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Administrator reflective practice to support Latino youth in Orange County public schools
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Administrator reflective practice to support Latino youth in Orange County public schools
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Content
Running head: ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 1
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE TO SUPPORT LATINO
YOUTH IN ORANGE COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS
by
Jennifer Hays
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2017
Copyright 2017 Jennifer Hays
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 2
DEDICATION
To my mother, who has ALS and has strength and perseverance even in the face of
adversity. To my two boys, who selflessly gave up time with their mom during this process.
Also, to those in the USC cohort who continue to support and guide others through this process,
especially Dr. Carbone, my chair, who has continued patience and compassion. Additional
thanks to my committee members, Dr. Crawford and Dr. Roach, for their insight and
suggestions.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Abstract 5
Chapter 1: Introduction 6
Background of the Problem 7
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 17
Research Questions 18
Significance of the Study 18
Limitations and Delimitations 19
Definition of Terms 19
Organization of the Dissertation 20
Chapter 2: Literature Review 22
Reflective Practice 24
History of Reflection in U.S. Public Schools 26
Current State of Reflection in Education for Decision Making 30
Current State of Critical Reflection Toward Equity and Access in Decision Making 33
Reflective Practice Framework 34
Chapter Summary 38
Chapter 3: Methodology 40
Research Questions 40
Methods 41
Sample and Site Selection 42
Data Collection 43
Survey 44
Interviews 45
Artifacts 46
Data Analysis 46
Researcher Biases and Positionality 47
Chapter Summary 47
Chapter 4: Findings 48
Site and Participants 49
District 1 49
District 2 51
Results for Research Question 1 51
Procedures and Protocols 52
Collaboration 62
Summary 65
Results for Research Question 2 67
Time Constraints 67
Impact on All Students 73
Summary 78
Chapter 5: Summary, Discussion, and Implications 81
Significance of Findings 82
Implications 84
Limitations of the Study 86
Recommendations for Future Research 87
Recommendations for Future Practice 87
Conclusion 88
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 4
References 89
Appendices
Appendix A: Administrator Survey 103
Appendix B: Interview Protocol and Table 107
Appendix C: Interview Question and Response Form 111
Appendix D: Data Source and Analysis Guide 113
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 5
ABSTRACT
This study addressed how school administrators make decisions and the role of reflective
practice in that decision-making process to ensure equal opportunity for Latino/a youth. With the
number of decisions made by administrators each year and the time constraints placed on those
decisions, there is an inconsistency in the use of administrative reflective practice.
Administrators in this study expressed that they valued inclusion and desired to have equitable
outcomes for Latino students but the data indicated an absence of a consistent process of
reflective practice used by the administrators during decision making to ensure equitable
outcomes for Latino/a students. One way to codify the perceived impact of administrative
decisions on Latino students was to understand how decisions aligned with the Local Control and
Accountability Plan (LCAP) goals or programs created by administrators’ use of reflective
practice. Qualitative methods were used in the form of surveys and interviews. A 21-item survey
that included open-ended questions was utilized to gather data regarding administrators’ use of
reflective practice and their understanding of the impact of reflection on the decision-making
process, especially related to the Latino/a population. The survey was distributed to 50
administrators in Orange County, California. After receiving survey responses, the researcher
identified five administrators based on their administrative experience and their indicated use of
reflective practice for interviews. Artifacts, including LCAP goals, mission and vision
statements, graduation rates, and matriculation rates, were collected to triangulate data. Major
themes were developed based on the data to make meaning of the experiences of these
administrators and to offer suggestions for further research in this area.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 6
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This study addressed how school administrators make decisions and the role of reflective
practice in that decision-making process to ensure equal opportunity for Latino/a youth. I was
particularly interested in decisions that can contribute to closing the opportunity gap so that all
students succeed and are prepared to matriculate to postsecondary education upon graduation
from high school. Administrators and teachers should expect excellence from all students and
promote a positive racial climate that supports the diversity on campus for all students to have
the opportunity to gain access to high-quality public education (Burris & Welner, 2005; Mattison
& Aber, 2007). These expectations begin at the administrative level and filter into the classroom
through financial support, professional development, and priorities (Marzano, Waters, &
McNulty, 2005).
To address the inequities in education and support all students to become successful
individuals, it may be necessary for teacher leaders and administrative leaders to shift their
paradigm to one that promotes effective schools (Iverson, 2007; López, 2003; Marzano et al.,
2005). One such shift is the paradigm of stereotypes and inequities in educational opportunities
that support students at risk, which may require more resources and breaking down of social
barriers (James, 2012; Newton & Sandoval, 2015). With all of these potential influences on the
impact of opportunities for Latino/a students, educational leaders may need to be more reflective
while making decisions that influence funding allocations and programs that may affect these
students. Administrators’ cognitive reflection may make a difference in their decision-making
process, given the demands for attention that an administrator experiences daily (Frederick,
2005; Strickler, 2009).
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 7
Background of the Problem
With the number of decisions made by administrators each year, there may be a need for
a more systematic way for administrators to use reflective practice during the decision-making
process to ensure equitable outcomes for Latino students. O’Sullivan (n.d.) explored the nature
of decisions in various literature as being sometimes deliberate and sometimes a nonconscious
process, molded by multiple factors and influences. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) expressed the
need for multiple ethical lenses to be used during the decision-making process and for educators
to keep students at the center when making choices. The persistent disparity between Latino
students’ matriculation rates and those of their peers has not changed over the years, even with
various state and federal mandates, which could be an indication that this and other factors are
not at the forefront of high school administrators’ minds when making decisions. Data from the
California Department of Education (CDE; 2008-2009) indicated that, in 2008-2009,
Hispanic/Latino students made up the largest number of statewide high school graduates but had
the lowest percentage of students enrolled in postsecondary institutions. The percentage of
students in each subgroup was less than 86%, with Hispanics/Latinos at 65.9%, American
Indians at 68.5%, Asians at 85.7%, Pacific Islanders at 69.5%, African Americans at 77.9%, and
Whites at 79.1%.
This problem is important to address because an inclusive educational experience, where
students feel that they are part of a positive learning environment with high expectations for all,
can have an impact on their success (Vega, Moore, & Miranda, 2015). Invitational education is
focused on the people, places, policies, programs, and process in a school system to ensure that
the educational experience being offered at a school is inviting to everyone so that students may
experience success (Novak & Purkey, 2001; Purkey & Novak, 1996; Purkey & Strahan, 1995).
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 8
Latino students often do not feel included in school; they feel that teachers and administrators do
not and that policies are unfair to them (Vega et al., 2015). If Latino students continue to be
disconnected in schools because the climate is not inviting to all, then not only may the students’
academic success be affected; there may be issues that contribute to economic and social
disparity.
Bennett (2001) explained that students should feel that they have the right to retain their
own heritage and not be forced to assimilate in order to be successful. Bennett suggested
concrete ways to incorporate multicultural education with environments of respect and
collaboration, as well as analysis of the bias of instructional materials through four principles of
multicultural education. The social justice and trust created by such strategies could allow
students to form their own cultural identities and to appreciate others’ differences. With these
conversations in a racially diverse group, public schools can facilitate connections for students
who would otherwise not have the social capital to be successful in an ever-changing global
economy (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
“Connecting Dropouts to Career Pathways” (Saddler, Tyler, Maldonado, Cleveland, &
Thompson, 2011) focused on the earning power of high school dropouts and the rise in annual
crime and welfare benefits associated with high school dropouts because they were missing
prerequisite skills for career success. Compton, Laanan, and Starobin (2010) investigated factors
that influenced potential earnings of students enrolled in a Career Technical Education (CTE)
program and reported low percentages of students who completed the CTE certificate programs
in college across gender and race. Brown and Schwartz’s (2014) work suggested that all students
should have access to a college preparatory curriculum in which teachers differentiate so that all
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 9
students can be successful in the global economy. Since administrators make decisions about
programs such as CTE and teacher evaluations that include discussions about lesson design and
differentiation, I was interested in how much reflection, if any, was spent on inclusion and
support for Latino students.
Applebee, Adler, and Flihan (2007) explored the way in which schools have developed
cross curricular units and found that the teachers who embedded rigorous literature and
pedagogy were more successful than those who did not. Casey and Childs (2011) focused on the
success of teacher preparation colleges’ admissions requirements as an indicator for teacher
success, reflecting on the admission requirements of grade point average (GPA) and written
performance as predictors of success; they did not find a direct correlation. Some variables in the
study contributed to these findings, such as students not showing a large variance in GPA, since
a minimum GPA requirement existed; however, the implication of the study was that attitude and
critical thinking skills influenced teacher success (Casey & Childs, 2011). Since not all teachers
are trained in the same way nor are their preparations equal, site administrators have an
obligation to select the most qualified teachers during the hiring process and to provide
meaningful feedback during the evaluation process.
Studies have examined age, gender, and work experience as predictors of success and
found that age had no effect; however, being a male and having more work experience had a
positive effect on student success (Fournier & Ineson, 2013). High schools with a work
experience program supported student success more than those that did not do so. Another
finding of a workshop-type experiment on career preparedness showed that students felt more
prepared for the selection of a career and exhibited positive feelings about the preparation needed
for that field (Koivisto, Vinokur, & Vuori, 2011). In that study, the counseling of students was
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 10
normed, which indicated that the college and career planning also needed to be normed so that
students would acquire self-efficacy about their choices and the path necessary to get there.
Unlike other research that deals with students’ attitudes toward specific subjects such as
mathematics and science as predictors of success, Abu-Hilal’s (2000) research addressed the
need for educators and counselors to address student goals to form positive attitudes about school
as the primary cause for achievement.
The U.S. Census Bureau’s American Community Survey, 2006-2008, indicated that the
educational level of an individual was a contributing factor for overall earning potential (CDE,
2008-2009). Education may have been the great equalizer by allowing individuals to improve
their economic status in life (Mann, 1848); however, this did not consider the disadvantage that
economics and race play into opportunities. Critical race theory (CRT) has been applied to
education over the years to address the concern that White privilege created problematic
ideologies of colorblindness, meritocracy, and race as an individual issue rather than a systemic
issue (Ledesma & Calderón, 2015). Iverson (2007) suggested listening to those who have
experienced racism, sexism, and classism in order to counter the discourse used to create
education policy. Policies and practices should be evaluated carefully for racism because racism
is so ingrained in the social fabric that it is easy to miss (López, 2003). Federal authorities have
valued the idea of racial equity when promoting antidiscrimination laws such as affirmative
action, but there is still concern that these laws were implemented at the expense of meritocracy
(Erman & Walton, 2015).
These worries seem to speak to the larger issues of stereotypes in education that may
have influenced the reflective practice of administrators, teachers, and policy makers. Reflection
has been defined as a cognitive process that includes interconnecting ideas and incorporating
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 11
individual beliefs and knowledge (Dewey, 1938; Schön, 1992). The perceptions that
administrators apply in their thinking about implementation of policies, practices, and hiring of
people may make a difference in how Latino/a students feel about school. The process of
reflection and challenging one’s own beliefs and stereotypes can create a counter-narrative that
addresses opportunity gaps (Darling-Hammond, Meyerson, LaPointe, & Orr, 2009). Right
enforcement has become a dominant influence in administrative decision making (Raso, 2016).
Racism existed and affected the political and educational system in America. López
(2003) wrote about a common perception that being “colorblind” on an individual level would
eliminate racism, but he argued that future educational leaders needed understand how racism is
ingrained in society and policy. The systems have allowed power and wealth to be dominated by
the White male, which reveals that racism is systemic, not just personal. López also argued that
future leaders must be aware of how racism intersects with other areas of difference, such as
sexual orientation or class oppression. By acknowledging the systems that perpetuate a
hegemonic perception and not ignoring the racism that exists, educational leaders can create a
deep solidarity in the classroom.
Other factors are also valuable for students through education. Extracurricular activities
and school connectedness have been reported as important factors in improving academic
success because of the social capital gained and high expectations established (Newton &
Sandoval, 2015). This social capital and self-efficacy may allow students to be more successful
in life, socially and financially. Data from the Civil Rights Data Collection (Duncan, 2012)
indicated that resources are not allocated equitably among all schools, districts, or even states.
Teacher salaries in predominantly Hispanic and African American-populated schools were on
average $2,251 less; White and Asian students made up nearly three fourths of the students in the
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 12
Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) programs; there was a disparity between students of
color and Whites who attended schools that offered higher-level mathematics and science; and
suspension rates were highest among Hispanic and African American students across the country
(Duncan, 2012). When these factors are consistent throughout a student’s academic career, high
expectations have the potential to create equity in opportunities for achievement (Darling-
Hammond, 2007; Szczesiul, 2014). All of these factors led to the conclusion that it would be
valuable to focus on decisions made by school administrators in Orange County, California,
including their reflection on how to support all students. The results of this study may be used in
future research to develop ways to prepare Latino students for opportunities such as
matriculation to college.
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) were adopted to create content strands to
target standards at every grade level for college readiness to prepare students for the new
economic reality in the 21st century (Porter & Polikoff, 2012; Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca,
2009). The University of California and California State University systems’ minimum
requirements for high school coursework were created to ensure that students attained a breadth
of general knowledge in high school for advanced study in higher education (University of
California, Office of the President, 2015). The exposure to rigorous instruction in higher-level
coursework in high school had an affirming impact on student achievement. Yet, the exposure to
these courses did not always translate to achievement for African American and Latino students
(Harris & Herrington, 2006; Teitelbaum, 2003).
Nationally, only 8% to 18% of African American and Latino students took courses
beyond graduation requirements, such as advanced mathematics and sciences (Chaney,
Burgdorf, & Atash, 1997; Teitelbaum, 2003). College readiness, as defined by the Manhattan
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 13
Institute, showed that only 23% of African American graduates and 20% of Latino graduates
were deemed ready for college, based on their proficiency and graduation requirements, resulting
in further impact on these students’ educational attainment (Roderick et al., 2009; Ruecker,
2013).
District and site-level administrators have been accountable for ensuring that all students
are given the opportunity for a free and appropriate education. State mandates have been
implemented as accountability measures that used high-stakes testing to ensure equity for all
students (Rebell & Wolff, 2009). With California’s adoption of the CCSS and the Next
Generation of Science Standards (NGSS), the curriculum change was based more on what had
been identified as 21st-century skills. Wagner (2008) expressed the importance of the 21st-
century skills as a factor in closing the opportunity gap in America, in comparison to the global
economy. With focus on skills rather than on rote memorization, the accountability measurement
changed to the Smarter Balance Assessment Consortium (SBAC), which allows educators to
revisit their curricula. In turn, administrators’ focus on accountability shifted, making it
important for administrators to reevaluate current programs, training, and the way in which funds
are utilized at the school site.
In 2013-2014, the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) was enacted as another
accountability measure and oversight for school districts in California to utilize their funding
sources for activities and instruction (CDE, 2016). Since the results of these accountability
measures influenced the community’s perceptions community about the school and the district,
administrator’s decisions were affected. One of the requirements of the Local Control and
Accountability Plan (LCAP) was to include parent feedback in the creation of the LCAP goals,
which was then tied to funding distribution. Annually, the LCAP goals were to be reevaluated
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 14
and funding reallocated to match the priorities. Prior to the LCFF, categorical funds were
allocated by the state. The decision making for funding shifted to individual districts and their
stakeholders.
Based on research by Holme (2002) about purchasing homes in neighborhoods in which
there was a perceived better education, the practice of neighborhood schools contributed to
White flight and segregation. Some of these perceptions were based on test scores, which
elevated home prices in the neighborhood. This practice seemed contrary to the Civil Rights Act
of 1964 and affirmative action measures and allowed opportunities for quality education to be
afforded only to those in a high socioeconomic standing or racial identity. Just as the data
indicated in the Hawaiian public school system (Kanaiaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003), students in
predominantly lower socioeconomic neighborhoods were not expected to perform as well. The
districts represented in that study had a minority population of homeless youth and a higher
percentage of students qualified for free and reduced-cost lunch programs.
