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Examining the use of mnemonic devices in instructional practices to improve the reading skills of third grade public school students with learning disabilities

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Examining the use of mnemonic devices in instructional practices to improve the reading skills of third grade public school students with learning disabilities

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Content Running head: EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 1
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES IN INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES TO
IMPROVE THE READING SKILLS OF THIRD GRADE PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS
WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

by
Michelle M. Heard

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017

Copyright 2017 Michelle M. Heard

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 2
Acknowledgements
There have been many challenges throughout this journey that have tested the core of my
being. Thankfully, I am blessed to have the love and prayerful support of family and friends that
has strengthened my resolve to complete this doctoral program. To my Heavenly Father I give
thanks for opening the door of opportunity that allowed me to participate in this life-changing
experience. To my sons, Steven and Sean, you are the reason I aspire to be the best I can be. My
love for both of you is limitless. To my mother, the late Evelyn E. Perkins, I thank you for being
an example of tenacity and courage. Your spirit will always live in my heart and I dedicate this
achievement to you. To my sisters, Danessa and Trudi, thank you for your support and for the
loving bond of sisterhood that we share. To James, thank you for being my 'rock' throughout this
arduous journey. Finally, to my grandchildren, nieces, nephew, Neetee, Queen, Mom Sublett, all
my family members and friends, I love you and I am grateful for your support.
I acknowledge my dissertation committee members, Dr. Patricia Tobey chair, Dr. Patrick
Crispen and Dr. Artineh Samkian. Thank you for your guidance and insight in the discussions of
my doctoral endeavor. Your valuable feedback on my numerous rewrites helped to mold and
refine my dissertation document. I also acknowledge Dr. Guadalupe Montano and USC faculty
members, particularly those professors I was personally privileged to learn from in the courses
taken throughout the doctoral program. I am deeply honored to be one of the recipients of your
excellent instruction and vast knowledge. Thank you one and all.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 3
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 7
Background of the Problem 8
What are Mnemonics? 11
New Standards in Third Grade Reading Skills 11
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 15
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations, Assumptions, and Delimitations 17
Definition of Key Terms and Concepts 19
Organization of the Study 21
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
History of Learning Disabilities 22
Segregation or Inclusion 23
Inclusion of LD Students in Mainstream Classrooms 26
Research-Based Reading Instruction for LD Students 28
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Section 504 29
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 30
The Differences between the ADA, Section 504 Plans and IDEA 31
Mnemonics 31
History of Mnemonic Devices 32
Visual Mnemonics 33
Keyword Mnemonics 33
Recent Mnemonic Research 35
Cognitive Theory 39
Paivio's Dual Coding Theory 39
Performance Assessments and Neuroscience Bases of Learning 40
Summary 44
Chapter Three: Methods 45
Purpose of the Study 45
Research Design 46
Rationale 48
Research Questions 50
Population and Sample 50
Setting 52
Data Collection and Instrumentation 54
Research Question One 55
Research Question Two 56
Data Analysis 58
Summary 60

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 4
Chapter Four: Findings 61
Descriptive Characteristics of the Participants 61
Themes in the Findings 64
Student Motivation 65
Teacher Creativity 72
Visual Representations in Instructional Delivery 77
Findings by Research Questions 81
Research Question One 81
Research Question Two 88
Summary 95
Chapter Five: Discussion 99
Purpose, Significance and Methods 101
Themes in the Findings 104
Recommendations for Practice 109
Fidelity in Implementation of Mnemonic Strategies 114
Conclusions 116
References 119
Appendix A: Institutional Review Board Approval 129
Appendix B: Semi-Structured Interview Protocol 130
Appendix C: Teacher Informed Consent Form 134
Appendix D: Case Study Codebook 136
Appendix E: End of Unit Reading Comprehension Assessment for Ms. ZK’s 2
nd
-3
rd
Grade
Combination Special Day Class 139
Appendix F: Writing Summary Document from Greenbox Academy-3
rd
Grade 140
Appendix G: Spotlight Elementary ELA Student Performance Report Unit 2 141
Appendix H: Third Grade Reading Lesson Plan at Greenbox Academy Using Mnemonic
Strategies 142

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 5
List of Tables
Table 1: Example of the Common Core Essential Elements 13
Table 2: NAEP 2015 Reading and Math Assessment Scores-LD Students 26
Table 3: Description of Three Mnemonic Techniques and Systems 37
Table 4: Teacher-Created Acronym Mnemonic Tool for Learning Capitalization Rules 74
Table 5: Teacher-Created Synonym-Antonym Acrostic Mnemonic Learning Tool 79
Table 6: Assessment: ELA- Third Grade Benchmark Unit 2 84

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 6
Abstract
This qualitative case study explored visual and letter mnemonic intervention in teacher
lesson planning and instructional approaches as a supportive device to enhance the literacy skills
of public school third graders identified with learning disabilities. High-stakes testing and
accountability requirements demand the need for literacy instruction that improves student
performance while meeting the diverse needs of all learners. Learning disabled (LD) students
struggling with word recognition, vocabulary development, and decoding skills have continued
to score significantly lower than their peers without disabilities on national and local assessments
of basic level reading achievement. This study focused on the literacy lesson planning and
delivery of instructional practices of two third grade educators in two urban K-6 school sites. In
one of the selected school sites, the students with learning disabilities are mainstreamed in a
general education third grade classroom. In the other selected school site, the LD students are in
a special education classroom. Descriptive analysis identified recurring patterns and themes such
as student motivation, teacher creativity in lesson planning, and visual representations in
instructional delivery methods. Furthermore, this study discusses the implications of increased
LD student engagement when mnemonics were included in the literacy presentations of the
participants. Paivio's dual coding theory provided the conceptual framework for this study based
on the supposition that human cognition involves the processing of two mental codes, a verbal
and non-verbal coding system to understand and recall new and prior knowledge using concrete
and abstract images in instructional approaches. The data collected supported the interpretation
of the findings focused on understanding the central phenomenon of mnemonic intervention.
Keywords: mnemonic strategies, learning disabled, high stakes testing, literacy lessons

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 7
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
“Every child in America deserves a world-class education… This effort will require the skills
and talents of many, but especially our nation’s teachers, principals, and other school leaders."
(President Barack Obama, March 2010, in A Blueprint for Reform-
The Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, p.1)

In today’s society, the inability to read proficiently directly impacts educational and life
consequences and is considered the impetus for students’ dropping out of school, getting referred
to special education classes, and being required to repeat an academic year (CDE, 2013).
According to the 1999 California Special Education Reading Task Force Initiative, the
fundamental responsibility of all educators is teaching children to read. Although many
education leaders agree that a student’s ability to read and understand various texts is a critically
important skill required for academic and life success, Connor, Spencer, Day, Giuliani,
Ingebrand, McLean, and Morrison (2014) reported that more than 70% of public school learners
reach the fourth grade unable to comprehend grade level reading material proficiently.
Literacy instruction research conducted by Morrison, Bachman and Connor (2005)
reported that 30% to 40% of children will have significant difficulty when learning to read and
suggest that one of the more important sources of influence on student’s literacy development is
the classroom instruction they receive. Additionally, Morrison, Bachman, and Connor (2005)
contend that struggling readers with learning disabilities (LD) often have difficulty processing
and remembering words they have learned in one context because they are unable to transfer
their understanding and recognition of the vocabulary used in a text to connect the meaning of
the word with their prior knowledge.
According to Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) mnemonic devices have been shown to
improve student word recognition, decoding and encoding skills because they are designed to
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 8
stimulate human memory sensory systems through the use of visual, verbal and non-verbal
representations which help students learn to cue their brain to recall information. This
qualitative case study will apply Scruggs, Mastropieri, and Marshaks’ (2010) approach to
observe the behavior of the participant educators’ in the development and implementation of
reading and writing lesson plans and literacy instructional practices incorporating mnemonic
techniques in the context of their classrooms at Spotlight Elementary and Greenbox Academy
(pseudonyms). Interpretations of the findings provided a clearer understanding about the
mnemonic intervention that was implemented and how the participants created the mnemonic
tools included in the unit literacy plans observed by the researcher in this study. Utilizing
mnemonic instructional methods designed to increase the recall of prior knowledge as well as the
comprehension of new information presented to the LD third grade students, pictures, vocabulary
graphic organizers, and acronym charts were developed by the participants in order to increase
student understanding of the literacy material
Background of the Problem
Past research studies on cognitive development have provided strong evidence that the
reading comprehension capabilities of LD students may benefit from the use of mnemonic
techniques designed to support the improvement of memory and encoding capabilities (Gagne,
1985; Mastropieri, Sweda, & Scruggs, 2000). Gagne (1985) suggested that the following results
can be attributed to the improvement of LD students’ memory skills. First, reading proficiency is
greatly increased when students are able to encode information because it makes it easier to
retrieve the knowledge from memory when needed at later times. Next, a mnemonic strategy
utilizes a process that associates mental constructs which can be remembered easily in order to
visualize the data to be remembered or the recognition of a word in unfamiliar texts. Finally, a
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 9
student’s memory skills, in relation to learning and understanding subject matter, directly impact
his or her academic performance on assessments because the outcomes are dependent upon
information encoding and retrieval skills.
The inclusion of LD pupils in mainstream classrooms, according to Spencer (2011), now
demands higher learning and comprehension of literary texts from various genres aligned to
common core standards for both general education and LD students at each grade level. The
2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) increased the need to ensure that LD
students make achievements in the same general education curriculum as their non-disabled
peers. Therefore, Taormina-Weiss (2012) explained that a student with a learning disability takes
the same tests as his or her general education classmates and is expected to have the ability to
recall facts and perform at grade level or above on state developed assessments.
The inclusion of students identified with learning disabilities (LD) in regular classrooms
requires all educators to be prepared to provide effective reading instructional lessons that meet
the diverse needs of all struggling readers. According to Taormina-Weiss (2012), educators may
need additional training in order to expand their knowledge about supportive instructional lesson
planning and delivery approaches. Particularly instructional methods that include modeling
strategies focused on strengthening the learner’s ability to link the information he or she is
learning to knowledge they already possess in their long-term memory.
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, 2015) data reported a 41%
achievement gap in basic reading levels between LD fourth grade students and their nondisabled
peers. Basic reading level performance for fourth-grade students, according to the NAEP (2015),
is defined as a learner who is able to locate relevant information in the provided texts on the
assessment, make inferences, and use his or her grade-level understanding of the text to identify
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 10
supportive details found in the passages provided on the test. Approximately 600 LD students
were tested in 2015 and 67% scored below the basic level in reading achievement as compared to
26% of their peers without disabilities (NAEP, 2015).The NAEP report measures academic
trends as part of the evaluation system for student performance at the national, state, and local
levels. Monitoring the progress of the country’s educational system allows continuous
examination of critical gaps in student achievement that need to be addressed. This data is
particularly important because there has been no statistical improvement in the basic level
reading percentages of LD students tested in this category since the last NAEP report in
2013.Without administrative decisions to examine innovative reading instructional strategies and
devices, the Common Core Standards (CCS) and performance goals for all students to be
prepared to succeed in college, career, and life when they graduate from high school may be
unlikely because many LD pupils do not possess competent literacy skills (NAEP, 2015).
Because there is paucity of research exploring how educators of LD students adapt their
literacy instruction to meet the diverse needs of the students they teach and why the use of visual
and keyword mnemonics in the context of the classroom may support the traditional reading
instructional practices, Connor et al. (2014) contended that there is a need for ongoing studies
that examine the educators’ lesson planning strategies, literacy instruction and delivery
approaches. LD and general education students with poor reading skills may benefit from further
investigation of literacy instructional approaches which could provide critical information about
the understanding of an educator’s strategies when developing literacy lessons. Furthermore,
Morrison, Bachman and Connor (2005) suggested that effective reading practices should include
the use of specialized instructional devices tailored to improve the memory skills of the
struggling reader in a relatable manner which is commonly the goal of most effective teachers.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 11
What are Mnemonics?
Mnemonics are defined as techniques for improving memory using the implementation of
principles found in the Dual Code Theory (Paivio, 1971) which applies visual and sound
methods to assist in remembering specific ideas or concepts. The study of mnemonic devices is
considered to be fundamental to our understanding of human learning. The operation of human
memory as cited in past reviews written by psychologists Battig and Bellezza (1979), focused on
the operations of cognitive memory using encoding and organizational mnemonic devices as
memory cues that automatically stimulate natural learning.
New Standards in Third Grade Reading Skills
Instructional practices designed to teach LD third grade readers how to identify the
story’s main idea, discussing the author’s purpose for writing literature, and expressing a clear
understanding about the plot or theme in a text from various genres are now required literacy
skills in order to meet the current expectations for third grade readers (Spencer, 2011). Poor
readers, suggested Gagne (1985) will continue to struggle in their development of and
performance outcomes on assessment measurements of proficient reading skills without
additional support that may be offered with mnemonic strategies.
The reading achievement-level descriptions were updated in 2009 by the NAEP with the
new emphasis on word meaning and an assessment of the students’ ability to use their cognitive
skills to display their comprehension of story elements found in the text. Unlike traditional tests
of vocabulary that merely ask students to write the definitions of isolated words, this new
measurement focuses on the learner’s comprehension skills using context clues as well as word
recognition (NAEP, 2015). Third grade students are provided with examples of short story
passages that are included in the computerized summative standardized assessments that they are
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 12
expected to read or that may be read to them by the teacher. The student is then asked to answer
questions that require the use of evidence from the text about the main idea, characters, and other
story elements. Finally, the assessment requires the student to compose and write their responses
in the computer using the details found in the text evidence. Most struggling readers with
learning disabilities, according to the 2015 NAEP scores, have continually failed to meet the
rigorous challenges of the current literacy expectations as evident in the 40% basic level reading
achievement performance gap of LD fourth grade students as compared to their non-disabled
peers.
The critical importance of word recognition, semantics, and understanding word
meanings has always been an essential component in reading comprehension (NAEP, 2013).
Students who scored higher on NAEP vocabulary questions also scored higher in reading
comprehension. Common core standards (CCS) in foundational reading skills stipulate that K-5
students must know and apply grade-level word analysis skills in decoding words which directly
increases the reader’s understanding of the text. The common core essential elements (CCEE)
are specific statements of knowledge and skills linked to CCS grade level expectations which
provide learning targets for LD students with cognitive challenges. An example of the common
core essential element (CCEE) expectations in reading foundational skills is listed below in
Table 1 as compared to CCS.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 13
Table 1
Example of the Common Core Essential Elements
COMMON CORE ESSENTIAL ELEMENT
• RF.3.3 Know and apply grade-level
phonics and word analysis skills in
decoding words.
• EE.RF.3.3 Use letter-sound knowledge
to read words.
• a. Use combined knowledge of all letter-
sound correspondences
• a. Apply letter-sound knowledge to use
first letter plus context to identify
unfamiliar words.
• Use of morphology (e.g., roots and
affixes) to read and syllabication patterns
• Decode single-syllable words with
common spelling patterns (consonant-
vowel-consonant (CVC)
• Accurately decode unfamiliar
multisyllabic words in/out of context

Source: State of Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction Retrieved from
www.k12.wa.us/SpecialEd/pubdocs/CCEE-CCSS-ELA.pdf

