University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Teaching academic and behavioral skills through arts-based programming: an evaluation study

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Teaching academic and behavioral skills through arts-based programming: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL

1

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL SKILLS THROUGH ARTS-BASED
PROGRAMMING: AN EVALUATION STUDY

by
Shannon Stanford

A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017

Copyright 2017 Shannon Stanford

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 2

DEDICATION

To my lovely husband, Kamau, for his unwavering support, for encouraging me
to embrace all adventures (especially this one) and to live in excellence.

And to my amazing sons, Solomon and Ari, for their patience, their laughter,
their light.

I am because you are.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with the deepest gratitude and warmest regard that I acknowledge my dissertation
chair, Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores, whose insight and guidance I considered priceless throughout
this process. You have been an anchor and an inspiration. Thank you for always understanding
me. Thank you for being reliable. Thank you for equally encouraging and challenging me.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to my dissertation committee members Dr. Paula
Carbone and Dr. Kimberly Ferrario for contributing their brilliance and critical feedback
throughout this venture.

I would also like to thank Dr. Joy B. Johnson for being the most ideal mentor and
colleague I could have ever asked for. Joy, you have so selflessly invested in my development as
a leading researcher and consultant. I appreciate each moment you have picked up the phone to
listen to me, each time you have offered guidance, and for exposing me to this professional realm
in which I have come to love.

Finally, I must acknowledge Chase Jackson and Rodney Gilbert, who have both nurtured
me as an artist, a thinker, and an educator. This project is full circle for us. It exists because you
two insisted on pouring your life into young people such as myself. You were my introduction to
the notion of social responsibility. Through this work, I intend to pay it forward.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................ 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. 4
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ 7
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... 8
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice ............................................................................... 10
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................... 14
Organizational Performance Goal ........................................................................................ 16
Importance of the Evaluation ................................................................................................ 18
Description of Stakeholder Groups ....................................................................................... 19
Stakeholder Group for the Study .......................................................................................... 20
Purpose of the Project and Questions ................................................................................... 21
Methodological Framework ................................................................................................... 22
Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 23
Overview .................................................................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................... 25
Policies and Practices Impacting Students with EBD ......................................................... 26
Interventions ............................................................................................................................ 32
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences ............................................................ 36
Knowledge and Skills .............................................................................................................. 36
Motivation ................................................................................................................................ 45
Organization Influences ......................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 55
Purpose of the Project ............................................................................................................ 56
Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 56
Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................................... 57
Research Design ...................................................................................................................... 59
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................................... 60
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale ............................................................................ 60
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale .................................................... 61
Observation Sampling Criterion and Rationale .................................................................... 61
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale ...................................................... 62
Data Collection and Instrumentation .................................................................................... 63
Surveys .................................................................................................................................. 64
Interviews .............................................................................................................................. 65
Focus Groups ........................................................................................................................ 65
Observation ........................................................................................................................... 66
Documents and Artifacts ....................................................................................................... 67
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 67
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 5

Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................... 69
Ethics ........................................................................................................................................ 70
Voluntary Participation ......................................................................................................... 71
Confidentiality ...................................................................................................................... 71
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS .................................................................... 74
Background ............................................................................................................................. 74
Document Analysis .................................................................................................................. 76
Stakeholder Group .................................................................................................................. 79
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 81
Knowledge Results .................................................................................................................. 82
Identity Development ............................................................................................................ 82
Motivation Results .................................................................................................................. 92
Attribution ............................................................................................................................. 92
Organizational Results ......................................................................................................... 102
Organizational Alignment and Support .............................................................................. 103
Findings .................................................................................................................................. 106
Sociocultural Influences: Lived Experiences ...................................................................... 107
Instructional Approaches .................................................................................................... 114
Multi-disciplinary Approaches ........................................................................................... 123
Synthesis ................................................................................................................................. 129
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................... 134
Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 134
Sociocultural Influences: Lived Experiences ...................................................................... 134
Instructional Approaches .................................................................................................... 136
Multi-disciplinary Approaches ........................................................................................... 138
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ........................................... 140
Knowledge Recommendations ........................................................................................... 140
Motivation Recommendations ............................................................................................. 146
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 146
Organization Recommendations ......................................................................................... 150
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan .............................................................. 153
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ....................................................................... 153
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations ................................................................ 154
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicator .............................................................................. 155
Level 3: Behavior ................................................................................................................ 156
Level 2: Learning ................................................................................................................ 160
Level 1: Reaction ................................................................................................................ 163
Evaluation Tools ................................................................................................................. 163
Data Analysis and Reporting .............................................................................................. 164
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 167
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 167
APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 169
Survey Items .......................................................................................................................... 169
Teacher Perception Questionnaire ...................................................................................... 169
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 6