The decisions regarding funding and programs could have been reflective in nature and
could have allowed for educators to stray for the norm or traditional thoughts (Dewey, 1938).
With the new funding formula (LCFF), administrators targeted funding on learning gaps between
subgroups, especially those who are English Language Learners (ELLs) and socioeconomically
disadvantaged students. The focus on ELs was important because, according to the CDE (2014-
2015), 80.15% of the ELLs in Orange County spoke Spanish. Because of the unique needs of
every district, each LCAP was different, even with the same eight priorities determined by the
state. The mandates placed on school districts did not always come with a road map for how to
achieve the goals, but the state priorities were to assist Local Education Agencies (LEAs) in
creation of each district’s LCAP. These priorities addressed the issues of access and equity,
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 15
curriculum aligned to state standards, school culture and climate, parental participation, student
achievement, student engagement, and professional development (CDE, 2015). In addition,
county offices were include services for foster youth and instruction for expelled students. The
LCFF was based on the LCAP, which ultimately should have been based on decisions by all
stakeholders in the process. Yet, each site administrator was expected to review the plans and
decide how best to achieve the goals in a way that was best for the individual school site. Given
that funding was directly related to the goals written in the LCAP, administrators saw the
benefits of conscious reflection rather than momentary thought (Farrell, 2012) about resource
allocations, stereotypes, and social barriers of the Latino students, which could have supported
them in acquiring self-efficacy, knowledge, and skills necessary to matriculate to postsecondary
education upon high school graduation. Given the multiple variables and the outside influences
that were included in creating equal opportunities, using reflective practice during administrative
decision making to promote equity was a difficult task.
Statement of the Problem
This study addressed the decision-making process of school administrators and the role of
reflective practice in that process. This problem was important to address because the decisions
made by administrators contributed to equity issues being addressed in each district across the
United States. One major equity issue that was studied in Orange County, California, was the
disparity among Latino students and their peers to matriculate to postsecondary education upon
high school graduation. This problem affects individual districts’ goals in Orange County and the
LCAP priority of ensuring that all students have access to courses that prepare them for college
or career upon graduation.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 16
An equal education for all was a legal obligation of schools, based on the precedent set
by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This goal for all high school students to matriculate successfully
to a postsecondary education was predicated on multiple contributing factors, including the
social capital advantage held by the middle class (Gunn, 2005; Sullivan, 2001), as well as racial
isolation or perceptions about immigration (Gándara & Contreras, 2010; Gonzalez, 2011). For
example, the lack of social capital could lead to limiting opportunities for Latino students to
attain higher education. Latino/a students may not have access to college counselors, college
visits, and A-G curriculum that are afforded to their more affluent peers. Almost two thirds of
Latinos attend schools that have low numbers of advanced courses available (Gándara & Bial,
2000).
The decisions that administrators make may allow Latino students to have these types of
opportunities to assist them in being prepared for postsecondary education. Fry (2010) stated that
41% of Latinos above the age of 20 who lived in the United States did not have a high school
diploma in 2010. As school administrators reflected on the statistics and data, there have been
changes in programs and funding allocations that have made schools more inclusive; however,
the results of that study indicated that more work is needed.
Milner (2009) used narrative inquiry and self-study to examine his decision making about
diversity in the classroom as he shared that story telling was a way by which he could let his
students into his perspective and share experiences in which they had been hurt. The process of
sharing stories allowed others to be empathetic to those feelings of hurt. Since hurt is a human
emotion, when Milner explained his own hurt based on racism, others could better understand
the effects of racism even if they had never experience it (Milner, 2009).
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 17
Administrators have noted that they could make better decisions with experience, but not
all administrators seem as self-reflective to be aware of how their own narratives influence
interactions with stakeholders and frame the decision-making process. Given that the problems
faced in fields such as education are complex and dynamic, professionals should be able to make
decisions based on their education and experience, even when faced with new problems of
practice (Clark, James, & Kelly, 1996). Practitioners have used reflection to make
“improvements in the efficiency and effectiveness of (their) practice” (173); for administrators
who make decisions that affect students’ futures, this is an important tool. Understanding that
inequity in education is a complex issue, further research is needed to determine whether
administrators may be able to make decisions, using reflective practice, that have a perceived
impact on student achievement.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore school administrators’ perceptions about their
own decision making and the role of reflective practice. As administrators utilize their own
beliefs to make thoughtful decisions, they could solve problems to arrive at the best
administrative action (Bolman & Deal, 1991; Hart, 1990). I was particularly interested in
administrative decision making that had a perceived impact on Latino students. One way to
codify the perceptions was to understand how decisions did or did not align with the goals of the
district’s LCAP goals and funding distributed to the schools, especially those that address
specific needs of the Latino population. Understanding that there were not enough resources
through state and local funding sources to support all possible programs, I wanted to understand
which decisions made by the administrators in the study might be perceived to have a positive
impact on the Latino community in the school. These data provided information on the
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 18
perceptions of school administrators on their reflection on decision making that ensured equity of
access to a rigorous education.
The study was conducted using qualitative methods to explore discussions of the
reflective practices of site and district administrators in the decision-making process. Participants
were selected using results of a widely distributed survey to identify how reflective practice was
or was not being used in the decision-making process to provide equitable attainment by all
students. From the administrators who completed the survey, five were interviewed. All
participants who were selected for the case study were given a consent form and were selected
based on their responses to the survey to mitigate researcher bias and validate the research
(Maxwell, 2013). Triangulation of data was done through surveys, interviews, and artifact
collection (Maxwell, 2012; Merriam, 2009).
Research Questions
1. How do administrators who reveal that they use reflective practice describe the
process?
2. What are the perceptions of administrators regarding the influence of reflective
practice on the decision-making process for equitable outcomes?
Significance of the Study
This study identified the described process of reflection by site and district administrators
in making decisions that affect student learning and access to activities that assist in creating
equity for Latino students. By identifying the process, information emerged to suggest a potential
need for a more systematic approach to reflection that could support the decision-making process
by administrators regarding equity and access for all students. Administrations’ perceptions of
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 19
how they reflect varied; this study could assist administrators in becoming more uniform or
systematic in their approach to making decisions that ultimately promote change.
Limitations and Delimitations
One delimitation was that the sample included only districts in Orange County,
California. This made it difficult to make generalizations to other districts with different
demographics and needs. This is why the research was conducted as a case study. Since one
person conducted all of the interviews, the validity of the research was consistent, but there may
be bias that would otherwise be recognized if another researcher had been involved (Maxwell,
2013). The information from both the interviews and survey was self-reported. Given that the
information was specific to the individuals who participated in the study, the results will not be
used to make generalizable statements about the reflective practices of school administrators.
There was an assumption that the participants reported information honestly and thoughtfully.
The triangulation of data contributed to the validity of the results of the study. The results were
evaluated in considering whether further research is needed on this subject.
Definition of Terms
Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP): The LCAP is an important component of the
LCFF. Under the LCFF, all LEAs are required to prepare an LCAP that describes how they
intend to meet annual goals for all pupils, with specific activities to address state and local
priorities identified pursuant to California Education Code § 52060(d) (U.S. Department of
Education, 2015).
Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF): Under the LCFF funding system, revenue
limits and most state categorical programs were eliminated. The LCFF created funding targets
based on student characteristics and provided greater flexibility to use these funds to improve
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 20
student outcomes. For school districts and charter schools, the LCFF funding targets consisted of
grade span-specific base grants plus supplemental and concentration grants that were calculated
based on student demographic factors. For county offices of education (COEs), the LCFF
funding targets consisted of an amount for COE oversight activities and instructional programs.
(U.S. Department of Education, 2015).
Reflective practice: There have been multiple interpretations of reflective practice,
introduced by Dewey (1938), who described it as “the active, persistent and careful consideration
of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the
further consideration to which it tends” (p. 9). Schön (1983) solidified this thinking by defining
the process as either reflection-in-action, when practitioners make sense of the problem at hand
using their knowledge and experience, or reflection-on-action, when practitioners reflect after
the fact to learn from it and make changes in the future. Kolb (1939/1984) took it a step further
and explained that a practitioner can take an experience and reflect on it in abstraction so that it
can be applied to future situations.
Self-efficacy: People’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of
performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs
determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves, and behave. Such beliefs produce diverse
effects through four major processes: cognitive, motivational, affective, and selection (Bandura,
1994).
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized into five chapters, with a background and statement of the
problem, purpose, and significance of the study in the first chapter. A review of literature as it
relates to administrative reflective practice, presented in Chapter 2, includes the history of
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 21
reflection, current state of administrative reflection, current state of administrative critical
reflection toward equity and access, and a comprehensive reflective practice framework. Chapter
3 describes the methodology for surveying and interviewing district and site administrators from
Orange County, California. Chapter 4 reports the data gathered through this process. Chapter 5
concludes the dissertation with a discussion of findings, implications, and recommendations.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 22
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Using reflective practice as a theoretical framework for this study, I explored how
administrators utilized reflective practice while making decisions that could ultimately affect at-
risk students. Administrators make multiple decisions daily, some of which they may or may not
have had time to reflect on. However, major programming and funding decisions have the
potential of affecting the student population by either creating or closing educational
opportunities for some students. The cognitive process that professionals go through when
making a decision was explored by Dewey (1916) and developed by other philosophers and
researchers. This cognitive process was used to explain why novice practitioners were not as
effective at making decisions as more experienced practitioners, who used past experiences and
large bodies of knowledge and applied them to alternate situations more quickly than their less
experienced counterparts (Borko & Livingston, 1989; Carter, Cushing, Sabers, Stein, & Berliner,
1988; Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993).
As discussed in Chapter 1, the LCAP was developed by stakeholders in each district. The
LCAP goals were measured by self-imposed accountability measurements that site
administrators reviewed to be able to utilize the funding sources distributed to the site level.
Administrators should have taken into consideration the resources, stereotypes, and social
barriers of these students throughout school in order to support students, especially Latino
students, to acquire self-efficacy, knowledge, and skills necessary to matriculate to
postsecondary education upon high school graduation. Extracurricular activities and school
connectedness were important factors in improving academic success because of the social
capital gained and high expectations established (Newton & Sandoval, 2015). All of this could
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 23
have be done if administrators had utilized reflective practice during their decision-making
process.
This study identified the process of reflection by site and district administrators in
making decisions that affect student educational attainment, given the constraints of the LCFF
and policies (see Chapter 1 for details). By identifying the reflective process, administrators’
descriptions assisted with greater understanding of how reflective practice may support the
decision-making process of administrators. The administrators’ perceptions also assisted with the
acknowledgement that there was not a uniform approach to deciding but there were systems that
individuals used to reflect when making decisions to promote change.
The purpose of this study was to understand the perceptions of reflective practice by site
and district administrators and to identify the perceived influence of the reflective process on the
decision-making process when attempting to ensure equitable outcomes for all students so that
Latino/a students may be prepared for postsecondary education.
This chapter presents a review of the literature related to reflection and reflective
practice, with an emphasis on administrative reflective practice. A history of reflection in U.S.
public schools, the current state of administrative critical reflection on equity and access, and a
reflective conceptual framework are presented to address the following research questions:
1. How do administrators who reveal they use reflective practice describe the process?
2. What are the perceptions of administrators regarding the influence of reflective
practice on the decision-making process for equitable outcomes?
To guide this research, the definition of reflective practice was operationalized. The
literature addressing reflective practice is introduced to arrive at a succinct definition of
reflective practice.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 24
Reflective Practice
The terms associated with reflective practice can vary because there is no uniform or
cohesive definition to provide consensus regarding what it is or what it promotes (Farrell, 2012,
Hébert, 2015; Larrivee, 2008; Tannenbaum, Hall, & Deaton, 2013). The intention of reflection
has expanded into something different from the original intentions of Dewey and can now be
applied to multiple fields (Beauchamp, 2006; Ecclestone, 1996; Fendler, 2003; Hébert, 2015;
Marcos, Sanchez, & Tillema, 2011; Rodgers, 2002b; Tannenbaum et al., 2013). Since everyone
brings personal experience into reflection, it is difficult to isolate one way in which one reflects
on one’s practice. Yet, most agree that reflection should be grounded in knowledge, either
theoretical or experiential, as theorized by Dewey and Schön (Hébert, 2015). Beauchamp (2015)
identified four major themes in the literature: “internal and external rationales for reflection; the
cognitive and affective processes of reflection; reflection in, on, for and as action; and situating
the self within the particular context in which reflection happens” (p. 124). These themes reveal
that reflection can occur in multiple ways and for multiple reasons. These themes may be
exhibited throughout this study as reflected in the administrators’ perceptions about their own
reflective practice.
In order to address the research questions, a working definition for this study was
provided after first providing various ways reflective practice has been taken up in literature. The
definition of reflective practice continues to be developed with continuing research and
application to various fields. The seminal work by Dewey (1938) contributes to the importance
of educators’ reflective practice, including administration, to make a habit of reflection in the
decision-making process. Reflection, when based on distinct situations, has the potential to assist
in decisions regarding how to achieve goals, evaluate process, and determine contributing factors
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 25
(Schön, 1983; Valli, 1997). Since programmatic decisions by administrators are now tied to
funding sources that are clearly defined and measured, effective and efficient decisions may
contribute to allocating funds in a manner that could give opportunities for student achievement.
Clark et al. (1996) explained the background of reflective practice based on Dewey,
Schön, and Kolb for their study about reflective practice by nurses. The current application of
reflective practice to fields outside education solidifies the importance of reflection by
practitioners. Given that the problems faced in fields such as medicine and education are
complex and dynamic, reflective practice allows professionals to make decisions based on their
education and experience, even when faced with new problems of practice. Practitioners have
been able to use reflection to make “improvements in the efficiency and effectiveness of [their]
practice” (Clark et al., 1996, p. 173).
Administrators may reflect on their practice automatically in the moment, but the
challenge is to be deliberate about reflection in order to see desired results (Clark et al., 1996;
Farrell, 2012; Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Grimmett, 1989). Reflective practice is a nonlinear
process in which various situations allow for learning to occur through each reflection
opportunity (Plack & Santasier, 2004; Schön, 1983, 1987). With each new experience faced by
administrators, there is an opportunity to learn and apply that learning to a new experience.
Making reflective practice part of the decision-making process for administrators can
support student outcomes by using experienced administrators as mentors for novice
administrators (Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993). Reflective practice may allow administrators to
challenge their own assumptions about students and their practice of decision making to support
students who are experiencing opportunity gaps (Hammer & Stanton, 1997; Larrivee, 2008;
Rodgers, 2002a; Tannebaum et al., 2013; Valli, 1997). For the purpose of this study, reflective
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 26
practice is defined as deliberation, making choices, and making decisions that may create
alternative courses of action (Short, 1997; Tannenbaum et al., 2013; Valli, 1997).
History of Reflection in U.S. Public Schools
Reflective practice is valuable for educators’ professional growth but it has not always
been utilized systematically as a decision-making tool, as intended by Plato (1877) in The
Apology and in works by Dewey (1938) and Schön (1983). The use of reflective practices in U.S.
public school stems from the pragmatic philosophy of John Dewey and his seminal work How
We Think (1910) and work by Schön in The Reflective Practitioner (1983), both of which were
influenced by scholars and philosophers such as Plato and Locke (1847).
Dewey’s influence continues to influence how to approach problem solving through
reflective practice in a way that is grounded in evidence, logic, and reasoning but also includes
emotion, passion, and intuition (Tannenbaum et al., 2013). Using this problem-solving approach,
passionate and experienced administrators could use evidence and logic to come up with
equitable outcomes for students. Dewey clarified that reflective practice was not the making of
decisions based on routine or subconscious but was more active and required critical thinking
about one’s actions in a way that focuses on successes and failures to make meaningful change to
attain a goal that might seem unattainable. Dewey’s thoughts about reflection are clear in his
statement: “While we cannot learn or be taught to think, we do have to learn how to think well,
especially how to acquire the general habits of reflecting” (p. 35). Dewey’s seminal work was
frequently referenced in literature on reflective practice and heavily emphasized in teacher
education; it is an integral aspect of teacher education and pedagogical research because of the
connection of knowledge and experience toward informed practice (Beauchamp, 2015; Hébert,
2015).
