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Exploring the causes, effects, and interventions of underemployment among recent college graduates: an evaluation study

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Exploring the causes, effects, and interventions of underemployment among recent college graduates: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES

1

Exploring the Causes, Effects, and Interventions of Underemployment
Among Recent College Graduates: An Evaluation Study
by
Andrew Ray Gonzales

A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017

Copyright 2017 Andrew Ray Gonzales
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 2

DEDICATION
For my family and friends who believed in me throughout the many challenges of my academic
journey, and by whom many sacrifices were made throughout the way.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this dissertations marks the culmination of countless years and hours
pursuing a dream that, at many points, seemed unattainable. It reflects the combined sacrifices and
support of many who came alongside me to encourage me through the most challenging of times. It
represents the potential for success through perseverance, trust, and faith.
First, and foremost, thank you to my Heavenly Father by whom I have found strength, hope,
and love to endure and persist in all of my personal and professional endeavors. My faith in Christ
has sustained me through the many nights of self-doubt.
To my wife and children, who serve as my inspiration for anything that I set out to do. I
pray that I have made you proud and know that this accomplishment is very much earned by you as
it was by me. Thank you Nashelly for enduring the struggle and burden placed on you when I had
to confine myself on countless nights to this academic world. To Nathan and Jeremy, thank you for
reminding me daily of the hope and joy that comes with simply being around those you love. I pray
this accomplishment opens opportunities for you to pursue your own academic and career pathways
that will lead to you serving and impacting our communities in transformational ways.
To my parents for believing in my abilities even when I couldn’t see them. You always
provided me a place of refuge to where I could retreat; you never let me quit and helped redefined
my failures. I love you dearly.
Thank you to my brothers, Robert and Richard, and my sister, Marcela, for always reflecting
the value of family. I cherish every moment we have together.
To my mentor, Jeanett Castellanos, who introduced me to the power and responsibility of
higher education. Your mission to help others thrive and excel is nothing short of heroic. You
taught me to value the heart, not just the mind, of the students we serve, and you will always be the
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 4

role model upon whom I build my career to transform and serve the next generation. I can’t think of
a better way to celebrate this moment than with you as my committee member.
To Drs. Anthony Maddox and Darline Robles who never failed to find the potential in me to
achieve this goal. Your positive influence and leadership will remain the hallmark of this process
for me, and I am thankful and privileged to call you colleagues.
To my work colleagues who provided the space and encouragement I needed to complete
the many assignments and program requirements. A special thanks to Dawn Macy and Robert
Pierce who made extra effort to accommodate my schedule and life’s demands, and showing me the
value of compassionate workplace and the power of positive organizational settings.
To our friends Charnel Sullivan, Alba Cox, and Shari Garvey who demonstrated
unconditional love to my family, sacrificing both time and energy to help us get to this finish line.
My wife and I appreciate your servant hearts reflected in how you cared for my family so that I
could step away and focus on writing and completing the doctoral program requirements. We could
not have made it this far without your friendship.
Finally, to my Trojan Family in Cohort 2. The accomplishments we receive through this
journey are shared among us, especially with our good friend Michelle Lanz who passed away
during the program and who will remain in our hearts and memories years after we have left the
commencement stage. As a cohort, your unwavering support and example helped me to transcend
my own perceived limitations. I look forward to graduating with you all and commencing our new
roles as leaders prepared to transform and inspire wherever we may find ourselves. Fight on!
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
LIST OF TABLES 8
LIST OF FIGURES 10
ABSTRACT 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM 12
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 12
Organizational Context and Mission 13
Organizational Goals 14
Related Literature 15
Importance of the Evaluation 16
Description of Stakeholder Groups 17
Stakeholder Group for the Study 17
Purpose of the Project and Questions 18
Qualitative Research Question 19
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 19
Definitions 20
Organization of the Project 20
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 22
Reviewing Underemployment 22
Defining Underemployment 22
Subjective Underemployment 26
Effects of Underemployment 27
Clark and Estes (2008) Organizational Problem-Solving Framework 29
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences 30
Knowledge and Skills Influences 30
Motivational Influences 36
Organizational Influences 43
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 46
Conclusion 48
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 50
Participating Stakeholders 50
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale 50
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 51
Focus Group Sampling Criterion and Rationale 51
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 6

Data Collection and Instrumentation 53
Focus Groups 54
Credibility and Trustworthiness 55
Validity and Reliability 56
Ethics 56
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS 58
Participating Stakeholders 59
Gender 59
Ethnicity 61
First-Generation Status 62
Transfer Student 63
Overview of Findings 64
Quantitative Findings for Knowledge Influences 65
Experiential Learning and Underemployment 65
High-Impact Practices and Underemployment 66
STEM vs. Non-STEM and Underemployment 68
Quantitative Findings for Motivational Influences 70
Self-Efficacy and Underemployment 70
Quantitative Findings for Organizational Influences 71
University Experience and Underemployment 71
Qualitative Data Analysis 71
Qualitative Findings for Knowledge Influences 74
Industry-relevant Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities 74
Knowledge of the Self and Strengths-based Decision Making 76
Qualitative Findings for Motivational Influences 79
Self-Efficacy and Effort 79
Expectancy Values and Career-Readiness Seeking Behavior 82
Qualitative Findings for Organizational Influences 86
Gender and Race 87
Cultural Models 89
Cultural Settings 90
Summary of Results and Findings 92
Evidence of Knowledge Gaps 92
Evidence of Motivation Gaps 94
Evidence of Organizational Gaps 95
Limitations and Future Research 96
CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION PLAN 97
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 97
Knowledge Recommendations 97
Motivation Recommendations 102
Organization Recommendations 107
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 111
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 111
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 112
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 7

Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 112
Level 3: Critical Behaviors 113
Level 2: Learning 115
Level 1: Reaction 117
Evaluation Tools 118
Data Analysis and Reporting 120
REFERENCES 124
APPENDICES 130
Appendix A: General Self-Efficacy Scale 130
Appendix B: Scale of Perceived Overqualification (SPOQ) 131
Appendix C: University Environment Scale (SPOQ) 132
Appendix D: Interview Protocol 134

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 8

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Assumed Knowledge Influences and Approach to Assessment 32
Table 2: Assumed Motivation Influences and Approach to Assessment 37
Table 3: Assumed Organizational Influence and Approach to Assessment 46
Table 4: Variation of Participant Types Across Critical Dimensions 52
Table 5: Ethnicity of Focus Group Participants 53
Table 6: Results of Gender Frequencies 60
Table 7: t-test Results Comparing Gender on SPOQ, GSE, and UES Scores 60
Table 8: Results for Ethnicity Frequencies 61
Table 9: One-Way Analysis of Variance of SPOQ, GSE, and UES by Ethnicity 62
Table 10: Results for Generational Status Frequencies 62
Table 11: t-test Results Comparing Generational Status on SPOQ, GSE, and UES Scores 63
Table 12: Results for Transfer Student Frequencies 63
Table 13: t-test Results Comparing Transfer Status on SPOQ, GSE, and UES Scores 64
Table 14: t-test Results Comparing Experiential Learning on SPOQ Scores 66
Table 15: t-test Results Comparing HIP Involvement on SPOQ Scores 68
Table 16: t-test Results Comparing STEM and non-STEM on SPOQ Scores 69
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 9

Table 17: t-test Results for non-STEM internship or service-learning on SPOQ Scores 69
Table 18: Correlation Between Underemployment and General Self-Efficacy 70
Table 19: Correlation Between Underemployment and University Experience 71
Table 20: Semi-Structured Interview Questions and KMO Factors Addressed 73
Table 21: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 98
Table 22: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 103
Table 23: Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 108
Table 24: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 112
Table 25: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 113
Table 26: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 114
Table 27: Components of Learning for the Program. 117
Table 28: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program. 118
Table 29: Course evaluation instrument for Level 1 assessment. 119
Table 30: Student progress survey on a delayed basis after each course completion. 120

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 10

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Experiential Learning and Institutional Factors Conceptual Framework 47
Figure 2: Example Dashboard of Employment Outcomes 121

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 11

ABSTRACT
Despite falling unemployment rates, underemployment continues to rise across the United
States. With nearly half of all recent college graduates struggling to acquire gainful employment,
institutions of higher education are faced with a type of existential crisis, confronting the very
purpose of college degree attainment. Using a GAP analysis framework, this study examines the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that directly influence employment outcomes
for undergraduate students, and explore recommendations to improve career readiness training
before graduation. Using a mixed-methods, sequential explanatory design, electronic surveys and
focus group sessions were administered to current seniors and alumni to explore how experiential
learning and the university environment affect underemployment within three years of graduation.
Scales on Perceived Overqualification (SPOQ), General Self-Efficacy (GSE), and University
Environment (UES) were used to evaluate factors related to participant underemployment. Results
revealed a statistically significant relationship between undergraduate internships and service-
learning opportunities with lower underemployment rates. Students who also had more favorable
university experiences were less likely to rate themselves as underemployed. Implications for
organizational practice include the implementation of a cohort-based, compressive career readiness
training program that spans a student's undergraduate experience.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 12

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Of the many challenges recent college graduates face, the issue of underemployment has
remained understudied (Fine & Nevo, 2011). Since employment rates have garnered a significant
amount of attention among local and national agencies, the most salient topic facing low- and mid-
income communities for decades have been the general availability of jobs rather than the fit
between those positions and employee qualifications. As a result, national and local unemployment
rates improved for all workers while underemployment rates increased significantly across the
globe over the last decade, particularly among recent college graduates (Wu, Luksyte, & Parker,
2014). This problem is more apparent given the Department of Labor and Statistics report of an
increase in the percentage of recent college graduates employed in positions that do not require a
bachelor's degree since 2001 (U.S. Bureau of Labor and Statistics [BLS], 2014). This imbalance
between employee credentials and minimum job qualifications remains significant given its
potential effect on a person's mental health (Feldman, 1996), organizational commitment and job
satisfaction (Fine & Nevo, 2011), and job attrition rates (Lobene & Meade, 2013). Furthermore,
American institutions of higher education have experienced growing scrutiny regarding the value of
degree programs in preparing students for career advancement.
Research can trace the dramatic increase in underemployment back to the recent economic
recession in 2007. In response to a reduced economy, displaced workers sought opportunities to
compensate for a weak labor market with many electing to complete a college degree. As a result,
four-year institutions reported an increase in student enrollments while companies discovered new
opportunities to hire highly educated and skilled workers once unavailable to them in the past
(Lobene & Meade, 2013). Those recently unemployed who held mid- to high-level positions
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 13

eventually saturated the depleted labor market taking jobs that required little to no training within
their field of expertise. The confluence of these events led researchers to predict that the demand
for college graduates will fall short of supply by nearly 3 million by 2018 (Carnevale, Smith, and
Strohl, 2010). With reported underemployment rates doubling over the previous two decades
(Feldman & Turnley, 1995) and measuring twice as high for new college graduates (Koen, Klehe,
& Vianen, 2012), these projections signal a growing problem that may have resounding
implications for colleges and employers across the United States. The focus of this review is to
explore the contemporary definitions of underemployment briefly and its variant of terms, explore
the negative individual- and institutional-level effects, and to identify potential strategies for
addressing the problem in future research and practice.
Organizational Context and Mission
California University is a large, regional university located in Southern California.
Founded in 1957, this comprehensive public institution was ranked in the top 10 regional
universities in the West (U.S. News & World Report, 2013) and offers 107 degree programs
representing a variety of disciplines, including business, nursing, social sciences, communications,
engineering, the arts, and education. Among the student population, approximately 55% of the
nearly 37,000 enrolled during the Spring 2015 were female and the average age of its students is 24
years old. Nationally recognized for the number of degrees awarded to minority students, CalU is
distinguished as the largest Hispanic serving university in the state with over a third of its students
reported as Hispanic, 21.5% White, 21% Asian/Pacific Islander, and approximately 2.1% Black.
The university boasts one of the largest first-generation student populations with an estimated
enrollment of nearly 40,000 students, CalU generates an estimated $65 million per year in state tax
revenue.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 14

CalU's mission is to provide the best of current practice, theory, and research across the arts
and sciences. With the primary goal of transforming the institution into a model comprehensive
university, CalU's recent strategic plan outlines the mission of the university across four distinct
goals. The first is to develop an educational environment that prepares students to participate as
global citizens and respond to workforce needs. Second, the university has sought to create
initiatives to improve persistence and graduation rates. The third goal emphasizes increased efforts
to recruit and retain high-quality and diverse faculty and staff. The final goal is to improve revenue
through fundraising, entrepreneurial activities, and grants.
Organizational Goals
CalU’s multiple goals provide direction for all organizational activities over a five-year
period. The administration established the strategic plan and its goals through the collective efforts
of faculty, staff, alumni, and students during a year-long stakeholder review process, that include
email campaigns and town hall sessions. Of particular relevance regarding the issue of
underemployment, the first goal emphasizes the development and maintenance of a curricular and
co-curricular environment that prepares students for participation in a global society while being
responsive to workforce needs. Specifically, the university expects to increase the number of
students participating in experiential learning opportunities by 25% within the next two years. The
second objective of this goal is to ensure at least 75% of the student population participates in an
advising system that integrates their academic training with professional and career development.
To evaluate progress towards this goal, the university plans to execute a university-wide
assessment process incorporating departmental learning outcomes and training for critical units and
personnel. Additional strategies currently underway include instituting mandatory advising for new
and transfer students and improve the distribution of career and other co-curricular resources across
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 15

colleges to ensure experiential learning is accessible and practical. The university's career and
internship centers will also collaborate on creating workforce educational partnerships with locally-
and nationally-based companies and organizations.
Related Literature
Underemployment (UDE) is defined in multiple ways and is synonymous with a variety of
terms. Terms such as overeducated, overqualified, underutilized, and underpaid have all been used
in the academic literature. As such, underemployment is used as the primary term given the scope
of its meaning. Feldman & Turnley (1995) define underemployment as any circumstance in which
a job requires significantly less education and work experience than the employee possesses.
Feldman (1996) offers perhaps the most comprehensive definition, incorporating several factors
that help identify a work experience as underemployment. These factors include circumstances in
which a worker possesses more education or skills than are required by their job; a worker is
involuntary employed in a part-time, temporary, or work role outside of their academic training; or
whenever an employee is paid 20% less than a comparable worker.
Johnson & Johnson (2002) take a different approach, referring to a relative deprivation
model to define underemployment as the disparity between an employee’s overall work
expectations and their currently experienced job environment. This approach emphasizes a
subjective understanding of UDE, a perspective widely supported by many contemporary scholars
(Lobene & Meade, 2013; 2014; Roh, Chang, & Kim, 2014; Maynard & Parfyonova, 2013). This
area of scholarship commonly refers to Perceived Overqualification (POQ) as the most relevant
assessment of underemployment given the implication of an employee’s perceived reality and their
behavioral response.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 16

Importance of the Evaluation
The problem of underemployment among recent college graduates is essential for a variety
of reasons. An escalating problem in the United States today, the alarming rates of workers
employed in positions that do not require the work experience or educational level of employees
have grown significantly since the recent economic recession. The adverse effects of
underemployment on individual employees include lower psychological health and well-being
(Feldman & Turnley, 1995). Institutionally, companies and academic institutions face significant
challenges with employee engagement and student satisfaction, resource allocation, and
underutilization of human capital (Capelli, 2015). The effect may inform ongoing challenges for
the organization, including voluntary turnover of highly-talented employees, an increase in
counterproductive workplace behaviors, and millions of dollars in lost profits each year due to
expenses in new hire or training programs (Cappelli, 2015; Nabi, 2004). Finding solutions to these
problems will prove vital as the United States seeks to compete in a transforming global economy.
Reducing the underemployment rate may also impact national and state policies addressing
minimum wage, fair labor practices, and the various socioeconomic disparities that have been
implicated in a variety of crime and poverty statistics and addressing UDE may further provide a
stimulus to the U.S. economy, especially in the science, technology, and math industries (Cappelli,
2015). The outcomes of this paper will also explore methods for mitigating the deleterious effects
of underemployment among recent college graduates, and suggests further research that can
influence how employers recruit and engage employees respective to their job and skill level.
Creating empowerment programs enhances employee adaptability and coping (Nabi, 2004) and can
reduce the attrition rate among overqualified employees (Liu, Luksyte, Zhou, & Shi, 2014). Further
research on empowerment and career adaptability training programs during college and within the
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 17

workplace may provide a glimmer of hope to reduce underemployment rates by the middle of the
century and potentially reverse the trend in the years to come.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Three primary stakeholders have been identified as having significant benefit and
contribution to the achievement of CalU's performance goals. The first group is CalU students,
which includes an aggregate of more than 252,000 graduates representing 78 nations and 109
degree programs across a variety of academic disciplines. Student stakeholders represent the direct
beneficiaries of CalU's performance goals and constitute the primary target population that reflects
the achievement of those goals. The second group includes faculty and staff who provide
instruction and programming intended to prepare students for their career pathways. CalU currently
employs 2,151 full- and part-time faculty in addition to 1,920 full- and part-time staff members.
The third stakeholder group is the institution's community partners, among whom include national
corporations, local businesses, and municipalities, as well as non-profits and other public entities.
Community partners engage CalU students as host sites for experiential learning and employment.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the achievement of the overall
organizational goal, CalU students remain the ones for who underemployment data will be
reviewed and evaluated as the focus of this study. Failure to achieve the performance outcomes
related to student career preparation not only will impact the livelihood of future graduates but may
further exacerbate the national trend of increased underemployment among recent college
graduates.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 18

Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the underemployment rates of recent college
graduates at CalU (a pseudonym) and to determine whether the institution is achieving its strategic
goal of increasing student participation in experiential learning by 25% within the next two years.
The analysis focuses on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
this organizational goal. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all CalU
stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis are currently
enrolled students and alumni who have graduated within the last three years. The primary research
question is as follows:
Research Question: How does experiential learning and university environment influence the
career readiness and reported underemployment of recent college graduates?
As a mixed-method, sequential explanatory study, the main research question can be sub-divided
into the following inquiries per data collection method:
Quantitative Research Question
Initial data collection included the distribution of survey items that explored the relationship
between the outcome variable of underemployment and several predictor variables that address
potential knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences. The research question and
hypotheses are presented below:
R1. What knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors are related to perceived
underemployment among recent college graduates?
H1. Students who have not completed an undergraduate internship experience will report
higher underemployment within three years of graduation.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 19

H2. Students reporting lower levels of self-efficacy will also report higher
underemployment.
H3. Students who report lower scores on the University Experience Scale will also report
higher levels of underemployment.
H4. Students who major in non-STEM related fields will report higher underemployment
than STEM students.
H5. Students who major in non-STEM related fields AND who have not completed an
undergraduate internship will report higher levels of underemployment compared to
non-STEM majors who did complete an undergraduate internship.
H6. Students who participated in high-impact practices will report lower
underemployment.
Qualitative Research Question
Following the survey portion of the study, qualitative interviews have been conducted to
further explore participants career readiness training. The central question of this phase is as
follows:
R2. How do recent college graduates describe potential university influences on their career
readiness and current employment status?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences, will be
adapted to the evaluation model and implemented as the conceptual framework for the study. The
methodological framework is a quantitative correlational analysis of survey data administered to
student affairs career development staff and recent college graduates at CalU. The data will help
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 20

identify the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences on career-related employment
readiness of college graduates within the last five years. Research-based solutions will be
recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
Definitions
Counterproductive Workplace Behaviors: Actions by employees of a subversive nature that,
either intentionally or unintentionally, interfere with positive organizational outcomes.
First Generation College Student: Students whose parent(s) have not completed a college degree.
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: Voluntary employee activities that promote positive
organizational outcomes, such as helping colleagues on unrelated work assignments or
participating in organizational activities not contractually obligated by the employer.
Perceived Overqualification: The degree to which an individual believes they are employed in a
position that requires less education and work experience than they possess.
Recent College Graduate: Any person having graduated from an undergraduate degree program
within the previous five years.
Underemployment: A circumstance in which an individual is employed in a job requiring
significantly less education and work experience than the individual possesses. This term is
used in the study synonymously with perceived overqualification or perceived
underemployment.
Underpaid: Any circumstance in which an individual is paid less than 20% than others in
comparable employment positions.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the key
concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about regional center noncompliance.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 21

The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders and the framework for the project were
introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding the scope of the study.
Topics of underemployment, career preparation, student and employee empowerment, high impact
practices and experiential learning will be addressed. Chapter Three details the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences to be examined as well as methodology when it comes to
choice of participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are
assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing the
perceived gaps as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for the
solutions.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 22