Statement of the Problem
Raising the grade level reading proficiency of third grade LD students is critically
important because it is believed to be inextricably linked to future success in all content areas
according to Lesnick, George, Smithgall, and Gwynne (2010). Lesnick et al. (2010) suggested
that proficient reading skills should be achieved by the third grade level of learning in order to
foster a successful transition in a child’s academic career which directly impacts a student’s
performance in all subject matter, self-efficacy, and potential future college enrollment.
With the reported downward trajectory of non-proficient basic reading scores of LD
learners on summative state and national assessments, the examination of additional devices to
support struggling readers is needed (Harwell & Jackson, 2008). According to a report by
Harwell and Jackson (2008) eighty percent of public school children were identified by state and
national assessments as LD students with problems in the areas of reading initiated by the lack of
phonological processing skills, which include the learner’s ability to recognize sounds and recall
those sounds within words stored in their long and short term memory.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 14
Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) noted the use of mnemonic strategies are designed to
fortify the memory skills of LD students because mnemonics can support the instructional
practices used in the classroom during the reading lesson. With the inclusion of LD pupils in
general education classrooms, McPherson (2010) contended that the differentiated instruction
needed to accommodate the learning needs of struggling readers could be enhanced with the
inclusion of keyword and visual mnemonic devices.
According to Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) 78.9% of LD students are required to spend
the majority of their day in general education classrooms as stipulated in the Sixteenth Annual
Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Act (U.S.
Department of Education, 1994) and their academic success in mainstream classrooms generally
determines the LD student’s level of success in school. The problem with this determination,
Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) explained, is that the assignment of academic grades is primarily
based on test performance requiring memory of factual information. Cooney and Swanson
(1987) reported that LD students have been consistently shown to have specific problems
remembering academic content. Finally, Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) contended that students
with learning disabilities and other special needs may be at particular risk for failure in the
important arena of school functioning unless they are taught how to remember as well as what to
remember.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study focused on the exploration of mnemonic
intervention in reading lesson planning and literacy instructional practices of two third grade LD
educators in the natural setting of their classrooms. With the inclusion of mnemonic devices LD
students may be better equipped to develop skills which synthesize the information they are
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 15
learning with information they already possess in their long-term memory according to
Mastropieri and Scruggs (1994). Struggling readers, Kelly and Campbell (2012) suggested,
require direct-instructional strategies which allow learners to hear, see, say, and write words in a
text before they can recognize them and correctly read them fluently in a story. Mnemonic tools
such as picture writing summary tools and acronym capitalization rules charts were used as
supportive devices to increase LD student understanding of the literacy lesson planning and
classroom implementation practices observed and explored in this case study. Observations of
the behavior and interactive dialogue of each teacher participant with their grade-level colleagues
during the collaborative development of a reading unit lesson plan provided additional insight
for the researcher related to the cognitive strategies implemented by the participants’ in the
instructional presentation of the literacy subject matter .
Research Questions
Two research questions guided this study:
1. How are literacy lesson planning strategies developed by classroom teachers using
mnemonic devices for LD third grade students at Spotlight Elementary and Greenbox
Academy (pseudonyms)?
2. How are literacy lesson planning strategies using mnemonics implemented in the
classroom by teachers of LD third grade students at Spotlight Elementary and Greenbox
Academy (pseudonyms)?
Significance of the Study
This study is relevant, timely, and important to the education community because it adds
to the limited body of research focused on how and why educators teaching LD students
strategically incorporate visual and keyword mnemonic techniques as a supportive cognitive
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 16
instructional approach in the literacy lessons presented in the classroom. Implications of the data
gathered in this case study offer additional insight about the creation of mnemonic learning tools
which are designed to increase the retrieval capabilities of significant information from working
and long term memory for LD students. As discussed by Mastropieri and Scruggs (1992), the
role of mnemonics as an effective elaborative technique increases the ability to recall
information that is meaningful:
When information is more meaningful, it is more memorable. Additionally, when
information is made concrete, it is more memorable than when it is abstract. Finally, it
has been seen that when information is encoded effectively, direct retrieval routes are
established and thus new information is more readily recalled. Each of the variables-
elaboration, meaningfulness, concreteness, and effective encoding contributes towards a
theoretical framework for explaining why mnemonic instruction facilitates the
performance of LD students (p.401).
Mnemonics, noted Gagne, (1985) helps to link unfamiliar to familiar information in order to
assist learners with their association from reconstructed terms to meaningful applications of
knowledge.
Engaging LD students in the literacy material that is mandated at the third grade level
will require educators to present the various genres of the texts in creative ways that involve and
motivate pupils in the learning process (Johnston, Barnes, & Desrochers, 2008). With the
increased expectations and mandated accountability requirements for educators to effectively
improve the levels of student academic performance in core subjects such as reading and math,
teachers need to examine innovative strategies designed to enhance the cognitive skills of
struggling readers (Putnam, 2015). Providing the LD struggling reader with mnemonic tools such
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 17
as visual illustrations and letter strategies used in acronym charts helps to scaffold rigorous
elements of the literacy curriculum. Additionally, mnemonic strategies are designed to improve
the retention and understanding of new material which strengthens the foundational skills of LD
pupils including the development of recall skills (Connor et al., 2014). Furthermore, according to
Giroux (2010), in order to compete globally and fortify the democratic way of life, we must have
a society of citizens with competent problem solving and strong literacy skills.
Limitations, Assumptions, and Delimitations
This qualitative case study is focused on two elementary school-sites in the southern
California area. For the purposes of this case study, only third grade LD educators and their
students at Spotlight Elementary and Greenbox Academy were observed in the natural setting of
the assigned classrooms of the teacher participants and therefore the generalizability of the
findings is limited due to the small sample size of two teacher participants in this study. The
small sample makes it difficult to find credible relationships from the data which would be more
reliable with a larger group of participants in order to provide better generalizability of the
findings (Creswell, 2014).
The process used in the analysis of classroom observations and semi-structured
interviews was a limitation in this study because after completing numerous reviews of the
observation field notes and interview transcripts the way in which the data was collected and the
initial basic analysis process suggested that the interview responses from the participants’ were
not thorough enough to answer some components of the research questions guiding this case
study. For example, additional probing in the semi-structured interviews would have, in
retrospect, provided more details and clarity from the respondent’s answers about how and why
the use of mnemonics were implemented in their classrooms’ in order to better interpret the data
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 18
collected to answer the research questions. Therefore, there is a need for future researchers to
revise some of the specific questions asked in the interview guide that increase the credibility of
the data gathered allowing the researcher to probe for more detailed information from the
respondents about the central phenomenon explored. Classroom observations were limited to the
literacy lesson hour and additional time for observations of the participants’ instructional
methods in teaching other subjects such as social studies or math may have increased the
researcher’s understanding of the observed behavior of the participant teacher.
The researcher assumed that both teacher participants in this case study conducted
themselves with integrity in providing truthful and honest responses to the best of their ability
during the data gathering process (Merriam, 2009). Furthermore, the protocols and
instrumentation used for face-to-face semi-structured interviews, lesson planning and classroom
observations in this case study were used to develop dependable data for analysis, discussion,
and recommendations of the findings.
The limited reliability of the observation field notes was due to the unpredictable nature
of human behavior and the presence of the researcher which could have initiated changes in the
behavior of the teacher participants (Merriam, 2009). Additional limitations in this case study
included interpretation challenges of the findings and possible misunderstanding of the behavior
and answers to the interview questions of the participants’ due to the researcher’s biases. The
biases included the researchers’ personal values and expectations from past experiences as an
elementary classroom educator. However, the biases were minimized with daily memos written
in the margins of the observation field notes and the interview transcripts prior to transcription of
the data describing the researcher’s initial interpretations of the information gathered.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 19
Delimitations for this qualitative case study include the participation of only two districts,
Acornfield and the Lime Grove School District as the targets of the study as well as the urban
location and the purposive selection of third grade LD teachers in order to answer the research
questions guiding this study. Additionally the four-week period of the case study per school did
not allow enough time for a reliable sample of data collected and therefore reduced the
credibility of the findings.
Definition of Key Terms and Concepts
Accountability. Conceptions formed from three sources; individual beliefs and values
about what you can and should do, collective expectations and norms that define an organization
and formal mechanisms by which one accounts for what they do (Taorima-Weiss, 2012).
Achievement Gap. Any significant and persistent disparity in academic performance or
educational attainment between different groups of students (NEA, 2015).
Assessment. Determining what a learner has learned (i.e., learning outcome (Mayer,
2011).
Close reading. Guided instruction often done with the whole class. Key features include
focusing on a complex text, repeated reading of the entire text, and annotation of the text while
reading (Fisher & Frey, 2014).
Cognition. The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experience, and the senses (Levin & Pressley, 1985).
Decoding. The process of breaking a written word down to its individual parts and
determining the word’s pronunciation based on the common sound/letter patterns (Morrison,
Bachman, & Connor, 2005).
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 20
Domain .A culturally constructed area of knowledge, such as language, math, or social
interaction (Immordino-Yang & Fischer, 2009).
Encoding. The process of using letter knowledge through recall of sounds and the
symbols assigned to them to write the letters together to form words (Torgesen,1998).
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).A four-part federal law that
requires schools to serve the educational needs of eligible students with disabilities. American
legislation which ensures that students with a disability are provided with Free Appropriate
Public Education (FAPE) tailored to their individual needs (IDEA, 2014).
Instruction. Manipulation of the learner’s environment in order to stimulate learning
with the intention to cause a change in the learner’s knowledge (Mayer, 2011).
Keyword method. A mnemonic technique which connects a keyword that sounds like
the unfamiliar word in a text using imagery to connect the keyword with the definition of the
unfamiliar word (Putnam, 2015).
Learning outcome. A fluctuation in a learner’s knowledge motivated by academic
instruction (Mayer, 2011).
Long-term memory. A memory storage of information that is organized and is sustained
for long periods of time (Mayer, 2011).
Mnemonics. Techniques for improving memory by capitalizing on naturally occurring
memory process such as visual imagery, pictures, organization, keyword strategies and
elaborative encoding (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998)
Strategies. Typical or systematic ways of doing things (Mayer, 2011).
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 21
Working memory. The storehouse of detailed information that can be easily retrieved in
an organized format, has limited capacity, and remains for only short periods of time unless
actively processed (Mayer, 2011).
Organization of the Study
Chapter one presented information about the overview of the study, background of the
problem, purpose and significance of the study, pivotal transition in reading at the third grade
level and the need for the development of proficient reading skills by the third grade in order to
increase the possibilities for academic success in secondary and high school levels (Lesnick et
al., 2010). Chapter two will focus on information about past and current research studies about
mnemonics, Pavio's dual coding theory, and the use of high-stakes tests as the primary
measurement of student achievement and teacher effectiveness (Conner et al., 2014). Past
theories and strategies will be reviewed in chapter two in order to examine and compare the
current literacy instructional practices aimed at increasing reading comprehension and
vocabulary development skills of struggling readers.
Chapter three highlights the methods or process of how the study was conducted and the
instrumentation used to collect data and analyze the findings. The research questions guiding the
study are also answered in chapter three using multiple sources of data, the criteria for the
selection of the school sites and the purposive selection of third grade teachers to participate in
this qualitative case study. Interpretations of the results in this investigation will be included in
the discussion section of Chapter four, and finally recommendations for future practice and
research will be suggested in Chapter five.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The ability to read proficiently by the end of the third grade is believed to be critically
linked to future academic success in all content areas according to Connor, Morrison, Fishman,
Giuliani, and Luck (2011). An established and ongoing body of research examines the numerous
academic and social challenges related to poor reading skills and addresses relationships between
indicators of early literacy and the urgent need to improve effective reading instructional
techniques (Connor et al., 2011). Kelly and Campbell (2012) explained that several important
cognitive processes such as working memory and abstract reasoning are critically needed for
students’ reading success. The rationale for this case study is to seek an understanding of the
actions and behaviors of the participant teachers at Spotlight Elementary and Greenbox Academy
in their lesson planning strategies which include visual and keyword mnemonic techniques in the
instructional practices provided to improve the reading skills of third grade public school
students identified with learning disabilities (LD).
History of Learning Disabilities
Prior to the enactment of the Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975, Public
Law 94-142, the fate of most individuals with learning and physical disabilities was likely to be a
life in state institutions according to Harwell and Jackson (2008). The United States Department
of Education (DOE) Office of Special Education Report in 2007 documented claims that nearly
200,000 persons with significant disabilities lived in state institutions in 1967. These restrictive
settings reportedly provided minimal food, clothing, and shelters. Education and rehabilitation
was not included in these accommodations. In the 1950s and 1960s, the United States Federal
Government, along with support from The Annual Report to Congress (ARC), initiated the
development of special education services for children with learning and physical disabilities and
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 23
their families (DOE, 2007). These events became the impetus for effective programs and
accommodations that included early intervention and special education in states across the
country. The name of the special education program was changed to include the word
'education', becoming the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2013).
Segregation or Inclusion
Legislation related to educational debates about the most appropriate policies regarding
how to teach LD students has continued to be a major concern for school leaders and lawmakers
according to reports by Jenkinson (1997) and Fuchs and Fuchs (1998) for the following reasons.
First, children with learning and physical disabilities were reportedly taught in segregated
classrooms because educators found this segregation system less complicated and beneficial in
the instruction of curriculum formulated specifically for LD pupils. Second, the instructional
skills and attitude of educators toward LD students is suggested to be a primary factor in the
success or failure of inclusion efforts in the classroom and school environment. Finally,
Jenkinson (1997) contended that LD students may experience more confidence when attending
classes with peers having the same disabilities rather than learning with their nondisabled peers
because of their limited academic skills and physical safety concerns related to bullying.
Inclusion of LD students in mainstream classrooms involves the reorganization of school
sites and requires general education teachers to adapt their lesson plans and instructional
practices to meet the diverse learning needs of every student regardless of their disabilities.
Furthermore, MacBeath, Galton, Steward, MacBeath, and Page (2006) explained the following
two examples of the pressures which general education teachers face when LD students are
included in mainstream classrooms. First, there may be dilemmas with seating arrangements,
having to adjust the pace of instructional materials, adjusting to various learning styles, and
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 24
inadequate resources to accommodate LD student challenges. Second, although some teachers
feel unprepared to effectively instruct LD students, many educators reportedly have expressed
their belief that the inclusion of students with learning disabilities in a general education
classroom is beneficial for developing the academic competences of both LD students and
teachers.
According to Konza (2008), IDEA as amended in 2004, requires that a significant effort
be made to find an inclusive placement for LD students in the least restrictive environment
appropriate to meet their unique learning needs, but it does not require inclusion as a mandated
provision for special education learners.
Wang (2009) argued that the principle behind inclusion of LD students must be viewed
through the lens of human rights emphasizing human values of all children which promotes three
principles of equal opportunities. First, students with special educational needs should not be
treated differently than general education students. Second, the purpose and goals of education
should be common for all learners. Finally, if it is possible, LD students requiring special
education accommodations should have equal access to quality mainstream schools, teachers,
and classrooms.
Perceived benefits of an inclusion model focused on two important reasons as noted in
the report by Jackson, Ryndak, and Billingsley,(2000). First, LD students in an inclusive
classroom have models of behavior, problem-solving strategies, and other cognitive skills in
collaborative groupings. Second, inclusion provides opportunities for development of
appropriate attitudes towards a persons' strengths and weaknesses regardless of their disabilities.
Finally, past research has established that changing attitudes towards people with learning
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 25
disabilities require both experience with LDs and information about their disabilities (Fuchs &
Fuchs, 1998; Westwood & Graham, 2003; Humphrey & Lewis, 2008; ).
Harwell and Jackson (2008) contended that the implementation of rigorous national
standards such as the CCS increased the accountability requirements for teachers and school
administrators because the primary focus is on assessment scores and measuring student
achievement in academic subject matter. Further, Cook, Tankersley, Cook, and Landrum (2000),
explained that the negative behavior of some educators toward LD students enrolled in their
classrooms are consistent with a theory of instructional tolerance directly related to teacher
efficacy and its impact on student achievement and classroom management. The "instructional
tolerance" theory (Cook et al., 2000) suggests that LD students may impact a teacher's perception
of their own professional competence and, therefore, students who require more time due to
learning disabilities are outside of the educator's sphere of tolerance and instructional ability.
According to the NAEP (2015) report, 67% of LD fourth grade students scored below
grade level on the most recent basic reading achievement assessment as compared to only 26%
of their nondisabled peers. The 2015 NAEP scores of LD students in reading and math skills
with both IEPs and 504 Plans are listed in Table 2. The NAEP standardized test measuring the
academic progress of students with learning disabilities reports a significant achievement gap of
more than 40% in the basic reading skills of LD pupils as compared to students without
disabilities at the same grade level (NAEP, 2015).

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 26
Table 2
NAEP 2015 Reading and Math Assessment Scores-LD Students
2015 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
% Below Basic % at Basic % at Proficient % at Advanced
Reading-4
th

Grade

Students with
disabilities

67

23

10

2
Students w/o
disabilities

26

34

30

10
GAP 41 13 20 8
Reading-8
th

Grade

Students with
disabilities
63

29 8 0
Students w/o
disabilities
19 43 34 4
GAP 44 14 26 4
2015 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
% Below Basic % at Basic % at Proficient % at Advanced
Math-4
th
Grade
Students with
disabilities
45 38 14 2
Students w/o
disabilities
14 42 35 8
GAP 31 4 21 6
Math-8
th
Grade
Students with
disabilities
68 24 7 1
Students w/o
disabilities
23 40 27 9
GAP 45 16 21 8
Students with disabilities includes students with both IEPs and 504 Plans
Inclusion of LD Students in Mainstream Classrooms
Children with learning and physical disabilities have traditionally been segregated from
general education or mainstream classrooms because of the assumption that disabled students
differ in their processing of core subject matter and their overall intellectual characteristics
(Harwell & Jackson, 2008). Misinterpretation of the research on LDs and how neurological
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 27
disabilities are defined disregarded the criteria differences which exist among various regions of
the country, as stipulated in Public Law 94-142 which outlines the following information:
Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may
manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do
mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicap,
brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term
does not include children who have learning problems which are primarily the result of
visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, mental retardation, emotional disturbances, or
environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantages (Garwood, Fewell, & Neisworth,
1988).
Because the states have discretion in the implementation of the federal guidelines
according to state laws, students may or may not be considered learning disabled in different
states or even in various school districts. Due to the broad classification of learning disabled
students and the numerous literacy problems, it has become nearly impossible for research to
generate definite conclusions which can be applied to all learning disabled individuals. However,
past empirical studies offered some guidance in understanding commonalities in identifying
struggling readers and how to enhance their literacy skills (Alvermann & Boothby, 1983;
Torgesen, 1998).
Alvermann and Boothby (1983) suggested that there is some correlating evidence that
students who are struggling readers generally perform poorly on short-term memory tests,
resulting in reading disabilities attributed to deficient memory skills which can be strengthened
with mnemonic techniques designed to increase decoding and encoding skills. However,
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 28
Torgesen (1998) offered preventive methods such as research-based diagnostic phonemic
awareness and letter knowledge assessment to measure a student' ability to apply knowledge of
letter-sound correspondence in decoding words.
Research-Based Reading Instruction for LD Students
It is imperative that LD students receive the same high-quality, research-based reading
instruction and materials as their non-disabled peers according to Hager and Vaughn (2013)
because reading proficiency impacts all subject matter and provides the gateway to achieving
future academic success. Reading instructional materials should be informed by objective
evidence from academic research and educators' today need creative instructional tools which
address the diverse learning needs of all students for the following reason (Hager & Vaughn,
2013). First, the inclusion of LD students in general education classrooms as well as state-
developed assessments increased the attention of educational leader on the need to strengthen
literacy instruction for students with LDs beginning with the Kindergarten through 3rd grade
foundational skills. Secondly, features of the CCS in reading and implications for teaching LD
students now require supplemental instruction and extended support for both the learner and the
educator. Thirdly, lesson planning and research-based reading instructional strategies should
target the learning standards focused on increasing student skills in identifying story elements,
themes of a text, close reading strategies, writing skills, and other grade level literacy
expectations. Finally, instructional methods should include additional support for LD students
struggling with word recognition by providing mnemonic visual and keyword learning tools
included in the teacher's planning and presentation of literacy subject matter which are designed
to increase vocabulary development using picture and sound memory connections.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 29
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Section 504
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) Section 504 is one of two laws that
seek to offer additional educational support for K-12 students with learning disabilities (NCES,
2003). The ADA Section 504 is a civil rights law which prohibits discrimination based
predominantly on a disability in public services such as public schools, employment, and
accommodations (NCES, 2003). Until the 1990s, Harwell and Jackson (2008) report that the
special needs of learning disabled (LD) students were overlooked and LDs were categorized as
mentally retarded participants in American society and in the public school system.
Prior to 1937, there was no recognition of learning disabilities because most students with
learning disabilities were labeled as slow learners with neurological problems who received no
special help (Harwell & Jackson, 2008). Furthermore, Harwell and Jackson (2008) suggested
that the three following occurrences in the 1960s were the impetus for the development of
accommodations for LD students. First, in 1963 several children were classified as retarded or
“minimally brain damaged” although testing found that they had normal intelligence in a
nonverbal format. The findings of normal intelligence prompted William Cruickshank, (1959) a
Syracuse University professor who was a pioneer in the field of interdisciplinary special
education to suggest that perception and attention deficits were the causes for the tested students’
slow academic achievement in core subjects such as reading. Second, a group of parents who
objected to the label of “minimally brain damaged” to describe their children who were
struggling readers, adopted a new term, “learning disabled” in 1963 and established the parent
organization Association of Children with Learning Disabilities (ACLD) (1963) demanding
educational services for their children. Third, in the 1970s, the passage of Public Law 94-142
(the Education of All Handicapped Children Act) by Congress in 1975, included LD students in
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 30
the legislation which guaranteed a free and appropriate education (FAPE) in the least restrictive
environment (LRE) possible to all handicapped children ages three to twenty-one with LD
learners being educated in general education classrooms unless their disability hindered their
progress in the context of a regular classroom.
The main problem with the initial Public Law 94-142 was its lack of financial funding to
school districts for students requiring the additional services mandated under the LD category. In
1990, this special education law was given a new title and expanded federal funding becoming
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Public Law 101-476 (NCES, 2003).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a special education law which
provides federal financial assistance to State and local education agencies which are mandated to
provide special education and related services to eligible children with learning and physical
disabilities (NCES, 2003). The differences in the services between the ADA and the IDEA will
be discussed in this chapter.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) 2012-2013 report, the
number of students ages three to twenty-one receiving special education services under IDEA are
6.4 million or approximately 13% of all public school pupils. Although there is no current data
that gives the exact amount of students with learning disabilities, estimates range from 5% to
more than 30% of the nation’s school population is identified as LD students (NAEP, 2005). In
the state of California, 686,000 students with disabilities (SWD), both physical and learning
disabilities, comprise approximately 10% of the public school enrollment (CDE, 2013).

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 31
The Differences between the ADA, Section 504 Plans and IDEA
The American with Disabilities Act (ADA), as it applies to public provisions for disabled
persons is identical to the IDEA (NCES, 2013). However, the purpose for ADA Section 504 is
related to the civil rights of the disabled from discrimination based solely on their disability
while IDEA ensures that an individualized educational plan (IEP) will be specifically designed to
meet the educational needs of the designated child (NCES, 2013).
A 504 Plan under ADA provides a blueprint for how the LD student will have access to
learning at school and provides accommodation services to the learning environment to meet the
needs of the student (Harwell & Jackson, 2008). Harwell and Jackson (2008) explained that a
student who does not require specialized instruction, but has been evaluated by a school
psychologist or other specialist with neurological training is allowed to confirm that a child’s
disability interferes with the student’s ability to learn in general education classrooms, becomes
eligible for a 504 plan. Both IEPs and 504 plans can offer formal help for K-12 LD students with
no cost to parents for the services and both plans are designed to scaffold the currently required
Common Core Standard (CCS) expectations in English/Language Arts and mathematics (NCES,
2013) in order to improve the development of LD students’ foundation skills in reading and
math.
Mnemonics
Mnemonics are defined as techniques for improving memory skills using the
implementation of principles found in Paivio’s Dual Code Theory (Paivio, 1971) which applies
visual and sound methods to assist in remembering specific ideas or concepts in human learning.
The study of mnemonic devices is suggested to be fundamental to our understanding of human
learning and the operation of human memory as cited in past reviews written by psychologists
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 32
Battig and Belleza (1979). Battig and Belleza (1979) findings focused on the operation of
cognitive memory using encoding and organizational mnemonic devices such as graphic
organizes, keyword strategies and visual tools which stimulated memory cues that automatically
support natural learning.
According to Belleza (1981) cognitive cuing structures created by the user can be
stimulated to recall information stored in the long and short term memory with visual and
keyword mnemonic devices. Taormina-Weiss (2012) concurs that learning is the way a student
encodes or puts information into their memory and testing requires a student retrieve or
remember the information they have learned or are learning. Therefore, Taormina-Weiss (2012)
suggests that literacy instructional practices which support the use of memory skills with visual
and keyword devices may improve the reading skills and literacy performance of LD students on
standardized assessments.
History of Mnemonic Devices
The general name of mnemonics, or mnemosyne, represents the study and development
of memory aids that enable the mind to reproduce unfamiliar ideas by connecting them to parts
which are mutually suggestive (Higbee, 1977). According to Packard and Chen (2005) the initial
recording of mnemonics was purported to have been created by Simonides, a Greek who created
the first system of memory aids in 477 B.C. Plato and Aristotle are reported to have written their
own theories about memory and its interaction with the soul in creation and permanence of
memory (Burham, 1888).
According to Packard and Chen (2005), mnemonic aids such as recalling the letters of the
alphabet were used in the classrooms of elementary students for learning grammar and more
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 33
complex ideas beginning in the 1500s. Visual images were also beginning to be used to help
recall memory on a specific topic (Putnam, 2015).
Visual Mnemonics
Visual mnemonics connect new information with a familiar image and can be useful tools
for LD students and other struggling learners, as they generally require concrete examples that
stimulate background knowledge (Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Whedon, 1997, p.18). Pictures and
acronyms or letter strategies are considered visual mnemonics and provide concrete concepts
which, according to Masropieri, Scruggs, and Whedon (1997) increase the LD students’ ability
to learn new information because the concreteness of the visual mnemonic tool is designed to
stimulate effective encoding of prior knowledge.
Letter strategies involve the use of letter prompts designed to help learners remember
specific information related to a list of things. For example, many students remember using the
acronym HOMES to remember the names of the Great Lakes and FACE to remember the
musical notes represented in the treble clef, from bottom to top. However, Mastropieri and
Scruggs (1994) explained that while the use of acronyms may be the most familiar mnemonic
device to most students and teachers, the use of a letter may not always provide a connection to
images and information that is unfamiliar to the LD pupil and therefore must be practiced until
the student becomes familiar with the letter used to promptly recall the new information.
Keyword Mnemonics
Keyword strategies use concrete, similar sounding words to assist LD students in the
recall of new vocabulary words. For example, the term for a common frog is “ranidae.” The
word “rain” could be used as a keyword associated to an interactive illustration that depicts a
group of frogs jumping in the rain. Since “rain” and “frogs” are well-known concrete concepts,
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 34
most students would easily associate the picture of rain and frogs in order to understand the
definition or concept of the keyword as they relate to one another (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1992).
This type of strategy uses prior knowledge to facilitate meaning of unfamiliar words using
keywords paired with pictures to clarify the meaning of the new vocabulary word, which in this
example is ranidae, a common frog.
Mnemonic strategies, according to Putnam (2015) are designed to support the LD
students’ literacy skills by using vocabulary instructional devices which enhance the learners’
ability recognize vocabulary words that may be unfamiliar to the student. Spencer (2011)
emphasizes the importance of recognizing educational instructional challenges in the
implementation of universal pedagogical designs which meet the individualized learning needs
of LD students. The skills of effective educators require interventions that include proactive
planning of engaging lessons using a variety of metacognitive strategies which should include
the use of mnemonic visual and keyword techniques designed to support LD student learning by
focusing on the pupil’s ability to retain grade-level and unfamiliar vocabulary words (Brunn,
2010). Gagne (1985) contends that word recognition is a metacognitive strategy and is the most
important component of fluent reading because learners who do not recognize a word often
misread words by substituting a similar-looking known word for the actual word written in the
text.
Metacognitive strategies such as letter naming, letter sounding and word recognition were
examined in a study by the National Reading Panel (National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development (2000) to investigate the impact of increased reading comprehension and
vocabulary achievement of 119 third-grade students in the southwest United States. Six third-
grade classrooms in two urban elementary schools participated in the study and the students in
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 35
both schools were pretested prior to the five-week student and posttested at the end of the study
using the Word Attack, Letter-Word Identification and Spelling Subtests of the 2001 Woodcock
Johnson (WJIII) Test of Achievement. The findings reported a 40% difference in gains in
vocabulary development between the two groups and a 20% difference in gains in reading
comprehension which were attributed to the use of the metacognitive strategies (2000).
Recent Mnemonic Research
Mnemonic acronyms use the first letter from each word in a list to create a new and easy
way to remember words (Bortle, 2013). When Atkinson developed a mnemonic strategy
combination in 1975, linking an acoustic mnemonic to an imagery mnemonic to help English
students learn Russian, he energized mnemonic research internationally (Scruggs & Mastropieri,
1989). Considered the forefathers of this area of research, Levin, Scruggs, and Mastropieri
produced many studies on the relevance of mnemonics for teaching learning disabled
individuals, focusing on the use of pictorial representations of learning materials to replace
verbal instructional limitations. Higbee (1977) explored the Yodai mnemonic methods created by
Masachika Nakane, who developed a concept which revolved around the idea that all subjects
can be condensed down to a few select key elements which, if learned, make the rest of the
subject content easier to learn. For example, Yodai mnemonics stipulated that students should
not be taught all the rules of addition before they were allowed to practice on the soroban, a type
of abacus which is a calculating tool constructed for the mathematical system of powers of ten
(Higbee, 1977).
The visual and keyboard methods are two mnemonics used in past research conducted by
Mastropieri and Scruggs (1992) which reported learning gain in LD student of a much as 3:1 in
K-12 grade level verbal associations when instructional practices in a science lesson included
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 36
mnemonic support because the combination of visual aids and the keyword techniques
strengthened the connections and retrieval process between a new word and its associated
information from prior knowledge. Building on past reports about the suggested link between
increased memory skills and academic performance findings, educational researchers are
revisiting mnemonic intervention to provide a scaffold for struggling LD readers and general
education students who need additional support in remembering new vocabulary words and the
definitions, recall of prior knowledge, and visual learning tools to increase student understanding
of complex concepts (Putnam, 2015). Additionally, Putnam (2015) contends that keyword
strategies featuring letter sounds similar to the unfamiliar word along with a visual aid strengthen
the cognitive links of LD students allowing them to form a more accurate mental image of the
new vocabulary word. Two descriptions emphasize the basic cognitive operations: (a) the
formation of an acoustic link between the sound characteristics of the unfamiliar word, and (b)
the formation of a semantic link between the referent of the unfamiliar word and that of the
familiar word using mnemonic techniques (Desrochers, Wieland, and Butler ,1984).
Table 3 provides short descriptions of three mnemonic techniques discussed in this case
study as described by scholars Higbee (1977) and Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998).