Community Engagement and Social Skills Questionnaire (Students) ............................. 170
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 172
Interview Protocol ................................................................................................................. 172
Introductory Protocol .......................................................................................................... 172
APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................ 175
Observation Protocol ............................................................................................................ 175
APPENDIX D ............................................................................................................................ 177
Focus Group Protocol ........................................................................................................... 177
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 180

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 7

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Stakeholder Goals 20
Table 2 Knowledge Influences 41
Table 3 Motivation Influences 50
Table 4 Summary Table of Assumed Influences 53
Table 5 COMPASS Framework and Pro-social Skills Framework 77
Table 6 Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 141
Table 7 Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 147
Table 8 Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 151
Table 9 Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 156
Table 10 Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 157
Table 11 Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 159
Table 12 Components of Learning for the Program 162
Table 13 Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 163

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 8

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Instructor Survey Results For Relevance Of Identity Development 83
Figure 2 Student Survey Results For Relevance Of Identity Development 86
Figure 3 Student Survey Results For Relevance Of Identity Development 86
Figure 4 Student Survey Results For Relevance Of Identity Development 87
Figure 5 Instructor Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Esteem 88
Figure 6 Student Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Esteem 89
Figure 7 Instructor Survey Results For The Role Of Goal Setting 90
Figure 8 Student Survey Results For The Role Of Goal Setting 91
Figure 9 Student Survey Results For The Role Of Goal Setting 92
Figure 10 Instructor Survey Results For Instructor Attribution And Growth Mindset 94
Figure 11 Instructor Survey Results For Instructor Attribution And Growth Mindset 95
Figure 12 Student Survey Results For Attribution And Growth Mindset 96
Figure 13 Instructor Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Efficacy 97
Figure 14 Instructor Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Efficacy 98
Figure 15 Instructor Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Efficacy 99
Figure 16 Instructor Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Efficacy 100
Figure 17 Student Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Efficacy 101
Figure 18 Student Survey Results For The Role Of Self-Efficacy 102
Figure 19 Instructor Survey Results For Organizational Support And Alignment 104
Figure 20 Instructor Survey Results For Organizational Support And Alignment 105
Figure 21 Student Survey Results For Organizational Support And Alignment 106
Figure 22 Training Strategies 166
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 9

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this project was to examine the utility of a pro-social skills framework,
which promotes arts integration, in promoting pro-social and emotional development in students
with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). The overarching inquiry considers instructors’
perception of the impact that the curriculum has on improving the social skills of the students
enrolled in the arts program. This study was aimed to identify the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational (KMO) influences that oftentimes hinder instructors’ ability to effectively
facilitate learning interventions that ultimately assist EBD students in growth that is both evident
and measurable and to address those issues so as to improve the program quality. Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis framework is utilized to assess the KMO influences that are existent in a
federally funded organization in an urban, northeastern state. A convergent mixed method
approach is applied in the data collection and analysis processes. Although surveys are
administered, thus rendering the study a combination of both qualitative and quantitative, the
chief design was qualitative in that an inductive approach was taken during data collection and
analysis. The analysis of the collected data revealed that instructors value implementation of
instructional strategies that promote identity development and foster social skills in students.
Furthermore, the findings and results emphasize the benefits of creating safe environments and
fostering authentic relationships with students who exhibit emotional and behavioral challenges.
The results of this study may be used to contribute to the discourse on effective and innovative
strategies for intervening with students who have emotional and behavioral challenges.

Keywords: identity-development, arts-integration, rapport building, social and emotional learning