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
A Review of the Literature
This chapter will review the literature addressing the factors influencing underemployment
among recent college graduates with attention to the potential knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps that foster continued declines in underemployment across recent decades. This
chapter is divided into three major sections. The first section will orient the reader to the varied
definitions of underemployment, along with the implications of perceived and real overqualification
in the workplace. The second section will explore key antecedent variables, including
undergraduate experiential learning, psychosocial proficiencies, and academic training. The third
section will examine the impact of college readiness programs and workplace empowerment
strategies that have attempted to mitigate undergraduate career success.
Reviewing Underemployment
Defining Underemployment
Although researchers have offered a variety of definitions of underemployment, the field
has remained largely understudied (Fine & Nevo, 2011; Nabi, 2004; Feldman & Turnley, 1995).
Regarding critical issues affecting market economies today, general unemployment remains the
common refrain from politicians to university administrators. Studies examining career
development and training also largely neglect to include graduate underemployment (Scurry &
Blenkinsopp, 2011). Unemployment rates do provide a substantial measure of a healthy economy
by identifying the quantity of jobs available at any given time, but lacks the qualitative impact for
just how well a society can meet their respective standard of living. In fact, researchers report that
underemployed workers are psychologically “worse off” than unemployed workers (Nabi, 2004),
although the reasons for this outcome has still yet to be explored. A possible explanation could be
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 23

attributed to implicit theories of organizational justice and an overall sense of futility.
Organizational justice asserts the existence of psychological contracts between the employer and
the employee, specifically as it pertains to procedural and distributive justice. Procedural justice
refers to process or policies by which an organization determines who receives performance
incentives, while distributive justice involves perceptions of equity and how incentives are awarded.
Incongruity between one’s expectations and sense of what they have “earned” versus what they
actually receive could create feelings of futility, resulting in chronic despair and overall life
dissatisfaction. This disparity in expected compensation is concerning given underemployment
rates in the United States continue to increase, from 11% in 1970 to nearly 50% in 2013 (Li,
Malvin, Simonson, 2014; Vedder, Denhart, & Robe, 2013). All the while, employment rates in the
United States have fallen to the lowest in over a decade. Underemployment provides a much
stronger metric to evaluate the quality of jobs as they relate to the human capital of those who
occupy them. Unfortunately, the term itself is subject to much confusion. Scholars have used a
variety of terms that emphasize specific characteristics of underemployment. One term found in the
literature is overeducation, a term typically reflective of a person’s degree attainment in relation to
the minimum qualifications required for a particular job. The result is an educational surplus
(Maynard, Joseph, & Maynard, 2006) and can often be measured by comparisons between the
number of years of formal education between colleagues in the same or similar roles (Quinn &
Madilovitch, 1975). Additionally, Burris (1983) operationalized underemployment through self-
reports of a person’s feeling “overeducated for their job.” According to Li, Malvin, & Simonson
(2014), overeducation may occur for several reasons. The first results from a person’s response to a
lack of job opportunities for which they are most qualified. High unemployment rates typically
indicate circumstances wherein people may seek jobs that do not require the extent of academic
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 24

training they received. In 2008, a massive recession in the United States resulted in an increase in
the number of applications to colleges and universities, primarily attributed to those displaced in the
labor market seeking to invest in higher earning potential through additional degree attainment
(Lobene & Meade, 2013). Many found themselves employed in part-time jobs, or employmenet
that required lower skills but offered greater flexibility to meet their academic demands.
Consequently, employers welcomed highly educated and skilled workers who would otherwise not
have been available in years past. Secondly, people simply compensate for fewer advancement
opportunities with extra education (Li, Malvin, & Simonson, 2014). When faced with limited
socioeconomic mobility, employees instinctively believe more education opens greater
opportunities for more lucrative roles either within their existing company or elsewhere (Scurry &
Blenkinsopp, 2011; Vedder, Denhart, & Robe, 2013). In many cases, as in higher education,
employers provide stipends, tuition reimbursement, or salary increases for advanced degree holders
currently employed in their institutions. For administrative staff, possessing an advanced education
may attribute to adverse employment attitudes, including resentment, dissatisfaction, and
counterproductive workplace behaviors (Liu, Luksyte, Zhou, & Shi, 2014). Finally, overeducation
may result from an oversupply of workers from low-demand academic disciplines (Li, Malvin, &
Simonson, 2014). Students seeking undergraduate degrees in the social sciences and the arts often
struggle with identifying direct application between their academic training and career preferences.
This is especially true for those disciplines that remain largely subjective in theoretical development
(i.e. anthropology, history, art). For students in humanities, social sciences, and communications,
careers directly related to their academic majors often require graduate level degrees, and those
indirectly related either require additional work experience or may create feelings of inadequacy
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 25

when compared to colleagues already in the field (Li, Malvin, Simonson, 2014; Maynard, Joseph,
& Maynard, 2006).
Another term often used in reference to underemployment is overqualification (Fine &
Nevo, 2011). Overqualification references the disparity between a person’s acquired knowledge,
skills, and abilities and that required for their job. Although there remains a need for sufficient
predictive models of overqualification among job applicants (Fine & Nevo, 2011), overqualification
is often measured using Maynard’s (2009) 9-item scale. According to Capelli (2015), the average
worker in the United States is overqualified for his or her job. The only exception are those jobs
categorized as science, technology, engineering, or mathematics (STEM). These fields currently
experience a skills gap, or a shortage of workers capable of fulfilling these work roles. The skills
gap has been implicated as one factor in the increase of foreign labor sponsorships and the number
of college students avoiding STEM fields in favor of vocation majors, such as Education and
Business (Capelli, 2015). Overqualification then refers only to non-STEM fields wherein a skills
mismatch results from a misalignment between available skills in the workforce and the demand for
them, at any given time. Overqualification captures a broader scope of underemployment,
capturing not just knowledge disparities between a person’s human capital and that required for
their job, but also skills and abilities, both natural and acquired. This term, also synonymous with
terms like “underpaid” perhaps resembles most closely the construct of underemployment.
Determining whether one is underpaid or overqualified can prove much more elusive than
overeducated. As such, distinguishing between perceived overqualification, or the extent to which
one interprets their circumstances as a result of misalignments between their current human capital
and that minimally required to do the job for which they were hired, is critical for evaluating the
prevalence, effects, and potential interventions for underemployment.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 26

Taken together, we arrive at a comprehensive definition for underemployment that accounts
for disparities in education (knowledge), work experience, and the person’s skills, and abilities.
Feldman & Turnley (1995) first defined underemployment as jobs requiring significantly less
education and work experience than a worker possesses. Taken together, the concept of
underemployment refers to misalignment between the minimum qualification to successful serve in
a specific job and what Becker (2008) refers to as human capital. Human capital refers to a
person’s sum of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that can be used to perform
labor to produce some economic value. To expand on this definition, we thus define
underemployment as circumstances wherein a person’s perceived human capital exceeds the
required education and experience to perform the work for which they are employed.
Subjective Underemployment
According to studies in the field of organizational behavior, how an employee perceives
their underemployment status may not reflect their actual circumstances (Scurry & Blenkisopp,
2011; Feldman & Turnley, 1995). A subjective approach to studying underemployment includes a
person’s interpretation of their employment situation. These perceptions are most often a function
of a person’s motivation, job attitude, or general personality (Scurry & Blenkinsopp, 2011).
Whether someone feels overqualified can also be a function of the job tasks, particularly when tasks
provide little challenge or cognitive appeal. Flow theory (2003) asserts that a person’s level of
engagement in a task varies depending on their evaluation of the task’s perceived challenge and
their perceived ability to successfully confront that challenge. Excess skills in relation to the
perceived challenge of a task leads to, at best, relaxation and, at worst, boredom. It is then
reasonable to conclude that perceived underemployment would most often occur whenever a
worker reports feelings of boredom or ease on the job. In fact, research comparing workers in the
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 27

United States to those in Europe reveal U.S. workers prefer environments wherein their perceived
skills are slightly lower in relation to perceived job challenge, whereas Europeans prefer roles in
which their skills equally match the challenge, a state referred to as Flow.
Subjective or perceived underemployment allows researchers to account for assessment of
more nuanced job factors, such as personality, motivation, efficacy, and creativity. Feldman &
Turnley (1995) highlighted the importance of including both objective characteristics of
employment (i.e. salary, years of education, productivity) with subjective interpretations of them.
Liu, Zhou, & Shi (2014) found that individual perceptions of overqualification are better than
objective measures because it usually results from social comparisons with others in similar roles,
an aspect of underemployment perhaps most difficult to assess using objective metrics. It can be
difficult to fully encapsulate the economic or social value of a person’s work simply by comparing
their salary, since the value of one worker in comparison to others in their workplace can differ
greatly. One person may perform their job with greater efficiency and accuracy compared to that of
a similar colleague with the same education and years of experience. Furthermore, many
organizations place additional value on an employee’s personality, customer service, and other
socioemotional factors that improve the work environment. For this reason, Lobene & Meade
(2013) assert that perceived underemployment is more relevant than objective measures in studying
workplace behaviors (Maynard & Parfyonova, 2013). In short, perceived, or subjective,
underemployment is a more valuable assessment of workplace and career outcomes than actual, or
objective, underemployment.
Effects of Underemployment
Perceived underemployment may result in significant adverse organizational and individual
outcomes. Studies show a negative relationship between perceptions of underemployment and
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 28

well-being (Liu, Luksyte, Zhou, & Shi, 2014; Roh, Chang, & Kim, 2014; Wu, Luksyte, & Parker,
2014; Koen, Klehe, & Vianen, 2012). In a study of successful transitions from school to work,
Koen, Klehe, & Vianen (2012) discovered that participants with higher reported perceived
underemployment also reported lower well-being, life satisfaction, and more physical and
psychological strain. This relationship increases in larger, metropolitan areas where competition for
critical resources and housing can drive the standard of living much higher than what workers can
afford. The result is lower consumption of goods and services, and in some cases, social
displacement as workers move to more affordable geographic regions while leaving family and
close social circles, further exacerbating the negative affects to psychological well-being (Li,
Malvin, & Simonson, 2014). In extreme cases, researchers report a strong, positive correlation
between underemployment and mental health problems. For example, Nabi (2004) reported
individuals who experience perceived underemployment were more likely to suffer from depression
and even attempt suicide than those who see their employment as consistent with their perceived
human capital. Poor mental health was also linked at the society level, with communities who
report larger rates of underemployment as experiencing more mental health problems than areas
with lower reported underemployment rates (Lobene & Meade, 2013). The relationship between
perceived underemployment and negative health outcomes becomes stronger when controlling for
age, with recent college graduates or those just entering the workforce experience lower levels of
well-being and job satisfaction (Koen, Klehe, & Vianen, 2012).
Support also exists for the significant relationships between perceived underemployment
and organizational outcomes. In a study of employee job attitudes, Maynard, Joseph, & Maynard
(2006) revealed the negative relationship between perceived underemployment and such
organizational variables as job attitudes, performance, profitability, and organizational citizenship.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 29

There is also strong support for the positive relationship between perceived underemployment and
counterproductive workplace behaviors, turnover, and theft (Lobene & Meade, 2013). Addressing
underemployment and reducing its prevalence may have significant implications for improving
personal wellness and important workplace outcomes. Employers and academic institutions must
pay attention to this problem and develop strategies to mitigate perceived underemployment,
especially among those just entering the workforce.
Clark and Estes (2008) Organizational Problem-Solving Framework
The challenge of addressing organizational performance issues begins with how businesses
and companies view the substance and barriers to organizational goals. Historically, organizations
viewed profits as a function of products rather than people (Clark & Estes, 2008), which may lead
to futile interventions that cost the company both time and money in the long run. Gap analysis
provides a framework for organizations to address performance issues from the employee
perspective. Specifically, the framework suggests three root causes of performance issues in an
organization: lack of knowledge, lack of motivation, and organizational barriers (KMO; Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Implementing gap analysis begins with first identifying key organizational- and stakeholder-
level goals. This process typically begins by first benchmarking performance standards and
identifying the gap between industry leaders and the organizations current practices. Individual and
team goals are then explored as the means to close those performance gaps. Gap analysis then
employs its primary KMO framework to uncover the primary causes of organizational performance
problems at the employee and team levels. Knowledge gaps refer to what employees know or can
do to successfully complete job tasks. Resolving knowledge issues may involve feedback,
informational resources, training, or education. Motivation gaps involve the degree to which
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 30

employees direct effort towards their work roles. According to Clark & Estes (2008), motivational
gaps occur when employees actively choose not to pursue a goal, fail to persist at a task when faced
with competing goals, or when they lack the mental effort towards achieving their designated goals.
Lastly, organizational gaps result from those organizational barriers that come in the form of work
processes or lack of material resources that prevent the employee from thriving at the organization.
The various work and resource issues within an organization are perpetuated by the company’s
culture, which may further complicate the process of change and requires long-term intervention.
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
Knowledge and Skills Influences
The literature of career development and vocational identity incorporates a comprehensive
breadth of organizational theory and occupational knowledge that influences a person’s career
decision making and ultimate career pathway (Feldman & Turnley, 1995; Fine & Nevo, 2011;
Kleck & Jackson, 2016). For recent college graduates, much of their knowledge influences center
on their academic experience, which in many ways establishes the extent of their human capital for
employers who seek degree-earning workers. Over the last three decades, studies on career
indecision and underemployment have focused primarily on a person’s exposure to relevant job
knowledge and career information via university courses or professional networks (Feldman &
Turnley, 1995; Maynar, Joseph, & Maynard, 2006). Examining the knowledge-based factors that
potentially mitigate underemployment among recent college graduates will serve as a critical
starting point in evaluating CalU’s capacity to achieve its goal of having 75% of its undergraduates
participating in some form of career advising prior to graduation.
Knowledge Types. The following review will evaluate the literature on knowledge
influences in the domain of career decision-making and underemployment among recent college
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 31

graduates. According to Krathwohl’s (2002) revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives, four primary knowledge types provide a framework for educators to develop, evaluate,
assess, and measure learning outcomes in a systematic and common manner across persons,
subjects, and grade levels. Factual knowledge refers to declarative or discrete information relating
to a task or specific discipline. Information regarding vocation-specific language or key
terminology introduced in relevant academic courses exemplifies this knowledge type. Conceptual
knowledge incorporates student higher-order learning within their academic domain. This includes
understanding of core theories and principles introduced and explored in upper-division courses.
Procedural knowledge, the third type, refers to the process of engaging in a task and incorporates
methods or industry best-practices to produce desirable work outcomes. Finance or business
students may demonstrate this type of knowledge using equations, algorithms, or deployment
systems when delivering client services. Krathwohl (2002) introduced a fourth knowledge type to
encompass the process by which a person engages in introspection and becomes aware of their own
cognitive processes. Termed metacognitive knowledge, this knowledge type establishes framework
that allows a person to engage in contingency planning, contextualized or adaptive decision-
making, and self-deterministic pursuits of their own career outcomes. Reflection on one’s cognitive
experiences also helps promote a growth mindset and deeper assimilation of experiential learning to
other knowledge types (Baker, 2006).
Of the four knowledge types, current literature has identified factual, conceptual, and
metacognitive knowledge types as having significant influence on career decision-making and
underemployment. These three knowledge types are presented in Table 1 below along with the
specific organizational missions and goals for CalU.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 32

Table 1

Assumed Knowledge Influences and Approach to Assessment
Assumed Knowledge Influence
Knowledge
Type
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Students need to know industry related
knowledge, skills, and abilities for their
chosen occupational interests.
Factual Participants are asked questions
regarding their perceived acquisition of
career-level knowledge, skills, and
abilities.
Students need to know academic
theories and their relevant application
for effective job performance.
Conceptual Participants are asked questions
regarding their academic self-efficacy.
Students need to know their career
strengths and psychosocial capacity.
Metacognitive Participants report whether they have
received career advising and/or taken a
career-aptitude test.

Students need to know industry related knowledge, skills, and abilities. Current approaches
to career training and counseling incorporates both academic and professional factual knowledge
types in preparing students for the workforce (Koen, Klehe, & Van Vianen, 2012). These include
student training in career adaptability, career readiness (Fouad, Cotter, & Kantamneni, 2009), and
curricular programming. The challenge for career-related curricula lies with aligning course
objectives with relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) required to successfully perform
fundamental tasks appropriated to a specific occupation. The knowledge domain pertains to
declarative facts and theoretical understanding of information required to perform a job. A doctor’s
knowledge of human anatomy represents a knowledge area for medicine. The skills domain
identifies behavioral proficiencies for performing a job, such as reading medical charts and
diagnosing a specific illness. Skills can also be conceptualized as the transfer of knowledge to
action (Feldman & Turnley, 1995). The abilities domain involves the individual’s capacity to
perform minimum duties well. While potentially the most debatable of the KSA framework,
abilities refer to the capacity or quality of KSAs The Department of Labor has identified over a
sixty-year period characteristics within each of the KSA domains for most common jobs in the
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 33

United States (Koen, Klehe, & Vianen, 2012). The KSAs allow students to reverse engineer as a
method of identifying and acquiring the necessary qualifications to compete for entry-level, career-
related positions.
The goal for this knowledge type, however, is not the acquisition of the specific content of
each KSA, per se, rather than simply knowing of which knowledge, skills, and abilities are needed
to excel in a potential occupation. According to Capelli (2015), students who avoid chronic
underemployment are introduced to relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities at some point during
their undergraduate training. As such, simply learning the content within each KSA domain serves
as a first step in promoting intentional career readiness training. In an attempt to instigate early
exploration of career factual knowledge, first-year programs and career advising across mainstream
universities incorporate assignments or basic tasks that require students to identify terminology and
background information of a variety of career interests. In support of this approach, studies have
shown that career intervention courses have also helped mitigate prolonged career indecision and
underemployment (Fouad, Cotter, & Kantameni, 2009) by exposing students to the KSAs identified
by the Department of Labor. Career intervention courses include those providing instruction by
university faculty in career exploration, job searching and interviewing techniques, and any other
advising activities that incorporate reflection or other job scaffolding assignments. Additional
characteristics of effective career intervention courses include written exercises, individualized
feedback, information of the work environment, modeling, and professional support (Brown &
Krane, 2000; Fouad et al., 2009). These exercises help students to reflect on shortcomings and
strengths when comparing their current career portfolio to the KSAs of their industry.
Students need to know academic theories and their relevant application for effective job
performance. While the previous knowledge type involves simply exposure to the relevant
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 34

knowledge, skills, and abilities of a particular job, this knowledge type addresses the specific
acquisition of the knowledge domain for the student’s chosen career field. Conceptual mastery of a
specific academic domain as it pertains to career interests can enhance a person’s career portfolio
and competitiveness for scarce job opportunities (Feldman, 2003). Despite the detriments of
underemployment to an employees’ job satisfaction and turnover rates, employers report a
preference for overqualified workers due to their high degree of conceptual knowledge as it relates
to their job domain (Li, Malvin, & Simonson, 2014; Kulkarni, Lengnick-Hall, & Martinez, 2015;
Maynar & Parfyonova, 2013; Verbruggen, Emmerik, Gils, Meng, & Grip, 2015). This knowledge
includes specific theories and concepts introduced during the students’ academic training.
According to recent studies, employees with a strong grasp of relevant theory or industry-specific
methodology provide immediate organizational benefits in the form of innovative ideas, improved
task efficiency and problem-solving, and influenced stronger work ethics among peers or
colleagues (Erdogan, Buer, Pero, Truxillo, 2011; Wu, Luksyte, & Parker, 2014). Researchers
suggest that additional knowledge in diplomacy, interpersonal relationships, and time management
also help to mitigate career indecision or prolonged underemployment (Brown, Hacker, Abrams,
Carr, Rector, Lamp, & Siena, 2011). For students, this means repeated exposure to social situations
wherein they gain insight into strategies and best practices that are most likely to result in positive
outcomes for their employer and other invested stakeholders. Experiential learning during the
student’s undergraduate training may most readily provide the opportunities to observe, identify,
and rehearse these conceptual knowledge areas.
Students need to know their career strengths and psychosocial capacity. Recent literature
on high-impact practices and learning has drawn considerable focus on the process of personal or
experiential reflection. The concept of introspection, or thinking about one’s own cognitive and
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 35

emotional states, has been well documented in the literature (Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2013).
Introspection has been positively associated with affirmation and validation of personal identity and
socioemotional intelligence (Brown et al., 2011; Creed, 2006; Flynn, 2013). Metacognitive
knowledge similarly involves the process of thinking about one’s own cognitive state. Krathwohl
(2002) updates Blooms previous knowledge taxonomy to integrate research identifying
metacognitive knowledge as a means for a person’s cognitive and subsequent behavior adaptability.
Studies in underemployment and career indecision have identified antecedent factors that
involve metacognitive processes. Research on recent college graduates reveals a strong relationship
between those who experience extensive underemployment and those who struggle to answer
questions regarding their personal strengths or weaknesses (Brown et al., 2011; Jiang, 2015; Lobene
& Meade, 2013). Examples include emotional and social intelligence, a core psychological
construct that speaks to a person’s ability to identify and influence theirs and others’ emotions and
behaviors. Self-management of emotions facilitates attention to environmental stimuli, which may
influence collateral abilities like decision making and leadership (Jiang, 2015). Additional studies
suggest self-perception of underemployment, or perceived overqualification, results in higher rates
of reported mental health difficulties or poorer health outcomes than those who report a match
between their job and their educational level (Cappelli, 2015; Fine & Nevo, 2011; Kulkarni,
Lengnick, & Martinez, 2015). Knowing one’s strengths or accurately appropriating feelings of
perceived overqualification both result from the type of thinking associated with metacognitive
knowledge. Students who participate in career preparatory activities or experiential-learning
courses often spend considerable time completing reflection assignments with the sole purpose to
think about experiences in the workplace and one’s own various affective states (Froud, Cotter, &
Katamneni, 2009; Tinto, 2006). Froud et al. (2009) revealed that courses in which faculty instigate
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 36

intrapersonal inquiry of social issues within the student’s community, or that induce discourse on
collateral outcomes from service or work experiences result in gains in aspects of the student’s
career knowledge most associated with the metacognitive type (e.g. sociopolitical approaches for
advancement, adaptability, coping, etc.). Furthermore, lack of self-knowledge, goal setting, and
decision-making skills contribute to a person's inability to make a vocational choice (Brown,
Hacker, Abrams, Carr, Rector, Lamb, & Siena, 2011), which may prolong career advancement.
Motivational Influences
A person’s behavior and responses to their environment are often rooted within their own
unique psychological profile. Since the turn of the twentieth century, psychologists have attempted
to define, observe, and measure these internal psychological states to understand how to predict,
explain, and even influence the actions of a person or group (Banyard, Dillon, Norman, & Windor,
2013). The reasons why someone engages in a particular behavior serves as a motivator, or quite
literally, a moving mechanism within the person that directs their sense of agency towards a desired
outcome. As such, motivation is an internal state or desire that both initiates and maintains
behavior (Baynard et al., 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008). Extrinsic motivation refers to causal
mechanisms of behavior that are instigated by a person’s environment, such as financial incentives
to complete a task or the need to be accepted by a social group (Baynard et al., 2013; McGee &
Johnson, 2015). Career-seeking behavior often originates from such external motivators as salary,
acknowledgement from others (Miller & Prentice, 1996), or perceived social norms regarding one’s
vocational decision as it relates to their gender, culture, or another demographic variable (Maxwell,
2002). When a person is motivated by a sense of self-fulfillment or personal gratification towards
completing tasks, they experience intrinsic motivation (Harackiewics & Helleman, 2010). In the
absence of desirable external working conditions, as with underemployment, intrinsic motivation
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 37

can either serve to prolong the duration in which a person remains in an employment situation
wherein they are overqualified or help advance their job-seeking behavior through additional
training or other career-related interventions (Erdogan et al., 2011).
Regardless of whether a person is motivated by extrinsic or intrinsic factors, the degree to
which they exert control over their environment is a matter of personal agency. Bandura’s (1977,
2001) classic Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) provides a strong framework by which to evaluate a
person’s response to their environment and regulation of their personal behavior. Eccles, Wigfield,
& Schiefele (1998) provided yet another critical framework to understanding human agency
towards goal or achievement behaviors.
The following review draws from these approaches of motivation to further examine career
indecision and underemployment of recent college graduates. Table 2 below provides a summary of
the motivational perspectives reviewed with similar reference to organizational mission and goals
for CalU as referenced earlier.
Table 2
Assumed Motivation Influences and Approach to Assessment
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy – Students need to develop job
search self-efficacy as well as global self-
efficacy to improve career outcomes.
Participants complete the Global Self
Efficacy (GSE) scale.
Expectancy Value – Students need to
recognize the value of engaging in co-
curricular experiential learning throughout
their undergraduate studies to develop
competitive career portfolios.
Participants report engagement in
experiential learning activities and
complete the Scale for Perceived
Overqualification (SPOQ).

