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Knowledge, motivation, and organization influences on persisting leadership demographics in a military organization: perspectives on diversity and inclusion from minority female officers
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Knowledge, motivation, and organization influences on persisting leadership demographics in a military organization: perspectives on diversity and inclusion from minority female officers
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Running Head: MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 1
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences on Persisting Leadership Demographics in
a Military Organization: Perspectives on Diversity and Inclusion from Minority Female Officers
by
Kristine E. Poblete
A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Dec 2017
Copyright 2017 Kristine E. Poblete
Author Note: The views expressed in this academic research project are those of the author and
do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the U.S. Government, the Department
of Defense, or any of its agencies or branches of service.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 2
DEDICATION
To my parents, Tony and Gilda, who came to this country and gave me everything you
could with the little you had. You made me believe I could achieve anything. Thank you to my
father who served faithfully in the U.S. military and inspired me to follow suit. Thank you to my
mother who dedicated nearly her entire life to educating, guiding, and mentoring students of all
ages. You both gave me a passion to lead, an endless desire to learn and the grit to fight for what
is right. I would not be the woman I am today without your unconditional love and support.
To my children, Keira and Anton, who inspire me to love without limits and to be the
best person I can be. I have spent a majority of your lives immersed in work and academia yet
your love remains unwavering and present as ever, reminding me that I must be doing something
right in this world. Being your mama fills my heart with infinite pride and joy every single day –
you truly are, and will always be, my life’s greatest accomplishment.
To my husband, Allen, who brings light to my darkest moments, empowers me to be my
true self, all while calmly navigating the storm that is our incredible life. Your love has given
me the strength to never give up in the face of adversity. Thank you for loving and supporting
me throughout all my endeavors – no matter how far-fetched I believed them to be, you always
knew I was closer than I thought. I am blessed to share this journey with you.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to my dissertation chair, Dr. Anthony Maddox, for his faith in both my
leadership and academic abilities. I am so grateful for your honest insight, sincere
encouragement, and believing in the importance of this study. The guidance you have provided
has been an invaluable asset to my personal and professional growth.
Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Kimberly Finney and Dr. Randy Palisoc, who
have dedicated so much of their time and effort to guiding and honing this dissertation. You
both serve as impeccable role models to those of us striving to be leaders of change. It was a
privilege to learn from your experiences and to grow from your knowledge.
To my dear friend and colleague Frances, who has not only been a strong advocate for
my research but whose mentorship propelled me from the beginning of my military career. Your
tenacity, ability to engage and uplift has taught me more than you know. Thank you for setting
the example and paving the way for myself and many others like us to succeed.
Lastly, thank you to my colleagues in OCL Cohort 2. This journey has been one
challenging ride to say the least – but your encouragement, devotion, and humor have literally
carried me through the hardest of times. You inspire me with your service to your community
and your drive to make positive change for our future. Thank you all for what you do. Fight on!
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 9
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 10
Organizational Context and Mission 14
Organizational Performance Goal 15
Related Literature 17
Importance of the Evaluation 19
Description of Stakeholder Groups 22
Stakeholder Group for the Study 24
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions 24
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 25
Organization of the Dissertation 26
Chapter Two: Literature Review 27
Underrepresentation of Racial Minorities and Women in MOX Leadership 27
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Theoretical Framework 37
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences 39
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context 61
Summary 65
Chapter Three: Methodology 67
Participating Stakeholders 68
Data Collection 71
Data Analysis 73
Credibility and Trustworthiness 76
Ethics 78
Summary 80
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 81
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences 83
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences 92
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences 101
Summary 111
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 5
Chapter Five: Recommendations 114
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 114
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 130
Chapter Summary 144
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 145
Limitations 146
Future Research 147
Conclusion 149
References 152
Appendices 162
Appendix A: Informal Invite to Participate in Survey (posted on private
social media forum) 162
Appendix B: Invitation to Participate in Study 163
Appendix C: Interview Protocol 165
Appendix D: Evaluation Tool for DIML training (Immediate Distribution) 167
Appendix E: Blended Evaluation Tool for DIML training (Delayed
Distribution) 169
Appendix F: DEOMI Diversity Management Climate Assessment Survey:
Sample of Locally Developed Questions List 171
Appendix G: Example Excerpt from DIML Training Blended Evaluation Survey
Results Report 175
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences: Assumed Causes
Addressed in the Study 39
Table 2. Knowledge Influences and Assessment Methods 47
Table 3. Motivational Influences and Assessment Methods 54
Table 4. Organizational Influences and Assessment Methods 60
Table 5. List of Interview Participants 68
Table 6. Correlation of KMO Influences to Themes Found in the Data 82
Table 7. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 115
Table 8. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 122
Table 9. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 126
Table 10. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 132
Table 11. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for MOX Leaders 134
Table 12. Required Drivers to Support MOX Leaders’ Critical Behaviors 135
Table 13. DIML Training Learning Goals 137
Table 14. Components of Learning for the DIML Program 140
Table 15. Components to Measure Reactions to the DIML Training Program 141
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Population of Active Duty Minority and Female MOX Officers (FY 2014-
2017) 12
Figure 2. Percentages of Active Duty Minority and Female MOX in the Grade of
O-4 through O-7 (FY 2014-2017) 13
Figure 3. Conceptual Framework – Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
Influences in Minority Group Representation in MOX Leadership 62
Figure 4. Kirkpatrick New World Model 131
Figure 5. Proposed Implementation and Evaluation Plan for New Diversity, Inclusion, and
Mentorship Training for Leaders (DIML) Program 132
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 8
ABSTRACT
While military organizations promote a highly diverse, inclusive, and innovative population, the
current demographic illustrates a persisting problem of underrepresentation of female racial
minorities. The demographic ratio is further widened as rank increases, bringing to the forefront
an obvious majority group of Caucasian males in leadership positions. The purpose of this study
was to discuss and analyze the problem of practice that highlights possible misalignments
between current diversity and inclusion efforts and its effect on organizational culture. This
study proposes underlying causes of a persisting dominant group, specifically in the officer ranks
of one military branch that contribute to the problem and hinder organizational efforts to increase
accession and retention of minorities and women. These causes are categorized into knowledge,
motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences as defined by the Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap
Analysis conceptual framework. KMO influences were validated using current and milestone
literature on race and gender as it relates to leadership, organizational policies on diversity, and
narrative data extracted from a qualitative method of one-on-one interviews. 12 minority female
officers shared personal experiences, perceptions, and insight on diversity and inclusion in the
workplace, the need for improved diversity training for leaders, and leadership’s role in
mentoring the next generation of leaders. Using Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New
World Evaluation Model and recommendations based on the study’s findings, a comprehensive
implementation and evaluation plan was created to educate leaders to be mentors and better
advocates for a more diverse and inclusive military.
Keywords: diversity, gender, inclusion, leader prototypes, mentorship, military culture,
leadership, race
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
While the United States military promotes a highly diverse, inclusive, and innovative
population, the current demographic illustrates an overall underrepresentation of women and
racial minorities. The demographic ratio between these minority groups and Caucasian men
within the organization is further widened as rank increases, bringing to the forefront the
prominence of a majority group in higher-ranking leadership. One may question why this
disparity persists in an organization that has pushed various initiatives and policies directed
toward increasing diversity and inclusion among its members and to the public. The purpose of
this dissertation is to evaluate and analyze a problem of practice that highlights possible
misalignments between organizational culture and current policies within a military organization
and to propose recommendations to meet established goals related to increased diversity and
inclusion.
There is a significant amount of literature that focuses on the perception of race and
gender in leadership, military leader prototypes, and military culture. The problem of dominant
groups in leadership is that it limits the scope of decision making prowess needed to lead today’s
evolving military and the problem-solving dexterity needed to meet the demands of an ever-
changing society. Thus, this study seeks to identify and discuss underlying causes of a persisting
dominant group based on literature and qualitative date to include attitudes towards diversity
from female minority officers of one branch of the military.
To maintain anonymity, the actual name of this military branch will not be used in this
report and the pseudonym Military Organization X or MOX will be used in its place. Sources
used for this report derive directly from MOX organizational websites. As a result, the actual
URL web addresses and titles containing the name of the organization have been omitted or
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 10
minimally referenced in order to maintain anonymity. Additionally, the organization’s mission
has been altered to do the same.
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
While the military in general has been successful integrating women and minorities as a
whole, there is still an underrepresentation of minority women in senior leadership positions
(Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services [DACOWITS], 2014; Department of
Defense, 2013). For the purposes of this report, senior leadership is defined as the officer ranks
of Major, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, and the general ranks of Brigadier General, Major
General, Lieutenant General, and General. The homogeneity of MOX and its officer corps may
signify a problem in the accession and retention of minority women.
The majority population of Caucasian men in senior leadership positions suggest
persistent underlying norms which influence perceptions on gender and or race, resulting in the
gradual attrition of minority women in the military (Brown, 2010; Defense Advisory Committee
on Women in the Services [DACOWITS], 2014), Harris; 2009; Matthews, Ender, Laurence, &
Rohall, 2009). Inevitably, as the level of rank and leadership responsibility increase, the number
of minority women steadily decreases. For purposes of this report, racial/ethnic minorities refer
to individuals who do not identify as white or Caucasian.
The Department of Defense (2012) defines diversity as the following: “Diversity is all the
different characteristics and attributes of the DoD’s Total Force, which are consistent with our
core values, integral to overall readiness and mission accomplishment, and reflective of the
nation we serve” (Department of Defense, 2012, p. 3). Yet in 2017, the MOX personnel center
reported that out of the overall active duty population of 318,415 in 2017, 80.3% are male and
72% are Caucasian, reflecting similar percentages in the active duty officer rank population. In
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 11
the highest echelons of the MOX officer corps, only 18 out of the 305 General officers identify
as ethnic minority (6%) and 27 (9.5%) are female (Department of Defense, 2014). Likewise, this
disparity is evident in the officer corps population. In 2017, the DoD reported that only 2,527
out of 12,718 Majors (20%), 1,474 out of 9,378 Lieutenant Colonels (15%), 358 out of the 3,219
in the rank of Colonel (11%), and 21 out of the 296 in the General officer corps (6%) identified
as racial minorities (Department of Defense, 2016). The percentages are not much different for
female active duty officers who make up 18% of all Majors, 14% of Lieutenant Colonels, 13% of
Colonels, and 8% of overall General officers (Department of Defense, 2016). Previous years,
dating back to 2014, show nearly identical statistics in the MOX population (see Figure 1).
Preceding annual manpower reports conducted by the DoD illustrate a consistent decline of
minority and female active duty MOX officers as rank increases.
Figure 2 illustrates percentages of minority and female officers in the active duty MOX
corps in the senior ranks of Major (O-4) through Brigadier General (O-7). Clearly, this pattern
persists and as rank advances, the demographic disparity is further widened. Consequently,
opportunities for minorities to network with minority leaders become less prominent as one
advances through the ranks (Knouse & Webb, 2001) causing disproportionate demographics in
the MOX to prevail.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 12
Figure 1. Population of Active Duty Minority and Female MOX Officers (FY 2014-2017)
65012
64798
62349
60458
11822
12247
11871
11945
12487
12694
12404
12264
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000
FY 2014
FY 2015
FY 2016
FY 2017
Female Officers Minority Officers Total Officers
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 13
Figure 2. Percentages of Active Duty Minority and Female MOX in the Grade O-4 through
O-7 (FY 2014-2017)
Note: Percentages were derived from demographic data collected in four separate DoD
Manpower Requirements Reports spanning fiscal years 2014 through 2017.
18
14
9
6
17
14
12
7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
O-4 (Major) O-5
(Lieutenant
Colonel)
O-6
(Colonel)
O-7
(Brigadier
General)
FY 2014
Minority Female
19
14
10
5
17
14
13
7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
O-4 (Major) O-5
(Lieutenant
Colonel)
O-6 (Colonel) O-7 (Brigadier
General)
FY 2015
Minority Female
19
15
10
7
17
14
13
6
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
O-4 (Major) O-5
(Lieutenant
Colonel)
O-6 (Colonel) O-7
(Brigadier
General)
FY 2016
Minority Female
20
16
11
8
18
15
14
3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
O-4 (Major) O-5
(Lieutenant
Colonel)
O-6 (Colonel) O-7 (Brigadier
General)
FY 2017
Minority Female
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 14
Currently, senior military leadership is making efforts to enforce the organization’s core
competency of member development through addressing accessions, retention, and the persisting
demographic in proposed policies regarding diversity and inclusion. In 2015, the MOX chose to
address this problem by establishing a strategic goal to develop a more inclusive force. In the
same year, Secretary of the MOX announced nine initiatives to boost the careers of women and
minorities in the MOX. The Diversity and Inclusion Initiative Memorandum was published in
an effort to addresses the need for members to demonstrate the ability to lead a more diverse and
inclusive MOX culture and ensure the MOX attracts and retains the most innovative, skillful
personnel. Additionally, the publication of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap strives to
address the problem of practice through specific goals directed toward increased diversity in
member accession, development, and retention. Yet despite these efforts, the continual
underrepresentation of minority groups in senior leader roles persists, revealing a dominant
prototype in MOX leadership. This is a problem because it may reflect the MOX’s inability to
attract, recruit, and or retain the most culturally diverse personnel needed to navigate cross-
cultural, unconventional missions and to adapt to the ever-changing needs of our society.
Organizational Context and Mission
Military Organization X (MOX) is one of five armed service branches of the United
States military under the Department of Defense (DoD). Their mission is centered on the
organization’s distinctive capabilities of rapid global mobility, precision engagement,
information superiority, and combat support. These capabilities are upheld by continuous
member development, advanced technology in war fighting, integrated operations, and
humanitarian efforts.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 15
The United States has the greatest concentration of MOX installations with 86 active duty
stations, and an additional 80 installations located throughout Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and
Central America (Global Security, 2015). There are 60,289 commissioned officers that occupy
leadership positions in the MOX and oversee 248,317 non-commissioned officers, otherwise
known as enlisted personnel (Military Organization X Personnel Center website, 2016). To
become an officer in the MOX, an individual must be a U.S. citizen between 18 and 48 years of
age who has earned a bachelor’s degree and completed officer training requirements from one of
the following commissioning sources: Reserve Officer Training Corps, MOX Academy, and
Officer Training School. Officer selectees are trained by military faculty at their respective
commissioning source and assessed on potential leadership ability, character, physical capability,
and potential for future growth.
Organizational Performance Goal
In May 2015, the MOX Strategic Master Plan (SMP) was released by the Secretary of
MOX and the MOX Chief of Staff. The purpose of the SMP is to provide a strategic framework,
consistent direction, and coherency to the organization’s plans and programs (MOX Strategic
Master Plan, 2015). More specifically, the SMP lists performance goals within two strategic
imperatives: Agility and Inclusiveness. The Agility imperative seeks to ensure the recruitment
and retention of readily responsive personnel who apply diverse backgrounds, experiences, and
perspectives across a full spectrum of conflict. The imperative of Inclusiveness highlights the
need for an evolving MOX culture that leverages diversity of thought to provide enhanced
mission effects. The SMP (2015) states that the Inclusiveness imperative underpins Agility in
that it ensures the MOX retains diverse teams of people in the face of evolving mission demands.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 16
To address these imperatives, the SMP has established a five-year goal to strengthen the
environment of inclusiveness in MOX culture (MOX Strategic Master Plan, 2015). Furthermore,
the SMP suggests that creating a diverse MOX culture can be met externally by capturing new
demographics in recruiting efforts, and internally by identifying institutional barriers to creating
and retaining a diverse team as well as holding leaders accountable for advancing diversity and
inclusiveness (MOX Strategic Master Plan, 2015). Based on these initiatives, the organizational
performance goal for purposes of this study is as follows: To increase accession and retention of
racial minority female officers in the MOX.
Diversity Strategic Roadmap: Priorities and Goals
While the SMP itself does not include specific timelines, the 2013 MOX Diversity
Strategic Roadmap has established performance measures to institutionalize diversity throughout
the organization and to attract, recruit, develop and retain a high quality and diverse force.
Derived from and the Department of Defense’s (DoD) 2012 Diversity and Inclusion Strategic
Plan and the Military Leadership Diversity Committee’s (MLDC) 2011 report From
Representation to Inclusion: Diversity Leadership for the 21
st
Century, the Diversity Strategic
Roadmap lists five MOX priorities with a total of 11 overall goals and 32 performance measures.
Based on the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap mission, the primary organizational
goal for this study is to increase accession and retention of minority and female officers in the
MOX. Based on specific goals listed in the roadmap, specifically underpinning the priority of
retaining of a diverse force, the primary stakeholder goal of interest will be to understand and
address factors that influence attrition among minority groups and women.
While the roadmap provides specific goals and performance measures to include specific
agencies involved, no updates have been made to this document since its release in 2013.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 17
Therefore, for purposes of this study, assessment dates have been established to measure and
analyze results through 2017. Measures include the periodic/annual analysis of: fund allocation
to training and personnel resources, climate and diversity surveys, media coverage, social media
communication, community events, data on accession and recruiting trends, critiques on
diversity and inclusion training, attrition rates, and results of a study conducted specifically on
Women in the MOX (MOX Global Diversity Division, 2013). The ongoing need to address
diversity and inclusion and to analyze these factors illustrates the still very prominent problem of
the underrepresented groups in the MOX, to include minorities and women in MOX leadership.
Related Literature
The Department of Defense (DoD) and the MOX have initiated several policies to
address the longstanding lack of racial minority and female representation, especially in the
higher ranks. This section addresses literature on recent efforts to institutionalize diversity and
inclusion through overarching objectives and performance goals.
In 2011, the DoD Military Leadership Diversity Commission (MLDC) presented a report
entitled From Representation to Inclusion: Diversity Leadership for the 21
st
Century to former
President Barack Obama that addresses root causes of the stated problem and makes
recommendations for minority accession and retention. As part of the National Defense
Authorization Act, research by MLDC’s subcommittees included analysis of current policies and
initiatives, recurring interviews with service members from each military branch, and
demographic data from the diversity offices of the Secretary of Defense (Military Leadership
Diversity Commission [MLDC], 2011). The report presented two primary objectives: “(1) that
the Armed Forces systematically develop a demographically diverse leadership that reflects the
public it serves and the force it leads and (2) that the Services pursue a broader approach to
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 18
diversity that includes the range of backgrounds, skill sets, and personal attributes that are
necessary to enhancing military performance” (MLDC, 2011, p. xiii). The MLDC (2011)
identified low racial minority and female presence among initial officer accessions, in career
fields associated with advancement to higher rank, and overall low retention and advancement
rates for minorities and female officers resulting in a demographically disproportionate MOX.
Two years later, the 2013 MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap was established to implement
performance measures seeking to institutionalize diversity throughout the MOX and “to attract,
recruit, develop and retain a high quality, diverse force.
In 2015 and 2016, Secretary of the MOX, the MOX Chief of Staff, and Chief Master
Sergeant of the MOX released subsequent Diversity and Inclusion Initiative Memorandums to
the general MOX population. The purpose of these ongoing initiatives were meant to ensure
MOX leaders provide a more inclusive, rewarding, and flexible environment built from diverse
backgrounds, experiences, and demographics (James, 2015; James, 2016). Additionally, these
initiatives address the need for members to demonstrate the ability to lead a more diverse and
inclusive MOX culture (James, 2015; James, 2016). In line with the Diversity Strategic
Roadmap, the release of these memoranda demonstrated a publicized effort to ensure the MOX
attracts and retains innovative, skillful personnel. The 2015 memorandum included nine
initiatives that remove height restrictions for certain career fields and widen the MOX officer
pool by allowing more personnel for consideration in officer commission, capitalizing on
opportunities for more ethnically diverse populations to fulfill officer billets (James, 2015;
MLDC, 2011). The 2016 memorandum announced 13 additional initiatives, some of which
include: establishing new geographic markets for recruiting and officer accession, encouraging
female and minority populations to serve in career fields that lack diversity, ensuring diverse
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 19
command selection boards and developmental teams, and providing female airmen more time to
decide on balancing a career with a new child (James, 2016). The need to implement subsequent
Diversity and Inclusion Memoranda as a follow-up to the 2011 MLDC publication may be
considered a direct result of the MOX’s consistently disparaging demographic.
One way to address the problem of practice is through recurring diversity training efforts
and its implied practice in the operational environment. Underpinning this requirement is the
official MOX Instruction on Diversity, a force-wide regulation that states all MOX personnel
must attend diversity training. The goal of this instruction is to foster an environment of mutual
respect and inclusion in which the desired end state will be a culturally aware MOX team that
can more effectively operate in a global environment. However, past assessments by the
Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute (DEOMI) on the MOX’s diversity training
found that it “does not…teach leaders to utilize differences to improve mission effectiveness,”
also stating that military services may not be teaching the necessary leadership approaches to
encourage inclusivity but rather practices that are solely tolerance based (MLDC, 2011, p. 23).
The underrepresentation of minority groups in MOX leadership is problematic because it may
imply persisting systemic barriers within the culture, with regard to leadership practice and
policy execution, hindering current efforts to improve diversity and inclusion and its intended
impact on the organization.
Importance of the Evaluation
The problem of underrepresentation of minority women in the MOX leadership is
important to address for several reasons. Primarily, the nature of warfare has changed. In 2017,
a congressional research report entitled Diversity, Inclusion, and Equal Opportunity in the Armed
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 20
Services: Background and Issues for Congress by military manpower analyst Kristy Kamarck
stated the following:
Some studies on the effectiveness of small groups have found that the presence of
diversity (in particular racial and gender diversity) is associated with better creative
problem solving, innovation, and improved decision making. These positive outcomes are
sometimes attributed to the broader range of unique perspectives, knowledge, and
experience available in diverse groups relative to homogenous groups. In this regard,
those who argue for diversity initiatives in the military argue that a more diverse force has
the potential to be more efficient and flexible, able to meet a broader set of challenges.
Building a diverse force is important because military missions have increasingly
extended beyond conventional warfare and kinetic courses of actions; consequently, irregular
warfare demands leaders who are able to adapt to the needs of those they lead and navigate
through unconventional challenges (Laurence, 2011; Loughlin & Arnold, 2007; Phipps, Prieto,
& Ndiguri, 2014; Schiena, Letens, VanAken, & Farris, 2013; Shamir & Ben-Ari, 2000).
Moreover, gendered norms and inherent biases regarding minority groups in military culture may
inhibit the ability of military members to learn and develop a more adaptive emotional and
behavioral repertoire in the face of transition and progressive change (Keats, 2010). The
tendency for certain military organizations and occupations to maintain a hyper-masculine
culture may prove to be a national security issue as the need for problem-solving in emergent,
cross-cultural missions require adaptability and a keen awareness of interpersonal differences.
Efforts to address the problem of underrepresented minority groups in MOX leadership
are even more relevant as the need for diverse backgrounds and leadership approaches increases
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 21
with the number of unconventional missions. Understanding race and gender as it relates to the
perception of leadership is important because the United States is increasingly diverse and the
inclusion of minority groups is advantageous in the global relations (Sy et al., 2010). More
specifically, the concept of multiple identities and intersectionality in leadership development
should be further explored to more accurately match the complexity of modern day organizations
(Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Additionally, the divergence in attitudes of MOX and political leadership is foreseeable if
MOX senior leadership remains homogeneous; this trend has ramifications not only for
garnering support for MOX program requirements within Congress but also from the American
public (Streeter, 2014). Employing leadership without the specific inclusion of culture and
social influence limits the scope of knowledge needed to evolve and progress (Ayman &
Korabik, 2010; Hutchinson, 2013). This is significant as leaders need diversity in thought to
make better informed decisions as they navigate changing environments. Hence, the absence of
diversity and inclusion within MOX leadership can lead to dire consequences as it relates to
national security and international relations. Without a more urgent push from our current
leaders, the lack or diverse and inclusion environments in the MOX will persist. Further
research on these themes may help in the future implementation of new recruitment, accessions,
and retention processes to ensure the development of a military force that is as diverse as the
population it serves and the cross-cultural missions it faces.
Research conducted in this evaluation may also help MOX decision-makers gain a deeper
understanding of how their organization executes core competencies of member development
and the modernization of organizational training. With a more accurate understanding,
operational policies and training programs can begin to acknowledge and challenge the dominant
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 22
leadership prototypes that hinder opportunities for minority groups to advance. Persistent
homogeneity in the MOX population may pose challenges to adapting new organizational
learning methods (Schiena et al, 2013; Whittinghill, Berkowitz, & Farrington, 2015) causing
disproportionate demographics in senior leadership to persist. By addressing this problem
through research and evaluation of the existing cultural landscape, the MOX may be more
informed in its view of leadership and possibly change their approach in creating viable
opportunities for minorities and women to fully integrate, serve and lead.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
This dissertation seeks to evaluate attitudes of diversity and inclusion and to analyze
efforts to increase the recruitment and sustainment of racial minority female MOX officers. In
support of this evaluation, several stakeholder groups must be considered. The DoD Diversity
and Inclusion Strategic Plan defines stakeholders as “…end-users, entities providing
requirements, and the people or entities benefiting from the organizations products” (Department
of Defense, 2012, p. 13). According to this plan, stakeholders include but are not limited to the
presidential administration, the United States Congress, the DoD, military service branches,
service members and their families (Department of Defense, 2012). Moreover, a report on the
implementation of the plan recognizes additional stakeholder groups such as racial minority
service members, female service members, and civil society (Lim, Haddad, & Daugherty, 2013).
In consideration of these suggested groups, the following stakeholders are proposed: minority
female officers, civil society, and senior MOX leaders.
Racial minority female officers may be the most affected (or unaffected) by diversity
policies and initiatives to develop and retain a more diverse force. The obvious
underrepresentation of this group within MOX officer demographics serves as a consistent
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 23
benchmark to which mandated diversity discourse seeks to break. Further research may provide
a new perspective on possible barriers to leadership opportunities resulting from a homogeneous
officer population. In order to fulfill established priorities, particularly to develop and retain a
diverse force, the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap established goals to promote diversity and
inclusion through training, leadership development, and mentoring, and to understand and
address factors that influence attrition among minority groups.
Other main priorities of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap are to attract and recruit a
diverse force. The MOX must effectively communicate these priorities to the civil society at
large, who play valuable stakeholders in the fulfillment of prioritized goals. Specifically, the
roadmap has set goals to broaden officer recruitment and accession efforts as well as to employ a
new strategic communications plan to leverage public engagement. Quantifying the public’s
response through demographic data in accession rates may provide crucial insight to the
effectiveness of the action plans associated with these goals. The perception of a desired diverse
force may encourage more underrepresented groups to join the military and redefine the
dominant demographic.
Several research reports suggest MOX senior leadership must incorporate a robust
diversity leadership training program into traditional leadership training to help address the
unique challenges and benefits of leading a diverse force (Department of Defense, 2011; Lim,
Haddad, & Daugherty, 2013). Furthermore, training and mentoring programs established by
leaders may provide more viable opportunities for minority groups to openly discuss diversity,
how it is understood among various viewpoints, and how it contributes to mission
accomplishment aiding in the progressive development and retention of diverse personnel in the
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 24
MOX. Thus, MOX senior leaders play a crucial role in the implementation and sustainment of
the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the abovementioned groups contribute internally and externally to MOX diversity
goals, the stakeholder group of focus for this dissertation will be active duty MOX officers in the
ranks of Captain (O-3) to Colonel (O-6) due to their direct influence and authority over said
goals. In alignment with the roadmap’s top priority to institutionalize diversity, MOX leaders
are charged with implementing the policies established by governing directives and ensuring
100% compliance. One of the roadmap’s top goals, to ensure leadership commitment to
accountable and sustained diversity effort, requires leaders to comply, communicate, and enforce
policies.
The MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap lists several initiatives to meet its goals
including: educating and training personnel on the importance of diversity, establishing diversity
training, mentoring, and professional development, providing awareness training in cross-
cultural competencies, and ensuring resources are allocated to sustain effective diversity
outreach/recruiting programs. Failure to meet these goals may result in a lack of motivation to
displace the status quo in leadership, hindering the advancement of a diverse force capable of
meeting the progressive demands of kinetic, cross-cultural military missions. Evaluating actions
taken by leaders to employ these initiatives may provide further insight into the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that help or hinder the achievement of MOX goals.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this project is to evaluate attitudes related to diversity and inclusion
among members of MOX leadership. Additionally, this study seeks to understand how MOX
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 25
leaders’ institutionalize efforts to increase racial minority female officer accession and retention.
Conducted through qualitative methods, the analysis will focus on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goals and performance measures
within the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap. While a complete performance evaluation would
focus on all MOX stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders to be focused on in this
analysis are senior leaders in the MOX.
As such, the research questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
the organizational goal of increased accession and retention among racial minority female
officers in the MOX?
2. What perceptions and attitudes exist in MOX leadership that affect one’s understanding
of diversity and inclusion?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
For this project, Clark and Estes’ gap analysis (2008) will be adapted into an evaluation
model and implemented as the conceptual framework. Gap analysis is defined as a systematic,
analytical method that helps to clarify organizational goals and identify the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). The methodological
framework is a qualitative study through the use of one-on-one semi-structured interviews with
active duty MOX officers and document analysis of existing diversity and inclusion initiatives
and lesson plans. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on MOX that impact
organizational goal achievement will be generated based on personal knowledge and related
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 26
literature. Interview transcripts, literature review, and document analysis will be assessed to
determine these influences. Solutions or recommendations based on research will be
recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
Organization of the Dissertation
This study consists of five chapters. This first chapter provided the reader with key
concepts and terminology most commonly found in a discussion about the underrepresentation of
minority women in MOX leadership. This chapter also introduced the organization’s mission,
goals, stakeholders, and proposed framework of the study. Chapter Two provides a review of
current literature supporting the significance of the study and identifies and analyzes knowledge,
motivation, organizational influences to the problem of practice. Topics regarding the
perceptions of gender roles and racial/ethnic identity as they relate to military leadership
prototypes as well as the leadership development and organizational culture of the MOX will be
discussed. In Chapter Three presents the qualitative methodology of the study to include the
choice of participants, protocol for data collection and analysis, and discusses credibility,
trustworthiness, and ethical implications of the research. Chapter Four provides the results and
findings of KMO influences as well as prominent themes found in the data analysis portion of
the study. Finally, Chapter Five provides solutions for addressing the problem of practice based
on data and literature and discusses a recommended evaluation plan for implementation.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 27
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a review of literature that outlines contributing factors to the
underrepresentation of racial minorities and women in Military Organization X (MOX)
leadership. As introduced in Chapter One, the research questions guiding this study are: 1) What
are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the
organizational goal of increased accession and retention rates of racial minority female officers
in the MOX?; 2) What are the perceptions and attitudes exist in MOX leadership that affect one’s
understanding of diversity and inclusion?; and 3) What are the recommendations for
organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources? this
chapter serves to specifically address Research Question 1 by identifying foundational KMO
stakeholder influences and their impact on D&I efforts. This chapter synthesizes literature that is
directly related to organizational issues regarding the underrepresentation of minority women in
MOX leadership as well as literature that applies to stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences.
In order to address the proposed research questions, three primary bodies of literature
were reviewed. The first section provides a literature analysis on factors influencing gendered
perceptions of women in military leadership. The second section focuses on factors influencing
the progression of racial minorities in military leadership. Lastly, the chapter ends with a
stakeholder analysis of MOX leadership using educational psychology literature and the gap
analysis dimensions of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Underrepresentation of Racial Minorities and Women in MOX Leadership
While the integration of women and minorities in the MOX has progressed since its
establishment in 1947, persisting demographic disparities may allude to underlying issues which
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 28
adversely affect the sustainment and promotion of racial minorities and women (Brown, 2010;
Harris; 2009; Matthews, Ender, Laurence, & Rohall, 2009). For purposes of this research, racial
minority is defined as any individual that does not identify as white or Caucasian. The
disproportionate representation in the race and gender of the MOX officer corps (see Figures 1
and 2) signifies implicit barriers that are not necessarily addressed in the organization’s official
policy and discourse, but are highlighted by consistent demographic statistics. Studies indicate
that “part of what attracts individuals to organizations and encourages retention is the
individual’s perception of how they will fit into the organization. In this regard, diversity in
leadership is considered by some to be a key element in attracting and retaining a diverse
workforce” (Kamarck, 2017, p. 44). The first half of this section seeks to discuss unique factors
in race and gender roles as well as societal expectations and norms as they relate to dominant
perceptions of leadership and how they might affect persisting demographic disparities.
Perceptions of Women in Military Leadership
The problem addressed in this section is how female leaders are perceived in a
predominantly male-dominated military force. Specifically, this section discusses themes on role
exclusivity, societal norms, and expectations for women as they relate to leadership roles.
Studies show that perceptions of women’s roles do not necessarily align with that of traditional
military leadership prototypes (Koenig, Mitchell, & Risitikari, 2011) thus the misperception of
gender roles as they relate to leadership roles pose challenges to the advancement and
sustainment of competent female leaders (Harris, 2009). This is problematic because the
perception of leadership is critical to the effectiveness of any military organization.
Gendered roles and exclusivity. Despite the 2015 repeal of combat exclusion for
women, there are still cultural and social barriers women will face throughout the transition of
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 29
full integration (Karmack, 2015). The historical exclusion of women from combat roles
(DACOWITS, 2014) has limited opportunities for women to progress in environments that
heavily associate masculinity to military leadership. As recent as 2014, the Department of
Defense reported 176,000 positions in the Army, 44,000 in the Marine Corps, 32,258 in the
Navy, and 3,000 in the MOX were closed to women (DACOWITS, 2014). Elite military units
such as the U.S. Army Ranger School and Marine Infantry Training Battalion are known to
purposefully limit female participation through rigid physical standards and assessments, calling
to question the validity of measurement in individual member qualifications (DACOWITS,
2014). Also worth noting are staggeringly low percentages of females in officer positions across
all U.S. military branches: Army – 17.7% of 82,916, Navy – 17.0% of 52,257, Marine Corps –
6.6% of 19,189, MOX – 19.6% of 64,798 (Department of Defense, 2015).
Means of exclusion in the past may continue to influence social attitudes of women’s
capabilities, adversely affecting opportunities for military women to fulfill highly regarded
military roles (Matthews, Ender, Laurence, & Rohall, 2009; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010) –
roles that have been masculinized and aligned more with those who meet associated
expectations. Additional studies show negative attitudes toward women in combat roles stem
from an inclination to adhere to traditional roles and a general antipathy toward women and their
competence (Young & Nauta, 2013). The misconception of incompetence and its residual
inequity in military population may be problematic considering the need for a growing presence
of women and their invaluable contributions within the armed services (Hutchinson, 2013).
Societal expectations and norms. Probable causes for the underrepresentation of
women in leadership may be a result of negative perceptions of women in authority,
subconscious gender typing (Boyce & Herd, 2003; Hutchinson, 2013; Young & Nauta, 2013),
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 30
and the inherent challenges of balancing familial and professional roles, which more adversely
affects career progression for women than it does for men (Brown, 2010; Harris, 2009). Socially
defined gender roles also associate women with interpersonal competence; thus, female leaders
may be held to higher standards of social conduct than their male counterparts (Thoroughgood,
Sawyer, & Hunter, 2013). Studies on military leadership training show that leadership values are
heavily associated with masculinity thus there is a lack of visual representation and discussion on
female leaders and there is an overall inadequate effort to address issues of gender in leadership
training (Hutchinson, 2013). Gendered biases in leadership also associate women with a more
passive disposition; therefore, women who display assertive, masculine traits associated with
leadership are perceived unfavorably than men who display the same behavior (Sanchez-Hucles,
2010; Thoroughgood, Sawyer, & Hunter, 2013). These preconceived norms pose challenges to
women who seek to advance in a male-dominated military force (Boyce & Herd, 2003; Loughlin
& Arnold, 2007).
Women are also more likely to believe that their parental roles adversely affect their
careers more so than men; consequently, women are more likely than men to terminate their
military career when experiencing conflict between family and career roles, resulting in fewer
women available for promotion especially as their rank increases (Harris, 2009). Moreover,
gender role stereotypes may influence who is perceived as most similar to implied definitions of
leadership. Motherhood, for example, can be considered an extension of a gendered perception
that affects associated behaviors and expectations regarding women’s ability to fulfill work-
related roles (Harris, 2009). However, men in the workplace who are labeled as fathers may be
less likely to lose status because of the gendered expectation as family protectors (Harris, 2009)
and providers. When gendered expectations are immersed in organizational culture, women may
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 31
become discouraged forcing them to alter career paths or perhaps remove themselves from the
workforce altogether (Brown, 2010).
Also worth noting is the unique experiences of racial minority women who lead
homogenous institutions. Perceptions of leadership competence prove to be even more of a
significant barrier to advancement for women who are racially diverse (Ayman & Korabik, 2010;
Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Only 10% of 12,692 MOX female officers identify as racial
minority or unknown (Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, 2014). This relatively rare
group of minority women in leadership roles may experience “gendered racism” in which they
experience multiple stereotypes associated with the intersectionality of gender and race identities
(Sanchez-Hucles, 2010, p. 173).
In sum, the inherent challenges of balancing career and home life, along with a lack of
institutional support, continue to adversely affect the sustainment of female military leaders.
While male-only positions have reduced, socially constructed exclusions for women still exist
causing misperceptions and a prevalent underrepresentation of women in the military to resonate
today. Furthermore, the perception of a leader is critical to any organization, especially in the
military where mission revolves around the national defense and the protection of civil liberties.
Allowing limited perceptions of leadership to persist can be detrimental to organizations who
serve diverse and progressive populations as military leaders must navigate the variable state of
our nation.
Perceptions of Racial Minorities in Military Leadership
Studies suggest that underlying cultural influences may result in the persisting
demographic of underrepresented racial groups in military leadership. One theme considered in
this section is the perception of race as it relates to leadership capability and how these
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 32
perceptions affect the professional advancement of racial minorities. Another theme discussed is
the notion of dominant leadership prototypes in military training and its manifestation in MOX
culture. These themes may contribute to an environment that enables racial harassment and
discrimination toward minorities, further hindering motivations to progress. In consideration of
these themes, this section addresses the stated problem and how homogeny in military culture
may perpetuate racial disparities in the representation of leadership in the MOX.
Racial roles and exclusivity. Research suggests racial minorities are seen as less ideal
leaders when compared to Caucasians, which is why minorities are less likely to advance to
leadership positions in the United States (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Gundumir, Homan, Dreu, &
Vugt, 2014; Sy, Strause, Tram, Whiteley, Shore, Shore, & Ikeda-Muromachi, 2010). People
tend to associate leadership traits – such as intelligence, decisiveness, self-confidence, ambition,
and reliability – with Caucasians rather than racial minorities (Gundemir et al., 2014). This
association then manifests itself in explicit evaluations of leadership potential creating racial
biases that affect who is afforded the opportunity to promote to leadership positions (Gundimir et
al., 2014; Sy et al., 2010).
President George Washington’s exclusion of African-Americans to join the armed
services illustrates a historical milestone of racial hegemony in the military (Hansen, 2000). It
was not until 1959 that the Military Organization X Academy, a premier MOX officer-
commissioning source, admitted their first three African-American students (Hansen, 2000). In
2013, the MOXA reported that 74.3% incoming class of 2016 identity as “non-minority”; this
percentage increased to 77.9% non-minority for the class of 2017 (Military Organization X
Academy, 2012; Military Organization X Academy, 2013). In the last fiscal year manpower
report, 81% of the entire MOX officer corps identified as Caucasian (Department of Defense,
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 33
2014). Additionally, as other service academies have shifted their officer development and
educational programs to address challenges of military service in the 21
st
century, the MOX
Academy has narrowed its focus more on technology (Mastroianni, 2006). Moreover, this focus
on technology is empowered by the fact that the MOX controls a component of the American
nuclear deterrent leading to the “concentration and elevation of decision making power in highly
centralized structures” (Mastroianni, 2006, p. 83). This highlights a fundamental misalignment
of organizational goals of diversity and inclusion with the prototype of a command and control
structure led primarily by a dominant group.
Because leadership is a social process, self-identity, social identity, group identities and
ethnic differences are particularly significant (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Sanchez-Hucles &
Davis, 2010). Research suggests that individuals tend to prefer interactions with others
perceived as similar to themselves; more specifically, physical characteristics of race or gender
may play influential factors in the formation of preferred group identity (Stewart, 2009). The
notion of racial identity can have negative effects on other groups because “individuals with
similar identity production functions have an incentive to engage in collective behavior to reduce
negative externalities generated by others” (Stewart, 2009, p. 52). Thus, racial identity may lead
to behavior that seeks to directly or indirectly suppress groups identified as different, placing
them in a position where they are seen as less favorable because of discernable characteristics
(Stewart, 2009). Similarly, studies suggest that physical characteristics that differentiate people
into different racial groups act as “markers of status that prime stereotypes and endow privilege”
or inferiority (Ayman & Korabik, 2010, p. 159). Consequently, dominant homogenous groups
have more favorable perceptions of equal opportunity and a more positive sense of in-group
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 34
identity, allowing for greater leadership opportunities to advance relative to minority groups
(Dansby & Landis, 1998; Sy, et al., 2010).
Perpetuated by the hegemony of the MOX population, this unilateral perception is
problematic because it may hinder the ability for senior leaders to identify the misalignment of
diversity and inclusiveness objectives to the actual state of its organization. Furthermore,
leadership cannot be considered universally effective; one must take into account the dynamics
of group identities, role expectations, and differences in power and status (Ayman & Korabik,
2010). The MOX may be perceived as the most progressive due to its status as the youngest of
the military service branches and its focus on technological superiority. However, this focus on
technology may enforce a particular leader prototype, which may contribute to the current
demographic makeup of MOX leadership,
History of racial discrimination and harassment. The notion of an all-volunteer force
as a means to serve the armed forces is associated with the expectation of all-inclusive
opportunities to advance; however, racial discrimination and the persisting underrepresentation
of racial minorities in the military may tarnish this notion due to past experiences of racial
inequality (Butler & Holmes, 1981). Racial discrimination and harassment manifest in
homogenous environments (Bergman et al., 2007; Stewart, 2009) like the military, possibly
contributing to the attrition of its minority population. In the workplace, discrimination can be
defined as the reservation of benefits for one group and limitations for another potentially
leading to job-related loss; harassment can be defined as negatively charged actions toward an
individual based on their particular characteristics which may not have an effect on job-related
loss (Bergman, Palmieri, Drasgow, & Ormerod, 2007).
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 35
One’s social experiences prior to joining the military shape ideas of race and influence
perceptions of discrimination, contributing to consistent occurrences of discrimination and
harassment (Bergman et al., 2007; Butler & Holmes, 1981). Addressing this behavior in the
workplace requires a change in the organizational climate through the implementation of training
and leadership intervention (Larsen et al., 2013). A study on race in the military asserts the
following: “Although the unique mission of the Armed Forces creates an especially critical
interest in developing viable diversity management techniques, the military has also been a
reflection of American society’s institutional racist and sexist practices” (Stewart, 2009). These
behavioral practices may be measured in the workplace through documented accounts of racial
harassment and discrimination.
The Armed Forces Equal Opportunity Survey (AFEOS) is distributed annually among
members of the armed services. The AFEOS seeks to measure organizational climate and attain
information regarding “perceived racial harassment, job satisfaction, and intentions to remain in
the military, as well as demographic and human capital characteristics” (Antecol & Cobb-Clark,
2008, p. 716). The results from a 2007 AFEOS reported that 66% of active duty personnel
across all military branches reported experiencing offensive racial behaviors within a period of
12 months (Antecol & Cobb-Clark, 2008). A separate study reported that in 2009, 67% of the
over 33,000 AFEOS respondents stated that they were victimized on the basis of their race or
ethnicity (Stewart, 2009). These results stress that racism may still exist in the U.S. military,
posing inherent disadvantages for racial minorities as they strive to advance to through the
leadership ranks (Antecol & Cobb-Clark, 2008; Bergman et al, 2007; Larsen, Nye, Ormerod,
Ziebro, & Siebert, 2013). Although there has been a decrease from 2009 to 2013 in reported
incidents of racial/ethnic harassment or discrimination, the Defense Manpower Data Center
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 36
(DMDC) stated that in 2013 about one in 10 military members experienced racial harassment
and or discrimination; additionally minority members were more likely to indicate experiencing
racial/ethnic harassment compared to Caucasians (Defense Manpower Data Center, 2013).
While an increase of racial minorities in the MOX may eventually combat the detrimental
beliefs and behaviors that underpin this ongoing disparity, challenges may arise in the pursuit of
a more racially diverse force. Changes to the status quo may be seen as threatening to the
dominant population, who already have greater access to leadership positions, creating
motivation to act in ways that retain the current hierarchy and the systematic inequality that it
renders (Gundemir et al., 2014). This is problematic for racial minorities because these
experiences ultimately affect their satisfaction and intent to stay in the military (Bergman et al.,
2007; Larsen et al., 2013).
In sum, the continued misperception of minority groups in leadership and ideals centered
on dominant leader prototypes may perpetuate a pattern of implicit discriminatory beliefs and
behaviors, and further the displacement of minorities in military leadership. The perceived value
of diversity initiatives and efforts is much different than the reality of its implementation. As the
primary stakeholders identified in the organizational problem of underrepresented minority
females in MOX leadership, senior leaders must be aware of existing knowledge-based,
motivational, and organizational influences and how these they may perpetuate homogenous
cultural norms.
Intersectionality of Gender and Race Perceptions in Leadership
Negative perceptions of leadership competence prove to be even more of a significant
barrier to advancement for women who are racially diverse (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Sanchez-
Hucles & Davis, 2010). Only 10% of 12,692 MOX female officers identify as racial minority or
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 37
unknown (Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, 2014). Consequently, this relatively rare
group of minority women in leadership roles may experience “gendered racism” in which they
experience multiple stereotypes associated with the intersectionality of gender and race identities
(Sanchez-Hucles, 2010, p. 173).
As mentioned before, causes for female underrepresentation in military leadership have
resulted from negative perceptions of women in authority and subconscious gender typing
(Boyce & Herd, 2003; Brown, 2010; Hutchinson, 2013; Young & Nauta, 2013). For racially and
ethnically diverse women, stereotyping can prove to be an even greater barrier to advancement
(Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Gendered and racial biases in leadership associate women
with a more passive disposition; therefore, women who display assertive, masculine traits
associated with leadership are perceived unfavorably (Sanchez-Hucles, 2010; Thoroughgood,
Sawyer, & Hunter, 2013). Thus, minority women must display higher leadership competence
while simultaneously conforming to white male “prototypes representing traditional ethnic,
racial, and gender behavior” (Sanchez-Hucles, 2010, p. 174).
These culturally implicit means of exclusion may imply that social attitudes toward
gender roles and race continue to hinder opportunities for capable women to progress (Matthews,
Ender, Laurence, & Rohall, 2009; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010), inevitably affecting the
overall sustainment and representation of minority women in MOX leadership.
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Theoretical Framework
Influences on the diversification and inclusivity of MOX leadership can be understood
through Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model, which is the primary theoretical framework
used in this research study. The gap analysis is a systematic process of evaluating performance
using dimensions of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence as well as identifying
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 38
potential causes and solutions to performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). This study
investigates how these influences affect the sustainment and overall underrepresentation of
minority women in MOX leadership. Part of this chapter includes a literature review with
possible assumed causes further introduced in Chapter Three. The assumed causes will be
validated or discounted through the use of literature review and research analysis. Conclusions
with potential recommendations will also be discussed.
Learning and Motivation Theory
This study utilized the gap analysis dimensions to interconnect MOX diversity efforts and
educational psychology literature to address assumed causes of the underrepresentation of racial
minorities and women in MOX leadership (see Table A). In order to diagnose performance
gaps, the framework requires us to understand three main causes of these gaps: stakeholder’s
knowledge and skills, their motivation to achieve performance goals, and organizational barriers
that may exist that prevent the achievement of goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). These causes, or
dimensions, consist of subcategories, which further deconstruct the concepts. Knowledge is
broken down into four types of knowledge, derived from Bloom’s revised taxonomy: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). The dimension of motivation can
be influenced by active choice, mental effort, and persistence (Rueda, 2011). Organizational
influences within gap analysis can be examined through cultural aspects of policies, procedures,
and resources (Schien, 2004). For the purposes of this study, knowledge influences focus on
MOX leaders’ understanding of diversity goals. Motivation influences focus on MOX leaders’
efforts toward the perceived value of established diversity efforts. Lastly, organizational
influences are discussed in terms of MOX policy and structure and their effect on cultural norms.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 39
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The overarching goal of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap is to enable the MOX to
attract, recruit, develop, and retain a high quality, diverse total force. The primary stakeholder
identified for purposes of the study for these goals are mid and upper-level MOX officers,
specifically in the rank of Captain to Colonel. The purpose of this section is to review various
influences that are significant to the achievement of the following stakeholder goal: to
understand and address factors that influence attrition among minority women in the MOX.
Table 1 lists existing literature that supports the knowledge, motivation, and organization
influences which are broken down into assumed factors contributing the problem or practice.
Each KMO factor is further analyzed in each respective section.
Table 1
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences: Assumed Causes Addressed in the Study
Assumed Causes to the Problem of Practice General Literature
Knowledge
MOX leaders may not how dominant groups in
MOX leadership affect organizational
effectiveness.
(Baldwin, 2000; Defense Advisory
Committee on Women in the Services
[DACOWITS], 2014; Parkes, Knouse,
McDonald, & Kupchick, 2008)
Diversity may not be clearly defined or
presented in a way that is effective or clearly
understood.
(Lim, Haddad, & Daughtery, 2013; Lim,
Mariano, Cox, Schulker, & Hanser, 2014)
MOX leaders may lack training on practices
that meaningfully emphasize the importance of
diversity and inclusion.
(Boyce & Herd, 2003; Hutchinson, 2013;
Koenig, Mitchell, & Risitikari, 2011;
Loughlin & Arnold, 2007; Matthews et al.,
2009; Rueb, Erskin, & Foti, 2008; Vecchio
& Brazil, 2007)
MOX leaders may not be aware of their role
within current D&I efforts to create more
inclusive work environments and opportunities
for all members to progress.
(Streeter, 2014; Marsman, 2009)
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 40
Motivation
MOX leaders may not value the importance of
D&I and their role in creating change.
(Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Anderman, 2015;
Anderman, 2015; Clark & Estes, 2008; Lim,
Haddad, & Daugherty, 2013; Pintrich, 2004)
MOX leaders may not be committed to
meeting goals for D&I.
(Karmack, 2015; MLDC, 2011; Pintrich,
2003)
Organizational Culture
Closed system of progression may contribute
to dominant leader prototypes resulting in a
persistent underrepresentation of minority
women in MOX leadership. The internal
climate of military organizations may create
systematic bias in which positions of authority
are determined by like-minded people.
(Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Clark & Estes,
2008; Dansby & Landis, 1998; Dowd &
Bensimon, 2014; Gundemir et al., 2014;
Hutchinson, 2013; Loughlin & Arnold, 2007;
Mastroianni, 2006; Shamir & Ben-Ari, 2000;
Schein, 2010; Streeter, 2014; Trenerry &
Paradies, 2012)
Diversity and inclusiveness may not be
operationalized effectively, highlighting
misalignment of policy and practice. D&I
efforts may be seen more as a mandate,
protocol, or means to a quota rather than a
valuable cultural influence.
(Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Clark & Estes,
2008; Karmack, 2015; MLDC, 2011; Schein,
2010; Stewart, 2009; Streeter, 2014)
Knowledge and Skills
General theory. Knowledge influences are categorized in the following dimensions of
Bloom’s Taxonomy: declarative (factual and conceptual), procedural, and metacognitive
(Krathwohl, 2002). This framework is intended to establish learning intentions and expectations
and may be used to evaluate MOX leaders’ understanding of organizational goals. Declarative
knowledge refers to MOX leaders’ need to know about the current demographic state of the
MOX population and differing perceptions of diversity. Procedural knowledge refers to how
MOX leaders apply diversity training in leadership development. Metacognitive knowledge
refers to a leader’s cognitive awareness as it relates to the stakeholder goal – specifically,
knowledge needed to self-regulate and understand why diversity initiatives are highly prioritized.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 41
Analyzing these knowledge types is an important part of understanding how leadership’s
perceptions affect the actual implementation of diversity initiatives. Table 2 summarizes the
knowledge influences, types and proposes assessment methods to be used in the research.
Declarative knowledge: Understanding the need for diversity. In this section,
literature relevant to the stakeholder and the stakeholder goal will be presented and discussed.
The Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) annual report
serves as a knowledge-relevant source for the stakeholder group because it provides qualitative
data that supports the problem of underrepresentation of women in the military (DACOWITS,
2014). Specifically, these annual reports discuss systemic barriers that exist when it comes to
progression from the perspective of female service members. The DACOWITS conducted 40
focus groups across eight military installations with a total of 369 participants. Based on this
data, DACOWITS made recommendations for each military branch to consider for future
organizational change. Some recommendations included bringing more attention to sexual
assault cases, making family planning more accessible, devoting more resources to the accession
of women to increase representation, implementing opening of closed units and positions to
women by January 2016, and supporting innovative programs to provide mentoring opportunities
for military women of all ranks to aid in career progression (DACOWITS, 2014).
Moreover, a study on early promotion rates of women and minorities in the military
conducted in 2000 provides foundational knowledge on women and racial minorities and
illustrates a still very prevalent issue in the MOX. In this study, data from the MOX Personnel
Center over 322,000 promotion decisions between 1978 and 1995 were analyzed (Baldwin,
2000). The study tested two hypothesis: 1) early promotion rates of men exceed early promotion
rates of women and 2) early promotion rates of Caucasians exceed early promotion rates of
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 42
minorities. According to this study, differences between Caucasian and minority promotion rates
increase with rank; additionally, turnover is more of a problem with female and minority officers
than it is for their male Caucasian counterparts (Baldwin, 2000).
In 2008, another study was conducted to determine how diversity climate affects
organizational effectiveness. Two surveys were conducted to measure perspectives of Latina
women in the military. 233 Latina military personnel participated in the Military Equal
Opportunity Climate Survey, which is a climate assessment designed to assess perceptions on
formal/informal policies, practices and procedures. A second study consisted of 196 Latina
military personnel who took the Transformational Leadership Inventory survey. Results of the
study suggest that there is an illusion of inclusion in which minorities are expected to assimilate
into a pre-defined subordinate role within dominant organizational culture resulting in a feeling
of exclusion (Parks, Knouse, McDonald, & Kupchick, 2008).
Furthermore, the findings of these studies suggest that leaders must be champions of
diversity, act as an agent for change, and ultimately cultivate a pro-diversity environment based
on team-building, acknowledging different viewpoints, and building a community (Parks et al,
2008). This can be done through stronger recruiting and retention efforts that emphasize that the
military is a family that cares for the individual by providing fair treatment and developmental
opportunities for all. These articles illustrate what is known about the existing problem in
military culture, which is the persistent homogenous population that perpetuates in-/out-group
complexities. If the MOX seeks to accomplish strategic goals of diversity then leaders must take
into account how the current state of their culture is keeping them from doing so.