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 27
Dewey (1938) identified five phases of thought in reflective practice: suggestion,
intellectualization, guiding idea, reasoning, and hypothesis testing. Through these phases a
problem is understood and possible solutions are given and tested, which is actually systemized
reflective inquiry (Farrell, 2012).
Reflective practice is cyclical and primarily based on the work by Dewey. However,
Schön (1983) was more interested in how professionals use reflective practice to take a step back
and use their knowledge, either experiential or theoretical, to analyze a situation and develop an
intelligent plan. Schön identified two ways by which practitioners reflect: reflection-in-action
and reflection-on-action (Farrell, 2012; Schön, 1983). Reflection-in-action is a practitioner’s
ability to think during the moment and make a decision based on past experiences or knowledge
that can be applied to the given problem. This problem-solving approach is similar to most of the
daily decisions that an administrator faces. As problems at school arise, an administrator has to
make decisions quickly. Reflection-on-action is the ability to reflect after an event and a decision
has been made. This is a powerful way to ensure that the best decisions can be made about
problems that are more systemic; it can also be used as a frame of reference when an urgent
problem comes across an administrator’s desk. When administrators are evaluating
programmatic decisions and funding allocations, they would be using the reflective process of
reflection-on-action.
The extension of reflective practices by Schön (1992) and Van Manen (1997) emphasized
continual investigation of how practitioners use both reflection and problem solving toward
finding viable solutions (Tannenbaum et al., 2013). Schön (1983, 1987) focused on Dewey’s
work about reflection being inquiry based and sought to understand how practitioners “know.”
This led to the idea that practitioners could display single-loop or double-loop learning; the
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 28
difference is that practitioners demonstrate thinking, changes in practice, and problem-solving in
double-loop learning (Argyris & Schön, 1974). Argyris (1982) stated that “single-loop learning
occurs when errors are corrected without altering the underlying governing values,” whereas
“double-loop learning occurs when errors are corrected by changing the governing values and
then the actions” (p. 206). Argyris and Schön were proponents of the use of double-loop learning
for solving problems. Reflective practice that demonstrates double-loop learning would exhibit
changes in underlying issues as they relate to the problem.
Double-loop learning is important, given that this research focused on the problems of
inequities in educational policies, funding practices, and decision making. The underlying values
as they relate to inequities were important to consider. Schön’s work has been used in many
fields to explain the importance of reflective practice as a way for practitioners to use logic
within their individual frames of reference, as well as the content knowledge necessary for the
field. Schön cautioned that, in higher education, content knowledge was the only thing being
taught, whereas the critical thinking piece that was so necessary in the decision-making process
was missing. This can be applied to the decision-making process that administrators use in that
critical thinking should be present when administrators challenge inequities in education.
Reflective conversations can set the stage to make new meaning and prepare for future actions
(Clarke, 2006). These reflective conversations may contribute to double-loop learning and
ultimately change the values that contribute to inequities in schools.
Rodgers (2002a) identified four criteria for reflection:
1. Reflection is a meaning-making process that moves a learner from one experience into
the next with deeper understanding of its relationships with and connections to other
experiences and ideas. It is the thread that makes continuity of learning possible, and
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 29
ensures the progress of the individual and, ultimately, society. It is a means to essentially
moral ends.
2. Reflection is a systematic, rigorous, disciplined way of thinking, with roots in
scientific inquiry.
3. Reflection need to happen in community, in interaction with others.
4. Reflection requires attitudes that value the personal and intellectual growth of self and
of others. (p. 845)
Rodgers’s contention that reflection should be for making meaning supports Dewey’s
(1916, 1944) argument that education should change the ideas of the individual and the society
around that individual. Using reflective practice as a way to make meaning should then also help
to change the environment. Administrators can use reflective practice as a way to change their
understanding and values and then make programmatic changes or allocate resources in a way
that supports the new understanding.
The systematic nature of reflection is that it is logical and clear. Reflecting in a
community allows everyone to share perspectives. This collaboration allows for underlying
values to become more clear if those who are engaging in the reflection are open to expanding
their knowledge and challenging their own beliefs. Once those are reached, then reflection as a
practice can be taught, learned, and assessed.
The process of thinking to learn requires practitioners to confront others’ learning, their
own practice, and the subject matter at hand (Rodgers, 2002a). Reflection is not a means to an
end; rather, it is a vehicle to transform experience into a symbiotic relationship between theory
and practice (Rodgers, 2002a). In order for administrators to do this well, it may be necessary for
them to engage in more theoretical research and discourse about problems of practice. This is
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 30
easier said than done, when the tyranny of the urgent takes precedence over longer deliberation
and reflection on larger issues.
Along with the daily distractions that administrators face, the emphasis on accountability
in education has resulted in disingenuous forms of reflection and routinization rather than deep
thinking (Beauchamp, 2015). This is true for administrators as well as teachers, which does not
assist in the ideal modeling of reflection that would support students as critical thinkers. While
becoming a reflective practitioner may be the goal of dedicated educators, exploring models
beyond Dewey and Schön will still give deference to its parentage (Hébert, 2015). Recent
writing emphasizes the importance of applying new approaches of reflective practices “to
account for social changes” and enhancing professional practice (Beauchamp, 2015, p. 137).
Administrators can use double-loop learning within their reflective practice to bring about social
change in the school to create equitable opportunities for students.
Current State of Reflection in Education for Decision Making
Jasper, Elliott, and Koubel (2011) explained that people make decisions on a daily basis,
some of which seem to come intuitively and others that need more cognitive reflection. They
suggested fields in which professional decisions are measured by legal and ethical frameworks
and noted that reflective practice can be used to inform practice. Even though these researchers
focused on the practice of nursing, these concepts can be used by educational administrators,
since their decisions can affect educational opportunities for students.
Reflective practice supports the decision-making process by educational leaders by
assisting with problem solving grounded in evidence, logic, and reasoning (Dewey, 1938; Schön,
1983; Tannenbaum et al., 2013). Researchers have described reflective practice as a way to
promote insight through inquiry and argumentation (Beauchamp, 2015; Hart, 1990). Rodgers
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 31
(2002a) compared the process of inquiry to that of reflection as a way to codify what he called
the “six phases of reflection.” These stages are similar to the scientific method of inquiry in that
the process begins with a hypothesis and ends with the testing of that hypothesis, given possible
explanations of the problem. This process is based on evidence, logic, and reasoning, all essential
in assisting in problem solving. For leaders in education, reflection practice assists in the
decision-making process and allows them to make choices among alternatives (Short, 1997;
Tannenbaum et al., 2013; Valli, 1997).
Anderson (2012) reported about teacher leaders and their struggles as innovative leaders
based on the constraints within their positions. Fullan (1994) explained the importance of teacher
leaders as experts in the field, as well as mentors, to assist others with change. The struggle to
stay connected to the classroom while still being a leader is difficult for teacher leaders.
Administrators can learn from teacher leaders what is most important to assist teachers and
perhaps use this during their decision-making process. Administrators do not have the same
constraints and can be more innovative in decision making. Given that administrators have a
different positionality at the school site, decisions about programs and funding can carry more
weight and can potentially be either effective or devastating regarding equitable opportunities for
all students.
Schön (1983, 1987) explained the importance of peer coaching as a way to teach
reflective practice. If administrators are given mentors during their first years of administration,
they can be more reflective about their decisions; it was recommended that mentors be used to
model reflection (Hébert, 2015). Jaeger (2013) recommended that student teachers engage with
mentor teachers, who demonstrated better recall. This could help novice teachers to reflect on
their teaching more accurately in the face of barriers such as time constraints, fear of being
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 32
judged, lack of experience and skills, personal characteristics, and organizational obstacles. This
could also be a model for future administrators.
Loughran (1996) stated that it benefits student teachers to see their mentors struggle with
classroom dilemmas and to witness their using reflection-in-action to solve problems. Roth,
Masciotra, and Boyd (1999) posited that co-teaching helps student teachers to slip into the role of
primary teacher, with regular opportunities to step out and reflect before rejoining the lesson, a
practice that most closely approximates Schön’s (1983, 1987) reflection-in-action.
Reflective practice is utilized by educational leaders in public schools in various forms,
but there is a need for all administrators to be trained in effective reflective practice in order for
institutional change to occur. Reflection can lead to positive outcomes such as confidence,
personal empowerment, enhanced professionalism, and improved student learning (Rodgers,
2002b). Through the reflective process, administrators can be better informed regarding teachers’
intellectual growth, expertise, and skills. Teachers, as well as administrators, who engage in
reflection voluntarily aspire to master their craft and are receptive to trial and error, as well as to
testing and experimenting with research-based methods. Reflective practice allows educators “to
stop for a moment or two and consider how we can create more learning opportunities for
students” (Farrell, 2012, p. 15).
By developing habits of reflective practice, administrators can improve the quality of
their choices and the range and scope of knowledge applied to the improvement of schools.
Reflection enhances the probability of action consistent with conscious, long-range aims, makes
possible systematic analyses and interventions that challenge conventional practice, and raises to
a conscious level the unconscious thoughts, assumptions, and patterns that guide actions (Hart,
1990). Reflective practice improves the quality of institutional decision making and allows for
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 33
student access to rigorous curriculum taught by effective teachers, which improves student
achievement. School administrators use their moral and ethical values and experience during
difficult decision-making processes (Strickler, 2009), so reflective practice should assist
administrators with decisions about inequities in education.
Current State of Critical Reflection Toward Equity
and Access in Decision Making
Current research reveals that it is advantageous for practitioners to reflect on their
practices in order to become equity oriented and to reverse inequality in education. Institutional
practices reflect the values of a discipline’s members (Bensimon, 2005); thus, administrators
should challenge those values through double-loop learning in order to make change. Patterns of
inequality in institutions develop when practitioners fail to reflect on and revise their practices.
Reflective practice can lead educational leaders to question inequities in school policies and
practices and make systematic change to shift the culture, as well as economic resources within a
school to reverse inequities that prevail in the U.S. public school system.
Reflection on the educational outcomes of students of color is not a routine practice.
Bensimon, Polkinghorne, Bauman, and Vallejo (2004) used the concept of single-loop and
double-loop learning (posited by Argyris and Schön, 1974) in their research. Evidence teams
were formed and The Equity Scorecard process of inquiry revealed that many individuals made a
cognitive shift from being deficit oriented to being equity oriented after they had reflected
collectively on their practices. The difference between single-loop and double-loop learning is
based on the thought and reflection that are involved. In single-loop learning, one teaches a
concept and then assesses the learning. In double-loop learning, one thinks about the multiple
influences that contributed to the results. Bensimon et al. (2004) explained that administrators
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 34
must be cognizant of stereotypes in planning and teaching. This is important as administrators
should reflect on their own stereotypes while making decisions that could affect students and
create inequities.
Despite the abundance of research that shows advantages of having reflective educators
who operate from a double-loop perspective instead of a single-loop perspective, inequities still
exist in the U.S. educational system (Bennett, 2001; Bensimon, 2005). Reflective practice is not
an isolated act. Teachers must routinely collect data about their practice, reflect, and make
instructional decisions based on these data (Farrell, 2012). Double-loop learning allows for
reflection on values and norms within a social structure. Utilizing reflective practice with the
lens of double-loop learning may change the construct of the information obtained through the
data. This can make a difference when educators, especially administrators, make decisions.
Reflective Practice Framework
Researchers have asserted that the concept of reflective practice is a special form of
problem solving and thinking to resolve an issue that involves active and deliberative cognitive
processes of addressing practical problems while allowing for doubt and perplexity before
solutions are reached (Clark et al., 1996; Dewey, 1938; Farrell, 2012; Hatton & Smith, 1995;
Schön, 1983, 1987). With the many decisions that administrators make, reflective practice may
be a way to take the perplexity out of some of the decisions and allow administrators to make
timely and effective choices.
Engaging in reflective practice enables practitioners to articulate what they do, how they
do it, why they do it, and its impact on decision making (Schön, 1987). A root notion of Schön’s
(1983) epistemology of practice is that reflective thought is a dialectic process that incorporates
action with experience, which then leads to modified action. Reflective practice is a progression
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 35
of thoughts that links and expands complex elements that contribute to creativity and surprise as
ideas are sometimes followed to unexpected conclusions (Farrell, 2012; Hart, 1990; Hatton &
Smith, 1995). Farrell (2012) stated that reflective practice is a compass that enables practitioners
to stop, look, and discover where they are at that moment and then discover where they want to
go in the future.
Reflective process as a way to solve problems can be similar across practices; therefore,
one can assume that the findings from studies pertaining to reflective practice in one field can be
applied in another field. Clark et al. (1996) focused on the process of reflection-in-action and
reflection-on-action because it is necessary to make important decisions immediately but then
reflect on those actions to make changes when necessary. Some problems that professionals face
are “messy”; it is not always easy to articulate a professional’s knowledge. Reflecting-on-action
helps to codify the practice and the rationale behind the decision.
Schön (1987) suggested that reflective practices across professions have features in
common: (a) professional problems are complex; (b) the knowledge on which professionals draw
is broad, deep, and multifaceted; (c) the context in which they deploy their skills is important and
significant; (d) professional practice cannot be understood in terms of skills alone; and
(e) professional knowledge is very difficult to articulate.
Administrators should not only reflect on action but also in action, since many decisions
are made as problems arise on a daily basis. The key foundations of reflection and reflective
practice are that reflection-in-action (e.g., “thinking on one’s feet,” which involves looking to
experiences, connecting with feelings, and attending to theories in use) is a mode of operating for
many professionals as they seek to make sense of the problematic nature of their practice (Clark
et al., 1996). By developing habits of reflective practice, administrators can improve the quality
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 36
of their decision making and the range and scope of knowledge applied to the improvement of
schools. Reflective practitioners must explore their own leadership, and reflect on ways in which
their decision making affects stakeholders and their educational environment.
Reflective practice is generally viewed by researchers as developing in stages and
constantly involved in an interactive process of change and development (Hart, 1990; Larrivee,
2008; Valli, 1997). Schön (1987) suggested that unique challenges, such as those encountered by
administrators, require decisions and actions in which the administrators must go beyond the
rules and technical knowledge and devise new methods of reasoning, constructing, and testing
new categories of understanding, strategies of action, and ways of framing problems (Short,
1997). When administrators use the two worlds of reflective thoughts and actions, they become
more skillful at addressing ill-defined problems. When educators take risks and experiment with
various strategies, they can move from experience to description to analysis to action (Rodgers,
2002b).
Successful teacher reflection training can be translated to support administrators in ways
that they can use reflection as part of the decision-making process. In teacher education
programs, there are multiple processes for reflection: action research, journaling, case studies,
supervision, classroom discussion, and projects (Valli, 1997). Reflective capacity is harnessed as
a result of both developmental stages and educational experiences. Valli (1997) supported work
by Dewey by stating that reflection allows one to “look back on events, make judgments about
them, and alter their teaching behaviors in light of craft, research, and ethical knowledge”
(p. 70). Reflection can help teachers to break “unthoughtful habits”; it should take place in a
community that supports a reflective culture where communal dialogue is the norm.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 37
Reflection (as collective action) is a key component in the politics of organizational
learning and change, involving collective engagement with the ways in which thought and
knowledge are being constructed (Kemmis, 1985). Examples of organizational reflection include
peer consultancy groups, communities of practice, and group relations conferences. Reflection
opens up assumptions and power relations to the possibility of change. Dewey distinguished
reflection from routine action, in which reflective practice asserts new understanding and
knowledge (Danielson, 2008). The purpose of reflection by teachers is to promote knowledge to
the level of theoretical research and link it to rigorous instructional practices (Akbari, 2007).