Self-efficacy. Agency is a critical factor in Social Cognitive Theory and refers to the degree
in which a person believes their behaviors can influence their environment (Bandura, 1999). SCT
posits that personal, behavioral, and environmental factors interact in a reciprocal, bi-directional
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 38

fashion and thereby influence a person’s decisions and actions. Lent, Brown, & Hacket (1996)
expanded principles of SCT to explicate career decision making of employees and thus named
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). Derived directly from SCT, SCCT delineates specifically
the role of self-efficacy expectations as it relates to a person’s vocational behavior (Lent et al.,
1996).
Self-efficacy, or the belief in one’s capacity to exercise control over their own actions and
environmental events, plays an important role in the self-regulation of motivation through goal
challenges and outcome expectations (Bandura, 1999). People must demonstrate forethought as
part of agency, and exercise a future time perspective to guide their actions and anticipate future
events. Apart from self-efficacy, people have little incentive to act or persevere when facing
difficulties (Bandura, 1999). People choose what challenges to face or how much effort to expend
based on their self-efficacy, and furthermore, determines whether perceived failures are either
motivating to the individual, or demoralizing.
Self-efficacy is not a stable personal characteristic and, according to Bandura (1999), can be
developed through four primary events. First, self-efficacy can result from a mastery experience
wherein an individual accomplishes a challenging goal or produces a previously challenging task.
Regarding career development, Lopez and Lent (1992) demonstrated that performance
accomplishments are the strongest contributor to self-efficacy. The second source for developing
self-efficacy is through vicarious learning, or observing others. Learning in this regard results from
seeing someone else accomplish a task, thereby providing direct instructional information and/or
removing psychological limitations perceived as obstacles to completing an activity or task. When
students observe others engage in challenging activities, particularly when the referent other is
esteemed to possess qualities or expertise reasonably within a comparable level to the student, then
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 39

they are more likely to perform the same task more efficaciously (Fine & Nevo, 2011; Koen, Klehe,
& Vianen, 2012). The third source is similarly rooted in the presence of others. Social persuasion
via praise or social support by a revered other, such as a mentor, can enhance a person’s self-
efficacy. Finally, physiological reactions to environmental stimuli can temporarily enhance self-
efficacy, primarily through emotional arousal. Arousal results in central nervous system activation,
and subsequent neurological and hormonal responses to activation events have been correlated to
risk taking behavior, increases in self-esteem, and reduced psychological stress.
Student Self-Efficacy. Barriers to career development, such as career indecision and
underemployment, result from intrapersonal (i.e. vocational identity, lack of motivation),
environmental (e.g. interpersonal conflict, career myths), and behavioral (e.g. counterproductive
work behaviors, work role saliency) factors (Chung, 2002). With the development of SCCT (Lent
et al., 1996), the concept of self-efficacy was also extended to career decision-making. First termed
Career Decision Making Self Efficacy (CDMSE) by Hackett and Betz (1981), CDMSE sought to
extend the role of self-efficacy to vocational psychology. Consistent with social cognitive career
theory (Lent et al., 1996), students with higher career decision-making self-efficacy tended to be
more committed to career planning and goal setting. Career decision making self-efficacy in
students has been associated with many constructs, including occupational interest (Feehan &
Johnston, 1999; Lapan, Boggs, & Morrill, 1989), vocational identity (Robbins, 1985), career
exploration (Blustein, 1989), career barriers (McWhirter, Rasheed, & Crothers, 2000), and career
maturity (Patton & Creed, 2001). Jiang (2015) also demonstrated that CDMSE significantly
influenced student’s selection of career pathways. Regression analysis of career decision-making
self-efficacy has further revealed CDMSE as the best predictor of student career indecision (Betz &
Voyten, 1997; Taylor & Popma, 1990). The challenge remains whenever a student perceives
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 40

barriers to career advancement and achievement, such as social justice issues or attributions beyond
their own control. Removal of these perceived barriers is critical to improving career-related self-
efficacy (Guay, 2006). Research suggests perceived barriers exerts a strong negative relationship
on a person's career decision-making self-efficacy (Luzzo, 1996), but interventions that incorporate
mastery experiences strongly moderated this relationship (Jiang, 2015). For current students or
recent college graduates, early career successes (mastery experiences) or observed successes of
respected others (vicarious experiences) contribute the most to reported self-efficacy (Betz &
Voyten, 1997).
Expectancy Value Theory. Like self-efficacy theory, individuals can be motivated by the
belief that they can successful perform a task. Beyond this expectation, however lies a secondary
predictor of motivation. According to Expectancy Value Theory (Eccles, 2006), an individual must
also believe that expected outcomes possess some value that exceeds the cost of engaging in an
activity. Expectancy Value Theory approaches motivation by evaluating a person’s belief in their
individual agency to complete a task and whether the perceived outcomes are desirable (Eccles et
al., 1998). Like self-efficacy, the first factor asks whether an individual can reasonably expect to
complete a required task. Studies reveal that a belief in the affirmative to this question serves as a
strong predictor of behavior (Brown et al, 2011; Chung, 2002; Walker & Tracy, 2012). With regard
to career-seeking behavior, a person’s belief in their abilities or acquired skills can greatly predict
whether they engage in activities that enhance their career portfolio. Unfortunately, simply
believing in one’s ability to complete a task does not predict motivation alone; how that individual
perceives the value of completing the tasks is equally as important (Eccles et al., 1998; Vroom,
1963).
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 41

Assessing the value of completing a task results from a person’s intrinsic desire to complete
the task, whether doing so is consistent with their personal identity, the contribution of expected
outcomes to long-term goals, and the overall costs to the individual for committing to the task in
question. For a person’s career seeking behavior, job satisfaction, perceptions of vocational
identity, career planning, and sources of financial and social support strongly correlate with each of
these variables (Brown et al, 2011; Feldman & Turnley, 1995). As such, the person engages in a
cognitive evaluation of both the social and economic exchange between the utility and personal
interest of completing a task, and the related costs for engaging the activity (Pintrich, 2003).
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors combine with psychological estimations of identity and are
subsequently weighed against any potential negative consequence for completing a task.
Student Expectancy Value Theory. Career advancement is often nuanced and multifaceted
across several industries or areas of academic training. Typically, non-science fields lack the type
of regimented career pathway that supports efficacy beliefs among students. Advancement is thus
attributed to external factors, such as professional networks, fortuity, or tolerance of
underemployment experiences (Roh, Chang, Kim, 2014; Scurry & Blenkinsopp, 2011. Students
commonly believe that remaining in a position in which they are overqualified is a necessary and
expected aspect of career progression. As such, students may fail to appraise the utility of career
exploration or other interventions offered within the university or throughout their earlier career
pathway (Nabi, 2004). Studies support this notion of prolonged underemployment as a result and
further suggest that recent college graduates view experiential learning or academic internships as
more costly than beneficial (Guerrero & Rothstein, 2012; Lobene & Meade, 2014; Nabi, 2004).
Career counseling and advising practices at the college level have shown mixed results in
influencing student career outcomes simply due to perceived limitation of skills, fear of engaging in
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 42

competitive career practicums, or the inability of students struggling with financial hardships to find
time to engage in early career exploration that, ironically, has been shown to mitigate
underemployment among recent college graduates (Bernes, Bardick, & Orr, 2007).
Addressing expectancy deficits can be challenging when individual experiences are not
tempered with actual narratives from professionals in a career field. University career centers often
incorporate alumni discussions or professional career panels to expose students to expected career
pathways. There is no short supply of studies of the value of mentorship and informational
interviewing as vehicles to close the expectancy gaps among early career seekers (Anderson &
Winefield, 2011; Reese, 2006), but unfortunately, too few students take advantage of programs and
events intended to provide these experiences during their formative first years in college (Reese,
2006). A notable solution draws from the retention literature, wherein the challenge of student
engagement in co-curricular activities is often addressed to address sub-level graduation rates at
campuses across the United States. Tinto (2006) provides a commonly practiced approach on
college campus regarding student experiences, incorporating social with academic experiences
while focusing primarily on faculty involvement as mentors as a solution for retention. The
mechanism is a motivational change in how students perceive the value of both their academic
training and personal contribution to the university. Students align the true experiences of their
mentors and peers with their personal perspectives of self-worth. In short, they acquire more
realistic expectations that promote involvement in activities and programs that promote retention
and persistence while in college. Similarly, it is reasonable to conclude that connecting faculty with
career exploratory programing may help to promote meaningful expectations for career outcomes.
Career readiness programs can then leverage the support of faculty to encourage experiential
learning, such as internships, which studies show promote improved self-concepts and motivation
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 43

to pursue more advanced career positions (Brooks, Cornelius, Greenfield, & Joseph, 1995). Astin
(1999) further explains the factors that influence the amount of “physical and psychological” energy
that influences how involved student’s will be during their college years, and proposes principals
that guide this framework. Of particular interest is the final two of three postulates wherein
assertions are made regarding the amount of student learning and development as factors of the
degree to which the student is involved, and the extent to which the university creates policy that
increases student involvement (Astin, 1999). Although these theories focus primarily on the
student college experience and their satisfaction with college, findings from this work strongly
support the assertion that the value of high-quality faculty interaction and some forms of extra- and
co-curricular work may contribute to college students’ career readiness seeking behavior during
their undergraduate years.
Organizational Influences
General theory. Aside from individual and group-level factors that may contribute to
performance challenges among recent college graduates, institutional barriers also influence how
competitive students might be prior to graduation. According to Clark and Estes (2008),
organizational-level gaps occur whenever misalignment of work processes and resources inhibits
optimal performance. For academic institutions, this translates to the accessibility of career
readiness programs and advising, inclusion of experiential learning opportunities as a degree
requirement, and support provided by faculty and administrators for career exploration (Brown,
Hacker, Abrams, Carr, Rector, Lamp, & Siena, 2011; Bernes, Bardick, & Orr, 2007). The
challenge for any institution of higher education is to balance the rigor of academic curricula with
practical and meaningful learning opportunities that expose students to applied settings, wherein
they may develop a competitive professional portfolio before graduation.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 44

Stakeholder specific factors. Evaluating organizational barriers includes a careful
assessment of the institution’s work processes. Work processes refer to how organizations link or
connect knowledge and motivation to produce a desire result (Clark and Estes, 2008). Academic
institutions similarly employ a variety of mechanisms and policies that connect students with career
development opportunities, whether on- or off-campus. Access to career readiness programs at
colleges and universities can range from highly visible to completely obscure. Institutions that
excel in providing students with access to career centers and advisors subsequently contribute to the
student’s acquisition of essential job skills, knowledge, and abilities (Nabi, 2004). However,
universities and colleges can just as easily delay or even derail student progress towards career-
level employment by limiting the available course options for experiential learning, increasing
tuition for summer courses, or establishing prerequisites for internship opportunities that further
limit the time students may have to accrue a strong pre-professional portfolio. For this reason,
some colleges and universities have attempted to establish employment pipelines as a means to
outsource career training, yet too few employers have the infrastructure to manage a sufficient
cohort of students to make any meaningful impact (Chung, 2002).
Organizational Resources. In addition to work processes, material resources affect how
well an organization functions. Clark and Estes (2008) regard tangible resources and material
supplies as a key determinant to organizational effectiveness. Within an academic institution,
access to user-friendly client management systems, expert career advisors, and campus recruitment
events, all involve such resources. Competition among providers of client management software
has increased in the last five years as access to mobile technologies have introduced a more scalable
and simple approach to connect employers with students (Brown et al., 2011). Employers register
company profiles and post available jobs and internships on the university’s system, which may
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 45

also include cross-listed opportunities with other institutions. Colleges that invest in elaborate
systems establish a type of job aggregator that simplifies how employers recruit potential job and
internship candidates at that school. Additionally, career centers have benefited from the increase
of student affairs employment at universities across the nation. Still, many colleges still lack the
specialization and expertise of career advisors that can handle the student demand, whether by
number or major. Career advisors spend much of their time providing job selection assistance, via
resume and interview coaching and may spend very little time with any one student exploring
meaningful career opportunities or pathways, which in themselves is often undefined.
Organizational Culture. A final organizational factor that influences undergraduate career
readiness is organizational culture. Specifically, how well universities embrace and encourage a
culture of applied learning may lead to an increase in the number of students engaging in
experiential education, such as academic internships, service learning, and undergraduate research.
Clark and Estes (2008) identifies culture as the way in which an organization describes and
communicates its core values, goals, and beliefs through the environment, groups, or individuals.
The challenges within a university when addressing a culture of experiential learning occur
whenever faculty, the primary social influencers of student achievement and retention, place a
heavy emphasis on curricular activities and relegate experiential learning as extra-curricular
experiences. For the faculty, encouraging experiential learning, however important it might be,
comes in conflict with traditional notions of educational success and the ongoing burden of
improving graduation rates among university students. Faculty are also further influenced by the
tenure process, with criteria that often excludes involvement in experiential and service learning as
part of their own career portfolio. As such, many experiential learning courses are taught by part-
time instructors who spend little, if any, sufficient non-class time on campus to support student
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 46

needs in career development. Furthermore, the national attention to increasing student debt and
rising tuition costs have created a culture that encourages students to expedite their academic
training, with many universities introducing intensive, three-year programs to help students
complete degree requirements while eliminating a year’s worth of tuition (Capelli, 2015). This
approach adversely affects the time students would otherwise have to explore internships or
research opportunities and eliminating any chance for professional development and networking.
For students from low-income backgrounds, experiential learning then becomes a collegiate luxury
available only to those who can afford the extra summer or intercession options for study abroad or
academic internships.
Table 3
Assumed Organizational Influence and Approach to Assessment
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organization Influence
Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
Students generally believe that good grades and a
completed degree is sufficient for immediate career
success.
Focus Group; Student Interviews
on career pathway beliefs
Cultural Model Influence 2:
Faculty and staff believe that early graduation is better
for students, indirectly discouraging co-curricular
activities, including internships.
Focus Group; Student Interviews
on perceived organizational
barriers
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Few visible campus resources promoting and directing
students to internship programs and career portals.
Focus Group; Student Interviews
on perceived organizational
barriers
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
University environment may discourage or not support
racial ethnic minorities, low-income, or first-generation
college students
Participants complete University
Environment Scale (UES).

Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The purpose of a conceptual framework is to explain the primary elements of a study
(Maxwell, 2013). Using mostly graphical depictions, the framework models the process by which
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 47

the variables are expected to interact. Additionally, the framework informs and justifies the design
of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell, 2013), integrating the primary variables and
constructs through which the researcher proposes a relationship (Creswell, 2014). Of interest in this
study is how motivational factors of recent college graduates relate with the knowledge acquired
through deliberate experiential learning at the undergraduate level to influence key employment
outcomes, namely under- and gainful employment. The student also proposes that organizational
factors interact with a person’s motivation and knowledge experiences to create a zone of optimal
career readiness. Figure 3.1 below proposes the process by which these factors interact.
Figure 1
Experiential Learning and Institutional Factors Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework draws from gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) and identifies
two key motivational factors that may influence a person’s career readiness: self-efficacy (Betts &
Voyten, 1997; Hackett & Betts, 1981) and value (Roh, Chang, Kim, 2014; Scurry & Blenkinsopp,
2011). Motivational factors, however, are typically not enough to fully prepare students for career-
related positions at graduation (Wu, Luksyte, & Parker, 2014). Experiential learning serves as a
How does experiential learning and
institutional factors influence the career
readiness and mitigate underemployment
of recent college graduates?
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 48

demonstrable activity by which students acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to network and
excel sooner after graduation. These experiences, which may include academic internships,
research, service-learning, and part-time employment, expose students to factual knowledge of
theory and vocabulary pertaining to their chosen career field, not to mention the specific procedural
and applied practices of professionals within the industry. Many of these experiential learning
activities correspond with academic courses from which students also engage in metacognitive
reflections on their own personal and professional development, thereby improving their decision
making and social skills in the workplace (Creed, 2006; Flynn, 2013). Finally, the framework
demonstrates how organizational variables (i.e. faculty support, career advising, and student affairs
programing) help to encourage and support student co- and extra-curricular experiences (Capelli,
2015; Chung, 2002).
Conclusion
The purpose of this study is to identify individual and institutional barriers that influence the
incidence of underemployment among recent college graduates. The precipitating factors for
underemployment are vast and often circumstantial. The challenges facing academic institutions to
better prepare their graduates for gainful employment will involve a collaborative effort between
higher education professionals, faculty, community partners, and students themselves. While
universities and colleges may embrace change efforts to better provide and promote effective career
readiness resources for students, college graduates can significantly influence their career trajectory
by addressing key knowledge and motivation gaps in their career development during their
undergraduate years. Seeking co- and extra-curricular experiences that explore knowledge, skills,
and abilities of their professional area of interests serves a key starting point. Exploring these
experiences and connecting with the proper campus resources early in their undergraduate training
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 49

may mitigate the number of years of experienced underemployment at graduation, or better yet,
avoid such employment situations soon after separation with the college. Addressing motivational
gaps relating to career decision making self-efficacy and shared value orientations with other
professionals in their career field of interest also may significantly influence their employment
outcomes at graduation. Furthermore, universities also play an important organizational role in
supporting a culture that encourages experiential learning opportunities. Faculty members who
abandon traditional notions of academic achievement and embrace mentorship and facilitate student
experiential learning can positively affect students’ motivations to pursue engagement opportunities
off-campus during their undergraduate years, thereby strengthening the probability of having a
competitive entry-level career portfolio prior to graduation. The following chapter will overview
the methodology and process for gap analysis to further validate the potential barriers the influence
the potential negative employment outcomes of recent college graduates.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 50

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study employed Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework to evaluate the
potential causes and barriers of underemployment among recent college graduates. The framework
provides a systemic review of individual and institutional barriers guided by the organization’s
strategic planning goals. An explanatory sequential research design was used incorporating
quantitative data collection with focus group responses to elaborate on between- and within-group
differences in employment outcomes among a variety of student majors. The study concludes with
research-based recommendations for mitigating the steady increase in underemployment among this
population and suggestions for higher education professionals to improve career readiness programs
in the United States.
Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholder group for this study are former CalU students who have
graduated within the last three years. This population includes approximately 30,000 graduates
representing 78 nations and 109 degree programs across a variety of academic disciplines. The
criteria for selection is as follows:
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Participants must be seniors or recent college graduates, defined in this study
as individuals who have graduated with a CalU bachelor’s degree within the last three years. This
time period represents the average length of employment for the current generation of college
students (Capelli, 2015).
Criterion 2. Participants must have attended CalU as a U.S. citizen or permanent resident.
International students often return to their home country after graduation or once they have
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 51

exhausted their visas, the social and environmental factors in another country may influence
employment outcomes beyond the scope of the study.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Since this is a sequential-explanatory mixed methods research design, multiple sampling
techniques were used. For the initial quantitative survey, sampling involved a large-scale online
outreach using the university’s Career Management Software (CMS) through which emails was
sent to all seniors with an expected Spring 2018 graduation date and alumni from Spring 2015
through Summer 2018. This sample represents participants across all eight major colleges at CalU.
In collaboration with CalU’s Career Center, 511 participants out of approximately 19,300 registered
users completed the online survey.
Focus Group Sampling Criterion and Rationale
For the second phase of the study, qualitative focus groups were conducted to explore the
perceived organizational barriers experienced by CalU students. Participants from the online survey
pool had the option to volunteer to participate in the focus group portion of the study. The purpose
of the focus groups is to explore participants’ answers to the online portion, particularly as the
relate to their overall university experience and career readiness training. Of those who participated
in the online survey, 247 indicated an interest in focus group sessions. To account for project
feasibility and potential saturation, five focus groups consisting of four participants per group were
conducted for a total sample (n) of 20 participants. A purpose sampling method was used to
identify participants according to their responses to questions on generational status, ethnicity,
gender, and their decision to complete an undergraduate internship. For groups 1-4, participants did
not have an undergraduate internship experience; group 5 all reported to have had an internship
experience. To ensure group member openness, each group represented as different ethnic group
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 52

according to how the student identified in the survey, and consisted of one male and one female
who reported as first- or non-first-generation college student status. Groups were chosen based on
the larger representative samples identified in the survey and who expressed interest in participating
in the focus group data collection phase. Variations of the above criteria will yield four different
types of respondents.