The underrepresentation of women and minorities in particular career fields reduces the
chances of them being considered for early promotion. Furthermore, these changes are further
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 43
narrowed by the existing population of Caucasian males that occupy a majority of desirable
career fields, making them more viable for promotion and sustaining them as a dominant group
in MOX leadership (Baldwin, 2000). These reports represent declarative knowledge relevant to
stakeholder group and goals because they explicitly acknowledge problematic cultural barriers
that impact longstanding dominant groups in the MOX and that the problem of underrepresented
minority groups is still worth addressing.
Procedural knowledge: How diversity is presented. When evaluating knowledge
influences, it is important to consider how the MOX defines diversity and formally presents it in
a training context. In the organization’s official instruction on diversity, diversity is defined as a
composite of individual characteristics, experiences, and abilities consistent with the MOX Core
Values that includes but is not limited to: personal like experiences, geographic background,
socioeconomic background, cultural knowledge, educational background, work background,
language abilities, physical abilities, philosophical/spiritual perspectives, age, race, ethnicity, and
gender. While this definition encompasses a diverse array characteristics, studies suggest that
this definition does not address the need for increased representation of minorities and women in
leadership nor does it enforce accountability for leaders to track progress and performance (Lim,
Haddad, & Daughtery, 2013; Lim, Mariano, Cox, Schulker, & Hanser, 2014). Consequently, as
rank increases, the representation of racial minorities and women steadily decreases (Lim et al,
2014). Without explicit and directive measures regarding the way diversity is presented, overall
knowledge will continue to be influenced by the beliefs and norms regarding MOX leadership.
Research on current military leadership training shows a heavy correlation of leadership
to masculinity, command and control (Matthews, Ender, Laurence, & Rohall, 2009; Hutchison,
2013; Loughlin & Arnold, 2007). As a result, there is a lack of visual representation and
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 44
discussion on minority leaders and an overall inadequate effort to address issues of gender in
leadership training (Hutchison, 2013). Considering the progressively changing state of society,
the military may benefit from deemphasizing traditional leader prototypes in leadership training
(Boyce & Herd, 2003; Koenig, Mitchell, & Risitikari, 2011; Loughlin & Arnold, 2007; Vecchio
& Brazil, 2007). While training itself cannot change military culture, it may provide prevalent
opportunities to emphasize transformational leadership behaviors and the need for organizational
progression, especially in regard to the integration of diverse leaders.
The results of a 2008 study on MOX leadership suggests that ongoing homogeneity in the
officer corps may be based on beliefs of a leadership prototype of dominance and masculinity in
leadership training (Rueb, Erskin, & Foti, 2008). This correlation seems to be a norm in military
organizations, and the sample used in this study shows that the MOX is no exception. In this
study, 1,137 MOX officers (959 males and 173 females, ages ranging from 25-41) attending
Squadron Officer School, a mandated leadership development course MOX officers attend as
Captains, completed four surveys: Personal demographic survey, Watson-Glas Critical Thinking
Appraisal, California Psychological Inventory, and Lennox-Wolfe Self-Monitoring Scale (Rueb
et al, 2008).
Through correlational analysis of these leadership values, the authors found that
intelligence and dominance were found to be predictive of leadership emergence; additionally,
femininity was not strongly correlated with leadership (Rueb et al, 2008). The authors suggest
that leadership selection, admission criteria, and training may contribute to trait homogeneity
within the MOX – criteria which includes educational background, physical prowess, and
emotional stability (Rueb et al, 2008). Rueb’s (2008) research attributes trait homogeneity to the
notion that officer training commissioning sources may attract men and women with traditional
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 45
views - specifically, expectations of effective leaders being masculine. Based on these findings,
the authors suggest that future research should investigate current leadership strategies to aid in
the selection of military leaders for the future. This study helps to inform the "how" and "why"
regarding the problem of underrepresented women because it suggests that femininity is not
correlated to effective leadership as masculinity. From a procedural knowledge standpoint, this
is important because trait homogeneity presented in leadership training could hinder the MOX's
operational ability to adapt to external demands and the variable nature of peacekeeping
missions.
Metacognitive knowledge: Awareness of current efforts. Considering the military is a
top-down organization, leaders must be aware of their own cognition and how their cognitive
processes inevitably affect those they lead if they seek to create an environment of inclusion. A
study done on diversity in the MOX by Colonel Suzanne Streeter in 2014 quotes General Philip
Breedlove in the following: “Groupthink is the worst thing you can have when you have a
problem…If there are all male Caucasians sitting around the table, you have groupthink”
(Streeter, 2014, p. 105). Col Streeter’s study stated that the MOX’s retention rate for female
officers was about 50% at the seven-year mark and 70% after 12 years of service; male officers
do not reach that level of attrition until their 21-year mark (Streeter, 2014). Moreover, the MOX
maintains an average of 85% white males in the general ranks (Streeter, 2014). In regards to the
MOX Strategic Roadmap, Col Streeter suggests an in-depth review and overhaul of personnel
policies and systems – specifically policy transformation and program development (Streeter,
2014). Col Streeter’s awareness of efforts and proposal for change reflects only one form of
metacognitive knowledge from a senior leader stakeholder perspective.
An article written by MOX Colonel Steven Marsman regarding future recruitment
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 46
addresses the demographic disparity among MOX potentials. Marsman suggests that members
from more densely urban populated areas produce only 8% of military recruits while a majority
come from South Central states such as Texas and Alabama (Marsman, 2009). Despite census
data showing that the mean center of the U.S. population runs across the Kentucky border, an
overwhelming majority of MOX installations lie below this line – maximizing exposure and
accessibility to a particular population (Marsman, 2009). Additionally, Marsman alludes to an
informal notion that the MOX “speaks with a Southern accent” and the consequential chance for
prejudicial behavior and treatment, further institutionalizing differences between those who join
the MOX and greater American society (Marsman, 2009).
Col Marsman’s (2009) perspective supports the metacognitive knowledge of
underrepresented minority females in leadership because he points out crucial factors on MOX
accessions: the influence and access that is lacking in more diverse populations. This
concentrated population from which a majority of the MOX is bred is something many leaders
may not be aware of when it comes to tackling such large diversity and inclusion initiatives. The
aforementioned studies conducted by MOX leaders further support the importance for other
leaders to express their commitment to acknowledging disparaging experiences for minority
groups who strive to be military leaders and to reflect on their role in championing diversity and
inclusion goals.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 47
Table 2
Knowledge Influences and Assessment Methods
Organizational Mission
The mission of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap is to enable the MOX to attract, recruit,
develop, and retain a high quality, diverse total force.
Organizational Goal
To increase accession and retention of racial minority female officers in the MOX.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge
Type
Knowledge Influence Assessment
MOX leaders may not how
dominant groups in MOX
leadership affect
organizational effectiveness.
The homogeneity in
leadership may lead to a
general sense of apathy
toward D&I initiatives.
MOX leaders need to know
how perceptions on
diversity differ. There may
be a general lack of
understanding of what D&I
means and may be more
negatively associated to
race or gender rather than as
a collective gain for the
organization.
Declarative
(Factual)
Declarative
(Conceptual)
Interview Questions:
Based on your experience, how would you
describe a majority of MOX officers in your
workplace?
• What do you think are common
characteristics shared among higher-
ranking officers in the MOX?
What do you think are common characteristics
shared among higher-ranking officers in the
MOX?
• Why do you think these commonalities
exist?
Interview Questions:
Can you give an example of when a leader or
colleague informally discussed diversity or
inclusion in the workplace?
• How did this discussion make you feel?
• How do you think it make others feel?
MOX leaders must know
how to incorporate
leadership practices that
meaningfully emphasize the
importance of diversity and
inclusion.
Procedural Interview Questions:
Can you talk about any diversity training you
have received (professional development or
leadership training courses)?
• If you have, what do you think the
purpose of diversity training is in the
context of leadership development?
• If you have not, do you think it would
be beneficial? Why or why not?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 48
MOX leaders need to be
aware of their role in
current D&I efforts to create
more inclusive work
environments and
opportunities for all
members to progress.
Metacognitive Interview Questions:
Would you describe your current workplace as
diverse?
• Do you think any of your colleagues
would describe this in similar ways?
Why or why not?
Would you describe your current workplace as
inclusive? Why or why not?
• Do you think any of your colleagues
would disagree with your assessment?
What makes you think that?
Motivation
This section focuses on motivation-related influences that impact the achievement of the
stakeholder goal. The implementation of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap will require
leaders to learn the importance of diversity in a way that is meaningful and therefore effective in
practice. Meaningful learning experiences cannot occur without exerting the effort necessary to
engage in appropriate cognitive processing; therefore, motivation to learn is required for
meaningful learning (Mayer, 2011). In approaching the problem of underrepresented females
and racial minorities in MOX leadership, it is important to understand motivational factors that
not only influence organizational and stakeholder goals, but MOX culture at large. Two theories
that may be applied to this issue are goal orientation theory and expectancy value theory. Table
3 summarizes the motivational influences based on these theories and proposes assessment
methods to be used in the research.
General theories: Goal orientation and expectancy value. Goal orientation theory is a
social cognitive theory of achievement motivation; it examines the reasons why individuals
engage in their work (Anderman, 2015). Research suggests that instructional practices have an
impact on individual goals and that people are more motivated with higher goal orientation
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 49
(Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Anderman, 2015). According to this theory, leaders have a profound
influence on the motivation to achieve particular goals. However, meeting goals just to achieve
performance standards should not be the focus if leaders seek to create sustainable change and
make progress toward a more diverse force. Leaders who prioritize mastery and improvement in
the existing framework will result in greater engagement and an overall deeper understanding of
the tasks necessary to achieve goals (Anderman, 2015; Pintrich, 2004). Therefore, this is
important for MOX leaders to fully understand in order to operationalize the goals in the
Diversity Strategic Roadmap in order to institutionalize diversity and inclusion in leadership
training and beyond.
One primary principle behind Expectancy Value Theory is that learning and motivation
are enhanced if the learner values the task (Eccles, 2009). Additionally, rationales that include a
discussion of the importance and utility value of the work or learning can help to develop
positive values (Eccles, 2009; Pintrich, 2003). MOX leaders must understand the value behind
diversity training as it relates to leadership development in the 21
st
century. Additionally, it is
important to consider the notion that different people have different beliefs about what makes
them effective – that one’s beliefs are not automatically shared with others (Clark & Estes,
2008). Leaders on all levels may benefit from understanding the differing, underlying
motivational factors that help or hinder the achievement of diversity and inclusion goals.
Goal orientation in MOX leadership. Executing a plan that strives for organizational
change requires a framework for implementation. In 2013, the RAND National Security
Research Division released the report Implementation of the DOD Diversity and Inclusion
Strategic Plan: A Framework for Change through Accountability. The purpose of the
framework is to ensure resources towards their efforts are targeted for long-term success. The
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 50
report proposes an accountability system and recommendations that will help drive significant
changes needed to move toward the DoD's vision of diversity. This plan emphasizes that
accountability is built on compliance, communication, and coordination (Lim, Haddad, &
Daugherty, 2013). Compliance with inclusion-related policies and regulations as well as the
tracking of metrics and goal accomplishment is crucial to meeting long-term diversity and
inclusion goals. Communication, both internal and external, drives movement toward a goal and
bridges the gap between groups; it must be driven by leadership and attentive to audiences in
order to create an environment conducive to change. Coordination among different
organizations and special interest groups that focus on diversity is necessary to encourage joint
efforts in the movement towards a more diverse military force. Based on this external
accountability structure, these goals are vectored toward a more performance-oriented approach.
In an attempt to internally fortify the mastery of diversity goals, RAND published a
subsequent report in 2014 entitled Improving Demographic Diversity in [Military Organization
X] Officer Corps. This report focused primarily on identifying contributing factors and potential
policy responses to the scarcity of minorities and women in MOX senior leadership positions
(Lim et al, 2014). The report provides recommendations to DoD policymakers based on the
authors’ analysis on barriers to MOX diversity: “Our focus on eligibility, accessions, retention,
and promotion…arises from the fact that these are four of the key mechanisms through which
any of the factors affecting diversity operate. To the degree that we can understand these
dynamics, we can move closer to an understanding of diversity in the MOX” (Lim et al, 2014, p.
6). Applying this approach in diversity training is more indicative of mastery orientation
because these aspects generate discussion necessary to better understand the barriers that exist
and why cultivating diversity is important.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 51
Motivation to achieve goals requires leaders to effectively influence people’s
understanding of the impressions they create in others and their beliefs about the benefit in these
efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008). The existence of this research shows that there is, in fact,
motivation to create a more diverse military force. The specific goals and recommendations
listed in the aforementioned reports show that there are steps that must be taken that may have
not been taken before. Even though structural barriers are minimal, perceptual barriers regarding
race, ethnicity, and gender still exist (Lim, Haddad, & Daugherty, 2013). Motivation to improve
and deepen one’s understanding of diversity requires a willingness to acknowledge deficiencies
in the current culture. The disparity among white males and minority females in MOX
leadership is perhaps a result of ineffective or inadequate leadership, practices, and commitment
to diversity efforts in the past. These reports identify motivational issues related to the
stakeholder goal because it addresses the need for a different approach to diversity – an approach
focused on mastery and meaningful learning in a more robust focus on diversity in leadership
training curricula.
Expectancy value in MOX leadership. Research suggests that implementation
strategies must include activities that are relevant and useful, connected to interests, and based on
real-world tasks (Pintrich, 2003). The MOX has placed tremendous value in the addressing the
problem of practice through the development of the 2013 MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap.
This report, compiled by the MOX Global Diversity Division, provides an action plan that
supports diversity objectives across a multitude of Department of Defense (DoD) directives. It is
meant to provide guidance to enhance the diversity of the MOX and to track progress and
success of the goals outlined in this plan. The plan discusses five priorities: to institutionalize
diversity as necessary to mission success and to attract, recruit, develop, and retain high quality,
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 52
talented, diverse individuals to/in the MOX (MOX Global Diversity Division, 2013). The plan
focuses on the importance of diversity training, effective communication/outreach, and
leadership commitment. It also provides actions and specific performance measures in support
of the goals and initiatives.
The roadmap represents a motivational influence because it addresses a MOX-specific
initiative to address the problem of underrepresented minority groups. It also emphasizes the
importance of current leadership's commitment to implement these strategies and to regard
diversity as a significant component in today's missions. This report provides specific measures
of performance, which incur a type of accountability on MOX leadership. While widening the
officer accessions pool will increase opportunities for minority officers to lead in the future,
leaders now are responsible for upholding a culture that acknowledges difference and utilizes it
for the good of the mission. The utility of this roadmap requires MOX leaders to consider the
significance of these efforts and their particular role in meeting goals through diversity training
and the inherent expectation of policy compliance.
Another significant study that contributes to motivational influences regarding
demographic disparity was conducted by the Military Leadership Diversity Commission
(MLDC) in 2011: "Racial/ethnic minorities and women are still underrepresented in leadership
positions" (MLDC, 2011, p. 3). The MLDC, comprised of Congress-appointed officials who are
retired, active duty or civilians of the DoD, presented this report to President Obama in 2011 in
an effort to address two primary objectives: "(1) that the Armed Forces systematically develop a
demographically diverse leadership that reflects the public it serves and the force it leads and (2)
that the services pursue a broader approach to diversity that includes the range of backgrounds,
skill sets, and personal attributes that are necessary to enhancing military performance" (MLDC,
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 53
2011, p. xiii). The commission suggests that leadership commitment to diversity is crucial,
therefore current military leaders are responsible for eliminating barriers and developing future
leaders for a more diverse force. Consequently, the report discusses diversity leadership as a
necessary core competency in leadership training (MLDC, 2011). The report also discusses a
wider outreach and recruiting process and increased opportunities for special assignments as
methods for increasing inclusivity and creating a larger, more diverse pool from which future
military leaders are developed.
The work done by the MLDC provides a focused effort on this problem and represents a
small population's motivation to meaningfully address this problem at a higher level. The detail
to which the MLDC has approached this problem signifies a need to continually assess the
culture that is hindering demographic change. One of their primary goals is to "Develop future
leaders who represent the face of America and are able to effectively lead a diverse workforce to
maximize mission effectiveness" (Military Leadership Diversity Commission, 2011, p. 8). The
goals and interrelated recommendations in this report will further support existing motivational
influences to the problem of practice. Additionally, the fact that this report was published in
2011 and that minimal change has occurred in the leadership corps since that time, may prove to
be an initial benchmark for future reports to be measured against, providing crucial motivational
indicators throughout time.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 54
Table 3
Motivational Influences and Assessment Methods
Organizational Mission
The mission of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap is to enable the MOX to attract, recruit,
develop, and retain a high quality, diverse total force.
Organizational Goal
To increase accession and retention of racial minority female officers in the MOX.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Expectancy Value Theory:
MOX leaders must value their role as
change agents and be committed to
communicating the importance of diversity
and inclusion to others.
Interview Questions:
Do you think diversity training is a valued
component in leadership development?
• If so, why? What do you think is the value
of learning about diversity?
• If not, why do you think it is not valued?
Goal Orientation Theory:
MOX leaders should examine why D&I
goals are important in order to effectively
institutionalize diversity and inclusion
within their organization.
Interview Questions:
In what ways do leaders in your workplace
communicate the importance of diversity, if at all?
• Do you think the topic of diversity is well-
received? Why or why not?
The primary mission of the MOX’s Diversity
Strategic roadmap is to enable the MOX to attract,
recruit, develop, and retain a high quality, diverse
total force.
• Why do you think this mission was
established by MOX leadership?
• What role does leadership play in
communicating the importance of this
mission?
Organization
General theory. Organizational culture can be analyzed based on its existing the cultural
settings and cultural models (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings consist of the
organization’s employees, their tasks, how and why tasks are completed, and the social context
in which their work is performed; cultural models refer to cultural practices and shared mental
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 55
schema within the organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Based on this learning theory
and literature, this section discusses the primary cultural model and setting that contribute to
organizational stakeholder influences. Table 4 summarizes the organizational influences based
on these theories and proposes assessment methods to be used in the research.
Cultural model: Closed system progression. Culture is a way to describe core values,
goals, beliefs, and processes learned as people develop over time (Clark & Estes, 2008). Unlike
private or public organizations, the military is a closed system whose leaders are brought up
through the ranks (Military Leadership Diversity Commission [MLDC], 2011). Because of this
closed structure and the persisting leader prototype, the diversity of future leaders relies on
current demographic makeup of current officers (MLDC, 2011). The linear command and
control structure of the MOX relies on command and control, in which authoritative positions
and traditional protocols imply respect and compliance (Department of the MOX, 2011;
Department of the MOX, 2012). Organizational culture can be implicit in attitudes and behavior
as well as the operational patterns people develop and support (Clark & Estes, 2008). These
underlying factors are significant because the underrepresentation of minority groups in military
leadership may reflect the inability to fundamentally change the perception of the leadership
prototype, ensuing a continuous demographic that does not reflect the diverse, progressively
changing nation the military serves.
Resonating leader prototypes. Leaders are responsible for imposing structures, systems,
and processes which then become shared parts of the organizational culture (Schein, 2011).
Consequently, when dominant prototypes of male Caucasian leaders are much more visible,
these ideals resonate greatly in hierarchal structures (Gundemir et al., 2014). Studies suggest
that the image of a military leader is strongly associated with a dominant, idealized prototype
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 56
(Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Hutchinson, 2013). Prototypes utilized in military training associate
leadership effectiveness to command and control more so than the practice of social influence
(Hutchinson, 2013; Loughlin & Arnold, 2007; Shamir & Ben-Ari, 2000). Additionally, images
in mainstream media and entertainment portray similar prototypes of an idealized leader, further
imposing this ideal in through channels that are more far more reaching or universally accepted.
Persisting ideographic narratives, homogenous depictions of iconic war heroes, and linear
perceptions of exemplified leadership further emphasize cultural indoctrination and hierarchal
values (Hutchinson, 2013; Loughlin & Arnold, 2007). Such prototypes, which are heavily
adopted in traditional military leadership training, limit the innovative, diversely collective
thinking required to navigate cross-cultural and progressive environments (Hutchinson, 2013).
The continued emphasis of leader prototypes may have continual adverse effects when it comes
to leading modern day military missions.
Internal climate as barrier to understanding diversity. The power of culture comes out
through the notion that assumptions are shared and, therefore, mutually reinforced (Schein,
2011). Moreover, certain beliefs and values are confirmed by shared social experiences of
common groups creating a sense of social validation (Schein, 2011). Research on military
culture suggests the disposition of racial identity may propagate a systematic bias in which
positions of authority are determined by like-minded people, excluding those who do not fit
within norms established by the dominant group (Mastroianni, 2006; Streeter, 2014). Given the
homogeneity in the MOX leadership corps, it may be implied that as the proportion of Caucasian
male officers increase, so does the level of a reinforced consensual positive climate, or an
environment that is thrives on collectively common beliefs or assumptions (Dansby & Landis,
1998; Streeter, 2014). This climate may be influenced by the notion that diversity is not fully
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 57
understood. Current efforts to celebrate underrepresented groups may be misconstrued as an
attempt to equalize all forms of difference, all the while disregarding the existence of white
privilege and racial discrimination (Dowd & Bensimon, 2014). As a result, there is limited
evidence of the overall effectiveness of organizational diversity training management (Trenerry
& Paradies, 2012).
Cultural setting: Policy and practice. When policies are not supported by effective
work processes of procedures, one cause is a conflict between some aspect of organizational
culture and its current performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). As the aforementioned
initiatives in the MOX propose, the diversification of the military continues to be a concern
(MOX Global Diversity Division, 2013; Department of the MOX, 2012; James, 2015; MLDC,
2011). MOX Colonel Suzanne Streeter stated, “Diversity is important to mission readiness and
national security in terms of demographically representative leadership, enhanced civil-military
relations with a diverse civil society, and the leveraging of diversity as a demographic mission
necessity” (Streeter, 2014, p. 105).
These ideals are important to address because the military must reflect the country it
serves and be able to effectively harness the talents of racial minorities to better understand and
communicate across cultures (Larsen et al, 2013). Core beliefs that characterize organizational
culture can guide decisions about goal selection in policy as well as the processes and procedures
used to achieve these goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Thus, the operationalization of inclusivity
requires influential leaders who can effectively advocate diverse perspectives, eradicate in- and
out-group norms, and acknowledge differing viewpoints (Ayman & Korabik, 2010).
Diversity as protocol (Policy). While people are most often aware of mission, goals, and
formal policy, some of the most important yet invisible elements of organizational culture are
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 58
shared basic assumptions about how things should be done and how goals are achieved (Schein,
2011; Clark & Estes, 2008). Despite the level of official discourse regarding diversity in the
MOX, the notion of diversity might be seen more as protocol and policy rather than a cultural
influence and a force multiplier. MOX Instruction on Diversity states “MOX personnel who
work in a diverse environment learn to maximize individual strengths and to combine individual
abilities and perspectives for the good of the mission.” However, a recent study on diversity in
the MOX states that most individuals in this organization “… are more likely to view ‘diversity’
as another top-down initiative accompanied by computer-based training, checklists, and rules-
based compliance rather than recognizing it as a game changer for the [MOX]” (Streeter, 2014,
p. 105). This disparaging aspect of MOX culture is significant because it affects leaders’
behavior, effectiveness, and their overall understanding of diversity. Thus, in the cultivation of a
diverse society it is crucial to understand the impact of social interaction and how people act on
their perceptions (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Stewart, 2009).
If the MOX is to succeed in meeting its diversity and inclusiveness goals, homogenous
leader prototypes must be diminished – not only in recruitment efforts, but through sustained
leadership development. Declaring diversity as a priority may not be enough. The effectiveness
of a diverse military force depends on the multi-directional and relational capacity of members to
trust one another (Stewart, 2009). While current goals and policies promote the ideal of
inclusion, the MOX must focus on institutionalizing how and why diversity is necessary to
mission success (Streeter, 2014). Otherwise, prototypes may continue to dictate the pattern of
demographic disparities in MOX leadership.
Leadership’s role in driving change (Practice). Clark and Estes suggest that effective
organizational change requires leadership to continually be involved in these improvement
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 59
processes, acting as champions to clearly communicate the importance of the need for change
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Thus, how policies are manifested in organizational culture may reflect
how far leaders are willing to follow through on the changes necessary to meet challenging goals
and the value they place on achieving true equality and inclusion.
Cultures help people define how people see themselves and how to behave which is why
the prospect of cultural change is challenging (Schein, 2011). Aside from government driven
directive, motivation to address the problem of the underrepresentation of women and racial
minority groups can also be driven by persistent cultural barriers in the wake of transition. A
Congressional report by Karmack conducted in 2015 poses several issues regarding the repeal of
combat exclusion for women in the armed forces. As recently as December 2015, the Secretary
of Defense ordered the military to open all combat jobs to women, a goal proposed by the
Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services in 2014 (DACOWITS, 2014).
While this may be seen as a positive step toward gender equality in the military, some
may question whether current occupational or physical standards should be kept or modified,
which may continue to be a barrier for women who seek to fulfill elite combat positions. The
report discusses the application of "gender-neutral" occupational standards that have been
established by Congress in an effort to avoid any reduction in force (Karmack, 2015). Despite
these proposed changes, there may be a tendency to fall back on what is known to be dominant
belief or existing cultural assumptions formed around the means by which goals are to be
accomplished (Schein, 2011). Likewise, Karmak’s (2015) report suggests that social, cultural,
and administrative barriers continue to hinder the goal of fully integrating women into combat
units (Karmack, 2015). The report discusses the need for equal opportunity for women to
advance as it relates to notion of combat experience in leadership/promotion consideration.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 60
Karmack’s (2015) report supports similar studies that present recommendations and areas
of focus, further supporting the need for inclusion and organizational change. This reference
also supports MLDC recommendations to eliminate barriers for women to serve, to include
physical assessments that may be artificially high depending on the occupation (MLDC, 2011).
The implementation of "gender-neutral" standards by Congress shows a motivational maneuver
toward change, which will tailor physical requirements based on occupation and not one's
gender. However, when processes have remained in place for so long, they become the elements
of culture that are hardest to change (Schein, 2011). The way new standards are to be
implemented will continue to be challenged due to research that states increasing physical
requirements for women may lead to greater injuries and attrition rates. Karmack’s report
provides a unique insight on how this particular change, however significant and monumental it
is, may still impose barriers and influences on the way military women are viewed.
Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessment Methods
Organizational Mission
The mission of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap is to enable the MOX to attract, recruit,
develop, and retain a high quality, diverse total force.
Organizational Goal
To increase accession and retention of racial minority female officers in the MOX.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence:
Closed system of progression may
contribute to dominant leader
prototypes resulting in a persistent
underrepresentation of minority
women in MOX leadership. The
internal climate of military
organizations may create systematic
bias in which positions of authority
are determined by like-minded people.
Interview Questions:
Based on your training, do you think the MOX
perpetuates a certain (idealized) prototype of an
effective leader?
• If so, how would you describe this leader?
• If not, what characteristics do you think an
effective MOX leader embodies?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 61
What do you think are common characteristics shared
among higher-ranking officers in the MOX?
• Why do you think these commonalities exist?
Cultural Setting Influence:
Diversity and inclusiveness may not
be prioritized and operationalized
effectively, highlighting
misalignments of policy and practice.
D&I efforts may be negatively
associated as another training mandate
or means to a quota rather than a
valuable cultural influence.
Interview Questions:
Can you talk about any of the diversity and inclusion
initiatives that the MOX currently has in place?
• Why do you believe they are being
implemented?
• Do you think they are effective? Why or why
not?
How do you think diversity policies are perceived?
• Do you think these sorts of efforts are more
positively or negatively received? Why?