Research has shown that developing the habit of reflecting on what one knows before and
while acting improves the quality of decisions and eventually contributes to the knowledge
available for subsequent decisions (Hart, 1990; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Schön, 1987). Reflection
can be seen as part of and contributing to an educator’s personal and professional capability
(Farrell, 2012; Schön, 1983, 1987). Another important reason to engage in reflective practice is
the ethical and moral dimension stressed so strongly by Dewey (1938). Eraut (1997) stressed the
need for educators to maintain reflective practice under “critical control” (p. 20) and noted that
maintaining critical control of one’s practice is an important component of professional
accountability.
Reflection followed by methodical action can lead to positive outcomes, such as
confidence, personal empowerment, enhanced professionalism, and greater self-efficacy
(Furtado & Anderson, 2012; Lieberman & Miller, 2005; Phelps, 2010). To grow professionally
through the use of reflective practice, administrators must be receptive to trial and error and
experimenting with research-based methods while voluntarily aspiring to master their craft
(Anderson, 2012). The preparation of administrators who will provide leadership in restructured
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 38
schools requires programmatic approaches that foster and develop administrative expertise in
problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking (Short & Rinehart, 1993). Reflection on
what one knows prior to and during action not only increases the quality of decisions but
expands the administrator’s knowledge base, thus affecting future decisions (Hart, 1990; Schön,
1983, 1987). Administrators who, through reflection or interrogation of actions, develop greater
knowledge and understanding of complexities of problems and issues, will more readily perceive
underlying principles, theories, and contextual factors and therefore change their behavior in
dealing with the problem (Short & Rinehart, 1993).
A commitment to reflective practice thus becomes a lifetime commitment to a way of
thinking and acting, and the process itself enhances the future quality of reflective practice (Hart,
1990). By developing habits of reflective practice, administrators can improve the quality of their
decisions and the range and scope of knowledge applied to the improvement of schools. Those
who use reflective practice in schools may eventually make positive and lasting changes, in
response to a world that they envision rather than to the world as it is.
Reflective practice is necessary if practitioners want freedom from routine (Dewey,
1938). Research reveals that reflection is talked about more than it is used and that, when it is
used, it is not used critically (Beauchamp, 2015). Reflection is a complex, rigorous, intellectual,
and emotional enterprise that takes time to perfect; it should be taught (Dewey, 1938; Rodgers,
2002a).
Chapter Summary
The seminal work by Dewey (1938) continues to influence the area of reflective practice
that is used in multiple fields, even though it was originally applied to education. Schön (1987)
validated the work by Dewey (1938) and explained that those who make difficult decisions can
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 39
use reflective practice as a way of constructing new knowledge based on inquiry about the
problem of practice. School administrators are required to make difficult decisions that affect all
aspects of the educational system; it is imperative that they go beyond rules and technical
knowledge and devise new methods of reasoning, constructing, and testing new categories of
understanding, strategies of action, and ways of framing problems (Short, 1997). By embedding
reflection as a common practice by all administrators during the decision-making process, there
may be a greater impact on how administrators approach problem solving by grounding thought
in evidence, logic, and reasoning (Tannenbaum et al., 2013).
Research indicates that reflective practice not only can assist in developing an effective
solution to a problem but can also lead to positive outcomes, such as confidence, personal
empowerment, enhanced professionalism, and greater self-efficacy (Anderson, 2012; Lieberman
& Miller, 2005; Phelps, 2010). This self-efficacy can lead to student connectedness and higher
student achievement. Administrators who embody these qualities can empower the rest of the
staff and school community to challenge themselves and take risks. Reflective practice can then
be modeled by administrators so that all can use research-based methods for experimenting in
trial and error in order to master their craft (Anderson, 2012). This will allow the school
community as a whole to challenge assumptions and make lasting changes so that all students
can be successful and have opportunities after graduation.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 40
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
As stated in Chapter 1, there is a disparity in the Orange County Department of Education
between students and their peers in enrolling in postsecondary education. This disparity starts
prior to high school graduation; therefore, I investigated the decision-making process of
educational leaders in order to understand the extent and type of reflection that goes into this
process. Successful administrators have the ability to make decisions that positively affect
student learning and could also be able to provide equal opportunities to all students. This study
identified the process of reflection by administrators in making decisions that provide equitable
outcomes for students. This identification will be or a more systematic or consistent approach to
reflection that will support the decision-making process by administrators. The perceptions will
also assist administrators to become more uniform or systematic in their approach to making
decisions that ultimately promote change.
The purpose of this study was to identify the participants’ understanding of reflective
practice during the decision-making process, given funding and policy constraints. I was
interested in identifying administrators’ perceptions of their use of reflective practice when
making decisions about programs and funding allocation that have a perceived effect on
equitable outcomes for Latino/a students.
Research Questions
1. How do administrators who reveal they use reflective practice describe the process?
2. What are the perceptions of administrators regarding the influence of reflective
practice on the decision-making process for equitable outcomes?
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 41
Methods
I conducted qualitative research by using interviews, surveys, and artifacts with Orange
County administrators who volunteered to participate in order to identify their understanding of
reflective practice and how that affects equitable outcomes for students. Because I was interested
in the perceptions held by administrators, self-reported surveys and interviews were the best
means of gathering that information. “Interviewing is necessary when we cannot observe
behavior, feelings, or how people interpret the world around them. It is also necessary to
interview when we are interested in past events that are impossible to replicate” (Merriam, 2009,
p. 88). The survey assisted in understanding administrators’ level of reflective practice and
experience in an attempt to uncover meaningful data about their reflective practice. Surveys “are
intended to systematically describe the facts and characteristics of a given phenomenon or the
relationships between events and phenomena” (Merriam, 2009, p. 5). Since I interviewed
administrators after their participation in the survey, it was also important to collect qualitative
information by use of open-ended questions. The teachers all had varying personal experiences
in the reflective process that could never be recreated, given that the problems faced and the
decisions made were unique to each participant.
The survey responses revealed the level of participation by each administrator in the
decision-making process as related to funding and resource allocation. The responses reflected
administrators’ perceptions and understandings of reflective practice. Purposeful sampling
allowed for maximizing the researcher’s time and produced information that could not be
provided in other research (Patton, 1990), which was worth the limitation of generalizability in
this case.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 42
Sample and Site Selection
This case study included semistructured interviewing, administration of a survey, and
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting artifacts for five purposefully selected administrators
regarding their use of reflective practice and its effect on equitable outcomes. I asked
administrators to be interviewed and surveyed without giving details of their specific sites,
districts, or names in the interest of confidentiality. Those administrators were purposely selected
because of their perceived reflective nature when making decisions based on the survey
distributed to 50 administrators. I reviewed the informed consent form with each administrator
prior to interviewing. The consent form allowed participants to understand the purpose of the
study and the reason for conducting qualitative research. I selected a principal from each of three
settings: elementary school, middle school, and high school. They were selected based on their
education level, either holding a doctorate or in a doctoral program, and their level of reflection
based on survey responses. I selected two district-level administrators from different districts in
order to triangulate the LCAP goals from their districts to the interview and survey data.
A total of 50 administrators were sent copies of the survey via email using Google forms.
A transition to Google for surveys in one of the districts made it easy to gain participation.
Follow-up interviews were conducted when needed to give clarity on the themes, reflective
practice techniques, and decision-making processes that corresponded to the research questions.
The five administrators were selected based on their stated participation in reflection, their
positions, and their willingness to participate.
Black (1999) claimed that sampling allows the researcher to draw conclusions or
generalizations about the overall population. The population for this study consisted of
administrators who exhibited common characteristics of reflective practice, based on the answers
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 43
to survey items (Creswell, 2014). A critical component of a successful administrator is the ability
to make decisions that positively affect student learning and successfully navigate accountability
mandates from stakeholders. This study provides insight on the reflective practices in which site
and district administrators engaged to make decisions about equitable outcomes for Latino
students.
Data Collection
I used qualitative methods in which data were collected from interviews, a survey, and
artifacts; the data were coded and analyzed for specific themes. The triangulation of data was
necessary for checking for consistency of data to limit bias from the researcher (Creswell, 2009).
Since qualitative researchers cannot give irrefutable evidence, triangulation can increase the
credibility of the findings (Merriam, 2009). Denzin (1978) defined triangulation as “the
combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon” (p. 291). Jick (1979)
identified several advantages of the triangulation method:
(1) Permits researchers “to be more confident of results”;
(2) Can raise creative methods or the new ways to “capture’ a problem;
(3) Can aid to “uncover the deviant or off-quadrant dimension of a phenomenon”;
(4) Can enhance and create “enriched explanations” of research problems;
(5) Can create a “synthesis or integration of theories”; and
(6) Can be utilized as a test of competing theories, due to its comprehensiveness (pp. 608-
609).
Since the survey asked specific questions about the administrators’ perceptions regarding
reflective practice and their philosophy of creating equitable outcomes for students, these data
were compared to the data collected from the interviews that delved into the same perceptions.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 44
Furthermore, collected artifacts were used to compare the perceptions of these administrators and
items created that would potentially validate their perceptions.
Survey
For this study, a 21-item survey (Appendix A), including open-ended questions, was
utilized to gather data regarding administrators’ use of reflective practice and their understanding
of the impact of reflection on the decision-making process, especially in reference to the Latino/a
population. A survey is a standardized way to gather information from a select group (Patton,
1990). The intent of a survey is to make generalizations about the specific group (Creswell,
2014). The results of this qualitative study are limited to the specific sample; however, the major
themes and connections may be generalized to administrators throughout Orange County. Fifty
surveys were sent by email through surveymonkey.com to administrators throughout Orange
County.
The survey was given to administrators during the summer so that they would have time
to reflect on their perceptions and decisions made throughout the previous year and during the
decision-making process of starting the new school year, when all financial allocations are
proposed. Each administrator takes specific days off during the summer, but most are
consistently at their positions and planning for the new school year in August. For this reason, I
administered the survey during August and September.
After receiving the survey data, I identified administrators with various levels of richness
of experiences about reflective practice based on their years of experience and knowledge of
reflective practice, as well as their understanding of inclusion within schools. Other factors such
as willingness to participate and availability also influenced selection of participants. Personal
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 45
calls were made to potential participants, in which the purpose of the study was explained. At
that point, interviews were scheduled based on availability of the participants.
Interviews
Interviews were conducted at the site of the administrator, since observing participants in
their own environment contributes to qualitative research (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative data were
collected via open-ended interviews (Appendix B and Appendix C). Open-ended interview
questions have the potential to uncover major themes that were not originally intended as
participants share their experiences (Johnson & Christensen, 2014, p. 199). The Data Source and
Analysis Guide (Appendix D) assisted in ensuring that the interview and survey questions
addressed the research questions, since Merriam (2009) suggested that questions are essential
when interviewing. Question probes were also included to allow for consistency. The length of
each interview was approximately 30 to 40 minutes, but follow-up interviews were needed with
a couple administrators to develop consistent themes or to clarify perceptions.
With the semistructured questions and consistent probing questions, I kept the interviews
flowing like a conversation. This naturalistic approach to interviewing and maintaining a neutral
position in body language and facial expressions built rapport with the interviewees. The
interviews were conducted during face-to-face meetings in the office of each administrator for
convenience of the interviewee, as well as for ease of potential artifact collection. Artifacts
included mission and vision statements, handbooks, and budget sheets. With the permission of
the participant, the interview was recorded for accuracy, as well as allowing for more eye
contact.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 46
Artifacts
Merriam (1988) suggested, “Qualitative research assumes that there are multiple realities;
that the world is not an objective thing out there but a function of personal interaction and
perception” (p. 17). In order to assist with validating the various realities described by the
participants, artifacts were collected during and after the interviews. These artifacts included
anything that people make or use (Merriam, 2009), such as budget sheets, mission and vision
statements, and handbooks. The artifacts contributed to theme development to address the
research questions.
Data Analysis
After transcribing all interviews and reviewing survey responses, I annotated the data to
identify common themes. From those themes, I created a spreadsheet to summarize the findings
about each of the topics. This acted as a way to validate the themes for coding. The coding sheet
allowed me to develop themes about administrative reflective practice inductively as they
pertained to their decision-making process. Major themes with sample responses from
interviews, surveys, and artifact collection were developed. I reviewed the research questions in
relation to the coded themes.
To ensure internal validity, no information was purposefully deleted or modified.
External validity is the extent to which the results can be generalized beyond the study (Creswell,
2014). The findings from this qualitative case study may not be generalized beyond the study
because of the sample size and the single location (Orange County) from which data were
collected. However, for transferability, purposive sampling was performed. The goal of the data
analysis was to make meaning of the participants’ experience (Creswell, 2014; Merriam, 2009;
Patton, 1990).
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 47
Researcher Biases and Positionality
Maxwell (2012) stressed the importance of researchers creating safeguards through
procedures. All participants were given informed consent, the right to refuse to answer any
question, and protection through anonymity as much as possible. This included assigning
pseudonyms to participants and their work sites.
Flick (2014) described informed consent in a research study as a statement that
participants sign before participating in the study. The intent of the consent form is to provide
participants with a clear picture of the research study: purpose of the interview, the right to
withdraw from the study at any time, procedures of the study, the right to privacy to protect
identities, and the right to ask questions about the study (Hancock & Algozzine, 2006). Cooper
and Schindler (2003) reported that participants have the right to privacy and that researchers
should implement every effort to ensure participant privacy.
I am an assistant principal; therefore, there may be a difference in the quality of answers
from the assistant principals, who might have seen me as a peer, and those from the principal and
district administrator, who are in more of a supervisory role. I dressed in professional attire so
the administrators would know that I was serious about the process and the results. I also showed
empathy in my tone of voice so that the administrators would not feel judged. I used the
information in a way that informs but does not denigrate the professional, site, or district.
Chapter Summary
This study utilized a qualitative approach, incorporating data from semistructured
interviews, an open-ended survey, and artifacts. Triangulation of findings from these sources and
those from a review of literature provided an understanding of how administrative reflective
practice contributes to the decision-making process about equitable outcomes for students.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 48
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
The first three chapters of this dissertation offered a background of reflective practice and
the statement of the problem being investigated. This study addressed the decision-making
process of school administrators and the role of reflective practice in that process. The purpose of
this study was to explore school administrators’ perceptions about their own decision making
and the role of reflective practice. This study identified the self-described process of reflection
used by site and district administrators in making decisions that affected student learning and
equal access for all students, specifically Latino students.
Data were collected via survey, interviews, and artifacts across five school sites in two
districts (Merriam, 2009). Pseudonyms for the school sites, districts, and administrators were
created to ensure privacy for participants. All findings were intended to address the research
questions:
1. How do administrators who reveal they use reflective practice describe the process?
2. What are the perceptions of administrators regarding the influence of reflective
practice on the decision-making process for equitable outcomes?
This chapter is a presentation of the findings of the data reported by the participants
through survey, interviews, and triangulated data from artifacts specific to the schools and
districts in which the administrators worked (Maxwell, 2012; Merriam, 2009). The themes that
emerged were organized by the research questions.
King and Horrocks (2010) suggested three major stages in completing a thematic
analysis. Appendix D contains the coding sheet format used to form the themes for the
qualitative thematic analysis. The three stages used in this study were as follows: (a) In Stage 1,
Descriptive Coding, I read through the transcribed interviews and familiarized myself with the
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 49
content; descriptive codes were also formed from parts of the interviews and the survey results;
(b) in Stage 2, Interpretive Coding, these descriptive codes were grouped or clustered to interpret
the meaning of the grouped codes in relation to the research questions; and (c) in Stage 3, I
selected overarching themes from the key themes found in the grouped data.
The overarching theme that addressed how administrators described the process of
administrative reflective practice was the use of a mentor or a critical friend during individually
developed procedures for reflecting. Each of the administrators described the process as
requiring procedures in order to reflect effectively, even though the procedures were inconsistent
among the administrators who were interviewed.
Site and Participants
District 1
District 1 (K-12 Unified), in which four of the five participant administrators were
employed, consisted of 32 schools: 22 elementary schools, 4 middle schools, 4 high schools, and
3 alternative education programs. There were approximately 1,700 certificated (credentialed) and
1,500 classified (noncredentialed) employees. The per-pupil spending from the general fund was
approximately $11,402, dependent on property taxes versus average daily attendance (ADA).
Participant 1 was a high school principal of the largest school in District 1. The school
was founded in 1930. Over the history of the school, it has been honored as a California
Distinguished School, National Blue Ribbon School, and an International Baccalaureate School.
Of the 2,392 students enrolled, the ethnic breakdown was as follows: 57.8% Caucasian, 36%
Hispanic/Latino, 2.6% Asian, 1.4% African American, and 3.1% Other. Of that population,
36.6% were socioeconomically disadvantaged, 10.6% were ELLs, and 6.3% were students with
disabilities. Participant 1 earned a bachelor’s degree in history and a master’s degree in English
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 50
education and administration. He was a teacher for 6 years and an administrator for 14 years.
During the year of the study, he completed his doctoral work; he had been principal of this
school for 4 years.
Participant 2 was the principal at an elementary school in District 1. The school has also
had the honor of California Distinguished School and National Blue Ribbon School, and it has
consistently ranked in the top 10% of California Schools. Of the 428 students, the ethnic
breakdown was as follows: 77.1% Caucasian, 12.1% Hispanic/Latino, 4.9% Asian, 0.5% African
American, and 0.2% Filipino. Of that population, 6.5% were socioeconomically disadvantaged,
1.9% were ELLs, and 9.8% were students with disabilities. Participant 2 had a doctoral degree in
educational leadership. He had been a teacher for 13 years and an administrator for 7 years.
Participant 3 was the principal of a middle school that enrolled approximately 1,190
students, with the following ethnic distribution: 56.6% Caucasian, 36.9% Hispanic/Latino, 2.5%
Asian, 1.2% African American, 0.8% Filipino, 0.2% Pacific Islander, and 0.2 American Indian.
Of that population, 40.4% were socioeconomically disadvantaged, 15.7% were ELLs, and 8%
were students with disabilities. Participant 3 had obtained master’s degree in education and was
in his last year of a doctoral program. He had been a teacher for 9 years and an administrator for
5 years.
Participant 4 was a district administrator from K-12 Unified, which enrolled
approximately 9,713 students, with the following ethnic distribution: 9,813 Caucasians; 9,713
Hispanics/Latinos, 969 Asians, 47 African Americans, 195 Filipinos, 109 Pacific Islanders, 47
American Indians, and 678 who reported two or more races. Of that population, 46% were
socioeconomically disadvantaged and 24% were ELLs. The district was a K-12 district with a
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 51
graduation rate of 94.2%. Participant 4 had a master’s degree in education. He had been a teacher
for 7 years and an administrator for 19 years.
District 2
District 2 was comprised of 10 schools: 7 elementary schools and 3 middle schools. This
K-8 district matriculated into the local high school district with enrollment of 3,558 students. Of
that population, 27% were socioeconomically disadvantaged and 5% were ELLs. The graduation
rate of the district was 97.2%.
Participant 5 was a district administrator from District 2, which served 6,371 students,
with the following ethnic distribution: 2,513 Caucasians, 1,053 Hispanics/Latinos, 2,263 Asians,
56 African Americans, 119 Filipinos, 35 Pacific Islanders, 18 American Indians, 266 reported as
two or more races, and 48 who did not report ethnicity. Of that population, 23% were
socioeconomically disadvantaged and 14% were ELLs. Participant 5 had earned a bachelor’s
degree in history, a master’s degree in education administration, and a doctorate in educational
leadership. He had been a teacher for 5.5 years and an administrator for 12 years.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, How do administrators who reveal they use reflective
practice describe the process? From the data, two overarching themes emerged, both indicating
the support and process used to engage in administrative reflective practice: protocols or
procedures and collaboration.
The first theme was that there are protocols or procedures for reflective practice. These
protocols required administrators to think about decisions to arrive at the best solution. They
were described as occurring before, during, and after a decision was made. Schön suggested that
professional problems are complex and asserted that acting and thinking are fused (Clark et al.,
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 52
1996). He also made a distinction between reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action (Schön,
1983, 1987). This system of reflecting during the decision-making process was reported by
administrators in both the survey and the interviews, depending on the type of decision to be
made. Kolb (1939/1984) explained that the purpose of reflection was to utilize an experience
during reflective practice as an abstraction so that one could apply it to further actions. Schön
also explained that the system of reflection was based on the context (Kolb, 1939/1984).
The second theme was that administrators collaborated with colleagues, critical friends,
or mentors as consultants during the decision-making process. The term critical friend was
defined as a person who could be contacted to give valuable insight during the decision-making
process. Rodgers (2002b) explained the benefits of collaborative reflection as affirmation, seeing
a different perspective, and support in engaging in inquiry. Reflective practice has traditionally
been used in American education to define the process by which teachers improve their
instruction. However, true improvement and insight arise when there is argument and conflicting
positions that promote deeper insight (Bitting & Clift, 1988). As I intentionally interviewed only
principals or district administrators who understood what was necessary to run a school and
make the final decision, I was interested in knowing whether these decisions were made in
isolation or in collaboration. It seemed to vary based on the situation, but all interviewees
identified a colleague or mentor who could be called upon, although the ultimate decision was
made by the interviewee.
Procedures and Protocols
As reported by participant administrators in this study, reflection occurred before some
decisions were made but more than half stated that their reflection was dependent on the context
of the issue. According to the survey data, one administrator used reflective practice at the
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 53
beginning of the decision-making process, one used reflective practice at the end of the decision-
making process to sort through the information, two used reflective practice at various times
depending on the problem or issue, and one selected the category of other. The interviewed
participants stated that reflection was based on context. Participant 3 explained that he was “up
front” with all stakeholders regarding whether their input would assist in making the decision or
whether the decision had to be made by him unilaterally. Most of the administrators admitted
that there was not always time for reflection-on-action, but some had strategies for doing so,
such as tweeting, journaling, or note taking after a presentation.
Rodgers (2002a) summarized the meaning and purpose of reflection according to Dewey
(1933) as a process of learning and deeper understanding characterized by “a systematic,
rigorous, disciplined way of thinking, with its roots in scientific inquiry” (p. 845) that occurs
with others and accords values of personal and intellectual growth. The theme that administrative
reflection was a process connects to the original notation of reflection being purposeful. During
the interviews, the administrators stated that they asked themselves questions during this process,
which had the underpinning of inquiry to create meaning from the decision to grow as a
professional and to apply the learning to a new problem. Participant 2 identified his reflective
questions: “What did I do right? What could I have done differently? Why am I so upset by
this?” Participant 3 explained that he “started with throwing the kitchen sink at it. There’s a
balance between everything that could be relevant and time.” In the first example, it seemed that
reflection arose from an uneasy feeling about a past decision, whereas the second example
described a brainstorming session to arrive at a concrete solution.
Participant 5, one of the two district-level administrators, stated that he asked himself,
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 54
Do I have enough information? Have I asked or allowed for the right questions to be
asked? If it’s a major decision, then how did we set up the information getting process.
Who was involved? Not just in the meetings, but did I actively go out in informal ways to
also seek out information? At the end of the day, when I have to make that decision and
cannot take any more time, I want to be able to go back and say alright we had the best
information.
Each of the administrators seemed to have asked personal questions during the process of
reflection, but all seemed to arrive at the same outcome. Each seemed to be concerned with
making the best decision, given the information at hand. Another consistency among the
administrators was that they called on others to give feedback or advice during the reflective
practice.
One administrator responded in the survey that reflective practice functioned best at the
beginning of the decision-making process, one responded that it functioned best while he or she
is sorting through information, and three stated that it may function best at any stage of the
decision-making process, depending on the problem or issue. Even though there was variation
regarding when reflective practice occurs in the decision-making process, it is clear that most of
the administrators agreed that reflective practice was necessary in the decision-making process.
Three stated that the stage depended on the problem. This is consistent with Schön’s position that
educational problems are complex in nature and that “there are no right or wrong answers,
simply best and not so good” (as cited in Clarke et al., 1996, p. 172).
The idea that there are only “best” solutions was explored in the interviews. Each of the
participants reported reflecting on decisions and the decision-making process, but exact
procedures and systems varied among participants. Participant 1 stated, “I think it’s a process of
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 55
trial and error, trying to get down to the correct answer the best answer the best solution,
avoiding the largest amount of fallout.” This administrator seemed more concerned with the
outcome of the decision than with the process of reflection that went into the decision. John
Dewey suggested that the aim of reflective practice in education was to allow for “habits of
reflection so they can engage in intelligent thought and action rather than routine thought and
action” (Farrell, 2012, p. 9).
The variance in the process of reflective practice in administrative decision making may
occur because the intelligent action is an administrator’s final decision and the problem to be
solved may dictate the reflective practice that is necessary during the decision-making process.
The survey responses indicated that the process depends on the problem or issue. According to
the survey, one participant reported that reflective practice was more effective at the beginning
of the decision-making process, one reported that it was most effective at the end of the process,
and three reported that the time to use reflective practice in the decision-making process was
dependent on the problem or issue. This idea was influenced by the stakeholders who would be
affected by the decision.
As Dewey (1933) classified phases of reflective thought as it relates to teachers, he
explained that this reflection freed the decider from routine behavior. Each of the interviewed
administrators was asked how reflection differed now as an administrator than when he was in
the classroom. Participant 3 explained why the teaching reflective practice was more of a cycle
of reflection:
I think you have time to redo as a teacher, . . . I feel as though teachers go through a
process of reflecting on a lesson that they will repeat again and again or even year after
year. Through reflective practice, this is how they could come up with more iterations of
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 56
the lesson and as a teacher I was able to teach, adjust, teach again. You make adjustments
and possibly just even further [the lesson] if there [were] multiple preps, so I think you
got more opportunities to reflect on the same the lesson. I also believe that as a teacher
you get more feedback sometimes immediate feedback like in the lesson with the
students or even anecdotally feedback from others. Others can also tell you about what
went well or what didn’t go well. You could see the lesson improve or deteriorate based
on your adjustments. Whereas as an administrator, it is difficult to replicate even though
there may be things or ideas that are similar nature. But each circumstance is different, so
reflective practice you don’t get that much of a chance at least in such an immediate
manner two experiment with reflections.
Other administrators stated similar ideas about the ability to replicate or adjust a lesson the next
time as a teacher but noted that the nature of administrative decision making is not often the
same. Participant 5 stated that administrators “really have to understand all the different layers of
impact throughout the organization” while making decisions:
Participant 2 explained his understanding of reflective practice as a process
when you take the time to look at decisions you’ve made . . . to see what went well and
what didn’t go so well and what you could have done better. It is the opportunity to
reflect on your decisions to see what you could do better the next time.
This administrator focused on what Schön (1983, 1987) would call reflection-on-action.
One of the ways that he did this was through Twitter chats. He got responses to help him either
to modify a decision or to make a different decision the next time. He stated that these responses
allowed him to look at his decisions through a different lens.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 57
Administrators make a variety of types of decisions. Some can be modified but others are
final. For those that are final, the reflection-on-action can be used only as a learning experience
when a similar problem arises. However, even if there is a modification because of the reflection,
there is still not a reiteration of the same exact problem to replicate. This supports the rationale
that an administrator’s final decision is more of an intelligent action rather than a cycle of
reflection.
Participant 3 explained his “understanding of reflective practice [as] reflecting back on
lived experiences [of] myself and others . . . to determine what the most likely outcome of an
unpredictable situation.” He explained that these experiences are drawn upon while reflecting.
He recognized that there was still a reactive element to his decision-making style; however, he
was more intentional about how he reflected in the process of deciding after years of
administrative experience. This participant defined three ways in which he used reflective
practice and came up with a decision: consultant, collaborative, or unilateral:
One of the things that has come a long way I think is being clear on what type of decision
I am making and being upfront with myself and all the stakeholders as to what type of
decision I’m making. Is it a consultant type decision where I’m consulting people, but
then I’m truly going to have to make the decision? Is it a collaborative decision where
we’re all going to come to consensus? Or is it just a unilateral decision? I think all of
those have its place, but it’s just about being upfront to all the stakeholders, so we don’t
have any misconceptions where one party felt like it was supposed to be collaborative
and yet it was more of a consultant decision.
Not only did this administrator define his process of decision making as what
Schön (1987) called reflection-on-action; he also defined various ways in which this
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 58
could occur, based the type of decision and the stakeholders who would be affected by
that decision. Grimmett (1989) defined reflection as reconstructing experience in
which the practitioner can “identify and address the social, political, and cultural
conditions that frustrate and constrain self-understanding” (p. 23). This administrator
utilized critical reflection during his decision-making process so that all students were
included:
Certainly with our school socioeconomically we are as diverse as you are ever going to
find in the country and with that the economics also draws at a culture line. I think that
there’s a lot that can be done. There as things like ASB representing all cultures, having
all different stakeholders in your clubs, and empowering students to have a voice and
equal power.
While Participant 3 noted that he wished to seek clarity with others through reflection,
Participant 4 used reflective practice to improve. He stated that “reflective practice is the science
of getting better by reflecting about what you do so that you think about it and you get better.”
He identified protocols to follow to achieve this. This participant was at the district office, so his
decisions were not in isolation but normally made with a team. It was then his job to present the
information to the school board or other administrators. Since he did many presentations in his
position as a district-level administrator, the protocols of which he spoke were more geared to
reflecting on the presentations and then making notes for future presentations. He noted that the
benefit of reflection-on-action was constant improvement. He also stated that he initially thought
through decisions by “getting people smarter than me in the room and bouncing ideas off them.”
This was similar to what Participant 3 labeled consultant decision making. Clarke (1995) called
these reflective conversations and noted that they could be used to make new meaning or prepare
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 59
for future actions. Researchers have explained that peer coaching or mentoring is valuable for
problem solving (Hébert, 2015; Jaeger, 2013; Loughran, 2002; Roth, Masciotra, & Boyd, 1999;
Schön, 1983, 1987). As stated by this administrator, these collaborative conversations were
valuable in a way similar to what researchers described as the benefits of conversations and
problem solving to mentors or peer coaches.
As each of the administrators defined reflective practice differently, there was
consistency in that each included a time in which there was a need for collaboration. Participant
5 explained his
understanding of reflective practice [as] . . . an independent reflection when someone is
reflecting in their own head about things that are happening or about to happen or have
happened. . . . it could be [done] in thought [or] in writing, sometimes on the
whiteboard.”
He defined that as “the independent level.” He then introduced “the critical friend level [as] . . .
people who can be good listeners and ask the questions that build upon thoughts or ideas. He
stated that reflective practice should be “more purposeful.” He explained that there needed to be
a process and time at which people gather to “create systems of engagement.” He explained that
he intentionally got key players into the room to have difficult conversations that eventually
influenced the outcome of a decision. Since this administrator was also at the district office, he
may have had more time to finalize decisions than the administrators at the site level. Getting
“key players” in the room and having meaningful conversations could contribute to questioning
inequities by using a double-loop perspective instead of a single-loop perspective (Bennett,
2001; Bensimon, 2005). These administrators defined reflective practice as an individual process
as well as a collaborative process; however, there was not a discussion of collecting data about
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 60
their practice, reflecting, and making decisions based on this information, as posited by Farrell
(2012) to be effective.
Each of these administrators reported that he was asked to make budgetary decisions and
program decisions that align to the district LCAP and the site and district mission and vision
statements. Tannenbaum et al. (2013) described Dewey’s interpretation of “reflective practice as
incorporating careful consideration, active decision-making, and persistence toward an
unattainable conclusion” (p. 245). Based on some of the mission and vision statements, there
seemed to be a persistence to achieve what was unattainable. For example, “Every child . . .
Every day” was not possible when there were so many factors of influence. However, there were
goals, such as “monitoring attendance” and “prioritizing funding,” that assist with focusing on
every child. Even the LCAP goals were not all met, but then there were revisions to the goals
each year, as shown on the district website. This transparency allowed parents to see which goals
were revised and why. Some of those revisions addressed how ELLs and foster youth would be
better served.
In the LCAP 2015-2016 Annual Update Appendix, a column showed improvement and
how that improvement affected the LCAP goal. One of the noted improvements was
collaboration by the District English Language Advisory Committee (DELAC); the affected
LCAP goals were as follows:
Goal 1, Implementation of Signature Academies. This is a successful program, especially
to prepare students for college and careers. The district is continuing to support and
expand the program.
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Goal 2, College and Career Readiness. The district added actions and services about
college and career preparation and requirements to meet the needs of non-English
speakers.
Goal 3, English Language Arts (ELA). The 2016 LCAP added English Language
Development (ELD) Standards and actions and services to implement the standards.
Goal 4, Science, Technology, Engineering, Math (STEM). The district added actions and
services items that include more professional development on technology use and
teaching strategies, as well as student training on hardware and software use.
Goal 5, Other Courses (Broad Course of Study). The district is evaluating the inclusion of
nutrition programs in physical education classes.
Goal 6, School Climate and Student Engagement. The district is continuing to implement
Positive Behavior Interventions and LCAP 2015-2016 Annual Update Appendix 13
Newport-Mesa Unified School District Table 1. Stakeholder Engagement to Evaluate
2015-2016 Goals Involvement Process Impact on LCAP Support (PBIS) and character
education programs to improve the learning environment. The district is lowering the
nurse-to-student ratio below the Orange County average.
Goal 7, Parent Involvement. The district added actions and services items to increase and
improve communications and support academic achievement, particularly for non-
English-speaking parents.
It seemed that the modifications of LCAP goals in the two districts allowed for areas of
improvement. The CDE outlined the LCAP state priorities in which the term equity is used in
each of the priorities This forced districts and administrators to tie funding to ELLs and foster
youth. Participant 1 explained how some of that funding was used at his site to continue the
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Advanced Via Individual Determination (AVID) program, which teaches skills that support
academic and college readiness. He also explained that he had entered into a partnership with
Project Hope Alliance to assist homeless and foster youth. Participant 3 also stated that he is
using his funding on interventions that were created based on looking at “data points” that he
said went past attendance and reading levels so that he could have a “big picture” of students’
needs.
Collaboration
In addition to administrators stating that they were collaborative in the decision-making
process, they stated that they worked with a mentor or a colleague whom they trusted either to
give a different perspective or to validate the administrator’s thinking. Survey responses showed
that 95.8% stated that they worked with a critical friend to collaborate and reflect, 70.8% stated
that they reflected with a critical friend occasionally, and 25.0% stated that they always reflected
with a critical friend. Rodgers (2002a) explained that meaningful and purposeful reflection
occurred with others for the value of personal and intellectual growth.
This professional growth may occur when collaboration is purposeful and honest.
Participant 1 explained his process of collaborating as occurring through multiple conversations:
Like with our admin team. We have a four-member admin team with assistant principals
and you take time to have everyone weigh in on the decision. Then you have one-on-one
conversations because sometimes people feel like being more candid with one-on-one
conversations. Then I sleep on it and come back the next day and come up with the best
solution to every problem.
Ultimately, the decision belonged to him as the principal. Yet, through these one-on-one
conversations, other perspectives were heard and he was able to have purposeful reflection that
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ended in intellectual growth. This allowed the reflection-on-action, using multiple perspectives
to arrive at the best decision at that time. As this was an experienced administrator, his one-on-
one conversations allowed for honest conversations, which is similar to what Larrivee (2006)
explained as the ethical obligation of educators to discover goodness and truth. This
administrator used these reflective conversations to discover the truths in order to confront
issues.
Given all of the decisions that need to be made by site-level administrators, there is not
always enough time to reflect on those decisions. Participant 2, the elementary principal, stated
that he did not ask as many questions during reflection as he should, but he also went to a more
public place with his reflective practice than the other administrators. He was one of the
youngest administrators interviewed. “A lot of times the questions that are asked on Twitter
make me take a moment to think about why I’ve done what I’ve done.” When he posted on
Twitter some of the decisions that he had made, others commented on those decisions publicly.
This transparency allowed him to reflect critically. “I really do run my ideas across my best
teachers to make sure that I’m not missing any blind spots.” This administrator not only posted
ideas publicly on Twitter; he also shared ideas with critical friends or mentors. This value-added
decision making seemed to be a form of reflection-on-action. This administrator’s reflective
practice was similar to what Larrivee (2008) explained as “an interactive process of change and
development” (p. 344).
These mentors or critical friends were not only there to support the administrators by
listening to ideas; they were also a form of professional development. Participant 3 explained
that he developed as a reflective practitioner because of mentors. He had gained mentors in
various arenas of his professional life. Through his doctoral program and through administrators
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whom he respected, he observed that “people do it well and not do it well.” Loughran (1996)
stated that there is value in the practitioner observing mentors’ struggles with dilemmas and
arriving at solutions to their problems.
The reflective practice of administrators during the decision-making process is done in
isolation, as well as with assistance from mentors or critical friends. Participant 4 explained that
his reflective practice done in isolation consisted of journaling and note taking about a
presentation of data that led to policies or goals, which was reflection-on-action. Yet, he also
described his process of making decisions as collaborative in nature when he received input from
critical friends. He valued the input of others: “I work so much better if I can talk to somebody
else about my thinking.” As a district administrator, he identified critical collaborators as
classified employees, teacher leaders, or other administrators. His district team consists of
classified employees in assessment, teachers on special assignment, and other directors. The
extensive administrative experience seemed to create a sense of comfort with his own identity
and an acceptance that he did not have to have all the answers. Participant 4 had 19 years of
administrative experience, more than any other participant administrator. Beauchamp (2015)
referred to this as identity development that occurs during reflection. As this administrator had
experience with administrative decision making and reflection, he seemed to be self-aware and
comfortable with his own identity and contribution to the decision-making process by allowing
others who did not have as much experience into reflective conversations.
The second district administrator (Participant 5) was not only humble about his decision
making in requiring input from others but strategic and systematic about that collaboration. “For
me, it’s really about the relationship [among colleagues and other professionals during the
[decision-making process] and all the aspects of it.” Dewey (1916/1944) explained that
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experience alone does not create thought but it was the meaning that is constructed from that
experience. “The measure of the value of an experience lies in the perception of relationships or
continuities to which it leads up” (Dewey 1916/1944, p. 140, italics in the original). Participant 5
set up intentional meetings to get the right people (individuals with expertise about the subject)
in the room to discuss problems. He welcomed differing opinions so that all perspectives could
be heard. He observed, “How did somebody respond [to the discussion topics]? Will they
respond? How they engage or will they engage?” He added that he would “create tools, and then
I have what I would call impromptu people, pop-in people.” The time that this process of
reflection-in-action required was described as possibly extending over a year. Most site-level
decisions could not take that long; however, district-wide decisions and implementations could
do so, which allowed for more time to engage in reflective practice for each decision. Having
“continuity [was] central to an understanding of Dewey’s notion of learning” (Rodgers, 2002a, p.
846).
Summary
Some of the administrators seemed to align with Schön’s (1983) description of reflective
practice as reflection-in-action or reflection-on-action, depending on the decision and the impact
of that decision on others. During emergencies, reflection-in-action seemed to involve intuition
based on past education and experience, whereas decisions that did not need an immediate
response seemed to allow for more reflective practice involving collaboration.
The administrators also explained that they reflected after a decision was made to learn
from the experience to apply to the next problem. Valli (1997) explained that there are multiple
processes for reflection. For the purpose of this study, reflective practice was defined as a
deliberation, making choices, and arriving at decisions that could create alternative courses of
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action (Short, 1997; Tannenbaum et al., 2013; Valli, 1997). The administrators explained their
process of reflective practice differently but all reported that they reflected during the decision-
making process. Administrators make decisions daily; some may be rote decisions such as
following rules and regulations, while others may have an impact on educational outcomes.
Jasper et al. (2011) described decision making as intuitive or cognitive. Schön (1983, 1987)
described the process of reflection-in-action as essential to the professional but noted that it is
inconsistent. Each administrator seemed to have an individual process or system of reflection.
According to Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1988), “The role of problem contextualization and
reflection on one’s problem-solving process surfaced as being highly significant to reflective
decision-makers, but has been described in only limited fashion in Schön’s writing” (p. 99). Each
of the participant administrators reported that he used reflective practice to gain insight to
improve the decision-making process. This was supported by Clark et al. (1996) in that they
stated that professionals should be able to improve their decision-making process by using
education and experience and applying this knowledge to a new problem of practice. Four of the
participants were either in the process of obtaining a doctorate or already had one, which would
support that they had formal education. Second, all had at least 5 years of experience. Years of
service or education level did not seem to define the reflective process.
The participant administrators used collaboration with those whose input they valued and
respected to make important decisions. Participant 4, a district office administrator, reported that
he created a team of people whom he described as “smarter than me.” This revealed that he was
aware of his strengths and weaknesses and was strategic about creating a collaborative team that
would assist in his reflective process.
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The high school principal, Participant 1, stated in his interview that, at the beginning of
his career, he thought that he had to have all of the answers. However, he has since realized that
“it is the weaker” leaders who make decisions in isolation and do not allow others to give input.
Schön (1983, 1987) explained the importance of peer coaching during reflective practice. Hébert
(2015) explained the value of mentors in the first years of practice. All interviewees had
someone whom they considered to be a mentor, but the mentoring process did not seem to be
formalized. These relationships seemed to occur organically throughout the administrator’s
career, maybe because there was a trust factor that was created organically that could not be
created by the assigning of a mentor.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What are the perceptions of administrators regarding the
influence of reflective practice on the decision-making process for equitable outcomes? Based on
the data, two themes appeared regarding the perceptions that administrators had about the
influence of reflective practice on their decisions. The first theme addressed time constraints
related to decisions. The second theme indicated that the amount of reflective practice depended
on the impact of the administrative decision on all students, especially Latino students. Decisions
that influenced equitable outcomes were defined as decisions that promoted inclusion.
Time Constraints
The data collected via the survey revealed that all of the administrators reported that they
utilized reflective practice: 66.7% of the 24 administrators who participated in the survey
responded that they always utilized reflective practice to assist with decision making, and 33.3%
responded that they used it occasionally. The extent of reflective practice depended on the type
of decision, as well as the amount of time available to make the decision. All respondents stated
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that they used reflective practice to assist with decision making “when there [were] several
plausible alternative situations.” In addition, 91.3 % stated that they used reflective practice to
assist with decision making “when there [was] little previous precedent.” Only 34.8% stated that
they used reflective practice when time is limited. Furthermore, 87.5% stated that “limited time”
was a condition that obstructed utilization of reflective practice in decision making. These data
indicated that reflective practice was more likely used when the decision allowed time to engage
in the practice. The administrators agreed that time constraints made it difficult to engage in
reflective practice for every decision. Jasper et al. (2011) explained that people make decisions
daily, some of which seem to come intuitively and others that required cognitive reflection.
The theme of time constraints was also reported in the interviews. Participant 1, a site
administrator, stated that one of the best pieces of advice that he had ever received was that
decisions usually did not have to be made right away. This seemed to be a difficult lesson to
learn in his earlier years as an administrator, but the advice seemed to stay with him throughout
his years of experience. He stated that taking time to decide was often “the best path to take; just
sit on a situation and let it marinate before you make the decision.” This administrator stated that
taking time to reflect on a decision was the best way to arrive at the best solution. However, he
noted barriers to this reflective practice and the time available to make decisions:
For the most part, we would have very little control over days and weeks and months. We
can have the best agenda for a meeting and then a student gets hit by a car or there’s
some kind of abuse at home. There is an emergency. So, our days are not controlled by
variables that we control.
These emergencies or unexpected events seemed to take precedent over the
administrator’s day. During these types of decisions, administrators needed to rely more on
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instinct, which relates to what Schön (1987) indicated as the innate process of reflection-in-
action. This “innate process emulates from the competencies one already possesses” (Ferry &
Ross-Gordon, 1998, p. 98). These emergencies distract from meetings that are purposefully
planned. This participant later shared emails that he had sent to staff eliciting their feedback on
how the administration handled an emergency. One of the emails was about a lockdown. He
stated that it was clear that not all the classrooms or staff could hear the all-call system, so he
gave radios to those staff members. During the emergency lock-down, he had no time to consider
alternate possibilities because he had to think of the safety of students while officers were on the
scene. He attempted to communicate with all students and staff via the all-call system but did not
realize that not everyone could hear the all-call. The email to staff allowed him to gather
information after the fact and reflect-on-action. His reflection included input from others, just as
researchers have suggested that reflection is a dialectic process (Brookfield, 1991; Mezirow,
1990; Russell & Munby, 1991). These data revealed that time can affect decisions but that there
are always opportunities to take the time to reflect after the fact to arrive at better decisions the
next time.
While Participant 1 revealed that there is always opportunity to reflect, Participant 2,
another site administrator, stated that the challenge to reflective practice was that there was not
enough time to think meaningfully about every decision. He stated that he was not in favor of
considering every hypothetical solution. He noted that some decisions could not be taken back,
so second guessing each decision was not the most productive way to run a school. However, he
stated that
the benefits outweigh the challenges because if you truly want to be a better
administrator, you need to look at your decisions, warts and all, and realize that we’re all
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 70
a work in progress. That our decisions are not going to be perfect and the only problem
with not reflecting is that you will continue to do the same bad things.
He said that making the same decisions that have been made in the past does not assist with
implementing school change or reform. This changing of cultural values to arrive at decisions
that created fewer inequities was double-loop learning (Bennett, 2001; Bensimon, 2005; Farrell,
2012). This administrator explained that his reflection included looking at “warts and all,” which
indicated that he desired change and understood that some past decisions had not been best for
all students.
By creating a scheduled opportunity for reflection, Participant 3, a site-level
administrator, was able to utilize reflection-on-action. In the survey, he stated that time was a
barrier to reflective practice. The interview data indicated that he intentionally set up time to
reflect. He stated that his reflection was most heavily weighted on post-decision making and that
he tended to reflect best in his office early in the morning when he was doing dissertation work.
His dissertation work was based on creating access for students using College and Career
Technical Education. He had created a pathway of robotics at his middle school that would
continue into the computer science program at the high school. He targeted non-honors track
students. For his underperforming students, he created “systems of intervention” based on his
reflection time. This was similar to what Farrell (2012) explained about reflective practice being
the guide for a practitioner to stop, look, and discover. This participant also stated that he took
the commute to work as an opportunity to reflect. He stated that he reflected as he listened to
audio books about leadership. The audio books seemed to be a catalyst for his reflection and the
alone time in the car seemed to be place where there was time to reflect. Creating these moments
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of time to reflect seemed to allow this site administrator more opportunities to engage in
reflection-on-action.
The district-level administrators also reported feeling the pressure of time. Participant 4
explained that “the tyranny of the urgent, the whirl-wind, the ringing phones, the parent
complaint that comes in, the drug bust, all these other things that you have to do” robbed him of
his time to truly reflect on his practice. He stated that being a principal was a pivotal point in his
administrative career regarding reflecting on his practice. As an assistant principal, he had had to
make decisions “on the fly” and realized that that was not the best practice. As a principal, he
had done better with taking the time to reflect because he “owned my team and my decisions.”
He described his changes in practice through his experience as an administrator who wanted to
work through things rather than just “power through.” Researchers have suggested that reflection
can lead to positive outcomes of confidence, personal empowerment, enhanced professionalism,
and greater self-efficacy (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008; Lieberman & Miller, 2005). By
allowing others to assist in his reflective practice, he seemed to have gained confidence and
enhanced professionalism while making district-level decisions.
Time was also a hindrance to the process of reflective practice for Participant 5, a district-
level administrator. He stated that there was a constant “noise of the urgent” as an administrator.
He stated that he tended to overthink things because he was curious about how others connected.
Like the other district administrator, he intentionally engaged others in conversations to arrive at
solutions. He stated that others expect administrators to know everything, which is impossible
because the scope of the work is too large for one administrator to know everything. He
commented on the challenges of reflective practice, “I think that people especially in our
industry see [reflective practice] as a lower ability and a deficit. We elevate administrators as
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people who are supposed to know it all and be all, like demigods.” He stated that administrators
must put aside the ego and ask questions of others to arrive at the best decision. He made the
connection back to working with a team. This intentional collaboration was done to create the
LCAP goals for his district. The following explained who was involved in the decision-making
process to ensure equitable outcomes:
[District 2] has always valued active stakeholder involvement and participation. During
the annual Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP) update process, existing
stakeholder groups were utilized to provide feedback on District progress. The LCAP
Leadership Team, comprised of District administrators, principals, an assistant principal,
parent, community and bargaining unit representatives, lead this effort. Some members
participated in the development of the initial LCAP during the 2013/14 school year and
others were new as a result of the expansion of parental representation and inclusion of
community members and an assistant principal. The LCAP Leadership Team, District
Advisory Committee (DAC), District English Learner Advisory Committee (DELAC),
Community Forum, Board of Trustees, and site administrators participants reviewed
2015/16 progress and provided input. These stakeholders along with members of the
Superintendent’s Parent Council (SPC), School Site Councils (SSCs), English Learner
Coordinators (teacher site representatives), principals, assistant principals and student
leadership classes provided input on the goals and actions. Based on guidance from the
Orange County Department of Education, revisions were made to the plan. In addition to
in-person meetings, students, parents, staff, and community members were provided the
opportunity to participate in online surveys. The involvement of each stakeholder at the
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28 meetings and 12 surveys helped guide the District’s LCAP priorities for the coming
year.
Larrivee (2008) defined reflective practice as “on-the-job performance resulting from
using a reflective process for daily decision-making and problem-solving” (p. 342). Using this
definition, all of the interviewed administrators participated in reflective practice.
Impact on All Students
The second research question focused on administrative decisions made for equitable
outcomes. The participant administrators revealed their perceptions about the impact of reflective
practice on their decisions as related to equitable outcomes. The theme was that reflective
practice seemed valuable when making decisions that had an impact on all students. The term
inclusivity was used to mean the inclusion of all students, focusing predominately on Latino
students being included into the school culture of predominately White students. In the survey
data, 41.7% of administrators stated that their campus was inclusive of all cultures and 58.3%
stated that they were approaching inclusivity. These data indicated that, even though the
administrators reported that they engaged in reflective practice, more than half admitted that they
had not fully bridged the gap in creating a fully inclusive campus. Specific comments from the
surveys revealed that the administrators believed they “set the tone” and that decisions were
made to “benefit student experiences.” The interview data revealed more about how the
administrators “set the tone” during decision making to benefit all students. The problem with
the perceptions of administrators revealed through survey responses was that there was not a
clear indication of the use of reflective practice in making decisions about equitable outcomes.
Rather, the administrators reported varying levels of inclusivity and use of reflective practice
when making decisions. This is a concern because decisions made from even a well-intentioned
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 74
administrator cannot eradicate inequities in the educational system (Bennett, 2001; Bensimon,
2005).
The administrators noted that they used reflective practice but that not all sites were
entirely inclusive. Participant 1 indicated in the survey that his site was approaching inclusivity.
He stated in the interview that creating a more inclusive campus was one of his passions.
I would like to think that I am a champion for inclusion. An inclusive environment only
leads to bettering students and allowing them to not just survive but to thrive in the global
society. Inclusion has become kind of . . . a dirty word with some people because they
want to just think of ourselves as members of a global Community or Global Society. But
you can’t get away from the fact that, I think for the better, we have a lot of people from
different cultures and ethnicities and different languages in our country. Part of the spirit
of public education and the foundation of public education is to further this democracy
which is built upon a country of immigrants. Inclusion is a big piece of that. Reflective
practitioners lend themselves to hearing a different voice, not just the one voice. Inclusive
environments are critical to their survival of not only schools, but of a democracy.
Participant 1 stated that solutions started with engaging in conversations about inclusivity
with the various components of the school. He stated that he went to his administration, school
site council, teacher teams, and foundation with these conversations. He later shared agendas that
noted this goal on the top, and he shared that he used this goal as a recommendation on teacher
evaluations. He stated that administrators were there to serve and understand “what the
educational needs are and to make that happen.” Argyris (1982) differentiated between single-
loop learning and double-loop learning by explaining that change occurs in double-loop learning
when the values are changed so that actions change. Participant 1 saw the value of inclusion and
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was realistic that his school was not fully inclusive. However, he stated that reflective
parishioners are open to listening to others, which connected to double-loop learning.
The administrators agreed that inclusivity and equitable outcomes were important.
Participant 2 stated that inclusivity was important in schools and that his decisions should focus
on all students. “Oh God, you need to include it, and what world do we live in if we are not
willing to and put inclusion into our schools.” He also stated that administrative decisions have a
significant impact on students. He explained how he promoted equitable outcomes:
It’s your walk and your talk type of a thing. It is making sure the students know the
importance of inclusion. We read a lot of stories that deal with [topics] like empathy,
being visionaries, being dreamers, and realizing other kids can have those types of things.
One of the best books I’ve ever read was Wonder. It was such a powerful book for our
students to hear and read. It showed how somebody very different can still have the same
dreams and goals. We try to bring it into the curriculum and make it part of our character
education.
This elementary school principal focused on instructional practices that could support equity.
Character education was a school-wide initiative to promote kindness and acceptance. However,
the participant did not give examples that were specific to Latino students. Given that reflective
practice allows for revelation of one’s underlying assumptions and reality (Brookfield, 1991;
Mezirow, 1990; Russell & Munby, 1991), this administrator took into consideration his own
values of character building as a way to develop equitable outcomes at a young age. These
administrators may have used their own beliefs to solve problems and come up with the best
administrative action (Bolman & Deal, 1991; Hart, 1990).
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The perceptions of these administrators regarding reflection were revealed through the
interviews. Participant 3 not only explained that inclusivity was important but clarified what he
thought inclusivity meant. “I think that when we’re talking about inclusion were talking gaining
an understanding and accepting and appreciating the understanding of another culture, not just
tolerating that culture.” He identified advantages of equitable outcomes at the center of
administrative reflective practice when making decisions. “I think there’s a lot that can be done.
There are things like ASB representing all cultures, having all stakeholders in your clubs, and
empowering students to have a voice and equal power.” Larrivee (2008) explained that
practitioners who were critically reflective were concerned about equity and social justice.
The administrators agreed that all students should be considered when making decisions,
and Participant 4 explained how this could be done in a classroom and at the district level. He
stated that, as a teacher, “Instead of differentiation by separation, you include everybody in and
give everyone a higher rigor of education.” As a director at the district level, he stated that he
examined results of projects to ascertain whether they worked. As a member of the LCAP
committee, he shared that the 2016-2017 goals had been changed to address the needs of ELLs.
As written in the draft report of the 2016-2017 LCAP:
The eight 2016-2017 goals are substantially the same as 2015-2016 goals but re-ordered
to emphasize the highest district priorities … General changes and additions include the
following:
Re-ordered goals. The order now reflects the district priorities to increase students’
academic achievement, especially the achievement of under-achieving subgroups, with
subordinated goals that contribute to an enhanced learning environment.
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Expansion of the English Language Arts (ELA) goal. This goal now incorporates the
English Language Development framework to support achievement of English learners
(ELs) in all subjects.
Changes to outcome measures. As more extensive and more accurate data has become
available during the 2015-2016 school year, and as the district has had more experience
with new curricula and state standards, some measures have been adjusted to reflect more
realistic, but still challenging, numbers and percentages. Outcome measures have been
added to emphasize increased achievement for subgroups of students achieving below
district averages. Some outcome measures have been deleted or changed as changes in
curricula and standards have been implemented and programs have become well
established and functioning. In some cases, goals and outcome measures state the
maintenance of a level of achievement, rather than an increase. These maintenance
outcomes are included to address all metrics that the state requires for each priority. This
LCAP includes all state required metrics in the outcome measures, with several outcomes
relying on data produced and tracked by the CDE, and other outcomes based on state-
recommended district data.
Coordination with the Local Education Agency Plan (LEAP) and Single Plans for
Student Achievement (SPSAs). The LEAP describes [District 1’s] goals, services, and
expenditures under federal Title I and Title III laws to support the achievement of low-
income students (those eligible for free and reduced price lunches) and ELs. SPSAs
describe each individual school’s plans for increasing student achievement, based on each
school’s unique student population. The LCAP, LEAP, and SPSAs are now coordinated
to focus the entire district on a common path to increase student achievement.
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These changes came about because of the collaborative conversations of stakeholders and the
parent, teacher, and student survey data. Participant 4 could review those data with his
assessment team and make proposals for change.
The amount of knowledge obtained by the administrators during their reflective practice
allowed them to make better decisions about equitable outcomes. Participant 5 focused on data
as a means to assist with the reflective process. “If you establish a process in which people are
reflective and use data and information in the right ways, then you can more openly talk about
things such as how student ethnicity and race plays into the learning environment.” He stated that
administrators must understand the layers of impact that their decisions have throughout the
organization. Dewey (1938) explained that education assists people in habits of reflection to be
able to engage in intellectual thought. One impact of these reflective conversations with
stakeholders was revealed through Goal 2 of the LCAP: “to support academic success in the core
program, English learners, foster youth, low income, and special education students will be
provided with additional supports to ensure equal access, engagement, and high levels of
achievement.”
Summary
The district administrators seemed to focus more on reflection-in-action related to the
theme of time, whereas the site administrators focused more on reflection-on-action. This could
be because there is more time for district administrators to develop the types of decisions that
they make and less time for site administrators, given the number of decisions that must be made
and the emergencies that arise at the site level. Schön’s (1983) epistemology of practice
explained that people who participate in reflective practice modify future action. This theme of
time constraints may be another reason why administrative reflective practice was not as
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 79
formalized as the literature suggests it should be. Furthermore, the survey responses to
Question 9 suggested inconsistencies in the type of administrative training offered by the
districts. The reports of what training was offered ranged from “none” to “ongoing professional
develop meetings.” The inconsistencies in the reflective practice may have also occurred
because the protocols used by each of the administrators may have had constraints. For example,
Participant 3 suggested that he had time to reflect while driving and listening to a book on tape.
The multiple tasks going on at the same time may have distracted from the purposeful thought of
reflective practice.
The data indicated that 41.7% of the administrators reported that their sites were inclusive
of all cultures. Since the survey data did not reveal the sites at which these administrators were
located, there was no way to find specific data to validate these responses. However, the data
reported by CDE indicated that, in 2015-16, Latino students made up the largest number of high
school students in Orange County, California, and had the second highest dropout rate. The rates
of students in each subgroup were as follows: Hispanic/Latino 7.4, Asian 2.4, American Indian
5.3, African American 9.4, and White 3.8. The District 1 rates of students in each subgroup were
as follows: Hispanic/Latino at 6.2, Asian at 2.7, American Indian at 0, African American at 7.1,
and White at 2.0. The District 2 feeder high school district rates were as follows: Hispanic/Latino
4.2, Asian 0.5, American Indian 2.5, African American 2.0, and White 2.1. Based on the
findings, no correlation was made to connect administrative reflective practice to the 2015-2016
dropout rates or the 2008-2009 matriculation rates; however, these data indicated disparity
between students of color and their White peers.
The perceptions of these administrators may not be the same as the reality based on what
researchers have indicated as a need for a paradigm shift to promote equitable outcomes for all
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 80
students (Iverson, 2007; López, 2003; Marzano et al., 2005). One of the administrators stated that
he would make the same choices for all students; however, this does not take into consideration
the inequities that currently exist for Latino students in Orange County and seemed to be single-
loop learning. Milner (2009) postulated that teachers should be taught to not be color blind or
culture blind, which could be similar for administrators. Because there was inconsistent
administrative preparation reported in the survey, there may be a need for reflective practice
training that recognizes current inequities. The other four administrators shared that creating
equitable outcomes was a journey that took time and constant discussion to change the school
culture, which revealed a basic understanding at least. While each of the administrators
explained that inclusivity was important, there may be a need for a more systematic way to
evaluate disproportionate student outcomes.
Researchers have asserted that reflective practice is a deliberate cognitive ability that
allows for doubt and perplexity before a solution is made (Clark et al., 1996; Dewey, 1938;
Farrell, 2012; Hatton & Smith, 1995; Schön, 1983, 1987). Based on the collected data, there
seems to be a perplexity that is focused on by each administrator and that is the stakeholders and
the number of students who are affected by a decision. Schön’s (1983) epistemology of practice
explained that people who participate in reflective practice tend to modify future action.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 81
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
This study addressed the decision-making process of school administrators and the role of
reflective practice in that process. This problem was important to address because the decisions
made by administrators may contribute to equity issues being addressed by these administrators.
One major equity issue that was studied in Orange County, California, was the disparity between
Latino students and their peers in rates of matriculation to postsecondary education upon high
school graduation. These administrators in Orange County made decisions about site and district
goals and LCAP priorities of ensuring that all students have access to courses that prepare them
for college or career.
This study identified the process of reflection by site and district administrators in
making decisions that affect student learning and access to activities that were deemed by these
administrators to create a more inclusive environment. Through the identified process,
information emerged to suggest a need for a more systematic approach to reflection that will
support the decision-making process of administrators. The following research questions guided
the study:
1. How do administrators who reveal that they use reflective practice describe the
process?
2. What are the perceptions of administrators regarding the influence of reflective
practice on the decision-making process for equitable outcomes?
I conducted qualitative research by using interviews, surveys, and artifacts with southern
California administrators who volunteered to participate to identify administrators’
understanding of reflective practice and how that affects equitable outcomes for students.
Because I was interested in the perceptions of administrators, self-reported surveys and
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 82
interviews were the best means of gathering that information. I then triangulated data using
LCAP goals, school goals, and CDE reported data.
Significance of Findings
Rogers (2002a) summarized the meaning and purpose of reflection per Dewey (1933) as
a process of learning and deeper understanding that is systematic, occurs with others, and for is
intended to enhance personal and intellectual growth. The themes that emerged from the data
were similar to that definition of reflective practice; however, there seemed to be inhibitors to
school administrators following reflective practice in a way that would contribute to making
decisions about equitable outcomes. The interviewed administrators aligned with Schön’s (1983)
description of reflective practice, defined as reflection-in-action or reflection-on-action,
depending on the decisions to be made and the impact of those decisions on others. During
emergencies, reflection-in-action was guided more by intuition, based on past education and
experience, whereas decisions that did not need an immediate response allowed for more
reflective practice and involved collaboration.
Administrative reflective practice was not as systematic as was postulated by Rodgers
(2002a). The administrators explained their personals systems for reflective practice; each
system and protocol was unique to the participating administrator. This is an important finding in
that, even though each administrator stated that he used reflective practice during the decision-
making process, there was no universal way in which administrative reflective practice was used
to contribute to the decision-making process.
However, administrative reflective practice occurred with others, as postulated by
Rodgers (2002a). One of the emergent themes was that all participants used collaboration with
those whose input they valued and respected to make important decisions. Some of these
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 83
collaborative experiences included a mentor, similar to the peer coaching introduced by Schön
(1983, 1987). Many of these mentors were established in an authentic way through each
administrator’s experience, just as Hébert (2015) explained the value of mentors in the first years
of practice.
The intent of administrative reflective practice was to enhance personal and intellectual
growth, as postulated by Rodgers (2002a). Each of the administrators reported using reflective
practice to gain insight and that improved the decision-making process. This was supported by
Clark et al. (1996) as they maintained that professionals should improve their decision-making
process through education and experience and could apply this knowledge to a new problem of
practice. The administrators used reflective practice for deeper understanding about decisions to
apply to the next problem.
Schön (1983, 1987) described the process of reflection-in-action as essential to the
professional but noted that the process was inconsistent. This may support the essence of
administrative reflection as a mode of professional development, which allows administrators to
improve their decision-making process. Jasper et al. (2011) described decision making as
intuitive or cognitive. Each participant administrator seemed to have a personal process or
system of reflection but all included intuition and well as processed thinking, depending on the
decision to be made. As stated by Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998), problem contextualization was
significant during the problem-solving process as it pertained to the reflective process.
The data indicated that the perceptions of these administrators and how inclusive their
campuses were may not be the same as the reality reflected in graduation and matriculation rates.
There is a need for a paradigm shift to promote equitable outcomes for all students (Iverson,
2007; López, 2003; Marzano et al., 2005). The data reported by the CDE indicated that, in 2015-
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 84
2016, Latino students made up the largest number of high school students in Orange County and
had the second-highest dropout rate. The dropout rates were as follows: Hispanic/Latino at 7.4,
Asian at 2.4, American Indian at 5.3, African American at 9.4, and White at 3.8. The rates for
District 1 were as follows: Hispanic/Latino at 6.2, Asian at 2.7, American Indian at 0, African
American at 7.1, and White at 2.0. The rates for District 2 were as follows: Hispanic/Latino at
4.2, Asian at 0.5, American Indian at 2.5, African American at 2.0, and White at 2.1. The results
showed no correlation between administrative reflective practice and 2015-2016 dropout rates or
2008-2009 matriculation rates. However, the data indicated a disparity between students of color
and their White peers. Milner postulated that educators should be taught not to be color blind or
culture blind. Since inconsistent administrative preparation was reported in the surveys, there
may be a need for reflective practice training that recognizes inequities. Also, the administrators
reported that creating equitable outcomes was a journey that requires time. However, the LCAPs
and school goals revealed an awareness and a progression toward a more inclusive educational
experience, especially for ELLs and economically disadvantaged students.
Implications
Analysis of the data showed that these administrators reported that they engaged in
reflective practice during the decision-making process. The interview responses showed that the
process was not defined in the same way as reported in the literature, based on the seminal work
by Dewey (1938). Administrative reflective practice was more closely defined as reflection-in-
action and reflection-on-action (Schön, 1983, 1987), depending on the type of decision, time
constraints, and the impact on others. These findings provide theoretical, practical, and future
implications.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 85
The findings revealed a research gap about administrative reflective practice. Much of the
educational research about reflective practice is focused on teacher reflective practice (Clark et
al., 1996; Dewey, 1938; Farrell, 2012; Hatton &Smith, 1995; Schön, 1983, 1987) rather than on
administrative reflective practice. This practice is a special form of problem solving that utilizes
a deliberate cognitive process to lead to best possible outcomes. Farrell (2012) explained the
importance of reflective practice as a way to know where to go in the future. Since
administrative decision making could have an impact on educational policy and funding, the role
of reflective practice on administrative decision making for equitable outcomes could make a
difference for future generations. All of the participant administrators reported that they used
reflective practice to make decisions but their description of the process did not align fully with
the definitions in the literature. The data indicated no clear training process for reflective practice
or collaborative partnerships to support administrative decision making. Thus, there seemed to be
a need for more research to define training for administrative reflective practice and how it can
support decision making for equitable outcomes.
Reflective practice is a complex and rigorous intellectual and emotional process that must
be taught and takes time to perfect (Dewey, 1938; Rodgers, 2002a). Given that the process for
administrative practice seems to be different for each administrator, there may be a need for
training on how to reflect effectively on various decisions. These findings support the need for
administrative training programs to include reflective practice during the decision-making
process to support equitable outcomes for all students, especially Latino students. As each of the
administrators interviewed participated in administrative training programs that may be
outdated, it may be beneficial to research whether the newer administrative training programs
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 86
include mentoring or reflective practice to assist with administrative decision making as it
pertains to equal access.
Limitations of the Study
Several limitations of the current study are acknowledged. The methodology used in the
study was the primary limitation. While a qualitative study can explore perceptions and lived
experiences of respondents, generalizability of the findings to the population under study is
limited because of the small number of participants. Moreover, the findings may have been
limited through sole use of interviews that considered only the views of the five administrators in
Orange County, California, regarding their use of reflective practice. Also, this study is limited
by the criteria applied in selecting those participants. While the study examined the perceptions
of administrators, perceptions were limited to one principal from a high school, one principal
from a middle school, and one principal from an elementary school. The other two participants
were district-level administrators from different districts. This makes it difficult to generalize
their perceptions to those of other administrators who may engage in reflective practice. To
improve on the weaknesses, recommendations for future research are offered.
Given that this study was conducted using qualitative means, there may have been a
stronger connection made to administrative reflective practice and the impact on Latino students
if the research was done with mixed methods. This procedure would have allowed for multiple
measures to enable making correlations using data such as students enrolled in rigorous courses
that prepare them for postsecondary education rather than just meeting high school graduation
requirements. There may be other indicators of inequities that may measure student
connectedness as well as performance that was not addressed through the triangulated data
collected. Administrators also mentioned that they reflected more when the impact of their
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 87
decision affected more students. With qualitative data, this impact could have been evaluated
more clearly by linking the goal to the financial allocation and then the measurable outcome.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future studies could consider modifying the research methodology. Researchers may
consider utilizing a quantitative methodology to draw stronger conclusions through correlation
and other statistical relationships among the study variables. Specifically, future researchers
could utilize a correlational research design to measure the relationship between administrative
reflective practice and its effect on equitable outcomes for students. Future researchers should
consider using a mixed-methods design to gain understanding through the qualitative part of the
research, which would lead to increased generalizability of the findings.
Each administrator reported having a mentor or a critical friend that assisted in the
decision-making process and reflective practice. Further research is needed to explore the
possible benefits of a formalized mentor program that might allow young administrators to be
successful in their first years. Administrators who reflect can understand the complexities of a
problem and improve problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking (Short & Rinehart,
1993).
Recommendations for Future Practice
Administrative training programs could utilize these findings to incorporate mentorships
and reflective practice. By doing so, they could make the reflective practice of administration
clearly defined so the decision-making process can be improved. Establishment of mentorship
programs could assist new administrators to reflect in a systematic way rather than an organic
way. Based on the findings, administrators should consider setting aside time to invest in
reflective practice to improve their decision-making process. There may also be a need to create
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 88
what Bensimon et al (2004) called data teams to evaluate the multiple influences of inequities
that may impact administrative decisions. In doing so, administrators may better select which
data to use when reflecting. Because graduation rates in Orange County did not seem to indicate
a huge disparity, it may be necessary for administration to use numbers of students in rigorous
A-G approved courses, such as Advanced Placement or honors.
Conclusion
This work may encourage others to develop a systematic approach for administrators to
participate in reflective practice to support the decision-making process. It would be helpful for
administrators to become aware of their own values that may affect their decision making.
Factors that seemed to inhibit the ability to participate in reflective practice included time and the
effects of the decisions on others. These inhibitors have the potential to affect policy and funding
allocations. These factors will continue to create pressure on school and district administrators,
so they should be taken into consideration when formulating a process. Mentoring was practiced
and recommended by these administrators, and the process could be formalized to support
administrators in making decisions that affect the equity issues discussed in this study.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 89
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ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 103
APPENDIX A
ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY
1. What is the highest degree you have received?
Bachelor degree
Master degree
Doctorate degree
2. What is your current administrative title?
_________________________________
3. About how many years have you been in your current position?
Less than 1 year
At least 1 year but less than 3 years
At least 3 years but less than 5 years
At least 5 years but less than 10 years
10 years or more
4. About how many years have you been an administrator?
At least 1 year but less than 3 years
At least 3 years but less than 5 years
At least 5 years but less than 10 years
At least 10 years but less than 15 years
At least 15 years but less than 20 years
20 or more years
5. Reflecting back on the transition from teaching to administration, what were some strategies
you utilized to assist with a successful transition?
_________________________________
6. What type of community is your school district?
Suburban community
City or urban community
Rural community
Other (please specify)
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 104
7. What is the enrollment of your school or district?
Enrollment: 500 - 1000
Enrollment: 1001 - 1500
Enrollment: 1501 - 2000
Enrollment: 2001 - 2500
Enrollment: 2501 - 3000
More than 3000
8. What grade levels does your school or district serve?
K-5
K-8
K-12
6-8
9-12
9. What administrative training is offered by your district?
_________________________________________________
10. How are you held accountable for the decisions you make?
_________________________________________________
11. How often do you utilize reflective practice to assist with decision-making?
Always
Occasionally
Rarely
Never
12. In which circumstances or situations do you use reflective practice to assist with decision-
making? (Check all that apply)
When there is a high degree of certainty and verifiable information/evidence.
When there is little previous precedent.
When variables are less known or facts/information is limited
When there are several plausible alternative solutions
When time is limited
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 105
13. What kind of conditions have obstructed your utilization of reflective practice in decision-
making? (Check all that apply)
Under stress
Feeling overwhelmed
Limited time
Lack of confidence
Other (please specify)
14. When using reflective practice to make decisions, where have you found it functions
best?
At the beginning of the process when I am trying to assess the available options.
At the end when I am trying to sort through the information and analyze the process.
Varies depending on the problem or issue.
Other (please specify)
15. Do you utilize a critical friend to collaborate and reflect with?
Yes
No
16. How often do you reflect with a critical friend?
Always
Occasionally
Rarely
Never
17. When reflecting with a critical friend, what is the benefit?
_________________________________________________
18. Would you consider your campus to be…
Inclusive of all cultures
Segregated
Approaching inclusivity
19. Do you feel that your decisions make a difference on the inclusivity on campus? If so, how?
_________________________________________________
20. Thank you for taking time to complete this survey. Please feel free to add any additional
comments that you feel are relevant to this survey.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 106
21. Would you be willing to be contacted for a follow-up interview related to this topic?
Yes
No
22. Thank you for your interest in being contacted for a follow-up interview. Please email
Jennifer Hays at haysj@usc.edu to schedule your interview.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 107
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL AND TABLE
Introduction (Appreciation, Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity,
Consent to Participate, Permission to Record):
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer some of my questions. The interview should take about 30-45 minutes, does that
work for you?
Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer
any questions you might have about participating. I am currently working on my dissertation at
USC. The primary purpose of this study is to understand how administrators make decisions.
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this
means is that the nature of my questions are not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments
on how you are performing as a teacher. None of the data I collect will be shared with other
teachers, the principal, or the district.
Might you have any questions about the study before we get started? If you don’t have
any (more) questions, I would like to have your permission to begin the interview. I have
brought a recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. May I
also have your permission to record our conversation?
Reflective Practice -
1. Please describe your understanding of reflective process.
2. In what ways, if any, do you engage in reflective practice?
3. Describe how you reflect on your administrative responsibilities.
4. When do you reflect?
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 108
5. Where do you reflect?
6. How often do you reflect on your decisions as a leader?
7. What does reflective practice look like to you?
8. How do you define reflective practice?
9. How did you evolve and develop into a reflective administrator practitioner?
10. How do you believe administrative reflective practice is different than teacher
reflective practice?
11. What do you believe are the benefits of reflective practice?
12. What do you believe are the challenges of reflective practice?
13. What strategies or techniques do you utilize to further develop your reflection
process?
14. What are some hindrances that may prevent you from reflecting on your
administrative responsibilities?
Decision Making
15. How would you describe your decision-making style?
16. What do you believe is the purpose of reflective practice in decision-making?
17. Please describe the thought process you engage in during decision-making.
18. What questions do you ask yourself prior to making a decision?
19. How do you incorporate reflective practice during your decision-making?
20. What questions do you ask yourself during the course of making a decision?
21. How do you incorporate the practice of reflection after a decision has been made?
22. What questions do you ask yourself after a decision has been made?
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 109
23. Could you tell me an example of a decision where you utilized reflective practice and
how the process assisted with your decision-making?
24. What have you learned about yourself, your skills, and attitudes over the course of
time by using reflective practice in decision-making?
Equitable Outcomes
25. What is your philosophy of inclusion in school?
26. How do you ensure equitable outcomes for all students?
27. What is your belief about the role that reflective practice plays in establishing these
equitable outcomes?
28. How often do you utilize reflective practice when creating an action plan for
promoting equity, especially for Latino/a students?
29. What strategies have you implemented to demonstrate progress on your goals for
promoting equity?
30. What challenges, if any, do you face in implementing your goals for equitable
outcomes?
Closing Question (Anything else to add)
31. I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that
I might not have covered?
V. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):
Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate
your time and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my
study. If I find myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact
you, and if so, if email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study.
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 110
VII. Special Considerations and Probing
ii. Probing Statements/Questions (it is a good idea to pre-manufacture some
potentially helpful probing statements/questions):
That is interesting, could you please tell me a little bit more about…
I want to make sure I understand, could you please tell me what you mean by…
I am wondering how you were feeling in that moment?
1. Research and Interview Questions Table
Research Question Interview Question
1. How do administrators
who reveal they use
reflective practice describe
the process?
Q1-14
2. What are the perceptions
of administrators regarding
the influence of reflective
practice on the decision-
making process for equitable
outcomes?
Q6, Q15-30
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 111
APPENDIX C
INTERVIEW QUESTION AND RESPONSE FORM
Questions Answers
Please describe your understanding of reflective process.
In what ways, if any, do you engage in reflective practice?
Describe how you reflect on your administrative
responsibilities.
When do you reflect?
Where do you reflect?
How often do you reflect on your leadership?
What does reflective practice look like to you?
How do you define reflective practice
How did you evolve and develop into a reflective
administrator practitioner
How do you believe administrative reflective practice is
different than teacher reflective practice
What do you believe are the benefits of reflective practice
What do you believe are the challenges of reflective practice
What strategies or techniques do you utilize to further
develop your reflection process
What are some hindrances that may prevent you from
reflecting on your administrative responsibilities
How would you describe your decision-making style
What do you believe is the purpose of reflective practice in
decision-making
Please describe the thought process you engage in during
decision-making
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 112
What questions do you ask yourself prior to making a
decision
How do you incorporate reflective practice during your
decision-making
What questions do you ask yourself during the course of
making a decision
How do you incorporate the practice of reflection after a
decision has been made
What questions do you ask yourself after a decision has been
made
Could you tell me an example of a decision where you
utilized reflective practice and how the process assisted with
your decision-making to create equitable outcomes for all
students?
What have you learned about yourself, your skills, and
attitudes over the course of time by using reflective practice
in decision-making?
What is your belief about the role that reflective practice
plays in establishing policies and funding allocation?
What is your philosophy about inclusion?
What is your belief about the role that reflective practice
plays in establishing inclusion on campus?
How often do you utilize reflective practice when creating an
action plan for creating equitable student outcomes?
What strategies have you implemented to demonstrate
progress on mandated accountability LCAP goals as it
pertains to Latino/a students?
How has utilizing reflective practice impacted your decision-
making with regards to LCAP goals
What challenges, if any, do you face incorporating your
goals?
ADMINISTRATOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: LATINO YOUTH 113
APPENDIX D
DATA SOURCE AND ANALYSIS GUIDE
Research Questions Data Source Data Analysis
1. How do administrators who
reveal they use reflective
practice describe the process?
Survey
Interview
Artifacts
Thematic Analysis
2. What are the perceptions of
administrators regarding the
influence of reflective practice
on the decision-making
process for equitable
outcomes?
Survey
Interview
Artifacts
Thematic Analysis
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
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Hays, Jennifer
(author)
Core Title
Administrator reflective practice to support Latino youth in Orange County public schools
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
06/29/2017
Defense Date
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Publisher
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), Roach, John (
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