Criterion 1. First generation male student who reported as having participated in an
undergraduate internship.
Criterion 2. Non-first-generation male student who reported as having participated in an
undergraduate internship.
Criterion 3. First generation female student who reported as having participated in an
undergraduate internship.
Criterion 4. Non-first-generation female student who reported as having participated in an
undergraduate internship.
Table 4 below reveals the four criterion types of respondents based on the criteria above,
and Table 5 provides an overview of the ethnic make-up of each group.
Table 4

Variation of Participant Types Across Critical Dimensions
Demographic Criteria Experiential Learning No Experiential Learning

Male
First-
Generation
Criterion 1 Criterion 1
Non-First-
Generation
Criterion 2 Criterion 2

Female
First-
Generation
Criterion 3 Criterion 3

Non-First-
Generation

Criterion 4 Criterion 4

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 53

Table 5

Ethnicity of Focus Group Participants
Group # Ethnicity of Participants
1 Hispanic, Latina/o or, Spanish
2 Black or African American
3 White
4 Asian
5 Heterogeneous (mixed)

Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study adopted a mixed method approach to investigate the potential connection
between experiential learning and underemployment rates among recent college graduates.
Specifically, a sequential explanatory model (Creswell, 2014) was used to expound on survey data
collected during the initial phase. The study included two phases: 1. a quantitative survey
incorporating instruments for self-efficacy and questions pertaining to employment status and other
demographic data; and 2. a focus group consisting of a purposive sample of respondents to further
explain survey outcomes. The quantitative portion of the study consisted of an online survey
administered to CalU students who have graduated from the university within the last three years.
Data collection using a quantitative style allows for reliable generalizations to be made between the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational variables of the study.
From the sample of survey respondents, participants were invited to engage in a focus group
intended to explore their responses to survey items. Specifically, focus group questions sought to
identify how participants perceived organizational barriers or support at CalU, and how these
perceptions influenced their decision to either pursue or refrain from career readiness training and
experiential learning during their undergraduate program.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 54

Surveys
An online survey incorporating both questionnaire and psychometrics will be administered
during the first phase of this mixed methods study. Email addresses for recent college graduates at
CalU will be obtained from university’s alumni office and student records office. The demographic
questionnaire will include items pertaining to graduation year, employment status, and university
affiliation (i.e. college and major). The second portion of the survey will include items derived
from the Scale of Perceived Overqualification (SPOQ), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), and
University Experience Scale (UES). The SPOQ includes 9-items that measure perceptions of an
individual’s surplus education, experience, and KSAS with respect to their current job. Cronbach’s
alpha for the SPOQ is .89 (Maynard et. al, 2006). The GSE assesses a general sense of perceived
self-efficacy and has been used and validated across multiple studies across twenty-three cultures,
with Cronbach’s alphas ranging between .76 to .90 (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Validity for
the GSE have been established at acceptable levels to ensure responses are consistent with the
construct and generalizable to similar populations (Creswell, 2014). Finally, the UES consist of a
14-item questionnaire (five items are reversed scored) that measures racial and ethnic minority
college students’ perceptions of the university environment (Gloria & Robinson Kurplus, 1996).
Cronbach’s alpha for the UES is .84, and is significantly correlated with the Cultural Congruity
Scale (CCS; r = 0.49). The purpose of these scales is to identify a connection between assumed
motivational and organizational influences on underemployment of recent college graduates.
Focus Groups
Focus groups can serve as a critical source of data collection (Merriam, 2009). Focus
groups serve the purpose of gaining an understanding of the research question (Maxwell, 2013)
beyond basic psychometrics. Individual responses to qualitative data collection methods also
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 55

provide insight into how organizational processes are perceived and the messages conveyed as to
why those processes even exist (Merriam, 2009). As such, the questions that were administered for
this study sought to explain the “why” of how both university culture and climate as well as
experiential learning might influence underemployment among the study’s respondents.
To accommodate the needs of the study, five focus groups were generated from the list of
survey respondents. To support project feasibility and prevent saturation, twenty participants from
the survey population were selected to participate in the focus group portion of the study. A semi-
structured interview protocol was used to facilitate group conversation. To ensure each member of
the focus group had an equal opportunity to share, each unique question would be initially
addressed to a different group member in a clock-wise fashion prior to opening the question to other
respondents. Focus group interviews were conducted within 60 days of the close of the survey
portion to avoid threats to validity due to time and history.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
A key factor in the success of the qualitative portion of a study is its internal validity, or
credibility. Merriam (2009) speaks of the investigator’s equivalent concept, which references
whether the data are congruent with the subjects’ reality. To improve credibility, the study utilized
negative case analysis (Merriam, 2009) to investigate data from the focus group that may not fit the
pattern or trend of participant responses. Additionally, reflective commentary is another technique
that was used to address any progressive subjectivity (Maxwell, 2013) that may occur during
analysis. Reflective commentary addresses how emerging patterns are identified and allows for a
review of the methodology used in data collection.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 56

Validity and Reliability
Reliability concerns not solely whether a survey can return reasonably repeated results
across multiple testing, but also whether the observed score is significantly reduced in error
(Creswell, 2014). To preserve reliability in this study, all Likert-based survey items were
standardized to a consistent rating scale. Scale items were also be adjusted to include a minimum
number of items, allowing the participant to identify a true neutral response for items for which the
respondent may not have a clear positive or negative attitude (Creswell, 2014).
Improving validity for online surveys can be challenging given the nature of the medium.
Environment cannot be controlled, nor the manner in which the participant completes the survey
(e.g. free from distraction, impulse responses, etc.). To increase the validity within this study, the
researcher employed the use of attention filters. This strategy uses a few blocks of text within the
survey with specific instructions for the participant. Such items used the online program’s skip
logic which sent the participant to the end of the study if the instructions are not followed
accurately. This strategy attempts to reduce “click-throughs,” or hurried responses. Finally, the
study also incorporated the use of reverse-scored questions (Creswell, 2014). Such questions ask
the same question in the same way but using opposing valence.
Ethics
Conducting a mixed methods study requires the researcher to incorporate the primary
principles of both quantitative and qualitative research (Creswell, 2014; Merriam, 2009). Making
ethical decisions that respect the volition of participants while ensuring their safety is critical in
preserving the integrity of the study and its findings. For this reason, signed informed consent is
necessary to establish a mutual understanding between the researcher and the participant, outlining
the voluntary nature of the individual’s participation while clarifying how identity and responses
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 57

will remain confidential (Creswell, 2014; Glesne, 2011). Participants also received explicit
permission to withdraw from the study at any time as well as instructions on how to do so. This is
to minimize the perception of irrevocability for participating in the study due to lack of clarity on
how to appropriately withdraw. A proposal for the study was submitted and approved by the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board to ensure all guidelines pertaining to
the rights and welfare of participants are preserved throughout the data collection process, in
compliance with guidelines for institutional research. All electronic data received through the
online survey will be retained on password protected digital files for no less than 5 years. For those
selected during the focus group phase, permission to audio record the interviews were obtained and
all participants will receive transcripts to verify the reliability of recorded responses. Participants
received a pseudonym in lieu of their given name during the focus group and for any follow-up
procedures, including distribution of the gift card incentive for participating in the focus group.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 58

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The present study sought to investigate how experiential learning and university
environment influenced the career readiness and reported underemployment of recent college
graduates. Specifically, the study employed a GAP analysis framework to explore potential
knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that may influence self-reports of
underemployment by recent college graduates as a large, public university in Southern California.
The first three chapters of this dissertation provided an overview of the increasing problem of
underemployment, a literature review of the psychosocial impact to recent college graduates, and
the methodological design employed in this study. The current chapter will present subsequent
findings from data collected and analyzed using the conceptual framework for this study.
A mixed-methods, sequential-explanatory approach was used to identify potential predictors
of underemployment and then further explore the data through personal narrative and discussion. A
quantitative survey was first distributed to evaluate motivational, knowledge, and organizational
items as they relate to the outcome variable of underemployment. The first research question will
be addressed at this stage, which explores the knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors
that are related to perceived underemployment among recent college graduates. Participants were
selected through the university’s client management service (CMS) portal, which includes directory
information for all enrolled students. Students were selected based on their graduation year,
ranging from Spring 2015 through Spring 2018. An electronic survey tool was used to collect both
demographic and variable items, including the SPOQ, GSE, and UES tools referenced in the
previous chapter.
Quantitative data, in the form of five focus groups, were held to further explore the nuances
and deeper details of participants' university and work experience. The purpose of this approach
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 59

was to build upon findings and more deeply explore potential themes and trends that may address
the research question. The use of a mixed-methods as a form of triangulation in data collection
helps to mitigate biases from a single-method approach (Creswell, 2014). Participants were
selected based on their responses to survey items. Twenty participants across five focus groups
participated in online, semi-structured interviews using Zoom software. All focus groups were
recorded with participant verbal consent and subsequently transcribed and coded for emerging
themes.
Participating Stakeholders
Of those surveyed, 513 current seniors and recent graduates responded to the quantitative
survey items. Of the total surveys submitted, 88 were either incomplete or invalid due to
extensively missing data. The final sample size (n) was 425 participants. Characteristics of the
sample are presented below:
Gender
Of those completing the online survey, 145 identified as male (34.1%) and 254 identified as
female (59.8%). An additional 14 (3.3%) identified as self-described and another 12 participants
(2.9%) chose not to identify their gender. These numbers are a strong representation of the actual
university demographics, with a reported 56% of its enrolled Fall 2017 population identifying as
female. Table 6 below includes the distribution of frequencies for gender among surveyed
participants.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 60

Table 6

Results of Gender Frequencies
n Percent %
Male 145 35.1
Female 254 61.5
Self-Described 14 3.4
Total 413 100.0

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare scores on SPOQ, GSE, and UES
between those identifying as either male or female. Table 7 provides a summary of the test results.
An analysis of the data revealed a significant difference for UES scores between males (M=42.6,
SD=7.3) females (M=44.5; SD=7.1); t(382)= 2.5, p=0.012. Significant differences for GSE scores
between males (M=33.9, SD=5.1) and females (M=32.8; SD=4.5); t(384)=2.0, p=0.038. There was
no significant difference between genders on scores for SPOQ. These results suggest that gender is
not a factor in perceived underemployment, but females do report more positive university
experiences and lower self-efficacy than their male peers.

Table 7

t-test Results Comparing Gender on SPOQ, GSE, and UES Scores

Gender n Mean SD t df p
SPOQ Male 93 26.0 8.5 0.7 276 .428
Female 185 25.2 7.6
GSE Male 137 33.9 5.1 2.0 384 .038*
Female 249 32.8 4.5
UES Male 139 42.6 7.3 2.5 382 .012**
Female 245 44.5 7.1
*p≤ .05, **p ≤ .01

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 61

Ethnicity
A total of 158 (38.3%) identified as Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. The second largest
number of participants included 136 (33%) that identified as Asian. Other groups recorded include
83 (20.1%) White, 11 (2.6%) Black, 6 (1.5%) as Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and 18
(4.4%) as Some other race. 13 participants chose not to report their race/ethnicity. All numbers
closely represent the university’s most recent reported ethnic distribution numbers of currently
enrolled students. Table 8 below includes the distribution of frequencies for ethnicity.

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of race on SPOQ, GSE, and UES.
Results of this analysis can be found in Table 9. There was not a significant effect of ethnicity on
SPOQ at the p<.05 level across the reported five ethnic identities [F(5, 282) = 1.7, p=1.40]. While
there were no differences of perceived underemployment across ethnic groups, there was a
significant difference between groups on GSE [F(5, 393) = 2.5, p=0.032] and UES [F(5, 391)=2.7,
p=0.020]. These results suggest that ethnic identification can predict general self-efficacy and the
perceived university experience of college students. For self-efficacy, those identifying as Native
Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (M=34.7, SD=4.1) reported higher self-efficacy scores and more
Table 8

Results for Ethnicity Frequencies
n Percent %
Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish 158 38.3
Asian 136 33.0
White 83 20.1
Black or African American 11 2.7
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 6 1.5
Other 18 4.4
Total 412 100.0
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 62

positive university experience (M=48.0, SD=7.0) than other reported ethnic groups. Those
identifying as Asian report lower self-efficacy (M=32.0, SD=5.0) and less positive university
experience (M=42.1, SD=7.0) than other groups.

Table 9

One-Way Analysis of Variance of SPOQ, GSE, and UES by Ethnicity
SS df MS F p
SPOQ Between Groups 512.4 5.0 102.5 1.7 .140
Within Groups 17228.7 282.0 61.1

Total 17741.1 287.0

GSE Between Groups 276.6 5.0 55.3 2.5 .032*
Within Groups 8780.4 393.0 22.3
Total 9057.1 398.0
UES Between Groups 693.3 5.0 138.7 2.7 .020*
Within Groups 20052.7 391.0 51.3

Total 20746.0 396.0

*p≤ .05, **p ≤ .01, ***p≤.001
First-Generation Status
A total of 200 (47.1%) identified as a first-generation college student. Although the term
can involve a variety of definitions (Billson & Terry, 1982), the survey item used to collect this data
specifically asked participants if they were the first in their family to attend a 4-year university.
Table 10 below includes the distribution of frequencies for generational status.

Table 10

Results for Generational Status Frequencies
n Percent %
First Generation 200 47.2
Non-First Generation 224 52.8
Total 424 100.0
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 63

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare scores on SPOQ, GSE, and UES
between those reporting as first- or non-first generation. Table 11 provides a summary of the test
results. An analysis of the data did not reveal a significant difference in all three scores across
generational status. These results suggest that generational status is not a factor in perceived
underemployment, self-efficacy, or university experience.

Table 11

t-test Results Comparing Generational Status on SPOQ, GSE, and UES Scores

Gender n Mean SD t df p
SPOQ First-Generation 141 25.7 7.6 0.3 292 .793
Non-First Generation 153 25.4 8.0
GSE First-Generation 192 33.1 5.0 0.8 408 .937
Non-First Generation 218 33.2 45.0
UES First-Generation 191 45.5 7.0 0.3 404 .756
Non-First Generation 215 43.8 7.5

Transfer Student
Of those surveyed, 200 (47.1%) identified as a transfer student. This status as a transfer
student included only those entering a 4-year institution from a 2-year community college,
vocational program, or other military service. Table 12 includes an overview of frequencies for this
sample.
Table 12

Results for Transfer Student Frequencies
n Percent %
Transfer 200 47.1
4-Year Student 225 52.9
Total 425 100.0

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 64

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare scores on SPOQ, GSE, and
UES between those reporting as a transfer or non-transfer student. Table 13 provides a summary of
the test results. Data analysis revealed a significant difference for SPOQ scores between transfer
students (M=27.1, SD=7.5) and non-transfer students (M=24.3; SD=7.9); t(293)= 3.0, p=0.003. No
significant difference was found for GSE or UES between transfer and native students. These
results suggest that transfer students are more likely to experience underemployment than non-
transfer students within three years after graduation.

Table 13

t-test Results Comparing Transfer Status on SPOQ, GSE, and UES Scores

Gender n Mean SD t df p
SPOQ Transfer 93 27.1 7.5 3.0 293 .003**
Non-Transfer 185 24.3 7.9
GSE Transfer 137 33.3 4.6 0.7 409 .503
Non-Transfer 249 33.0 5.0
UES Transfer 139 43.8 7.6 0.3 405 .731
Non-Transfer 245 43.5 6.8
**p ≤ .01
Overview of Findings
Quantitative and qualitative data were collected to validate the presumed influences of
underemployment (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). The following section will present
the study’s findings in two parts according to the sequential method used for data collection. Each
part will be framed according to the respective research question guiding that data collection
method. For the quantitative section, each hypothesis will be grouped according to its contribution
to the GAP framework and presented with a full analysis of the relationship between relevant
predictor and outcome variables. The second section will include an analysis of focus group data
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 65

collected in follow-up to the online survey data. Subsections will be presented by emerging themes
as they contribute to the GAP analysis framework.
Quantitative Findings for Knowledge Influences
Assumed knowledge influences on perceived underemployment of recent college graduates
introduced in Chapter 3 are analyzed below. For the purposes of this study, an evaluation of
potential influences on underemployment included experiential learning (declarative/factual), high-
impact practices (factual and metacognitive), and a comparison between STEM and non-STEM
students (factual/declarative).
Experiential Learning and Underemployment
Experiential learning is used as the primary factor to evaluate the knowledge factors that
potentially influence perceived underemployment. One type of experiential learning is a general
internship, which may include practical experiences for which the student may or may not receive
course credit as part of their college curriculum. Students may receive a wage or work as an unpaid
intern at their learning site, usually at an entry- or pre-professional level under direct supervisor of a
paid staff member. The purpose of experiential learning is to teach students the minimum basic
knowledge, skills, and abilities required to advance in responsibility and position within their
chosen career field. This type of knowledge includes factual and declarative knowledge types. As
such, experiential learning is considered as a knowledge influence as part of the GAP analysis
framework in this study.
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare underemployment among recent
college graduates who reported either having participated in an undergraduate internship
opportunity (internship) or not having participated in an experiential learning opportunity (no
internship). Table 14 provides a summary of the test results. An analysis of the data revealed a
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 66

significant difference in the SPOQ scores for those with an undergraduate internship (M=23.3,
SD=7.4) and those who did not engage in an undergraduate internship (M=28.8; SD=7.3); t(293)=
6.3, p=0.000. These results suggest that undergraduate students who complete at least one career-
related internship opportunity prior to graduation are least likely to experience underemployment
than those who do not pursue an internship or practicum experience, validating the first hypothesis.
Table 14

t-test Results Comparing Experiential Learning on SPOQ Scores
Undergraduate
Internship
n Mean SD t df p
Yes 173 23.3 7.4 6.3 293 .000**
No 122 28.8 7.3
***p≤.001
High-Impact Practices and Underemployment
Another factor contributing to knowledge growth in their respective fields through practical
application, high-impact practices (HIPs) include a number of critical thinking and hands-on
activities that inform knowledge and skill acquisition and are typically completed under the
supervision or instruction of a university official. Survey items pertaining to high-impact practices
include dichotomous variables for which students indicated their participation in a select group of
key HIPs offered at the university. Whereas experiential learning may involve non-campus
affiliated organizations (i.e., part-time job or general internship), HIPs provide opportunities for
students to create deeper connections between their academic training and learning activity.
Academic internships, unlike a general internship, involve concurrent enrollment in a relevant
course facilitated by a faculty member. In many cases, students must complete assignments that
require them to explore and apply career-related knowledge during their experiential learning
opportunity. The value of an academic internship culminates in a reflection of the value of the
experience and a variety of metacognitive exercises that inform their professional worldview.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 67