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 37
Table 3
Description of Three Mnemonic Techniques and Systems
Visual/Link Method Interactive visual imagery (e.g. pictures and illustrations) connects
concrete concepts making a chain. Item 1 is joined with item 2; a
separate image joins item 2 with item 3 and so on. Thus, retrieving
one item of information cues the next.
Keyword Method First, a keyword is found that sounds like the unfamiliar word (e.g.
“dentist” sounds like “la dent”). Then imagery joins the keyword
with the definition of the unfamiliar word (an image of a “dentist”
holding a large “tooth” activates dentist.
Acronyms/Acrostics

Acronyms use the first letters of a list of words used to create a
new word or phrase. Example: (in music) “all cows eat grass” can
be remembered and recalled as ACEG on the piano keys.
Acrostics use the first letters of words to represent a list. Example
SM=same meaning (synonyms list)

Indications of imagery effects at the level of processing distinctive item information are
also available from studies that examined memory phrases and sentences varying in rated
imagery (Begg, 1972). The encoding-specificity interpretations of Begg's (1972) findings were
consistent with his hypothesis of difference in representations between concrete and abstract
verbal materials. For example, the use of adjectives as recall cues were based on his assumptions
about the ways in which the descriptive words would be represented in the images generated for
concrete words like the color 'red' and the verbatim strings of abstract phrases such as 'a coffee-
table book' (Begg, 1972).
A comprehensive literature review of science education for LD students was conducted
by Mastroperi and Scruggs' (1992) examination of the instructional variable, mnemonic
techniques, and text adaption of the science curriculum developed for LD student. There were 66
reports located in this investigation that had been published between 1954 and 1992, and the
following information was reported. First, the instructional variables included teaching to
objectives, pacing, teacher enthusiasm and degree of structure in verbal and visual presentation.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 38
The 2-week investigation included 60 adolescents identified as Educable Mentally Retarded
(EMR) which was legally changed to the term intellectual disability under the 2010 Rosa's Law
signed by President Obama. Additionally, the participants in Mastropieri and Scruggs' report
included the peers of the 60 EMR students. The findings reported that the students had learned
nearly 80% more science content in 2 weeks and had been on task 35% more when enthusiastic
instruction was provided with mnemonic visual picture tools because they increased student
understanding of the content materials.
Modern memory research, as cited by Putnam (2015), supported the body of evidence
that suggests that mnemonics improve memory by linking naturally occurring memory processes
such as visual imagery and elaborative encoding. However, Putnam (2015) explained that the
impact of mnemonics on academic performance has not been clarified in research because of the
limited investigations exploring these techniques in the context of the classroom. Furthermore,
Putnam (2015) contended that the criticism of mnemonics is fostered by the belief of many
education leaders that these devices only promote rote memorization and first-level depth of
knowledge skills like recall and he offers the following response:
First, many researchers, (e.g. Anderson & Bower, 1972; Higbee, 1977; Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 1998) have argued that mnemonics were designed to enhance recall, not
facilitate higher order learning, and thus should be used as intended. Mastropieri and
Scruggs (2000) contend that although many teachers aspire for their students to be
critical, insightful, curious, and deeply appreciative of the subject matter, education still
requires a great deal of fact learning, which mnemonics can help with. Learning basic
facts with mnemonics leaves more time for higher order learning. (p. 133).
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 39
Because LD and general education students are expected to demonstrate their
understanding of new and higher-order academic material on performance assessments, the use
of mnemonic devices to support their learning necessitates further investigation into the use of
these technique in the classroom. Instructional methods that include strategies which foster
mastery of unfamiliar concept and vocabulary facilitate learning which includes the development
of memory skills and recall (Putnam, 2015). Mnemonic techniques have persevered for
thousands of years and proven to be useful in enhancing memory skills. With continued high-
stakes testing and rigorous standards, the current arbitrary use of mnemonic devices should be
replaced with a renewed effort to examine their benefits for LD students and struggling readers
at all grade levels.
Cognitive Theory
In the latter part of the 19th century, mnemonics were categorized in the field of
psychology where scholars began to reexamine the ancient work and methods of mnemonic
pioneers, leading cognitivism becoming more mainstream (Levin & Pressley, 1985). According
to Levin and Pressley (1985), more than two decades passed following the introduction of the
cognitive theoretical framework before mnemonic research began to be seriously applied to
education.
Paivio's Dual Coding Theory
The theoretical framework that informs this case study is Paivio's dual coding theory
(DCT). The DCT, according to Paivio, is a hypothesis of cognition which contends that visual
and verbal information act as two distinctive systems with equal weight to verbal and non-verbal
human memory processing, decoding, encoding, and cognitive behavior. Paivio suggested the
following about human encoding operations. First, encoding processes are primary determinants
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 40
of how well new information is learned and remembered. Second, DCT is not primarily about
imagery. However, imaginal representations or imagens encode specific information about
nonverbal, perceptual, and sensory-motor experiences, conscious imagery being one way that
images are easily understood or recognized by the mind (Paivio, 1971). Third, human memory is
rooted in three different levels or kinds of processing: representational processes operate
whenever images are activated, referential processes are activated in the symbolic system of
human memory using connections developed between verbal and images which represent human
experiences with objects and their names like nose, and associative processes use connections
among images or imagens using verbal representations of abstract words or concepts that do not
represent concrete things. An example of an abstract concept is an idea (Paivio, 1971).
According to Katz (1983), the primary purpose of education is to transmit knowledge.
Therefore, cognitive educational research, contended Putnam (2015), sought to identify the
fundamental psychological mechanisms by which information in texts and other learning
resources are represented using visual and sound representations. The DCT emphasizes the
contribution of both verbal and nonverbal systems used throughout the imagery processes in
human memory of words and text. Images for concrete words such as house can be generated as
fast as simple word associations, according to Paivio and Begg (1971) , and the findings in their
reports of internally controlled impulses indicated that conscious imagery can happen rapidly
enough to contribute to word and sentence concreteness and text comprehension, especially
when visual mnemonic devices are included.
Performance Assessments and Neuroscience Bases of Learning
The reauthorization of the IDEA in 2004 significantly altered the learning and assessment
expectations of LD students. Combined with the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 41
(NCLB) (2002) public school students with an elevated risk for poor reading outcomes were
introduced to rigorous standards and performance assessments which targeted the foundational
knowledge and academic development of students in English Language Arts and Literacy. As a
result of NCLB, Connor et al. (2011) reported that most public school LD students are now
assessed in reading as part of large-scale standards-based reading assessments designed to
examine basic cognitive and linguistic processes which support the development of proficient
reading skills. The use of reading instructional techniques providing a scaffold for struggling
readers is ongoing. The question that continues to be investigated in educational studies is
whether or not the assessments are accurately measuring the student’s problems in learning by
identifying critical components, such as working memory and visual representations, which
support the development of proficient reading skills (Connor et al., 2011). Neurological
perspectives offer an understanding of the significant importance of brain functions that
contribute to increased memory skills which promote proficient reading capabilities.
Immordino-Yang and Fischer (2009) stated that learning to read requires neural networks
that support the development of literacy skills:
Acquiring literacy skills impacts the functional organization of the brain (Peterson, Silva,
Castro-Caldas, Ingvar, & Reis, 2007), differentially recruiting networks for language,
visual and sound representation in both hemispheres….Work on individual differences in
the cognitive paths to reading has enriched the interpretation of the neurological research
(e.g. Knight & Fischer, 1992), and helped to bridge the gap between the neuroscience
findings and classroom practice (Katzir & Pare-Blagoev, 2006; Wolf & O’Brien, 2006)
(p. 11).
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 42
Classroom strategies which include mnemonic devices are designed to support the
cognitive connection of new information to prior knowledge through the use of visual and
acoustic methods. When teaching reading strategies, a mnemonic is an instructional technique
designed to enhance the memory of important information that relates to the identification of
complex words, understanding of ideas in the text, and is beneficial to LD students especially
who may have difficulty with information recall (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). As more
struggling students occupy mainstream classrooms instructed by educators who are accountable
for their learning achievement and assessment performance, providing professional development
opportunities for teachers should include practicing instructional strategies using mnemonic
strategies to facilitate the learning and recall skills of LD students (Putnam, 2015).
A 2014 report from the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) associated with the DOE
(2014) examined peer-reviewed journal articles and chapters focused on improving reading for
LD children with or at risk for reading disabilities and reported the following information: First,
the findings in this DOE report (2014) provide compelling evidence that poor decoding skills
greatly impede the development of mental resources needed in promoting reading
comprehension in all elementary school learners (K-5), LD and general education students.
Second, the use of code-based and meaning-focused instruction included decoding, phonological
awareness, and fluency development strategies taught by a teacher using a direct instruction
approach, positively impacts child-managed activities designed to improve comprehension skills
with oral reading of grade level text. Finally, ongoing questions encompass the types of support
educator’s will need to implement strategic techniques that invoke LD and general education
students’ responsiveness to methods that utilize code-based and meaning-focused approaches
interactively.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 43
The framework for ongoing research in mnemonics is the application of supportive
instructional devices and specialized lesson planning strategies that strengthen decoding,
encoding, vocabulary and word recognition skills in reading (Allor, Mathe, Roberts, Cheatham,
& Champlin, 2010). Interpretations of the data gathered, themes identified in the development of
the unit literacy plans, and instructional methods observed by the researcher included the report
by the participants’ in this case study that the teacher-created visual tools helped to increase LD
student understanding of the language arts subject matter which incorporated the principles of
Paivio’s (1971) dual coding theory. Figure 1 illustrates the sensory systems in Paivio’s theory.

Figure 1. Sensory systems in dual coding process, adapted from Paivio, 1971.
In Paivio’s study (1987) the findings indicated that student participants were able to learn
how to interactively use their recognition of pictures (visual), considered a mnemonic device,
which triggered their working memory skills, combined with keywords (sound) taught by the
teacher, resulting in a significant increase in word recognition, vocabulary building, and print
awareness which are critically important in the development of competent reading skills (Allor et
al., 2010).

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 44
Summary
In summary, the history of mnemonics provides strong evidence that mnemonic visual
and keyword techniques enhance human memory and word recognition skills which play an
important role in reading acquisition (Connor et al., 2011). The increased expectations in literacy
skills require LD students to be assessed on an academic level that may require additional
support in instructional strategies. Scaffolding the rigorous new expectations with mnemonic
devices may help to bridge the gap in reaching the new requirements and high expectations for
LD learners in literacy standards. In order to expand the opportunities for success in the
improvement of student performance outcomes, special education teachers could benefit from
the inclusion of keyword and visual mnemonic techniques in their lesson planning of reading
instruction (Connor et al., 2011; Putnam, 2015). Mnemonic techniques are designed to support
the gaps in learning through strategies that promote word recognition and vocabulary
development (Torgesen & Kali, 1980; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1994). Lack of continuous
research to examine the inclusion of mnemonic devices in teacher lesson planning and
instructional practices may result in a wider achievement gap between LD elementary school
students as compared to their nondisabled peers in basic level reading scores than presently
exists (NAEP, 2015).