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 10

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
In schools, the purpose of discipline is to ensure the safety of the school community, at
large, and to shape socially acceptable behaviors in students. On the contrary, the utilization of
punitive disciplinary practices in school settings, have had a differing effect and contributes to a
host of adverse outcomes in students’ lives. Since the induction of the Gun Free School Act in
2004, schools have increasingly implemented zero tolerance policies (Teske, 2011). These
policies oftentimes mandate suspension and/or expulsion for infractions as egregious as
possession of a weapon to less harmful behaviors such as verbal aggression in the classroom
(Skiba, 2000). For instance, Freedberg (2013) reported that California school authorities
suspended more than 53% of students for non-violent breaches in the school code such as
tardiness, verbal disrespect, and cell-phone usage. A more recent report from the California
department of Education indicated that suspension rates for nonviolent infractions have declined
two percent between the 2012-2014 school years (Frey, 2015). Nonetheless, Frey (2015) asserted
that while a decrease in the suspension rate is noted, further measures are necessary to ensure
that the numbers are reflective of actual shifts in school culture and climate.
A shift in school climate is of utmost importance as many researchers have noted that the
use of exclusionary discipline practices contribute to disengagement from school and low
academic performance across subjects (Raffaele-Mendez, 2003). Skiba (2002) asserted that
students who breach the rules of conduct continue to exhibit the same behaviors following
suspension. In other studies, researchers found that suspension and expulsion increases
behavioral issues for some students (Teske, 2011). There are numerous risk factors associated
with the implementation of punitive disciplinary practices extending beyond school walls. In a
report issued by the National Center for Juvenile Justice (2012), researchers suggested that there
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 11

is a link between the use of punitive discipline in schools and the increase in the juvenile justice
system. In one study, 75% of ninth grade students permanently withdrew from school following
suspension or expulsion (Skiba, 2000). The trajectories for these students include engagement in
criminal activity and thus higher arrest rates (Wagner, 1995). The introduction to social
exclusion and rejection, which is reinforced through punitive disciplinary policies, produces
people who are desensitized to such treatment and are therefore more likely to repeat harmful
behaviors (Martinez, 2009). In schools today, the effects of exclusionary practices especially
impact students that are predisposed to behavioral issues by way of constant exposure to
precarious relationships and environments as well as students with emotional and behavioral
disorders (EBD).
Students with EBD are more susceptible to punitive disciplinary responses within and
beyond school walls. Losen, Hodson, Ee, & Martinez (2014) noted that as black males are
increasingly identified as emotionally disturbed, the rate of suspensions for this group also
increases. Local and national studies have shown that as a whole, students with EBD are
expelled from school at significantly higher rates compared to the general school population
(Zhang, Katsiyannis, & Herbst, 2004). Eber et al. (2002) found that compared to typical students
and those with other disabilities students with EBD are disproportionately more likely to be
arrested. This finding was also maintained in the 2011- 2012 report by the Office of Special
Education Programs (OSEP), which showed that while black students represent less than 20% of
students with identified disabilities, they are disproportionately represented (50%) in the juvenile
justice system. With this level of awareness, educators would benefit from beginning to consider
alternative strategies and programs to address the root causes and therefore, solutions for the
behavioral misconduct exhibited in schools. Closer analysis of the implication of punitive
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 12

discipline and/or other strategies that involve the exclusion of students would fulfill the promise
of American schools, which is to foster equitable opportunities for all students to become
productive citizens.
Currently, the EBD field is faced with complex challenges when identifying students
with emotional and behavioral disorders. While Cooper, Masi, and Vick (2009) noted that
students who live in highly volatile environments, specifically those in low-communities, are
more likely to exhibit behavioral issues than students whose families reside in middle-upper
class communities, EBD students are still typically evaluated in high school after having
established a history of socially maladaptive behaviors (Wagner, 1995). While there are currently
various evaluation instruments used to aptly identify students, 64% of students with EBD were
reported by parents as beginning to exhibit emotional and behavioral issues in grade school;
however, 16% reported that their emotional problems were not formally addressed until high
school (Lane et al., 2002; O'Shaughnessy, Lane, Gresham, & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2003;
Wagner, 1995). The cause of this late identification problem can be linked to the federal
definition of emotional disorders, as it is required that to qualify for special education not only
must emotional and behavioral disorders be present, but the disorder must
• Be exhibited over a long period of time
• Be considered severe by the evaluator
• Adversely affect students’ educational performance (Wagner, 1995).
Consequently, not all students who exhibit socially inappropriate behavior or difficulties
coping emotionally are identified as EBD or receive proper services.
As educators currently grapple with effectively identifying students with EBD and then
developing strategies to drive positive outcomes, it is important that they gain an extensive
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 13