Other types of HIPs offered at the university involve a study-away experience in the United States
Capital, capstone projects for some majors, field research, service-learning, first-year experience
programming, study abroad, or undergraduate research.
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare underemployment among recent
college graduates who reported either having participated in a HIP opportunity at CalU. A separate
test was conducted for each of the eight HIP opportunities identified for this study. Table 15
provides a summary of the test results. An analysis of the data revealed a significant difference in
the SPOQ scores only for those who completed an academic internship (M=22.3, SD=7.2), t(292)=
4.7, p=0.000; US Capital Trip (M=18.5, SD=.70), t(3.4)= 10.5, p=0.001; and Service-Learning
course (M=22.0, SD=7.6); t(293)= 2.9, p=0.003. These results suggest that, among the various
high-impact practices offered at CalU, students are less likely to report underemployment soon after
graduation if they participated in an academic internship, US Capital experience, or service-learning
opportunity, validating the sixth hypothesis specifically for academic internships, US Capital
experience, and service-learning opportunities.
No significant difference was found between those who did or did not complete a capstone
project (M=25.0; p=.612); field research (M=22.3; p=.090); or study abroad (M=22.5; p=.058). For
two particular high-impact practices, participants reported slightly higher underemployment scores
compared to those who did not participate in those activities. Participants who completed the first-
year experience program (M=26.2; SD=7.7) and undergraduate research (M=25.8; 8.3) had higher
SPOQ scores than those who did not participate in the first-year experience program (M=25.5;
SD=7.9); t(293)= -.357, p=.722 or an undergraduate research project (M=25.5; SD=7.8); t(293) = -
.219; p=.826.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 68

Table 15

t-test Results Comparing HIP Involvement on SPOQ Scores
n Mean SD t df p
Academic Internship 92 22.3 7.2 4.7 292 .000***
US Capital Trip 2 18.5 .70 10.5 3.4 .001***
Capstone Project 54 25.0 7.3 0.5 293 .612
Field Research 16 22.3 8.0 1.7 293 .090
First Year Experience 20 26.2 7.6 -0.3 293 .722
Service-Learning 30 22.0 7.6 2.9 293 .003**
Study Abroad 22 22.5 8.8 1.9 293 .058
Undergraduate Research 34 25.8 8.3 -0.2 293 .826

**p ≤ .01, ***p≤.001
STEM vs. Non-STEM and Underemployment
Students majoring in the STEM fields typically receive academic training that directly
translates into career-ready skills. Advancement in STEM-related careers relies on strong objective
performance in the classroom (i.e., grades) and standardized exams. For non-STEM students,
demonstrative skills often require prolonged experience in the natural environment wherein a
student's career activities are practiced. The connection between the skills required for career
readiness and the knowledge acquired by way of a student's academic degree curriculum greatly
differs between STEM and non-STEM disciplines. As such, an independent samples t-test was
conducted to compare SPOQ scores between STEM and non-STEM students. Table 16 provides a
summary of the test results. An analysis of the data failed to reveal a significant difference in the
SPOQ scores for those identifying as a STEM (M=25.8, SD=7.7) and those who identified as a non-
STEM major (M=24.8; SD=8.1); t(293)= 1.1, p=0.257. These results indicate that there is no
relationship between STEM and non-STEM students in reported perceived underemployment,
disconfirming the fourth hypothesis.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 69

Table 16

t-test Results Comparing STEM and non-STEM on SPOQ Scores
n Mean SD t df p
Non-STEM 214 25.8 7.7 1.1 293 .257
STEM 81 24.8 8.1

A separate independent samples t-test was conducted to compare SPOQ scores between
non-STEM students who did or did not complete either an experiential learning or HIP experience.
An analysis of relevant data provided a strong significant difference in SPOQ scores for non-STEM
students who participated in a general internship (M=24.0, SD=7.5) and those non-STEM students
who did not participate in a general internship (M=29.0, SD=6.8); t(174)=4.8, p=0.000.
Statistically significant differences were also found for non-STEM students who participated in an
academic internship t(173)=4.0, p=0.000 or service-learning opportunities t(174)=3.1, p=0.002. No
effect was found for any of the other HIP activities. These results suggest that non-STEM students
are less likely to experience underemployment if they participant in either a general or academic
internship, or service-learning opportunity during their undergraduate training, validating the fifth
hypothesis. Table 17 below provides a summary of test results.
Table 4.11

t-test Results for non-STEM internship or service-learning on SPOQ Scores
n Mean SD t df p
General Internship 92 24.0 7.5 3.1 174 .000***
No General Internship 2 29.0 6.8
Academic Internship 54 22.3 7.8 4.0 173 .000***
No Academic Internship 121 27.2 7.2
Service-Learning 15 19.9 7.9 3.1 174 .002**
No Service-Learning 161 26.2 7.5

**p ≤ .01, ***p≤.001

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 70

Quantitative Findings for Motivational Influences
Assumed motivational influences on perceived underemployment of recent college
graduates introduced in Chapter 3 are analyzed below. Specifically, only self-efficacy was
measured during the quantitative portion of the mixed-methods study; expectancy values will be
reviewed within the qualitative interview section presented later in this paper.
Self-Efficacy and Underemployment
The degree to which a person perceives their agency, or belief that their actions can
influence their environment, can impact how a person persist in novel or challenging situations
(Bandura, 1999). Discontent with work roles and heightened sensitivity to issues procedural or
distributive fairness can result in situations wherein a person perceives themselves and
underemployed (Koen et al., 2012). As such, self-efficacy is expected to predict the reported
underemployment among recent college graduates. To evaluate this proposition, a Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between reported
underemployment and self-efficacy among recent college graduates. The results of the test are
presented in Table 18 below. An analysis of data revealed no correlation between the two
variables, r = 0.074, n = 290, p = 0.211. These results suggest that there is no relationship between
reported self-efficacy and perceived underemployment, disconfirming the second hypothesis.
Table 18

Correlation Between Underemployment and General Self-Efficacy
1 2 M SD
1. Perceived Underemployment
–
.074 25.5 7.8

2. General Self-Efficacy

.074

–

33.2

4.8

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 71

Quantitative Findings for Organizational Influences
The following section presents results for data collected on potential organizational
influences on reported underemployment among recent college graduates. Since the university
environment can have a strong influence on student involvement and resources accessed by
students, it’s reasonable to expect a strong correlation between a student’s reported university
experience and perceived underemployment.
University Experience and Underemployment
To test the relationship between university experience and underemployment, a Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between participant
scores on SPOQ and UES items. Table 19 below presents the test results. An analysis of data
revealed a significant negative correlation between the two variables, r = -0.183, n = 295, p = 0.002.
This result suggests that positive university experiences can reduce the level of perceived
underemployment of recent college graduates.
Table 19

Correlation Between Underemployment and University Experience
1 2 M SD
1. Perceived Underemployment
–
-.183** 25.5 7.8

2. University Experience

.183**

–

43.7

7.2

**p ≤ .01
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data collection employing a focus-group style of interviews was conducted.
Mixed-methods approaches to studying research questions help to triangulate collection methods
(Creswell, 2009), leveraging the value of qualitative techniques designed to deepen understanding
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 72

of beliefs, practices, and cultures experienced by study participants (Merriam, 2009). Pseudonyms
for participants, the university, and any reference to other persons or business entities were used to
keep identifies private. Participants were chosen based on the recruitment criteria discussed in
Chapter 3, and questions were designed to address some of the expected findings from the online
survey findings. Table 20 presents the semi-structured interview questions used during each
session. The findings in this section will be presented by knowledge, motivational, and
organizational themes in accordance with the GAP analysis framework. All findings will serve to
answer the second research question as follows: How do recent college graduates describe potential
university influences on their career readiness and current employment status?
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 73

Table 20

Semi-Structured Interview Questions and KMO Factors Addressed
Dimension(s) Informed
KMO Factor(s)
Addressed
1. Describe how prepared you feel to
advance in your career.

2. How would you describe your experience
at CalU? Provide some examples to
support how you feel.

3. How do you feel your internship helped
you prepare for your career?

4. Why was an internship not part of your
undergraduate experience?

5. Do you feel your college degree trained
you to succeed in your career?

6. Describe your relationship with faculty as
a student at CalU.

7. Why did you choose or not choose
experiential learning in undergrad?

8. Share with me how you felt college has
prepared you for your career?

9. Can you describe your experiences with
finding a job since graduation?

GSE, SPOQ

UES, SPOQ

SPOQ

UES, SPOQ

UES, SPOQ

UES

UES

UES, SPOQ

SPOQ
Knowledge,
Motivational,
Organizational

Organizational

Knowledge,
Organizational

Knowledge,
Motivational,
Organizational

Knowledge,
Organizational

Organizational

Motivational,
Organizational

Knowledge,
Organizational

Knowledge

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 74

Qualitative Findings for Knowledge Influences
Industry-relevant Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
Connecting curriculum and course assignments to vocational work activities were found to
be a common concern among recent college graduates. Particularly due to the nature of a liberal
studies education, the cognitive load endured by students as a result of a combination of heavy
course loads and diversified knowledge areas across a typical schedule can pose a threat to the
mental structures and schema students create with regard to practical application. Group 1
participant, John - a first-generation male in STEM-related field, discussed his dissatisfaction with
the conceptual design of many of his courses, many that left him without an understanding of how
to apply lessons to real-time challenges in the field. Specifically, John comments:
I wish there was more within the classes; a way to show how this will actually apply. I don’t
know if that’s always there so you feel like you may be learning stuff that isn’t going to
apply...and you worry, like, “Shouldn’t I be investing my time doing something else? ...I
don’t know if there is a way to know how these classes are truly going to apply. You
wonder if you’re really being prepared (John, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

John provided an often-shared concern among students that their college degree either is or wasn’t
foreseeably helpful in preparing them for their career, regardless if they were a STEM or non-
STEM student. Crystal, a female, non-first-generation student in Group 2 shared a similar
sentiment regarding her sociology courses. When asked to reflect on core concepts that have
prepared her for a career in the helping fields, she seemed to struggle with self-doubt:
There were times when I could not, you know, appreciate the value of my courses. It’s like,
we learn about group norms and cultural principles, but ain’t no one honest enough to tell us
how this is going to help us out in the real world. It’s complex out there...when you see
people interact and you have to figure out their problems, I mean, how you gonna do that?
Nothing in my text book told me what to look for or what I should say or how I should
figure out what’s wrong. In the end, it’s almost as if I have to use my own instincts and
intuition, but, it’s not like I needed to take four years of classes to learn that. If that’s all it
really is about, then why even go to college? Because I need a piece of paper that says I
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 75

know something that others don’t, even if that isn’t really true (Crystal, personal
communication, July 22, 2017).

There was a sense of futility from participants in Groups 1-4 regarding their feeling of career-
readiness prior to graduation. While a few did acknowledge and praise professors for their “hard
work” or “deep concern for us as people,” there was a common sentiment that they were not aware
of the minimum basic knowledge, skills, or abilities (KSAs) required for each of their chosen
majors.
Perhaps individual characteristics and an early investment in one’s career preparation can
mitigate this knowledge gap. One participant from Group 4 did reference initiative in
supplementing her coursework with her own research on the minimum KSAs required for her
career. Donna, a first-generation transfer student demonstrated a fairly hardy approach to what she
referred to as an “educational paradox” in the following statement:
The paradox is that, you come to learn and prepare for a career that, for a long time you’ve
been told is necessary to be an expert, and yet, you leave with just as much uncertainty as
when you came in. So after, I think my third year, I realized that I had to take charge of what
I needed to learn to be a better social worker. So, I did what my career advisor told me to do
and called a social worker to, do the informational interview thing. I learned more about this
field in that short time with her than I did in all my years of college. I read books and
searched online for qualifications for social work jobs and I tried to read as much as I could
about the different problems in the news that I was thinking related to what a social worker
had to do (Donna, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Donna’s comments not only highlighted the invaluable contribution of extra-curricular career
exploration, but validated the existence of declarative knowledge gaps as they relate to occupational
KSAs. Although she did stop short of pursuing experiential learning or similar practical
experience, Donna’s efforts highlight a strong need for universities to instigate career-related
reflection throughout the undergraduate experience. Simply assuming that standardize coursework
or common curriculum would naturally connect to the student’s building worldview of professional
practice should not remain the approach taken by faculty or campus departments in planning
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 76

curriculum requirements. A purposeful and ongoing activity in every course offered at the
university should instigate reflection on implications to the student’s career outcomes. A similar
experience was shared by Mark, a first-generation male in Group 4:
It’s hard to know what to ask...what to think about. I wasn’t thinking five years ahead each
time, I was just trying to pass my class. I had this one class, though, where my teacher
asked me if I had any plans after college. I mean, I knew I was supposed to be thinking
about that on my own, but when she asked me that, it really got me thinking and taking this
seriously. I like when [my professors] asked me questions about me and how everything
applied to me (Mark, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Knowledge of the Self and Strengths-based Decision Making
Another theme that emerged from the focus groups was the absence or late recognition of
personal reflection. Fitting under the knowledge domain of metacognition, reflective practices help
to establish a personal framework from which the individual can engage in contingency planning or
explore adaptive decision-making and self-deterministic pursuits (Baker, 2006). Reflective
practices not only help to build a sense of awareness of individual values and otherwise
unforeseeable barriers, but may also relate deeply to emotional intelligence, and construct that
Bradberry and Greaves (2009) believes contributes to individual performance and achievement
above and beyond intelligence and other stable traits. During each focus group session, this topic
emerged in some form when participants were asked specifically about whether college trained
them for their career. Paul, a male transfer student from Group 1 provided the following
commentary:
Studying to be a teacher, many of my professors often asked us to “imagine.” Imagine how
it would feel to be a minority in this neighborhood or imagine how it would feel to not
afford the stuff you need for school. Sometimes, it hit me because I would often see me in
those cases. I imagine a lot; imagine about my purpose here and how I can help others and
not be greedy. That’s why I want to be a teacher. I realized some stuff about me that I
knew I could use the help other kids like me, and maybe other kids who weren’t like me but
needed to understand me. I used to hate, you know, when people told you you need to fix
this or that you’re bad at that, but when I began to really think about it, it meant more and I,
you know, internalized it...I made it my own. And now, I try to not force my sister to know
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 77

something, but I try to get her to think about how whatever she does affects people, like my
“momz” or our “pop.” I think I’m good at doing that now and so, I grateful that my
professors made me stop and think more (Paul, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Paul affirmed faculty approaches to leading traditional lectures as incorporating reflective moments.
Despite not participating in an internship, he nearly recreated the experience in his mind and
entertained possible solutions for a variety of social issues that he might encounter in an elementary
or secondary school classroom.
Much like Paul, Group 3 member, Samantha – a female cultural studies alumna whose
father also attended the university – echoed similar moments of reflection in the classroom. When
discussing assignments that she felt helped prepare her for her career in public administration,
Samantha notes:
There were several classes that I had to write essays...like long essays. I hated the thought
of them and did what everybody did, you know, wait till the last minute to do them. But I
remember some of them has multiple questions we had to answer and, when I was writing, I
could see the stories of the people we were study in my head and sometimes I would pretend
to be them. And when I think about what I would do if I was them in the story, I began to
think how good could I be...could I do whatever they did? Could I do it better or would I fail
worse? And there were times when I realized that I would be too judgmental or too mean,
but then I learned that I was really good and planning stuff. It became like a game and I
could create a strategy or whatever and then, you know, I could see myself working well
with other trying to fix things. I was good at planning and fixing (Samantha, personal
communication, July 22, 2017).

Whether students received required assignments or had a casual conversation with faculty that
instigated reflection, there seemed to be a process by which the student managed to identify some
attribute about themselves or a skill set that affirmed their career decision. Unfortunately, not
everyone felt they had opportunities to engage in deep reflection. John (Group 1) overhead Paul’s
statement and added to his own comment with the following:
See, I wish I had that. None of my professors would have dared asked that question because,
I think, it’s too hard to see something in math or science that you can’t already see, you
know? My life it too busy right now and it always has been. I have kids and I have to work
and I really don’t have time to stop and think. I just do the work and go on to the next thing.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 78

I mean, this right here is rare. I get to talk to you and honestly say I don’t think I’m ready to
go to the next level. I’m trying to read some more books and study Python more because
that’s what employers want, but I don’t know if I can do what I need to do yet to really be
successful (John, personal communication, July, 22, 2017).

Although reflective practices were understandably absent from John’s STEM-related curriculum,
the potential benefit still pertained to him as much as it did to the others. At least one person in
each of the groups referenced the value of a journal assignment or similar reflective exercise, but it
was in Group 5 that this discussion really picked up. Much like John’s triggered response, group
members in Group 5 quickly chimed in the moment when reflective practices were brought up. The
first and perhaps most revealing was Chris, a non-first-generation psychology major:
In my internship class, we had to write a couple of reflection papers where we were asked to
think about what we’ve learned during our internship up to that point. It seemed like busy
work to me, but after all was said and done, I think, those assignments were the most helpful
in training me for a career in psychology. I remembered things that I didn’t realized I was
going to, like when I was talking to a kid and he was telling me why he thought he was
disruptive in class. He was blaming all sorts of people, but then I heard him talk about his
friend and how upset he would get. So, I asked him more questions about his friend and we,
like, came to realize that he was carrying his anger about his friend not hangin’ with him
anymore. He really felt sad, and then I remember hearing the counselor ask him questions
about how he thought he could handle the situation. She asked him something like, “What
can you do to feel better about yourself?” and to tell her three things he felt really positive
about himself. He just like, completely changed. But I also got to see how to use those
types of questions to help someone like that kid, and it made me feel like I can really do this
when I got out (Chris, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Given that Group 5 included students that participated in an academic internship course, Chris’
experience and reference to reflective assignments was similar to all of his group members.
Academic internship courses almost always incorporate a reflective assignment to facilitate
students’ growth and learning experience as a result of observation they make at their internship
sites. In his statement, it’s evident that vicarious learning serves as a strong moderating factor in
relating reflective practices to career readiness.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 79

Qualitative Findings for Motivational Influences
Self-Efficacy and Effort
Self-efficacy plays an important role in in self-regulation of motivation, informing the
person’s psychological estimate of potential success when acting on their environment (Bandura,
1999). The belief as to whether successful outcomes are probable influence how much effort a
person exerts on a task or endures through a specific challenge, whether in their personal life or in
the workplace. The degree to which a person is efficacious regarding their work behavior will also
determine whether any given situation – including perceived underemployment – is motivating
enough to seek additional resources or opportunities, or simply demoralizing to the extent that they
simply resign all effort and externalize responsibility. This theme of insufficient self-belief was
found throughout the various focus groups when participants were asked about why they did not
pursue additional resources, advising, or internship prior to graduation. Joanne, a female first-
generation alumna from Group 3, highlighted this issued in her response:
I thought about whether I should do something more. I heard of things like internships, but
I wasn’t sure what that meant for me. I mean, I wasn’t that smart yet to do, you know, the
things that this company or that company would need me to do. I had some friends in
classes with me talk about their internships and it seemed so hard to get one and they always
seemed like they were ready. That’s just it. I wasn’t ready...and that made me scared. I
needed to do something but didn’t know how. I guess I was hoping that when I graduated,
everything would be easier (Joanne, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

The logic behind Joanne’s response would not be unique among the participants. As a traditional
student, Joanne commented on the fairly linear nature of her academic and professional
expectations, in that, every year would naturally lead to advancement. She followed-up her
response during a latter question regarding her experience since finding a retail job two years after
graduation:
I look back and think, yah, I could have gone through everything I have now much sooner.
But I have my whole life ahead of me, so I think I’ll be fine. I’ve met some great people at
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work and I feel like I do my job well. I like that every day seems like something new and I
get to help customers make decisions on what to buy and all the latest trends. I know that
now and didn’t need college to teach me that. Sure, I wish I could make more money and
all, but that’s part of the process I’ve learned. As long as you keep focusing on yourself and
growing in what you do, you will eventually get to where you want to go gradually (Joanne,
personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Another participant in Group 2, Janice, provided a similar thought process when describing her job
experience as a healthcare administrator. As first-generation college student, she spoke about the
ensuing pride she felt and encouragement she received from family as she persisted after
graduation:
I ain’t gonna lie, I didn’t know what I was gonna to do after graduation. I felt worried and,
yah, I was scared, too. But I wasn’t ‘bout to let it show. I worked hard to get where I was at
and I was going to keep working hard till I need to get where I want to be. After college,
my family kept reminding me that I was strong and how much they was proud of me and all,
and that made me feel like I didn’t need to worry. I just kept applying for jobs and doing
interviews and all, and sure enough, I got this job and, at first, I thought I didn’t want to be
no secretary. But then I started to learn about the office and met my coworkers and they
made me feel like I was important too. I learnt my job real fast and now they even look to
me for help sometimes. It’s not that I’m too prideful about me...it’s not about me, but, it’s
my parents and my sisters who tell me that they’re proud of me cause I went to college and
they wish they could, so I have a responsibility so I’m gonna take care of them, no doubt
(Janice, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

The transparency among Joanne and Janice regarding their fears and uncertainty provided insight
into a couple of findings from the quantitative analysis. First of all, as females, they ultimately
supported the findings relating high self-efficacy scores for that gender group in comparison to the
males in the sample. It seems, however, that the growth in self-belief and subsequent efforts to
secure a job occurred after graduation. The critical point was, however, before graduation when,
based on their comments, they struggled with self-efficacy which may explain why they didn’t
pursue an early practicum or internship experience. The transformation in self-efficacy supports the
view that it is a fluid and not fixed dimension, and can be gained through experience (Bandura,
1999).
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Group 5 participant, Joe, a first-generation, non-traditional college student provided perhaps
the strongest representation of the finding that males in our sample reported lower self-efficacy
scores than females. Despite having a successful job related to his degree (accounting), he shared
the following:
I’m not sure if I’m good at what I do or not. I know that I can meet deadlines and keep up
with everyone else, but that’s not good enough. I...expect more of myself. I have a wife and
kids and they need me to be better, but, I just don’t feel like I can really move any further
from where I’m at now. It’s a tough business and I have to work long hours, and I know I
need to spend more time with my family, but I need to work too so...it’s like a catch-22. So,
I’m always thinking about what is the next opportunity, how can I make more money, how
can I take back more time, how can I be better than everyone else so I get that promotion or
this new job or whatever. You know, my friends that do what I do seem to not have to work
that hard but they make more than I do and I see them doing things with their families that I
wish I could do. I don’t know how they do it. Everyone expects you to make a lot of
money because...that’s what accountants do. And I have a college degree so my own family
looks to me like I have all the answers...but I don’t (Joe, personal communication, July 22,
2017).