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 45
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
This chapter describes the research design used in this qualitative case study and links the
purpose of the study and the research questions guiding the study to the processes of the data
collection. The chapter includes details about the purposive sample of third grade educators
teaching students with LDs and descriptions of the setting. Finally, specific procedures for data
collection and analysis of the data are outlined in this section.
Purpose of the Study
This qualitative case study explored and unearthed evidence related to the phenomenon
mnemonic intervention as incorporated in the development and implementation of literacy lesson
plans by two third grade LD teachers participating in this investigation. The exploration focused
on how the educator's developed literacy unit lesson plans and implemented pedagogical
strategies which included mnemonic learning tools designed to stimulate the memory skills of
LD third grade students enrolled in their classroom. Gathering data from multiple sources, which
included document analysis, classroom observations, and interviews, the information collected
increased the researcher's understanding of reliable implications providing deeper insight related
to themes and patterns identified as essential in order to answer the research questions guiding
this qualitative study. Further, the triangulation of the data provided clarity in the researcher’s
interpretation and understanding of the information gathered from the LD third grade educators
at Spotlight Elementary in a special day classroom and Greenbox Academy (pseudonyms), a
mainstream classroom, including the use of mnemonic strategies to enhance the reading skills of
LD third grade students.
The selection of a third grade special day classroom and a mainstream classroom teacher
was not initially planned in the purposive sample of participants’ in this case study. The planned
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 46
sample was two special day classrooms where all students enrolled are LDs. However, field
notes from observations provided meaningful details about the differences in the educator's
lesson planning preparation and implementation of instructional methods as well as the
classroom environment designed to accommodate the needs of general education and LD
students in a mainstream classroom as compared to a special day classroom with an entire
enrollment of LD pupils. For example, applying Wang’s (2009) contention that LD students
should have equal access to mainstream classrooms in order to develop the cognitive
competencies and academic skills of LD students and educators produced data in this study that
suggested the paired seating arrangements in the mainstream classroom, as initially interpreted
by the researcher, was an accommodation purposely made by the teacher to invoke student
collaboration in classroom activities. When asked about the paired seating arrangement, the
instructor responded that, indeed, he purposely seated a higher-performing general education
student next to a lower performing LD pupil to encourage verbal exchanges, involvement in the
learning process, and peer collaboration designed to increase student-led discussions and
promote a shared understanding of academic subject matter.
Research Design
The case study research design for this investigation allowed the researcher to gather of
information from multiple sources to learn about, describe, and analyze by comparing and cross-
checking data collected in order to provide a clarified interpretation about the central
phenomenon mnemonic intervention (Merriam, 2009). Additionally, the triangulation of the
information sources was expected to strengthen the validity and trustworthiness of the
researcher’s interpretation of the findings aimed at answering the research questions guiding this
study.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 47
The sources of data were teacher-created literacy documents incorporating mnemonic
techniques, interview transcripts, and field notes from classroom observations of the behavior of
two LD third grade teachers’ agreeing to participate in this investigation. Using a semi-structured
interview format, the researcher prepared a list of 20 questions designed to elicit information
about the participants' perspective about the topic of this study. The purpose of this study was to
analyze how the LD third grade participants at each school site developed literacy lesson
strategies and how they delivered the literacy instructional materials incorporating mnemonic
tools to support the learning of LD students enrolled in their classrooms.
The data were gathered by the researcher over the 8-week study, 4-weeks per school site,
and included a combined total of 20 hours of classroom observations, 10 days at each school site
during the one-hour scheduled language arts time frame. Examinations of literacy lesson and
assessment documents included notes in the margins detailing the researcher’s initial
interpretations of the data and a one-hour semi-structured face-to-face interview with each
participant using open-ended questions which allowed the researcher to probe for more
information from the respondents. The researcher was at each school 3 days per week during
each 4-week study. Observations of the teacher participants' behavior such as body movements,
student interactions, and facial expressions were also noted in the margins of the interview
transcripts daily to minimize biases by describing specific details about any initial interpretations
of the information gathered. Further, a grade-level professional development lesson planning
session was observed by the researcher at each school site to add additional observation notes
describing the behavior and collaborative strategies observed.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 48
Rationale
The rationale for using the case study research design for this investigation was the
multiple sources of data that were gathered by the researcher to learn about, describe, analyze,
and interpret a clarified understanding about the central phenomenon of mnemonic intervention.
Further, the interpretation of the findings in this study aimed to answer the research questions
using multiple sources of evidence. The data is used to describe the behavior and interview
responses of the participants in a natural setting (Yin, 2009). Finally, the case study design
provides credible information for the researcher's findings related to the participant educators'
development of lesson planning strategies and instructional approaches using mnemonic
techniques. Data collected from this study was used to explore how teachers instructing LD
students strategize in literacy instructional planning and development of learning tools using
innovative techniques to improve academic performance in all subject matter supported by
enhanced memory skills using mnemonic devices.
Recurring patterns in the emerging themes of this study are supported by Paivio's DCT
(1971) which proposes that including visual and sound symbolic representations in instructional
presentations will strengthen human memory skills. Further, the development of stronger
memory skills, according to Sadoski and Paivio (2013), has a direct impact on recall capabilities
and academic learning, particularly in literacy materials which require decoding and encoding of
new and previously learned information. Cognitive processing featuring visual images, Sadoski
and Paivio (2013) contend, are designed to stimulate the representational, referential, and
associative human memory links connecting prior knowledge and new information to be learned
using concrete visual images such as marbles and abstract words such as "ideas." Mnemonics are
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 49
designed to support the LDs understanding of unfamiliar concepts and vocabulary by
incorporating visual and keyword strategies that scaffold rigorous subject matter.
The two third grade participants developed mnemonic learning tools that included
illustrations, graphic organizers, acronym and acrostic techniques designed to provide additional
visual support for struggling LD students to increase their involvement and understanding of
literacy lesson materials focused on enhancing grade-level reading, grammar, and writing skills.
The teacher-created learning tools provided additional data to answer the research questions
about the educator's strategy in describing how and why they designed the mnemonic device to
stimulate cognitive connections and augment LD student comprehension of literacy subject
matter. Finally, LD student motivation and engagement in the learning process when mnemonic
techniques are included in the lesson instruction emerged as one of the three dominant recurring
themes in this research study and will be discussed further in the findings chapter.
Utilizing Yin’s (2009) six-stage case study process, this investigation is guided by the
plan, research design, preparation, collection, analysis, and sharing stages proposed in this
qualitative research. The planning stage, according to Yin (2009), features the literature review
in Chapter Two of this dissertation which outlines theories examining the importance of
strengthening memory skills, particularly in a student’s development of learning and
remembering academic information that promotes strong academic performance, which is the
impetus for the research questions and the rationale for doing this case study. Interpretations of
the findings provide additional information to support educators in their efforts to improve the
consistently stagnate below basic reading performance of LD students as compared to their non-
disabled peers on formative and summative assessments. Current exclusion of mnemonic
intervention in teacher lesson planning and cognitive instructional approaches in the classroom
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 50
should be investigated because mnemonics are memory strategies designed to increase the recall
capabilities and academic performance of LD and general education students who are expected
to demonstrate grade-level proficiency in literacy skills as measured on summative and formative
assessments (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998).
This qualitative case study was guided by research questions aimed at interpreting how
the participants’ responded to a specific issue or phenomenon, which in this study was
mnemonic intervention. Therefore interviews, document analysis, and observations of the
behavior of the participants’ provided a theme and pattern-matching exploration of the
researcher’s interpretation of the findings ( Yin, 2009).
Research Questions
Two research questions guided this study:
1. How are literacy lesson planning strategies developed by classroom teachers using
mnemonics for third grade LD students at Spotlight School and Greenbox Academy ?
2. How are literacy lesson planning strategies using mnemonics implemented in the
classroom by teachers of LD third grade students at Spotlight School and Greenbox
Academy?
Population and Sample
The purposive sample of two third grade educators consists of teachers from urban school
sites. The criteria for selecting Spotlight Elementary School and Greenbox Academy included
the commonalties of each institution’s location and the low LD language arts test scores. Both
school districts were located in an urban area of Southern California and more than 50% of the
LD third grade students in special day and mainstream classrooms have performed below grade
level in basic reading skills performance on the summative state tests for the last 2 years,
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 51
according to the online school accountability report card (SARC). The third grade was the
selected level of learning because numerous studies, such as the 2010 report published by the
Annie E. Casey Foundation, suggested that the third grade level of reading is a pivotal transition
for all students in reading expectations because children are emerging from basic phonemic
awareness instruction, which is literally learning sound understanding of words and being able to
hear, recognize and manipulate individual sounds that form a word. The 2010 Annie E. Casey
Foundation report contends that students in grades K-2
nd
are learning to read while in 3
rd
grade
and above, students are expected to be reading to learn. Dr. Jeanne Chall, an educator and
reading researcher trained at Harvard University is reported to have coined this phrase which
continues to be widely quoted in many studies conducted by current reading researchers.
Prior to the study, the researcher e-mailed the superintendents of Lime Grove and
Acornfield School Districts’ (pseudonyms) requesting their permission to conduct a research
study at one of their school sites. The e-mail response from each school district superintendent's
office granted approval and authorized the request after receiving a copy of the researcher’s
institutional review board (IRB) notice. A coordinator from each participant school district was
assigned to contact the researcher via e-mail and provided information about the name of the
school principal to be contacted. The coordinator informed the researcher that the district
selected the school site because there was an educator teaching third grade LD students in the
classroom setting which was the purposive population sample specified in this case study. After
calling the principal at each school, the researcher was invited to the site to meet with the LD
third grade educator selected by the principal. The researcher thoroughly described the purpose
of the study to the principal and the selected LD teacher, answering all questions and concerns
from the educator related to the confidentiality of their participation in this study. Assuring each
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 52
teacher participant that proper protocol would be followed and no reference to their identity
would be revealed even in the recorded interviews, the researcher proceeded to outline the
proposed investigation, collected the signed teacher consent forms from each educator agreeing
to participate in the research, and scheduled tentative dates and times to begin the 4-week
investigation. As suggested by Creswell (2014), the initial visit to the selected school sites before
beginning the study helped to establish a rapport with the two third grade educators agreeing to
participate in this case study by answering all their questions and concerns directly and honestly.
The first 4 weeks of the study were conducted at Spotlight Elementary and the next 4
weeks at Greenbox Academy. A total of eight consecutive weeks included 10 hours in a
classroom at each school site to observe the participant's behavior and interaction with students
while teaching language arts concepts targeted to increase reading, grammar, and writing skills.
Dates and times were scheduled at the convenience of each participant within the designated 1-
hour blocked language arts frame 3 days per week on-site beginning at 9:00 a.m. The researcher
arrived by 8:45 a.m. in order to review notes from the previous day. During the classroom
observations, the researcher was allowed to sit at the front of the classroom at both sites, which
allowed a clear view of the participants' behavior, the faces of each student, and the participants'
verbal instructions to the students during the implementation of the mnemonic strategies as
described in the findings.
Setting
Observations and interviews were conducted in two urban communities in Southern
California. Student demographics and the 2014-2015 California Assessment of Student
Performance and Progress(CAASP) summative literacy test scores were reported in the online
School Accountability Report Card (SARC) for the two participating school sites, Spotlight
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 53
Elementary and Greenbox Academy. The SARC report reveals that less than 40% of the student
population tested, including LD students, met the literacy requirements on the most current state-
mandated year end assessment and the report card confirms that the literacy scores have been
stagnate with no increase in the percentage of LD and general education 3
rd
through 6
th
grade
students required to take the state summative assessment at both school sites for the past two
years. For purposes of this study, the information about the standardized test scores is noted to
provide meaningful information about the third grade-level of skills expected from LDs and
general education students on state developed summative assessments to demonstrate his or her
ability to read, analyze, and write detailed answers related to questions about story elements and
vocabulary word meanings in the passages provided. Poor readers in need of additional support
in the development of his or her literacy skills could benefit from lesson plans and instructional
practice activities developed by teachers trained to incorporate mnemonic visual and keyword
strategies which are designed to enhance memory skills and recall capabilities of prior
knowledge by providing a scaffold for learning and understanding rigorous subject matter.
The two participating third grade educators' were observed by the researcher in the role of
a complete observer during the blocked language arts time frame in the natural setting of their
classroom and a 1-hour collaborative lesson planning session at their school site. The researcher
was guided by a list of factors that identified what must be observed and addressed during the
classroom and lesson planning observations in order to shed light on possible answers to the
research questions. For example, the behavior and facial expressions of the participant during
the observations, specific details about the literacy lesson plan activities and how the
instructional practices were implemented, student interactions, collaborative discussions, and
initial interpretations of the information describing patterns and initial interpretations were noted
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 54
immediately after the observation as well as the time, date, name of participant being observed,
and the location.
An individual semi-structured 1-hour recorded interview with each participant was
conducted in the privacy of their classroom at the end of the school day in order to increase the
comfort of the interviewee in a distraction-free natural setting and the likelihood of attaining
quality information. The prepared 20 open-ended questions allowed the researcher to probe for
rich, personalized information from the participants that provided deeper insight into the
interpretation of the findings.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Throughout the study, the researcher continually checked for biases by writing notes
daily in the margins about initial interpretations of the data because of personal experiences as a
classroom teacher for many years collaboratively working with mainstream grade-level
colleagues in the development of fourth grade reading unit lessons. To further minimize bias
during observations and interviews noting the participant’s behavior, the researcher was guided
by Merriam’s (2009) suggestion that qualitative case study research should offer insights from
the gathered data excluding past personal experiences offering individual opinions. The newly
gathered data can then be used as hypotheses or propositions in further research becoming the
impetus in advancing knowledge in the field of education.
The field notes combined rich descriptive details about how the collaborative interactions
and responses of the selected educators’ and their grade-level colleagues discussed the strategies
and materials used in the literacy lessons presented to LD third grade students in the context of
their mainstream classrooms featuring mnemonic strategies. As previously mentioned, a semi-
structured interview was conducted with the teacher participants during an on-site visit using
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 55
open-ended questions which allowed the interviewer to probe for more details and the
interviewee to offer additional information not included in the prepared questions. The
researcher developed an interview protocol which included a script to guide the interview
process in order to reduce the possibility of overlooking or forgetting critical questions that could
provide important details (Merriam, 2009). Beginning with questions about the basic background
of the interviewee, there was an attempt to build trust between the researcher and the interviewee
in order to ensure that all information provided by the responder would be correctly noted in the
interview transcripts including all details discussed.
The central phenomenon addressed in this qualitative case study used an emergent design
which allowed adjustments in the data collection process once the 4-week study began (Creswell,
2014). Literacy lesson plan documents were collected from the participants and analyzed to add
an additional source of information to strengthen the credibility of the findings to answer the
research questions.
Research Question One
The first research question asked, "How are literacy lesson planning strategies developed
by classroom teachers using mnemonic devices for LD third grade students at Spotlight
Elementary and Greenbox Academy?"
To explore the researcher's interpretation of the meaning of the actions taken and
strategies implemented by the teacher participants in the lesson planning and instructional
delivery of the reading lessons which included mnemonics, the researcher observed the behavior
and noted the dialogue during the collaborative planning session. Lesson planning observation
notes richly described the following information. First, the educators demonstrated how the
standards for each unit were selected which focused on reading, grammar, and writing concepts.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 56
Second, the researcher noted how the objectives and lesson themes were outlined and supported
with mnemonic visual activities developed to augment student understanding related to the
meaning of the selected vocabulary words and recall of grammar rules targeted in the lesson
plan. Next, the reading material which included writing activities using illustrations to
demonstrate an understanding of text details was selected and the daily reading portions of the
story were outlined. Finally, the end of the unit formative assessment tool is created by the
grade-level teachers collaboratively or the individual classroom instructor in order to measure
and monitor the student's achievement level, comprehension of the concepts that were taught,
and to guide future teacher lesson planning and setting of student goals toward mastery of the
grade-level standards. The observation field notes detailed the interactions observed during the
one hour lesson planning session, the informal conversations between colleagues about the
literacy lesson plan objectives and how the mnemonic tool was developed by the educator
participant.
Research Question Two
The second question asked, "How are literacy lesson planning strategies implemented in
the classroom by teachers using mnemonics for LD third grade students at Spotlight Elementary
and Greenbox Academy?"
The researcher observed the implementation of the literacy lessons using mnemonics in
the classroom of each participant throughout the 4-week investigation. The initial instructional
approach of one of the educator participants’ began with the teacher asking the students’
questions about their prediction of what the story would be about based on the illustrations
provided in the text. The other participant teacher began the literacy lesson using mnemonic
graphic organizers to frontload the vocabulary words used in the unit lesson text. Both
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 57
instructional approaches included visual representations to engage the students in the learning
process which included supportive mnemonic intervention. Mnemonic learning tools created by
the participants in this study used verbal and letter visual cues featured in acrostic and acronym
charts to enhance understanding of grammar concepts, graphic organizers to identify text details
and the sequence of events in a story, describe story elements, and write summaries using text
evidence. For example, a concrete visual symbolic image, an ant farm container, was used in the
instructional delivery of one of the participants in order to stimulate the retrieval of possible prior
knowledge as well as learning new information presented in the instructional materials which
provided support for LD students having problems grasping the meaning of the word 'habitat'
introduced in the selected vocabulary list featured in the informational text selected for the
literacy unit lesson.
One of the educator participants implemented the literacy lesson using mnemonic graphic
organizers to frontload the new vocabulary words in the selected text. The instructor selected and
reviewed the ten words initially and requested that the students repeat each word after the
instructor noting the spelling of the word. Next, the teacher instructed the students to work in
pairs locating each vocabulary word in the story and then using a graphic organizer to draw a
picture next to the vocabulary word in order to demonstrate their understanding of the meaning
of the word and how it was used in the story. Finally, the participant explained to the students
that the picture graph would help them to visualize the word meanings and increase their
understanding of the story's main idea. The instructional delivery methods of the participant
teacher in this investigation during the implementation of the literacy lesson objectives was
observed by the researcher and the data collected included visual representations developed by
the participant educators to promote LD student learning and motivation to engage in the
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 58
learning process. Interpretations of the collected data by the researcher described the on-task
student behavior and partner discussions related to classroom academic materials introduced
using mnemonic strategies including illustrations following verbal instructions as compared to
student distractions including frequent requests to go to the bathroom when the instructional
materials did not include collaborative activities which included mnemonic supportive tools.
Specific details of the implementation strategies are provided in Chapter Four.
Data Analysis
Data gathered from a recorded semi-structured interview, informal discussions with each
participant, observational field notes, and copies of teacher-created literacy tool documents were
securely stored in a locked box that was used to ensure the information from the multiple sources
of data collected in this case study would remain accurate and safe. The interview transcripts
were closely reviewed and reread daily during the study in order to analyze notes in the margins
stating the researcher's initial interpretations of the collected data. Field notes from classroom
observations included rich descriptions of the participants' behavior, responses to interview
questions, and the researcher's analysis of the teacher-created mnemonic lesson tools
documented providing specific details about the participants' strategies in developing the device
which incorporated mnemonic techniques. Additional notes included details about the setting and
observed classroom activities as well as the classroom environment.
Categorical coding of the data was used to organize the information in the frequency of
the recurring patterns and themes. The detailed field notes, documents and interview transcripts
allowed the researcher to identify and interpretively integrate portions of data in order to provide
a better understanding of the meaning of the central phenomenon, mnemonic intervention.
Focusing on the participants’ responses to the semi-structured interview questions, the recorded
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 59
conversations were reviewed and written in the interview transcripts without bias from the
researcher’s interpretations of the dialogue. Interview transcripts and classroom observation
notes provided additional insight in the development of themes and patterns in the data gathered.
Finally, a descriptive analysis of the field notes, classroom observations, lesson planning
documentation, and interview transcripts was integrated into a presentation of the findings.
This qualitative case study provided an informative exploration of mnemonic intervention
incorporating the triangulation of multiple units of gathered data. The process of data analysis
included identification of the data collected from the investigation which responded to the
research questions guiding this case study. The collected data was initially analyzed manually
using an open coding process which allowed the researcher to input additional notes into the
margins identifying possible recurring patterns and themes such as student motivation, teacher
creativity in lesson planning, and the use of visual representations in instructional delivery
methods emerged from the gathered data. Reflective memos were written at the conclusion of
each of the semi-structured interviews with the third grade teacher participants to eradicate any
personal biases from past experiences as a classroom teacher and notes were inserted which
related to initial interpretations of the data prior to transcription. Afterward, the data was
organized and analyzed in a more descriptive manner according to recurring patterns and themes
in an effort to make sense of the information and identify insights which substantiate the
findings.
The last stage of the data triangulation process was conducted using the collection of
literacy documents and teacher-created visual mnemonic tools developed by the educator
participants’ using a basic comparative analysis method. After completing the interview
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 60
transcripts, the researcher reviewed them multiple times to note whether additional categories
and themes emerged from the data.
Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the purpose of this study as well as the research
questions guiding the study. A rationale for approaching this investigation as a case study
included the multiple resources of data collected in order to strengthen the validity of the
interpretation of the findings. The research design included the data collection methods, data
analysis validity concerns, and the elimination of biases in the interpretations of the findings.
Further, the four-week research study timeline at each school site has been thoroughly described.
The researcher aimed to develop the case study to explore the central phenomenon,
mnemonic intervention. Chapter one was an overview of the proposed investigation and
provided background information about the purpose of the study. Chapter two offered a review
of the literature related to the history of mnemonics. Chapter three addressed the research design
used in this study. Chapter four presents the findings in the qualitative research investigation.
Chapter five of recommendations for future practice and research in the exploration of
mnemonic intervention as a supportive tool to enhance literacy instructional planning and
delivery methods in the classrooms of educators teaching LD students.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 61
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Silver, Strong and Perini (2007) suggested that instructional research provided
compelling evidence that success in core academic subject matter for learning disabled students
is significantly improved when educators cultivate strategic thinking in their development of
effective lesson plans which incorporate visual supports that align with the diverse learning
styles and needs of their students. This study explored the use of visual mnemonic intervention
and keyword vocabulary strategies in instructional practices. Data collected through informal
conversations, interviews, classroom observations, and analysis of lesson planning strategies,
literacy tools, and formative assessment documents are presented in this chapter to derive
meaning about the phenomenon of mnemonic intervention as a tool to improve reading
proficiency in LD third grade students. Additionally, the researcher’s interpretations of the
findings emphasize the meaning of the individual patterns and themes identified in the study to
answer the research questions and offer a clearer understanding of the teacher participants’
perspective about the inclusion of mnemonic strategies in literacy instruction. Data are conveyed
through each of the research questions to highlight the nexus among the dominant themes.
Descriptive Characteristics of the Participants
Two third grade educators agreed to be a part of this research. The participants
contributed to this study through informal conversations, classroom and lesson planning
observations, teacher-created mnemonic learning tools, and a semi-structured interview
conducted in the natural setting of their classrooms. In accordance with the participant consent
agreement form signed by each teacher participant prior to the beginning of the study and IRB
protocol, confidentiality was maintained, and a two-letter code was assigned to each participant.
Ms. ZK, a soft-spoken Hispanic educator, was the lead teacher in a second and third
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 62
grade combination special day classroom with 13 students (seven were third graders and six were
second graders) and two teacher assistants who provide instructional support under her guidance.
Ms. ZK began teaching in 1989, had taught general education students in first through sixth
grades and had experience as an elementary school administrator for two years from 2010 to
2012. After receiving her Special Education credential in 2012, she chose to return to the
classroom where she taught LD students with mild to moderate autism, a disability with
characteristics such as difficulty with language or communication skills due to sensory
difficulties, according to Ms. ZK. Her classroom also included students who have been
diagnosed by the school psychologist as intellectually disabled, which Ms. ZK explains was
formerly labeled mental retardation, language and visual processing disorders, and attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
The numerous learning disability challenges of the students in Ms. ZK's classroom made
her a good match for this study because she shared that she must adjust her lesson plans and
instructional methods daily to accommodate her LD students' needs. Ms. ZK explained,
Every lesson I plan has to be open to an intervention that accommodates or supports
student understanding of the reading material that is presented to help a struggling
student access the subject matter and instruction as well as to demonstrate what he or she
knows. Sometimes visual examples are the best way for my students to learn and I have to
create it myself because I can't find it anywhere else.
Additionally, Ms. ZK stated that she was interested in further exploring the inclusion of
mnemonic letter strategies such as acronym charts to support the literacy skills of her LD
students and to improve her instructional practices.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 63
Mr. MX, an enthusiastic African American educator, began his teaching career in 1997
and had taught general education students in second through sixth grades. At the time of this
study, Mr. MX taught a mainstream third grade classroom with 20 students enrolled. Five of his
students had LDs diagnosed as ADHD and dyslexia which required special accommodations for
learning in his classroom as specified in their IEP or 504 plans. The LD students participate in
Mr. MX's classroom daily in all academic lessons with one teacher assistant who provided
instructional support for the LD students under his guidance for 2 hours daily during the literacy
and writing blocked schedule in the morning beginning at 9:00 a.m.
Mr. MX was also an experienced educator who stated that he had included mnemonic
devices such as picture representations and acronym charts in previous literacy lesson plans and
delivery instruction for the past two years because of the connection the tools provide for
students who may not understand the grade-level concepts taught as quickly as others. Mr. MX
stated,
The inclusion of visual illustrations allows some LD and general education students to
access instructional materials in ways that don't require them to decode standard print
because of a cognitive disability. Using the visual supports like pictures and graphic
organizers can change the way the student responds to the lesson and they seem to be
more engaged in learning new information that is interesting to them.
Further, Mr. MX expressed an interest in continuing to examine how the inclusion of mnemonic
devices impact student participation in classroom literacy activities as well as his lesson planning
strategies and instructional practices in all subject matter.
Both participants in this qualitative case study have many years of experience in teaching
various grade levels as well as developing reading lesson plans for LD and mainstream students
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 64
in public school classrooms and mnemonics was not an unknown strategy or concept to either
participant. Therefore the researcher did not explain the technique nor demonstrate what visual
and letter mnemonic tools are designed to do. Additionally, although the researcher did not
intentionally select a special day classroom and a mainstream classroom educator to participate
in this case study, the data gathered from observations and interviews enriched the information
collected and clarified the researcher's interpretation of the findings as related to answering the
research questions and identification of themes.
With less experienced educator participants additional information and instruction from
the researcher may have been necessary which could increase the implications of bias in the
researcher's interpretations of the findings because of personal input.
Themes in the Findings
The three themes that emerged from the data addressed both research questions and
focused on student motivation, teacher creativity in lesson planning, and visual representations in
instructional delivery methods. While the themes are interwoven in the conversations reported
during the collaborative lesson planning observations and semi-structured interviews, there is
perhaps some overlap among them. Both participants stated in informal conversations and in a
semi-structured interview that their primary challenge in planning literacy lessons was to
improve student engagement in the subject matter and participation in the lesson activities
presented in order to enhance academic performance in classroom formative and state mandated
assessments as well as mastery of the skills taught. Further, the participants offered information
about their efforts to promote a classroom environment that encourages student interactions,
creative learning opportunities, and a place where all students feel supported in reaching their
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 65
learning goals. The researcher's field notes which included statements from the educator
participants provided additional insight in the interpretation of the theme findings.
Student Motivation
Analysis of the data suggests that additional opportunities for extended practice activities
using visual mnemonic learning tools along with strategically focused objectives in lesson
planning allow LDs to concentrate on mastering limited portions of unfamiliar and new subject
matter. The researcher observed that extended learning time allowed LDs to work at a slower
pace than more advanced classmates in small groups of 4 or less students and individualized one-
on-one teacher support during the literacy instruction hour using mnemonic learning tools such
as graphic organizers with illustrations. The additional practice activities and instructional
support motivated LDs to participate in whole-group and student-paired classroom discussions
because LDs eagerly volunteered to answer questions in the observed class discussions and were
not shy about sharing their understanding of story elements when asked by the teacher.
Further, both participants stated that the mnemonic tools added organized meaningful steps taken
by LD students in processing new information and increased a sense of efficacy and belief in his
or her capabilities to achieve a learning goal as well as the desire to challenge themselves with
answering questions about story elements and new subject matter that was difficult to
comprehend on their own using only traditional methods such as a workbook or worksheet
listing questions.
Ms. ZK shared the following information with the other two third grade teachers and
literacy coach who attended all grade-level lesson planning meetings at Spotlight Elementary
every 6 weeks:
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 66
I have noticed that most of my students need additional practice activities throughout the
unit lesson which included visual tools like illustrations and letter charts to help them
understand rigorous portions of the lesson. I break down the amount of work they are
required to complete daily including more supportive devices to increase their
understanding about the concepts being presented. Giving the slower learners smaller
amounts of work at a slower pace boosts student motivation to make an effort to master
the concept because they are not overwhelmed with trying to learn a lot of new material
that is unfamiliar to them and the pictures really help them to remember the information.
When asked by one of the general education third grade teachers to explain what
evidence confirms that the slower pace and additional practice activities increase student
involvement in the learning process, Ms. ZK responded, "Student response to specific questions
in writing activities about story elements, grammar rules and vocabulary knowledge standards
being taught throughout the 6-week unit lesson are more detailed and the students are eager to
share with me and their peers about what they have learned in whole-group and in pair-share
discussions."
The researcher observed the energetic collaborative discussions in both participants'
classroom when mnemonic visual learning tools were included in the literacy lesson presented.
LDs and general education students worked in pairs or small groups of four and eagerly shared
their understanding about new material and unfamiliar concepts in Mr. MX's classroom. Most of
Ms. ZK's students worked only with one partner. Students in both classrooms were fully engaged
during the 1-hour observation period daily and there were no students in either classroom asking
to go to the bathroom, distracting other students, or disturbing the learning environment with
misbehavior. The mnemonic visual learning tools allowed the students to work at their own pace
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 67
with the additional verbal support from their peers' understanding of the instructional
requirements of the content materials and focus objectives of the classroom assignment. The
participants were observed walking around the classroom and providing individual help to
students who raised their hands to get further clarification about the task or reading material.
According to Mayer (2011) to improve the academic skills of all students, the learner
must first be engaged in or motivated to want to be a part of the learning process. Creative lesson
plans that engage most learners, according to Brunn (2010), feature many opportunities for
student involvement during collaborative activities which foster student thinking, memory of
prior knowledge, and include visual tools which provide meaningful cognitive connections that
stimulate lively small and whole group classroom discussions about the subject matter. Mayer
(2011) suggested that the student must first personally relate to or make an effort to make-sense
of the information presented in a classroom instructor's lesson in order to engage in the
cognitive processes during learning which increases student motivation defined as observable
goal directed behavior.
Both verbal and non-verbal tools to engage LD and all students in the learning process
are concepts featured in Paivio’s DCT (1971) which suggests that human memory processing of
information learned and to be learned requires both verbal and non-verbal systems in order to
transmit knowledge. Observational notes include data that the strategies of both participant
teachers in their development of literacy lesson plans which included mnemonic devices such as
pictures and illustrations (non-verbal representations) as well as their instructional delivery
methods (verbal) were targeted to increase student motivation and participation from the LD
students needing additional support. For example, making accommodations for LD students that
chunk or break up rigorous portions of the learning material increases their engagement in the
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 68
learning process (Mayer, 2011) and including mnemonic visual representations which link
referential connections in human memory, according to Sadoski and Paivio (2013), provide
meaningful connections which encourage student interest in learning the new information
presented in the planned literacy unit lesson activities.
Mr. MX offered his strategies to maintain LD student engagement in the development
and implementation of reading lesson plans during the one-o-one interview:
Providing explicit steps within the reading lesson such as demonstrating how to use a
graphic organizer to note specific details at the beginning of the unit helps my LD
students to remain involved in the material presented. When my LD students are
provided with a learning tool that allows them to visually interact with challenging
concepts their anxiety seems to be reduced because the new information is now presented
in the context of a familiar representation and the student can relate to it, so they
participate better in the learning process.
In this study, data suggests that providing a detailed strategy or process when learning
new material that is difficult to master provides the student with a support system that includes
relatable visual representations and mnemonic tools that connect prior knowledge to the
challenging process of gaining an understanding of new academic concepts required at each
grade level promotes student motivation and learning. Further, the classroom environment was
also mentioned by both participants in this study as a factor in student motivation though
enhanced intervention by the teacher's creation of a positive welcoming climate. The classroom
environment in student motivation will be discussed in this chapter.
According to Paivio's DCT (1971), learning and memory is stimulated whenever image
representing cognitive connections develop between verbal processes (teacher's instructions) and
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 69
the non-verbal mnemonic tool (graphic organizer) human learning and memory is stimulated
because the student's understanding of the concept is made clearer. Providing a classroom
environment that is conducive for learning increases student motivation to become involved n
the process of developing cognitive skills capable of examining and applying referential,
representational, and associative connections that link new information to the metacognitive
processing of the subject matter being taught using mnemonic learning devices designed to
augment memory skills (Putnam, 2015).
Student motivation and classroom environment. There are many recent studies that
focus on the crucial role the classroom environment plays in keeping all students engaged in the
learning process which impacts student success in understanding information presented in
academic subject matter (Bucholz & Sheffler, 2013; Cheng, 2013; Cornelius & Herrenkohl,
2013; Miller & Cunningham, 2013). For purposes of this study the inclusion of descriptive
details related to the classrooms of the educator participants provided additional insight related to
the theme of student motivation and how teacher lesson planning objectives are developed to
enhance the literacy skills of LD third grade students using mnemonic devices.
Ms. ZK's classroom had colorful charts on the wall that included mnemonic visual
examples of word families. For example, the chart displaying the family of -ane words includes
student illustrations of examples featuring a plane, candy cane, and window pane. Displays of
student work frame the back wall as well as designated interest areas such as an independent
reading section near the classroom library with two chairs, puzzles, word cards and a small
table for students to use after completing their class work before recess. The desks were arranged
in a connected U-shape to include all pupils who can quickly be assisted during the learning time
by Ms .ZK and her two assistants as needed. The students move safely in the room working in
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 70
pairs or with one of the assistants. All LDs are fully engaged in the lesson activity which
includes a writing task using the vocabulary words in sentences and illustrations to demonstrate
their understanding of the meaning of the word. Ms. ZK stated,
The desk arrangement is designed to encourage student discussions during language arts
and math activities included in the lesson plan and to provide an organized and safe
environment that has positively impacted student motivation in the learning process
because my students feel comfortable when asking me, the assistant teachers, or their
peers a question about any part of the daily lesson activities that they don't understand.
The data in this study suggests that LD and general education students were better
engaged in the learning process in a classroom when the teacher not only manages the
classroom's physical arrangement but also prepares engaging lesson plans with relevant teaching
aids such as mnemonic acronym charts of the capitalization rules and illustrations of family
words to support learning and stimulate the motivating character of the learning environment.
Mr. MX's students are seated in pairs facing the whiteboard at the front of the classroom.
Designated interest areas feature a writing area at the front of the classroom, class library near
the teacher's desk at the back of the classroom, and student work is displayed on the writing,
reading, math and science boards in the designated interest areas. The mnemonic synonym and
antonym acrostic chart is posted in the writing section of the classroom as well as writing
summary graphic organizer charts used daily during the literacy lesson. The environment is
orderly and promotes independent reading opportunities and student-led collaborative learning in
the paired seating arrangement. Mr. MX stated,
The seating arrangement encourages guided discovery in which all students, including
LD students, have the opportunity to discuss details in the stories with their peers and
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 71
explore various genres of reading material from books available in the classroom library
and those checked out when the students visit the school library each week In the
development of the 3rd grade literacy lesson plans, a weekly independent reading
activity and a monthly book report are always included . My students are better motivated
to read more often when they are allowed to pick their own reading material and the
consistent reading activities have significantly improved all my students 'writing and
vocabulary performance on classroom assessments. With a higher-performing general
education student seated next to a lower-performing LD student there is also an increased
sense of motivation for the LD students to make a stronger effort to become involved in
class activities. Working together with a stronger student, slower learner's understanding
of new subject matter as well as a desire to read more books improves. Additionally,
some students feel more confident about discussing new information learned in class and
in the reading material with a seat partner rather than a large group.
The mainstream teacher participant's assertion about pairing a higher-level partner with a lower
level partner aligns with past theorists such as Vygotsky (1987) who suggested that cognitve
change directly impacting learning occurs within the zone of proximal development with
individuals, a higher and lower performing partners, participating in peer collaboration or guided
teacher instruction in order to create a process of cognitive exchange.
The data collected in this case study provided significant information to support the
researcher's interpretation of the theme findings related to the benefits of extended practice
activities included in the development of the participants' lesson plans and instructional methods
in this research study that increase student motivation. Further, the data supports the conclusions
about how student motivation was observed by the researcher and stated by the participants
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 72
related to the lesson planning development processes, instructional delivery practices, and
classroom environment inclusion of mnemonic devices. According to Paivio’s DCT (1971),
human accessibility to visual images and other nonverbal representations in an environment such
as a classroom directly impacts motivation for learning by stimulating referential and associative
connections in memory through lesson plans and instructional practices in order for meaningful
learning to occur. The information in this study provides an acceptable conclusion that visual
mnemonics incorporated in the development of literacy lessons as well as instructional delivery
practices, and posting of relevant teaching aids such as mnemonic acrostic and acronym charts to
facilitate learning in the classroom provided a scaffold for 3rd grade LDs and increased student
motivation to participate in learning new and rigorous grade-level language arts concepts using
words and pictures presented to enhance his or her literacy skills.
Teacher Creativity
The two participants in this study stated in the semi-structured interviews that there was
no encouragement by school administrators and district leaders in the examination, designing
and implementation of strategic innovative lesson plans which target the augmentation of
memory skills like mnemonics despite the fact that low performance in standardized literacy and
math scores have not improved in the last two years at Spotlight Elementary and Greenbox
Academy, according to their online school records. Most school districts, suggests Sawyer
(2013), are more concerned with complying to state mandated standard procedures for learning
and assessment than the development of teacher creativity practices which emphasize a deeper
understanding of concepts that prepare students and educators to build an adaptive expertise or
the ability to apply what you know to new situations. For example, Sawyer (2013) explained that
teachers should become more effective discussion leaders by becoming aware of improvisational
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 73
acting techniques which are unplanned and unscripted actions guiding students toward social
construction of their own knowledge and how it provides meaning in their understanding of new
information presented. Mnemonic learning tools are designed to support the processing of prior
knowledge and new subject matter by teaching LD students to construct visual and letter cues
that enhance their ability to relate to unfamiliar concepts. The teacher-created mnemonic tools
developed by the participants in this study are described and discussed in this section.
Additionally, the teacher participants in this study provide information about their inclusion of
creative strategies in the development of their lesson planning and instructional practices using
mnemonic techniques.
According to Ms. ZK,
The mnemonic chart actually helped to increase my LD students’ ability to visualize and
focus on the literacy skills being taught. For example, using the first letter in the word
MINTS helped my LD students understand what words should be capitalized. The
students started to recognize capital letters in the reading material and when they were
writing sentences they used a capital letter to start the sentence and I saw that this chart
was helping them to remember. Initially, I taught the lesson using a traditional work sheet
naming capitalization rules without mnemonic techniques that help to cue the students
about the words that need to be capitalized. None of the students remembered anything
about capitalizing words when writing sentences or in the classroom writing activities.
When asked how she developed the MINTS mnemonic acronym chart, Ms. ZK gave the
following explanation:
After writing down the capitalization rules listing the different words that needed to be
capitalized, thought about how I could get the students to remember the rules. Then, I
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 74
looked for ways I could put these rules in order to form a word they would understand the
meaning of so it would be easier for them to recall what rule the letter cue stands for.
When I started with the letter M, I found that the word MINTS formed a word that all my
students could understand and relate to because I have a jar of peppermints on my desk
and the students are always asking me about giving them a piece of candy. Getting the
students to relate the first letter of the word to a specific rule took 3 days of practice
activities which included sentence writing with illustrations to provide visual support
while practicing the capitalization cues. For example, M is a cue letter to capitalize the
months of the year. When I introduced the chart, the mint jar was used as a visual
reference to help the students connect the word MINTS to a familiar concept. An
illustration is provided in Table 4 showing the acronym mnemonic chart developed by
Ms. ZK to support LD student learning in her classroom.
Table 4
Teacher-Created Acronym Mnemonic Tool for Learning Capitalization Rules
What Do I Capitalize?
M Months and days (Example: January, April,
etc.)