understanding of these young people so as to address their early withdrawal from school. To
date, a few treatment outcome studies examining the efficacy of academic interventions for
students with EBD have been conducted, including the utilization of response to intervention
methods and wrap-around services whereby behavioral support providers are assigned to shadow
students throughout their school day; however, practitioners are still unaware of how to best
intervene with these students (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2006; Lehr et al., 2002; Todd, Sugai,
Horner, & Sprague, 1999;). Students with emotional and behavioral disorders, at 50%, constitute
the highest proportion of the total dropout rate for students with disabilities, indicating that they
are at the greatest risk for dropping out of school (Lehr et al., 2004; Wagner, 1995). Wagner
(1995) asserts that it is crucial to begin to rationalize the necessity of programs through the use
of a more outcome-oriented approach, which demonstrates success in the lives of participants,
rather than an approach that highlights the activities a program will include.
To this end, advocates for integrating the arts with education, have noted the academic
and behavioral benefits of immersing at-risk students in the arts. Catterall, Dumais, and
Hampden-Thompson (2012) found that the at-risk students who are involved in the arts achieve
greater academic success and enroll in post-secondary schools at higher rates than similar
students who are not exposed to the arts. Furthermore, at-risk students who had high involvement
in the arts where found to demonstrate more civic involvement than their contemporaries
(Catterall et al, 2012). Despite the various studies that highlight the advantages of involving at-
risk students in the arts, including high academic achievement and lower drop-out rates, schools
do not apply art-based programs to address issues that affect disadvantaged students (Americans
for the Arts, 2015). As a key component of arts-education is to cultivate free expression and
individuality, art-based programming allows at-risk students to develop a sense of identity,
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 14

fosters coping skills, and promotes community involvement (Williams, 2008). As students with
emotional and behavioral disorders are particularly at risk for early withdrawal from school and
engaging in crime, integration of the art-based strategies within in –school and out-of-school
programs continue to be a promising alternative for intervention.
Organizational Context and Mission
In partnership with Onward Education, this research involved an evaluative study, which
focused on fostering pro-social behaviors in emotionally and behaviorally challenged students
who live in low-income, highly volatile environments. While the students in this program have
not all been clinically identified as emotionally and behaviorally disturbed, the greater majority
of the students exhibit characteristics that align with social maladjustment such as difficulty
coping with normal daily stresses, lack of ability to work with others, and challenges with
expressing ideas and emotions. The basis of the socialization framework is to offer a guide that
emphasizes teaching social skills and self-governing behaviors while addressing relevant social
issues such as identity, policy, and leadership. The framework includes a comprehensive method
that comprises of public speaking and creative writing. This dissertation method was chosen, as
it is crucial to empower those who are voiceless by providing a framework that enables them to
acquire pro-social skills as well as aide in the creation of a purposeful narrative of their
experiences versus an account that allows them to feel helpless, alienated, and victimized.
Onward Education, a government funded organization, located in state within the
northeastern region of the country faces the challenge of demonstrating their program’s
effectiveness in producing lasting outcomes in participants’ lives and preparing students for post
secondary school. Their mission is to “provide support to impoverished students in their journey
to higher education,” however the organization has not solidified a strategic method to ensure
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 15

that it is perpetually working towards this goal. Like many other college preparation programs,
Onward Education questions if their work effectively impacts students' behaviors outside of their
residency sessions. In other words – are they truly informing and preparing their young people to
be college and career-ready? The organization primarily serves students in underrepresented
areas, that may/may not have emotional and behavioral challenges, but are exposed to several
risk factors such as domestic violence, abuse, and poverty. The Executive Director of the
organization has stated that he and the administrative team deeply believe in restoring their
community and they perceive social skill development to be a tool for preparing students for
post-secondary school and providing a platform for authentic self-expression.
With its aim to make college enrollment accessible to all students throughout the state
regardless of socio-economic status and familial circumstances, the organization currently serves
students ages 12-19, who all reside in the inner city or its surrounding neighborhoods. Under the
leadership of site-based directors, instructors facilitate workshops that cover topics ranging from
applying to college to setting academic and personal goals. Their programs are geared to prepare
students for entry into post secondary school by offering guidance in the school setting
throughout the week, on weekends, and several weeks over the course of the summer. The
students participants were chiefly raised in impoverished and violent neighborhoods – many of
them were victims of abuse, bullying, or have experienced other forms of trauma associated with
violence. Presently, the organization has been operating for eleven years and hopes to serve as a
model college preparatory program serving first generation college students from low-income
communities.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 16