Revealing in Joe’s response and echoed in similar commentary from other males in the focus
groups was the nature of social comparison, competition, and role responsibility. As for social
comparison, male participants often made lateral or upward comparisons such that, they estimated
the degree of their success by comparing their financial and job titles to their peers or others in their
field that have had more experience. This comparison was more pronounced for non-traditional
students (regardless of transfer status). Michael, a Group 5 non-transfer student working as a
software programmer commented:
I felt I got a head-start early on in life. I was always pretty good at math and science, and I
didn’t really have any problems succeeded in doing things that I tried. So, I went to work
instead of college first, but then, things happened, you know, with the recession and all, so I
made a decision to get my degree. It seemed like the right thing to do, but coming back to
school with younger kids around me just didn’t feel fair. Even if I knew more or worked
harder, we’d get the same grades so I thought, what’s the point? And after I got out, it was
like a whole new world. I had a harder time getting my first job out of college and all these
young kids, many of them without college degrees, were taking jobs and sometimes, in my
opinion, getting paid less that they should but that’s on them. It’s just, it’s much easier to
hire someone younger who had more time and didn’t care so much about what they’re
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getting paid than someone like me. So, at some point, when you work alongside someone
much younger than you and you have a supervisor whose younger than you, how can that
not affect you? I don’t know, maybe it’s just me (Michael, personal communication, July
22, 2017).

A self-imposed sense of competition and role responsibility also seemed common themes among
participants for lowered self-efficacy. Doug, a first-generation Group 2 member, provided the
following comment on his experience in the food industry:
I always knew it’s about who can do things the best. That was me. I won’t gonna be the
guy who comes in last place, or any other place other than first. I played football and ran
track, and that was always my motivation...to be the best. On the field though, it seemed
easy. But at work, especially when you do a bunch of basic and easy things, it’s hard to be
the best ‘cause even if you is the best, people don’t care. You know, who cares if you can
file the best or make copies the best...what does that even mean? But, you know, I have to
help my parents out with the rent and all so, it’s my job to do what I have to do to make the
dollars. I had odd jobs and stuff working in a fancy office but that ain’t me. But I don’t feel
no shame doing what I do now (working as a food server). It’s tough sometimes, because I
see other people get more tips than me, and I work just as hard I think, if not better. You
know, maybe they are doing something I don’t know or maybe because they have more
experience waiting tables, I don’t know. But, yah, it bothers me that they make more money
than me. I feel like I have to do something or maybe get a better job so I can take care of
my family because that’s what I’m supposed to do. But I aint’ trying to worry about all that
right now ‘cause I have a degree and this is only temporary, I’m sure (Doug, personal
communication, July 22, 2017).

The themes emerging around self-efficacy seem to support that males do experience lower career
self-efficacy as a result of social comparison, competition, and a sense of responsibility to support
family. Additionally, self-efficacy seems to remain low for all those who did not pursue an
internship prior to graduation, but survey combined with focus group data provide sufficient
evidence to infer that females seem to thrive on their academic accomplishments and perceived
post-baccalaureate opportunities.
Expectancy Values and Career-Readiness Seeking Behavior
In light of the findings from the survey analysis relating experiential and service-learning to
underemployment, it was critical during the focus group sessions to explore the reasons way alumni
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and current seniors chose not to participate in these activities. Understanding the motivational gaps
in this area should greatly inform the university on how to improve access and opportunity to
undergraduates prior to completing their degree requirements. A pattern of responses emerged
across each focus group session for Groups 1-4 in that, many students didn’t believe taking on an
internship was cost effective when accounting for lost time for degree-required courses and
financial opportunity costs. Secondly, the message that internships were even necessary above and
beyond degree completion wasn’t supported by faculty or advisors. These themes our outlined in
more detail below:
Cost-effectiveness of internships. With increasing demands for students to complete their
undergraduate degree in 4 years or less, students both failed to see the value in delaying time and
expending more money to complete courses over the summer to avail themselves of the scheduling
demands of an internship. Melissa, a first-generation participant in Group 1 spoke passionately
about her reasons for not pursuing a career-related internship. As a transfer student who lived with
her parents, Melissa believed that dedicating herself to her studies included avoiding all
distractions, among which she considered internships:
Why didn’t I apply for an internship? Shoot, I can give you a thousand reasons why, but,
it’s not too difficult to understand in the end. I didn’t have time. I already was taking like 5
or 6 classes each semester, and even then I wasn’t sure if I was going to graduate on time.
My mom always said, “Mija, just focus on your classes and I’ll take care of the rest.” She
(her mom) made me feel like she got my back, so I wasn’t gonna waste no time trying to
work for free for someone who wasn’t going to promise me a job in the end. I was just
gonna get good grades and do what I gotta do get this thing done. I’ll worry about work later
I thought. Besides, my mom supports me anyways...she always tells me how much she’s
proud of me and brags about me and my grades to her friends. Anyways, most of the
internships I heard about from my classmates turned out pretty bad and they (classmates)
didn’t even get a job out of it. And didn’t even know what I wanted to do anyway ‘cause I
thought I wanted to be a lawyer. I still do, but I’m trying to figure it out right now (Melissa,
personal communication, July 22, 2017).

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The challenge for Melissa seemed to involve not just her perceived cost analysis of pursuing
experiential learning, but the long-term benefits and return on investment that could come from
those experiences. That same sentiment was supported by Sue, Group 5 member who ultimately
reassessed the value of internships after speaking to her friends who completed a well-known allied
health program:
I thought internships were unnecessary. I think everyone has this idea that interns are
simply free labor and get pushed around all day and taken advantage of. I didn’t want that
experience, and plus, I already knew I needed to go to medical school anyway so what’s the
point? I had to get the highest grades I could get to make that happen and then, maybe,
volunteer sometime later so I can get the hours I need to apply. But my friends told me
about their internships with XYZ Program and how they learned things that they felt were
going to make them stand out in grad school. And they even had, like, all these letters from
their bosses and just seemed like they had it all together. So, I was like, “Shoot, why not?
Where do I sign up?” ...So, I did this internship at Health Hospital and it was the best
decision I could make. I could say I had a clinical rotation experience and met all these
doctors who were surprisingly very willing to support me on my applications to med school.
And it showed when I wrote my essay, I could talk about important aspects of the medical
field and working at the hospital that I don’t think I could have without that experience, at
least not in a real sense, you know? I felt like I actually knew what I was talking about
rather than just trying to share what I learned in a classroom (Sue, personal communication,
July 22, 2017).

Sue provides an insightful pre- and post-evaluation of the value of internships towards career
outcomes. Her experience transcended what, much like Melissa, was a misinformed schema of how
internships works and for whom they are intended. Perhaps most glaring was the inability for
students to distinguished between general internships and academic internships. The ubiquity of the
general term seemed prevalent among participants, as they all had some sense of what an internship
was based on exposure to media, vicarious narrative, or campus resource. Melissa’s comment
about the nature of the internship as exploitive or simply “free labor” is an example of this mistaken
notion of a proper internship.
Lack of Support from Faculty and Advisors. Another emergent theme informing the
motivational factors in our framework is the perceived lack of support from faculty and advisors for
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prioritizing experiential learning along with or even above general course requirements. Faculty, in
particular, serve as a critical source of academic support for students (Tinto, 2006). Whenever
faculty do engage students in critical thought about social issues in their community or relevant
opportunities to apply their coursework, students report more positive career outcomes (Froud et.
al., 2009). When asked about their experience with faculty, reasons for pursuing or not pursuing an
internship, and general affect about career readiness resources at the college, students nearly shared
a common assertion that faculty do not support, and in some cases, discourage students from
pursing experiential learning opportunities. Discussing his relationship with faculty, John (Group
1) shares:
I think the faculty care about their work and all. I mean, I haven’t had any bad experiences
except, you know, the occasional complaint because I didn’t think I was graded fairly or
whatever. So, it’s not that I blame the faculty, but no, they never talked about internships or
anything like that. Would it be nice? I don’t know, I think so...people place a lot of
attention on what the professors have to say and I think students just believe them at their
word because they have their degree and know their field the best, I suppose. If they said
anything about internships, I bet people would consider them more (John, personal
communication, July 22, 2017).

Joanne (Group 3) provides a similar insight:
We never talked about internships or research or anything like that, not for us at least. They
(professors) made it seem like research was for graduate school...I think they assume we
were already doing what we had to outside of our classes to get where we wanted to go. I
don’t remember any specific professor that took the time to talk with me about my life or
career, but I think they would if I was able to take the time to go to office hours or
something. ...I know my advisor recommend I go to the Career Center, but even she said...I
didn’t need to do an internship to graduate (Joanne, personal communication, July 22,
2017).

What can be learned from the students’ perspective on faculty and advisor involvement is
that 1. faculty do hold a high-degree of credibility when it comes to suggestions for both academic
and discretionary behaviors, and 2. emphasis is primarily on graduation rather than comprehensive
career-readiness of the general student population. Whether there is a diffusion of responsibility by
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educational leaders when it comes to a student’s private career search or whether there is a
knowledge gap among faculty and staff, it’s clear that this dimension presents a critical area that
needs to be addressed insofar as motivational influences on student’s career readiness in college.
The data also uncovers a clear need to reframe the concepts and value beliefs towards internships in
higher education. Internships are career-preparatory experiences that typically involve educational
or entry-level work. As a distinguishing frame, a general internship could be described as any job
that informs’ one’s career of interest, in which the person 1. is hired because they meet a particular
skill set, and 2. performs these skills to the benefit of their employer. An academic internship, on
the other hand, embodies a completely different and narrower conceptualized frame. Often
governed by the university and, at times, federal labor policies (when unpaid), academic internships
involve acquisition of pre-defined learning outcomes that involve the collaboration between the
institution (typically faculty and any risk management office), the student, and the employer. In
these work arrangements, a contrasting frame can be used to differential this from a general
internship in that 1. the person is hired because they may not have particular skills sets, and 2.
primarily seeks to acquire these skills through appropriate training and experience, often at the
detriment to their employer. The academic internship, then by nature, is intended for students who
perceive themselves as lacking or not ready for their field (efficacy) and requires a future-
orientation to appreciate the long-term benefits (value) of undertaking this type of work experience.
Qualitative Findings for Organizational Influences
Another key contribution from focus group data involves findings for potential
organizational barriers that influence or even inhibit student career readiness training. Survey data
produced only quantitative metrics on overall perceived university experiences, particularly among
racial and ethnic minorities in a university environment. Findings from the quantitative phase didn’t
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reveal a relationship between university experience and underemployment, but did highlight
significant relationships between UES and participants’ gender and ethnicity. This section will
further explore those issues, along with identifying how participants perceive the influence of
cultural models and university setting on their undergraduate career readiness experience.
Gender and Race
Building on survey findings, participants were asked to clarify their responses regarding
their UES scores, specifically as it pertained to university size, relationships with faculty, and
availability of critical resources. Findings support data results for gender, and the negative
experiences of those identifying as Asian (Group 4) in comparison to other groups was validated.
Donna (Group 4) provided additional clarity on how she felt treated and welcomed on the CalU
campus:
I never really felt like it was my home like some call it. I didn’t feel happy in class and
didn’t feel like I wanted to be there (campus) unless I had to be, like with my friends. I
guess that’s not what I think school is about. You are supposed to study and learn and get
good grades. It’s not the school’s job to be my family. I have a family and they know
me...my professors never seem to want to talk to me (Donna giggles). I think they think I’m
strange or something...but yah, the professors are nice I think...they talk a lot to others, but
not me. My friends feel the same way (Donna giggles again); I think it’s because we’re
Chinese and they (professors) can’t understand what we say sometimes (Donna, personal
communication, July 22, 2017).

Group-mate, Michael, also provided this explanation:
I consider myself American, for the most part, but sometimes, I felt like my “Asian-ness”
came up more often than not. The campus does a lot to make people feel welcome and
there’s all this talk about diversity and social justice, you know. But all the attention is for
the Hispanics and African-Americans, it seemed. There was a lot of events that promoted
understanding of those cultures I felt and then we (Asians) just were participants. We don’t
have it easy either, and I think that bothered some of us every once in a while. Also, I heard
some people refer to my other friends who were either Korean or Vietnamese as being
international students, but they weren’t. I mean, that’s racist too if you think about it. I’m
sure that was the same feeling for a lot of people, including professors. They look at us as
international and think we either don’t understand English or maybe that we’re just not that
interesting, I don’t know. But I did have a lot of Asian professors so I guess that made up
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for it (Michael giggles) I guess; they were good and understanding and made me feel more
like a community (Michael, personal community, July 22, 2017).

Insofar as race and ethnicity is concerned, the responses from Group 4 stood out as the most
negative when it came to university experience. What emerged, particularly from Michael’s
comments, is the saliency of group member’s racial identity whenever they were in proximity to
campus events, regardless of whether the students’ personally thought of themselves as part of a
marginalized community prior to coming to campus. Other groups had an overeall positive affect
towards the work at CalU for building an environment of inclusiveness. Many of them spoke about
the availability of resource centers that supported their cultural practices and identity, and even
referenced the campus as a leader in social justice issues. Group 1 member and business major,
Stephanie, talked about her sense of pride as a member of the university:
I am proud of being a (a member of the university). I don’t think I would have gotten the
same support at other colleges like I did here. I mean, my professors and all the staff made
me feel like I had a place. And (the president) was an inspiration for all of us who felt like
her and I think came where she came from. She understood our issues and I think that was
seen on campus and how everyone wanted to help our community. It was the first time
where I think even undocumented students could feel safe and supported. I could always
find some flyer or read some email about how the university is supporting diversity. As a
Latina, I know how important that support is and I am grateful for my campus home
(Stephanie, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Members from groups 1-3 shared some similar aspects of university communications that
celebrated diversity, and they even felt a type of vicarious support through material resources, like
websites, posters, or other public displays of support for diversity. Members from Group 2 (those
identified as Black) provided generally positive statements on the issue, despite being significantly
underrepresented among the campus community.
With regard to gender differences, there didn’t seem to be a strong explanation for the
survey findings as most students spoke positively about their general campus experience. The most
notable distinction, however, is the number of males who reported not connecting with faculty on a
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deeper level when compared to responses from females. Chris (Group 5), Paul, and John (Group 1)
all mentioned similar beliefs that faculty-student sessions beyond course objectives were
unnecessary, but didn’t immediately blame professors for a lack of connection. Female members,
however, often highlighted the value of faculty support and openness. Group 5 member and first-
generation student, Amber, provided this praise of her campus experience:
I think I had, at least, had enough opportunities to build relationships with my professors.
They made it a point to encourage us to visit office hours, and I did. We talked about a
bunch of things, not just school. Dr. ABC would even ask me about my family before class
and used to ask me how I’m feeling like almost after every class...others did, too. I think
that helps to make campus feel smaller, at least, I meant, so I don’t feel just like a number
(Amber, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Stephanie (Group 1) also provided this commentary:
Those were the best times...I wish I could go back. I miss it sometimes, you know, going to
class and talking to professors. Sometimes, especially the younger ones would mess with
you and joke around so you didn’t feel uncomfortable I think. I felt like people generally
cared for everyone, at least, as long as you were willing. I’m sure others may not feel that
way, but you have to try at least. I’m typically a shy person but I felt good on campus
(Stephanie, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

Overall, the campus experience for non-Asian participants was a good one. They felt fully
supported and especially well-resourced when it came to academic progress. Some lamented that
they did take advantage of faculty and campus resources more, such as Joe (Group 5) who shared,
“I should’ve done some more...I didn’t see a lot of advisors...there were times where I could’ve
seen them and I didn’t.”
Cultural Models
Cultural models involve the intangible values, perspectives, and beliefs or an organization
(Clark & Estes, 2008). With regard to the present study, analysis focuses on how alumni perceive
university support of career readiness efforts in how aspects of cultural models are communicated.
Two themes along cultural models emerged from the focus groups. The first relates to the common
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belief that graduation should be prioritized above discretionary (extra or co-curricular) activities.
The second relates to the individual beliefs of faculty and staff that degree success is directly related
to career success.
Graduation as Priority. As we have already seen in previous comments, participants
encountered a common message that graduation is the ultimate goal of the collegiate experience.
This may not be a complete inaccuracy since the purpose of pursing a degree is to ultimately attain
it. What does stand out is that, in some references, participants note somewhat competitive nature
between discretionary activities related to career readiness and their coursework. Some faculty and
advisors were even said to have placed these two essential activities juxtaposed to one another, and
affirmed the priority of graduation at the expense of experiential or service-learning. In addition to
John and Joanne's comments shared earlier, Mark (Group 4) had this to say:
One of my advisors told me that I should stick to my required courses if I wanted to
graduate on time. She thought internships can wait or that I can find some time on the
weekend to do them, but actually seemed to imply that it wasn’t important at the time. I had
one professor who said the same thing at the beginning of class. He said the coursework
would be a lot of us and that we need to make tough decisions and eliminate any
distractions. He listed clubs and internships as one of those distractions and said we can
always do those things later (Mark, personal communication, July 22, 2017).

The challenge for the university is to re-evaluate the need for students to pursue an academic
internship, not if possible, but as necessary aspects of their curriculum. For some forward-thinking
departments at CalU, academic internships have become degree requirements. This, however, is
reflects on a handful of majors directly encouraged to pursue some form of experiential or service-
learning.
Cultural Settings
In contrast to cultural models, cultural settings represent the visible processes and tangible
resources provided in an organization (Clark & Estes, 2009). Only one particular theme emerged as
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a potential barrier in this area and that’s the lack of visible resources promoting internship
programming and opportunities, whether online or on-campus message boards. When asked to
describe the reasons for not seeking an internship, participants referred to not knowing or fully
understanding the process for searching and securing these opportunities. We already shared a few
comments from students about their perspectives on internships in general, but some participants
did focus on what was missing on campus that might have helped build an awareness of internship
programming. Crystal (Group 2) shared the following on the topic:
I knew about a lot of events and opportunities on campus ‘cause they was always posting
flyers and banners around campus. You couldn’t even walk around (the main walkway) and
not see a movie that was showing or some group that was meeting somewhere. I learned
about some classes, too, that I took from those flyers. But you bet I didn’t see no flyer about
internships. I mean, I saw some for the police department but that’s not what I wanted to
do. I guess, “out of sight, out of mind” is the term (Crystal, personal communication, July
22, 2017).