I The word ‘I’ (Example: I am going to
school.)

N Names of people and places (Example:
Abraham Lincoln/Disneyland)

T Titles (Example: Mr., Mrs.)

S Start of a sentence (Example: She is playing
outside.)

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 75
The Common Core standard for English language arts-Literacy L.3.2.A requires students
in the second and third grade to be able to perform and know how to capitalize appropriate words
in titles and demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling when writing (CDE, 2015). Research conducted by the NEA over the
last decade suggests that a student's literacy development is dependent upon the interconnection
between the development of proficient reading and writing skills. The follow information
provided by Mr. MX describes how he created a mnemonic graphic organizer using illustrations
to support the writing skills of the LD students in his classroom.
A writing summary graphic organizer tool that included visual illustrations to
accommodate the LD students in his mainstream classroom was created by Mr. MX to help
struggling learners who were challenged by the writing activities in the literacy lesson materials.
The mnemonic learning tool was designed to support LDs and general education students'
ability to demonstrate his or her understanding of the story elements using text evidence in
written form. Mr. MX explained, "The inclusion of illustrations in the writing summary graphic
organizer helped the LDs and some of the struggling general education students to organize their
thoughts and retain the information in the selected story." When asked how he developed the
writing summary tool Mr. MX stated:
The LD students and some of the lower performing general education students in my
classroom were having problems writing sentences describing the story elements
(characters, setting, plot (problem), resolution and ending) because they found it difficult
to process the information using only words. They would tell me they were confused and
didn't understand what they should write, but they had no problem drawing a picture.
Illustrations included in a graphic organizer mnemonic tool allowed the students to
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 76
visualize the information. Additional writing practice activities also helped many of the
students who are now improving in their sentence structure and writing skills.
Teacher creativity in lesson planning and instructional practices empowers LDs to be
responsible for his or her own learning as interpreted by the researcher from the data collected.
According to Sawyer (2013), an innovative educator will constantly formulate new ways and
approaches in teaching to maximize student learning and understanding of academic subject
matter. In this study, the participants' creatively developed mnemonic learning tools that
supported and stimulated the cognitive memory skills of LDs to become more active in the
learning process. Further, Paivio’s DCT (1971) indicates that a learner’s recognition of visually
concrete concepts such as pictures, triggers human working memory skills which are critically
important in the development of proficient reading skills (Allor et al., 2010).
Traditional literacy lessons primarily only require an educator to select a reading text
incorporating objectives in the lessons which are aligned to language arts grade-level standards
in reading, grammar, or writing, and add a work sheet or reading material related to the story
elements. However, the inclusion of mnemonic visual tools requires the instructor to creatively
tailor lesson plans and instructional practices that provide a scaffold or supporting framework
that promotes comprehension of academic content allowing the student to develop his or her
memory skills. Therefore, learning complex concepts are better understood and remembered by
the learner when assisted by mnemonic strategies that link prior knowledge with new
information in meaningful ways. For example, the use of an illustration or concrete
representation such as the acrostic synonym and antonym chart discussed in this case study to
reminded LDs about the differences between words that have the same and opposite meanings.
Further, because test scores are considered by many educational leaders to be the single most
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 77
important factor in assessing student learning, memorization of information that is taught in the
classroom requires factual recall and sequence in answering most questions on standardized tests
(Mastropieri, Sweda, & Scruggs, 2000). Mnemonic strategies, according to Mastropieri and
Scruggs (1998), are systematic procedures for enhancing memory and are designed to promote
the development of significant strategies to take in or encode information so that is easier to
retrieve and apply to learning new information and remembering prior knowledge.
This study provided evidence in the data collected that LDs benefited from teacher
creativity in lesson planning and instructional methods that required the participants' innovative
skills to seek alternative approaches to facilitate student learning. The additional efforts of both
participants accelerated the motivation of LDs in student involvement during classroom activities
observed and significantly contributed to the researcher's interpretation of the findings.
Visual Representations in Instructional Delivery
The exploration of visual and keyword mnemonics was the focus of this case study and
how it factors into the enhancement of literacy skills for LD third grade public students. The
documents collected in this case study from the participants’ classroom and lesson planning
observations as well as the interview transcripts, showed that the inclusion of visual
representations in the delivery methods of literacy material improved content instruction because
the mnemonic devices provided a scaffold for generating new insights and ideas about the topic
from the LD students and the teacher. In this study, the visual representations included in the
vocabulary and writing summary graphic organizers, focused on the teacher-created acronym
and acrostic devices using a series of particular letters to form a word or phrase designed to
promote student learning and recall of grammar concepts. The example of an acrostic chart
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 78
created by Mr. MX was observed by the researcher during a grammar lesson on synonyms and
antonyms. Mr. MX explained,
Some of the students complained during the lesson that they needed help in order to
remember the differences between a synonym and an antonym because they kept getting
the terms confused. When I added the letters SM which stands for "Same Meaning" for
synonyms and OM for "Opposite Meaning" or antonyms next to a pair of words, the
class agreed that it helped them understand and identify the concept easier. To assist them
(LD students) to further understand the concept of same and opposite words, each student
worked with their seating partner using the letters in their name to find words that mean
the same and words that are opposite. For example the name SAM, antonyms (OM)
might be sharp-dull, awful-wonderful, and man-woman.
The researcher observed and noted that during the antonym and synonym whole-class
activity, the LD and general education students worked with his or her table partner to list words
that had the same and opposite meaning using the letters of his or her name. The classroom
environment was filled with energetic conversations about the classroom activity. All students
were fully engaged and the researcher heard and noted that there was no distracting behavior
observed.
Mr. MX stated, "This activity increases each students' word recognition and grammar
skills. The LD students as well as the general education learners students are required to include
an illustration for each word they select to represent the first letter of their name demonstrating
their understanding of the meaning of the word chosen as well as the differences between a
synonym and an antonym."
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 79
An illustration of the mnemonic chart created by Mr. MX for the grammar portion of the
language arts lesson is provided in Table 5. The chart was presented during the first twenty
minutes of the literacy lesson during a classroom presentation observed by the researcher.
The use of the mnemonic graphic organizer allowed the students' to organize their selected words
and check the glossary in the classroom anthology to verify the meaning of the selected words.
Additionally, the visual representations supported the clarification of word meanings using
mnemonic visual strategies.
Table 5
Teacher-Created Synonym-Antonym Acrostic Mnemonic Learning Tool
SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