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
The purpose of the conceptual framework is to present the system of concepts,
assumptions, expectations, and theories to support and inform this research (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The importance of the conceptual framework lies in its role to inform
the design of the study – to help assess goals, to develop relevant research questions, select the
appropriate methods, and to help justify the research (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual
framework provides an overarching structure outlining influencers of the study as depicted by
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Theoretical Framework in which three primary factors are
analyzed to identify gaps between performance and organizational goals. This framework
focuses on three primary factors with the area of study: stakeholder knowledge and motivation
and organizational influences, also referred to as KMO. While each of these potential
influencers are independent of each other, they do not remain in isolation from each other.
Knowledge and motivational factors both influence the organization, which ultimately influences
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 62
the stakeholder goal of understanding and addressing factors that influence attrition among
minority and female officers.
As discussed in Chapter Two, each group of influencers are evaluated in an effort to
address the following research question: What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to achieving the organizational goal of increased accession and retention of
racial minority and female officers in the MOX? In addition to the KMO evaluation in this
study, the literature review uncovers possible influencers stemming from implicit perceptions of
leadership. It is important for the organizational stakeholders, senior MOX officers, to
understand how various interactions among KMO influencers affect the achievement of the
desired goal. This section discusses the relational aspect of these influencers and their
relationship to minority and female representation in MOX leadership (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Conceptual Framework – Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
in Minority Group Representation in MOX Leadership
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 63
Relationship between Knowledge and Organizational Influencers: Policy
In this study, stakeholder knowledge is described as leadership’s awareness of persisting
dominant groups in MOX leadership, the use of diversity-based lessons in leadership
development, and leadership’s self-awareness of one’s role in the operationalization of diversity
initiatives. Organizational factors consist of the cultural models of underrepresented minority
groups as a result of closed system leadership progression and cultural norms. Additionally,
cultural settings of diversity policy and training efforts viewed simply as protocol contribute to
organizational factors (Military Leadership Diversity Commission [MLDC], 2011). Knowledge
influences tie into organizational influences primarily through the use of existing policies on
diversity, initiatives, and the Diversity Strategic Plan.
These publications inform leaders’ overall awareness of the need for diversity in the
organization. Essentially, the stakeholders’ knowledge may reflect how organizational policy is
interpreted. Compliance of diversity directives creates an assumption that military members are
aware that a need for diversity exists. However, regardless of how these policies are presented or
enforced, the actual operationalization of these efforts are only as good as the individuals who
carry them out. While equal opportunity within the organization is implied with the military
being an all-volunteer force, the current demographic state of the MOX reflects a need for deeper
understanding and further research on why disparities among racial groups and gender persist.
Based on low percentages of minorities and women in the overall active duty MOX
demographic, it is implied that knowledge gaps regarding the need for diversity may exist within
the organization, reflecting a sense of apathy toward diversity and inclusion efforts or a general
attitude of indifference regarding the current demographic disparity. Leaders who open up the
dialogue to issues regarding diversity and how they relate to the existing initiatives/efforts may
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 64
create a greater awareness and generate interest in the progression of the organization (MOX
Global Diversity Division, 2013; DACOWITS, 2014; MLDC, 2011).
Relationship between Motivation and Organizational Influencers: Practice
In regard to how these policies are enacted, motivational factors also influence
organizational factors. For the purposes of this study, stakeholder motivation is described as
leadership commitment towards diversity efforts and the alignment of goals with action –
particularly the way a leader institutionalizes inclusion and communicates the value of diversity
in the workplace (MOX Global Diversity Division, 2013). These motivational factors are related
to organizational influences primarily through leadership practice and the willingness to
communicate the value of diversity. While strong cultural norms exist in closed organizations
such as the military (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008; Gundemir, Homan, Dreu, &
Vugt, 2014; Hutchinson, 2013; Loughlin & Arnold, 2007; Shamir & Ben-Ari, 2000), leaders
have the ability to enact change through action.
The persistent underrepresentation of minorities and women in MOX leadership may be
impacted by current leaders’ actions and the perceived alignment of organizational goals (MOX
Global Diversity Division, 2013; DACOWITS, 2014). The MOX Strategic Diversity Roadmap
goal of increased minority and female accession and retention relies on the motivation of current
leaders to commit and communicate the importance of a more diverse and inclusive organization
(MOX Global Diversity Division, 2013; Department of the MOX, 2012). At the very least,
motivation to create an environment of inclusivity and to combat bias in the workplace is needed
to create change. Leaders at all levels have the ability to put into practice an approach that
humanizes diversity rather than presents it as another rhetoric mandate. Motivational gaps may
be influenced by the organizational notion of diversity as policy rather than understanding how
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 65
diversity can be used a force-multiplier that can be used in a multitude of missions, to problem-
solve, and to counter the detriments of groupthink (Laughlin, 2007).
In committing to goals of increased minority female representation, leaders can
encourage more positive attitudes toward diversity and inclusion through the example they set
and the motivation they display toward creating meaningful change. Further research on the
relationships among KMO factors and related attitudes as they relate to the problem of
underrepresented minorities and women in MOX leadership can be beneficial in the future
development of a more diversely representative force.
Concepts identified in the literature may suggest that while organizational structures
provide the means for equal opportunity, knowledge-based and motivational perceptions may
continue to indirectly affect the achievement of a more equally representative organization.
Primary factors in this conceptual framework are identified in the relationships of stakeholder
knowledge and motivation to organizational factors, with policy and practice tying these
relationships respectively. This framework theorizes that, in support of existing policies and
initiatives, the organizational goal of increased representation of racial minorities and women in
MOX leadership may be better enacted through greater leadership commitment in the
implementation of diversity and inclusion efforts.
Summary
MOX policies and initiatives push for diversity and inclusion in an organization
underpinned by a heritage of command and control. While Congressional and MOX policy
makers have been successful in establishing the directives and performance measures, it is the
leaders in the workplace who create meaningful change within the organizational culture.
Effective leaders understand the significance of pursuing a diverse force as it relates to mission
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 66
accomplishment and the people they serve and how their own behaviors and perceptions
contribute to the nuances of organizational culture. With a more accurate understanding of the
proposed problem, future leaders can not only reevaluate the conventional discourse of
operational policies but determine ways to counteract reinforced leadership prototypes that may
continue to hinder the advancement of minority groups in the MOX officer corps.
This chapter provided a literature review on the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements that influence the problem of underrepresented racial minorities and
women in MOX leadership. These influences include knowledge based elements regarding
perceptions of diversity, demographic disparities in MOX leadership, how diversity is presented
in training, and leadership’s awareness of the problem and efforts to address it. Motivation
influences focused primarily on the perceived value diversity brings to the organization and how
organizational goals may or may not be institutionalized. Lastly, organizational influences
presented cultural models on the lack of minority groups in MOX leadership and low perceptions
of diversity as well as cultural settings of norms perpetuated by closed systems and the
misalignment of policy and practice. The validation process for these KMO influences are
further described in Chapter Three.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 67
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) influences introduced in Chapter Two. Additionally, this chapter will cover the
methodology in the choice of participants, data collection, and analysis for the study. The
purpose of this study is to analyze individual attitudes toward diversity, inclusion and the
underrepresentation of minority groups in MOX leadership. Furthermore, this study seeks to
understand through qualitative methods how these attitudes translate into the KMO influences
which affect the fulfillment of organizational goals. The conceptual framework used in this
project is the Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Theoretical Framework in which dimensions of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence are evaluated and potential causes and
solutions to performance gaps are identified (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The primary methodological approach for this study was qualitative semi-structured
interview with the goal of attaining descriptive narrative from actual MOX personnel serving in
the officer corps. Interview questions focused on attitudes and perceptions of KMO elements in
MOX culture and whether or not these elements influence the fulfillment of MOX goals of
diversity and inclusion. In order to obtain in-depth perspectives of personnel in different levels
of MOX leadership about diversity and inclusion, a non-probability, purposeful sampling of
minority female MOX officers was used. The following research questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
the organizational goal of increased accession and retention among racial minority female
officers in the MOX?
2. What perceptions and attitudes exist in MOX leadership that influence one’s
understanding of diversity and inclusion?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 68
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
The primary stakeholder group, as identified in Chapter One, consists of senior MOX
leadership. The findings and recommendations in this study are geared toward this stakeholder
group because of the direct influence they have not only over the policies and procedures that
guide D&I initiatives, but over the culture and climate of their respective workplaces – both
critical factors in the organizational goal of increased female minority representation. The
interview participants, female minority officers, were a subset of the primary stakeholder group.
This sample consisted of one First Lieutenant, two Captains, four Majors, four Lieutenant
Colonels, and one Colonel. Various career fields within the MOX were represented to include
medical, operations, maintenance, logistics, special investigations, personnel, contracting, and
intelligence (see Table 5). While perceptions toward D&I in their respective workplace
somewhat varied, several common themes emerged in response to how D&I is perceived and the
general awareness of MOX D&I initiatives.
Table 5
List of Interview Participants
Participant # Rank (Grade)
Number of
Years in MOX
Career Field
1 Major (O-4) 11 Headquarters Operations
2 Lieutenant Colonel (O-5) 21 Health Administration
3 Captain (O-3) 20 Obstetrical Nurse
4 First Lieutenant (O-2) 4 Intelligence Officer
5 Colonel (O-6) 26 Contracting Officer
6 Lieutenant Colonel (O-5) 17 Office of Special Investigations
7 Major (O-4) 11 Office of Special Investigations
8 Lieutenant Colonel (O-5) 16 Maintenance Officer
9 Major (O-4) 15 Personnelist
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 69
10 Captain (O-3) 6 Air Weapons Officer
11 Major (O-4) 17 Flight Nurse
12 Lieutenant Colonel (O-5) 18 Logistics Readiness
The selected qualitative interview strategy for this study was criterion-based in which
attributes of the sample, minority female MOX officers, are crucial to the study (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Rationale and related criterion provide further detail regarding the importance of
the interview sample population. The conceptual framework and research questions specifically
address knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences in the achievement of the
organizational goal of increased minority and female representation in MOX leadership. The
criterion was selected to specifically address these influences, identify significant relationships
between them, and uncover perceptions of diversity and inclusion as they relate to this goal.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Active duty MOX officers with at least four years in service – the
participant must have a minimum of four years as an MOX officer to share various
experiences within the organizations.
Criterion 2. Active duty female MOX officers in a command or supervisory position –
this underrepresented group may uncover unique experiences regarding motivational
efforts to increase accession and retention of women.
Criterion 3. Active duty female and/or minority officers in a command/supervisory
position – this group is a subset stakeholder group; the information they provide in
interviews may provide valuable feedback for the stakeholder group considering their
experience and knowledge of retention/promotion processes and dealing with diversity
and inclusion in the workplace as a minority female officer.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 70
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
A small selective sample of 12 active duty minority female MOX officers was used in
this study to obtain in-depth, descriptive narratives across different levels of leadership.
Narrative data helped to more clearly identify significant patterns and differences in participants’
understanding and perceptions of diversity. Despite the relatively small sample, data gathered in
these interviews may help stakeholders become aware of the lesser known knowledge,
motivation, and organizational elements that influence perceptions of diversity and diversity
efforts.
Purposeful sampling will be the primary strategy used in this study. Purposeful sampling
requires particular people who are deliberately selected to provide information that is relevant to
the research questions and goals (Maxwell, 2013). An important factor in purposeful selection is
its ability to establish particular comparisons to illuminate the reasons for differences between
settings or individuals (Maxwell, 2013), particularly between lower- and higher-ranking MOX
female minority officers. Thus, the criterion in the purposeful sample used in the interview
strategy embodies maximum variation sampling. In maximum variation sampling, the sample
identified represents the widest possible range of the characteristics of interest for the study and
captures the heterogeneity in the population (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These
characteristics are illustrated in the demographic variance, across experience and career fields,
described in the sample criterion.
Convenience sampling was used as the recruitment strategy, with the aim to solicit 12
minority female MOX officers. The reason for convenience sampling in this particular strategy
is the nature of restricted access to this particular population of MOX personnel (Maxwell,
2013). A solicitation for participation was posted on a social media site within two private social
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 71
forums (see Appendix A). These forums were chosen specifically based on the membership of
minority MOX officers and female MOX officers, respectively. Upon receiving the minimum of
12 responses, participants were provided a formal invitation to participate in the study (Appendix
B) outlining the purpose of the study, the conditions of their participation, and a statement of
confidentiality. The identity of the participants were confirmed as active duty MOX officers by
the researcher through an Outlook search on the MOX private email server which lists members
of the MOX organization.
Data Collection
Qualitative research should consist of purposefully selected individuals in order to help
the researcher understand the problem (Creswell, 2011). Additionally, qualitative research is
descriptive and focused on meaning and explanation (McEwan & McEwan, 2003; Creswell,
2011). For purposes of this study, qualitative inquiry was used to acquire detailed depictions and
unique nuances regarding the notion of diversity that might be less apparent in a large scale study
(Creswell, 2011). Thus, the data collection process of this study focused more on capturing the
depth and quality in the narrative to support the research rather than the quantity of respondents.
In order to address the research questions posed in this study and to gather deeper, more in-depth
information, one-time qualitative interviews were conducted using a sample of 12 MOX officers.
In triangulation, different methods are used to “check on one another, seeing if methods
with different strengths and limitations all support a single conclusion” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 102).
For purposes of this study, triangulation of sources occurred among individuals with different
ranks, career fields, and experiences to examine the consistency of data within the singular
method, one-on-one interviews. The triangulation of sources, minority female MOX officers
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 72
who serve in various roles and vary in experience, provided data in which different viewpoints
converge regarding the topic of diversity and inclusion within respective workplaces.
Interviews
A semi-structured interview approach was the method of choice for this study. One-on-
one interviews lasted approximately 45 minutes up to two hours and occurred only once with
each of the 12 participants. An interview guide, complete a list of questions, follow-on prompts,
was used (see Appendix C), which allowed the researcher to respond to emerging viewpoints and
situations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The guide allowed for questions and issues to be specified
in advance, however the researcher did have the freedom to decide the sequence and wording of
questions so as to evoke a more conversational interview (Patton, 2002). The questions in the
interview guide focused as much on specific events rather than generalizations, and
supplemented with probing questions in order to obtain maximum data from the participants
(Maxwell, 2013). Probing questions were also generated during interview for clarification and to
seek greater detail to a particular response (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The interview guide consisted of a semi-structured template focusing on specific topics
using open-ended and follow-up questions (Creswell, 2011; Johnson & Christensen, 2014). Due
to the various locations of the participants – none of which were within the vicinity of the
researcher – all interviews took place over the phone and audio recorded with participant consent
so as to allow for active interaction throughout the duration of the interview (Patton, 2002).
Each audio recording was transcribed using the site GoTranscipt.com which allowed for a full
capture of the participants’ narrative.
In alignment with the conceptual framework and the first research question, the interview
questions originated from specific knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 73
determined by the researcher and are coded accordingly. Each answer helped determine how
policy affects the relationship between stakeholder knowledge and the organization as well as
what practices are enacted in the relationship between stakeholder motivation and the
organization. Additionally, interview questions that asked about participants’ perceptions,
thoughts, and opinions directly addressed the second research question on existing attitudes and
perceptions of diversity and inclusion in MOX leadership. Data gathered in these interviews
may help stakeholders gain a deeper understanding of underlying knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements that effect perceptions of diversity and diversity efforts, directly aiding
in the study’s third research question on recommended organizational practices.
Data Analysis
The primary source of data for this study was semi-structured qualitative interviews with
12 female minority officers in the organization. Data analysis for these interviews began
following data collection. Following each interview, interviews were transcribed and coded.
Interview data analysis consisted of four phases: 1) identifying initial categories by open coding
the transcripts; 2) determining axial codes; 3) finding themes by reviewing and categorizing
codes, and 4) looking for findings and assertions in each category (Harding, 2013).
In the first phase of analysis, the researcher used open coding, looking for empirical
codes and applying a priori codes from the conceptual framework. A second phase of analysis
identified subsequent empirical and a priori codes which aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In
the third phase of data analysis the researcher identified pattern codes and themes that emerged
in that data as it relates to the conceptual framework and study questions, which was summarized
in the fourth and final analysis phase.
Phase One: Open Coding
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 74
In this initial phase of analysis, the researcher conducted open coding while reading
interview transcripts by documenting emergent thoughts, comments, and queries in the margins
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher identified empirical codes in conjunction with a
priori codes derived from specific elements of the conceptual framework. The researcher
actively looked for specific excerpts in the interviews that directly relate to the conceptual
framework and any emergent commonalities among across the data. A priori codes were based
on the KMO elements of the conceptual framework - specifically, how knowledge and
motivation influences relate to the organization’s cultural setting and model. The codes
determined in this initial phase then formed the codebook used throughout the analytic process.
Phase Two: Axial Coding
In the second phase of analysis, the empirical and a priori codes were aggregated into
axial codes, or categories that represent similar concepts. Constructing categories will require
assigning codes to specific pieces of data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As the researcher analyzed
the transcripts, key words and phrases in the data indicated how diversity and inclusion policies
are perceived, discussed, operationalized in the workplace. These words and phrases fell into the
following code categories:
• Knowledge-Declarative [KG] – knowledge and perceptions of diversity
• Knowledge-Procedural [KP] – diversity training in leadership development
• Knowledge-Metacognitive [KM] – self-awareness of one’s role in diversity and imitative
awareness
• Motivation-Value [MV] – perceived value of diversity
• Motivation-Leadership [ML] – how diversity and imitative goals are communicated by
leadership
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 75
• Organizational Culture-Setting [OS] – implementation of policies/initiatives; diversity
presented as protocol
• Organizational Culture-Model [OC] – closed system of progression contributes to
dominant norms/leader prototype
Additional sub-category codes emerged throughout the analysis process allowing for
more in-depth analysis of the data. Thus, additional phases of transcript analysis occurred as
additional sub-categories were added to the codebook.
Phase Three: Identifying Patterns and Themes
In this phase, the researcher determined pattern codes and themes in the interview data as
they related to the conceptual framework and research questions – specifically, patterns as
repetitive concepts in the data that give insight into or lead to a theme, or meanings that emerge
as part of the findings (Harding, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this phase, quotes from the
transcripts were grouped and separated into separate documents based on their KMO affiliation.
This was done using NVivo software, which is designed to organize specific excerpts of data into
the code categories predetermined in phase two. Following this process, the original codebook
was revised to include the frequency of codes and organized by category.
Phase Four: Determining Findings and Assertions
Moving from codes to findings was based primarily on the frequency of codes found in
the data. In addition, this phase included an analysis of documents for evidence consistent with
conceptual framework concepts. Also, in this phase the analytic tool of personal experience
played a factor in determining meaning from the data and forming preliminary assertions.
Because the researcher shared a common culture with the participants as a female minority
officer, similar life experiences helped draw deeper insight into what participants are describing
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 76
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Shared experiences also offer something new to think about by
making me confront assumptions about specific data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Personal
experiences, whether they highlight commonality or challenge the researcher’s inherent
assumptions, helped incorporate meaning into the findings.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
As the researcher it is important to be critical of how the he or she influences what
participants say, what the researcher choose to analyze throughout the course of the study, and
how this affects the data drawn from the interviews and document content analysis (Maxwell,
2013). In order to maintain credibility and trustworthiness in this study, researchers must be
aware of their role as a researcher and the potential for bias. This section discusses how
credibility and trustworthiness was addressed in the qualitative methods of this study.
Reflexivity, or “how the researcher affects and is affected by the research process”
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 249), is especially important in the credibility of this study. The
researcher’s was aware that her role as an officer within the organization of study as well as her
gender and race may have an effect on the quality of discussion regarding diversity and
inclusion. The researcher realizes that due to this positionality, it is imperative to be explicit and
as transparent as possible about personal assumptions, values and biases and how they come into
play during the study (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2011). By adhering to an interview guide, the researcher ensured the focus of the study is on
soliciting maximum participant input, regardless of the researcher’s own personal biases
regarding the topic and or organization. Potential biases identified among the researcher are be
documented in the limitations section.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 77
Prior to conducting the interviews, it is also important to check for representativeness in
the sample. In this study, purposeful or selective selection via convenience sampling was the
method of obtaining participants. One challenge with selective sampling is that it is an
inherently biased process (Miles et al, 2014). This was also addressed in the study’s
triangulation of sources, or using multiple sources of data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Avoiding
bias requires participants with different points of view (Miles et al, 2014). Thus, the sample
consisted of female officers of various ranks and career fields, which rendered a variety of views
and experiences regarding the topic of diversity and inclusion.
Another method used to minimize bias prior to the interview process was to ensure the
participants were fully informed on the intentions of the study and what their input will be used
for (Miles et al, 2014), which was done when the researcher provided a consent form to each
participant prior to the interview. Furthermore, member checking, or the clarification or
validation of data through the solicitation of feedback to avoid misinterpretation (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016), helped maintain credibility throughout the data collection process. During the
interviews, the focus remained on the data collection protocol and maintaining a neutral
demeanor so as to not inflate the problem being researched or draw attention to how much the
researcher/interviewer knows (Miles et al, 2014).
In collecting data, the researcher must purposefully look for variation in the
understanding of the phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdell, 2011) and participants’ different
perspectives on diversity and inclusion. The semi-structured format of the interview protocol
allowed for additional probing questions to gain deeper understanding and or clarification from
each of the participants. In compiling data, descriptions must be context-rich, detailed, and
meaningful, enabling the reader to have an accurate view of the data collecting during the
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 78
interview (Miles et al, 2014; Maxwell, 2013). Thus, all interview dialogue were be transcribed
verbatim from audio recordings using the online transcription service GoTranscript.com ensuring
the most detailed depiction of the dialogue and descriptive as possible.
For this study, triangulation took place during the interviews in which multiple sources of
data will be collected from different perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2011). Aligning results
across various data sources helped identify points of corroboration and conflict within the
findings. Various points of view help support the study because corroboration enhances
trustworthiness of the findings, while conflicting findings force us to examine why they exist and
what these findings mean (Miles et al, 2014). Thus, areas of uncertainty and negative evidence
were also be actively considered and identified throughout the data analysis phase. Lastly,
findings were presented in a way that shows they are systematically related so as to draw clear
connections to the research questions and original problem of practice (Miles et al, 2014). This
was done through different phases of coding in the data analysis process in which specific quotes
from participants were extracted, categorized, and presented in thematic categories.
Ethics
The validity and reliability of a study depend on the ethics of the investigator (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In addition, all participants should have enough information to make informed
decisions about participating in the study (Glesne, 2011; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The primary
data collection method of one-on-one interviews within this qualitative study requiresd the
researcher to capture specific, varied narrative and viewpoints. Thus, the protection of subjects
from harm, the right to privacy, the notion of informed consent, and the issue of deception
needed to be considered ahead of time (Glesne, 2011; Krieger & Casey, 2009; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Institutional Review Boards (IRB) seek to protect human subjects by ensuring
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 79
participants are informed about the nature and conditions of the research project and researcher
follows prescribed ethical guidelines (Krueger & Casey, 2009; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). To
ensure all the necessary rules regarding the protection of rights of the participants are adhered to,
the preliminary proposal of this study was reviewed and approved by the University of Southern
California IRB. Informed consent via formal invitation to participat in the study was
administered prior to conducting the study, which informed potential interviewees that
participation was completely voluntary and their identity will be kept confidential. Prior to the
interviews, the participants will be verbally reminded that their participation is voluntary, that
they do not have to answer any questions they do not want to, and they have the option to
withdraw.
Another important ethical consideration is the researcher’s position within the military
organization being studied. As an active duty officer within the organization, the researcher fully
acknowledges that this may have implications on the data collection process and that her roles as
a member and researcher must remain separate. Participants in the study consisted of active duty
officers across various ranks, some who the researhcer outranks and who out-rank her. The
formality of one’s rank and position within a military organization, regardless of how one’s
intended objectivity as a researcher in this study is framed, may inherently effect on the quality
and depth of information disclosed by the participants. Thus, every effort will be made to ensure
all data collected from participants is validated via member checking, or soliciting feedback on
the interview findings to rule out the possibility of misinterpretation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interviews were transcribed verbatim from the audio recording by the researcher.
Participants’ responses were coded using only rank and/or career field to identify significant
themes in the data analysis process. Because privacy is generally the foremost concern for
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 80
research participants (Glesne, 2011), participants were also be reminded that the researcher will
protect their confidences and that any identifiable information obtained in connection with the
study will only be made accessible to the researcher. Likewise, access to all data was restricted
to the researcher on a password-protected computer. Incentives were not provided so as to
minimize the possibility that participants feel coerced to participate.
Summary
This chapter presented the study’s methodology to include the primary stakeholders and
intended sample recruited, data collection methods and instrumentation, the data analysis
process, areas of trustworthiness and reliability, and issues regarding ethics. This study utilized
the qualitative method of one-on-one interviews to address research questions regarding
perceptions and attitudes on specific knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as
they relate to the under representation of minorities and women in MOX leadership. Officers
across mid- and higher levels of MOX ranks have been identified as primary stakeholders due to
their current and future leadership roles in the implementation of MOX initiatives. To capture
varied viewpoints on diversity and inclusion in MOX leadership, participants for interviews will
be purposefully to represent different ranks and races.
Given the qualitative nature of this study, the researcher acknowledges her positionality
and potential for bias as a member of the organization and as a minority female. Therefore,
every effort was made to address biases by obtaining IRB approval for the study, member
checking throughout the interview process, practicing reflexivity, and documenting potential
biases in the limitations section of this study. Forthcoming chapters will provide in-depth
analysis and corroboration of data gathered from these methods.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 81
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to determine attitudes and perceptions towards diversity
and inclusion within MOX. Specifically, questions were geared toward determining how
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences continue to affect the demographic
makeup of MOX leadership, specifically the representation of minority females in the officer
corps. 12 one-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted among a sample of minority
female officers, varying in rank, career field, and overall leadership experience. Interview
questions (see Appendix C) were derived from the study’s primary research questions:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving
the organizational goal of increased accession and retention among racial minority female
officers in the MOX?
2. What perceptions and attitudes exist in MOX leadership that affect one’s understanding
of diversity and inclusion?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
While the literature review in Chapter Two served to address Research Question 1, this
chapter presents data that specifically addresses Research Question 2 and determines the ground
work for resolution to Question 3, which culminates in Chapter Five. The data, which is purely
narrative in nature, are organized by knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence type
and broken down into themes. As such, this chapter presents results and findings from the data
analysis phase of this study in order to find alignment between the assumed influences within the
conceptual framework and interview narratives. Table 6 summarizes the alignment of KMO
influences to themes found in the data, illustrating a direct correlation. Results and finding in
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 82
this chapter aid in the formulation of future recommendations to address the problem of
underrepresentation of minority females in MOX leadership.
Table 6.
Correlation of KMO influences to themes found in the data
Assumed Influences
KMO
Designation
Correlating Theme(s) in the Data
Knowledge
MOX leaders may not how dominant groups in MOX
leadership affect organizational effectiveness. The
homogeneity in leadership may lead to a general sense
of apathy toward D&I initiatives.
Declarative
(Factual)
Unconscious bias leads to defensive
attitudes toward diversity.
MOX leaders need to know how perceptions on
diversity affect the organization. There may be a
general lack of understanding of what D&I means and
may be more negatively associated to race or gender
rather than as a collective gain for the organization.
Declarative
(Conceptual)
Diversity negatively associated with
race relations.
MOX leaders must know how to incorporate leadership
practices that meaningfully emphasize the importance
of diversity and inclusion.
Procedural
Lack of formal D&I training for
leaders.
MOX leaders need to be aware of their role in current
D&I efforts to create more inclusive work
environments and opportunities for all members to
progress.
Metacognitive
Hyper self-awareness of minority
female identity.
Sense of responsibility toward future
generations.
Motivation
MOX leaders must value their role as change agents
and be committed to communicating the importance of
diversity and inclusion to others.