Crystal highlighted an important point that borrows from Social Cognitive Theory's principles of
social and vicarious learning in (Bandura, 1999; Lent et al., 1996). For many students who did not
feel like they fit a particular profile of an intern, the value of seeing images and having visible
information on successful intern's academic and personal background may help support the belief
that they are in fact qualified to participate in academic internship. Active educational materials
and presentations on the purpose of an academic internship, that is, to acquire skills for those
presumably "not ready" for gainful employment would help students transcend perceive limitations.
This effect was supported in Chris' (Group 5) comments about a scholarship opportunity he
pursued:
The flyer had a picture of a guy that I thought looked like someone I could hang out with.
And it talked about how much money he was given for the scholarship and even had
information on where he was from, what his major was, and I think, like, something funny
like what his hobbies were. It seemed stupid, but really, I thought if he could get this
scholarship, then I should be able to apply too. I didn’t get it, but I wouldn’t have applied
for it if I didn’t see that flyer (Chris, personal communication, July 22, 2017).
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Chris and several others spoke about the degree of influence visible and tangible resources have on
their decision to participate in a variety of campus activities. When it comes to perhaps the most
critical in relation to their career readiness, not enough is being done to get visible and tangible
resources prevalent enough for students to notice.
Summary of Results and Findings
Chapter 4 presented the results from survey data and findings from subsequent focus groups
employing a mixed-methods, sequential explanatory design. The analysis was grouped according
to each contributing factor of the GAP analysis framework to better identify the relevant
knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that influence underemployment of recent
college graduates. Both knowledge and organizational gaps were validated through the quantitative
portion of the study, and later supported and explained according to emerging themes drawn from
participant responses. Motivational gaps and further explanation of survey findings were
uncovered during the focus group sessions. The following provides a summary of these results and
findings, grouped according to their respective contribution to the GAP analysis framework.
Evidence of Knowledge Gaps
Survey results validated the first hypothesis revealing a very strong relationship between
experiential learning and perceived underemployment. This evidence suggests that undergraduate
students are less likely to experience underemployment if they engage in some form of career-
related, experiential learning. Recommended activities include part-time or seasonal work
experiences in an entry-level or other related position according to the student’s occupational
interest. General internships are best as they involve some degree of training and exposure to
purposeful professional development. Focus group responses support the value of internships prior
to graduation, particularly as it involves establishing frames and potential scripts from which the
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student can build more progressive responsibilities and opportunities prior to or much sooner after
graduation.
Insofar as high-impact practices are concerned, only the summer U.S. Capital Trip as well
as academic internships and service-learning significantly reduced perceived underemployment
among recent college graduates. The greatest effect was from the US Capital Trip program, which
essential mirrors a type of internship program but involves a heavy amount of cohort-based activity
and networking. The nature of a cohort program improves vicarious learning and reflection,
creating accountability and attuning attention to more relevant and meaningful observations.
Academic internships provide a depth of reflection and metacognitive practices that ensure students
actively assess their thoughts and behaviors throughout the learning experience. These types of
work arrangements also are highly structured, typically in concert with university faculty and
campus departments. Contributing to the value of academic internships are the created
opportunities for students to explore and practice skills they have not yet mastered or acquired.
This "professionally safe" environment provides similar benefits as a general internship (i.e.,
industry exposure and networking), but also the added value of a definitively scheduled experience
with supervisors who understand the student's development needs. Service-learning, similarly,
provides students opportunities to engage real issues in an organization that provides services
relevant to the student's degree program. Additionally, service-learning involves reflective
practices, heavy faculty guidance, and direct exposure to real-time community issues. Service-
learning courses not only allows students to build critical career knowledge and skills sets, but also
focuses on strengthening other service factors, such as compassion, empathy, and purpose.
The relationship between the aforementioned types of experiential and service-learning
remains consistent, even between STEM and non-STEM fields. Explored a bit during the focus
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 94

groups, students in the STEM fields who didn’t participate in an undergraduate internship
experienced similar challenges as students who did not graduate with a STEM degree. Results did
indicate, however, that non-STEM students who completed an undergraduate internship or service-
learning opportunity did experience much lower underemployment than their peers who did not.
Evidence of Motivation Gaps
During the survey portion of the study, only the motivational factor of self-efficacy was
explored. Data suggests that self-efficacy was not related to underemployment. Subsequent focus
group discussions did reveal a fairly strong level of self-efficacy for all groups, except those who
identified as Asian. Findings suggest that efficacy may actually contribute to internship seeking
behavior during the student’s undergraduate program, but the data could not capture those results at
that time. Those that were struggling with self-efficacy seem to also struggle with social
comparison, competition, and a sense of responsibility to support family.
Findings did validate gaps in expectancy for participants, such that students who did not
participate in an experiential or service-learning opportunity during undergrad also did not
understand the long-term value of doing so. For many students entering college, graduation is the
primary goal, which is later reinforced throughout their university experience. With the rising cost
of tuition and the heavy course load many students take in an attempt to meet early graduation
requirements, the value of internships gets relegated to optional or luxury status. Additional
findings that contributed to a lack of internship-seeking behavior is the perceived lack of readiness
or qualification on the part of the student. Many students who did not secure an internship
considered themselves as unqualified due to a lack of previous experience. University programs
should seek to better communicate the value and necessity of internships for more effective career
readiness.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 95

Evidence of Organizational Gaps
Data results revealed a strong relationship between perceived underemployment and
participant scores on the University Experience Scale. The results suggest that more positive
university experiences for students mitigate perceived underemployment after graduation. This
long-term effect of focusing on strong student affairs programming can lead to potential value for
alumni and development offices. Although females did report more positive experiences at the
university than males, female students were also more likely to seek out faculty engagement and
social activities.
Findings from the focus group revealed several potential organizational gaps. Participants
seem to feel that faculty and staff do not promote the value of experiential learning enough, if at all,
and at times, discourage those activities in favor of an academic focus on degree requirements.
Additional, the availability of internship opportunities and the process by which students can
identify them remain unclear. Participants believed the university must make more intentional and
large-scale efforts to market and promote the value and existence of experiential and service-
learning opportunities. Findings also suggest that the university must coordinate advising and
faculty messaging so that students have more access to opportunities on campus. Given the
decentralized nature of campus departments, the university should consider methods that involve
tracking and cohort-based experiences to better address the application of knowledge and theory to
potential career outcomes for undergraduates. Chapter 5 will suggest recommendations for
solutions to address these gaps and provide more comprehensive career-readiness training for future
undergraduates.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 96

Limitations and Future Research
While this study suggests evidence of a strong relationship between underemployment
among recent college graduates and whether they pursued undergraduate experiential learning, the
sample group used included only those persons who still had access to their university email
account up to three years after graduation and did not include a majority of potential alumni from
who critical data could have better informed the study’s research questions. Future studies may
benefit from a deeper disaggregation and analysis of data across all demographic variables,
including participant’s ethnicity, occupation, and socioeconomic status. Inclusion of additional
stakeholders, particularly faculty and advising staff, would help explore and understand attitudes
towards student experiential learning and insights into how faculty integrate discussions on career-
relevant application into their course designs. Finally, special consideration for students who may
still be pursuing advanced degrees across a variety of graduate and professional programs should be
accounted for in future research. Particularly for students in non-STEM fields wherein a post-
baccalaureate degree is often required for more advanced career pathways. Experiential learning
should be explored in such cases as contributory to admission rates and, potentially, graduate school
commencement rates.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 97

CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION PLAN
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
In Chapter Four, proposed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences were
validated using a mixed-methods, sequential explanatory design. The resulting GAP analysis
revealed several areas wherein the university can address and develop stronger programming to
reduce the likelihood of underemployment among recent college graduates. The following chapter
will provide various recommendations and a comprehensive approach to implementing these
suggestions, in accordance with this study's findings and The New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), a framework identified as a tool to evaluate the proposed
training program and address observed performance gaps.
Knowledge Recommendations
Several knowledge influences on graduated students’ underemployment have been suggested
for this study. Three specific influences have been identified and summarized in Table 21. The
first influence involves the student's knowledge of industry knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs).
Career training and counseling typically emphasize factual knowledge in preparing students for the
workforce, however, aligning career-related curriculum with the relevant KSAs for students' careers
of interest remain a challenge faced across many colleges and universities (Fouad, Cotter, &
Kantamneni, 2009). Simply learning the relevant industry content within each KSA domain serves
as a critical first step in promoting intentional career readiness training (Capelli, 2015). Secondly,
students need to understand how to apply academic theory and methodology to their chosen
occupations. This conceptual mastery of a specific academic domain can enhance a person's career
portfolio and competitiveness for scare job opportunities (Feldman, 2003). Finally, students often
fail to reflect on their experiences at a macro-level, identifying their strengths within a career field
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 98

and discovering gaps in their skill development. Research on recent college graduates reveals a
strong relationship between those who experience extensive underemployment and those who
struggle to answer questions regarding their strengths or weaknesses (Brown, Hacker, Abrams,
Carr, Rector, Lamp, & Siena, 2011). Knowing one's strengths or accurately appropriating feelings
of perceived overqualification both result from the type of thinking associated with metacognitive
knowledge. Students who participate in career preparatory activities or experiential-learning
courses often spend considerable time completing reflection assignments with the sole purpose to
think about experiences in the workplace and one's own various affective states (Foud, Cotter, &
Katamneni, 2009; Tinto, 2006).
Table 21
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Students do not know
industry related
knowledge, skills, and
abilities for their
chosen occupational
interests.

Y

Y
Help individuals
connect new
knowledge to prior
knowledge and to
construct meaning
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Connect learning to
individual interests to
encourage
meaningfulness
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Have learners identify
prior knowledge (what
they know and what
they do not know
about a topic) before a
Have students
research and create
a KSA table that
overviews relevant
industry
knowledge, skills,
and abilities based
on their respective
occupational
interests.

Have student
create their
learning outcomes
in combination
with instructor-
facilitated
outcomes for class
and co-curricular
experiences.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 99

Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
learning task (Mayer,
2011).

Provide students
with worksheets to
identify and track
acquired KSAS
before each
internship shift.
Students do not
understand how to
apply academic training
to job-related problems
effectively.

Y

Y
Provide feedback that
stresses the process of
learning, including the
important of effort,
strategies, and
potential self-control
of learning.
(Anderman &
Anderman, 2009)

How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them, and
know when to apply
what they have
learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide tasks that
promote selecting,
organizing, and
integrating (see
Mayer, 2011, pp. 76-
81).

Require students to
cite or refer to key
theoretical
concepts or
methodologies
when sharing or
submitting
assignments.

Have students
track key concepts
and theories from
their studies
whenever
engaging in extra-
or co-curricular
experiences.

Create assignments
that include
simulation learning
and requires
students to identify
theoretical
concepts and
domain vocabulary
while proposing
solutions using
those references to
real-world
problems.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 100

Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Integrate personal
interests or common
interest (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).
Students do not reflect
on or are aware of their
career strengths and
psychosocial capacity.

Y

Y
The use of
metacognitive
strategies facilitates
learning (Baker,
2006).

Provide instruction in
metacognitive skills to
increase self-
regulation (APA,
2015).

Model your own
metacognitive process
by talking out loud
and assessing
strengths and
weaknesses (Baker,
2006).
Instructors should
require graded
reflections
assignments at
weekly intervals
that review the
strengths and
challenges of the
student's internship
or work
experience.

Declarative knowledge solutions. Prior to graduation, students need to be familiar with
the specific knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) for their chosen occupation. Mayer (2011)
found that learners should identify prior knowledge prior to the start of any learning task. This
approach suggests that the learner’s ability to identify critical occupational KSAs prior to the start
of a class period or internship shift may promote directed acquisition of targeted learning outcomes.
The recommendation would then be for students to develop a comprehensive matrix of all key
KSAs related to their career interest and constantly revisit what items they have and have not
acquired prior to key class assignments and other related work shifts.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 101

Procedural knowledge solutions. Another challenge for students involves applying
relevant academic theory within their work roles at internship sites and places of employment. To
develop mastery of a particular domain, learners must acquire the relevant knowledge and skills,
practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned (Schraw & McCrudden,
2006). This practice of connecting the application to knowledge and theory suggests that faculty
should promote assignments and reflections that prompt the student to reference key theoretical and
declarative concepts from their academic domain when reporting on their field-based or work
experience. Course assignments that do not include work experiences should involve problem-
solving that likewise instigates rehearsal and application of academic theory whenever proposing
solutions. The recommendation would then be for faculty to create more in-class job simulations
and integrate ongoing assignments graded on the accuracy by which students connect problem-
solving and any fieldwork related tasks with general theory, concepts, and vocabulary specific to
their academic field.
Hopwood, Rooney, Boud, and Kelly (2014) discovered that simulation pedagogy - using
simulation tasks in the classroom setting - promotes more successful learning outcomes than
traditional methods of instructions. At the heart of their approach is the emphasis on socio-material
learning which emphasizes the relational aspects of the social phenomenon with enactment. They
revealed that the socio-material perspective promotes a multiplicity of experiences and meaning-
making when engaging in simulation learning, which ultimately links prior learning and workplaces
experiences with the simulation and any future learning opportunities. According to Hopwood et
al. (2014), simulations using a sociomaterial approach give students opportunities to perform as if
they were already the professionals within their industry. The recommendation, therefore, is for
faculty to deviate from exclusive lecture-based instruction and integrating simulation learning in the
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classroom, while drawing on student experiences in the workplace to practice theoretical
application from within the student's academic discipline.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. Lastly, students need to increase reflective practices
and develop a stronger awareness of their career strengths and psychosocial capacities. Baker
(2006) emphasized the importance of metacognitive strategies on learning, including the
importance of talking aloud and knowing one's strengths and weaknesses. This suggests that
students should spend time both in small group discussions on personal growth experiences and
individual reflection assignments that draw on their insights from work or field-based experiences.
As such, instructors should require graded reflection assignments at weekly intervals that review the
strengths and challenges of the student's internship or work experience.
Motivation Recommendations
Along with knowledge-based influences, several motivational influences have been
suggested as potential barriers to gainful employment among recent college graduates. These
motivational influences are summarized in Table 22 below. Clark and Estes (2008) define
motivation as an internal state or desire that both initiates and maintains behavior. This internal
state typically involves a psychological process of belief regarding one's abilities to accomplish the
task, along with the utility and value for committing effort towards the task. According to Bandura
(1999), people must demonstrate forethought as part of agency, and exercise a future time
perspective to guide their actions and anticipate future events. As such, the first influence factor
involves student self-efficacy, a psychological construct that captures a person's belief that their
actions can produce desirable outcomes (Bandura, 1999). The belief in one's abilities to achieve
successful outcomes may explain both initiating and maintenance behaviors, especially when the
person is presenting with competing demands or interests. In fact, people tend to lack sufficient
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incentive to persist in a task when faced with challenges without self-efficacy (Bandura, 1999). In
the current study, pursuing high impact practices during the undergraduate experience requires a
preliminary belief by the student in their ability to successfully obtain and complete experiential
learning, such as an academic internship. That belief can also be bolstered by the value placed on
such activities by those the student perceives as credible and knowledge in their fields, namely
faculty and advisors. As such, expectancy value is the second proposed influence factor examined
in this study. Similar to self-efficacy, Expectancy Value Theory involves a person's belief in their
agency to complete a task and whether the perceived outcomes are desirable (Eccles et al., 1998).
Value is established whenever a person is exposed to or surrounded by credible individuals who
model value orientations that ultimately support the person's appraisal of certain activities. For
students, faculty and advisors serve in key positions to influence student value orientations and
ultimately bolster their decision to pursue high impact practices.
Table 22
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Students lack general
self-efficacy to improve
career outcomes.

HP

Y
Encourage learners to
set productive goals
for themselves that are
challenging but
achievable, and
encourage self-
evaluation (Denler et
al., 2009).

Teach learners
strategies to manage
their motivation, time,
learning strategies,
control their physical
Advisors should
assist students with
identifying
relevant learning
outcomes that
address student’s
career interests.

Faculty/advisors
should have
students reflect on
and track their
progress towards
learning plan.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 104

Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
and social
environment, and
monitor their
performance (Dembo
& Eaton, 2000).
Provide opportunities
for learners to check
their progress and
adjust their learning
strategies as needed
(Denler et al., 2009).

Provide timely
feedback that links the
use of learning
strategies with
improved performance
(Shute, 2008).

Have internship
employers
complete quarter
evaluation reports
to ensure students
receive more
quality feedback
throughout their
internships.
Students need to
recognize the value of
engaging in co-
curricular experiential
learning throughout
their undergraduate
studies to develop
competitive career
portfolios.

Y

Y
Include rationales
about the importance
and utility value of the
task (Pintrich, 2003).

Materials and
activities should be
relevant and useful to
the learners, connected
to their interests, and
based on real-world
tasks (Pintrich, 2003).

Model values,
enthusiasm, and
interest in the task
(Eccles, 2006).

Models who are
credible and similar
(e.g., gender,
culturally appropriate)
Faculty and
advisors need to
explicitly reference
the value of
experiential
learning and other
high impact
practices for the
purposes of
preparing students
for gainful
employment.

Use case study
activities more
often in upper-
division courses to
ensure students
receive ample
opportunities to
identify the
relevance of
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 105

Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
can foster positive
values (Pajares, 2006).

Be explicit about
value and relevance of
the learning task for
the learner (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).

coursework to
related career
outcomes.

Employ
continuous
marketing
campaign via print
(i.e. posters),
social media, and
web narratives of
students from
diverse
background
completing high
impact practices
and successfully
receiving desirable
employment
outcomes.

Self-Efficacy. Students lack general self-efficacy to improve career outcomes. Denlar et al.
(2009) discovered that educators should encourage learners to set productive goals for themselves
that are challenging but achievable, and encourage self-evaluation to build their self-efficacy.
Students who are guided in their professional development to identify appropriately challenging
goals may more likely build a stronger sense of self-efficacy, particularly to increase the likelihood
that they would pursue experiential learning prior to graduation. The recommendation then is for
faculty and advisors to require activities in their courses and counseling sessions with students that
help scaffold and identify key learning outcomes necessary for them to develop critical employment
competencies prior to graduation.
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Jiang (2015) demonstrated that self-efficacy in career decision-making served as the best
predictor of career indecision overall. Additionally, studies support the notion that students with
high self-efficacy tended to be more committed and intentional with their career planning and goal
setting (Lent et al., 1996).
Value Expectancy. Students also need to recognize the value of engaging in co-curricular
experiential learning throughout their undergraduate studies if they intend to graduate with
competitive career portfolios. These value orientations are created whenever materials and
activities are perceived as relevant and useful to the learners, connect to their interests, and are
based on real-world tasks (Pintrich, 2003). Additionally, positive values are fostered whenever the
learner perceives role models in their environment who are credible and similar. For students in a
university setting, such models can come from faculty and advisors, as well as their peers. The
recommendation is then for faculty and advisors to explicitly share their endorsement of
experiential learning as a necessary component to the student's undergraduate experience. The
university should also employ a continuous marketing campaign via print (i.e., posters), social
media, and Web narratives of students from diverse background completing high impact practices
and successfully receiving desirable employment outcomes.
The challenge for college students regarding career development is the value messages
provided to them via cultural expectations or the traditional narrative of the career ladder. Students
may choose to remain in a position wherein they perceive to be overqualified believing this is
necessary for career progression, and as such, place little value on pursuing experiential learning
much earlier (Nabi, 2004). Despite the presence of career counselors, nearly half of all
undergraduates may actually seek out career advising and erroneously ascribe a negative value to
discretionary experiential learning, perceiving more cost than benefit to their immediate goal of
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 107

graduation (Guerrero & Rothstein, 2012; Lobene & Meade, 2014; Nabi, 2004). Employing both
marketing and advising campaigns to undergraduates explicitly highlighting the benefits and value
of academic internship and other experiential learning opportunities would help reframe the career
pathway for many undergraduate students.
Organization Recommendations
While knowledge and motivation gaps may lead to significant performance failures for an
organization, impaired organizational processes or insufficient resources can prevent even the best
of employees from contributing to the organization’s goals (Clark and Estes, 2008). The
organizational-level influences proposed for this study involve two types of cultural determinants:
settings and models. The visible processes and tangible resources constitute cultural settings.
Healthy organizational processes inform the interdependence of people, equipment, and resources,
and how the relationship between these elements must exist for the organization to achieve its
desired goals (Clark and Estes, 2008). Within an academic institution, settings factors for this study
include the visible resources and on-campus promotions of that encourage students to pursue
experiential learning opportunities. Cultural models refer to the intangible values, perspectives, and
beliefs of an organization that contribute to stakeholder morale and purpose for action. In this
study, the beliefs of both the students and faculty are examined to determine the degree to which the
institution instill a value in experiential learning opportunities that may support or hinder student
engagement. Table 23 below provides a detailed overview of these organizational influences.

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Table 23
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priorit
y
Yes,
No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Students receive the
message that good
grades and a completed
degree is sufficient for
immediate career
success.

Y

Y
People desire growth
and development and
can be creative when
they have these
opportunities
(Schneider, 1996).

Students who believe
they have more
personal control of
their own learning and
behavior are more
likely to do well and
achieve at a higher
level" (Pintrich 2003,
p. 673) than those who
do not.

University needs
to adapt a
marketing
approach to
convey positive
messages for
pursuing
undergraduate
experiential
learning.

Professors should
give students more
flexibility with
identifying how
best to
demonstrate their
learning
experience.

Faculty and staff
believe that early
graduation is better for
students, indirectly
discouraging co-
curricular activities,
including internships.
(CM)

Y

Y
Employee attitudes,
particularly feeling as
though they matter and
their work makes a
difference, are
correlated with
numerous
organizational outputs
(Buckingham and
Coffman, 1999; Harter,
Schmidt, Killham &
Asplund, 2006;
Schlossberg, 1989).

Staying current
University should
provide professors
with current data
reflecting the
value of co-
curricular and high
impact practices to
student career
success.
Information on
available
opportunities and a
simplified process
for accessing those
opportunities
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 109

Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priorit
y
Yes,
No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
(teachers and
administrators) with the
field’s research and
practice is correlated
with increased student
learning outcomes
(Waters, Marzano &
McNulty, 2003).
should also be
provided.
Few visible campus
resources promoting
and directing students
to internship programs
and career portals.

Y

Y
Only by altering the
everyday policies,
practices, procedures,
and routines, thereby
impacting the beliefs
and values that guide
employee actions, can
change occur and be
sustained (Schneider,
1996)

University needs
to make
opportunities for
experiential
learning more
visible and
messages
regarding their
importance more
prolific across
campus.
University environment
may discourage or not
support racial ethnic
minorities, low-income,
or first-generation
college students to
pursue experiential
learning. (CS)

Y

Y
Collecting data on
student outcomes
disaggregated by race
and reporting on them
regularly should be a
standard operating
practice in colleges and
universities (Harris &
Bensimon, 2007)

Just as institutions are
now expected to be
accountable for student
retention and
graduation, the same
expectation should be
held for equity.
Institutions, through
University should
disaggregate
employment data
of alumni to
demonstrate
potential inequities
in opportunity for
career growth.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 110

Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priorit
y
Yes,
No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
their policies as well as
the practices, attitudes,
and knowledge of their
members, have the
power to create the
conditions that make
student success
possible or perpetuate
race-based inequalities
(Harris & Bensimon,
2007)
.