Synonyms are words that have the same meaning (SM)
Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning (OM)
WORD (SM) SYNONYM (OM) ANTONYM
1. loud

noisy quiet
2. enormous

large small
3. wealthy

rich poor
4. intelligent

smart foolish
5. several many few

According to the common core state standards (CCSS), ELA L3.5c, all students at the 3rd
grade level are expected to be able to demonstrate his or her understanding of words by relating
them to their opposites (antonyms) and to words with similar but not identical meanings
(synonyms). The standards stipulate that acquiring and accurately using grade-appropriate
general basic academic word relationships are basic skills needed to ensure that all K-12 students
are college and career ready in literacy no later than the end of high school (CDE, 2013). The
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 80
analysis of additional support of mnemonic learning tools in this study developed by the
participants to augment LDs understanding of grammar concepts was included in the notes
following classroom observations and added meaningful insight to the researcher's findings.
Informational videos such as "The Life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr." and "Different
Kinds of Dinosaurs" are additional learning tools used by Mr.MX in his classroom during the
literacy lessons observed by the researcher to provide information about a topic and a link to
prior knowledge stored in short term memory as well as new information to be learned. Mr. MX
stated,
Videos also help students learn the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary words because the
illustrations and dialogue represent a connection to the meaning of the words that are
spoken. For example, the vocabulary word protest was confusing to some students who
said they clearly understood its meaning when it was demonstrated in the video.
Although videos are not considered mnemonic devices, the verbal and visual components
stimulate memory and recall processing skills.
Paivio’s DCT (1971) proposes that human memory is rooted in three different levels of
processing which utilize references which operate whenever images are activates, references
which use the symbolic system featuring connections developed between verbal images
representing human experiences with the names of objects, and associative processes using
connections of images that represent abstract and unfamiliar concepts and word meanings a
referred to in the previous example.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 81
Findings by Research Questions
Research Question One
The lesson planning observations were conducted during the 2-hour grade level planning
sessions in the classroom of the literacy coach at Spotlight Elementary and in the school’s library
at Greenbox Academy. The researcher in this study observed one lesson planning meeting at
each of the participating school sites for this study which totaled four hours of lesson planning
observations.
Ms. ZK at Spotlight Elementary was required to plan the unit lessons with the other
teachers in the second and third grade levels at different times because she taught second and
third grade level curriculum. The literacy coach attended all two hour meetings at this school site
every six weeks to help facilitate the understanding of the benchmark scores and target goals
which are discussed and analyzed using data from the previous unit’s assessment. The unit
design includes an initial selection of six ELA standards which will incorporate the focus
objective of the unit. The collaborative lesson planning meeting observed by the researcher is
held during the school day with the third grade level teachers during their guided instructional
planning blocked schedule for the next language arts unit. The Lime Grove District mandates
that all ELA grade level standards must be covered in a school year, however, according to Ms.
ZK, the district’s Special Education Department has directed the special day teacher’s to focus
on only three standards per unit because of the student’s learning disabilities instead of the six
standards per unit required by the general education teachers. The three common core ELA
standards that all 3
rd
grade teachers plan to teach in this upcoming unit are phonics and word
recognition focusing on long and short vowels, integration of prior knowledge and ideas about a
text, and identifying key details and story elements in a text. All teachers offer meaningful input
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 82
about how and why they want to plan the unit lesson to be most effective with their students. The
literacy couch does not offer suggestions about what standards to teach, but rather asks questions
about the teacher’s reflections on the last six-week unit; what they thought were the most
successful strategies and how they could improve on their selection of materials and delivery
methods in the next unit. The conversation is between the literacy coach and one of the general
education third grade teachers at the meeting, labeled as T1,
T1-“My students said they enjoyed the close reading activities best because the whole
class worked together to identify the main details like the characters and the setting using
the graphic organizers with illustrations. That activity seemed to increase student
involvement in the lesson activities.”
Literacy Coach- “Good, now how can you provide evidence of student involvement and
build on that information in the next lesson?”
T1- “Students were discussing their thoughts about the main characters in the story with
their peers, drawing pictures of different characters in the story, and the interactions
promoted more student-led discussions about specific details in the lesson. I will plan
more activities using the graphic organizers and close reading strategies and I will look
for more ways to have the students work together to share their ideas.”
Literacy Coach- “That’s a great idea. We can discuss some of the activities you could
include to create more student-centered close reading activities.”
A detailed examination of the collaborative planning with the third grade teachers and the
literacy coach provides insight about how Ms. ZK and her colleagues discuss, review, and plan a
unit literacy lesson plan. Examining new reading materials aligned to the standards to be
covered, the teachers discussed close reading activities, lesson objectives, daily goals of each
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 83
lesson, an end-of-the- unit assessment, and the rubric for the 6-week unit assessment. Although
the teacher's may be unaware that the inclusion of visual representations in instructional
materials utilize mnemonic strategies to enhance memory, the researcher noted this information.
At the end of each 6-week unit all teacher’s at this school site are required to schedule a
meeting with the parents of each student in their classroom to discuss the benchmark assessment,
target scores and how many points the student fell short of meeting the “Target Score” which is
80% Proficiency at Spotlight Elementary School. During the lesson planning observation, the
teachers reflected on how they might re-teach some of the standards using visual and keyword
mnemonic intervention. Letter strategies using mnemonic acronym charts to support struggling
students with language acquisition challenges were suggested by Ms. ZK who offered the
example of her rules of capitalization mnemonic tool used in her lesson about the rules of
capitalization. An example of a student performance report from the previous ELA unit is
presented in Appendix G.
The reading standard for Unit 2 focused on CCS-ELA 2-3 RL.1- Ask and answer such
questions as who, what, where, when, why, and how to demonstrate understanding of key details
in a text; refer explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers (use text evidence). The text
chosen by Ms. ZK is “The Gingerbread Man” as told by Jim Aylesworth. Integration of
knowledge and ideas will incorporate RL.9- Compare and contrast the theme in the text, the
setting and plot of stories written by the author, determine the main idea of a text and identify the
key details and explain how they support the main idea. The grammar activities chosen include
reviewing the capitalization rules and introducing pronouns. Each teacher decides how the unit
lesson will be implemented in her classroom.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 84
The Dual Coding Theory (DCT) according to Paivio (1971) supports the necessity of
visual imagery of concrete and abstract connections and representations included in teacher
lesson plans and instructional practices in developing human memory to facilitate and stimulate
learning and the acquisition of academic knowledge. Therefore the joint roles of imagery and
verbal processes in cognitive learning are suggested to be vitally important to the academic
learning process for LD and all students at all grade levels. For this study, the researcher has
included an example of the six-week ELA-third grade assessment scores to reveal the standards
tested.
Table 6 is an example of a six-week ELA assessment scores from Unit 2 including all
three third grade teachers at Spotlight Elementary with a combined total of 52 third grade
students tested.
Table 6
Assessment: ELA- Third Grade Benchmark Unit 2
Standard 1
RI.1(Reading
informational
text)
Standard 2
RI.2 (Reading
informational
text
Standard 3
L.2a
(Language
standards;
conventions of
Standard
English;
vocabulary
acquisition
and use

Standard 4
L.2b
(Language
standards)
Standard 5
L.2c
(Language
standards)
Standard 6
L.2d
(Language
standards)
Refer to
details in text
Determine
the main idea
and key story
elements
Capitalize
appropriate
words in
titles and
holidays
Use
commas in
greetings
and closing
of letters
Use an
apostrophe to
form
contractions
Use reflexing
pronouns (e.g.
myself,
ourselves)
% Proficient % Proficient % Proficient % Proficient % Proficient % Proficient
36.9 % 19.6% 41.4 % 33.3 % 32.8 % 22.5 %
% Not
Proficient
% Not
Proficient
% Not
Proficient
% Not
Proficient
% Not
Proficient
% Not
Proficient
63.1% 80.4 % 58.6 % 66.7 % 67.2 % 77.5 %

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 85
Because Ms. ZK taught a special day class, she focused on only the following three
standards for this unit; Standard 1, Standard 2, and Standard 3. As evidenced by the low
proficiency in the assessment scores, the students may benefit from additional support from the
visual and keyword mnemonics included in the upcoming literacy unit design.
The lesson planning meeting at Greenbox Academy is a collaborative session with all
grade levels present in the school’s library after school for two hours. The students are dismissed
early on each Wednesday, and the professional development (PD) meetings began 45 minutes
after students were dismissed in order to allow the teachers to eat lunch before coming to the
session. Most of the teachers arrived early to the meeting and this staff did not sit in grade level
groups for the first hour. The long oblong shaped tables were joined together and set up to have
every grade level seated together. Although the principal called the meeting to order, the teachers
independently followed an agenda prepared and distributed by the school’s instructional leader to
discuss data from the previous four-week unit ELA lesson from each grade level. All teachers
were free to comment on what each grade level might focus on in the next 4-week unit in order
to improve student performance. The discussion was not monitored or led by the principal,
instead the teachers took turns sharing their suggestions and reviewing their focus objectives,
activities and assessments in the lesson plans from the previous unit around the conference table
collaboratively sharing their perspectives about best practices they are using in their classrooms
to support student learning and new ideas they are considering in their lesson plans.
At Greenbox Academy, the professional development (PD) session provides planning
time for all teachers to work in their grade levels to devise lessons on reading and writing across
the curriculum. There are two third grade level teachers at this school. The following
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 86
conversation is noted between Mr. MX and the other third grade teacher, referred to as T2 at
Greenbox Academy.
Mr. MX: The next story in the anthology is an informative reading describing the ant and
their body parts. The focused objective or our “hook” will be to teach descriptive writing
of a topic like this with science components. Let’s look at the standards first or did you
already have an idea on how we can introduce this information?
T2: I read the story and thought about how to present this information with some visuals
to get the students motivated about ants.
Mr. MX: Ok. What kind of visual tool?
T2: How about an ant farm? I have a small plastic box that a teacher from last year gave
me. The ants are securely housed in the plastic container in white sand. I thought it might
help to engage the students if they can observe the ants in their habitat and then we can
build our lesson from that introduction. They can also take notes about their observations
which will add to the writing component of the unit lesson.
Mr. MX: That sounds like something that would involve all of the students as long as we
keep the ants in the plastic container. We can combine our classes and have the students
work in pairs to discuss their observations while they write in their journals. I like that
idea.
Analysis of the lesson planning session includes mnemonic visual supports in the lesson
introduction using keyword strategies with illustrations included in graphic organizers to support
the understanding of the selected topic of the unit lesson focused on insects and birds. For
example, the picture of a 6-branch stick is developed by Mr. MX and posted on a chart during
the ant farm observation activity to remind students that ants are insects with six legs. Further,
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 87
each student designs a picture of the ants' movements in his or her science journal at the
beginning of the unit lesson along with a brief written description of what they observed when
viewing the ants in the container. The 4-week lesson plan included daily vocabulary practice
activities using graphic organizers to support student understanding of new words in the text
which are introduced during the one hour language arts blocked time frame. An example of Mr.
MX’s lesson plan for third graders with the goal of teaching his students to develop descriptive
paragraphs and practice writing speeches is presented in Appendix H .
Mr. MX and his grade level partner teacher collaboratively discussed the formative
assessment tool which included a student creation of a visual illustration representation of an ant
(insect) and a dove (bird) as well as a writing component designed to test the reading skills of
their pupils after each 4-week unit lesson. Weekly lesson plans at Greenbox Academy are due
every Monday morning in the principal’s office before class begins and a weekly lesson
reflection form must be filled out by all teachers before coming to the PD meeting. The purpose
of the lesson reflection form according to Mr. MX is "to target student needs and exchange
teacher ideas and concerns about the best practices needed to meet the learning needs of the
student." The reading passages at this school site are included in an anthology selected by the
Acornfield school board which includes research-based instructional practices promoting the use
of visual materials in literacy lessons such as pictures and student created visual examples to
check student understanding of text materials and concepts taught.
Compilation of data collected and analyzed in this study included the observation of a
lesson planning session of the two participants and provided the following conclusions in the
researcher's interpretation of the findings. Mnemonic intervention strategies such as pictures,
concrete representations of the unit lesson plan topic (the container of ants), and communication
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 88
tools (graphic organizers) are included as visual symbols (illustrations) to express knowledge of
concepts, stimulate memory skills, link cognitive connections to prior knowledge and the
relationships between them. There is clear evidence in answering research question one about
how both participants in this study developed LD third grade literacy lessons collaboratively
with their grade-level colleagues. The mnemonic techniques included were strategically used as
supportive devices designed to enhance student understanding and involvement in learning
academic content.
Research Question Two
The observed behavior of the participants during instructional delivery of the prepared
literacy lesson plans for LD third grade students included visual and letter mnemonic
intervention learning tools created by the participants. The rich details were noted in the data
collected. The implementation of the teacher-created learning tools and the behavior of each
participants during the instruction of the lesson revealed a prepared presentation with several
opportunities for additional practice activities to allow LDs to understand the rigorous portions
of the vocabulary, grammar, reading, and writing components. In the researcher's interpretation,
the instructional delivery process of each participant throughout this study provided adequate
evidence to answer research question two. The researcher noted how the educators introduced
the reading materials for the literacy lessons a well as the inclusion of the teacher-created
mnemonic learning devices in their instructional approach in order to answer the research
question.
Ms. ZK began her literacy lesson daily with a "word study" activity for 15 minutes which
she said was required by district leaders to increase word knowledge and vocabulary skills. The
students used the letters from a selected word in the unit lesson and identified words. For
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 89
example, "Gingerbread" was the title of the book in the unit and students worked collaboratively
to identify words such as bridge, danger, and eager. They were then asked to provide a picture to
describe their understanding of the word. Only six words were required from each student
because of the limited time given and the students eagerly participated in this activity.
The acronym capitalization chart was introduced during the grammar component of the
lesson using the candy jar on Ms. ZK's desk as a concrete example of the word MINTS which
cues the information to be capitalized and reviews the information listed on the chart at the front
of the classroom using each letter in the word. She says the letter and what it represents and then
has the students repeat what she has said. After this exercise, Ms. ZK asks questions about the
letters. For example, "Who can tell me what the M stands for when we are capitalizing words?"
Students raise their hands eagerly and collectively respond to the question. She continues to go
through each letter getting correct responses from all students who are fully engaged. After
giving each student a copy of the mnemonic tool, Ms. ZK instructed her students to "work with a
partner and write an example for each of the letters in the word MINTS beginning with a month
or day you should capitalize." The students began talking to one another and decided on a month
of the year and a day of the week to write in the space provided on the graphic organizer. A few
need the help of the two teacher assistants, but most of the students were able to successfully
complete the assignment in pairs. Ms. ZK went through each letter slowly and was able to
complete all five letters within the thirty-minute time frame. The final thirty minutes of the
lesson involved whole and small group reading of the text which began with Ms. ZK reading a
few pages daily. Small group reading consisted of four students who read with Ms. ZK on the
carpeted area where they discussed details in the story such as the characters, main idea, and
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 90
other story elements which included analysis of the pictures in the text prompted by cues from
Ms. ZK. She explained,
I use the pictures to assess student knowledge about the reading material. If the student
can show me using their words and illustrations, along with the ability to locate in the
information in the text, then they are probably understanding the material being taught in
the lesson. Also, I check to see if they are able to answer questions and use text evidence
to show me and their peers where they found the answer.
Mr. MX front loaded the list of ten vocabulary words he introduces throughout the 4-
week literacy lesson related to the reading passage selected. According to Mr. MX,
Introducing the vocabulary words allows the students to get involved and connect the
word they are learning with something in their world that they can relate to. For example,
the vocabulary word "protest" was used in the story of Dr. King who is the topic of the
reading unit lesson. In order to clarify the meaning of the target word I had the students
who were struggling with understanding the meaning of the word to follow one or both of
the following steps. One, locate the word in the text and use mnemonic visual strategies
like pictures to help you remember the meaning of the word. Two, create a verbal
mnemonic like a poem or rap which also helps you remember the definition of the word.
Most of the students in my class provided positive feedback that these steps helped them
increase their understanding of difficult new vocabulary words. I personally follow these
steps as well when I discover a new word that is unfamiliar to me.
The data suggested that there is evidence that the personal development of visual and
verbal mnemonic strategies provides life-long memory techniques that can be used to increase
human understanding of unfamiliar vocabulary and complex concepts at any age.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 91
Brunn (2010) contended that supportive strategies in the instructional presentation,
particularly when teaching LD students may lack an internal child-centered framework necessary
in organized and focused instructional methods which encourages student involvement. The
traditional lecturing style of instructional delivery which primarily includes a worksheet given to
students without a prepared set of questions designed to stimulate whole-group and student-led
discussions about the topic or main idea of the reading passage selected. The inclusion of
mnemonic strategies require educators to plan literacy lessons which according to Sadoski and
Paivio (2013) offered learners a more memorable learning experience through the use of
concrete devices such as picture graphic organizers and visual illustrations linked directly to
grade-level abstract content which increases academic performance.
When asked whether mnemonics or traditional vocabulary instruction helped improve
content instruction, both teachers stated that the mnemonics vocabulary intervention improved
their content teaching. Mr. MX explained, “the mnemonic visual devices provided a scaffold for
generating ideas and accessing content knowledge for some of the LD and general education
students.” Ms. ZK concurred and added, “The keyword paired with the illustration was a
supportive memory device.”
While Ms. ZK focused on three ELA standards during the 6-week unit lessons in order to
help her students with special needs master the subject matter, Mr. MX taught standards from
the third and fourth grade level ELA expectations to challenge his general education and LD
students. Both educators utilized formative benchmark assessments at the end of each unit
lesson in order to target the areas of weaknesses in their student’s literacy skills and academic
performance.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 92
In response to the interview question about how vocabulary instruction and writing
summary activities using graphic organizer mnemonics is most effective for remembering
specific events in a text or the story elements, Mr. MX responded,
It depends on how difficult the vocabulary words are and what the writing summary
requirements include. I think you could argue that using visual graphic organizer
mnemonics is effective with LD students who are able to visualize the concepts. For
example, a term like “contain'' could be a hard concept for some third graders to visualize
because it is an abstract concept. But, by using a mnemonic concrete visual example, like
the plastic box that contained the ants, students were able to understand, relate to, and
remember the vocabulary word as evidenced by the descriptive writings in their journals
and the student-led discussions about what the students learned and understood about the
insects after observing the ants' habitat.
Ms. ZK stated that using illustrations with the vocabulary words also increased her
students’ involvement in the learning process because she noted,
My students remembered the vocabulary words, how to spell the words, and use them
properly in sentences. The illustrations made the instructional delivery of the new
vocabulary words much easier for them to understand because the students were involved
in finding the meaning of the words in the text by working with other students
independently. I noticed that they were actively participating in the lesson by asking
questions, looking in the text for clues, and interacting with their peers in student
discussions.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 93
When asked how mnemonic and direct instructional approaches are used interchangeably
in lesson planning and the implementation of literacy subject matter in the classroom, Ms. ZK
answered by saying,
I incorporate both instructional strategies because some of my LD students initially need
the direct instruction to introduce and present new content materials. For example, new
vocabulary words may be difficult for struggling students to use a mnemonic strategy
such as a visual illustration before I have had them practice pronouncing the word and
locating it in the text to look at how the word is spelled and used in the story to help the
student determine what the word means. Most of the third grade students can use the
graphic organizer easily because the tool includes visual supports to help students
remember what the word means without teacher-directed methods.
However, Mr. MX stated,
For more difficult vocabulary words, I prefer using a mnemonic visual tool because it
seems to help LD students understand the meaning of words in a text that is unfamiliar to
them. When an LD or general education student is able to include an illustration of the
meaning of a new vocabulary word it is easier for them to not only understand but also to
remember the word. Also, I have noticed that my students respond more confidently
when using the word in classroom whole-group and small-group discussions and in their
writing assignments when they discover what the word means on their own or with
another student without the teacher leading them to the answers all the time.
Allowing all students the opportunity to demonstrate their ability to develop problem-
solving skills independently increases their self-efficacy and, according to Mayer (2011),
increases academic motivation based on the idea that students work harder to learn when they
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 94
see that they are capable of academic successes on their own. Therefore, the student is
encouraged to exert more effort to learn because they want to be successful (Mayer, 2011).
To the final question regarding how students responded to the lesson plans and
instructional methods using mnemonics related to their literacy lesson involvement, Mr. MX
replied,
Most students were more involved in learning the material because they told me that the
graphic organizers and picture graphs made it easier for them (LD students) to understand
and remember specific details in the text and grammar concepts. They also responded
confidently to questions I asked during the whole class discussions about using text
evidence to answer questions about the story. I have also seen evidence in my LD
students' written responses on classroom assignments in language arts and social studies
that mnemonic strategies increased their efforts to improve their reading and writing
skills because the visual and verbal tools provided a scaffold for the new information and
rigorous parts of the lesson could be broken down into small steps to allow more time for
struggling students to gain a clearer understanding of the concepts taught.
Ms. ZK said,
After the mnemonic strategies were taught to my students, I saw better student
engagement and understanding of grammar rules and improved written responses.
Students also increased their memory of how to spell the word because spelling test
scores improved. Overall, mnemonics really helped the students focus on what I’m
teaching as well as remembering the vocabulary words. The mnemonic techniques
generated more interest in the subject matter.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 95
Although both teachers agreed that mnemonic devices required additional time for each
educator to create and incorporate in their lesson plans and instructional practices, they reported
that teacher training in mnemonics is needed to stimulate the stagnate performance of LD and
general education students in basic reading achievement as measured by formative and
summative assessments which imply that traditional strategies have not improved literacy scores.
Summary
Based on the analysis of the data collected from the interviews, documents, classroom
and lesson planning observations, the two participants were able to develop lesson plans that
included the use of mnemonic strategies designed to support the literacy skills of the LD students
in their classroom. The findings support past research focused on the application of cognitive
strategies which include visual graphic organizers and pictures to augment educator instructional
practices and development of innovative lesson plans presented to LD students who are learning
to follow directions and complete reading and writing grade-level tasks. For example, in one
study using pictorial instruction (Mithaug & Mithaug, 2003), students with autism learned to
complete academic assignments using a picture-based graphic organizer. LD students were
taught to plan, complete, and evaluate their work by circling pictures according to specified
categories such as subjects I will work on, what I will do and what I did. In an experimental
study, Rosenthal and Ehri (2008) examined the effects vocabulary acquisition using pictured
flashcards. In the 2008 study, Rosenthal and Ehri presented sets of unknown words to students in
grades 2nd and 5th. The twelve words taught to the 2nd graders were monosyllabic while the
twenty words taught to the 5th grade participants were multisyllabic. The words were taught in
both grades, orally defined in sentences, and pictured on flashcards. Results showed that students
in the 2nd grade were better able to recall the spelling of the word given its oral definition, and
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 96
the dictated words a day later. Students in the 5th grade were better able to recall the word when
shown its picture, use the word appropriately in a sentence, and spell the dictated words a day
later. Rosenthal and Ehri's 2008 study exemplifies how Paivio's (1971) DCT principles can
explain human learning to recode print to speech, learning spelling, and building meaningful
vocabulary by relating visual representations to verbal and non-verbal associates for meaning
(Sadoski & Paivio, 2013).
In this study, both educator participants developed visual mnemonic devices using
pictorial instructions to enhance the reading and writing skills of LD third grade students in their
classroom as designed in graphic organizers using student-created illustrations to demonstrate
their understanding of literacy content subject matter.
Further, the findings align with the literacy educational applications of Paivio's DCT
(1971), the conceptual framework for this study, and include the critical role of mental imagery
using visual and verbal processes in various components of literacy learning in humans that has
been established in past research literature (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Sadoski & Paivio, 1994, 2001,
2004, 2013). Some of the key findings in past research of literacy learning focus on the
importance of stimulating imagery skills in academic learning to enhance text memory, teaching
decoding, reading comprehension and writing skills to support the cognitive process of
converting printed language in textbooks to spoken language through verbal instructional
methods and the decoding process of word identification in reading (Sadoski & Paivio, 2013).
Analysis of the data support conclusions in the findings that both participants
demonstrated how they developed their literacy unit lessons incorporating the inclusion of
mnemonic strategies in their lesson planning and instructional delivery methods using the
following strategies:
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 97
1. Provided visual and verbal cues in illustrations, acronym and acrostic learning tools
developed by the educators participating in the study and tailored to the learning needs of
their LD third grade students.
2. Aligned the lesson objectives and skills taught with the common core standards, lesson
planning and instructional practices included mnemonics that stimulated mental imagery
connections designed to increase memory skills and student engagement which impact
academic achievement outcomes.
3. Literacy unit lesson designs and instructional methods associated meaningful content
targeted to increase student motivation and involvement in the learning process.
4. Both participants included chunking of daily lesson activities in lesson planning and
implementation of their delivery of instructional presentation in order to allow additional
practice activities for struggling students who needed more time and support to
understand the more rigorous content materials which focused on reading and writing
components of the literacy unit lesson.
5. The writing portion of the literacy lessons assessed the LD students ability to identify
story elements using text evidence and mnemonic visual illustrations to link cognitive
connections to the acquisition of the new information learned, assessment strategies, and
student pair-share collaborative writing activities.
6. Both educator participants in this study developed a formative assessment tool which
visual mnemonics using pictures to demonstrate the student's understanding of the
concepts taught in the literacy lesson plan and instructional practices in the
implementation of the reading subject matter.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 98
This study adds to the past and current information on mnemonic instructional strategies
for LD students in the classroom setting and presented information focused on the educator's
understanding of cognitive approaches in literacy lesson planning and instructional practices
including mnemonic devices designed to enhance the memory skills of all students, particularly
students with learning disabilities. Past studies have included statistics related to student
responses and test scores following the application of a mnemonic intervention in teaching social
studies, science, and math concepts (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998, 2000; Desrochers, Wieland,
& Butler, 1984). This study, instead, explored the educator's strategies used in the development
of literacy lessons incorporating the use of mnemonic strategies designed to enhance the memory
skills of LD and mainstream students in order to help the brain encode, decode, and recall
information that is new or may be stored in long-term memory.
Although it is often a challenge to get veteran teachers to try new teaching strategies that
may help to increase their toolbox of instructional techniques, teacher accountability
requirements, according to Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005), demand that educators arm
themselves with a variety of innovative instructional tools and approaches to instructional
practices and curriculum development in order to meet the diverse needs of the current student
population. Mastery strategies are suggested to be cultivated by educators who focus sharply on
increasing all students’ abilities to remember and summarize because these teachers, according
to Brunn (2010), motivate learning by providing a clear sequence in their lesson planning, offer
meaningful feedback in assessment scores, and convey a strong sense of competence in their
teaching capabilities which directly impacts student success in academic achievement and
performance outcomes.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 99
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Reading proficiently has been referred to as the most important foundational skill for
academic and career success according to Allor, Mathe, Roberts, Cheatham, and Champlin
(2010). Lack of proficient reading skills generally diminishes opportunities for growth in
academic performance, a reduced possibility for college acceptance, and poor development of
high-level skills which may limit a student, particularly LD pupils, to a future of low-income
jobs in adulthood punctuated by frequent periods of unemployment and layoffs (Allor et al.,
2010). Currently, more rigorous accountability standards at all grade levels (K-12) for educators
and measurements of student performance outcomes have been developed to ensure that the
common core literacy goals and expectations for learners across the country, according to
Harwell and Jackson (2008), address the diverse needs of LD students allowing them the same
opportunity as their non-disabled peers to experience high-level instruction which prepares them
for postsecondary success.
This case study aimed to interpret the meaning of the behavior and collaborative
interactions observed by the researcher in the development of literacy lesson plans and
instructional delivery practices of educator participants teaching third grade students with
learning disabilities within inclusive classrooms of the selected urban elementary schools. The
participants demonstrated how they developed and included visual and letter mnemonic
techniques and learning tools within the framework of traditional reading lessons using strategic
instructional practices in grade-level language arts lessons aligned to the core standards.
The first chapter introduced the significance of Paivio’s (1971) DCT as a conceptual
framework which proposes that human learning requires separate information channels for visual
devices such as pictures and audio processes for decoding and encoding both unfamiliar and
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 100
familiar vocabulary words. According to Paivio (1971) human learning and memory skills are
enhanced when using dual codes, imagery and verbal processes, to represent incoming
information rather than only one. The second chapter presented a review of literature about the
use of memory development techniques such as mnemonic intervention which is designed to
strengthen both long-term and working memory in order to increase the achievement and
academic performance of all students in core subjects such as mathematics and language arts,
particularly those who have learning disabilities. A brief discussion in Chapter two focused on
the differences in the purpose for ADA Section 504, which is related to the civil rights of
disabled persons from discrimination, and IDEA, which ensures that the specialized educational
needs of children with disabilities are addressed in an individualized educational program (IEP)
at their school site. Chapter three provided an overview of the purpose for this qualitative case
study, research questions, population and sample, instrumentation, data collection and data
analysis. Chapter four presented rich descriptions of the participant' behavior, interview
responses, and collaborative interactions in the field notes taken during the classroom and lesson
planning observations as well as the semi-structured interview with the teacher participants
combining the triangulation of the data collection methods,. Additionally, the three dominant
themes were discussed which were student motivation, teacher creativity in lesson planning, and
visual representations in instructional practices, and how they relate to the theoretical framework.
Chapter Five offers a summary of the purpose, significance, and methods of the research
findings, conclusions, fidelity in implementation of mnemonic techniques and implications for
future research and practice using mnemonic intervention. Additionally, the summary in this
chapter presents the researcher’s interpretation of the sequence of steps that participant educators
considered when preparing literacy activities which were designed to challenge LD and general
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 101
education students in their classrooms to move from cognition to metacognition in grade-level
language arts goals designed to enhance students' reading skills.
Purpose, Significance and Methods
This investigation explored the intervention of visual and letter mnemonic strategies
included the language arts lessons developed for third-grade LD public school students enrolled
in a mainstream classroom and a special day classroom where all students have one or more
learning disabilities. Consistent below grade level literacy student performance scores in basic
read reading comprehension and writing skills on standardized summative and formative
assessments was one of the stated reasons motivating the educator's participation in this study as
well as their declared responsibility to employ effective instructional methods that foster student
learning as measured by their students' test outcomes and classroom tasks. Field notes described
the distractive talking and walking by third grade LD students displaying little involvement in
the learning process during the teacher participant's delivery of the lesson plan objectives without
mnemonic visual supports for LD and general education students. However, when literacy
activities incorporated mnemonic strategies such as student created illustrations of story events
accompanied by written descriptions of main characters and vocabulary graphic organizers using
pictures to support student understanding of word meanings were part of the lesson the LD
students were eager to ask the teacher questions about the story elements, actively participated in
student-led partner discussions of the new information presented, and remained on task for the
duration of the language arts lesson. Student interest and ability to relate to the subject matter
being taught is one of the foremost challenges in the implementation of meaningful instructional
practices and Mayer (2011) contended that motivation is a prerequisite for all meaningful
academic learning requiring each student to make an effort to engage in the appropriate cognitive
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 102
processes of selecting, organizing, and integrating learning material presented by educators who
should consider the importance of instructional delivery preparation which provides the tools
needed for the learner to successfully obtain a clearer understanding and application of the
subject matter being taught. This study explored how the inclusion of mnemonic learning tools
impacted LD students learning new information and remembering important details provided in
the educator’s preparation of literacy lesson plans and delivery methods. Vaugh et al. (2016)
suggested that student understanding of text structure is significantly increased with visual and
keyword mnemonics because they incorporate devices such as graphic organizers which
provided a visual support helping LD students draw connections between word meanings and
story elements promoting reading comprehension skills.
During the classroom observations at both school sites, student motivation and
engagement was significantly increased when visual supports such pictures or videos were
included in thematic introductions of the reading material because students asked questions about
elements related to the text. The participants modeled how to use text evidence to point out
specific details and noted the page where the information was located to answer questions and
provide a reference for creating an illustration. Using the illustrations, the students explained
their understanding of what the story's character did and the meaning of vocabulary words in the
passages they read.
One study of visual and keyword mnemonic intervention in informational reading
instruction (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Brigham, & Sullivan,1992) involved teaching 18th century
war battles in a middle school social studies lesson using keyword mnemonics under two
condition to 38 seventh and eighth graders identified as students with learning disabilities. The
control condition learners were provided a map depicting locations of the battles, accompanied
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 103
by decorative pictures and the mnemonic condition learners received the same map with the
same pictures and keywords in parenthesis accompanying place names. The objective of the
study was to use recoded mnemonic keywords and color coding as familiar concrete
representatives to help LD students remember the name and location of the battles. For example,
the battle at Ticonderoga had the keyword 'tiger' in parenthesis and an illustration of a tiger as a
cue to remember the name of the battle, Montreal keyword 'mountain' in parenthesis alongside an
illustration of a mountain and Quebec with the keyword 'quack' in parenthesis and an illustration
of a duck next to the mnemonic keyword. Color coding of red was used if the battle was a British
victory and color coding of blue if the battle was an American victory. Analysis of results
indicated that mnemonic condition students outperformed the control condition learners without
the keywords added. According to Scruggs et al., (1992) the inclusion of a keyword with the
illustration helped the students retrieve the information by thinking of the keyword and the
interactive picture. The educators’ preparation of selected materials, lesson planning strategies
and instructional delivery methods were not examined or explored but merely listed as
procedures to follow.
Generally, past studies have focused primarily on the increase in the participating LD
students' test scores. This case study aimed, instead, to derive meaning from classroom
observations, behavior, and interactive dialogue by examining how literacy lesson planning
strategies and delivery presentations including mnemonics were developed by the educators
because the preparation and delivery methods of standards-based grade-level information and
teacher-created formative assessments of academic content knowledge involve memory of
semantic (verbally-based) content (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1998). Working memory skills in the
classroom, suggests Spencer (2011), are critical for all aspects of school success including
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 104
learning unfamiliar vocabulary words, remembering facts related to subject matter, and the
retrieval of prior knowledge linking new and previous learning experiences that increase
knowledge. Since mnemonic instruction is considered to be a technique for increasing the initial
learning and long-term retention of information, Mastropieri and Scruggs (1991) suggested that
educators may want to consider the incorporation of visual and letter mnemonic devices because
the same or similar subject matter is taught year after year and can help both the teacher and the
student acquire additional insight and remember important information.
The methods used in gathering data for this case study included a combined total of 20
hours of classroom observations in Ms. ZK’s second and third grade special day class and Mr.
MX’s inclusive third grade classroom. Two hours of lesson planning sessions were observed by
the researcher, (one hour at each school-site). Each participant also participated in several
informal interviews and a 1-hour semi-structured interview. To maintain the confidentiality of
the data collected, each participant was assigned a two-letter code unrelated to their
identification. The data were disseminated through analysis of each of the research questions to
highlight the nexus among the identified themes.
Themes in the Findings
The first research question asked, "How are literacy lesson planning strategies developed
by classroom teachers using mnemonic devices for LD third grade students at Spotlight
Elementary and Greenbox Academy?" The sequence of educators' observed behavior during
delivery of the prepared lesson plans including visual and keyword mnemonics contributed to the
identification of the dominant themes which are student motivation, teacher creativity in lesson
planning, and visual representations included in instructional delivery methods. Triangulation
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 105
and analysis of data from field notes, classroom observations, semi-structured interviews and
lesson planning documents in this case study to reveal the following:
1. The teacher participants stated that they included pictured images as well as specific
visual elaborations such as acronym and acrostic mnemonic learning tools throughout the
four-week case study to provide a scaffold for LD students exhibiting deficits in their
memory of verbal information communicated by the instructor. The educators
participating in this study reported that they began strategizing about mnemonic
intervention considering the following questions; "What would be a good way for my
students to remember this information?" "How will I and the student's remember this?"
2. The researcher observed an increase in student involvement of LD third grade students in
the partner and whole group classroom discussions about story elements in the reading
passages selected by the teacher participants as compared to the traditional lessons that
did not include visual and letter mnemonic strategies as supportive learning tools. The
theme of student motivation emerged as a dominant factor in the data collected. Both
participants stated that student involvement in the classroom activities was a critically
important factor in mastering academic grade-level learning expectations and was
considered when collaboratively discussing how to develop their unit lesson plans with
colleagues because they agreed that if the student has little or no desire to learn, teachers
must make the effort to reach them. Student motivation in the classroom could be
increased with more engaging and creative lesson planning which incorporate visual tools
allowing the LD student another way to demonstrate their learning and understand of new
and more difficult information. The participants’ further suggested that the skills of the
educator to provide a classroom environment that is conducive to learning increases
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 106
student motivation because the pupil is stimulated by verbal and non-verbal
representations, references, and associative connections to subject matter in daily
instructional materials presented by the teacher that are meaningful to them as well as
posters and charts providing continuous reminders of grammar rules, writing steps,
student work and classroom expectations. The process of two systems, verbal and non-
verbal concepts stimulating human memory as stated in Paivio’s DCT (1971) promotes
the theory of cognition. The two participants stated that instructional practices should
encourage independent thinking by educators who teach students how to increase their
memory skills using mnemonic strategies incorporated in creative lesson plans and
memory techniques that feature visual and verbal mnemonic strategies.
3. The participants reported that visual supports such as pictures and a video, should include
no more than two or three mnemonic tools in order to reduce any possible cognitive
overload which, according to Mayer (2011), refers to the total amount of mental effort
being used in the working memory as related to the value of learning information
thoroughly to improve student performance. The mnemonic materials, such as graphic
organizers using illustrations to demonstrate and acronym posters were used to scaffold
keyword vocabulary and grammar lessons and were teacher-created. The theme of visual
representations in instructional delivery methods as a creative tool to augment literacy
skills and enhance reading proficiency was reported in the interview transcripts and field
notes provided by classroom observations of the educator participants’ instructional
methods.
4. Vocabulary keyword content was initially frontloaded and reviewed during whole group
discussions. A vocabulary list was presented during the reading instruction by the
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 107
participants and included six or more words found in the reading passages that may have
been unfamiliar to the students. Both participants initially had the students work together
in pairs to discuss each word and try to determine their meaning using context clues.
Notes and ideas exchanged by the student pairs were written in their reading journals
provided by the school. LD students were paired with their non-disabled peers in Mr.
MX’s classroom and pair-share discussions were the primary activity observed in
vocabulary discussions in Ms. ZK’s classroom. Whole group activities were planned
using each of the vocabulary words in a sentence accompanied by an illustration in order
to promote the learner’s understanding of each word meaning. The sentence writing was
done as a whole group activity along with the close reading activities. According to
Paivio’s DCT (1971), verbal and non-verbal conscious information stimulates human
images and concepts that are easily understood or recognized by the mind. Putnam
(2015), suggested that collaborative activities such as pair sharing of information,
improves the LD student’s ability to acquire new information because of the sharing of
their thoughts and understanding of the topic discussed with one another or the subject
matter presented by the teacher, along with prior learning experiences that could expand
the knowledge and understanding of the students.
5. While Ms. ZK chose to focus on no more than three CCS language arts standards during
her six-week unit designs for her special education students, Mr. MX incorporated a
minimum of five ELA/literacy CCS in each of his four-week unit lesson plans in his
mainstream third grade classroom. Both participants utilized formative benchmark
assessments at the end of each unit lesson in order to target the areas of weakness in each
learner’s literacy skills that needed to be addressed. Many of the formative benchmark
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 108
assessments were teacher-created by both participant educators. An example of the
reading comprehension assessment for Ms. ZK’s students is presented in Appendix G.
The classroom observations were conducted during the regularly scheduled language arts
lessons three times a week for 1 hour each session during the 4-week investigation at each
selected site.
Kass and Jones (2009) contended that effective educators must be prepared to research
additional delivery methods in order to improve the lack of student cognitive connections
stimulated by the presentation of traditional lesson planning. The findings in this case study
suggest that innovative approaches to curriculum delivery should focus on student motivation to
be involved in the learning process. Including mnemonic intervention may not only help to
increase student memory of prior knowledge but also diminish distractions that impede student
understanding of the lesson’s objectives.
Mr. MX had five LD students in his third grade classroom, and one teacher assistant
providing instructional support under his guidance for 2 hours daily. The diagnosis of each
child’s LDs , according to the participants, was made by the school’s psychologist at both sites
using a combination of IQ tests and physical examinations. Academic assessments such as the
San Diego Quick Assessment which measures the recognition of words out of context are
administered to students in Ms. ZK’s classroom when they transferred from another school.
The instructional observations confirmed an intensified level of enthusiasm, involvement
and understanding of the passage by LD and all students participating in the reading lesson when
the picture supports and vocabulary graphic organizers were included. Additionally, both
participants stated that the literacy lesson plan was easier to instruct with the mnemonic tools
included because they provided a guideline for the presentation. The data derived from the
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 109
interviews yielded additional information focused on the participant’s perceptions about the
significance of including visual and keyword mnemonic intervention in the literacy planning and
instructional delivery practices for LD students. Each participant stated that visual learning tools
increased the comprehension and motivation of LD students because they observed the LDs
eagerness to demonstrate his or her understanding of story elements and new vocabulary learned
in the reading material selected for the unit lesson plan.
Recommendations for Practice
The following recommendations for practice based on the data collected in this case
study and the researcher’s interpretive analysis of the findings in the development and
implementation of literacy planning and instruction for students with learning disabilities using
mnemonics are as follows:
1. Reading passages at all grade levels should focus on themes which provide critical
content that empowers students in the future and also addresses the student’s current
instructional needs. Literacy materials should teach skills, vocabulary terms, grammar
concepts and strategies incorporating meaningful visual and keyword vocabulary
examples which the student is able to relate to, therefore increasing student learning.
2. Educators should plan lessons which sequence skills logically. For example, reading
easier texts before harder ones increases the self confidence of the student and motivates
the learner to make an effort to increase their reading skills.
3. Organized and focused literacy lessons with collaborative activities which allow students
to work within small groups to design their own visual representations of story elements
and vocabulary word meanings provide LD students an opportunity for supported
practice activities with their peers and encourages independent problem-solving skills.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 110
4. Mnemonic strategies such as acronym and acrostic charts, keyword graphic organizers,
and picture examples of word meanings provide additional support for student learning
and comprehension of language arts themes.
5. New literacy content should include a whole class review and discussion of relevant
information about an upcoming or past literacy lesson or text which allows student
opportunities for links to new information to be learned and the recall of prior knowledge
and learning experiences.
6. Whole- group discussions as well as small-group collaborations provide comfortable
opportunities for LD third grade students who have difficulty remembering literacy
concepts better understand the reading instructional goals and outcomes expected at each
grade level.
Recommendations for Future Research
As more LD students struggling with their developing grade-level proficient reading skills are
included in general education classrooms, differentiation of instruction is critically recommended to
meet the needs of all learners. Four future research recommendations are suggested.
1. Researchers should investigate and develop student-created mnemonic strategies using
visual and sound representations to support recall of important information in all subject
matter.
2. Because high stakes testing continues to require LD teachers to be accountable for the
delivery of large quantities of rigorous content, suggestions from LD educators should be
implemented in the development of literacy assessments detailing how and why certain
skills should be measured or evaluated in LD grade-level student performance on
standardized tests.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 111
3. New teacher training programs and educator workshops should explore teachers'
knowledge about the creation and inclusion of mnemonics in lesson planning and
instructional practices.
4. Mc Pherson (2010) contended that recall requires the direct uncovering of information
from memory. Therefore, the educators’ perception of how recall operates in LD
students’ higher order thinking capabilities and personal use of mnemonics could benefit
from further research to increase the educators' understanding.
Although many general education teachers may have little to no training in instructional
delivery and strategies that include mnemonics which support struggling learners and LD
students, Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) explain that teachers should look for new learning
strategies beginning with the use of only a few visual mnemonic techniques so they can become
familiar with acronym and keyword strategies. Unlike other learning techniques, mnemonic
instruction may not only help LD students to acquire new information, but also could assist them
in remembering or recalling previously learned subject matter.
According to Scruggs et al. (2010), the first step for educators planning to use
mnemonics in their classroom is to determine specifically what must be learned and identify the
most important and the most difficult information to remember. For example, if the vocabulary
words and definitions are determined to be the most important and most difficult information to
be learned, Scruggs et al., (2010) outline the following guidelines. First, the teacher should make
a list composed of words to be learned and use illustrations to facilitate student learning of the
meaning of each word. Second, brainstorm and discuss with others keywords for names, people,
places, and things, making a list of the type of knowledge to be taught and prioritizing the
teaching objectives from most important to least important content to be mastered. For example,
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 112
if vocabulary is first, then list reading, writing, or science activities in order of their importance.
The third step is to create pictures using photos, drawings, help from student artists, and clip art
pictures from the internet, that are relevant to the topic being taught. Finally, examine the list to
determine the familiarity level of the content determining if the content is concrete or abstract
because if the content is determined to be familiar and concrete, the instructor should locate or
develop illustration of the subject interacting with the information to be remembered. If the
content is determined to be abstract and unfamiliar, the instructor needs to find a symbolic
representation related to the information to be remembered.
For example, a concrete familiar third grade-level grammar content is synonyms and
antonyms. In this study Mr. MX used a mnemonic acrostics chart using the letters SM to
designate that words with the same meaning are called synonyms, for example protest and
rebellion; the letters OM helped students remember that antonyms are words with opposite
meanings like the words laugh and sob. He then had the students illustrate the word meanings in
order to connect to content to the new information to be learned. An example of an abstract
science content topic could use the colors green and red to represent herbivores and carnivores,
respectively listed on a chart or individual science journals for students. To show that
Brachiosaurus (dinosaur) was an herbivore, the teacher could show a picture of a green broccoli
representing the word herbivore. Broccoli is used as a keyword for Brachiosaurus. The retrieval
steps are the same with most mnemonic visual and letter strategies which are think of the
keyword, think of the image of the keyword in your mind and how it relates to the image, then
retrieve the answer (Scruggs et al., 2010).
Implications for further research require exploration of the limited evidence suggesting
that the use of student created mnemonics may strengthen the LD struggling reader’s ability to
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 113
link prior knowledge to specific content vocabulary information as well as story elements while
increasing student engagement in the learning process of personally meaningful subject matter
(King-Sears, Mercer, & Sindelar, 1992).
Educators are responsible for the facilitation of learning strategies which increase the
literacy skills of struggling LD students. LD students continue to populate the general education
classrooms and consistently perform below grade level on standardized summative assessments.
Therefore, exploring the use of mnemonic techniques may help teachers to close the achievement
gap of LD students on grade-level standardized assessments as compared to their non-disabled
peers. According to Darling-Hammond (2010), if there is a mismatch between the demands of
the necessary educational instructional needs for academic success in student learning, it may
most likely be found in a lack of knowledge and skills of the educator.
Increasing literacy proficiency in LD third grade students will require innovative lesson
planning and instructional delivery capabilities of classroom teachers who are prepared to
expand their knowledge and skills which are necessary in the implementation of intervention
strategies and curriculum development that engages all students in the learning process. Darling-
Hammond (2010)) contended that the current educational system should consider taking
approximately 3 years to develop new curriculum resources which incorporates the CCS as
guidelines and allow educators, in collaborative PD settings within and across school districts, to
select, adapt, implement, and refine their skills in the development of a meaningful course of
study.
Although there has been continuous research done about mnemonic strategies over the
past forty years, further inquiry into the inclusion and implementation of mnemonic intervention
in literacy instruction in the classroom could provide beneficial information about an increased
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 114
awareness of how mnemonics strengthen the human mind and may help to increase the academic
achievement of all learners. Further, mnemonic intervention may assist institutions which offer
teacher preparation courses a more focused approach in the training of future educators about
how to strategically organize lesson activities and materials selected in effective language arts
lesson planning and instructional delivery practices for LDs.
Fidelity in Implementation of Mnemonic Strategies
Fidelity in the implementation of innovative literacy strategies, according to Silver,
Strong, and Perini (2007) is imbedded in effective intervention programs which can significantly
influence the reading performance in LD student achievement when educators do not deviate
from the intended purpose and the use of supportive techniques designed to enhance memory
skill while providing a scaffold for acquiring new information which impacts student learning
and the development of proficient reading skills. Mnemonic strategies support the retrieval of
information from the working memory and do not represent a "philosophy of education", note
Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) who offer the following suggestions. First, mnemonics should
only be used in literacy lessons or any other content area subject matter as learning tools
designed to fortify human memory skills. Next, classroom teachers with LD students facing
challenges in reaching grade-level literacy expectations may find that the inclusion of visual,
letter, and keyword mnemonics will augment the learner’s ability to connect prior knowledge
with the representations of visual cues which stimulate human memory and recall of information
already learned. Mnemonic devices incorporated in literacy lesson plans and instructional
practices promote the support of pictures, student and teacher-created illustrations providing
concrete images of topic concepts and specific details identified in story elements found in the
reading text selected in the literacy unit lesson. The visual mnemonics increase the memory links
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 115
related to prior and new information to be learned even if the LD student is unable to retrieve
the related verbal label. For example, it is possible for a pupil to understand information about
the various locations of the 50 states in the United States or even in one state like California
while being unable to retrieve the name of the state's capital city. Although the name of the
state's capital city may be inferred in the lesson's text, the information may not be recalled
because it was never learned or associated with the topic or concept. Therefore, no prior
knowledge of the verbal label is remembered (Silver, Strong, & Perini, 2007). When mnemonics
are used as intended to improve memory skills, Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) contend that the
enhanced link between new information and prior knowledge, employing visual and acoustic
cues, usually results in improvement of student academic performance in classroom tasks and
assessment scores.
Summary
The inclusion of visual and letter mnemonic devices developed by two LD third grade
educators predominately focused on learning tools such as pictures, illustrations, acronym and
acrostic grammar charts, vocabulary, keyword, and illustrated graphic organizers, and symbolic
representations of concrete and abstract concepts incorporated in the literacy lesson plans and
implementation of instructional practices of two LD third grade educators agreeing to participate
in this case study. Using Paivio's (1971) DCT, this investigation identified three dominant
themes which emerged from the data collected which focused on student motivation, teacher
creativity in lesson planning, and visual representations included in literacy instructional
practices.
Past research of mnemonic strategies has provided significant evidence that mnemonics
are beneficial in human information processing and provide a useful frame within which to
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 116
investigate the efficacy of imagery-based mnemonics. Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998),
considered two of the most prominent authorities on the study of mnemonics, have conducted
numerous research studies in differential training of LD students involved in specific areas of
information processing noting the following comparisons between direct instruction and the use
of mnemonic strategies. First, mnemonic instruction shares with direct instruction the principles
of explicit teaching. Next, the differences between the use of mnemonic strategies and direct
instruction are found in the fact that direct instruction generally follows a format for providing
carefully supervised instruction in a content domain while mnemonic instruction is designed in
specific relation to the material being learned and is therefore content bound. Finally, depending
on the content to be learned, the instructor may elect among a variety of mnemonic techniques
which include visual and letter mnemonics to help support the learning material.
Conclusions
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) mandates
that educators are responsible for the academic performance of their students in general and
special education classrooms. Common Core grade level expectations are a set of academic
standards in English language arts/literacy (ELA) and mathematics used as guideposts by many
states. All public schools are required to maintain threshold proficiency levels in basic reading
levels on standardized tests throughout the districts as stipulated in the state regulated learning
goals. The learning goals outline what a student should know and be able to do at each grade
level. However, Fisher and Frey (2014) contend that standardized summative assessment scores
alone are not generally considered to be credible measurements of effective teaching skills.
Teacher-created literacy unit designs which include instructional materials and meaningful
student learning objectives or goals, are suggested to be better indicators of the educator’s ability
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 117
to develop strategically constructed lesson plans and delivery practices that engage pupils and
increase student learning according to Silver, Strong, and Perini (2007). Classroom educators are
held accountable for their instructional practices which directly impact the performance
achievement of their students as measured on summative language arts/literacy standardized
assessments. Effective instructional frameworks as stated by Fisher and Frey (2014) support the
cognitive load in learning throughout the pupil’s transition from teacher-as-model, to joint
responsibility of teacher to independent practice and application by the learner, particularly in the
development of proficient reading skills. The educators understanding about the learning styles
and thinking levels of the students they are teaching should be integrated into the design of the
course content as well as the construction of appropriate methods of interaction with pupils who
do not actively participate in the learning process.
This case study used the DCT as a theoretical framework to interpret the teacher
participants' interactive behavior and dialogue while developing lessons, instructing students,
and creating mnemonic tools which included both imagery and verbal processes to enhance the
understanding of new information which promotes student learning. Participant educators
expressed their perceptions that LD third graders were better motivated to read stories and
participate in literacy activities with visual support. Based on the data collection and analysis
process of this case study, the inclusion of mnemonics provides a scaffold that enhances the
memory and comprehension of essential information included in the lesson plans developed with
specific objectives targeted by educators in order to meet the stated grade-level requirements.
Finally, the perceptions of the teacher participants in this study focused on the following
conclusions:
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 118
1. Pair-Share collaborations help to increase LD student motivation and understanding of
literacy grade-level materials and their involvement in reading lesson activities.
2. Front-loading of selected keywords in reading passages are better understood by LD and
general education learners when an illustration is included in the process of word
recognition and vocabulary development for struggling readers.
3. Students with poor reading skills may benefit from small-group intervention that includes
visual and keyword mnemonics because they need additional support to develop
proficient reading skills.
Educators have a responsibility to meet the needs of every student they teach and
therefore may need to expand their personal training and research of innovative strategies which
could provide additional tools and resources during the language arts instructional time in order
to support reluctant LD and general education students who continue to struggle with
improving their literacy skills and mastering academic subject matter.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 119
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EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 129
Appendix A
Institutional Review Board Approval

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 130
Appendix B
Semi-Structured Interview Protocol

I. Introduction:
Hello, my name is Michelle Heard and I am a Doctor of Education candidate at the
University of Southern California Rossier School of Education. I am gathering data for a
qualitative case study intended to explore the use of mnemonic devices in lesson planning
and instructional practices to improve the reading skills of third grade public school
students with learning disabilities.
During the conversation, I hope to learn more about how lesson planning strategies are
developed and implemented using mnemonic devices and how cognitive instructional
approaches are incorporated in the lesson planning for students with learning disabilities
at this school site.
Let me once again assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential and will
not identify you by name in this study. As a reminder, this research study has been
approved by the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board to ensure
that the process is guaranteed to protect your safety and privacy. If further information or
if you have any concerns about the process, please contact the University of Southern
California Rossier School of Education or my dissertation chairs- Dr. Patricia Tobey and
Dr. Patrick Crispen at tobey@usc.edu and pcrispen@usc.edu.
With your permission, I would like to record our conversation for the next 60
minutes in order to accurately include all of the details shared. Please, allow me to thank
you once again for your time, and ask if you have any questions before we begin?
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 131
I. Background:
Let me begin by asking you some questions about your background in education.
1. What is your current position? How long have you been in your position?
What are your responsibilities in this position? Tell me about your prior
experience and training?
2. How many third grade classes are there at this school site?
3. How many third grade students, including learning disabled (LD) pupils?
4. How many third grade LD students?
5. How are LD students accommodated in your classroom to improve their
learning capabilities?
6. How are intervention strategies in literacy instruction developed to address the
learning needs of LD students in your classroom?
II. Motivating Factors for Improving Reading Instruction
1. How often are collaborative opportunities provided for grade level discussions
about innovative instructional strategies?
2. What methods might improve the reading instructional practices?
3. What does ‘student success’ in reading comprehension mean and how does it
look?
4. How does the use of a mnemonic technique impact the level of learning in the
classroom?
5. What factors determine your establishment of goals and expectations for each
LD student in literacy achievement?
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 132
6. What is the collective goal for literacy proficiency at the third grade level for
LD students?
III. Mnemonic Instruction Feedback
1. In what way does the inclusion of mnemonics contribute to more than just
recall for third grade students in the classroom?
2. How are teacher lesson planning strategies developed using mnemonic
devices for LD students?
3. How are reading instructional methods implemented using mnemonic devices
for LD students as compared to traditional literacy approaches?
4. In what way does the inclusion of mnemonic devices align with common core
literacy standards at the third grade level of reading performance?
5. How does the inclusion of mnemonic strategies impact the classroom
environment during the reading lesson?
6. In what ways are the different genres of reading texts supported with the use
of mnemonic strategies?
IV. Motivating Reading Enjoyment
1. Describe the classroom environment when independent reading opportunities
are available to your LD 3
rd
grade students.
2. In what way does the small group instruction motivate struggling readers?
3. What is your perception of mnemonics?
V. Examining Instructional Responses
1. What are some details noticed in the students’ responses to the mnemonic
instructional practices?
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 133
2. What changes are needed to improve LD students’ reading performance?
3. Does the inclusion of a mnemonic device significantly impact vocabulary
understanding and reading comprehension skills for LD learners?
4. What kind of mnemonic strategies should struggling readers develop for
themselves?
VI. Closing
Is there anything else you want to add to our conversation that I may have
overlooked? Thank you so very much for your time and please know that your
responses have added valuable insight that is needed to answer the questions
guiding this research. Have a great day.

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 134
Appendix C
Teacher Informed Consent Form
Examining the Use of Mnemonic Devices in Instructional Practices
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
The purpose of this qualitative case study is to explore the use of visual and
keyword mnemonics in the lesson planning and instructional practices of third
grade educators designed to improve the reading comprehension skills of LD students in
third grade classrooms at this school site. Delivery approaches of traditional literacy
lessons and those including mnemonic techniques by teacher participants will be
observed by the researcher.
At the conclusion of the study, a teacher face-to-face interview will be conducted and
recorded at the school site in the teacher’s classroom for about an hour to obtain feedback
about the teacher’s perception and perspective about mnemonics.
RISKS
There are no foreseeable risks to you for participating in this research.
BENEFITS
The development of additional reading instructional strategies and supportive
tools designed to increase the literacy skills of your students and the lesson
planning approaches in collaborative educator preparation.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The data in this study will be confidential. The names of each participant will not be
used. No costs will be incurred by the participants, the district or school site.
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 135
Each participant will be assigned a 2-letter code (e.g. AJ) that will not be related to your
identification. Only the researcher will have access to the identification key.
PARTICIPATION
Your participation in this research is voluntary, and you may withdraw from the study at
any time and for any reason. If you decide not to participate or withdraw from the study,
THERE IS NO PENALTY. There are NO COSTS to you or any party. There will be no
compensation provided for your participation.
CONTACT
This research is being conducted by Michelle M. Heard, Graduate Education at the
University of Southern California (USC)Rossier School of Education. My phone contact
is (310) 910-4378. You may contact my dissertation chairs Dr. Patricia Tobey
(tobey@usc.edu) or Dr. Patrick Crispen (pcrispen@usc.edu) if you have questions or
comments regarding your rights as a participant in the research.
This research study has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board. Please return all signed forms to the researcher.

*I have read this form and agree to participate in this study.

Print the name of the Teacher

Signature of the Teacher Date

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 136
Appendix D
Case Study Codebook
Participants:
Ms. ZK and Mr. MX
ACCOUNTABILITY
Accountability.educators
Accountability.requirements
Accountability.student performance
Accountability.teacher evaluation

ACHIEVEMENT GAP
Achievement gap.basic reading skills
Achievement gap.learners with disabilities
Achievement gap.lesson planning
Achievement gap.mnemonic devices
Achievement gap.nondisabled peers
Achievement gap.research-based strategies

BENEFITS
Benefits.access to additional support
Benefits.innovation
Benefits.instructional practices
Benefits.intervention
Benefits.literacymaterials
Benefits.participation

CHALLENGES
Challenges.cognitive ability
Challenges.keyword strategies
Challenges.learning curve
Challenges.student disabilities
Challenges.visual devices
Challenges.word recognition

COLLABORATION
Collaboration.delivery of literacy material
Collaboration.state standards
Collaboration.student goals
Collaboration.teacher lesson planning
Collaboration.teacher same discipline

CREATIVITIY
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 137
Creativity.improves withapplication
Creativity.devices
Creativity.teachers
Creativity.student learning

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
Instructional strategies.activities
Instructional strategies.assessments
Instructional strategies.differentiation of delivery
Instructional strategies.focus concepts
Instructional strategies.formative assessments
Instructional strategies.implementation
Instructional strategies.lesson designs
Instructional strategies.memory enhancements
Instructional strategies.multiple sources
Instructional strategies.rigor
Instructional strategies.student centered
Instructional strategies.summative assessments
Instructional strategies.teacher selections

LEARNING
Learning.capabilities
Learning.focused
Learning.mastery
Learning.student involvement
Learning.student responsibility
Learning.student to teacher
Learning.teacher to student
Learning.teacher to teacher

MAINSTREAMING
Mainstreaming.collective efficacy
Mainstreaming.inclusion
Mainstreaming.pupils with learning disabilities
Mainstreaming.purposeful learning community

MEMORY SKILLS
Memory skills.academic understanding
Memory skills.dual-coding process
Memory skills.improvement
Memory skills.mastery strategies
Memory skills.mnemonic techniques
Memory skills.short-term
Memory skills.training
Memory skills.working mental filing
EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 138

MOTIVATION
Motivation.autonomy
Motivation.engagement
Motivation.mastery
Motivation.relevant to student
Motivation.teachers

VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS
Visual representations.accelerate student learning
Visual representations.alignment of strategies
Visual representations.phases of instruction
Visual representations.standards based

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 139
Appendix E

End of Unit Reading Comprehension Assessment for Ms. ZK’s 2
nd
-3
rd
Grade Combination
Special Day Class

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 140
Appendix F
Writing Summary Document from Greenbox Academy-3
rd
Grade

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 141
Appendix G
Spotlight Elementary ELA Student Performance Report Unit 2

EXAMINING THE USE OF MNEMONIC DEVICES 142
Appendix H
Third Grade Reading Lesson Plan at Greenbox Academy Using Mnemonic Strategies
Unit 3: Week 4
Language Arts
THEME: THE POWER OF WORDS
TEXT: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
Focus Skill: Writing a Descriptive Paragraph
Hook/Motivation:

• Students will learn about the life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (book, video, magazine)
• Students will practice developing descriptive paragraphs using graphic organizer
demonstrating the writing process steps (name, title, opening statement, details, draft, edit,
final copy)
• Students will use text evidence to identify information in story and create illustrations of Dr.
King and other characters in the story to demonstrate their understanding of the text
• Students will work with a partner collaboratively to discuss, create, and share a visual and
verbal presentation illustrating and describing the changes they would like to see in the world
today
• Students will use graphic organizer to write and illustrate new vocabulary words:
1. dream
2. speech
3. freedom
4. unfair
5. country
6. protests
Objective/AIM:
Innovators: Students will create writing pieces that reflect their understanding of text information
Communicators: Students will read, write, speak, and listen reflectively and critically
Critical Thinkers: Students will demonstrate their capabilities in logic and reasoning, making
decisions about story elements in their writing

Standards:

• Language 3.3: Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing
• Reading 3.3: Have students explain events, procedures, ideas, or concepts in informative
text
• Reading 3.4: (Key Ideas & Details) Describe in depth a character, setting, and events in a
story drawing on specific details in the text
• Writing 3.4: Produce clear and coherent writing (including multi-paragraphs) in which the
piece is appropriate for grade-level expectation

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative case study explored visual and letter mnemonic intervention in teacher lesson planning and instructional approaches as a supportive device to enhance the literacy skills of public school third graders identified with learning disabilities. High-stakes testing and accountability requirements demand the need for literacy instruction that improves student performance while meeting the diverse needs of all learners. Learning disabled (LD) students struggling with word recognition, vocabulary development, and decoding skills have continued to score significantly lower than their peers without disabilities on national and state assessments of basic level reading achievement. This study focused on the literacy lesson planning and instructional delivery practices of two third grade educators in two urban K-6 school sites. In one of the selected school sites, the students with learning disabilities were mainstreamed in a general education third grade classroom. In the other selected school site, the LD students are in a special education classroom. Descriptive analysis identified recurring patterns and themes such as student motivation, teacher creativity in lesson planning, and visual representations in instructional delivery methods. Furthermore, this study discusses the implications of increased LD student engagement when mnemonics were included in the literacy presentations of the participants. Pavio's dual coding theory provided the conceptual framework for this study based on the supposition that human cognition involves the processing of two mental codes, a verbal and non-verbal coding system to understand and recall new and prior knowledge using concrete and abstract images in instructional approaches. The data collected supported the interpretation of the findings focused on understanding the central phenomenon of mnemonic intervention.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Heard, Michelle Maria (author)

Core Title Examining the use of mnemonic devices in instructional practices to improve the reading skills of third grade public school students with learning disabilities

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/25/2017

Defense Date 09/25/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag LDs,literacy lessons,Mnemonics,OAI-PMH Harvest,reading skills

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair)

Creator Email mheard@usc.edu,michelleheard386@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-435946

Unique identifier UC11264339

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Legacy Identifier etd-HeardMiche-5771.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Heard, Michelle Maria

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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