Expectancy
Value Theory
Enabling inclusive mentoring
relationships.
MOX leaders should examine why D&I goals are
important in order to effectively institutionalize
diversity and inclusion within their organization.
Goal Orientation
Theory
Accountability measures needed to
create more inclusive environments.
Promotion processes should be more
inclusive
Organization
Closed system of progression may contribute to
dominant leader prototypes resulting in a persistent
underrepresentation of minority women in MOX
leadership. The internal climate of military
organizations may create systematic bias in which
positions of authority are determined by like-minded
people.
Cultural Model
Shared common identity leads to
closed systems of progression.
Dominant leader prototype leads to
perception of inequality
Diversity and inclusiveness may not be prioritized and
operationalized effectively, highlighting misalignments
of policy and practice. D&I efforts may be negatively
associated as another training mandate or means to a
quota rather than a valuable cultural influence.
Cultural Setting
Reactionary prioritization conflict
with longstanding problem
resolution.
Apathy toward D&I discussions in
operational work environment.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 83
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences
Validated Knowledge Gaps
Within the conceptual framework, declarative, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge
on MOX policy on D&I was the primary factor that determined what knowledge gaps existed or
did not exist. More specifically, the relationship between knowledge and organizational
influencers is defined by policy and the stakeholder group’s awareness and interpretation of D&I
policies and how they are to be executed in the workplace. The following sections discuss
themes that were found within the data that highlight prominent perceptions from minority
female officers.
Declarative knowledge. Data on declarative knowledge influences were identified,
reviewed, and analyzed. As discussed in chapter two, the assumed declarative or factual
knowledge influence focused on MOX leaders’ awareness of a dominant group in the officer
corps. This influence was validated based on the following themes: unconscious bias leads to
defensive attitudes toward diversity and diversity associated with race relations.
Unconscious bias and defensive attitudes toward diversity. The underrepresentation of
women in leadership may result from negative perceptions of women in authority and
subconscious gender typing (Boyce & Herd, 2003; Hutchinson, 2013; Young & Nauta, 2013),
Several interviews mention the existence of unconscious bias and how it affects minority groups
by catering to the existing dominant group. Bias toward the dominant group leads to defensive
attitudes towards minority female officers in a way that causes female and or minority
qualifications to be questioned more so than their white male counterparts. One participant
stated “when [diversity] does get brought up, it’s from a very defensive position” in that when
people in the workplace discuss diversity it’s as if “trying to protect my image as wanting to
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 84
diverse and inclusive and getting defensive assuming that you automatically assume I am not
diverse and inclusive.” Another participant stated that negative attitudes toward diversity from
the dominant group stem from a lack of knowledge, “I don’t think it’s intentional. But I think it
stems from that unconscious bias type of thing. They don’t really think about it.” One
participants stated that minority women have to work harder for recognition so as to compete
with the dominant group:
Can we succeed as an African-American female in the military? Absolutely. However,
there’re going to be some other things that are going to be unnecessarily neglected in
order for you to even stay in the running with your counterparts. That are going to be
your Caucasian male or your Caucasian female that are doing 20% of what you’re
doing…. My son is in ROTC now; my husband and I are constantly teaching him about,
"You can’t do the bare minimum as a black male."
Another participant shared her experience with unconscious bias leading to defensive attitudes
when it comes to promotion board reviews:
People look at a woman’s…performance report, and they think, “Did she really do that?
Who does she think she is?” They question it and it takes that small pause when our
whole system of promotions of-- Will they make it to the next round? Will they make --?
Because when someone has spent less than five minutes on a [promotion] package, you
cannot tell me that bias does not occur. They see the ethnic names, they see the female
names, and they look at it and this is it. Snap. Snap, snap, snap. Minutes of judgment,
because that’s what bias is, it’s a shortcut.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 85
One participant shared an experience in which an African-American female commander,
who “was very sharp, well above her peers as a Colonel” was “not well-received.” She goes on
to state, “It was very evident that it was very racially motivated…individuals didn’t think that
she should be where she was; not only was she a female but she also a black female. She was
running circles around some of the Caucasian males that, traditionally, are the ones that excel in
the [MOX] setting.”
Diversity negatively associated with race relations. Changes proposed by D&I initiatives
may be seen as threatening to the dominant population, who already have greater access to
leadership positions, creating motivation to act in ways that retain the current hierarchy and the
systematic inequality that it renders (Gundemir et al., 2014). One participant describes how
diversity initiatives are misunderstood because it threatens their own opportunities for
advancement.
It’s competition. What does that mean for me? Are you going to take away my
opportunities? Are you going to take away my job and give to somebody else, who may
be less qualified? Whatever that negative perception is, because of their race, because of
their gender. Yes, I think the biggest thing is fear and lack of understanding that it’s not
just change in someone’s race that you’re bringing to an organization, or someone’s
gender.
Several participants discussed how one’s understanding of diversity affects how diversity
is perceived, particularly as it tends to be heavily associated with race.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 86
From my observation, I believe [diversity is] more negatively perceived. I think that’s
based on how [MOX] has mistakenly tied diversity to race versus to experiences, skill
set, and different backgrounds of where people come from in terms of their work
experiences. People hear the word diverse then they automatically think it means black.
This understanding affects how D&I initiatives are carried out by MOX leaders:
The way that you communicate and you stress the importance of diversity is you have to
help people understand what the word diversity means and what do you mean by it? So
long, I think [MOX] has had a very negative connotation of diversity where it’s been
automatically equated to being black. I think that’s incorrect. I think that it has been a
huge mistake over the years to why a lot of leaders have not embraced diversity.
Procedural knowledge. The procedural knowledge influence proposed in Chapter Two
suggests that MOX leaders must incorporate training that emphasizes the importance of D&I in
the workplace. This influence is validated based on prominent theme of the perceived lack of
formal D&I training for leaders.
Lack of formal D&I training for leaders. Leadership commitment to improving
diversity is crucial. Current military leaders are responsible for eliminating barriers and
developing future leaders for a more diverse force; thus, diversity training is a necessary core
competency in leadership training (MLDC, 2011). Most participants expressed that they had
never received formal D&I training from the MOX but rather it was a topic brought up in other
mandatory training courses. The only participant that stated she had received training
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 87
specifically geared toward D&I in the workplace as it relates to leadership was Participant 6, the
highest-ranking officer interviewed for this study.
One participant stated that D&I was not a topic addressed by their leadership, but rather
something she was briefly exposed to in computer based training: “Since I’ve been an officer for
the last six and a half years or so, I feel like diversity is something that has not been briefed or
really touched upon by our leadership per se, but it’s been more so touched upon by some of the
computer-based training initiatives that they’ve put out.” Another participant emphasized how
the approach to D&I training was not enough to instill personal meaning: “The brevity of them in
itself was not enough to really hone in on why it was so important.” A general lack of diversity
training was apparent based in several other participants’ input.
Honestly, if it hadn’t been for my time [as an instructor], I don’t remember anytime -- I
don’t remember there was the time where we really talked about diversity, hardly ever.
We talked about it amongst ourselves but not in an organized fashion.
I don’t remember PME covering diversity - they may have - I don’t remember it. That
tells you probably how significant it was, or insignificant.
I don’t think I’ve received very much. Of course, we had a lot of sexual assault
prevention training and I think that that has taken us over the last couple of years. Of
course, you have the basic classes you have to take as a commander, or as some type of
leader, when it comes to discrimination, those kind of things. As far as a class teaching
you why diversity is good, I don’t think I’ve ever taken a class like that.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 88
Another participant expressed the need to place a higher priority on D&I training
considering how MOX has communicated its importance for so long, yet has chosen to focus
training efforts on transgender training, an issue that has only become prevalent in recent years:
In 20 years, I have yet to see a detailed training that talks to people about how to treat
individuals that are a minority and/or female…I’m shocked that I’m still working on this
transgender training. I’m very happy that we’re accommodating this sector of people, but
diversity is something that affects us all as [a MOX] core… I would be think that this
would’ve been something that we would’ve focused our energies on far before we did a
three-module transgender training.
The need for D&I training for leaders may be beneficial to bridge the knowledge gaps
that exist with D&I efforts in order to address their ambiguity in the workplace.
I think [lack of diversity training for leaders] is part of the problem. Definitely that
probably should be one step, step one of diversity. What subject should we start with
talking about. i.e, let’s talk about nationality, let’s say it. What’s the right phrase to say?
What’s the best phrase to say? Which is offensive, which is not offensive? Because some
people just don’t know.
It was apparent that leaders could benefit from receiving specialized training that
addresses how to discuss D&I issues in a more interactive forum rather than the standardized
computer-based training curricula.
I think we all have to go through training on how to present that and do it well and
effectively…If you just say it in a PowerPoint presentation, it won’t come across as well,
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 89
as if using some of the techniques, where it’s group participation, and then just talking
about the different topics, and having people step forward or step back and realizing, or
grouping together to show that they have similarities, or they share that differences. That
kind of interaction would be more meaningful than just a PowerPoint presentation.
One participant suggested that a more robust diversity training course that discusses
stereotypes and differences would be beneficial for leaders.
Additional training, or more detailed training, breaking down those stereotypes, breaking
down those barriers, those walls that media has established for these different sectors of
people, will help leaders not only be better as far as being equitable across the board with
their personnel but leading their squadron in the right direction as far as diversity as a
whole.
Metacognitive knowledge. The assumed influence for metacognitive knowledge stated
that MOX leaders must actively evaluate and reflect self-awareness regarding their role on
improving D&I in the workplace. This influence was validated based on the following themes
found in the data: hyper self-awareness of minority female identity and sense of responsibility to
future generations.
Hyper self-awareness of minority female identity. Although structural barriers are
minimal, perceptual barriers regarding race, ethnicity, and gender still exist (Lim, Haddad, &
Daugherty, 2013). Research on military culture suggests the disposition of racial identity may
propagate a systematic bias in which positions of authority are determined by like-minded
people, excluding those who do not fit within norms established by the dominant group
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 90
(Mastroianni, 2006; Streeter, 2014). Participants expressed the notion of being identified as the
sole or rare minority female in work situations and events. This identity is palpable given the
dominant demographic of the stakeholder group they are a part of as MOX officers. In some
cases, this awareness leads to feelings of isolation:
I’ve definitely seen some tokenism happening and I definitely personally have felt
just…very out of military culture, because I have more of an entrepreneurial way of
thought and I’ve definitely thrived when bosses have accepted that and I haven’t when
I’ve been absolutely stepped on when they don’t accept that.
Furthermore, one participant attributed this disparity in military culture to a lack of
recruiting efforts targeting minorities.
We don’t have enough diversity and it’s evident when you go to meetings. For me
particularly, because I am the only female in my team meetings for leadership…I’m a
nurse by trade but when I work in operational environments, I am typically the only
female. Sometimes, I am the only minority. Period… I don’t know if it’s because the
military in general, typically, is, I guess, a man’s job, per se. Also, I don’t think we
recruit enough in our minority as far as Hispanic, African-American environments.
Another participant expressed that her status as a Filipino-American stationed in a
predominantly Filipino populated location gave her the opportunity to mentor those who
identified with her:
My first [command position] was at Diego Garcia…A lot of the contractors and civilians
that work there are Filipino. I could see my presence [as a Filipino-American officer]
there made a difference. It was different. For them, I think there is a lot more pride, with
me being there... I notice people’s demeanors change. I get asked, ‘Can I come by your
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 91
office for an office call and ask you for some advice or questions?’ or whatever. These
are people that don’t even work for me – officer and enlisted. I felt like, gosh, it’s just
more than just being a commander managing everyday things in the squadron. You’re
representing people.
Sense of responsibility toward future generations. Motivation to achieve goals requires
leaders to effectively influence people’s understanding of the impressions they create in others
and their beliefs about the benefit in these efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008). This self-awareness of
one’s role, particularly as a minority female officer, seemed to conjure a sense of responsibility
in many participants to ensure accessibility to mentorship and developmental opportunities for
future officers. Many feel that they play a role in establishing inclusive environments,
encouraging critical thinking in navigating the advancement of the next generation.
One participant suggested, “We need to help minority officers understand the system in
which they’re operating and how to best approach that system. Because if you’re knocking
outside my door, I know you want to come in and change things, I’m not going to let you inside
the door. But if you approach me as in being a teammate and being a team member and you want
to make the system better, then you’re probably going to get the door opened for you.”
One participant suggested that leaders should address biases and use their role to create
more opportunities for other minorities.
I think in talking about leadership, you should talk about biases. I think it should be
incorporated in leadership lessons in how to lead others. So in most leadership lessons
you should talk about how you fight bias. How do you promote how you talk to the
[person] sitting in the corner? They could be of any color but how do you do that?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 92
Another participant who spoke at a military women’s symposium took did just that when
she took the opportunity to address unconscious bias and introspective thinking as a leader and
its affects the effectiveness of their command.
I focused primarily on unconscious bias... Basically, what I was trying to get out of it was
we can no longer complain about saying that we’re outsiders if we don’t think about what
does it mean for me. Like what do I need to do to be more open to others? Am I picking
people who look and think the way I do or am I conscious about who I’m picking for
these positions? I’m telling leaders this, I’m like, "You have to be comfortable in your
own skin to know who you are and you also have to demand that of your people."
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences
The conceptual framework outlines a relationship of leadership practice between
motivational influences to the stakeholder group. Leadership practice reflects the value placed
on D&I efforts and their commitment to creating a more diverse and inclusive environment.
These practices are enacted through the assumed motivational influences of how D&I goals are
exemplified in leadership training and current efforts as backed by Anderman’s (2015) Goal
Orientation Theory and leadership commitment as supported by Eccles’ (2009) Expectancy
Value Theory.
Goal orientation theory: Achieving Diversity Strategic Roadmap goals. The assumed
influence behind this theory is that MOX leaders should strive to internalize the goals in the
Diversity Strategic Roadmap in order to institutionalize diversity and inclusion in leadership
training and beyond. Goal orientation theory focuses on why individuals engage in their work as
a basis for achievement motivation (Anderman, 2015). MOX leaders can be motivated by their
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 93
role in achieving D&I goals and how they navigate others toward career advancing opportunities
and promotion. The influence was validated based on the prominent themes centering on the
need for accountability measures found in the data and re-evaluating promotion processes.
Accountability measures needed to create more inclusive environments. Studies suggest
that the way diversity has been generally defined by MOX policy in the past did not address the
need for increased representation of minorities and women in leadership nor does it enforce
accountability for leaders to track progress and performance (Lim, Haddad, & Daughtery, 2013;
Lim, Mariano, Cox, Schulker, & Hanser, 2014). Leadership practice within this theme suggests
that leaders have the responsibility to consciously be inclusive in who they promote and afford
developmental opportunities. While the intent is to meet organizational goals of increased
diversity and inclusion, one participant highlights the misalignment of its execution in current
demographic.
There’s been a really big push to try to make sure that there was that diversity within the
workplace. We’ve been getting briefed for the last 20 years; however, physically seeing
it, acted out in the workplace has not always been the case.
Essentially, leaders at all levels must be held accountable for how they run their organizations
and creating environments that are more inclusive.
[MOX] needs to tie and hold commanders accountable for diversity initiatives. How does
a senior leader take that and hold a subordinate commander accountable to them? Well,
the question I would ask them is… Why do I not have to tell you to put a majority officer
into a leadership position or to put them in for an annual award or to even consider them
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 94
for stratification? The reason I don’t have to tell you that is because it’s just expected. I
think there is a false assumption that your majority candidates are going to be better than
your minority ones. And that’s the paradigm shift and, I think, some cultural bias that
commanders have to work through. I think the senior [MOX] leadership, they need to
give subordinate commanders achievable and measurable diversity initiatives.
One participant shared an experience where her leaders were not held to such
accountability measures resulting in a work environment that left her excluded from workplace
networking opportunities.
My commander, he just really would not talk to me. I was the section commander and we
have been always two feet away. He has always emailed me. They always do. They don’t
talk to me, the DO (Director of Operations) and commander don’t talk to me. They’d
always go on lunch together and I never was invited. Well, to me, I was like, "Well,
maybe it is because I am not a maintenance officer." But I was still in the squadron. I am
still assigned to you as your officer.
Ensuring accessibility plays a factor in creating a more inclusive network for others to
thrive and progress.
I would just think some of that’s lack of the drive, some of that’s due to sponsorship,
some of that’s due to accessibility. Jobs may have been made accessible to those few
minorities that may not be accessible to others. Because let’s be honest with ourselves,
it’s a lot easier to look at someone and to be supportive of them if they look familiar to
you and you’re comfortable with that.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 95
Another participant supports the notion of accessibility and leader accountability to D&I
initiatives in the following, “If [MOX] is serious about diversity, and if they’re serious about
getting more minorities into senior leadership positions…the focus should be making those
professional development opportunities - those jobs, those special type programs, special duty
programs, making them more accessible to minorities - then commanders will have to be
accountable to that.”
Another participant shared how there seemed to be an illusion of inclusivity in the
workplace based on an established level of comfort, which changes when someone different
comes into the picture.
We are inclusive to a point because everybody is laid back and everybody likes be
sarcastic and make jokes and everybody can deal with it. I don’t think we’re really as
inclusive as we think we are. Because the moment we’re going to get somebody different
and we’re going have to start all over again, we’re going to put up those barriers and
we’re not to let people in.
Another participant echoes this sentiment in the following: “We are that flawed in our
logic that we have to be careful on what training we’re giving on. The thing is we say, accept
everybody. There’s going to be naturally resistant. Why? Of course, I’ll accept everybody. Why
not? I think current times and new cycles will show, no we’re not as accepting…”
One participant shared that she had been introduced to MOX’s D&I initiatives but have
not seen them operationally implemented.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 96
I have viewed PowerPoint over these initiatives. However, I have yet to really see those
initiatives being really acted out. It may be that we just haven’t had a scenario where it
was obvious that, "Okay this is one of the diversity initiatives being played out within our
organization."
One participant points out that MOX has not been successful in their D&I efforts because
desired outcomes may not be as clearly understood.
To be in the military 25 years, and we’re still talking about diversity, lets me know that
we’ve missed something along the way. I think part of what we’ve missed is that people
haven’t been measured on it… everybody’s crunched for time and time is so limited and
resources are limited, and people doing more with less. I get the impression, at least from
talking to some of my colleagues that people are still in the squares. The secretary of
[MOX], the Chief of Staff, they tell us diversity is important, they give us all these
brochures to go talk to people. We do all of that. But we’re doing it no differently than
you would do when you have to take yourself to Buddy Care [training]. The only reason
people, for example, take fitness serious is because you’re graded on it. You don’t
perform fitness-wise, there are repercussions to that. And because diversity, or how
you’ve impacted diversity, is not a measured performance outcome, I don’t believe
[MOX] has been successful in that effort.
Promotion processes should be more inclusive. Differences between Caucasian and
minority promotion rates increase with rank; additionally, turnover is more of a problem with
female and minority officers than it is for their male Caucasian counterparts (Baldwin, 2000).
Likewise, the data suggests that there is a need to re-evaluate how officers are promoted and to
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 97
examine how minority group representation is factored into these statistics. This study further
discusses dominant group characteristics in leadership are further validated by persisting attrition
of minority and female representation in the officer corps, especially as rank increases. One
participant describes covert promotion processes, which challenge MOX Diversity Strategic
Roadmap goals to develop and retain a more diverse force:
Everyone assumes that there’s equal opportunity in [MOX] within the prescribed
guidelines. Where you get to efforts to where it is not equal, are the things that take place,
I believe, behind the closed doors. For example, everyone’s always talking about, "Well,
you only have X number of minorities who get promoted." Why not? Well, a lot of it
starts early on with the type of opportunities that are made available to minorities. So,
one of the questions I used to always ask my boss, "Why is it so difficult for you to think
of a minority who could be your executive officer, versus all you’ve ever done, for
example, was interview the majority?”
Another participant suggests that lack of diversity on promotion and or award boards
lends to the persisting dominant group in MOX leadership.
They try to be effective but they’re not as effective as they probably could be just because
they try really hard for example, when they have these panels, get a diverse
representation but the people who are driving the panels themselves aren’t that diverse,
that you always end up with a homogenous group sitting around a table talking about
diversity [laughs]. Sure there’s a woman and a man but they’re all white.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 98
One participant echoed these thoughts regarding the promotion structure in that the
network of like-minded people inevitable affects who gets promoted.
If you look at the way [MOX] as a whole, how we promote and who the highest ranking
people are, a lot of those positions are male dominated so it’s difficult to see females in
those roles…The people who get promoted, they’re all like-minded people because you
have these individuals sitting on promotion boards. They see the records. They know the
person now. They know enough people that they know that people tend to stand behind
those who are like them and you see a lot of that. You see, especially when you get to the
general officer level, where it’s congressionally mandated. A lot of these guys know each
other. Like General [X] knows every single general officer because he’s worked with
them in some capacity, it’s eerie… He’s a fighter pilot. That’s how small the community
gets because they all end up knowing each other. Unfortunately, that is the personality
that keeps winning in promoting at the end of the day.
Another participant was adamant in her feelings toward the promotion system and how it
affects diversity and inclusion: “I truly do not believe that anything we do with diversity
inclusion will matter unless we change the General Officer Promotion structure. It will all be
futile or it’ll take too fucking long and [minorities/women] will get too frustrated.”
The MOX organizational goal to develop and retain a high quality diverse force is
influenced by promotion factors, which may act as a gap to leaders’ motivation to achieve these
goals. As goal orientation theory suggests, individuals must understand why they engage in
these goals and have the tools to achieve these goals in order to be motivated. Removing
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 99
systemic barriers that lend to biases within promotion processes by injecting a more diverse
panel is one way to address this gap. Leaders on multiple levels also can make stronger efforts
to provide inclusive opportunities for career development and advancement.
Expectancy value theory: The role of leadership commitment. The assumed
motivational influence suggests that, in line with the MOX’s Diversity Strategic Roadmap,
leadership commitment is imperative in communicating the value of diversity and inclusion. The
primary principle behind Expectancy Value Theory is that learning and motivation are enhanced
if the learner values the task (Eccles, 2009). If leaders believe they have a responsibility to
create an environment that improves organizational diversity and inclusion, this will instill
greater value and motivation in their role. This influence was validated based on the prominent
theme of inclusive mentoring as a valuable means to motivate other leaders.
Inclusive mentoring imperative to developing a more diverse force. Increasing
organizational inclusivity requires influential leaders who can effectively advocate diverse
perspectives, eradicate in- and out-group norms, and acknowledge differing viewpoints (Ayman
& Korabik, 2010). This is important as social, cultural, and administrative barriers continue to
hinder the goal of fully integrating women into opportunities that lead prominent leadership
positions (Karmack, 2015). All participants indicated to some degree the importance of
mentorship, while some shared their experiences regarding the value placed in establishing these
relationships as leaders themselves.
I’ve had leaders there that showed me the ropes. But a lot of times, I think it is by luck in
circumstance. For me, I feel like I don’t want it that way for any minority or any female.
I want to make it easier for you guys. To me that’s kind of like my mark of success, is to
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 100
see how many people that have worked for me, have gone on to even more successful
careers. I will commit, and I try to look for every opportunity whatever to help people,
and their paths are a lot easier.
Another participant echoed this sentiment and added the importance of peer networking
as another significant way to enact cultural change.
It’s important for us to see that our leaders care and are aware and are involved but I
think it may be even more powerful to see our peers leading the way and doing
something about it because that’s really how the culture changes because they’re the
lower level or the lower rank. That’s the mass of the -- the bulk of the heavy lifting. If
that can spark a wave, then it’ll be a two-pronged approach.
Another participant calls on commanders to be accountable for accessibility to
mentorship, not only for minority females, for all officers.
Commanders should be accountable for mentoring…Mentoring every single officer, and
I assume we’re talking about officers only under their leadership. I’ve always operated
under the mantra of everybody deserves mentorship. And I mentor everybody under my
command, and even those who are not under my command. However, I will acknowledge
that it is a fact that few will get opportunity. Few will get access to those opportunities.
Another participant echoed this sentiment, adding that some leaders might fear taking on
a minority or female protégé because of the perception.
One of the things I said is we do a poor job of is sponsoring minorities. Grooming them
to be our successors or to reach the top… People are afraid of that perception whether it’s
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 101
us, afraid of that perception as well. You’re only taking X because they’re African-
American or whatever, they’re Asian, or they’re Latino. Who cares? Unless I go back to
that article I read… when they interviewed General Spencer, and he wanted to recruit an
African-American male to his aide or something. Somebody told him don’t do it because
of the perception. [laughs] But you guys take Caucasian males every time. What’s wrong
with that?
Additionally, one participant acknowledges the importance in establishing networks
between individuals who do not strongly identify with one another.
I think the initial way that any organization can communicate diversity is through your
workforce. I think you have to be mindful of the fact that in order for any leader to make
an informed decision, you’ve got to look at yourself and ask yourself, "Who are your key
influencers? Who’s in your decision circle that helps you make decisions to make the
organization successful?" If you’ve got people who come from similar backgrounds as
yourself, who has similar experiences and people who quite frankly look only like you, I
think you’re very limited in making sure that you’ve got a key set of influencers that can
give you different perspectives to help you form the one opinion that’s best to moving
forward with the organization.
This perception directly ties into the organizational influence of the cultural model of
closed system progression, which is discussed in the following section.
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences
Within the conceptual framework of the study, organizational influences provide the
cultural landscape in which knowledge and motivation themes are derived. The themes found
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 102
within this dataset align with other themes found in the knowledge and motivation settings –
specifically the notion of unconscious bias and a general feeling of apathy toward D&I initiatives
and training.
Cultural model: Closed system of progression contributes to leader prototype. The
assumed influence suggests that dominant leader prototypes result in persistent
underrepresentation of female minorities in MOX leadership. This influence was validated
based on the following themes found in the data: shared common identity leading to closed
system of progression and perception of inequality due to dominant leader prototype.
Shared common identity leading to closed systems of progression. Individuals tend to
prefer interactions with others perceived as similar to themselves; more specifically, physical
characteristics of race or gender may play influential factors in the formation of preferred group
identity (Stewart, 2009). Data also suggests that homogenous groups persist because of the
comfort one finds in shared common identity. This creates networking opportunities unique to
the dominant group and not as accessible to minorities. Participants describe the dynamic of
shared identity feeding into systemic biases that perpetuate a closed system of progression for the
majority group and attrition of the minority group:
We have set up a climate where there’s all kinds of informal mentorship that happens
between like-minded people…Mentorship is very hard to give, it takes people outside of
their comfort zone. So we tend to give feedback to those that are like us because we
know how they’ll react and because we see ourselves in them.
By and large, you’re going to interact and you’re more comfortable with people who look
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 103
like you. I was reading with the unconscious bias thing, even with job interviews, it could
be, you happen to be a Boston Red Sox fan and you’re interviewing somebody for a job.
They may not be the most uniquely qualified but they happen to mention that they’re a
Red Sox fan too, then that gets in your head and, "That’s somebody I can possibly get
along with."
A lot of times it’s a hand in hand thing like, "Okay. Well, you’re from this region or this
type of home life and you look like me and so we have common ground." That
perpetuates -- you know…they’re on that path. We have a lot of individuals who are
outliers who aren’t receiving mentorship or don’t know the "game." They’re getting out
or they’re being forced out or being forced to retire and they don’t know these secrets
or…they’re not being mentored. It’s just a systemic issue that’s perpetuating.
This closed system was illustrated in one participant’s experience in trying to fit in and
feelings of exclusion based on her gender and race.
I would force myself to be included whether the guys wanted me there or not. But on
their own they did not invite me places… it was very noticeable that I stuck out. It made
me feel like I had to be one of the boys that I had to okay with the jokes. If I wanted have
a more beyond-the-work environment and be included in their social circles I had to be
one of the guys. Out here I had a [colleague] who I had worked with before and who will
see me in uniform. When we were off base at a morale dinner he asked me if I was
American. Word for word his question was, "Are you even American"? That was his
question to me. When I explained how that was an offensive question, his response was
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 104
that if I choose to be offended by his question then that’s my fault.
Another participant shared a similar experience in which white male colleagues have
made her feel as though she were not a part of the team despite sharing the same mission: “The
biggest thing that I have with questions like ‘where are you really from?’ implies that I’m some
sort of less than that.”
Dominant leader prototype leads to perception of inequality. Negative perceptions of
leadership competence prove to be even more of a significant barrier to advancement for women
who are racially diverse (Ayman & Korabik, 2010; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Thus,
minority women must display higher leadership competence while simultaneously conforming to
white male “prototypes representing traditional ethnic, racial, and gender behavior” (Sanchez-
Hucles, 2010, p. 174). As mentioned in previous sections, unconscious bias inherently affects
how one sees leadership and how majority groups view minority groups. Specifically, minority
female officers are not viewed the same as their white male counterparts when it comes to
leadership competency and qualification. A vast majority of participant identified “white male
pilots” as the common leader prototype and the group most highly associated with successful,
prominent leadership status. Participants attributed the persistent dominant group of white male
aviators to their historical value in MOX heritage:
The history is, white men fighter pilots because they’ve done the mission, they’ve fought
in the mission, they’ve led the mission, and that’s our job is to fly sorties, drop bombs
and do all that sort of stuff. Everything else is ancillary. If you look around, the non-
aviation type tactical career fields, you’ll find more black men and women leaders….
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 105
Every once in a while you’ll find non-white people as the head of those sections but
they’re mostly white males. But by the time it’s time to pick the next generals or
secretaries and heads of staffs and what not, the only people who have actually had an
opportunity to check all the requirements are those white males. So, it persists.
In my career, a prominent [MOX] leader is generally a Caucasian male within the group.
Some of our most successful Generals… they’ve all been Caucasian males.
The heavy hitters in terms of who the big wigs are mostly pilot, because like our [general
officer] and vice, they’re both pilots. The director of staff, he was a former pilot. And so,
they all tend to be that mentality. They have the pilot mentality, mostly male, actually all
male, really honestly.
Furthermore, one participant discussed the inherent privilege that is associated with being
a white male aviator and how it contrasts with the minority officer experience:
When you have a dominant group that has a privilege, it’s like they have a tail wind, and
then when you have a non-dominant group the minorities they have head wind. So what
happens is if you were sharp, white, male, tall pilot in [MOX] and you are smart and you
are a great leader and you will go far and you will excel and you will do wonderful things
and there’s definitely a lot of great leaders that fit that category. So what happens in the
meantime too is that you have anyone in various minority groups that are busting their
butt, working harder, smarter, faster and they are trudging through that headwind.
Other participants shared workplace experiences that reflect the insight shared above.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 106
I have a lot of line officer friends that the horror stories that they tell me, as far as being a
female, let alone-- let it be one of the ones that are a black female in a line side officer
position, they’re not listened to in the staff meetings. It’s like whatever they say was like,
"Yes, yes, yes, whatever," and they’re moving on to what the white male officer has to
say maybe on the table. We’ve come a long way I feel as far as race relations and gender
relations [in society]. But in the military, we’re still not there…
Another participant shared her own experience in feeling inequitable treatment within her
own workplace.
Diversity or lack thereof, that in 2017 we still aren’t being treated equitably. I have three
degrees, I have excelled on every single position I’ve ever been given in the military. I’ve
cleaned up sections…what I have to bring to the table to be able to be at the forefront is
far more than what other counterparts will have to bring to the table. It’s unfortunate, it’s
like we’re constantly working against a grain that -- it’s like, "Okay. Well, do I need to
get a fourth degree for you to take me seriously and for you to believe that I’m here to
play?" [laughs] Like I said, until [MOX] makes that a priority for diversity to be among
one of their higher arching needs that they need to be able to address, it’s going to
continue to be how it is.
Cultural setting: D&I efforts in the workplace perceived as protocol. The assumed
influence suggests that D&I efforts are perceived apathetically and are seen more as a mandate
or means to a quota. This perception may lead to a lack of understanding regarding the
importance of diversity training and its related initiatives. This influence was validated in the
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 107
following themes found in the data set: reactive training priorities and general apathy in
approaching D&I in the operational work environment.
Reactionary prioritization conflict with longstanding problem resolution. Current
efforts to celebrate underrepresented groups may be misconstrued as an attempt to equalize all
forms of difference, all the while disregarding the longstanding existence of white male privilege
leading to limited evidence of the overall effectiveness of diversity training management (Dowd
& Bensimon, 2014;Trenerry & Paradies, 2012). Participants stated that D&I training was not
viewed as a top priority, highlighting a knowledge gap between the leaders who communicate
D&I’s importance to the organization and the members of the organization.
One participant suggested that many training efforts coming down from higher-level
MOX are a result of publicized incidents that highlight an imminent need to address them. This
highlights a knowledge gap between the need to address the longstanding problem of
underrepresented minority groups and the training modules currently mandated.
I typically find [MOX] is very reactionary. When something happens or there’s a big
scandal in another sister service, everybody reacts to it. Then we get rolled out all these
CBTs (computer-based training), or we get rolled out this face-to-face classroom training
that we need to do. I find that a lot of people even the instructors, they go through the
motions of it, but you can clearly tell that they’re instructing you, they don’t believe half
of what they’re saying to you.
Another participant discusses how the urgent need to complete transgender training
appears to trump the value of diversity, an issue that has been longstanding and affects a larger
sector of the MOX population.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 108
Diversity is something that we’ve been dealing with for decades and we still have not
gotten it together… We have this little quick, equal opportunity training that happens
with the newcomers when you get to a new installation – there’s really not much
emphasis on diversity and how individuals of different backgrounds, different skin color
should be treated within the workplace. Then here we go with this huge transgender
initiative and they want me to know exactly not only how to treat a transgender, what we
need to know about all of the TRICARE options that are available to them…. It’s very
detailed training which blew my mind… I have no ill feeling against that sector of people
but I just felt like, "Gosh, how did we skip over diversity as being a huge point in
training?” We’ve gotten to a point where transgender feelings and transgender fairness
and equality is more important than the equality of an African-American female.
One participant also touched on this theme, suggesting that is D&I had been approached
more proactively, change in the prevalent demographic may be more likely to occur: “We’re
more reactive in nature than anything. If we start being more preventative in nature, a lot of the
things that we deal with… that plague our force can be alleviated.”
Another participant expressed that diversity and inclusion may not be truly highly
prioritized because on the current leadership demographic.
I honestly think that big [MOX] doesn’t really know how to tackle this. Especially, given
the demographics of those who are in leadership. I honestly was surprised that they
reached out… Those who are of the privileged class, color, demographic, they’re like,
"Well, I don’t really see that there’s a big problem. Why are we focusing energy and time
on this?"
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 109
Apathy toward D&I discussions in the operational work environment. Most individuals
in MOX are more likely to view diversity as another top-down initiative accompanied by
computer-based training, checklists, and rules-based compliance rather than recognizing it as a
valuable game changer for the organization (Streeter, 2014). D&I training may not address how
leaders should address issues related to diversity and inclusion in the workplace. This highlights
a gap between the need for D&I training and the expectation for increased D&I in the workplace.
One participant describes this in the following:
I think specifically [diversity efforts] are rolled out haphazardly. By that I mean, you get
an email with the whole bunch of attachments, you read through it. And then you sit
down and train other people on it. I don’t think [MOX] does a very good job on training
their senior leaders. Now, of course, this assumption in that is that because you are senior
leaders, you’ll figure out how to execute the training. Of course, we’re going to do that…
[But] you’re doing it because [MOX] is saying, "Complete the square." So if congress
does an inquiry…we can say we’ve done the training.
Several participants expressed the need for accessible training that emphasizes increased
interaction with leadership and how leaders can make D&I a priority.
It depends how it’s done because then, you’re pushing-- going back earlier it might be a
little, "Gosh, why are they shoving this down my throat again?" or "Why do we need to
talk about this again? Things are good now. Things are better," Whatever their thoughts
may be. It may be taken negatively you have to find that right way and method to where
it’s accepted as opposed to "Oh gosh another one of these things again." And then people
just tune it out.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 110
How the importance of D&I is communicated in the workplace also plays a factor in the
effectiveness of MOX D&I efforts and initiatives. There is a need for more meaningful
interaction on the topic as opposed to following a top-down mandate.
Just talking about it and creating that conversation just so that it’s more of a welcome
dialog and less of a, "I’m going to mandate this to you and it’s another training type
setting or formal training."
A lot of [discussion on diversity] is just, "Hey. Respect others. This isn’t allowed. All
right. Let’s move one." or "I’m required to read these four lines so let’s just rush through
that." There’s a blind-- a willful ignorance to "This wouldn’t happen because we have
great people here"… How do you find that balance where it’s not “Shut up and listen”
and "Hey, let’s create a conversation and be vulnerable without retribution?”
One participant expressed that diversity is generally well received but not overtly
discussed because it makes people uncomfortable.
I believe it would be well received but I think that it’s one of those things that’s kind of
risqué and people know that it’s not going to be something that people will easily bring to
the forefront. I think there’s that safety in knowing that people are uncomfortable with
that topic that we see a lot across the board from the enlisted to the officer corps all
throughout [MOX].
Another participant suggested training be specifically created and focused on D&I and
not as component of another training module in that, “It can’t be a chapter or a section. It needs
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 111
to be woven throughout the curriculum. We can spend so much time on a storming, knowing,
informing or whatever and yet we don’t address what contributes to the ‘storming’ of the group.”
Furthermore, leadership must play an active role in the informal execution and
implementation of D&I efforts as they ultimately help shape these perceptions regarding
diversity and inclusion in the workplace.
Even if leaders are doing it because they truly care about it, when it’s in a more formal
setting, it’s automatically in the back of people’s minds, "Uh oh, this is another training."
If leaders take the opportunities at every chance they get to informally encourage,
enhance and promote diversity that would go a long way because it seems more organic
and more genuine to subordinates.
Summary
The themes identified in the data set suggest that there is a greater need for dialogue
surrounding D&I that resonates on a more personal level. Current leaders play a major role in
encouraging the types of conversations that increase awareness and normalize the idea of D&I in
the workplace. Unconscious bias toward the dominant group exists when it comes to perceptions
of successful leaders and that may result in defensive attitudes. These attitudes affect the way
diversity is understood in that it is more likely to be perceived by the dominant group as a race,
or perhaps gender, issue rather than a positive contribution to the organization, further adding
ambiguity to the topic. This underlying perception requires leaders of all races and genders to be
more cognizant of how they overtly communicate the importance of diversity.
Accountability measures and mentorship are ways leaders can ensure they create more
inclusive work environments. These factors also determine who advances because leaders
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 112
provide accessibility to certain opportunities that allow for professional development and
advancement. In order for leaders to be accountable, they must have the knowledge and tools to
check their own biases and inherent privileges, acknowledge that they exist, and understand that
the way they communicate and who they communicate with determines whether the work center
is truly inclusive. Accountability to those one leads means providing collective opportunities to
progress and recognition for all those who work better themselves to achieve the mission. Based
on these narratives, the underlying norm is that these opportunities tend to favor the dominant
group because of the persisting prototype that exists in higher leadership, which then feeds into
the pattern of underrepresented minority females. The closed system of progression, which is
perpetuated by the dominant leader prototype of a white male aviator, can be dissolved by
greater leadership engagement to provide inclusive opportunities for advancement and
mentorship for all officers. These themes illustrate commonly felt sentiments of exclusion,
inequitable treatment, and the idea that diversity and inclusion is not as important as it is
presented to be by higher leadership.
While MOX states that D&I is a top priority, this is not apparent in the current
operational work environment, not only by the disparaging demographic, but in the training or
lack thereof. Current training and D&I efforts may not be implemented in a way that makes this
particular topic as much of a priority as other social issues such as trans-gender training, which
seemed have taken precedence. There is a sense that because D&I is not presented in a way that
is meaningful, its meaning is not clear, leaving it up for interpretation. Thus, from the female
minority perspective, diversity tends to be negatively perceived as something threatening to the
norm or another “box to check” despite its positive intent. Data suggests that specialized
leadership training from D&I professionals specifically about D&I initiatives, mentorship, and
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 113
how to operationalize these efforts in the workplace would be beneficial to the organizational
goal of increased accession and retention of MOX minority females in the officer corps.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 114
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
This chapter provides recommendations for the problem of practice based on the
literature and results from the qualitative study and proposes an integrated implementation and
evaluation plan to address the problem of practice. Ultimately, this chapter serves to provide
resolution for Research Question 3 of the study: What are the recommendations for
organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources?
The previous chapter outlines prominent themes from the perspectives of minority female
officers, who serve as both the stakeholder group and the underrepresented population in MOX
leadership. Based on this information, the proposed recommendation is a dedicated training
course on diversity and inclusion targeted specifically to the stakeholder group, senior leaders in
MOX. The purpose of the course would be to help leaders understand how to better
communicate the importance of diversity and to provide them the tools to create a more inclusive
environment, specifically through the establishment of a formal mentoring program. The basis
of this program was derived from the following knowledge, motivation, and organizational
recommendations.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. The knowledge influences in Table 6 represent the list of knowledge
influences, whether they were validated, and recommendations based on data found in the
interviews, supported by the literature review and the review of knowledge theory. The
influences focused on perceptions of diversity and inclusion (D&I) as they relate to dominant
groups in leadership, how D&I are emphasized in leadership training, and the need for evaluation
and improvement of current D&I efforts. As indicated in Table 7, these influences were
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 115
validated and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 7 also shows the
recommendations for the validated influences based on theoretical principles and information
found in the data.
Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
MOX leaders may
not how dominant
groups in MOX
leadership affect
organizational
effectiveness. The
homogeneity in
leadership may lead
to a general sense
of apathy toward
D&I initiatives.
(Declarative-
Factual)
Y Y Effective leaders are aware
of biases and prejudices
that occur in the
organization at the
individual and structural
levels. They acknowledge
their own biases and
prejudice and protect the
organization from their
negative impact
(Bensimon, 2005; Chavez,
Duran, Baker, Avila &
Wallerstein, 2008).
Social interaction,
cooperative learning, and
cognitive apprenticeships
(such as reciprocal
learning) facilitate
construction of new
knowledge (Scott &
Palinscar, 2006).
Provide training on the
different ways mentorship
resources are used by other
organizations to promote
accession and or retention
of minority women. Create
and reinforce policies that
protect the organization
from the negative impact of
bias and prejudice.
MOX leaders need
to know how
perceptions on
diversity affect the
organization. There
may be a general
lack of
understanding of
what D&I means
and may be more
negatively
associated to race
or gender rather
than as a collective
gain for the
organization.
(Declarative-
Conceptual)
Y Y
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 116
MOX leaders must
know how to
incorporate
leadership practices
that meaningfully
emphasize the
importance of
diversity and
inclusion.
(Procedural)
Y Y Effective leaders address
institutional policies and
practices that create
barriers for equity
(Bensimon, 2005).
Effective observational
learning is achieved by
first organizing and
rehearsing modeled
behaviors, then enacting
them overtly (Mayer,
2011).
Provide MOX leaders
education on the how to
effectively communicate
and actively enact goals
in the Diversity Strategic
Roadmap, while
stressing the importance
of diversity and
increased representation
of minority groups in
training curricula.
MOX leaders need
to be aware of their
role in current D&I
efforts to create
more inclusive
work environments
and opportunities
for all members to
progress.
(Metacognitive)
Y Y Effective leaders
regularly engage in the
process of reflection in
order to ensure their
actions promote an
atmosphere of inclusion
and diversity. They
facilitate problem-
solving strategies that
promote objectivity,
equity, and inclusivity
(Bensimon, 2005;
DiTomaso, Post &
Parks-Yancy, 2007).
Provide MOX leaders
education on how their
current leadership
practices either promote
or inhibit equity,
diversity, and inclusion.
Declarative knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. As validated in
the themes surrounding unconscious biases and negative attitudes toward diversity found in the
data set, dominant groups do exist in the MOX officer corps and it affect the way diversity is
perceived. Thus, it is important for leaders to know how these attitudes and perceptions of
diversity and inclusion affect the accession and retention of minority women in the organization.
The small population of minority women in the officer corps may impact performance evaluation
and future opportunities for training, development, and promotion of other minority women
(DACOWITS, 2014; Harris, 2009).
Effective leaders are aware of biases and prejudices that occur in the organization at the
individual and structural levels (Bensimon, 2005; Chavez, Duran, Baker, Avila & Wallerstein,
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 117
2008). Additionally, Scott and Palinscar (2006) found that social interaction, cooperative
learning, and cognitive apprenticeships (such as reciprocal learning) facilitate construction of
new knowledge. Research also suggests that social interaction, in the form of mentorship, must
be made available to who seek to learn ways to navigate challenges they face a minority women
in order to advance as prominent leaders (Hutchinson, 2013; Streeter, 2014; Thoroughgood,
Sawyer, & Hunter, 2013). The recommendation for addressing the knowledge influence of
dominant groups in MOX leadership is to provide information on the different ways mentorship
resources are used by other organizations to promote accession and or retention of minority
women. Clark and Estes (2008) state that information can be used to help individuals succeed by
identifying strategies learned in the past that can be applied in particular situations. In the
context of this knowledge influence, information on the establishment of mentoring programs
may help form the relationships necessary to increase retention of minority women.
Studies also show that because performance is strongly affected by the support one
receives from both peers and leaders: “...women who want to succeed in these masculine
environments must not only perform effectively but must simultaneously overcome these biases
and succeed at the additional task of gaining acceptance to hold these jobs” (Loughlin & Arnold,
p. 157, 2007). The quality of leader-subordinate relationships may be influenced by gender;
subordinates who identify closely with their leader (and vice versa) have more positive
perceptions and influence on one another (Vecchio & Brazil, 2007). Thus, white males who
identify themselves with white male leaders in a predominantly white male work environment
may have greater means to advance due to more opportunities to cultivate the relationships that
aid in career development.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 118
Considering the disproportionate population of white men and minority women in the
MOX, the lack minority female leaders available to cultivate these positive relationships for
other women result in fewer opportunities for them to progress – a notion that was also validated
in the interview narrative. The recommended course of action calls for further training and
education on MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap as well specialized training for leaders on how
to instill mentorship and address D&I initiatives and efforts in the workplace.
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. MOX leaders
must know how to incorporate leadership practices that meaningfully emphasize the importance
of diversity and inclusion. This influence was validated in the data by the prominent theme
regarding the lack of formal D&I training for leaders. The underrepresentation of women and
minorities in particular career fields lessens the chances of them being considered for early
promotion; these changes are further narrowed by the dominant population of Caucasian males
that occupy a majority of desirable career fields, making them more viable for promotion and
sustaining them as the prototypical group in MOX leadership (Baldwin, 2000). Mayer (2011)
suggests that effective observational learning occurs by first organizing and rehearsing modeled
behaviors, then enacting them overtly. When emphasizing the importance of diversity and
inclusion, it is important to consider how diversity training is conducted, modeled and enacted,
and more importantly, what is being learned.
Thus, the recommendation for this influence is to provide MOX leaders training on how
to implement steps related to goals in the Diversity Strategic Roadmap while stressing the
importance of diversity and inclusion and increased representation of minority groups in
leadership training. This might include utilizing feedback from multiple sources to assess the
effectiveness of organizational practices. Clark and Estes (2008) define training as any situation
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 119
where people acquire practical knowledge and skills, and need practice and corrective feedback
to achieve certain goals. Training would be targeted to senior MOX leaders and include topics
such as the various goals of the Diversity Strategic Roadmap; one of which addresses the need
for increased representation of minorities and women in training curricula.
Research on military leadership training shows that there is a lack of visual representation
and discussion on minority and female leaders and an overall inadequate effort to address issues
of gender in leadership training (Hutchison, 2013). Addressing this problem requires resources
to increase representation of minority female leadership in training and to support programs that
provide mentoring opportunities (DACOWITS, 2014). Additionally, steps to emphasize the
importance of diversity and inclusion might include conducting/utilizing research on: ways to
recruit and retain minority groups in the MOX, the effect of career field selection on racial/ethnic
and gender diversity, and gender differences in retention in related career fields (Lim, Mariano,
Cox, Schulker, & Hanser, 2014). Providing training to support these processes may help leaders
better understand how to incorporate research in existing leadership training curricula in a way
that more meaningfully and robustly communicates the importance of diversity and inclusion.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. MOX leaders
need to be aware of their role in current D&I efforts to create more inclusive work environments
and opportunities for all members to progress. In extrapolating this knowledge influence, it is
important to acknowledge the role of metacognition in effective leadership and workplace
inclusivity. Effective leaders regularly engage in the process of reflection in order to ensure their
actions promote an atmosphere of inclusion and diversity. They facilitate problem-solving
strategies that promote objectivity, equity, and inclusivity (Bensimon, 2005; DiTomaso, Post &
Parks-Yancy, 2007). Thinking about how and why dominant groups in MOX leadership persist
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 120
can be a significant point of learning for current MOX leaders and may influence how they
choose to lead and enact diversity and inclusion efforts.
Clark and Estes (2008) states that education occurs when people acquire conceptual,
theoretical, and strategic knowledge and skills that might help them handle unique challenges
and problems. Additionally, one critical aspect of metacognitive knowledge is that “it allows
one to decide when and why to implement a certain approach, and then when to change it in
favor of something more effective” (Rueda, 2011, p. 36). Thus, the recommendation to
address this metacognitive knowledge influence is to provide MOX leaders education on how
their current leadership practices either promote or inhibit equity, diversity, and inclusion.
Based on the data set, it is imperative that leaders are aware of the role they play in creating a
more diverse and inclusive environment. Themes in the data related to this influence show that
minority female leaders are very aware of what their role is in the representation of minority
groups in leadership and the responsibility associated with mentoring future generations.
Discussing this role in a training forum with other leaders may help encourage increased
metacognitive knowledge.
Persistent homogeneity in MOX leadership can affect how others perceive leadership in
that the dominant group is more associated with effective leadership than underrepresented
minority groups (Marsman, 2009; Streeter, 2014). Thus, leaders must cultivate a pro-diversity
environment and act as an agent for change (Parks et al, 2008). Studies on diversity conducted
by MOX leaders have suggested the need for an overhaul of personnel policies and systems –
specifically policy transformation and program development directed toward training and
recruitment (Streeter, 2014; Marsman, 2009; DACOWITS, 2014). Moreover, identifying prior
knowledge - what one knows and does not know about the importance of diversity and inclusion
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 121
- is one way to promote metacognition in this area (Mayer, 2011). By learning to evaluate
existing diversity training, policies, and programs, leaders are also forced to examine their own
approaches to these protocols. Additionally, conducting reviews may bring to the forefront one’s
own perception of diversity and inclusion. Thus, examination of current diversity and inclusion
efforts can aid in the overall increase of metacognitive knowledge and identification of better
ways to execute diversity and inclusion initiatives.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The motivation influences in Table B represent the list of motivation
influences, whether they were validated, and recommendations based on data found in the
interviews, supported by the literature review and the review motivation theory. Clark and Estes
(2008) suggest that there are three indicators of motivation in task performance – choice,
persistence and mental effort. Choice is going beyond intention to start something, persistence is
continuing to pursue a goal in the face of distractions, and mental effort is seeking and applying
new knowledge to solve a novel program or perform a new task (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Leadership plays a crucial role in the way diversity and inclusion initiatives are perceived and
valued within the organization. As such, activating interest and communicating goals are
important principles within this study’s motivational influences. As indicated in Table 8, the
motivational influences were validated and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’
goal. Table 8 also shows the recommendations for these influences based on theoretical
principles and information found in the data.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 122
Table 8
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes,
No (Y,
N)
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
MOX leaders must value
their role as change
agents and be committed
to communicating the
importance of diversity
and inclusion to others.
(Expectancy Value
Theory)
Y Y Activating and building upon
interest can increase learning
and motivation (Schraw &
Lehman, 2009).
Effective leaders demonstrate
a commitment to valuing
diversity through inclusive
action (Angeline, 2011;
Prieto, Phipps & Osiri, 2009).
Provide MOX leaders
education that
specifically addresses
inclusive mentorship,
diversity and
inclusion in a way
that helps creates
personal meaning to
them and added-value
to the organization.
MOX leaders should
examine why D&I goals
are important in order to
effectively
institutionalize diversity
and inclusion within their
organization. (Goal
Orientation Theory)
Y Y Motivation to achieve goals
requires leaders to effectively
influence people’s
understanding of the
impressions they create in
others and their beliefs about
the benefit in these efforts
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Effective leaders use
disaggregated data to make
informed decisions. They track
the impact of their decisions
on equity and access in
organizational practice
(Bensimon, 2005).
Provide MOX
leaders training on
how to conduct in-
depth reviews on
personnel policies,
professional
development, and
promotion systems
directed toward
the improvement
of diversity
training, policies,
and programs
goals.
Expectancy value. This motivational influence emphasizes the importance of leaders
valuing their role as change agents and their commitment in communicating the value of
diversity and inclusion, which was validated in the data. Schraw and Lehman (2009) state that
activating and building upon personal interest can increase learning and motivation. Effective
leaders demonstrate a commitment to valuing diversity through inclusive action (Angeline, 2011;
Prieto, Phipps & Osiri, 2009). Additionally, one of the prominent themes found in the
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 123
motivation influence data set pointed to the need for inclusive mentoring relationships –
specifically the importance of mentorship it can increase motivation in those they mentor. Thus,
one recommendation would be to provide MOX leaders education that specifically addresses
inclusive mentorship, diversity and inclusion in a way that helps creates personal meaning to
them and added-value to the organization. Education might include ways to actively seek out
opinions that differ from one’s own and how one might create a culture of inclusion in decision-
making. This will require leaders to reflect on how their role plays a part in improving the
effectiveness of diversity training, increasing both learning and motivation.
The effectiveness of a diverse military force depends on the multi-directional and
relational capacity of members (Stewart, 2009). Interest is enacted through leaders’ willingness
to engage with the organization’s members and respond to feedback so that diversity and
inclusion initiatives can be improved and better implemented for the future. Based on current
diversity directives, the MOX strongly emphasizes leadership commitment to diversity and
inclusion, the institutionalization of diversity as a necessity to mission success, and the
establishment of diversity training (Department of the MOX, 2013). Qualitative data also shows
a strong emphasis on leaders’ role in providing accessibility to mentorship to all officers.
Ensuring a robust diversity training curricula within existing leadership training supported by
leader mentorship may help bring to the forefront the unique challenges and benefits of building
a more diverse force (Department of Defense, 2011; Lim, Haddad, & Daugherty, 2013).
Goal orientation. The influence of leaders needing to examine why D&I goals are
important in order to effectively institutionalize diversity and inclusion within their organization
was validated in the data. Motivation to achieve goals requires leaders to effectively influence
people’s understanding of the impressions they create in others and their beliefs about the benefit
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 124
in these efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008). Additionally, Clark and Estes (2008) state, “Employees,
particularly women and minorities, are naturally concerned about the effect of bias and prejudice
on the amount, quality, and timing of their opportunities and support level” (p. 94). One of the
main priorities of the MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap is to attract and recruit a diverse force.
Moreover, the strategic roadmap has set goals to broaden officer recruitment and accession
efforts as well as to employ a new strategic communications plan to leverage public engagement.
In order to address these priorities, particularly to develop and retain a diverse force, the
MOX Diversity Strategic Roadmap has established a goal to understand and address factors that
influence attrition among minority groups. Additionally, the MOX has established a specific
performance measure to “collect/analyze accessions flow data and recruitment trends and
compare against qualified, eligible military applicant pools to identify gaps” (Department of the
MOX, 2013, p. 13). Learning the statistics that highlight demographic gaps may help leaders
reflect on the effectiveness of current diversity policies and the organizational culture that
perpetuates this problem. Qualitative data also highlights the need to for accountability measures
for leaders to create a more inclusive environment and to re-evaluate promotion factors which
inherently affect who advances in the MOX. Thus, one recommendation is to provide MOX
leaders training on how to conduct in-depth reviews on personnel policies, professional
development, and promotion systems directed toward the improvement of diversity training,
policies, and programs goals.
Since bias and prejudicial barriers are more subtle and difficult to identify than work
process and materiel barriers, it is important to foster a climate of equity and trust so that people
have less opportunity to believe that prejudice or bias will prevent them from goal achievement
or recognition (Clark & Estes, 2008). These types of organizational barriers, whether perceived
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 125
or not, must still be treated as a barrier to performance goals. Effective leaders use disaggregated
data to make informed decisions; they track the impact of their decisions on equity and access in
organizational practice (Bensimon, 2005). As primary stakeholders, MOX leaders must
communicate their commitment to pursue goals of increased diversity and inclusion and the
reasons behind them.
Understanding basic uses of data may help leaders begin answering questions about
diversity, including the importance of consulting disaggregated workplace data. This may
involve analyzing the number of applicants from underrepresented groups to clarify the amount
that recruiters need to change their targets and enable ongoing assessment of progress (Lim et al,
2014). By taking part in the analysis and review of diversity policies and its related goals, this
may help to increase motivation in leaders to engage through increased engagement and
understanding of the issues behind these goals.
Organizational Influences
Introduction. The organizational influences in Table C were validated based on the
most themes found in the interviews and supported by the literature review and the review of
organization and culture theory. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organization and
stakeholder goals are often not achieved due to a lack of resources, most often time and money,
and stakeholder goals that are not aligned with the organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001) propose two constructs about culture – cultural models or the observable
beliefs and values shared by individuals in groups, and cultural models, or the settings and
activities in which performance occurs. Thus, both resources and processes and cultural models
and settings must align throughout the organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals.
As indicated in Table 9, all organizational influences were validated and have a high priority for
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 126
achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 9 also shows the recommendations for these influences
based on theoretical principles and information found in the data.
Table 9
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*
Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Closed system of
progression may contribute
to dominant leader
prototypes resulting in a
persistent
underrepresentation of
minority women in MOX
leadership. The internal
climate of military
organizations may create
systematic bias in which
positions of authority are
determined by like-minded
people. (Cultural Model)
Y Y Positive emotional
environments support
motivation (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Effective leaders share power
appropriately. They consider
equity in the process of
allocating resources
(Johnson, 2006).
Encourage
individuals from
diverse backgrounds
to apply for high-
level positions via
mentoring program
geared toward
retention. Make a
commitment to
ensuring that high-
level positions
represent diversity,
equity, and inclusion.
Diversity and inclusiveness
may not be prioritized and
operationalized effectively,
highlighting
misalignments of policy
and practice. D&I efforts
may be negatively
associated as another
training mandate or means
to a quota rather than a
valuable cultural influence.
(Cultural Setting)
Y Y Organizational change
requires leadership to
continually be involved in
these improvement processes,
acting as champions to
clearly communicate the
importance of the need for
change (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Effective leaders promote
an organizational culture
that promotes equity and
inclusion and cultivate an
atmosphere where
diversity is viewed as an
asset to the organization
and its stakeholders
(Angeline, 2011; Prieto,
Phipps & Osiri, 2009).
Incorporate diversity
training curricula that
shows personal
significance. Include
personal
accounts/anecdotes
from leaders
regarding the topic of
D&I.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 127
Cultural model. There is a closed system of progression that contributes to the
underrepresentation of female minorities in MOX leadership, which was validated by the data
and the themes of shared common identity between white male officers and the perception of
inequality due to these dominant leader prototypes. The internal climate of military
organizations may create systematic bias in which positions of authority are determined by like-
minded people may hinder the growth of a diverse and fully inclusive force. A study on
diversity in the Department of Defense’s officer corps states that minorities and women are less
likely than whites and men to be in rated fields and more likely to be in fields that have lower
promotion rates; this is one of the factors determined at the start of officers’ careers that
accumulates in importance over time for senior-level diversity (Lim et al., 2013). Positive
emotional environments support motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008) – this support may be the key
to transforming the current cultural model by providing opportunities for the underrepresented to
progress, leading to advancement and greater representation in the leadership ranks. Moreover,
effective leaders share power appropriately; they consider equity in the process of allocating
resources (Johnson, 2006). Thus, one recommendation is to encourage individuals from diverse
backgrounds to apply for high-level positions via mentoring program geared toward retention. In
doing this, leaders are making a commitment to ensure high-level positions represent diversity,
equity, and inclusion. Mentoring programs may provide the supportive network necessary to
navigate challenges minority women face as they progress in their military career.
Research suggests disposition of racial identity may propagate a systematic bias that
exists in MOX culture where positions of authority are determined by like-minded people,
excluding those who do not fit within norms established by the dominant group (Mastroianni,
2006; Streeter, 2014). Given the prominence of Caucasian males in the MOX, it may be implied
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 128
that as the proportion of white male officers increase, so does the level of a reinforced positive
climate based on shared identity (Dansby & Landis, 1998; Streeter, 2014). Performance is
strongly affected by the support one receives from both peers and leaders; therefore, “women
who want to succeed in these masculine environments must not only perform effectively but
must simultaneously overcome these biases and succeed at the additional task of gaining
acceptance to hold these jobs” (Loughlin & Arnold, p. 157, 2007).
Narratives from the data suggest that systemic biases exist which perpetuate the
progression of the majority group. Data also alludes to the problematic nature of this progression
as it lends itself to feelings of inequality and defensive attitudes, which was also identified as a
knowledge influence theme as well. Thus, mentoring for minority female officers must take
place as early as possible in order to create more opportunities for and to encourage career
advancement (DACOWITS, 2014; Harris, 2009). Establishing a mentoring program may create
a new norm of shared responsibility among leaders to open the existing closed systems of
progression, ensuring today’s underrepresented officers have their representation in future.
Cultural setting. Diversity and inclusiveness may not be prioritized and operationalized
effectively, highlighting misalignments of policy and practice. Thus, D&I efforts may be
negatively associated as another training mandate or means to a quota rather than a valuable
cultural influence. As a result, there may be a lack of understanding regarding the significance
of diversity initiatives, a notion that was validated in the data. One particular theme from the
data suggests that MOX tends to be more reactive than proactive when it comes to dealing with
certain social issues within the organization – for example, transgender training was brought up
by several participants as an issue many perceive as a higher priority than diversity and inclusion
despite longstanding demographic disparity.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 129
Organizational change requires leadership to continually be involved in these
improvement processes, acting as champions to clearly communicate the importance of the need
for change (Clark & Estes, 2008), particularly in the way leaders enable diverse and inclusive
work environments. Additionally, effective leaders promote an organizational culture that
promotes equity and inclusion and cultivate an atmosphere where diversity is viewed as an asset
to the organization and its stakeholders (Angeline, 2011; Prieto, Phipps & Osiri, 2009). One
recommendation to address the influence of “diversity as protocol” would be to revise diversity
training curricula in a way that shows personal significance. This might involve leaders sharing
personal accounts and anecdotes regarding the topic of D&I in order to encourage interactive
discussion and metacognitive thought.
Dowd and Bensimon state: “Without equity standards, institutions cannot evaluate their
performance; without measures of performance, institutions cannot learn; and without learning,
institutional change is unlikely” (Dowd & Bensimon, 2014, p. 163). MOX leaders have been
successful in setting these standards and utilizing demographic data to establish goals in the
diversity strategic roadmap. However, due to the formalities in which these initiatives are
presented, there may be a lack of a deeper understanding regarding the significance of diversity
initiatives. This was validated in the data as a theme emerged of apathy toward diversity and
inclusion in the operational work environment. Data suggests that the way these efforts are
communicated by leadership is not effective and there is a need for more focused interaction.
With goals of the Diversity Strategic Roadmap geared toward retention and training
programs, its implementation may require a deeper level of leadership engagement across all
levels. Thus, it is important that leaders initiate meaningful, positive discussion that
acknowledges diversity as a force multiplier and to communicate how biases and stereotypes are
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 130
detrimental to the mission (Streeter, 2014; Vecchio & Brazil, 2007; Harris, 2009).
Organizational inclusivity requires influential leaders who can effectively advocate diverse
perspectives, eradicate in- and out-group norms, and acknowledge differing viewpoints (Ayman
& Korabik, 2010), which may be addressed through improved D&I training curricula specifically
targeted to current MOX leaders.
Based on the above-mentioned recommendations, the following section proposes an
integrated plan for implementation of a new training course for the stakeholder group, senior
MOX leaders, and a plan to evaluate its effectiveness in closing the gap of the overall intent of
the organizational goal and how it is enacted in the day to day work environment.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The implementation and evaluation plan for this study is based on the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), which originates from the Kirkpatrick
Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). The evaluation plan starts
with organizational goals then works backward by which the leading indicators bridge
recommended solutions to the organization’s goals and are therefore easier to identify and align
with organizational goals (see Figure 4). This “reverse order” of the New World Kirkpatrick
Model allows for: 1) the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work
behaviors, 2), the identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and
3), the emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies. The order of this implementation and evaluation plan creates tangible connections
between immediate solutions and the overall organizational goal, while soliciting collective buy
in to ensure success (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 131
Figure 4. Kirkpatrick New World Model
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The purpose of MOX’s Diversity Roadmap is to enable the MOX to attract, recruit,
develop, and retain a high quality, diverse total force. This mission was based on the current and
persisting problem of underrepresented minority groups and females in the MOX. Creating a
more diverse force is highly dependent on how current leaders communicate its importance in a
way that is meaningful. This study, based on literature, educational theory, and qualitative data
from interviews with minority female officers, examined the knowledge and skills, motivational,
and organizational barriers that prevent increased diversity in MOX leadership. The proposed
solution, revising diversity training and establishing formalized mentoring program, should
produce the desired outcome – an increase in the number of minority female officers in the MOX
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 132
leadership corps. Figure 5 incorporates the goals for the study’s proposed implementation and
evaluation plan into the New World Kirkpatrick Model.
Figure 5. Proposed Implementation and Evaluation Plan for New Diversity, Inclusion, and
Mentorship Training for Leaders (DIML) Program
Level 4: Results
Components to
Measure Reactions:
- Observations during
training modules
- Pulse checks/open-
ended questionnaires
following each module
- Final course evaluation
to include personal
reflective essay
immediately upon
course completion
- Evaluation survey
distributed at 2 and 4
months after course
completion
Level 3: Behavior
DIML Training
Components:
-DECLARATIVE
--Knowledge checks during
each
module
--Group discussions
-PROCEDURAL
--D&I related scenarios
--Skills assessment survey
-ATTITUDE
--Instructor observations
--Peer feedback/group
sharing
-COMMITMENT
-- Individual action plan
--Reflective essay
Level 2: Learning
Critical Behaviors:
- Learn and comprehend
the importance of
diversity and inclusion
within the organization
- Communicate the
importance of D&I
positively in the
workplace
- Establish formal
mentoring relationships
for all officers
Level 1: Reactions
Desired Outcomes:
- Increased retention of
minority women
- Increased
understanding and
awareness of D&I goals
and initiatives
- New training program
for MOX leaders
- New formal mentoring
program for all units
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 133
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 10 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for MOX leadership. If
the internal outcome is met as expected as a result of the training and organizational support
(mentoring) for current officers, then the external outcomes should also be realized.
Table 10
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increased number of
female minority officers
Annual demographic
statistics reported by
MOX personnel center
Solicit data from MOX personnel
center report
Internal Outcomes
2. Increased awareness and
understanding of D&I-related
initiatives
The number of officers
who can
identify/speak to these
efforts
Collect data from MOX leaders
across all units collected via
survey/questionnaire
3. New diversity training for
all MOX commanders
Reported completion
of training
Collect data from students who
have completed training via end-
of-course survey/questionnaire
4. New formal mentoring
program for all officers
Identification of
mentor during semi-
annual feedback
sessions
Aggregate data from feedback
forms
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 134
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. For this study, the stakeholders are MOX senior leaders because
they are the ones who have the greatest influence on organizational goals. The first critical
behavior is that leaders across all ranks must learn and comprehend the importance of diversity
and inclusion within the organization. The second critical behavior is that leaders must be able
to communicate this importance positively in the workplace. The third critical behavior is that
leaders must be able to mentor other officers, regardless of gender or racial identity. The specific
metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appears in Table 11.
Table 11
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for MOX Leaders
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Learn and
comprehend the
importance of diversity
and inclusion within the
organization
Reported
completion of
D&I
familiarization
training
1. Leaders will undergo
specialized training that focuses
on D&I, current initiatives and
related goals, and their role as
leaders in working towards these
goals.
1a. Within first 30 days of
appointment to a
leadership/supervisory
position; annually,
thereafter.
2. Communicate the
importance of D&I
positively in the
workplace
Unit climate
assessment
survey results
2a. Questions will be added to the
force-wide unit climate
assessment survey to address how
D&I is perceived in the
workplace.
2a. To be distributed
within 60 days of new
appointment of unit
commander; annually,
thereafter
2b. Existing questions may be
revised to focus on perceived
importance of D&I.
2b. To be distributed
within 60 days of new
appointment of unit
commander; annually,
thereafter
3. Establish formal
mentoring relationships
for all officers
Unit climate
assessment
survey results
2a. Questions will be added to the
force-wide unit climate
assessment survey to address
support resources.
3a. To be distributed
within 60 days of new
appointment of unit
commander; annually,
thereafter
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 135
2b. Existing questions may be
revised to specifically address the
effectiveness of mentoring in the
organization.
3b. To be distributed
within 60 days of new
appointment of unit
commander; annually,
thereafter
The number of
officers who
report having
acquired a new
mentor.
3c. Unit commander or appointed
designator will track mentor-
mentee pairs
3c. Ongoing - every
quarter
Required drivers. Female minority officers require the support of their unit leadership
and commands to ensure they have the resources they need to advance as officers. This requires
a clear understanding on the part of the stakeholder group of what their role is in encouraging
increased diversity and inclusion in the immediate workplace. Consistent reinforcement and
encouragement from leadership is crucial to create positive experiences and to build the
relationships necessary to create a more inclusive environment for minority women to thrive.
Additionally, leaders must ensure opportunities for professional development for all members of
their unit so as to encourage inclusivity. Table 12 shows the recommended drivers to support
critical behaviors of senior MOX leadership.
Table 12
Required Drivers to Support MOX Leaders’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical Behaviors
Supported
Reinforcing
Ensure each officer is assigned a mentor by
establishing a formal mentoring program in each unit.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Commanders will receive specialized training on how
to address and discuss diversity and inclusion with
their troops in a way that incites personal meaning.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 136
Encouraging
Commanders will provide opportunities to discuss
issues regarding diversity and inclusion at unit-wide
Commanders’ Calls (meetings).
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Commanders will set the example and mentor other
officers of various gender and races, ensuring inclusive
opportunities for professional development are
accessible to all.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Supervisors will follow up on mentoring relationships
at each feedback session.
Semi-annual 2, 3
Training command will collect feedback from students
on current diversity training lesson plans.
Ongoing 1, 2
Organizational support. To maintain organizational support for the implementation of
this plan senior leadership must be committed to the overall goals of increased diversity and
inclusion. One way to ensure the implementation of these drivers is by providing the necessary
education and training for leaders on how they can address the importance of diversity and
inclusion. Because MOX senior leaders are the primary stakeholder group in the achievement of
this goal, it is crucial that they understand how to conceptualize and communicate D&I goals
within their respective units. Another way to ensure that drivers are implemented on a
continuous basis is the incorporate them into existing feedback structures. Official
documentation of semi-annual feedback sessions can include sections specifically related to
mentorship and diversity training – i.e. inquiring how one’s mentor has been beneficial in their
career development or how one perceives the level of diversity of thought in the workplace. This
feedback may help to inform the improvement of diversity training curricula in the future.
Level 2: Learning
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 137
Proposed training program – Diversity, Inclusion and Mentorship for Leaders
(DIML). The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a proposed
training program centered on diversity, inclusion, and mentorship and how leadership plays a
role in instilling a culture that enables these ideals. This comprehensive diversity, inclusion, and
mentorship (DIML) training program, geared toward the stakeholder group of this study, MOX
senior leader (commanders and supervisors), will be developed specifically to address
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences in a seminar-based forum, implemented
using curricula provided by the DoD.
Learning goals. As such, learning goals for this new program must be clearly
established and communicated. Upon completion of proposed recommendations within the
program, an evaluation will be conducted to measure whether or not these goals were met by the
stakeholder group in training. The program will focus on eight learning goals, which are derived
from the KMO stakeholder influencers validated in the findings (see Table 13).
Table 13
DIML Training Learning Goals
Learning Goal KMO Stakeholder Influence
1 Recognize that dominant groups exist in the MOX
officer corps and how this affect organizational
culture and perspectives on inclusion and opportunity
Knowledge-Declarative
2 Understand how attitudes and perceptions of
diversity and inclusion affect the accession and
retention of minority women in the organization
Knowledge-Declarative
3 Learn how to communicate and emphasize the
importance of diversity and inclusion in a way that is
meaningful and effective
Knowledge-Procedural
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 138
4 Reflect upon the importance of diversity and
inclusion in the workplace and one’s role in D&I
efforts
Knowledge-Metacognitive
5 Understand the importance of leadership commitment
in communicating the value of diversity and inclusion
Motivation-Interest/Value
6 Learn the goals of DoD/military diversity policies
and leaders’ responsibilities in encouraging diversity
and inclusion in the workplace
Motivation-Goal Orientation
7 Incorporate a mentoring program to combat the
cultural norm of closed system of progression and
dominant groups
Organization-Cultural Model
8 Promote deeper understanding of diversity and
inclusion as a valued cultural influence and a force
multiplier in their everyday interactions
Organization-Cultural Setting
Currently, the DoD has resources to support such a program but have not been formally
at a standardized unit level utilized despite its accessibility. The Defense Equal Opportunity
Management Institute (DEOMI) was established by the DoD in 1971 to provide education and
training on human relations, equal opportunity, and diversity which they state are core
foundations of leadership (DEOCS, 2017). Recently, DEOMI have added several courses and
seminars to provide military service members in command or leadership positions a greater level
of knowledge on these core foundations. The intent of DEOMI education and training is to
expose leaders to varying points of view and to generate academic discussions in the field of
human relations studies while increasing student knowledge and awareness (DEOMI, 2017).
Curricula from this organization would be most appropriate in the initial local execution of this
program based on its established credibility with the DoD and the availability of its research-
based learning tools.
The DEOMI website provides online “e-learning” modules available to the public. The
course list consists of D&I related topics important for leaders to learn such as intercultural
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 139
interaction, perceptions, communicating across differences, individual diversity, group
development, and socialization as well as more critical topics such as ethics, prejudice and
discrimination, racism, and sexism (DEOMI, 2017). In lieu of more computer based training,
which several study participants expressed much disdain to, these courses will be used as the
basis to the face-to-face seminar. Ideally, training would take place at the leaders’ respective
units and conducted by DEOMI-certified instructors.
The seminar training will primarily focus on the goals of current D&I initiatives (DoD
D&I Strategic Plan, current initiatives, and the Diversity Strategic Roadmap), how to effectively
communicate the importance of diversity and inclusion in the workplace as a leader, and how to
incorporate personal meaning to this dialogue. In addition, training will incorporate steps on
how to establish a formal localized mentoring program within each commanders’ respective
units, which will allow all members access to a mentor and opportunities to forge relationships
that may influence their progression in the organization. The seminar will be instructed in
person by an individual certified by the DEOMI and consist of three modules: current D&I goals
and initiatives, communicating the importance of D&I in the workplace, and the value of
mentorship in diversification and inclusion within our forces. Modules within the seminar must
consist of knowledge checks in order to test comprehension of the subject matter throughout the
duration of the lesson.
In line with the three modules, the seminar will take place over the course of three days
(approximately 18-20 hours total) and will occur prior to taking command or fulfilling a
supervisory position. Commanders and encouraged to interact and discuss personal perspectives
and views regarding D&I issues. Discussions may include case studies, scenarios, as well as
personal anecdotes related to D&I. Modules within the seminar will consist of knowledge
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 140
checks in order to test comprehension of the subject matter throughout the duration of the lesson.
The culmination of the training will include a personal essay outlining how commanders will
execute improved D&I efforts in their respective units. Commanders will be given the
opportunity to discuss what D&I means to them and how they plan to prioritize these efforts in
their respective workplaces.
Components of learning. In order to apply knowledge when solving problems,
demonstrating declarative knowledge is necessary. Therefore, it is important to evaluate learning
for both declarative and procedural knowledge being taught. It is also crucial that learners value
the training as a prerequisite to using their newly learned knowledge and skills on the job. They
must also be confident that they can succeed in applying their knowledge and skills as well as
being committed to using them on the job. Table 14 lists the evaluation methods and timing for
these learning components while Table 15 lists components to measure participants’ reactions to
the program, both during and following completion.
Table 14
Components of Learning for the DIML Training Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies)
Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple choice
and short answer questions.
After each seminar module
Knowledge checks through group
discussions, “pair, think, share” and other
individual/group activities.
Periodically during each seminar module and
documented via observation notes.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Group discussion with D&I related
scenarios (i.e. issues/situations dealing
with unconscious bias)
After each seminar module and classroom
discussion.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 141
Quality of the feedback from peers during
group sharing
After each seminar module and classroom
discussion.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructor’s observation of participants’
statements and actions demonstrating that
they see the benefit of implementing goals
of D&I initiatives and mentoring programs.
During each seminar module.
Group discussion of the value of D&I and
mentoring in the workplace and what they
are being asked to do as commanders.
During each seminar module.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Survey items using scaled items Following each module.
Discussions following practice and
feedback.
After each seminar module and classroom
discussion.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create an individual action plan for one’s
particular unit.
After the last seminar module.
Reflective essay on D&I and intent to lead
and create an inclusive work environment.
After the last seminar module.
Level 1: Reaction
Table 15
Components to Measure Reactions to the DIML Training Program
Method(s) or Tool(s)
Timing
Engagement
Completion of classroom modules Ongoing during classroom modules
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the modules
Attendance
During the modules
Relevance
Focus group discussion with open-ended
questions (ongoing)
After every module
Personal reflective essay on D&I After final module
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 142
Course evaluation (survey) After final module
Customer Satisfaction
Focus group discussion with open-ended
questions (ongoing)
After every module
Blended Evaluation (survey) Two and four months after the course
Unit Climate Assessment (Defense Equal
Opportunity Climate Survey)
Annual
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. For Level 1 evaluation, the
instructor will incorporate open-ended questionnaires and surveys during and immediately after
the training (see Appendix D). These evaluation tools will consist of open ended questions and
take place during and after each module as a way to measure engagement, relevance, and
satisfaction. In addition, surveys with rating scale items will be distributed at the completion of
the final module to gauge the overall training’s relevance to the workplace and their overall
satisfaction with course material.
Level 2 will include learning components that check for understanding by addressing new
knowledge and skills gained during and after the training. These components consist of group
discussions (to include scenarios) and knowledge checks. In addition, commander will take part
in activities in which they will formulate an action plan to communicate the importance of D&I
and how they will establish a mentoring program within their unit.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately eight weeks
after training completion, and then again at 16 weeks, course administrators will distribute a
questionnaire containing open and scaled items using the Blended Evaluation approach (see
Appendix E). The purpose of this particular post-training evaluation is to measure the long-term
impact of this program, which is driven by the aforementioned Level 2 learning goals.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 143
Specifically, this tool will measure the participant’s satisfaction and perceived relevance of the
training (Level 1), confidence and value of applying their training as a leader in their unit (Level
2), application of the training to their leadership approach in their new command position (Level
3), and the extent to which their D&I training has enabled a stronger culture of mentorship,
increasing retention of more underrepresented groups in leadership.
The DEOMI also conducts research through a unit climate assessment tool made
available to DoD commanders (see Appendix F). The Defense Equal Opportunity Climate
Survey (DEOCS) “helps commanders better gauge the morale in their units, identify potential
issues or areas of strength, and improve their organizational culture… The DEOCS is used at the
unit level to establish a baseline assessment of the command climate and subsequent surveys are
intended to track progress relative to the baseline” (Kamarck, 2017, pp. 10-11). Subsequently,
DEOCS surveys can be used to measure and analyze factors associated with equal opportunity
and fair treatment within particular MOX units on an annual basis, aiding in ongoing, long-term
data collection and reporting on the effectiveness of the DIML program.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Final evaluation of the DIML program will consist of converging results from the
aforementioned evaluation tools (surveys for immediate and delayed distribution) and climate
assessments conducted at the participants’ respective units. These reports will be deliberate in its
analysis by which the reviewer will find correlations to participant responses to the program and
unit member responses to the participants’ leadership practice and overall unit climate.
Following the completion of each training session, a DEOMI representative will
summarize the data collected from each pulse-check, survey, and questionnaire into a
comprehensive report that is narrative in nature. In the weeks that follow training completion,
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 144
the results from the Blended Evaluation Survey will be incorporated into the final report as well.
Additionally, the DEOCS will be distributed to unit members annually in order to gather data
from the personnel under the participants’ command. Because the results of this survey are a
direct reflection of the unit’s leadership, it may help measure the effectiveness of the DIML
training as well as the core curricula of DEOMI – thus, the result from these report may be
beneficial to multiple organizational improvement efforts.
The reports will be both qualitative and quantitative in nature, pulling specific narratives
and survey responses from the Blended Evaluation results (see Appendix G). Ultimately, the
organizational goal of increased retention of minority female officers will require long-term
evaluation over the course of several years. However, these reports, which will be provided to
the commander following the completion of their respective UCAs, may enable greater
metacognitive awareness regarding their ability to encourage increased D&I in the workplace by
showing them how their learning has manifested within their organization on a day to day basis.
Results of this report will be integrated into the feedback and improvement of future DIML
training seminars, so as to better address current, emergent concerns regarding D&I issues in the
workplace. Results of the report can also be used as a benchmark tool for future research and
development of MOX diversity strategic roadmaps and other DoD-initiated efforts to improve
diversity and inclusion in military leadership in the future.
Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed the implementation and evaluation strategies to optimize the
stakeholder goal of understanding factors that influence the attrition among minority women.
The proposed plan provides D&I accountability for MOX leaders through a leadership training
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 145
program, specifically through learning goals and various evaluation measures. The New World
Kirkpatrick Model (2016) outlines four levels that have been incorporated into this plan.
Level four, results and leading indicators, address the desired external and internal
outcomes, increased number of minority female officers and an overall increased awareness of
the importance of D&I initiatives respectively. Level three, behavior, addresses the critical
behaviors necessary to communicate the importance of D&I and mentorship and the required
drivers needed to support these behaviors. Level two, learning, discusses learning goals and a
proposed training program to achieve them. Though a comprehensive training program,
supported by dedicated resources from the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute
(DEOMI), targeted toward the stakeholder group, leaders will address and discuss issues
regarding the dynamic of the current demographic and how they as leaders can change that.
The organizational goal of increasing accession and retention among racial minority and
female officers is also addressed in the subject matter included within this training program to
include the role of mentorship. Notably, the program is conducted by individuals who are
specifically trained in facilitating discussion on the complex issues related to D&I, possibly
aiding in more effective learning and deeper understanding. Finally level one, reactions,
proposes an evaluation system – both immediate and delayed – that measures the program’s
relevance and leaders’ perceived confidence and commitment to carry out what they have
learned about D&I and mentorship in their respective workplaces while encouraging greater,
introspective awareness of leadership’s role in achieving this goal.
Strength and Weaknesses of the Approach
The use of Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Model has brought to the forefront both
inherent and more prominent influences that impact the problem of underrepresented minority
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 146
females in MOX leadership. This framework also helped to clarify and hone in on an
organizational goal as a focus for the study and anchor knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that affected the proposed problem of practice. These influences
helped guide the research through qualitative methodology to capture detailed, personal narrative
on minority female officers’ perceptions and attitudes toward diversity and inclusion in a way
that may not have been captured in a general climate assessment survey. Incorporating
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) four levels of evaluation helped create tangible objectives
and identify tools for the future development of MOX leaders and create more inclusive work
environments through mentorship and collective engagement.
Limitations
One limitation this study incurred was in the data collection which, due to the varied
geographic locations, only allowed to interviews to be conducted over the phone. While detailed
narrative was captured through transcription, the lack of face-to-face interaction deprived the
researcher of the meaning one could gather from body language, to include facial expressions,
gestures, and eye contact. While it would be challenging to translate, the physical demeanor that
accompanied the narrative was not present in the data collection process.
It is important to note, as also mentioned in the methodology chapter, that the researcher,
who was also the primary investigator of the study, can be considered a part of the stakeholder
group based on her identity as a minority female officer in MOX. While this allowed for
abundant dialogue to occur between her and the participants, consumers of this study should be
aware that this shared identity exists and inherently affects the way the researcher creates
meaning of the data.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 147
Moreover, the purposeful selection of minority female officers for this study uncovered
attitudes and perceptions of the underrepresented group as presented in the problem of practice.
This can be considered a limitation as this study focused on a very particular subset of the
stakeholder group. Thus, results from this study cannot be used to generalize the overall
perception of minority females in the MOX. Rather, the narratives in this study were used to
support the primary knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to the problem of
practice and to uncover a lesser known perspectives that may be of value to the stakeholder
group in light of MOX efforts to develop and retain and more diverse force. Lastly, this study
did not take into account attitudes and perceptions of enlisted leaders which are considerably
more diverse than the officer population, or the dominant counterpart of white male MOX
officers as they may have also validated or challenged the KMO-based influences in this study.
Future Research
Various approaches may further highlight influences on workplace diversity and
inclusion based on profession and or profession as opposed to this study’s criterion of female
minorities. Future research could replicate this study and incorporate additional methods of data
collection, to include both qualitative and or quantitative methods. Future research could also
include a larger sample size or comparative samples in which data from dominant and minority
can be measures against one another. This particular study focused on only one branch of the
military; this research could be conducted in other military branches to compare organizational
cultures as it relates to attitudes and perceptions on diversity. Another avenue this study could
focus on is comparing attitudes and perceptions across different career fields/professions.
While the evaluation of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences provided
ample and comprehensive data in the formulation of the final recommendations, other theoretical
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 148
frameworks might be considered in future studies. While the gap analysis allows for
comprehensive evaluation of important components that affect the achievement of organizational
goals, it stems predominantly from the educational realm of study. One could argue that the gap
analysis framework can be applied to any type of organization, the military is a unique in that
leadership structures and protocol are static and may not be as flexible in its training curricula, as
the appointment and allocation of certified instructors may incur additional resources. The
training plan proposed in this study, while backed by educational literature and qualitative data,
would require multiple levels of approval, to the MOX headquarters level, prior to actual
implementation. Future research may implement existing recommendations from DoD-funded
research on improving demographic diversity may provide more desirable solutions to the
problem of practice.
The implementation of this approach requires MOX leaders to engage and reflect on the
significance of these efforts and their role in meeting goals through their everyday interactions
with those they lead, in shifting the culture to be something more inclusive as opposed to
pushing inherent expectations of policy compliance. Information gathered through evaluation is
useful to the stakeholder group because it forces leaders to see how closely the fit into higher-
level D&I efforts and the relevance of their role. Evaluation also sheds light on motivational
factors or cultural hindrances to operational processes, which reflect in daily performance.
Information from evaluations helps identify strengths and weaknesses in established processes
and root causes which may encourage revision as necessary. Weaknesses in this approach are
subjective to leaders’ willingness to engage and execute the intent of the proposed plan and the
lessons they learn in the training.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 149
Conclusion
Perspectives from this study show that gaps exist in knowledge, motivational, and
organization aspects – at least from the female minority perspective. While efforts to create a
more diverse and inclusive work force have been legitimized in policy, the persisting
homogenous leadership corps and cultural norms reflect otherwise. The steady decrease of
minority women through the progression of ranks strongly suggests that we may be limited in
our leadership capacities, in that groupthink is more likely to occur in homogenous groups – a
disparaging notion in the landscape of today’s evolving society and military needs. Based on the
research, the misalignment stems from a lack of understanding of how to talk about diversity and
inclusion in a way that makes it meaningful and positive, especially as it relates to issues of
inequity and dominant group networking. In order to effectively address the problem of minority
females in MOX leadership, leaders must have an accurate understanding of why the problem
exists, underlying factors that contribute to the problem, and how to address it.
The continual efforts to address the problem of underrepresented minority groups in
MOX leadership is even more relevant as the need for diverse approaches increases with the
number of unconventional missions. As indicated by participant viewpoints, whose years and
job experiences range within the MOX, there is still a need to address diversity and inclusions
and leaders cannot afford to be haphazard with this topic. While diversity may be highly
associated with race, gender, and filling manpower quotas, it needs to be presented through
diversity of thought and the consideration of different approaches. As the research indicates,
diversity is important because it harnesses a variety of ideas and perspectives, which is crucial in
facing a broad spectrum of challenges, including and not limited to cyber warfare as well as
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 150
cross-cultural tensions, both domestic and international. Thus, as society progresses, so does the
need for a diverse leadership military force.
The MOX has come a long way since the days of occupational exclusivity, and the
message of diversity and inclusion has increasingly come to the forefront on many leaders’
agendas. Examining the existing perceptions from minority population regarding these efforts
and initiatives, leaders can improve operational policies and training programs to better address
dominant leadership prototypes that negatively affect attitudes toward diversity and inclusion.
As indicated by the research in this study, both literature-based and qualitative, leaders are
looked to as having the ultimate responsibility of ensuring a climate that is inclusive, adaptive,
and most importantly safe, while enabling opportunities for all future officers to succeed. They
must be willing to acknowledge that disparities exist for underrepresented groups and not be
afraid to combat the unconscious biases and overt behaviors that perpetuate hegemony.
Despite the tremendous amount of research devoted toward the importance of diversity
and inclusion and publicized efforts to address inequalities that plague organizations, the
persisting demographics suggest that ongoing resolution will take time – the paradigm shift has
not and will not happen overnight. While this study calls for intensive training immersion for
MOX leaders, it is evident that this is not a final solution. Rather, there are broader means to
address the problem of underrepresented minorities in military leadership – and that starts with
our leaders now. As the research in this study suggests, by further developing our leaders and
their leadership practices over time, they can more effectively mentor and cultivate relationships
that will enable an inclusive, equitable climate for all members to succeed. Fortunately, there is
an entire DoD-based organization dedicated to providing that platform and the tools necessary to
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 151
build accountability measures. These types of institutions are invaluable to the development of
leaders who strive for diversity of thought within their organizations.
While military heritage may have forged dominant prototypes, all leaders – regardless of
gender or race – can utilize their platform to ensure a collectively advantageous climate for all
members to thrive in the future. Addressing the problem of underrepresented minority groups in
military leadership is not just a means to meet goals of established initiatives, but it is a way
forward in strengthening the MOX corps as a whole. Narratives in this study highlight the need
for leadership action to break the ongoing cycle of underrepresented minority groups feeding
into the dominant leadership population. Just as the nature of warfare continues to change, the
leaders of today must adapt. MOX leaders must be equipped with the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational resources to reinvigorate the work environment and to progressively adapt to
societal and unconventional challenges of the present day and future. They must help others
understand how diversity and inclusion is a force-multiplier – not in an official initiative or
mandate-driven capacity – but through meaningful conversation. As a leader, it is one’s
responsibility to harness the strengths of every person they lead; therefore, it is important to
listen to and acknowledge all perspectives. In that sense, it is especially important in an
organization with a history of homogeneity to bring forth those who are not well-represented and
to consider perspectives lesser heard if we ever seek to break the cycle and to elevate the MOX
leadership corps to one that is truly diverse and inclusive.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 152
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MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 162
Appendix
APPENDIX A
INFORMAL INVITE FOR INTERVIEW PARTICIPATION (POSTED ON PRIVATE SOCIAL
MEDIA FORUM)
Active duty minority [MOX] women,
I am a doctoral candidate at USC's school of education and my dissertation is on attitudes toward
diversity and inclusion in military organizations as it relates to minority and female
representation in leadership. I am currently looking for interviewees to partake in my
study. Your identity will remain completely anonymous and the interview (which would take
place either via Skype or phone) would last no longer than an hour.
If you are willing to take some time to help me out, please email me at kpoblete@usc.edu if you
are interested! I would be so grateful for the opportunity to capture your insights on this topic in
a study that is personally and professionally meaningful to myself and potentially, to future
minority [MOX] officers. :)
Thank you!
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 163
APPENDIX B
INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE IN STUDY
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
KNOWLEDGE, MOTIVATION, AND ORGANIZATION INFLUENCES ON PERSISTING
LEADERSHIP DEMOGRAPHICS IN A MILITARY ORGANIZATION: PERSPECTIVES ON
DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION FROM MINORITY FEMALE OFFICERS
UP IRB# 17-00142 (APPROVED 3/23/17)
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Military organizations, through the direction of the Department of Defense (DoD) have initiated
several initiatives to increase diversity and inclusion through organizational performance goals.
However, current military demographics illustrate an underrepresentation of women and racial
minorities, particularly in higher ranks. The purpose of this study seeks to evaluate attitudes
toward diversity and inclusion as well as perceptions of leadership’s role and or influence on
these perceptions. The research conducted in this evaluation may help military leaders and
decision-makers gain a deeper, cultural understanding of how officers perceive diversity and
inclusion in their workplace and how their attitudes impact the achievement of goals in current
initiatives.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a one-on-one interview
with the researcher, which will last approximately 45 minutes to an hour. You do not have to
answer any questions you do not want to.
For accuracy in the data collection and analysis process, you will be asked to be audio recorded.
Your full identity (name, duty title, and specific unit) will NOT be disclosed in the recorded
dialogue. However, your rank, race, and gender must be stated for purposes of the study. If you
choose not to be audio recorded, your responses will be hand-written or transcribed on a laptop
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 164
by the researcher. A full transcript of the interview can be provided to you if you wish to review
it for clarity and feedback.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. Only
your rank and demographical profile (gender and race) will be used in the data analysis portion
of the study. Data will be stored on a password-protected computer in the researcher’s office for
two years after the study has been completed and then removed.
The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP
reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator Kristine Poblete via email at kpoblete@usc.edu or phone at (253) 241-
8284 or Faculty Advisor Anthony Maddox at amaddox@rossier.usc.edu or (213) 740-2864.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 165
APPENDIX C
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Ask participant for permission to audio record (should already have addressed this in the
consent form). If participant complies, let participant know that a detailed transcript of the
interview may be available to them as soon as the transcription process is complete. If
participant declines being audio recorded, inform participant that notes will be taken on a lap-top
computer and that a detailed transcription may be provided for their review following the
interview process.
Introduction: Thank you for taking the time to participate in this interview. Your insight is a
crucial piece to this study on diversity and inclusion in MOX leadership. Just as a reminder,
you do not have to answer any questions that you do not feel comfortable answering but know
that any information you provide will be protected. Your name and position will remain
completely anonymous, so please feel free to be completely honest. However, since
demographics are taken into account during the data analysis phase of this study, please
answer the following questions:
• What is your rank?
• How long have you been an MOX officer?
• What is your racial identity?
Thank you. Let’s move on to the interview questions. First, let’s talk about how diversity and
inclusion initiatives and how these topics are discussed in your workplace.
1. [M-Goal Orientation] The primary mission of the MOX’s Diversity Strategic roadmap
is to enable the MOX to attract, recruit, develop, and retain a high quality, diverse total
force.
a. Why do you think this mission was established by MOX leadership?
2. [M-Goal Orientation] In what ways do people in leadership positions within your
workplace communicate the importance of diversity, if at all?
a. Do you think the topic of diversity is well-received? Why or why not?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 166
3. [K-Declarative] Can you give an example of when a leader or colleague informally
discussed diversity or inclusion in the workplace?
a. How did this discussion make you and/or others feel?
4. [O-Cultural Setting] Can you talk about any of the diversity and inclusion initiatives
that the MOX currently has in place?
a. Why do you believe they are being implemented?
b. Do you think they are effective? Why or why not?
5. [O-Cultural Setting] How do you think diversity policies are perceived by people in
your workplace?
a. Do you think these sorts of efforts are more positively or negatively received?
Why?
Next, let’s talk about some cultural aspects regarding diversity and inclusion in leadership.
6. [K-Metacognitive] Would you describe your current workplace as diverse?
a. Do you think any of your colleagues would describe this in similar ways? Why or
why not?
7. [K-Metacognitive] Would you describe your current workplace as inclusive? Why or
why not?
a. Do you think any of your colleagues would disagree with your assessment? What
makes you think that?
8. [O-Cultural Model/K-Declarative] What do you think are common characteristics
shared among higher-ranking officers in the MOX?
a. Why do you think these commonalities exist?
9. [O-Cultural Model] Based on your training, do you think the MOX perpetuates a certain
(idealized) prototype of an effective leader?
a. If so, how would you describe this leader?
b. If not, what characteristics do you think an effective MOX leader embodies?
Lastly, I just have a few questions about your thoughts on diversity training.
10. [K-Procedural] Can you talk about any diversity training you have received
(professional development or leadership training courses)?
a. If you have, what do you think the purpose of diversity training is in the context
of leadership development?
b. If you have not, do you think it would be beneficial? Why or why not?
11. [M-Expectancy Theory] Do you think diversity training is a valued component in
leadership development?
a. If so, why? What do you think is the value of learning about diversity?
b. If not, why do you think it is not valued?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 167
APPENDIX D
EVALUATION TOOL FOR DI&M TRAINING (IMMEDIATE DISTRIBUTION)
Level 1 Evaluation Instrument
Engagement
1. What was the most interesting part of this class/module?
2. The material in this course held my interest.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
Relevance
1. What material did you find to be most relevant to your position as a leader? What was
least relevant?
2. Throughout this training we discussed how to encourage increased D&I in the workplace.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
Satisfaction
1. In what ways can this training program be improved?
2. This training provided useful and helpful information that I can apply in my new
leadership position.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
Level 2 Evaluation Instrument
1. What were the major concepts about diversity and inclusion in the workplace that you
learned during this training?
2. How would you define unconscious bias?
Skills
1. Group Discussion Prompt: How would you address an inappropriate comment regarding
one’s gender or race?
Attitude
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 168
1. Group Discussion Prompt: What is the importance of providing mentorship when it
comes to creating a more diverse and inclusive environment?
Confidence
1. What support will you need to implement a mentoring program within your unit?
2. I believe that I will receive the necessary support from my leadership to successfully
apply what I learned in this training.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
Commitment
1. How do you plan to commit to communicating the importance of diversity and inclusion
in your unit once you take command?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 169
APPENDIX E
BLENDED EVALUATION TOOL FOR DI&M TRAINING (DELAYED DISTRIBUTION)
Blended Evaluation Tool (distributed 8 and 16 weeks following program completion)
Level 1: Reactions
Relevance
1. What do you believe are the main reasons you were asked to take this training course?
2. What information from this training has been the most relevant to your new leadership
position? Least relevant?
3. What information should be added to this course to make it more relevant to your
particular unit/position?
Satisfaction
1. This training was a valuable use of my time.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
Level 2: Learning
4. Please recall the following program modules and share your comments related to notes
you made during the training.
a. Current D&I goals initiatives
b. Communicating the importance of D&I in the workplace
c. The value of mentorship in diversification and inclusion within our forces
5. What, if anything, acted as a hindrance to your learning experience?
Level 3: Behavior
6. Since you have taken command, in what ways have you applied what you learned?
7. Using this rating scale below, circle the rating that best describes your current level of on-
the-job application:
1) Little to no application
2) Mild Degree of application
3) Moderate degree of application
4) Strong degree of application
5) Very strong degree of application and desire to help others do the same
8. Please describe any challenges you are experiences in addressing topics of diversity and
inclusion in your workplace.
Required Drivers
9. What additional support or help do you need to be successful in establishing a mentoring
program in your unit?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 170
10. What additional support or help do think is needed to create a more diverse and/or
inclusive work environment?
Level 4: Results Training and Evaluation
Leading Indicators
11. I have seen an impact in the following areas as a result of applying what I have learned
about diversity and inclusion (please circle all that apply):
a. Stronger relationships with my personnel
b. Improved productivity
c. More respect from my peers
d. Increased morale
e. Greater teamwork mentality
12. Give an example of a positive outcome you have witnessed or experienced since the
attending this training.
Desired Results
13. What outcomes have you seen/do you expect to see from your efforts?
14. How do you believe your participation in D&I training has benefited your organization?
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 171
APPENDIX F
DEOMI DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT CLIMATE ASSESSMENT SURVEY:
SAMPLE OF LOCALLY DEVELOPED QUESTIONS LIST
All questions will be answered using the following five-point scale.
• Totally Agree
• Moderately Agree
• Neither Agree Nor Disagree
• Moderately Disagree
• Totally Disagree
NOTE: Questions selected or self-created will be added to the survey during the request process.
Requesting organizations can select up to ten locally developed questions.
Inclusion
□ My values and my organizations values are very similar I am sometimes excluded from social interactions that
might help my career.
□ In my organization a person can retain their cultural identity and still be successful.
□ I feel like "part of the team" in my current organization.
Benefits of Diversity
□ I am aware of my organizations diversity efforts.
□ I support my organizations diversity efforts.
□ In the past year, I have heard my leaders speak about diversity
□ I have a good understanding of what diversity means
□ My unit currently encourages diversity
□ Leadership in my organization supports diversity
□ Diversity is an important element in building a quality force
□ I personally feel committed to leading diversity
Mentoring – Leadership Accessibility/Openness
□ In my organization, mentoring is available to those who want it My supervisor provides most of my mentoring.
□ I am comfortable approaching the Commander/Director with any issue.
□ I am comfortable discussing issues with my commander/Director.
□ I am comfortable going to my direct supervisor with work-related topics.
□ I would seek the assistance of my commander/director.
□ I would seek the assistance of my first sergeant.
□ I would seek the assistance of my flight chief.
□ I would seek the assistance of my supervisor.
□ I would seek the assistance of the superintendent.
□ The commander frequently visits my duty section.
□ The commander is accessible.
□ The commander shows an interest in my welfare.
□ It is easy for service members in this command to meet with the Commander about problems.
□ Officers in this command care about what happens to their service members.
□ NCOs in this command care about what happens to their service members.
□ It is easy for service members in this command to see the senior enlisted NCO.
□ The leaders in my command show a real interest in the welfare of single service members.
□ The Commander is very accessible to his/her members.
□ I can express my opinion within this organization without fear of reprisal.
□ I can raise concerns about issues that affect my job without fear of reprisal.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 172
Physical Health/Well-being
□ A mandatory structured physical training program should be implemented in my unit.
□ I am given adequate time to maintain my physical conditioning.
□ I am given the time I need in my duty day to comply with the mandatory fitness program.
□ I receive the required time to participate in personal fitness.
□ Alcohol consumption is a problem in this command.
□ Illegal drug use is a problem in this command.
□ Alcohol abuse by the members of this command is a problem.
Fairness
□ Additional duties are assigned fairly.
□ Deployments are distributed fairly throughout the organization.
□ The leave policy is administered fairly.
□ I am afforded opportunities to take leave.
□ The promotion policy is fair to everyone, regardless of ethnic or racial background.
□ When making an honest mistake on the job, members of this command are corrected fairly.
□ Correctional training for poor performance is enforced fairly in this command.
Respect for Individuals
□ All unit personnel receive the same level of respect from leadership.
□ An atmosphere of respect exists in my work area.
□ Contributions of all career fields are respected in my squadron.
□ My commander takes steps to ensure I am treated with respect.
□ I am treated with dignity and respect in this command.
□ I am harassed by higher ranking personnel while on duty.
□ I am harassed by higher ranking personnel while off duty.
□ My command enforces the standards of military courtesy.
□ My supervisor encourages respect in the workplace.
□ Discrimination with regard to race, color, gender, age, physical or mental disability, or national origin is not
tolerated in the workplace.
□ Sexual, racial or other offensive comments or material are not tolerated in my work area.
□ Differences among individuals (e.g., gender, race, religion, age, disability) are respected and valued in this
organization.
□ My command values the rights of its members to practice their respective religion.
□ This command is committed to creating an environment of human respect and dignity.
□ My commander takes appropriate action to prevent harassment of any member of this command.
Communication/Flow of Information
□ Commander's Calls effectively pass on information I need to know.
□ Communication between platoons is good.
□ Communication flow down from the chain of command is good.
□ Communication flows freely from senior leadership to all levels of the organization.
□ Communication from my direct leadership is clear.
□ Communication within my section is effective.
□ Communication within the chain of command is timely.
□ I am satisfied with the communication flow in my unit.
□ Important information moves freely up and down the chain.
□ My supervisor disseminates information that has been presented in the weekly staff meeting.
□ The unit orientation program is adequate for new employees.
□ My immediate supervisor explains things clearly to me.
□ My immediate supervisor is willing to discuss my ideas and suggestions with regards to my job.
□ My command keeps an updated EO/ EEO bulletin board with upcoming cultural events, policy letters, complaint
procedures and general EO/ EEO information.
□ I am familiar with our extremist organization and activities policy letter.
□ I know what is expected of me at work.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 173
Available Resources and Support
□ Commander's Support Staff (Orderly Room) efficiently meet my needs.
□ I am provided with the resources I need to do my job effectively.
□ I have sufficient time in my duty day to conduct my core duties.
□ Administrative support staff meets my needs.
□ I am provided with the tools, equipment, or supplies necessary to perform my job.
□ The functional experts I work with assist me in my success.
Teamwork/Team Cohesion/Morale
□ I believe this unit works as a team.
□ I am encouraged to participate in unit functions.
□ Junior enlisted service members care about what happens to each other.
□ Members of this command work together as a team.
□ The current level of morale in my command is very high.
□ The overall health of this unit is better now than one year ago.
Autonomy and Innovation
□ I am able to make decisions to resolve customer issues on the spot without fear of reprisal.
□ I am encouraged to present new ideas to our current workplace procedures.
□ I am encouraged to think of new ways to accomplish my unit's mission.
□ Innovative ideas are highly encouraged.
Skill Utilization/Appropriate Level of Assigned Duties
□ Additional duties are not interfering with my ability to perform my primary mission.
□ I am assigned duties that are commensurate with my grade.
□ I am being fully utilized in my work center.
□ I am challenged by my job.
□ I am challenged in my duties.
□ I am given responsibility commensurate with my rank.
□ I do not feel overburdened with additional duties.
Feedback and Recognition
□ I am rewarded for my duty performance.
□ I am satisfied with my latest one-on-one rater feedback session with my rater.
□ I receive periodic formal feedback from my rater.
□ Participation in community service is recognized.
□ The unit recognition program enhances our ability to perform our mission.
□ I am recognized for contributing to a positive atmosphere in my workplace.
□ I am rewarded for contributing to a positive atmosphere in my workplace.
Training, Knowledge, and Professional Development
□ I have adequate opportunity to pursue off-duty education.
□ I have received the necessary training to accomplish my job.
□ I have the resources necessary to accomplish my job.
□ I know what actions to take if someone expresses a desire to do harm to themselves or others.
□ I plan on making the military a career.
□ I receive adequate support from my immediate supervisor to pursue off-duty education.
□ I understand how my platoon supports the mission of the overall unit.
□ My present assignment motivates me to continue a career in the military.
□ I receive the counseling and coaching needed to advance in my career.
□ I receive the training needed to perform my job well.
□ My command is well prepared to perform its wartime duties.
□ My command provides diversity training to its members.
□ I know the complaint procedure process.
□ I know how to contact an EO/ EEO counselor.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 174
□ I am aware of my EO/EEO rights as a Federal employee.
□ Correctional training given to members of my command directly corresponds to the deficiency.
□ I am familiar with the DOD homosexual conduct policy.
Leadership Effectiveness
□ My commander presents himself/herself as a competent leader.
□ The commander understands what my job entails.
□ My immediate supervisor sets the right example with his/her actions.
□ The leaders in my command deal effectively with adversity or conflict within the command when it occurs.
□ I feel that the Commander/Director will use the information from this survey to improve the command.
□ I trust management to handle complaints, problems, or issues seriously
Interpersonal Relations/Social Interactions
□ My work environment is free from unprofessional behavior.
□ Relationships at work are professional in nature.
□ I have experienced or witnessed hazing while assigned to this command.
□ Participation in community service is highly encouraged.
□ Human relations problems are handled correctly in this command.
□ My command devotes a reasonable amount of time for social activities.
□ I have seen extremist group behavior or propaganda in my work place.
Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
□ I experience a high level of stress in this command.
□ I like my job.
Enforcement/Obedience of Rules
□ Rules, regulations and policies are enforced in this command.
□ Rules, regulations and policies are obeyed in this command.
□ My command displays high standards of discipline.
Hazing
□ While at this unit, I have never witnessed hazing activity.
□ While at this unit, I have never been hazed.
□ While at this unit, I have never been pressured to participate in hazing activities directed
toward others.
□ Hazing activities do not occur at this unit.
□ Unit leadership discourages hazing.
□ Unit leadership does not tolerate hazing.
□ Unit leadership has published a policy that prohibits hazing.
□ Unit leadership would punish anyone who hazes others.
□ Newcomers are subjected to initiation rituals prior to being accepted into the group.
□ Newcomers are harassed and humiliated prior to being accepted into the unit.
□ To be accepted in this unit, members must participate in potentially dangerous activities.
□ Newcomers in this unit are dared to engage in potentially harmful activities.
MINORITY FEMALE PERSPECTIVES ON DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION 175
APPENDIX G
EXAMPLE EXERPT FROM DIML TRAINING BLENDED EVALUATION SURVEY
RESULTS REPORT
8 weeks 16 weeks
Reactions
Strongly Agree
/Agree
Strongly Agree
/Agree
This training was a valuable use
of my time.
85% 96%
This training is relevant to my
current leadership position.
90% 97%
Learning
I have learned something new
about diversity and inclusion as it
relates to the culture of my
workplace.
93% 96%
Behavior
I receive enough support to
maintain a mentorship program in
my unit.
80% 85%
Results
I have seen an impact in the
following areas as a result of
applying what I have learned in
this training program. 75% 91%
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Poblete, Kristine Eugenio
(author)
Core Title
Knowledge, motivation, and organization influences on persisting leadership demographics in a military organization: perspectives on diversity and inclusion from minority female officers
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
11/14/2017
Defense Date
10/16/2017
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
diversity,gender,inclusion,leader prototypes,leadership,mentorship,military culture,OAI-PMH Harvest,Race
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Maddox, Anthony (
committee chair
), Finney, Kimberly (
committee member
), Palisoc, Randy (
committee member
)
Creator Email
kpoblete@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-455816
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UC11265337
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455816
Document Type
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Poblete, Kristine Eugenio
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(contributing entity),
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Tags
gender
inclusion
leader prototypes
mentorship
military culture