Cultural models. Students generally believe that good grades and a completed degree is
sufficient for immediate career success. Pintrach (2003) observed that students who believe they
have more personal control of their own learning and behavior are more likely to do well and
achieve at a higher level. Students perceive a deeper relevance and personal ownership of their
education and may pursue opportunities to achieve their career aspirations during their
undergraduate years. This suggests that professors should give students more flexibility with
identifying how best to demonstrate their learning experience. In doing so, faculty should consider
providing students credit for pursuing high impact practices as part of their course requirements.
Flynn (2013) revealed that engagement programs help to improve student persistence and
performance across a variety of organizational settings, including the workplace. Whether these
programs come in the form of academic internship, service-learning, or civic engagement, students
who pursue early engagement in career readiness programs will have greater opportunities to
redefine academic and career successes. As a vehicle, colleges and universities should consider
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 111

career adaptability training to facilitate students’ transition from university to high quality
employment.
Bandura (1999) emphasized the role of the organizational environment on influencing how
people observe and construct expectations. Seeing positive images of the internship experience is
critical for undergraduates to identify with the prototype of a successful college student.
Unfortunately, the state of career readiness training in higher education today seems to be failing
(Cappelli, 2015). Universities should consider the type of on-campus and social media marketing
to advertise experiential learning programs and their respective tools for connecting students with
potential learning sites.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The implementation and plan for evaluation adopts its approach from the New World
Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirpatrick, 2016). This model reflects a departure from the
original four-levels proposed by Kirkpatrick to evaluate the effectiveness of training, which focused
primarily on employees’ reactions to training. The updated model actually reverses the order of the
4-levels, emphasizing the goals of the organization and strategically working backwards through
each level to improve the trainer’s ability to identity the leading indicators signaling successful
training. Rather than serving as a terminal marker of the organization’s ultimate outcome, the
fourth level is instead employed to evaluate learning throughout the process. The model then
proceeds through behavioral assessment and finally evaluates employee satisfaction with
implementation strategies.

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Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 24 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of outcomes,
metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for CDER. If the internal outcomes
are met as expected as a result of advising and organizational support for undergraduate experiential
learning, then the external outcomes should also be achieved.
Table 24
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1.Improve community
partnerships and
available internship
opportunities.
The number of employers
registered in Titan Connection.
Job and registration reports from
within Titan Connection.
2. Lower rates of
underemployment
among CSUF alumni
within 3 years of
graduation.
Improved starting salaries and
relevant employment for recent
college graduates.
Solicit data from alumni using
survey tools, alumni
engagement, and social media.
Internal Outcomes
1.Increase the number of
majors requiring
academic internship as a
degree requirement.
Enrollment numbers for students
in academic internship courses
for their respective major.
CMS report; university
catalogue review
2. Provide workshops and
resources to faculty and
academic advisors about
the resources for
helping students
identify internship
opportunities.
Number of faculty members and
advisors participating in
educational forums, workshops,
or info sessions on experiential
learning at CalU.
Roster or SkillPort enrollment.
3. Improve student
professional and
academic self-efficacy.
SE results from general self-
efficacy survey.
Solicit data from students via
online or in-class survey.

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Level 3: Critical Behaviors
The stakeholders of focus are undergraduate students at CalU. The first critical behavior is
for students to successfully identify experiential learning opportunities for their respective careers
early in their academic careers. The second critical behavior is for the student to enroll in a relevant
academic internship course. The third critical behavior is for the student to seek career advising for
successfully completing the selection process. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each
of these outcome behaviors appears in Table 25.
Table 5
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
Students must
successfully identify
experiential learning
opportunities for their
respective careers.
Student access and
visitation rates on
university
job/internship portal.
Job reports conducted
by system
managers/career
counselors.
Semesterly
Students must enroll
in relevant academic
internship courses.
Enrollment numbers
for academic
internship courses.
Campus CMS
enrollment reports
Semesterly
Students must seek
career advising
throughout their
undergraduate
experience.
Number of students
attending advising
sessions
Career Center
intake/CMS advising
records.
Semesterly

Required drivers. Undergraduate students require the support of the faculty and staff they
encounter throughout their undergraduate experience. The university must provide visible support
structures and artifacts that endorse student participation in experiential learning. Additionally,
recognition for achievement of performance goals should increase experiential learning activity
among currently enrolled students. Table 26 shows the recommended drivers to support critical
behaviors of new reviewers.

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Table 6
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Handouts and primers
covering the process for
searching and applying for
academic internships.
Ongoing 1,2
Visual representation of
student success stories on
campus.
Ongoing 1
Required theory to practice
component for each degree-
related course.
Semesterly 1
Encouraging
Feedback from faculty or
academic advisor.
Semesterly 3
Team-based career capstone
project.
One semester prior to
graduation
2
Rewarding
Recognition for completing 3
or more high impact practices.
One month prior to graduation 1,2,3
Scholarships for students
completing unpaid
internships.
Semesterly 2
Monitoring
Students submit reflections
and build a professional
portfolio throughout their
undergraduate experience.
Quarterly 2

Organizational support. As recommended in Table 3, the organization should provide
students with flexibility in identifying appropriate experiential learning opportunities in response to
their assessed career knowledge and skills gaps, while still promoting opportunities for such
opportunities as necessary activities during the student’s undergraduate experience. As such, the
university should develop a compulsory career development program that follows and adapts with
the student throughout their time at the university. Using a cohort-based model, students will
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 115

receive support and accountability in critically applying their academic training to their career
advancement, and explore opportunities either directly through academic internship and other high-
impact practices, or indirectly through vicarious learning opportunities with their cohorts. The
program will be designed using the learning goals outlined below.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. After implementing the recommended solutions, the stakeholders will be
able to:
1. Identify the relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities related to their respective career
interest.
2. Apply their academic training within their professional practice and career development.
3. Possess an awareness of personal career and interpersonal strengths.

Program. To achieve the learning goals listed in the previous section, a holistic career
development program should be introduced in collaboration with undergraduate advisors, the
university Career Center, and other related career readiness professionals. The program begins with
a mandatory first-year career exploration series for all freshmen and transfer students who will be
divided into cohorts based on their majors. This classroom-based series would consist of six
meetings organized into three sessions per semester throughout the Fall and Spring terms. Each
session will last 50 minutes and be facilitated by student affairs employees recruited as a campus-
wide initiative and supervised by the university’s first year experience program. Facilitators will
guide their freshmen and transfer cohorts through a combination of pre-arranged reflections,
assignments, and discussions that emphasize personal introspection and discovery of critical
knowledge, skills, and abilities related to the students’ career interests. Students will generate a list
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 116

of potential target occupations during the first and second session alongside their peers within their
cohort.
During the summer of their first year and through the first term of their second year of
enrollment, students will be required to meet with Career Center advisors and other career readiness
professionals to identify potential experiential learning opportunities that best aligned with building
the students’ identified knowledge skills and abilities. Remaining within their cohorts, student will
continue to meet for in their program sessions, again divided into three 50-minute meetings per
semester. During this time, they will practice resume writing, interviewing, and networking along
with their cohort and facilitator. They will also be provided with a list of in-person and online
career and skill-based workshops of which they are to complete and receive certification of
attendance. By the end of their second year, students should have identified and, if possible,
secured a relevant learning experience to bolster their career readiness.
The third year of the program emphasizes intentional application of theory and knowledge
acquired via their upper division courses. Students will now only meet twice per semester to share
professional contacts, feedback of issues experienced during their prior learning experiences, and
reflections on personal growth. By the summer of their final year, students should have assembled
a strong portfolio consisting of appropriate experiential learning and co-curricular activities that
will have helped them meet the minimum qualifications for gainful employment within their
respective career fields. During this last year, students will engage in a cohort- or team-based
career capstone that will demonstrate their combined knowledge and skills acquired from their time
in the program.
Components of learning. According to Kirkpatrick (2016), it is critical that learners
acquire declarative and procedural knowledge. It is also important that learners acquire the
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 117

attitudes required to solving problems, and possess a sufficient level of confidence in applying
those skills on the job. Furthermore, learners must also possess the commitment to actively employ
such skills throughout their work experience. As such, Table 27 lists the evaluation methods and
timing for these components of learning.
Table 27
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Review assignments on requisite career
knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Annually with advisors near the end of the
academic year.
Discussions and cohort-based reflections that
promote acquisition of career readiness
knowledge.
Periodically during in-class sessions facilitated
by student affairs professional.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Problem solving activities requiring students to
identify how theory or methodology applies in
a practical setting.
Periodically during in-class sessions.
Feedback from peers during group discussions. Periodically during in-class sessions.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre- and Post-test surveys. Before and after each semester.
Discussions with cohorts regarding
experiential learning activities.
During each in-class session.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Self-efficacy survey items. At the start and end of each academic year.
Reflection assignments. Periodically during in-class sessions.
Sessions with career and academic advising. Annually after the first year.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create an career development plan or
individual goal setting assignment.
During in-class sessions.
Dream or future goal board assignment. During first term of the first three years of the
program.

Level 1: Reaction
To evaluate the degree to which learners respond to training or programmatic material,
trainers must incorporate both formative and summative evaluation techniques into the program
(Kirkpatrick, 2016). Formative approaches involve process-oriented learning captured during the
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 118

training program, whereas summative evaluations involve outcome-oriented learning and are
assessed after the program. Table 28 below overviews the recommended formative and summative
approaches to measuring the reactions of participants along three dimensions. The first,
engagement, assesses the degree the participants are involved during the throughout the training.
Relevance refers to the degree to which participants appraise the value of the training as it pertains
to their specific work goals. Finally, customer satisfaction identifies the perceived overall quality
of the program, and the degree to which participants enjoyed the training.
Table 28
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Instructor observation During courses
In-class written activities and reflections During courses
Role-playing During courses
Attendance During courses
Course evaluation Final week of the course

Relevance
Brief pulse-check by instructor After specific course discussions or lectures
Reflection exercises During and after course
Advisor sessions Twice a year
Customer Satisfaction
Course evaluation Final week of the course

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Throughout the proposed career
readiness program, students will complete several assignments that will document their progress for
analysis by course instructors and program advisors. The data will generate an overview of the
connections the students make between their academic and career training experiences.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 119

Additionally, surveys will capture attitudinal responses regarding personal career advancement and
course satisfaction.
For Level 1 assessment, instructors will primarily employ course evaluations and student
reflection assignments to gauge their satisfaction with and engagement in the program, respectively.
Table 29 below provides an example course evaluation instrument. Level 2 assessment will include
document analysis of student goal planning and industry KSAs along with attitudinal surveys to
identify changes in students’ career-decision making self-efficacy and their appraisal of their career
development experiences. A sample of a career appraisal instrument is provided in Table 30 below.
Table 29
Course evaluation instrument for Level 1 assessment.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Item
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Discussions and cohort-based reflections that
promote acquisition of career readiness
knowledge.
What new vocabulary terms or services have
you learned so far at your internship?
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Problem solving activities requiring students to
identify how theory or methodology applies in
a practical setting.
Identify at least one theory or principle from
your previous courses and use it to describe
one experience you had at your internship.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre- and Post-test surveys. What I learned will help me in my career.
a) Not at all True, b) Hardly True, c)
Moderately True, d) Exactly True
Discussions with cohorts regarding
experiential learning activities.
Share one challenge or issue you faced at your
internship and discuss how you would respond
to another person’s shared experience.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Self-efficacy survey items. I feel I am more competitive for career-
related work than I was 6 months ago.
a) Not at all True, b) Hardly True, c)
Moderately True, d) Exactly True
Reflection assignments. Reflect on your career growth so far and
identify areas in which you have succeeded
and areas that you feel you need to address.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create a career development plan or individual
goal setting assignment.
Create spreadsheets that includes timelines and
specific actions needed to meet career goals.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 120

Delayed for a period after the program implementation. (Summarize the instrument
here and attach it as an appendix.) Students will complete an online survey that will be reviewed
and discussed during their sessions with their graduation advisor approximately twice per year. The
instrument will employ the Blended Evaluation approach to assess the student’s perspective, course
satisfaction and relevance (Level 1), confidence and value of engaging in experiential learning and
career readiness training (Level 2), application of the course material to their desired career
outcomes (Level 3), and the extent to which their progress throughout their undergraduate
experience has improved their chances for gainful employment (Level 4). Table 10 below provides
an example of this instrument.
Table 30
Student progress survey on a delayed basis after each course completion.
Scale: Not at all True > Exactly True
Survey at bi-annual checkpoints
1 L1: Reaction I feel the discussions and assignments from the
course are relevant to my current career goals.
2 L2: Learning After the course, I spent adequate time reviewing
my progress on my career readiness plan.
3 L2: Learning I believe the practicums I have completed have
helped me advance in my career readiness training.
4 L3: Behavior Course discussions and assignments have helped
me perform better during my internship.
5 L4: Results I am more qualified today than I was before for
meaningful career-related work.

Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of reducing underemployment among recent college graduates is measured
by the reported employment outcomes of CalU alumni within their first three years of graduation.
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 121

Electronic and physical address information will be gathered of all students participating in
commencement ceremonies. At the end of each calendar year after their graduation - typically at
the close of the Spring or Fall semesters - the Office of Institutional Research and Analysis (OIRA)
will send employment outcome surveys assessing graduates on the four dimensions of
underemployment identified in this study: 1. perceived overqualification; 2. annual salary; 3.
employment compatibility with degree; and 4. general unemployment. The OIRA will also gather
graduate demographic information for marital status, ethnicity, annual household income, and
continued education. Figure 2 below presents a sample dashboard that will provide a monitoring
and accountability tool to track yearly changes in underemployment.
Figure 2
Example Dashboard of Employment Outcomes

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 122

Summary and Conclusions
Underemployment among college graduates continues to rise across the United States, and
its implications to higher education and society warrants a reconstruction of the traditional career
development model employed in institutions throughout the country. The current study provided a
candid and thorough review of employment outcomes from one of the country’s top public liberal
arts colleges, often noted for its successes in student affairs programming. Despite the many
accolades in student experience and racial diversity, along with vast improvements in graduation
rates over the last four years, CalU still struggles in preparing its students for gainful employment
soon after graduation.
To address the challenge of innovating a new career readiness program model, the New
World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, 2016) outlines a strong case for establishing a
comprehensive and compulsory career readiness program for all incoming students. Building from
the diagnostic framework of GAP analysis (Clark and Estes, 2014), the Kirkpatrick model proposes
a series of critical behaviors required to achieve the organization’s level 4 goal to reduce
underemployment of alumni. Behaviors include mandatory and programmatic advising sessions
along with experiential learning and internship seeking behaviors. To ensure that behaviors are
reinforced, required drivers have been developed to support and sustain specific student behaviors
that in aggregate will strengthen the probability of successful career outcomes. Proposed drivers
include smaller, scaffolding assignments related to each student’s experiential learning, along with
discussion and feedback sessions, not to mention an important team-based career capstone project.
Learning throughout the proposed project is captured in Level 2, with the design and
implementation of the program based on the aforementioned outcomes and behaviors necessary for
students to prepare for post-baccalaureate work. The program consists of a compulsory 4-year
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 123

program for incoming freshmen and a streamlined 2-year program for transfer students. The
program is built to develop student’s knowledge, skills, attitudes, confidence, and commitment
towards their vocational training. A cohort-based design, students engage with their peers and a
staff facilitator who will guide students through four sessions each year of reflection, career-related
exploratory exercises, and experiential learning activities. Assessment of Level 1 reactions related
to students’ satisfaction, engagement, and relevance will take place throughout the program, and
include both formative and summative evaluations using surveys, discussions, and regular advising
sessions.
Using Kirkpatrick’s model and integrating evaluation with implementation would help the
institution monitor the success of the program, allowing for adjustments to the program or
intervention for individual student challenges that may arise. The framework is expected to help
close the knowledge, motivational, and organizational gaps that continue to prevent students from
having a sufficient career development experience prior to graduating from their undergraduate
program. The vast improvements on student’s employment outcomes expected as a result of the
proposed program should not only impact the quality of life for each graduating student, but should
also yield significant gains for the institution by way of alumni contributions and an increased in
other related university outcomes, including graduation rates and a greater global impact of CalU
graduates for decades to come.

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APPENDICES
Appendix A: General Self-Efficacy Scale
Not at
all
True
Hardly
True
Moderately
True
Exactly
True
1 I can always manage to solve difficult problems if
I try hard enough.
1 2 3 4
2 If someone opposes me, I can find the means and
ways to get what I want.
1 2 3 4
3 It is easy for me to stick to my aims and
accomplish my goals.
1 2 3 4
4 I am confident that I could deal efficiently with
unexpected events.
1 2 3 4
5 Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to
handle unforeseen situations.
1 2 3 4
6 I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary
effort.
1 2 3 4
7 I can remain calm when facing difficulties because
I can rely on my coping abilities.
1 2 3 4
8 When I am confronted with a problem, I can
usually find several solutions.
1 2 3 4
9 If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution. 1 2 3 4
10 I can usually handle whatever comes my way. 1 2 3 4
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in
health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 131

Appendix B: Scale of Perceived Overqualification (SPOQ)
Not at
all
True
Hardly
True
Moderately
True
Exactly
True
1 My job requires less education than I have. 1 2 3 4
2 The work experience that I have is not necessary
to be successful on this job.
1 2 3 4
3 I have job skills that are not required for this job. 1 2 3 4
4 Someone with less education than myself could
perform well on my job.
1 2 3 4
5 My previous training is not being fully utilized on
this job.
1 2 3 4
6 I have a lot of knowledge that I do not need in
order to do my job.
1 2 3 4
7 My education level is above the education level
required by my job.
1 2 3 4
8 Someone with less work experience than myself
could do my job just as well.
1 2 3 4
9 I have more abilities than I need to do my job. 1 2 3 4
Maynard, D.; Joseph, T. A.; Maynard, A. (2006). Underemployment, job attitudes, and turnover intentions. Journal of
Organizational Behaviour, 21, 509-536.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 132

Appendix C: University Environment Scale (SPOQ)
Not at
all
True
Hardly
True
Moderately
True
Exactly
True
1 Class sizes are so large that I feel like a number. 1 2 3 4
2 The faculty/staff are willing to help me explore
career resources.
1 2 3 4
3 University staff have been warm and friendly. 1 2 3 4
4 I do not feel valued as a student on campus. 1 2 3 4
5 Faculty have not been available to discuss my
academic concerns.
1 2 3 4
6 Financial aid staff has been willing to help me
with financial concerns.
1 2 3 4
7 The university encourages/sponsors ethnic groups
on campus.
1 2 3 4
8 There are accessible career services available for
me on campus.
1 2 3 4
9 The university seems to value minority students 1 2 3 4
10 Faculty have been available for help outside of
class.
1 2 3 4
11 The university seems like a cold, uncaring place to
me.
1 2 3 4
UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 133

12 Faculty have been available to help me make
career choices.
1 2 3 4
13 I feel as if no one cares about me personally on
this campus.
1 2 3 4
14 I feel comfortable in the university environment. 1 2 3 4
Gloria, A.M., & Robinson Kurpius, S.E. (1996). The validation of the Cultural Congruity Scale and the University
Environment Scale with Chicano/a students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18(4), 533-549.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT AMONG RECENT COLLEGE GRADUATES 134

Appendix D: Interview Protocol
The research will explain the purpose of the student and inform participants of their rights to
as volunteer participants. The researcher will also ask permission to record the focus group session
and provide participants with contact information for further follow-up.

Questions:
1. Describe how prepared you feel to advance in your career.

2. How would you describe your experience at CalU? Provide some examples to support how
you feel.

3. How do you feel your internship helped you prepare for your career?

4. Why was an internship not part of your undergraduate experience?

5. Do you feel your college degree trained you to succeed in your career?

6. Describe your relationship with faculty as a student at CalU.

7. Why did you choose or not choose experiential learning in undergrad?

8. Share with me how you felt college has prepared you for your career?

9. Can you describe your experiences with finding a job since graduation?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Despite falling unemployment rates, underemployment continues to rise across the United States. With nearly half of all recent college graduates struggling to acquire gainful employment, institutions of higher education are faced with a type of existential crisis, confronting the very purpose of college degree attainment. Using a GAP analysis framework, this study examines the knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that directly influence employment outcomes for undergraduate students, and explore recommendations to improve career readiness training before graduation. Using a mixed-methods, sequential explanatory design, electronic surveys and focus group sessions were administered to current seniors and alumni to explore how experiential learning and the university environment affect underemployment within three years of graduation. Scales on Perceived Overqualification (SPOQ), General Self-Efficacy (GSE), and University Environment (UES) were used to evaluate factors related to participant underemployment. Results revealed a statistically significant relationship between undergraduate internships and service-learning opportunities with lower underemployment rates. Students who also had more favorable university experiences were less likely to rate themselves as underemployed. Implications for organizational practice include the implementation of a cohort-based, compressive career readiness training program that spans a student's undergraduate experience.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gonzales, Andrew Ray (author)

Core Title Exploring the causes, effects, and interventions of underemployment among recent college graduates: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 10/24/2017

Defense Date 10/16/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic internship,experiential learning,high-impact practices,internship,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceived overqualification,service-learning,underemployment,undergraduate career readiness

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Maddox, Anthony (committee chair), Castellanos, Jeanett (committee member), Robles, Darline (committee member)

Creator Email gonzalar@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-445622

Unique identifier UC11264209

Identifier etd-GonzalesAn-5854.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-445622 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GonzalesAn-5854.pdf

Dmrecord 445622

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gonzales, Andrew Ray

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA