th e stu b b o rn s tu d e n t who w i l l n o t l i s t e n or l e a r n b a s i s p r e c e p t s . The names of th e s e " p i l o t s ” f r e q u e n t l y app ear i n th e s t a t i s t i c s column re a d in g " r e c k l e s s f l y i n g or b u z z i n g .” Inasmuch a s t h i s type of s tu d e n t d is p la y s poor judgment and r e a s o n in g , f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n o r s t a l l w arning d e v ic e s may be of l i t t l e or no a v a i l . They m ust be k e p t o ut of th e a i r w herever p o s s i b l e , w ith se v e re p e n a l t i e s a tt a c h e d to o c c u r r in g " i n c i d e n t s . ” The o b v io u sly dangerous p i l o t sh o u ld n o t be recommended f o r l i c e n s i n g by h i s i n s t r u c t o r . ^ Those who sp a sm o d ic a lly d i s p la y d i s r e g a r d f o r s a f e p r a c t i c e s in f l y i n g should be con t r o l l e d more r i g i d l y throug h adeq u ate law en fo rc em e n t. Of th o se a c c id e n ts in H e y lfs r e p o r t w herein the p i l o t s c o n tin u e d V. P . R. f l i g h t i n t o in s tru m e n t 31 c o n d it i o n s , a b o u t tw e n ty - f iv e per c e n t h e ld commercial r a t i n g s . P i l o t s ag re e t h a t i t i s n o t w ise p o l i c y to f l y i n t o in s tru m e n t w eather u n le s s p r o p e r ly equipp ed w ith b o th an in s tru m e n t a i r p l a n e and an in s tru m e n t r a t i n g , b u t ex p e rie n c e b re e d s co n fid e n ce and p i l o t s h ave, f o r t u n a t e l y f o r th e m se lv e s, flow n th ro u g h m a rg in a l c o n d itio n s from time t o tim e . T h is, in t u r n , engenders f o o lh a r d y o v e r c o n fid e n c e which may v ery l i k e l y r e s u l t i n f a t a l s t a t i s t i c s . Other c a t e g o r i e s l i s t e d were to o n e g l i g i b l e i n number to r e f l e c t upon th e s tu d y . Comparison can be made w ith C. A. A. c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of f a t a l p i l o t e r r o r a c c id e n ts l i s t e d b e l o w . ^ 1. O p e ratin g r e c k l e s s l y i 2. F a i l i n g to m a in ta in f l y i n g speed 5 . C o n tin u in g V. F . H. f l i g h t i n t o in s tru m e n t w e a th e r . 4 . F a i l i n g to observe a i r c r a f t or o b je c ts 5 . M isjudging d i s ta n c e 6. Improper f l i g h t t r a i n i n g or s u p e r v is io n 7. Exceeding s t r e s s l i m i t s of a i r c r a f t 8. In ad eq u ate f l i g h t p r e p a r a t i o n 9 . I n a t t e n t i v e n e s s to f u e l su p p ly and v a lv e s H eyl, oj>. c i t . , p . 1. 32 10* F a i l i n g to m a in ta in aw areness of p o s i t i o n V. F . R. 11. S e l e c ti n g u n s u i t a b l e t e r r a i n or runway 12. F a i l i n g to compensate f o r wind 13. M isusing p o w erplant c o n tr o l s 14. Improper l e v e l i n g - o f f 15. F a l l i n g to r e t r a c t or e x te n d g e a r 16. Other p i l o t causes CHAPTER IV OTH ER FACTORS CONTRIBUTING T O ACCIDENTS A c e r t a i n i n v i t a t i o n to d e a th i s f o r a p i l o t to f l y i n t o poor w eath er w ith o u t th e p ro p er in s tr u m e n ts or q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , or b o t h . To f l y l e g a l l y un der in s tru m e n t c o n d i t i o n s , b o th a re r e q u i r e d . The new spapers make h e a d lin e s t o r i e s of th e w eather a c c id e n ts in v o lv in g p i l o t s who h i t h i l l s i d e s becau se th ey t r i e d to m a in ta in v i s u a l f l i g h t when in s tr u m e n t c o n d itio n s p r e v a i l e d . A ccording to C. A. B. t a b u l a t i o n s , 75 of th e f i r s t 4000 a c c id e n ts I n 1948 were c a t e g o r i z e d as c o n tin u in g V. F . R. f l i g h t i n t o in s tr u m e n t w e a th e r. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te the p i l o t e x p e rie n c e i n th e s e a c c i d e n t s . 1 P i l o t s Number F l i g h t w ith of i n In stru m e n t A ccid en ts P i l o t Hours R a tin g s 9 Up to 50 0 17 50 to 100 0 20 100 to 300 0 15 300 to 1000 1 14 Over 1000 4 The g r e a t e s t number of a c c id e n ts o c c u rre d in the H arold G. Crowley, nI f You Donft Know Weather F l y i n g , ” C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s B o ard . S a f e ty B u l l e t i n 182-4 8 . p. 1, F e b ru a ry , 1949. 34 100 to 300 hour c l a s s . The re a so n Is n o t too o b sc u re . Some p i l o t s in t h i s c l a s s who h o ld p r i v a t e l i c e n s e s b e g in to g a in c o n fid e n c e i n th em se lv e s, to th e p o in t where th ey sometimes tak e u n n e c e ssa ry c h a n c e s. They have n o t had s u f f i c i e n t f l i g h t time to e x p e rie n c e a l l of th e v a r i a b le s t h a t a p i l o t e n c o u n te rs i n h i s f l y i n g l i f e t i m e , b u t y e t have had enough e x p e rie n c e to prod them to new h o r iz o n s . P ly in g i n m a rg in a l w eather i s a good t r a p f o r them. P e r haps th e y have n e g o ti a t e d m a rg in a l w eather where c o n d itio n s rem ained th e same or im proved. The p i l o t now th in k s he has accom plished som ething i n t h a t he c l a s s i f i e s h im s e lf as b e in g a b le to cope w ith the same c o n d itio n a g a in . The n e x t time may f i n d him f l y i n g i n t o a s i t u a t i o n t h a t tu r n s o u t to be w orse, and he g e ts h i s name on th e f r o n t page. P r a c t i c a l l y a l l a i r p l a n e c ra sh e s s t i l l make th e f r o n t page s in c e newsmen can make a c ra s h a p p ear a t i t s most s p e c t a c u l a r , Q uite a few w eather a c c id e n ts happen to p i l o t s w ith a good d e a l of e x p e r ie n c e , in c lu d in g some w ith in s tru m e n t r a t i n g s . O verconfidence i s a f a c t o r in some of the a c c i d e n ts , b u t more im p o r ta n t, many of th e p i l o t s do n o t r e c o g n iz e th e type of w eather i n t o which th e y a re a b o u t to f l y . |They p erh ap s th in k th e y w i l l f l y as f a r as p o s s ib le and Ithen t u r n around i f c o n d itio n s g e t too bad, b u t th e y f l y 35 i n t o in s tru m e n t w eather b e fo re th e y know i t . Many i n s ta n c e s can be giv en to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s type of d e la y ed aw areness of i n c i p i e n t d a n g e r, p e rs u a n t to w eather c o n d i t i o n s in f l i g h t . For exam ples: a s tu d e n t to o k o ff from h i s farm , a t th e h e i g h t of a snow s q u a l l , i n the d i r e c t i o n of a hangar o n ly one m ile away.^ Almost m o m en tarily he l o s t a l l v i s u a l r e f e r e n c e to th e ground, fle w i n t o i t and was k i l l e d . A 300 hour p r i v a t e p i l o t took o f f f o r a s h o r t c r o s s - c o u n tr y t r i p i n below-minimum w e a th e r. R is in g ground f o r c e d him to clim b up to and th e n i n t o th e o v e r c a s t . When he t r i e d to tu r n b ack , he h i t some t r e e s and was k i l l e d . Another p i l o t , w ith 1000 hours e x p e r ie n c e , t r i e d to f l y thro u g h a snow s q u a l l which he could have circu m v e n te d . He l o s t c o n t r o l when i n i t , and f e l l o u t of th e o v e r c a s t . F o r t u n a t e l y he re c o v e re d c o n tr o l a g a in , b u t when he t r i e d to la n d on a highway, th e o nly t e r r a i n v i s i b l e , he c ra s h e d . None of th e se p i l o t s had in s tru m e n t r a t i n g s and p ro b a b ly no in s tru m e n t e x p e r ie n c e . I n d i f f e r e n c e seemed to be e x h ib i t e d in g e t t i n g i n t o bad w eather and panic in t r y i n g to g e t o u t. Some p i l o t s a re u n d e r th e i l l u s i o n t h a t th ey can __________ g . I b i a . . p . 2 . ___________________________________ __________________ 36 f l y s e m i- I n s tr u m e n ts • There can be no such type of f l y i n g . I t i s e i t h e r in s tr u m e n t or v i s u a l f l y i n g because the methods used in b o th typ es d i f f e r so g r e a t l y . Sooner o r l a t e r , a p i l o t t r y i n g to combine the two w i l l f i n d a cloud s t u f f e d w ith t e r r a i n to a b r u p t l y end h i s f l i g h t . A few of th e p i l o t s in v o lv e d in the w eather a c c i d e n ts t a b u l a t e d by the C. A. B. had in s tru m e n t r a t i n g s . T h eir a i r p l a n e s were n o t p r o p e r ly equipped or the p i l o t s had n o t had enough r e c e n t e x p e rie n c e under th e hood to make them c a p a b le . One a c c id e n t k i l l e d th r e e p a sse n g e rs and an in s tru m e n t p i l o t accustom ed to f l y i n g B C -S ^ on i n s t r u m e n t s .5 The l i g h t p l a n e he was f l y i n g had o n ly the prim ary in s tru m e n t group and he had been accustom ed to the s o - c a l l e d !ff u l l p a n e l . ” He was n o t p re p a re d to f l y in in s tru m e n t w eather c o n d itio n s w ith o u t a l l of th e g y ro sc o p ic in s tru m e n ts most a i r p l a n e s u t i l i z e . L ig h t a i r c r a f t equipped w ith th e minimum complement of in s tru m e n ts a re n o t in te n d e d f o r p ro lon ged in s tru m e n t f l i g h t . They may be u sed s a f e l y f o r letdow ns th ro u g h o v e r c a s ts or to clim b o u t of poor w eather i n t o b e t t e r w e a th e r. L ig h tp la n e c e i l i n g s a re n o t h ig h enough, nor a re t h e i r ran g e s lon g enough to p e rm it h o ld in g a t h ig h a l t i t u d e s f o r p r o t r a c t e d 5 I b i d . , p. 3. 37 le n g th s of tim e , which sometimes becomes n e c e s s a ry a t l a r g e r te rm in a ls when in s tru m e n t t r a f f i c i s h eavy. An a i r c r a f t may be i n s t r u c t e d to h o ld a t 17,000 f e e t f o r t h i r t y m in u te s, and th en to come down a thousand f e e t a t a time and h o ld a t a new a l t i t u d e on the way down. A sm a ll a i r c r a f t w i l l have d i f f i c u l t y g e t t i n g to t h a t a l t i tu d e , i f i t can g e t th e re a t a l l . I t may n o t have enough gas to h o ld t h a t lo n g , and i f the c lo u d s e x ten d t h a t h ig h th e re i s a good p o s s i b i l i t y of ic e a t t h a t h e i g h t , even in summer. The l ig h t p l a n e has no d e - i c i n g equipm ent. In stru m e n t f l i g h t of any d u r a t i o n i s in te n d e d f o r a i r c r a f t p r o p e r ly eq u ip p ed . P i l o t s must remember to o , t h a t n i g h t f l y i n g where th e r e a re no l i g h t s , or where th e y m ust f l y th ro u g h clo uds now and th e n , becomes in s tr u m e n t f l i g h t . I t i s im p o ssib le to d i s t i n g u i s h ground from sky w ith o u t some l i g h t . Try lo o k in g over the ocean a t n i g h t where th e r e a re no l i g h t s . Which i s w a ter and which .ds sky? The p i l o t may be b a f f l e d as w e ll a s p a s s e n g e r . I f th e moon i s o u t or I f c i t y l i g h t s illu m in e the a r e a , the s i t u a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t and n i g h t f l y i n g i s l e s s h a z a rd o u s . There seems to be a tendency among p i l o t s to a d o p t th e l e g a l w eather minimums s e t up by th e C i v il A ir R egula tio n s as t h e i r own. These minimums a re s e t up f o r 38 e x p e rie n c e d p i l o t s to f l y V. F. R. in a r e a s v e ry f a m i l i a r to them. These w eather minimums were s e t up t h i s way so t h a t th e p i l o t would n o t be p r o h i b i t e d from f l y i n g where he co uld re a s o n a b ly e x p e c t to do so s a f e l y . ^ P i l o t s who a re in e x p e rie n c e d i n the a i r or i n a d jo in in g t e r r i t o r i e s a re e x p e c te d to s e t h ig h e r minimums f o r th e m se lv e s. Because l e g a l minimums e x i s t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t i t i s s a fe to f l y . In stru m e n t t r a i n i n g b rin g s a b o u t a r e s p e c t f o r w eather f l y i n g . Normal s tu d e n ts who have been exposed to i t w i l l r e s p e c t i t . Ten ho u rs of in s tru m e n t t r a i n i n g i s r e q u i r e d i f p r a c t i c a b l e to o b ta in a commercial l i c e n s e . A pe rso n w ith o u t t h i s t r a i n i n g may n o t use h i s commercial l i c e n s e o u ts id e of t h i s c o u n try u n le s s he has s p e c i a l p e r m is s io n in w r i t in g to th e c o n tr a r y . L icense l i m i t a t i o n , where he does n o t have in s tru m e n t t r a i n i n g , w i l l i n no way a f f e c t h i s commercial p r i v i l e g e s i n t h i s c o u n try . Schools n o t equipped w ith in s tru m e n t t r a i n i n g a i r p l a n e s or in s tru m e n t p i l o t i n s t r u c t o r s a re n o t compelled to give t h i s t r a i n i n g . As a r e s u l t , n o t many p i l o t s r e c e i v i n g new comm ercial l i c e n s e s have th e much d e s i r e d in s tru m e n t ex p e r ie n c e . Even C. A. A. approved and equipped sc h o o ls 4 Edward B. H eyl, "R espect Weather--When You c a n 't See, Look O u t!” C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s Board, Bureau of S a f e ty I n v e s t l g a t i o n . F e b ru ary 1, 1952, p . 3 . 39 who te a c h under the G. I , program n o tw ith s ta n d in g th ese s ta n d a r d s , may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in c lu d e th e in s tru m e n t t r a i n i n g i n t h e i r c u r r i c u l a . V eteran A d m in is tr a tio n con t r a c t r a t e s have n o t as y e t been a l t e r e d to cover the a d d i t i o n a l c o s t . The recom m endation f o r te n hours of in s tru m e n t f l y i n g was in te n d e d to p r e s e n t even m inim al e x p e rie n c e so t h a t p i l o t s , i f o v e rta k e n by bad w eather would n o t become p a n ic k y , b u t co u ld t u r n around w ith o u t going i n t o a s p in . The t r a i n i n g would a l s o show th e s tu d e n t t h a t in s tru m e n t f l y i n g i s n o t as e a sy as he may t h i n k . P i l o t s w ith o u t i n stru m e n t r a t i n g s seem to sh a re the o p in io n t h a t anyone can o b ta in an in s tru m e n t f a t i n g . Under the G. I . program , a p p ro x im a te ly tw enty hours of f l i g h t i n s t r u c t i o n and tw elve hours of Link T ra in e r time i s a l l t h a t i s in c lu d e d in th e in s tru m e n t c o u rs e . Some p i l o t s a re n o t s u i t e d to th in k in g i n term s of i n s tr u m e n ts . I t i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from the every day f l y i n g w ith which th ey may be a lr e a d y f a m i l i a r . The good s tu d e n t w i l l g e t an in s tr u m e n t r a t i n g on com p letio n of tw enty h o u r s . Some co u ld g e t i t i n a lo n g e r p e rio d , b u t some sh o u ld never be allow ed the r a t i n g . I t rem ains to be seen w hether th e te n h o u rs of i n stru m en t time w i l l i n c u l c a t e enough knowledge to keep a p i l o t o u t of t r o u b l e , or w hether i t w i l l o n ly se rv e to 40 e s t a b l i s h o v e r-c o n fid e n c e as re g a rd s w eath er f l y i n g . Most l i k e l y i t w i l l f u l f i l l th e fo rm e r. Those whom i t l u l l s i n t o o v e r-c o n fid e n c e would p ro b a b ly have done some o th e r f o o lh a r d y s t u n t , knowing i t to be wrong b u t triu m p h a n t in h av in g escap ed the c o n seq u en ces. The main th in g t h a t a n o n -in stru m e n t p i l o t must do i s l e a r n to re c o g n iz e in s tru m e n t w eather b e fo re he g e ts i n t o i t . This i s a job f o r the i n s t r u c t o r s and t h e i r s c h o o l s . D uring 1950 ab out 27 p e r c e n t of the 495 f a t a l non a i r c a r r i e r m ishaps o c c u rre d d u rin g w eather which was below v i s u a l f l i g h t m in i m u m s .^ P i l o t s who a tte m p te d to m a in ta in v i s u a l f l i g h t i n t o in s tru m e n t c o n d itio n s acco unted f o r about 18 per c e n t of the f a t a l a c c i d e n t s . In 1948, 13 p e r c e n t met the end of t h e i r c a r e e r s in t h i s f a s h i o n . An in c r e a s e w ith in t h i s group must b e a r c lo s e s c r u t i n y to de^- term in e what can be done a b o u t i t . Of th e a fo re m en tio n e d a c c i d e n t s , o n ly f o u r p i l o t s were on I . P . R. c le a r a n c e s and one of them had no i n s t r u ment r a t i n g . T w enty-five were on V. P . R. f l i g h t p la n s and the rem ain in g 105 had no f l i g h t p lan or c le a r a n c e of 5 I b i d . . p . 2 41 any k in d . Only 11 of the 134 p i l o t s had in s tru m e n t r a t i n g s . The M edical D iv is io n of th e C. A. A. i n an e f f o r t to d eterm ine a c c id e n t fre q u e n c y , cond ucted a sample survey of p i l o t s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of v a ry in g age and e x p e rie n c e , who were h o ld in g c u r r e n t m ed ical c e r t i f i c a t e s , ® This ta b u l a t i o n was u se d as a com parison f o r tho se in v o lv e d in the w eather a c c id e n ts in q u e s t io n . Because the t a b u l a t i o n was b u t a sam ple, th e f i g u r e s were s u b j e c t to in a c c u r a c ie s and d i s c r e p a n c i e s . However, th e r e was a d e f i n i t e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a c c id e n t r a t e s became h ig h e r as age and e x p er ien c e in c r e a s e d . The r a t e f o r th e age group f i f t y to f i f t y - n in e was v e ry h ig h , e v id e n tl y due to o v e rc o n fid en c e in the u t i l i t y of t h e i r c r a f t , the adequacy of t h e i r t r a i n i n g and e x p e rie n c e , or b o th . Would i t be r e a s o n a b le , th e n , to demand more and b e t t e r in s tru m e n t t r a i n i n g f o r in s tru m e n t r a t e d p i l o t s ? Ho, because the m a j o r it y of the w eather a c c id e n ts c i t e d were caused by p i l o t s in e x p e rie n c e d i n w eather f l y i n g , or by those who had no i n t e n t i o n of g e t t i n g i n t o a w eather s i t u a t i o n b u t d id , n o n e th e le s s , however u n w i t t i n g l y . The p i l o t s f a i l e d to r e a l i z e the a i r c r a f t s or t h e i r own l i m i t a t i o n s . 6 I b i d . . p . 2 42 Ten hours in s tru m e n t t r a i n i n g e x p e rie n c e should he m andatory f o r a l l com m ercially r a t e d p i l o t s . Any p i l o t r e c e i v i n g com pensation f o r h i s f l y i n g should he a d e q u a te ly p re p a re d to e i t h e r han dle or a v e r t any q u e s tio n a b le circum sta n c e t h a t may a r i s e . F ive hour’s of in stru m e n t t r a i n i n g should he r e q u ir e d of ”F i r s t C lass F r i v a t e ” l i c e n s e h o l d e r s . (See s e c t i o n on t r a i n i n g s u g g e s tio n s f o r d i s c u ssio n of proposed f i r s t and second c la s s p r i v a t e p i l o t r a t i n g s .) COLLISIONS C o l li s io n s accoun t fo r, a la r g e number of a i r c r a f t a c c i d e n t s . In 1946 a p p ro x im ate ly 88 p e r c e n t of a l l f a t a l a c c id e n ts in n o n -sch ed u led f l y i n g was caused by th e com- *7 hin ed t o t a l of s t a l l - s p i n c ra s h e s and c o l l i s i o n a c c i d e n t s . % Showing- O f f . There h as been no in v e n tio n t h a t w i l l p re v e n t sh o w in g -o ff, b u t p i l o t s can be im pressed t h a t such a c t i o n i s s t u p i d . (See C hapter I I . ) Above a l l , t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r s must p r a c t i c e what th ey p re a c h . S t r i c t law en fo rce m en t of v i o l a t o r s sh o u ld h e lp to reduce th e number of the buzz b oy s. O p erato rs can i n s i s t upon r e f u s a l to r e n t ^ H arold G. Crowley and Edward B. H eyl, ”l h a t Causes C o l l i s i o n s ? ” C i v i l A e ro n au tics B o ard , S a fe ty S^udy 102-4 9 , January 15, 1949, p . 2. 43 or i n s t r u c t the l u n a t i c f r i n g e . A ccording to G. A. B. s t a t i s t i c s , p i l o t s in v o lv e d i n f a t a l buzzing c o l l i s i o n s a re a p p ro x im a te ly the same age as those in v o lv ed in f a t a l b u zzin g s p in c ra s h e s ; b u t in th e c o l l i s i o n a c c i d e n t s , the e x p e rie n c e l e v e l s of th e c o l l i s i o n p i l o t s a re ab o u t th r e e tim es h i g h e r . Of buzzing a c c id e n ts , th e n , i t would seem t h a t e x p e rie n c e a lo n e w i l l n o t p re v e n t them, b u t can o n ly d eterm in e w hether th ey w i l l f a l l i n to c o l l i s i o n or s p in c a t e g o r i e s . A ttem pted N ig h t or In stru m e n t F l i g h t by XJnqualified P i l o t s . Poor judgment seems to be the main cause of t h i s type of a c c id e n t. The s u b j e c t i s more f u l l y d is c u s s e d in th e p re c e d in g w eather s e c t i o n in t h i s c h a p te r . In ten d e d Normal O p e r a tio n . In th e se c a s e s , the p i l o t i n a d v e r t e n t l y h i t som ething i n o th e rw ise normal o p e r a t io n . A breakdown of t h i s group f o l l o w s : 8 F ly in g Phase C o c p i t V i s i o n . T o ta ls No F a c to r P o s s ib le F a c to r F u l l f l i g h t 10 9 19 S im u lated f o r c e d la n d in g 1 2 3 T ak e-o ff 13 6 19 Landing 10 10 20 T o ta l 34 27 61 8 P* 5. 44 F a i l u r e to see o b je c ts does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean poor c o c p i t v i s i o n . Some, i f n o t many of the a c c id e n ts were caused by p i l o t i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s . B e tt e r v i s i b i l i t y would have reduced some of the above a c c i d e n t s , b u t n o t a l l , s in c e a d e s ig n e r cannot d esig n ou t i n a t t e n t i o n to o p e ra tio n on th e p a r t of th e p i l o t . Emergency L a n d in g s. C. A. B. s t a t i s t i c s show t h a t of th e n in e f a t a l c o l l i s i o n s d u rin g emergency la n d in g s , f i v e were the r e s u l t of engine stoppage d u rin g t a k e - o f f . In o n ly th r e e was poor c o c p it v i s i b i l i t y a p o s s ib le f a c t o r i n th e r e s u l t a n t c o l l i s i o n . In th r e e o th e r s i t was c l e a r l y p i l o t e r r o r . In one i n s t a n c e , a p i l o t w ith 5500 hours i n a d v e r t e n t l y sh u t o f f the f u e l w hile sw itc h in g ta n k s . In a n o th e r i n s t a n c e , an i n s t r u c t o r f a i l e d to sw itc h to a r e se rv e tan k a f t e r e x h a u stin g the main ta n k . A s tu d e n t e a r r i n g a p assen g er made an u n s u c c e s s f u l pass a t a f i e l d and r a n o u t of gas on th e p u l l- u p . Above the o b v io u sly f o o l i s h a c t s , emergency lan d in g s can not a f f o r d too a c c u ra te a s tu d y on c o l l i s i o n s , because i f engine f a i l u r e occurs in a s p o t where th e re i s no s u i t a b l e la n d in g p la c e , a c o l l i s i o n of some s o r t must o c c u r. The b e s t s o l u t i o n to t h i s i s to im press p i l o t s w ith the need f o r choosing r o u te s where th e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s of good f i e l d s e x i s t , and f o r ta k i n g th e s e 45 r o u t e s even i f i t shou ld add a few e x tr a m ile s to th e t r i p . A l i f e - s a v i n g a id would he to i n s t r u c t p i l o t s i n how to c ra c k up an a i r p l a n e , should t h i s prove n e c e s s a r y . There a re known ways to make th e a ir p l a n e absorb the shock of a c ra s h and th e re b y l e s s e n p o s s ib le i n j u r y to o c c u p a n ts . A g lan ce a t F ig u re I I i n C hapter I w i l l serve to r e v e a l t h a t , in most of th e a c c i d e n t s , th e a i r c r a f t i t s e l f s u s ta i n e d s u b s t a n t i a l damage w hile the i n j u r i e s r e c e iv e d were e i t h e r minor or none. A s i m i l a r com parison w ith a u to m o b iles would v ery p ro b ab ly n o t be v a l i d . Any automo b i l e t h a t has been t o t a l l y or s u b s t a n t i a l l y damaged p ro b a b ly c a r r i e d i t s occupants to t h e i r d e a th s . An autom obile i s l i k e a dead mass when i t s t r i k e s an o b j e c t , where an a i r p l a n e may bounce and h a l f f l y a f t e r h i t t i n g an o b j e c t , which s e rv e s to dssorb some of the shock. A irp la n e s a re a l s o equipped w ith s a f e t y b e l t s which m a t e r i a l l y a id the o c c u p a n t. I n - F l i g h t C o l l i s i o n w ith Other A i r c r a f t . This type of a c c id e n t i s r e l a t i v e l y i n f r e q u e n t b u t s h a l l p ro b ab ly i n c r e a s e w ith c o rre sp o n d in g in c r e a s e s i n t r a f f i c . Most a c c id e n ts occur i n t r a f f i c p a t t e r n s . R e s t r i c t e d v i s i b i l i t y p la y s a p a r t a g a in . Low wing a i r c r a f t have an advantage i n th e t r a f f i c p a t t e r n i n t h a t th e wing does n o t h id e e v e r y th in g i n the d i r e c t i o n of t he t u r n . A comb i n a t i o n _____ 46 of h ig h and low wing a i r c r a f t i n th e same p a t t e r n s e t s up a dangerous s i t u a t i o n . A low wing p lan e over a h ig h winged one b l i n d s one to th e o t h e r . Good c o c p i t v i s i b i l i t y in a plane i s a h e lp , b u t i s of no v alue i f i t s p i l o t does n o t lo ok around and pay c lo s e a t t e n t i o n to what he s e e s . A p erson can scan th e sky and look d i r e c t l y a t a n o th e r a i r plane w ith o u t a c t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n . I n t o x i c a t i o n . There i s no excuse f o r drunken f l y i n g . O p erato rs must be v i g i l a n t in r e n t i n g a i r c r a f t to th o se w ith l i q u o r 'o n t h e i r b r e a t h s . Owners must have sense enough n o t to go near t h e i r a i r p l a n e s w hile under the i n f lu e n c e of a lc o h o l . F i e l d managers can p re v e n t t a k e - o f f i f inform ed in tim e . Crop- d u s t i n g . Low f l y i n g i s a r e q u i s i t e f o r t h i s o p e r a t io n . Good c o c p it v i s i b i l i t y i s a m ust, b u t c ro p - d u s tin g a i r c r a f t c u r r e n t l y used does n o t sta n d up w e ll to t h i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n . The o ld s t o r y of ” 1 j u s t d i d n ' t see th o se t r e e s or w ires or w hatever i t w a s ,” need n ever be t o l d i f th e p i l o t w i l l take enough tim e to d riv e n e ar the p lac e he e x p e c ts to d u s t or sp ra y and lo o k i t over c a r e f u l l y from the ground, where he can s to p now and then to s c r u t i n i z e the a re a c l o s e l y . He must th o ro u g h ly a c q u a in t h im s e lf w ith the f i e l d b e fo re he f l i e s i t . A la r g e o b s t r u c ti o n may h id e a s m a lle r b u t dangerous o b s t r u c t i o n . Prom th e a i r he may n o t have seen i t , b u t in p rop er ground p r e p a r a t i o n he can make note of i t . E x h i b i t i o n . E xperien ced p i l o t s w ith over 2000 hours a re in v o lv e d in e x h i b i t i o n a c c i d e n t s , a c c o rd in g to Crowley and H eyl. The s l i g h t e s t m is c a lc u l a t i o n when c lo se to the ground can s p e l l d e a th and d e s t r u c t i o n . E x h ib itio n s t h a t in any way can be dangerous shou ld be c o n fin e d to a h ig h enough a l t i t u d e to in s u r e com plete s a f e t y . In many i n s ta n c e s t h i s w i l l p la c e the perfo rm er a t a d isa d v an tag e o u s a l t i t u d e in s o f a r as the s p e c t a t o r i s concern ed . This type of e x h i b i t i o n sho uld be s t r i k e n from perform ance, though t h r i l l s e e k e r s w i l l be d is a p p o in te d . Ground c o l l i s i o n s . A i r c r a f t d e sig n la y s s t r e s s on p ro p er perform ance in th e a i r . On the ground an a i r p l a n e alm o st f lo u n d e rs around t r y i n g to make i t s way here and t h e r e . T ax iin g p lan e s ru n i n to gas t r u c k s , o i l drums, f i e l d equipm ent, a n im a ls, and each o t h e r , in t h e i r com p a r a t i v e l y clumsy a tte m p ts a t ground l o c a t i o n . ^ Having been r e a r e d in autom otive t r a d i t i o n , p i l o t s 9 W ilfre d Owen, "Danger on the A i r p o r t , ” F l y i n g , March, 1948, p. 69. 48 slam on the b r a k e s , s c re e c h around c o r n e r s , and t r y to squeeze i n t o p a rk in g sp aces alm ost b ig enough. The r e s u l t a n t i n j u r i e s to an auto m obile may o n ly mar i t s a p p e a ra n c e . To an a ir p l a n e th e s t o r y i s d i f f e r e n t , i t u s u a l l y c an n o t f l y a g a in u n t i l the damage i s r e p a i r e d . In a d d i t i o n to ru n n in g i n to o b j e c ts w hile t a x i i n g , a i r machines ru n o f f of runways onto s o f t s h o u ld e r s , h i t l i g h t s , r o c k s , embankments and m is c e lla n e o u s Item s on t a k e o f f or la n d in g . S o f t runway edges and t a x i s t r i p edges a re a m ajor problem a t a i r p o r t s and cause a good p e rc e n ta g e of n o se- up and n o se -o v e r a c c i d e n t s . Soggy runways and wet g r a s s cause m ishaps and i n d ry w eather e x c e s s iv e d u s t and lo o se 10 sto n e s a re the c u l p r i t s . C o l li s io n s w ith o th e r a i r c r a f t a re th e r e s u l t of one p i l o t or b o th n o t s e e in g the o t h e r , or the m is a p p l i c a ti o n of b rak e s and mis judgment of d i s t a n c e s , even to the e x te n t of ru n n in g i n t o parked a i r c r a f t . This ground h a z a rd w i l l in c r e a s e as t r a f f i c in c r e a s e s and as the v a r i e t y in s i z e and o p e ra tin g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s grow, f o r i t w i l l be more d i f f i c u l t to judge speeds and wing sp a n s. To o f f s e t the in c r e a s e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s of ! 10 I b i d . . p . 70. 49 ground c o l l i s i o n s , f i e l d m aintenance must be im proved, su g g e s ts Owen. F ix e d o b s t r u c ti o n s .should be removed or w e ll m arked, adequate ic e and snow rem oval methods sh ould be a d o p te d , d u s t p a l l i a t i v e s shou ld be employed, s h o u ld e rs sh ould be r o l l e d and s t a b i l i z e d , and p r o t r u b e r a n t o b je c ts removed from ram ps, t a x i - s t r i p s and runw ays. Most impor t a n t , p e rh a p s, a i r c r a f t i t s e l f sh o u ld be d e sig n e d so t h a t th e p i l o t can see where he i s g o in g . This can be done w ith t r i c y c l e la n d in g g e a r , by s lo p in g cowl f r o n t s , or c a s t a r i n g g e a r s . A ir p o r ts w ith m u ltip le runways i n v i t e d i s a s t e r a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s . A s in g le runway a i r p o r t would red uce t h i s h a z a rd . While t h i s may be i m p r a c t i c a l f o r many a re a s a t p r e s e n t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , c o n t r o l s m ust be p e r f e c t e d as much as p o s s ib le when f e a s i b l e . A i r p o r t and a i r c r a f t d e s ig n c o u ld b e ar improvement, as w e ll as a i r p o r t m ain ten a n ce , to l e s s e n th e dan gers of a c c i d e n t s . H One of the g r e a t d angers around or on an a i r p o r t a r e power l i n e s and overhead w ires of a l l d e s c r i p t i o n s . P laced on the ap p ro ach end of runw ays, they endanger la n d in g a i r c r a f t . In a d d i t i o n , where th ey red u c e the u s e f u l l e n g t h of the runway, an a i r c r a f t i s l i k e l y to c r a s h ^ E d i t o r i a l , AOPA P i l o t S e c tio n , F ly in g , p . 58, Ja n u a ry , 1948. ___ ________________ ___ _______________ 50 a t the f a r end because a p i l o t w i l l n o t have enough room to com plete the la n d in g r o l l . Wires a re d i f f i c u l t to s e e , p a r t i c u l a r l y a g a i n s t the sun* I f i t i s n o t p o s s ib le to have the w ire s removed, then some one m ust see t o i t t h a t b r i g h t c o lo r e d or r e f l e c t i n g o b je c ts a re hung from them to sa fe g u a rd v i s i b i l i t y . The b e t t e r p lan would be to u t i l i z e underground w irin g in th ese th r e s h o ld s of d a n g e r. AIRCRAFT DESIGN The p i l o t i s n o t alw ays the prime cause of a c c i d e n t s , a lth o u g h s t a t i s t i c s l i s t a l a r g e p e rc e n ta g e of them as " p i l o t e r r o r . ” An a c c id e n t i n which the p i l o t p u lle d the m ix tu re c o n tr o l i n s t e a d of the c a r b u r e t o r h e a t would be so h e ad e d , b u t i s t h i s fu n d a m e n ta lly c o r r e c t ? The c r a f t may jhave been so p o o rly d e sig n e d as to j u s t i f y m is ta k in g one knob f o r a n o th e r . B a s i c a l l y i t becomes a problem i n h e r e n t i n d e s i g n . 12 Some p lan e s a re more a c c id e n t- p r o n e than o t h e r s . For example, one m a n u fa c tu re r p la c e d th e c a r b u r e t o r h e a t c o n tr o l knob on the l e f t s i d e , the m ix tu re c o n tr o l to th e r i g h t on the p a n e l. The e n g in e e r s , f o r some r e a s o n , su b s e q u e n tly r e v e r s e d th e s e p o s i t io n s on the n e x t m odel. ! E d i t o r i a l "D esign Out th e A c c id e n ts ," AOPA P i l o t IS ection, F l y i n g , p. 58, December, 1948. 51 R e s u lta n t c o n fu s io n and a c c id e n ts produced by t h i s change p la c e d th e blame upon the p i l o t r a t h e r th an the m anufac t u r e r • O ther g l a r i n g examples of poor e n g in e e r in g a r e : Landing gear and f l a p h a n d le s so c lo s e t o g e t h e r , t h a t p re s s u r e on one a c t i v a t e s the o t h e r , f u e l c u t - o f f valve s i t u a t e d so c lo se to p i l o t s 1 f e e ifth a t i t can u n i n t e n t i a n - a l l y be k ic k e d to i t s " o ff" p o s i t i o n , i d e n t i c a l knobs on c a r b u r e to r h e a t , m ix tu re , f u e l c u t - o f f v a l v e - - a l l s i t u a t e d w ith in in ch e s o f each o t h e r . Poor c a b in v i s i b i l i t y i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r many ground a c c id e n ts as w e ll as m id - a ir c o l l i s i o n s . In a d d i t i o n , poor d e sig n f a c t o r s e x i s t i n s i t u a t i n g th e gas tan k d i r e c t l y above the p i l o t fs l a p , w ith no adequate p r o t e c t i o n p ro v id ed sh o u ld the p lan e t u r n o v e r. A ccording to th e d e s ig n e r of th e E rcoupe, F red Weick, who r e p o r te d on a r e s e a r c h s tu d y , f u e l system s are a t f a u l t i n c o n t r i b u t i n g to engine f a i l u r e i n p e rs o n a l p la n e s . Of a t o t a l of 1355 p o w erp lan t f a i l u r e s i n 1947, 920 were deemed to be th e d i r e c t r e s u l t of f u e l system 13 f a i l u r e s th e m se lv e s. I t i s recommended by Weick t h a t th e c a r b u r e to r be 13 AOPA P i l o t S e c tio n , "Fuel Systems a H azard," F l y i n g , p . 50c, A p r i l , 1949. ___ ____ _____ 52 e lim in a te d e n t i r e l y and f u e l i n j e c t i o n system s be i n s t a l l e d i n s t e a d . N inety-tw o per c e n t of c a r b u r e t o r f a i l u r e was due to m a lfu n c tio n in g or m isuse of c a r b u r e t o r h e a t c o n t r o l . Use of a f u e l i n j e c t i o n system would e lim in a te two c o n tr o ls i n th e c o c p i t , namely c a r b u r e to r h e a t and m ix tu re c o n t r o l . Prim ers too have been r e s p o n s ib le f o r a number of a c c i d e n t s , Weick f u r t h e r recommends t h a t p rim ers be e lim i n a t e d wherever p o s s i b l e , b u t i f c a r b u r e to r s a re to rem ain i n a i r c r a f t , an a u to m o tiv e -ty p e a c c e l e r a t o r pump be u t i l i z e d i n s t e a d of th e p rim e r. F u e l v alv es have a l s o caused a c c i d e n t s . With the f u e l v a lv e tu rn e d o f f or p a r t i a l l y c lo s e d , p i l o t s have tak e n o f f and s u b s e q u e n tly tu rn e d i t on i n f l i g h t , assuming i t to be a n o th e r type of v a lv e . The re a s o n g iv en f o r i n s t a l l i n g f u e l sh u t o f f v a lv e s i s t h a t the p i l o t i s en ab led to sh u t o f f f u e l flow in the ev en t of f i r e w h ile a l o f t . Weick s t a t e s t h a t i n 1947 th e r e appeared to have been no engine f i r e in the a i r t h a t would have been h e lp e d by s h u t t i n g o f f the f u e l ; b u t t h a t th e re were 69 a c c id e n ts , th r e e of them f a t a l , caused by m ish an d lin g or f a i l u r e of the f u e l v a lv e s . In stru m e n t p a n el equipm ent of l a t e becomes more and | more i n t r i c a t e and gad gets more numerous. A p i l o t cannot hop from one model o f plane i n t o a n o th e r w ith o u t some 53 ponderous a t t e n t i o n to where e v e ry th in g i s l o c a t e d . C asual stu d y i s n o t enough. Sometimes a manual or an e x p e r t on t h a t p lan e must be a v a i l a b l e in o rd e r to p o in t o u t th e h id d e n g a d g e ts . A i r c r a f t m a n u fa c tu re rs co u ld take a le s s o n from auto m otive m a n u fa c tu re rs on the s c o re of p a n e l d e s ig n . S i m i l a r i t y between p a n e ls on more i n t r i c a t e la y o u ts would be o f in e s tim a b le b e n e f i t . With in c r e a s e d t r a f f i c the p i l o t should n o t be com pelled to spend so much time i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e c o c p i t . The s o l u t i o n to the problem l i e s in s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of in s tru m e n t p a n e l s . 14 S i m p l i f i c a t i o n would reduce the number o f item s i n the c o c p i t and u t i l i z e an o r d e r l y arrang em ent of th e rem a in in g o nes. S t a n d a r d i z a t io n would in s u r e f u n c t i o n a l g a d g ets w ith s i m i l a r appearance b e in g l o c a te d in the same r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n on v a rio u s a i r c r a f t m o d e l s . I * * For exam ple, the s t a r t e r would alw ays be i d e n t i f i e d as a r e d push b u tto n p o s itio n e d to the l e f t of th e t h r o t t l e . /c Perhaps e li m in a ti n g many of the c o c p i t g ad g ets may p r e s e n t an arduous or im p o ssib le t a s k , b u t th e y can q u ite 14 Max D ag g ett, J r . , "-Let’s S im p lify the P a n e l," F l y i n g , F e b ru a ry , 1952, p . 26. 15 L oc. c i t . e a s i l y be re -g ro u p e d and re r.lo c a te d f o r g r e a t e r ease and con venience i n u s e . In l o c a t i n g the in s tru m e n ts t h e i r p u r poses must be c o n sid e re d a c c o rd in g to need. An in s tru m e n t needed on one type of p lan e and n o t a n o th e r may sim ply be l e f t o u t of i t s a l l o c a t e d s p o t . Were the s tu d e n t and p i l o t r e a s s u r e d of p an el s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , he would be l e s s a p p re h e n siv e of f l i g h t i n a plane model as y e t u n f a m i li a r to him. This f a c e t of f l y i n g e x p e rie n c e alo n e can, and sh o u ld , e x p e d ite such a g o a l. » I n s p e c tio n of th e v a rio u s in s tru m e n ts may i n d i c a t e which would be d e s i r a b l e to r e t a i n , to change, or to e lim - *1 c i n a t e e n t i r e l y . F ollow ing recom mendations have been made by e x p e r ts in the f i e l d of a v i a t i o n : A l t i m e t e r : r e t a i n th e s e n s i t i v e ty p e , b u t change th e f a c e to e lim in a te e r r o r s in r e a d i n g . The p r e s e n t se n s i t i v e a l t i m e t e r can be a dangerous in s tru m e n t in th e K c o c p i t . I t can e a s i l y be m isre a d by even th e most s k i l l f u l p i l o t s , a c c o rd in g to A ir F orce s c i e n t i s t s . 17 The a l t i m eter i n m ost p r e s e n t day a i r c r a f t c o n s i s t s of two han d s, one r e g i s t e r i n g hundreds o f f e e t , the o th e r in th o u sa n d s. f 16 I b i d . , P* 27. 17 AOPA P i l o t S e c tio n , ”lTew A ltim e te r Is Based On T e s ts By A ir Force E x p e r t s , ” F l y i n g , A p r i l , 1949, p. 5 0 f . 55 I t i s p o s s ib le to m isre a d the i n d i c a t o r by as much as 1000 f e e t . The new s t y l e a l t i m e t e r d e sig n by the A ir F orce has b u t one hand, which r e g i s t e r s and re a d s in hundreds of f e e t , A V eeder-type c o u n te r on the fa c e of the in s tru m e n t i n d i c a t e s tho usand s of f e e t . E x p erien c ed in s tru m e n t p i l o t s were s u b je c te d to t e s t s on b o th a l t i m e t e r s . 18 They av erag e d 3 .5 per c e n t e r r o r on th e new in s tru m e n t and 1 5 .9 p e r c e n t on the p r e s e n t a l t i m e t e r . T e sts a l s o showed t h a t i t took an average of 7 .1 seconds to i n t e r p r e t the p r e s e n t a l t i m e t e r , whereas i t to o k b u t 1 .7 seconds f o r the new a l t i m e t e r . E rro rs most common w ith th e p r e s e n t in s tru m e n t ran up to 1000 f e e t , b u t e r r o r s i n r e a d in g from th e new in s tr u m e n t av erag ed betw een 20 to 30 f e e t . A irsp e e d I n d i c a t o r : r e t a i n in i t s p r e s e n t c o n d it i o n . R e g u la tio n s r e q u i r e i t s u s e . M agnetic D i r e c t io n I n d i c a t o r s to be r e t a i n e d as i t p r e s e n t l y e x i s t s . I t s use i s r e q u i r e d by r e g u l a t i o n . Tachometer and M anifold P re ss u re Gauges; a ta c h o m eter alo n e i s c o n s id e r e d ad eq u ate f o r a f i x e d p i t c h 18 Loc. c i t . 56 p r o p e l l e r , b o th a re needed f o r c o n t r o l l a b l e p i t c h p r o p e l l e r s and a l t i t u d e e n g in e s . In c o r p o r a te b o th in s tr u m e n ts to r e a d on one d i a l . O il P re ss u re and O il Tem perature Gauges: a re to be r e t a i n e d as r e q u i r e d , however, the d i a l shou ld be changed to show g re e n c o lo r f o r norm al o p e ra tio n and th e re b y e lim i n a t i n g the n e c e s s i t y to guess a t the p ro p e r f i g u r e f o r each ty p e of p la n e . S u b s t i t u t i o n can be made of a sm all t h r e e - p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t o r window backed by r e d i n d i c a t i n g l i g h t s . I f p r e s s u r e or te m p e ra tu re i s too low or h ig h , th e r e d l i g h t i s on and tfLt!, low, or ,fH,f, h ig h , show in the window. I f tem p era tu re and p re s s u r e a re norm al the r e d l i g h t i s o ff and an M Nft, norm al, i s shown i n the window. F u e l Q u a n tity Gauge: r e t a i n i n i t s p r e s e n t form or s u b s t i t u t e a re d l i g h t in s tru m e n t i n d i c a t i n g f u e l q u a n t i t y when below o n e -h a If or o n e -q u a r te r t a n k f u l . Gyroscopic Turn and Bank I n d i c a t o r ? r e g u l a t i o n s impose i t s use in in s tru m e n t f l i g h t and can c o n tin u e to be u t i l i z e d unchanged. C lo ck : i n s t a l l one w ith a sweep second h a n d --a r e quirem en t f o r in s tru m e n t f l y i n g . 57 C y lind er Head Tem perature Gauge: a d o p t a t h r e e - p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t o r f o r low, h ig h , and norm al; w ith a r e c o - m endation made f o r a re d back l i g h t v i s i b l e f o r low or h ig h . C a rb u re to r A ir T em p eraturej. use t h r e e - p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t o r . Must show low, i d l i n g ra n g e , and h ig h w ith re d back l i g h t i n g on f o r i c i n g ra n g e . F u e l F r e s s u r e : use of a t h r e e - p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t o r i s s u g g e s te d , showing low, h ig h , and normal p r e s s u r e , w ith r e d back l i g h t on f o r low or h ig h . Ammeter: sho uld be equipped w ith th re e p o s i t i o n s v i s i b l e i n d i c a t i n g d is c h a r g e , no c h arg e, and charge w ith r e d back -u p l i g h t on f o r d is c h a r g e . S u c t io n : co u ld b e s t be v i s u a l i z e d by the use of a r e d i n d i c a t i n g l i g h t showing f,O ff!l f o r norm al, f,0n1 * f o r low. I t i s a ls o su g g e ste d t h a t i t m ight prove w orthw hile to slo p e in s tru m e n t p a n e ls away from the p i l o t , so as to in c r e a s e re a d in g ease of a l l d i a l s . G yroscopic in s tru m e n ts sh ould be mounted s q u a re ly n e a r the to p of the p a n e l. 58 SAFETY BELTS AND SHOULDER HARNESSES C. A. A. f i g u r e s show t h a t more th an 80 per c e n t of dangerous a c c id e n ts a re the r e s u l t of s ta 1 1 - s p in s and c o l l i s i o n s w ith o b je c ts such as t r e e s and w ir e s . S a f e ty b e l t s a re the most e f f e c t i v e means of p ro t e c t i n g o ccupants of p lan e s from c a t a p u l t i n g i n to the fo rw ard s t r u c t u r e , b u t of th e se v e re c ra sh e s s tu d ie d , 47 per c e n t o f th e s a f e t y b e l t s used f a i l e d to h o ld . Hugh de Haven, D ire c to r of Crash I n j u r y R esearch a t C o rn e ll U n i v e r s i ty , recommended t h a t the e n t i r e s a f e t y b e l t assem bly on l i g h t a i r c r a f t be s t r e n g t h e n e d .. As a r e s u l t of th e c ra s h i n j u r y s t u d i e s , o f f i c i a l s recommended t h a t i n d i v id u a l s a f e t y b e l t s be d esig n ed to w ith s ta n d 4,000 pou nds., The C o uncil a ls o su g g e ste d th e fo llo w in g s a f e t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s to e n g in e e r s , r e l a t i v e to in c r e a s in g s a f e t y . ^ 0 1 . B e lts h old c e n t r a l p o r t io n of body to cab in s t r u c t u r e • 2. S e rio u s i n j u r y between knees and c h e s t does n o t u s u a l l y occur u n le s s the b e l t or su rro u n d in g cab in ’’B lu e p r in t f o r a S a fe r P l a n e , ” F l y i n g , A ugust, 1948, p . 62. 20 AOPA P i l o t S e c tio n , ’’Data on S a f e ty B e l t s , ” ■ F l y i n g , A p r i l , 1948, p. 58g. __________ __________ _________ 59 s t r u c t u r e f a i l s , 3. P o rtio n s of th e body n o t h a rn e ss e d f l y up w ith th e v e o l o c i t y of the c ra s h and s t r i k e the a i r c r a f t s t r u c tu re which has a lr e a d y sto p p e d , 4 . F a t a l i n j u r i e s i n s u rv iv a b le a c c id e n ts u s u a l ly r e s u l t from head i n j u r i e s . v 5. Safe p r o t e c t i o n f o r head and sh o u ld e rs may be sought by the use of sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s or c h e s t s t r a p s . 6. G re a te r s a f e t y may be a s s u re d by th e use of " s o f t " m e t a l l i c s t r u c t u r e s f o r p a r t s w ith in range of the h ead . I t has been f u r t h e r observed t h a t m a n u fa c tu re rs sho uld lo c a te g a d g ets as f a r away from any p o s s ib le head c o n ta c t as p o s s ib l e . The I n s t a l l a t i o n of sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s e s i n c i v i l i a n p la n e s i s alm ost n o n - e x i s t e n t , though r e c e n t l y s e v e r a l a i r c r a f t m a n u fa c tu re rs have made them o p t io n a l w ith the p u rc h a s e r. The m i l i t a r y had p r e v io u s ly ig n o re d them f o r a long tim e, u n t i l s t a t i s t i c s r e v e a le d t h a t a g r e a t m a j o r i t y of a c c id e n ts had in v o lv e d th e head and s h o u ld e r s . The U. S. Army A ir F o rces d id n o t ad o p t the sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s as s ta n d a rd equipment u n t i l December, 1943.21 21 F . R. S to u t, "The Case f o r Shoulder S t r a p s , 1 1 F l y i n g . Jan u ary , 1948, p . 55._____________________________________ 60 The Navy began i t s use in 1942. Many p i l o t s worked o ut t h e i r own s a f e t y sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s e s b e fo re th e y were i n s t a l l e d i n a i r c r a f t by e i t h e r th e Army or Navy. Design was n o t an e a sy m a tte r because of th e re q u ire m e n ts of the s t r a p s . They had to p re v e n t the p i l o t ' s head and sh o u ld e rs from c ra s h in g i n t o forw ard s t r u c t u r e s ; th e y had to a llo w freedom of movement under a l l c o n d it i o n s , and y e t hold the p i l o t f i r m l y in h i s s e a t ; th ey had to be q u ic k ly a d j u s t ab le and y e t so w ell d e sig n ed t h a t th e p i l o t co u ld q u ic k ly r e l e a s e h im s e lf i n an emergency. The d e s ig n t h a t O liv e r S u tto n produced in 1917 was a fo u r s t r a p arra n g em e n t, because a s i n g l e - l a p or s tr a p p in g b e l t was found to be u n s a t i s f a c t o r y d u rin g p ro lon ged i n v e r te d f l i g h t , o r f l i g h t which produced n e g a tiv e G’s .2 2 His d e sig n was in te n d e d to h o ld the p i l o t ' s b u tto c k s to th e s e a t i n a l l c o n d itio n s of f l i g h t ; to a llo w ample tu rn in g movement, to p ro v id e r a p i d , combined f a s t e n i n g and a d j u s t ment to the p i l o t ’s b u i ld ; and to p ro v id e a q u ic k r e l e a s e workable i n a l l c o n d it i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith the p i l o t ' s w eight i n th e s t r a p s . His o r i g i n a l d e sig n was m o d ifie d s l i g h t l y b u t rem ained fu n d a m e n ta lly uncahnged. The 'Royal Air Force each y e a r so u g h t to improve th e h a r n e s s . 22 I b i d . , p . 3 4 . 61 One of th e th in g s i t w ished a l t e r e d was th e method of ad ju stm e n t to b u i l d , which S u tto n b ro u g h t a b o u t thro ugh a s e r i e s of h o le s in the s tr a p s * Buckles were in tro d u c e d to a ch iev e th e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s . The A ir Force sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s i s c o n s t r u c t e d of one and t h r e e - q u a r t e r in c h webbing s t r a p s which p a ss over the sh o u ld e rs and over a b a r a t th e back of the s e a t , where th ey a re jo in e d and a tt a c h e d to a lo c k in g mechanism. F r o n t m e ta l f a s t e n i n g s hook th e s h o u ld e r h a rn e s s to the c o n v e n tio n a l s e a t b e l t . A s i n g l e le v e r c o n tr o l s th e u n lo c k in g of b o th b e l t s . A nother l e v e r a llo w s the sh o u ld e r s t r a p s to be lo o se n ed so t h a t the p i l o t may move f r e e l y o r , i n th e lo ck ed p o s i t i o n , ho ld him f i r m l y to th e back of the y s e a t . Newer in n o v a tio n s a u to m a t i c a ll y lo c k the s t r a p s when sudden f o r c e i s a p p li e d , such as would occur in the r a p i d d e c e l e r a t i o n of a c r a s h . The sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s has proven i t s e l f to be of g r e a t value i n the c o n t r o l l e d or p a r t i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d type of c r a s h . But, where th e a i r c r a f t h u r t l e s to th e e a r t h i n alm ost a v e r t i c a l d iv e , as happens when p a r t s of the s t r u c t u r e a re knocked or s h o t o f f , th e sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s or any b e l t i s of no v a lu e . Most c i v i l i a n a c c id e n ts a re n o t 23 I b i d .. p . 8 5 . 62 of t h a t ty p e , b u t w ith in t h i s group the s h o u ld e r and s a f e t y b e l t h a rn e s s co m bination could save many a p i l o t from d e a th or s e r io u s i n j u r y . Shoulder h a rn e s s i n s t a l l a t i o n in p r i v a t e a i r c r a f t i s s t i l l in i t s i n f a n t s t a g e . In some a i r c r a f t p la n ts p ro g re s s i s b e in g made by e x p e rim e n ta l s t a g e s , w h ile in o t h e r s , l i t t l e or no work has been done. More p ro g r e s s iv e companies have made s i m i l a r sh o u ld e r h a rn e s s equipment o p t io n a l w ith th e p u rc h a s e r. CONCLUSIONS As shown from f u l l y documented r e p o r t s , w eather a c c id e n ts a re of the most severe ty p e . A g r e a t many a re the r e s u l t of p i l o t s h a v in g t r a v e l e d i n t o u n fa v o ra b le w eather b e fo re th e y r e a l i z e d I t . I t would seem to be h i g h ly im p o rta n t in p i l o t t r a i n i n g to r e c e iv e adequate i n s t r u c t i o n in th e r e c o g n i t i o n of w e ath e r c o n d itio n s in f l i g h t , and from sequence r e p o r t s . P i l o t s must become more accustom ed to going to the C. A. A. w eath er bureau f o r a s s i s t a n c e . I n s t r u c t o r s can h e lp by making th e s tu d e n t use C. A. A. f a c i l i t i e s f u l l y and h a b i t u a l l y b e fo re each c r o s s - c o u n tr y f l i g h t . ! The recommended in s tru m e n t tim e on th e commercial ■ flight program sho u ld become a must f o r a comm ercial 63 l i c e n s e and a p r iv a te l i c e n s e . An i n te n s i v e course need n o t be g iv e n , b u t enough f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n must be a ch iev e d so t h a t p i l o t s w i l l no lo n g e r a llo w them selves to b e lie v e t h a t th ey can d is c e r n up and down w ith no v i s u a l r e f e r e n c e to th e groun d. They shou ld be s u f f i c i e n t l y f a m i l i a r i z e d w ith th e p rim ary in s tru m e n ts so t h a t th e y can tu rn around and g e t o u t of poor w e a th e r, i f need b e , b e fo re i t i s too l a t e . i C o l li s io n s t h a t a re the r e s u l t of show ing -off can n o t be p re v e n te d by b e t t e r d e sig n ed a i r c r a f t or s t i f f e r f l i g h t program s. Such v i o l a t o r s must be d e a l t w ith by a p p r o p r ia te l e g i s l a t i o n . Some c o l l i s i o n s could be p r e ve n te d by b e t t e r d e s ig n in g i n a i r c r a f t . A C rash I n j u r y R esearch r e p o r t of 1949 su g g e ste d s e v e r a l id e a s f o r im proving the d e sig n of a i r c r a f t so t h a t th e y m ight be s a f e r to o p e ra te and pro v id e more s a f e t y to occupants i n the e v en t of a c c i d e n t . ^ S e v e ra l a i r c r a f t companies have in c lu d e d s a f e t y f e a t u r e s in t h e i r a i r c r a f t . Each d e sig n h aving one or two s a f e t y f e a t u r e s i s n o t enough, and so the w r i t e r , f o r purposes of c l e a r e r p re s e n t a t i o n , p r e s e n ts the fo llo w in g g roup , l i s t i n g a l l : 24 AOPA P i l o t S e c tio n , f,Many A ccid en ts N eed le ss, Survey by C. I . R. I n d i c a te s »1 T .F l y i n g . December, 1949, p. 5 0 f . 64 1. Engine s e c t i o n s and su p p o rts d e sig n e d to ab so rb f o r c e s th ro u g h p r o g r e s s iv e c o l l a p s e , 2. Ho v e r t i c a l or h o r i z o n t a l tu b in g around th e p i l o t . 3 . Landing g e a r w ith e x t r a o r d in a r y e n e rg y -a b s o rb in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and e x tr a - r u g g e d g e a r . 4. U n u su ally s tr o n g o v e r a l l c o c p it s t r u c t u r e . 5 . U nusually s tr o n g o v e r a l l tu rn o v e r s t r u c t u r e . 6. Planes w ith c o n t r o l wheels h a v in g in s tru m e n t p a n e ls moved forw ard away from p i l o t . 7. In stru m e n t p a n e ls d e sig n e d to l e s s e n head i n j u r y . 8. Shoulder h a r n e s s as s ta n d a r d equipm ent. 9 . S tro n g e r s e a t s and s e a t a n c h o ra g e s. 10. P iv o te d backs on fo rw a rd s e a t s , l e s s e n in g chances of i n j u r y to p e rso n s in r e a r s e a t s . 11. W indshield and windows d e sig n e d so t h a t a heavy blow w i l l knock them o u t of t h e i r m ountings i n s t e a d of s h a t t e r i n g them. 12. Forward d ia g o n a l b ra c e s e s p e c i a l l y a rra n g e d so th e y w i l l b u c k le outward under heavy c ra s h lo a d s . 13. C o n tro l w heels w ith s p e c i a l s a f e t y f e a t u r e s . The C ouncil p r o f f e r e d a d d i t i o n a l s u g g e s tio n s In the 65 s t u d y . 25 Recommendations were made to h o ld la n d in g speeds and slowed-down f l i g h t speeds to s i x t y m ile s per hour or l e s s ; to p ro v id e ad eq uate s t a l l w arning in f a s t and slow t u r n s , and to p ro v id e c o n tr o l wheel i n s t a l l a t i o n s w ith an " im p a c t-d ra g ” so as to e f f e c t i v e l y check r e l a t i v e l y h ig h v e l o c i t i e s betw een the head and fo rw ard s t r u c t u r e s . 25 AOPA Hews, ”Crash I n j u r y R e se arch R e p o r t ,” F l y i n g , June, 1948, p. 46. CHAPTER V ACCIDENT EXAMPLES Newspaper a r t i c l e s n o t o r io u s ly p la y up any d ram atic i n c i d e n t . A irp la n e s t h a t c ra s h f i t b e a u t i f u l l y i n to t h i s c c a te g o ry and newsmen d i s p l a y l i t e r a r y t a l e n t i n t h e i r de s c r i p t i o n s of a i r c r a s h e s . One re a s o n perh ap s i s t h a t th e y g e t t h e i r w itn e s s r e p o r t s from people who know l i t t l e or n o th in g a b o u t a v i a t i o n o r a ir p l a n e s and the p i c t u r e i s d i s t o r t e d . A irp lan e c ra s h e s a re s t i l l news. Automobile a c c id e n ts a re so f r e q u e n t t h a t o n ly the more v i o l e n t g e t f u l l p la y i n th e p a p e rs . F ollow ing a re some a c c id e n t examples w ith o u t the newsmanfs f l a i r , e n a b lin g th e r e a d e r to view them o b je c t i v e l y , and t y p if y i n g th o se which occur more f r e q u e n t l y th an m ajor d i s a s t e r s . These accounts a re tak e n from o f f i c i a l a i r p o r t r e p o r t s , and p e rs o n a l o b s e rv a tio n or s tu d ie s by th e w r i t e r . Nose- O ver. An Ercoupe took o ff from Grand C e n tra l T erm inal and fle w to Orange County A ir p o r t a t Santa Ana where i t made a normal a p p ro a ch . I t lan d ed i n a normal a t t i t u d e a b o u t f i f t e e n f e e t s h o r t of the paved runway, on a s t e e l mat which ap p ea re d to be p a r t of the runway. The nose wheel t i re was c u t by the m a t, and blew o u t. P re se n tly : 67 th e nose wheel came o f f and the p lan e nosed o v e r, sk id d ed t h i r t y y ard s to a stop* Weather no f a c t o r . P i l o t was a s tu d e n t w ith a b o u t t h i r t y hours t o t a l f l i g h t tim e. Ground C o l l i s i o n . An Aeronca t r a i n i n g plane was t a x i i n g back to th e sc h o o l p a rk in g a r e a . A C-46 had j u s t lan d ed and waff t a x i i n g in the o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n . The p i l o t of the Aeronca t r i e d to av o id the la r g e a i r c r a f t and, in so d o in g , was v e ry n e ar the edge of th e t a x i s t r i p . Yi/hen the p i l o t t r i e d to tu r n the p la n e , th e l e f t wing came i n c o n ta c t w ith the r i g h t wing of a S tin s o n , which tu rn e d the Aeronca i n t o a n o th e r A eronca. The p i l o t was a s tu d e n t w ith a b o u t t h i r t e e n h o u rs in th e p la n e . I t was recommended t h a t th e s tu d e n ts t a x i a t slow er speeds and c l o s e l y o bserve where th e y were going. M issing a i r c r a f t r e p o r t . A p i l o t , a f t e r b e in g checked i n , th en o u t, took o f f a t 1 6 :0 5 , and was n o t heard, from a f t e r w a r d s . At 17:30 on th e same day, a p lane was seen to c ra s h i n t o Santa Monica Bay two and o n e -h a lf m ile s L f f s h o r e . A b o a t, 200 y ard s from the c ra s h scene ru sh e d Dver, b u t could only sa lv ag e some s e a t cushions and p a r t of th e p r o p e l l e r . A w itn e s s on the b o a t s a id the p lan e dove i n t o th e sea beh ind the b o a t, w h ile th e p l a n e fs engine was ru n n in g wide open. S e a t cu shio ns were 68 i d e n t i f i e d as those of th e r e n t e d a i r c r a f t . I n v e s t i g a t i o n of th e a c c id e n t and p e rs o n a l h i s t o r y of the p i l o t i n d i c a te d a s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n m o tiv e . P i l o t time 3,500 h o u rs . Mid- a i r C o l l i s i o n . An Aeronca was coming in to la n d a t the same time as a S tin s o n a ls o approached f o r la n d in g , above and to the l e f t of th e o th e r p la n e . Close to th e tow er, the Aeronca p i l o t n o tic e d the S tin s o n shadow p a s s in g o v e r, as th e S tin s o n gear s tr u c k the l e f t wing o f the Aeronca. Both a i r c r a f t com pleted t h e i r la n d in g s . A w itn e s s in a f a v o r a b le p o s i t i o n on th e ground s a i d i t ap p ea re d t h a t th e Aeronca c u t i n f r o n t of th e S tin so n which was making a long f i n a l a p p ro a ch . Nose- O ver. A p i l o t was p r a c t i c i n g maneuvers in th e a s s ig n e d p r a c t i c e a r e a , and was p r a c t i c i n g s t a l l s a t 4,000 f e e t . As he p u lle d the p lane i n t o a p ow er-off s t a l l , the c a r b u r e t o r h e a t was p u lle d on and the prop sto p p e d . The p i l o t d iv ed to s t a r t the e n g in e , b u t to no a v a i l , so the p i l o t went i n t o a f i e l d , making anorm al p a t t e r n . In an e f f o r t to avoid power l i n e s , he came over a fe n c e too h ig h . By s l i p p i n g and S - t u r n i n g , the plane land ed n o r m a lly t h r e e - f o u r t h s of the way down th e f i e l d . The p i l o t a p p lie d the brak es to o q u ic k ly and nosed o v e r. P i l o t time 150 h o u rs . Tem perature 59°, dew p o in t 4 7 °. C o l l i s i o n w ith O b je c t. Plane took o f f f o r a b r e a k f a s t f l i g h t and was coming in f o r a la n d in g a t a ra n c h a i r p o r t on an e a s t runway. On f i n a l ap p ro a ch , the p i l o t was w atch ing to see t h a t the Aeronca ahead d id n o t tu r n a c ro s s th e runway. The sun was d i r e c t l y i n the p i l o t fs eyes on f i n a l ap p ro a ch , and he d id n o t see th e w ire s a t th e end of the runway u n t i l th ey were in f r o n t of the w in d s h ie ld . As th e p lan e h i t th e w ir e s , the p i l o t a p p lie d power to c u t them. When the w ires b ro k e , th e a i r c r a f t made a la n d in g , from a h e ig h t of abou t f i f t e e n or tw enty f e e t . Hard h a n d in g. A stu d e n t was p r a c t ic in g s t a l l s a t 4 ,0 0 0 f e e t . He had com pleted s t a l l s from clim b in g turns and n e x t did a normal p o w er-o ff s t a l l , when the en gin e d ie d . P i l o t m in k s i t was due to carb u retor i c e , though he s a id he had th e ca rb u reto r h e a t on during the p reced in g L an eu vers. The p i l o t landed the c r a f t in a b a r le y f i e l d , and in so doin g damaged the r ig h t w heel which b en t the s tr u c tu r a l bars in the f u s e la g e and cracked the w in d s h ie ld . P ilo t tim e about tw enty-tw o h o u rs. C o l l i s i o n w ith G-round. A p i l o t l e t down to the a i r p o rt and e n te r e d the t r a f f i c p a t t e r n i n a normal manner, and p roceeded to la n d . There was a c ro s s wind of a b o u t 70 twenty to tw e n ty - fiv e m ile s per h o u r, so the p i l o t u sed a sm all amount of power (800 to 900 rpm) on ap p ro a ch . The p lan e h i t the ground wheels f i r s t , and as the p i l o t fo u g h t w ith th e g u s ts of wind, the l e f t wing dipped v a ry c lo s e to the g ro u n d . He then a p p lie d f u l l t h r o t t l e and r i g h t ru d d e r to p u l l th e nose b a ck . This had no immediate e f f e c t . The p i l o t th en e a se d o f f th e r u d d e r and a tte m p te d to f l y the p la n e . At t h i s tim e, wind was d i r e c t l y c ro s s e d from the r i g h t . The p i l o t had the s t i c k b ack , which k e p t th e a i r c r a f t c lo s e to th e s t a l l i n g p o i n t . When re c o v e ry was alm ost com plete, a n o th e r g u s t o f wind r a i s e d the r i g h t wing and th e l e f t wing s t a l l e d ; whereupon the p i l o t used f u l l l e f t ru d d e r to s t r a i g h t e n th e p la n e , b u t th e l e f t wing t i p dragged th e ground. The r i g h t wing s t a l l e d and came down a f t e r th e t a i l wheel h i t . The r i g h t g ear was sh e a re d on im p a ct. B efore th e p i l o t a tte m p te d a la n d in g , and w h ile s t i l l i n f l i g h t , th e r i g h t c a b in window blew o u t. Commercial p i l o t w ith 282 h o u rs . C o l l i s i o n w ith Ground. A p i l o t came i n f o r a la n d in g u nd er g u s ty crossw ind c o n d it i o n s . When the p lane was two f e e t or so o f f th e ground i n a s t a l l e d a t t i t u d e , a g u s t of wind p ick ed up the l e f t wing. The p i l o t t r i e d to compensate by a p p ly in g l e f t a i l e r o n and ru d d e r. The p lane h i t th e ground and g ro u n d lo oped to t h e l e f t . P i l o t th en___ 71 a p p lie d r i g h t ru d d er and th e a i r c r a f t nosed o v e r. P r iv a te p i l o t w ith 136 h o u rs. 12 and rem ained i n the p a t t e r n . The p i l o t c a l l e d on down wind le g f o r la n d in g c le a ra n c e and was c le a r e d , b u t the appro ach was n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y to th e p i l o t , f o r when the plane was o p p o site the tower a t an a l t i t u d e of about f i f t y f e e t , the power was a p p lie d and the a i r c r a f t clim bed to ap p ro x im ate ly one hundred f e e t b e fo re f l a p s and gear were r e t r a c t e d . When the a i r c r a f t was abo u t one m ile so u th of th e f i e l d , i t nosed down s h a rp ly and landed i n the r i v e r . On th e go-around the p r o p e l l e r snapped, and th e unb alan ced prop began shakin g the engine a p a r t and p a r t s f e l l w ith v i o l e n t f o r c e in a l l d i r e c t i o n s . The p i l o t had been i n s t r u c t i n g a n o th e r man i n la n d in g s . He took over when the prop snapped, c u t the sw itc h e s and la n d e d . Cut f i n g e r and damage from w heels-up la n d in g in the r i v e r were th e on ly damages• S p i r a l d i v e . An Ercoupe a tte m p te d a la n d in g a t Grand C e n tra l A ir p o r t w ith a SSW wind a t te n to tw enty mph. I t g o t onto the ground b u t a g u s t of wind c au g h t the r i g h t wing and the p i l o t opened the t h r o t t l e and a d v is e d he would go round a g a in . He c i r c l e d th e p a t t e r n and l e f t M echanical F a i l u r e . A pion took o f f on runway 72 th e t r a f f i c j u s t w est of th e tow er, f l y i n g in th e d i r e c t i o n of Disney S tu d io s . A s h o r t tim e l a t e r , an Ercoupe appeared w est of th e f i e l d and began to s p i r a l to the l e f t . The c i r c l e s became sm a lle r and s m a lle r , f i n a l l y d is a p p e a rin g behin d th e t r e e s . Smoke then a p p ea re d . The p lan e had c ra sh e d in the s t r e e t s of Burbank, sk id d ed i n t o a gas s t a t i o n p a rk in g l o t , h i t two parked c a r s , and the engine h i t a park ed t r u c k . A i r c r a f t and p i l o t were b u rn ed . I t was l a t e r r e p o r t e d t h a t th e p i l o t had s u f f e r e d a h e a r t a t t a c k p r i o r to th e a c c i d e n t . W eather C ra s h . A G lendale p i l o t too k o f f from Grand C e n tra l A i r p o r t on December 7, and c ra sh e d on Mount Topatopa a b o u t t h i r t y to f o r t y - f i v e m in u tes a f t e r t a k e - o f f . The w eather was p o o r. The plan e ic e d up and tMe p i l o t pancaked th e p lane on a s l o p e . He was knocked uncon scious and was n o t found f o r s i x d a y s. He had s t a r t e d toward c i v i l i z a t i o n when r e s c u e r s found him. The a i r c r a f t , a C ulver V, was a t o t a l l o s s . The p i l o t had been e n ro u te to H am ilton A ir Force b ase v ia S an ta B arbara and Paso R o b les. C o l l i s i o n w ith Ground. A woman s tu d e n t p i l o t was s h o o tin g la n d in g s , when on one t r i p around the f i e l d , the engine q u i t a t a b o u t 1,000 f e e t . She b ro u g h t th e p lane in from th e w est sid e of th e f i e l d and f a i l e d to lan d i n a 73 c l e a r f i e l d b e sid e th e Southern P a c if i c t r a c k s . I n s te a d , she c ra sh e d in a d i t c h betw een two power l i n e s , over a fe n c e and j u s t s h o r t of th e t r a c k s . M id -a ir C o l l i s i o n * E a r ly in November, 1951, a com m ercial p i l o t who was e n r o l l e d in the f l i g h t i n s t r u c t o r c o u rse a t B e llflo w e r A i r p o r t , took o ff in the d i r e c t i o n of I the a s s ig n e d p r a c t i c e a r e a . The p a th to th e a re a c ro s se d the v i c i n i t y of Los A lam itos Naval A ir S t a t i o n . . I t was d e term in ed t h a t the Cessna t r a i n i n g plane was in tu r n in g and clim b in g f l i g h t when i t c o l l i d e d w ith a Navy F -6-F a l s o i n tu r n in g f l i g h t . The o u te r h a l f of th e Cessna l e f t wing was sh e a re d o f f and th e p lane spun to th e ground. The p i l o t was f a t a l l y i n j u r e d . The Navy p lan e plunged o u t of c o n t r o l to th e ground and b u rn e d . The p i l o t was k i l l e d , l e a t h e r c o n d itio n s w ith c e i l i n g 3,000 f e e t , v i s i b i l i t y seven m il e s . A ccid en t o c c u rre d somewhere between a l t i t u d e s of 1,500 and 2,000 f e e t . C o llis io n with Ground and O bjects. A C iv il Air P atrol group was holding an a ir meet one hot summer a f t e r noon a t Lake E lsin o re. An event schedules on the program Las "bomb" dropping, with f l o u r - f i l l e d bags. One p articu lar a ir c r a f t, a Vultee BT-13, came in low, f i f t y to one hundred f e e t over the ta rg et. The "bombardier” was In the rear 74 s e a t . The p i l o t w ished th e o th e r man to se e b e t t e r , so he sk id d e d a c r o s s the t a r g e t s l i g h t l y to th e r i g h t . A fte r p a s s in g th e t a r g e t the p i l o t tu rn e d to the l e f t a t a low a i r s p e e d . Being i n a s k id b e fo re t u r n in g , and tu r n in g a t a low a ir s p e e d , th e p i l o t f a i l e d to observe the a i r c r a f t b e g in n in g to s t a l l . When he d id , he a p p lie d f u l l t h r o t t l e , b u t i n the in c r e a s e d te m p e ra tu re , the o n ly th in g t h a t took h o ld was the to rq u e which p u lle d th e a i r c r a f t s h a r p ly to the ground, th e l e f t wing s t r i k i n g f i r s t . The p lane th en c a rtw h e e le d i n t o a parked a i r c r a f t , d e m o lish in g b o th c r a f t i n the e n su in g c o l l i s i o n . (The w r i t e r had v a c a te d th e i l l - f a t e d parked p lan e b u t m in utes b e f o r e . ) C o l l i s i o n w ith Ob.1 e c t . A newly p a in t e d a i r c r a f t t a x i e d o u t of h an g ar and onto th e t a x i s t r i p a t B e llflo w e r A i r p o r t , h e s i t a t i n g two or th r e e tim es e n r o u te , as i f i n te n d in g to r e t u r n . The p i l o t then made a b r i e f check of th e engine and to o k o f f a g a i n s t th e t r a f f i c t e e . In th e d i r e c t i o n t h a t th e p i l o t ch ose, the p a t t e r n would have been to th e r i g h t . He tu rn e d l e f t . The p a th he took c a r r i e d him over town. When the plane had re a c h e d an a l t i t u d e o f, ro u g h ly , 500 f e e t , the engine sto p p e d and th e p i l o t a tte m p te d to g l id e to th e a i r p o r t and la n d a c r o s s th e runway. A d jacent to th e a i r p o r t i s a h ig h schoo l over which the p lan e t r i e d to p a s s . J u s t a t th e edge of th e school y a rd , 75 th© plane s t r u c k the sch o o l fen c e f l i p p i n g over on i t s hack onto a i r p o r t p r o p e r t y . P i l o t s u s ta i n e d head c u t s . The s a f e t y b e l t a p p eared to have been bro k en on im p a c t. The p i l o t had p r e v io u s ly com plained of f a u l t y o i l p r e s s u r e and was of the o p in io n t h a t t h i s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the engine f a i l u r e . Summary. The m a j o r it y of th e s e a c c id e n ts a re t y p i c a l e n c o u n te rs among p r i v a t e p i l o t s , w ith the e x c e p tio n of the s u i c id e and h e a r t a t t a c k c ases c i t e d . These a c c id e n ts p ro b a b ly could have been p re v e n te d . In th e f i r s t example, where th e t i r e was c u t by the s t e e l mat a t the end of the runway, b e t t e r d e sig n of the runway a rrang em en t shou ld have been made. This has sin c e been d o n e . In th e second exam ple, i n which th e s tu d e n t t a x ie d i n t o a number of a i r c r a f t , th e re seems to have been poor v judgment e x e r c is e d , and p e rh a p s , too,, th e i n s t r u c t o r d id n o t warn th e s tu d e n t ab o u t th e h a za rd s of f a s t t a x i i n g . One cannot say d e f i n i t e l y , because the f a c t s do n o t i n d i c a te w hether the s tu d e n t had or had n o t been warned p r i o r to th e a c c id e n t. In th e a c c id e n t where the Aeronca c u t in f r o n t of the S tin s o n c r a f t , h i t t i n g i t in m i d - a i r , i t would ap pear t h a t th e p i l o t s of one or b o th were n o t suf f i c i e n t l y _ ________ 76 o b s e rv a n t. G ocpit v i s i o n c ould have been a p o s s ib le f a c t o r , b u t p i l o t s shou ld e x e r c i s e keener aw areness o f o th e r air** c r a f t , as w e ll as t h e i r own, in the v i c i n i t y of a i r p o r t s . Xn the n e x t exam ple, the p i l o t co ndu cted th e emer gency la n d in g n o rm a lly , u n t i l h i s p o ise and calm van ish ed and he a p p lie d the b ra k e s too q u ic k ly . This i n d ic a t e s a n o th e r c ase of poor judgment and im proper use of c a r b u r e t o r h e a t . The p i l o t a p p a r e n tly had g a th e re d too much c a r b u r e t o r ic e b e fo re r e a l i z i n g i t . Perhaps i f the p i l o t who h i t the w ire s a t th e end of th e runway, had th o ro u g h ly i n s p e c te d th e a i r p o r t w hile a l o f t and b e fo re a tte m p tin g a la n d in g , th e a c c id e n t would n e v er have o c c u rre d . Some w ire s a r e e x tre m e ly d i f f i c u l t to s e e , however, and i f the a i r p o r t i s so s i t u a t e d t h a t many la n d in g s a re e f f e c t e d while f a c i n g the su n , e v e ry e f f o r t sh o u ld be made t o remove the w ir e s . Poor te c h n iq u e seems to be in v o lv e d in the c ra sh e s on la n d in g s , a s w e ll as in th e c ra s h due to i c i n g of the p lan e i n poor w e a th e r. Sm all p lan e s a re n o t in te n d e d to be flown i n f o u l w eath e r f o r p r o t r a c t e d le n g th s of tim e . In th e a c c id e n t where the s tu d e n t and m i l i t a r y c r a f t c o l l i d e d in m i d - a i r , a co m binatio n of poor c o c p it v i s i b i l i t y and i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s cou ld have caused the a c c i d e n t . 77 There would appear to be no o th e r re a s o n th a n poor judgment in v o lv e d in the a c c id e n t where the BT-13 c ra sh e d i n t o a p ark ed p la n e . I t i s p o s s ib l e t h a t th e p i l o t d id n o t p o ss e s s s u f f i c i e n t f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n w ith t h i s c r a f t , o r t h a t he d id n o t r e c e i v e p ro p er i n s t r u c t i o n i n aerodynam ics which would en ab le him to re c o g n iz e th e dangerous s i t u a t i o n he was b u i l d i n g . In th e f i n a l example we observe a n o th e r case of v e ry poor judgm ent. The p i l o t had e v id e n tl y been aware of some degree of m a lf u n c tio n , b u t d e s p i te t h i s f a c t , to o k o f f a g a i n s t the d i r e c t i o n of t r a f f i c . He broke many r u l e s of s a f e t y and e f f i c i e n t conduct b e fo re h i t t i n g the ground. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS I t has been shown t h a t p r i v a t e p i l o t s cause most of th e non a i r c a r r i e r a c c id e n ts as c o n t r a s t e d w ith commercial or s tu d e n t p i l o t s * Remedy must be m a in ly d i r e c t e d to t h e s e . Most of the a c c id e n ts o c c u rre d i n non-com m ercial d a y l i g h t o p e r a t io n s , c lo s e to home, where the p i l o t s sh o u ld have been a t l e i s u r e and c a r e f u l in t h e i r p la n n in g . The number of a c c id e n ts i n c u r r e d by p r i v a t e p i l o t s in t h i s c a te g o ry m ust th e n indicate"" t h a t th e r e e x i s t s a need f o r c o r r e c t i o n of la p s e s in t r a i n i n g , c o n tr o l a f t e r g r a d u a tio n from t r a i n in g program s, or i n o th e r f a c t o r s . In the s t a t i s t i c a l s tu d y of t h i s work, i t i s r e v e a le d t h a t p r i v a t e p i l o t s ob t a i n i n g l i c e n s e s i n Alabama had a p a r t i c u l a r l y poor r e c o r d . An overwhelming m a j o r i t y of a c c id e n ts a re c i t e d as the r e s u l t s of p i l o t e r r o r s . Three main c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of t h i s type comprise the m a j o r i t y w ith in the group, namely; r e c k l e s s f l y i n g , f a i l u r e to m a in ta in f l y i n g sp e ed , and v i s u a l f l i g h t i n t o in s tru m e n t w e a th e r. R eck less f l y i n g must be s e v e r e ly d e a l t w ith by en f o r c e d l e g i s l a t i o n . Perhaps a system s i m i l a r to t h a t of P e n n sy lv an ia c o u ld b e s t be u s e d . (See C hapter I I I ) I n s t r u c t o r s and exam iners should r e f u s e to recommend l i c e n s i n g 79 to p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous p i l o t s * A c c id e n t-p ro n e t e s t i n g has been begun on autom obile d r i v e r s , and co u ld be u n d e r tak e n w ith g r e a t advantage to p i l o t s as w ell* W eather a c c id e n ts app ear to be the most s e v e re , because of the v i o l e n t r e s u l t s of a i r c r a f t h i t t i n g t e r r a i n a t h ig h sp e e d s , and g e n e r a l l y o u t of c o n t r o l . I t i s recom mended t h a t in s tru m e n t e x p e rie n c e of s im u la te d n a tu r e be m andatory f o r p r i v a t e and com m ercial p i l o t s , as th e s e r a t i n g s p r e s e n t l y e x is t* C o n stan t a t t e n t i o n to d e sig n i n a i r c r a f t sh ould be m a in ta in e d i n o rd e r to improve s a f e t y m easures and f u r t h e r p r o t e c t o ccu p a n ts of a i r c r a f t i n e v e n t : of c r a s h . S p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n sh o u ld be d i r e c t e d , t o sh o u ld e r h a r n e s s e s . P re c ed in g t e x t r e v e a l s t h a t most s e r i o u s or f a t a l I n j u r i e s in v o lv e the upper tr u n k and head r e g i o n s , which can be sub s t a n t i a l l y p r o t e c te d w ith sh o u ld e r h a r n e s s e s . A i r c r a f t sh o u ld a l s o be s i m p l i f i e d and s t a n d a r d iz e d , wherever p o s s i b l e , so t h a t p i l o t s a re n o t c o n fro n te d w ith a ffs tra n g e a n im a l” each tim e th ey s e t f o o t in a n o th e r m anu factured p ro d u c t, or a model w ith which th e y may n o t be f a m i l i a r . Ground c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y and v i s i b i l i t y can be improved c o r re s p o n d in g ly w ith b e t t e r placem ent of th e v a rio u s knobs, g a d g e ts , and n e c e s s a ry i n s tr u m e n ts . RECOMMENDATIONS 80 The w r i t e r r e s p e c t f u l l y p r o f f e r s the fo llo w in g sug g e s tio n s and recom m endations w ith a view to b e n e f i t t i n g p r i v a t e f l y e r s and p r i v a t e a v i a t i o n on th e w hole. While th ey may n o t be th e f i n a l answer to the problem s of l e s s e n in g the fre q u e n c y and s e v e r i t y of a c c i d e n t s , i t i s hoped t h a t some of the id e a s p r e s e n te d may prove f e a s i b l e in r e ducing th e a c c id e n t r a t e , ever r e p r e s e n t i n g i l l - a f f o r d e d l o s s e s to b o th p r i v a t e p i l o t s and t h e i r a i r c r a f t . I t i s recommended t h a t sta n d a rd s be a d a p te d to th e e s ta b lis h m e n ts of b o th F i r s t C lass and Second C lass P r iv a te l i c e n s i n g , and t h a t th e s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s be b a sed upon f l i g h t e x p e rie n c e and a d d i t i o n a l ground sc h o o l t r a i n i n g . This system of t r a i n i n g would n o t o b lig e a s tu d e n t to u n d e r tak e a program beyond h i s n e e d s. He co u ld v o l u n t a r i l y de v o te h i s e f f o r t s to stu d y c u lm in a tin g in : I . Second C lass P r i v a te L icen se A. I n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e p i l o t had com pleted minimum re q u ire m e n ts f o r a p r i v a t e l i c e n s e . Second C lass P r i v a te l i c e n s e b e in g g iv en upon comple t i o n of approved sch o o l minimums as th e y p r e s e n t l y e x i s t . I I . F i r s t C lass P r i v a te L icense __________A. To be o b ta in e d u p on compl e t i on_of c e r t a i n ________ 81 ground sch o o l re q u ire m e n ts and a d d i t i o n a l f l i g h t re q u ire m e n ts : 1. Ground schoo l im p lie d f i f t y hours of p r e p a r a t i o n in c lu d in g aerodynam ics, c i v i l a i r r e g u l a t i o n s , n a v ig a ti o n , m etero lo g y , g e n e r a l s e r v ic e of a i r c r a f t , throug h f o r mal o r co rresp o n d en ce c o u rs e s of study* 2. P l i g h t e x p e rie n c e re q u ire m e n ts would be one hundred minimum hours in c lu d in g f i v e hours o f n ig h t f l y i n g , f i v e hours o f sim u l a t e d in s tru m e n t e x p e r ie n c e , f i v e hours of r a d i o te c h n iq u e , p ro ced u re and p r a c t i c e ; b u t more d u a l c r o s s - c o u n tr y e x p e rie n c e un der v a rie d f l i g h t c o n d it i o n s , b o th p r e p a r a t o r y and a l o f t . 3. The minimum h o u rs on the approved sc h o o l programs could be red u c ed o n ly to th e ex t e n t t h a t the above re q u ire m e n ts a re m et. In th e w r i t e r ’s o p in io n , th e r e a re s e v e r a l p e r s u a s iv e argum ents s u b s t a n t i a t i n g th e se p r o p o s a ls . 1. I f a c c e p te d , t h i s p la n m ight p ro v id e the stim u lu s f o r a p i l o t to g ra d u a te from second c l a s s s t a t u s to f i r s t c la s s w ith l i t t l e e f f o r t on h i s p a r t , and a t the same tim e , to r e c e iv e v a lu a b le and e s s e n t i a l work. 82 2* The p la n co u ld a c t i v a t e a re sp o n se on th e p a r t of o p e ra to r s t o conduct approved sc h o o ls w ith q u a l i f i e d i n s t r u c t o r s • 3 . These recom m endations would encourage p i l o t s to o b ta in a p r i v a t e l i c e n s e w ith o u t i n i t i a l and a d d i t i o n a l ex p e n se, and would p r e s e n t a g o a l toward se lf-im p ro v e m e n t, w ith no a t t e n d a n t com pulsion to com plete th e cou rse le a d in g to a com m ercial l i c e n s e . 4 . I f a d o p te d , such p ro p o s a ls would enable o p e ra t o r s to g a in i n s i g h t i n t o th e c l a s s e s of p i l o t s to whom th e y r e n t p la n e s , and t o r e s t r i c t or p e rm it f l i g h t a c c o r d i n g ly . 5. The fo rem o st o b j e c ti v e w ith in th e se s u g g e s tio n s i s b o th to c r e a t e w ith in the p i l o t a d e s i r e to in c r e a s e h i s p r o f i c i e n c y , and to d im in ish a c c id e n ts caused by in a d e q u ate knowledge abou t h i s a i r p l a n e ’s p erform an ce, c r o s s c o u n try f l y i n g , w eather c o n d it i o n s , r a d i o te c h n iq u e , and p ro p er c o n t r o l of h i s c r a f t sho uld v i s u a l r e f e r e n c e to the ground be l o s t . I t would appear t h a t th e p r i v a t e p i l o t becomes en d an gered because of e xceed ing e i t h e r h i s own or h i s a i r c r a f t ’s l i m i t a t i o n s , im proper c r o s s - c o u n tr y f l y i n g , poor 'w eather rec o g n iz a n c e and r a d i o te c h n iq u e s r e s u l t i n g i n l o s s of a i r c r a f t c o n t r o l . I f a p i l o t has some knowledge of how 83 to keep th e c r a f t r i g h t s id e up, he w i l l n o t be so l i k e l y , when in an u n fa v o ra b le c o n d itio n , to become p anicky and c r a s h , as one who has n o t had ad eq uate p r e p a r a t i o n . Of g r e a t e r im p o rtan c e , a f t e r a p i l o t has had some in stru m e n t t r a i n i n g , he w i l l be more l i k e l y to r e s t r i c t h im s e lf in m a rg in a l w e a th e r, inasm uch as w ith o u t t h i s t r a i n i n g , he i s g e n e r a l l y la b o r in g under th e assu m ption t h a t i t i s e asy to f l y a p la n e , where e x p e rie n c e may prove t h i s u n t r u e . Radio ' > t r a i n i n g can h e lp p i l o t s i n overcoming ,!mike f r i g h t ” and a s s i s t him g r e a t l y sh o u ld he become l o s t or f i n d h im s e lf o f f c o u rs e . I t can a s s i s t tower o p e ra to r s in everyday f l y i n g o p e ra tio n s i n a i r p o r t s equipped w ith r a d io c o n t r o l s . T ra in in g i n n i g h t f l y i n g can g iv e a d d i t i o n a l s a f e t y in su ra n c e t o Joe P i l o t . He w i l l n o t be as l i k e l y to have an a c c id e n t on an a i r p o r t i n the d a rk , nor w i l l he be as l i k e l y to g e t l o s t sh o u ld h is f l i g h t c o n tin u e a f t e r n i g h t f a l l . The w r i t e r h as e n c o u n te re d more than one p i l o t who w i l l n o t even b e g in a c r o s s - c o u n tr y f l i g h t , because d a rk n e ss may o v e rta k e him © nroute. To summarize, a f i r s t c l a s s p r i v a t e l ic e n s e would in c r e a s e the w e lfa re of a l l p r i v a t e p i l o t s and r e i n f o r c e e x i s t i n g s a f e t y m easures f o r p r i v a t e f l y i n g on the w hole. However, th e l i c e n s i n g re q u ire m e n ts on t h i s l e v e l a re con s i d e r e d s t r i n g e n t , te n d in g to d isc o u ra g e some people from 84 augm enting t h e i r l e i s u r e w ith the p le a s u re of f l y i n g . A second c l a s s p r i v a t e l i c e n s e i s su g g e s te d , th e n , e n a b lin g a p e rso n to o b ta in a l i c e n s e , e n t i t l i n g i t s owner to o p e ra te a p r i v a t e plane w ith c a u tio n and p ro p er re g a rd f o r h is own s a f e t y , f o r th e s a f e t y of o t h e r s , and w ith due r e g ard t o the l i m i t a t i o n s of h i s c r a f t * This would p r e s e n t a s i m i l a r i t y to a r e s t r i c t e d l i c e n s e f o r autom obile o p e ra t o r s , i n s o f a r as o p e ra tio n i s p e r m itte d where q u a li f y in g c o n d itio n s a re m et. I f the su g g e ste d program were conducted in the p ro p er manner and w ith r a m i f i c a t i o n s where needs e x i s t , i t co uld be made v ery d e s i r a b l e f o r p i l o t s to co n tin u e and d i r e c t t h e i r e f f o r t s toward o b ta in in g the h ig h e r p r i v a te c la s s r a t i n g . BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. PERIODICAL ARTICLES "A cciden t Proneness Confined to Few P e o p le, a R ecent Survey D i s c l o s e s , ” AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p . 50g, November, 1949. AOPA News, F l y i n g , p. 46, June, 1948. rfAOPA Urges F u e l Valves Be Dropped from R e q u ire m e n ts ,” AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p. 50a, June, 1949. " B lu e p rin t f o r a S a fe r P l a n e , ” F l y i n g , pp. 26-74, J u ly , 1949 "C rash S a f e ty Can Be E n g in e e re d ," A v ia tio n Week,- pp. 28-29, March, 1950. "Data on S a f e ty B e l t s , " AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p . 58g, A p r i l , 1948. "D esign Out th e A c c id e n ts ," AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p. 58g, December, 1948. E d i t o r i a l , AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p. 58g, Ja n u a ry , 1948. " E n g in e s 1 F u e l Systems L eading H azard ," AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p . 50c, A p r i l , 1949. "H igher S k i l l Requirem ents S u gg ested A f te r P r iv a te P i l o t A c cid e n t S t u d i e s ," C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s A d m in is tra tio n J o u r n a l , 1 2 :3 8 , A p r il 20, 1951. "Many A c cid e n ts N e e d le ss, Survey by C. I . R. I n d i c a t e s , " AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p . 58d, Ju n e, 1948. "New A ltim e te r I s Based on T e s ts by A ir Force E x p e r ts ," AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p. 5 0 f , December, 1949. " S tic k -S h a k e r L a t e s t A d d itio n to S t a l l - i a r n e r , " AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p . 50g, November 1949. "The S houlder H arness Q u e stio n ," AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , ' pp. 3 3-85 , Ja n u a ry , 1948. 8? "U nited S t a t e s R e g is te r e d C i v i l A i r c r a f t , " C i v i l Aeronau t i c s A d m in is tr a tio n J o u r n a l , 1 3 :5 5 , June 20, 1952. D a g g e tt, Max J r . , " L e t fs S im p lify the P a n e l," F l y i n g , pp. 26-27, F e b ru a ry , 1952. H o ldren, R u s s e l, "B u ild B e tte r P la n e s ," AOPA P i l o t , F l y i n g , p. 58d, Ju n e, 1948. Owen, W ilfre d , "Danger on th e A i r p o r t , " F l y i n g , p p . 23-71, March, 1948. W ilson, H arlan d, "Those N eedless A c c id e n ts ," F l y i n g , pp. 26-74, J u ly , 1949. W in te r, W illiam , "P en n sy lv an ia T ackles th e F ly in g Hoodlum," F ly in g , pp. 14-66, March, 1948. B. BULLETINS " A i r c r a f t Use i n 1947," R esearch D iv is io n , O ffic e of A v ia tio n In fo rm a tio n , C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s Adminis t r a t i o n . pp. 1-62, F e b ru a ry , 1949. "A S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly sis of Non-Air C a r r i e r A i r c r a f t A cci d e n ts f o r the Year 1948," Bureau of S a f e ty I n v e s t i g a t i o n , C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s B oard, n . d. " A - S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly sis of Non-Air C a r r i e r A i r c r a f t A cci d e n ts f o r the Year 1949," Bureau of S a f e ty In v e stig a tio n , C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s B o a rd ,n . d. Crowley, H arold G ., "A ir R e c k le s s n e s s ," S a f e ty B u l l e t i n 1 7 0 -4 6 , Ju ly 15, 1946. , "Donft D rink and F l y , " S a f e ty B u l l e t i n , 1 7 5 -4 7 , Ja n u ary 15, 1947. , " I f You d o n ft Know Weather F l y i n g ," S a f e ty B u l l e t i n , 1 82 -4 8 , F e b ru a ry 1, 1949. , "Low-Slow F ly in g --T h e F a t a l M ista k e ," S a f e ty B u l l e t i n . 1 7 5 -4 6 , November 1, 1946. , "Small F i e l d T r a f f i c , " S a f e ty B u l l e t i n , 17 4 -4 6 , A p r il 11, 1947.__________________■ ________________________________ 88 Crowley, H arold G ., and Edward B. H eyl, ’’What Causes C o l l i s i o n s ? ” S a f e t y S^udy 102-49, Bureau of S a f e ty I n v e s t i g a t i o n , C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s B o ard , pp. 1-1 1 , Ja n u ary 15, 1949. Crowley, H arold G ., and Mary E. Thompson, ’’S tran g e F i e l d L a n d in g s ,” S a f e ty B u l l e t i n 176 -4 7 , F e b ru a ry 1, 1947. Heyl, Edward B ., ’’R esp ect Weather--When You Can’t See, Look O u t !” Bureau of S a f e ty I n v e s t i g a t i o n , C i v i l A e ro n a u tic s B oard, F eb ru ary 1, 1952. ____________ , ’’The Human E q uation in A i r c r a f t A c c i d e n ts ,” Bureau of S a f e ty I n v e s t i g a t i o n , C i v i l A e ro n au tics B oard, F e b ru ary 15, 1952. C. MISCELLANEOUS S a f e ty S u g g e stio n s, S e r ie s 1 -6 , Beech A i r c r a f t C o rp o r a tio n . W ic h ita , K ansas, n . d. S t a t i s t i c a l D e t a i l s of Non-Air C a r r i e r A c cid e n ts by I n d i v i d u al S t a t e s , Bureau of S a fe ty I n v e s t i g a t i o n , C i v i l A e ro n au tics B oard, W ashington, D. C. n . d. APPENDIX 90 P late I . Reference i s made to the example of m echanical f a i l u r e c i t e d on page 71. P late i l l u s t r a t e s p o ss ib le f a t a l a c c i dent a v erted by the e x e rc ise of good judgment on the p a r t of the p i l o t . 91 P la te I I . Photograph I l l u s t r a t i n g an example of s p i r a l dive a c c id e n t c i t e d on page 71 . One of the few a c c id e n ts where malfunc tio n of e i t h e r p i l o t or c r a f t could not he d e f i n i t e l y a s c e r t a i n e d . ------- 1 92 P iste I I I . This p i c t u r e r e l a t e s to the r e s u l t a n t weather crash c it e d on page 72, due to poor judgment evidenced, n e t t i n g p i l o t t h is lan d in g , r a t h e r than p r e f e r a b le a i r p o r t lan d in g . 95 P la te IV. The r e s u l t of c o l l i s i o n with ground and o b jec t example r e f e r r e d to on page 73. P i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n ta t io n of the u t t e r d isre g a rd or la c k of knowledge of a b asic fundamental of aerodynamics on p a rt of the p i l o t .

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Creator Blocki, Shirley A. (author)

Core Title An investigation into the causes of accidents in private flying

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Business Administration

Degree Program Business Administration

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,transportation

Language English

Advisor Craig, Robert F. (committee chair), Goodwin, John L. (committee member), Rubin, Samuel (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c20-126321

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Rights Blocki, Shirley A.

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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