Organizational Performance Goal
By November 2017, 100% of participants in Onward Education will complete a
comprehensive personal plan in which they identify several personal, social, and academic goals
and propose a related plan to achieve those goals based upon their individual needs. Upon the
end of the annual reporting year, students will acquire the below attitudes and skills, which were
adopted by the American School Counselor Association’s national standards for students (2014):
• Demonstrate how effort and persistence positively affect learning
• Demonstrate an understanding of the value of lifelong learning as essential
to seeking, obtaining and maintaining life goals
• Develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person
• Use effective communications skills
In conjunction with the standards outlined in the ASCA framework, a prosocial
framework was developed to guide instructor through the process of developing students’
prosocial skills. The prosocial skills highlighted in this report specifically include three areas
including perspective taking in interpersonal relationships, identifying and expressing
emotions, and decision making and planning skills. The underlying focus addressed within the
prosocial skills framework highlighted student mindset and behavior. As students begin to act as
the captains of their educational journey instructors become facilitators and coaches. Instructors
received training on strategies for assuming an inductive mindset, which would ultimately
assume the undertone of the work as students are nurtured as explorers and researchers into their
own lives, consistently uncovering new concepts. It was emphasized that each student is cajoled
to engage in the process, by becoming a co-facilitator of the work. The indicators of the
framework can be further simplified into three distinctive categories:
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 17

Themes - Personal Development | Identity Development | Inquiry Approach |

Climate – Positive Student-Counselor Rapport | Existent Norms | Supportive Student-
Student Rapport | Pro-Social Skill Development

Activities – Reflective/Auto-Ethnographic Writing | Group Discussion | Evidence-Based
Reading | Evidence-Based Writing

Each category contains terminology that may be misinterpreted without further explanation.
The below definitions further explain each concept and support a thorough understanding.
1. Inquiry approach: Students pose a question and explore ideas and concepts, to uncover
new ideas and findings.
2. Auto-ethnography: Student work reflects their personal lives and aspirations (self and
community research).
3. Pro-social Skill Development: Emphasis on discussion and collaboration
4. Co-facilitative Lesson: Student participatory, and student-led. In some instances,
students help to teach concepts.
Onward Education currently serves over 500 students throughout a region located in the
northeastern section of the country. The executive director stated that he wants to increase this
number to 2,500 students and would like to begin to evaluate the effectiveness of the
organizations’ counseling and mentor related programs. While the organization currently
provides workshops to students to socially prepare them for college, there is no formal tracking
process to determine whether or not the company is meeting specific goals or in what ways the
workshops benefit students. For this reason, the executive director has decided to acquire a
framework, organize opportunities for professional development, and provide accompanying
evaluation resources in order to track the program’s effectiveness, monitor progress, and
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 18

document outcomes. Effectiveness will be defined by the extent to which each student
demonstrates the aforementioned attitudes and behaviors; the target goal is for 90% of students
to report positive attitudes about their ability to learn, their sense of self worth, and their respect
for others as well as demonstrate improved communication skills. These behavioral changes will
be measured through student surveys, focus groups, and individual projects. In addition, the
instructors will complete surveys and interviews, which will be designed to gauge their
perceptions on student development and to render an in depth explanation on the process. The
development and learning consultant will develop tools such as rubrics, surveys, and direct
observation tools in order to measure the program’s effectiveness.
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate the organization’s performance in attaining the established
goals for an innovative socialization program that uses the arts, as a vehicle in which to deliver
its content can have a profound impact on the lives of students with emotional and behavioral
challenges. As approximately 50% of students with behavioral challenges dropout of school each
year and a higher percentage is represented in the juvenile justice system (Wagner, 1995), it is
pertinent that this population have access to more programs that provide a safe, and constructive
outlet for reflection, self-expression, and personal development. Onward Education, and many
other government funded organizations grapple with identifying research-based strategies for
achieving specified programmatic and organizational goals. As a result, these organizations do
not receive the funding that will allow them to serve a greater number of students and potentially
solidify the importance of college preparation programming in the lives of at-risk student
populations. To date, many organizations have attempted to employ narrative descriptions as the
sole method for capturing the effectiveness of its programming, however, utilizing narratives is
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 19

limited as they are dependent upon personal conversations that generally occur between people
in comparable positions who are unable to help one another on a larger scale (McKernan &
McPhail, 2012). Hence, the purpose of this study will be to evaluate an integrated program that
enables government funded organizations to achieve and effectively communicate measurable
and observable outcomes while changing the lives of the students they serve.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are four key stakeholder holder groups that were directly involved in the
implementation of the new arts and behavioral integrated framework: the executive leadership
team at Onward Education (comprised of the Executive Director and the Learning and
Development Consultant), the instructors, the students, and the site-based directors of the
programs throughout the state. The Executive Director and the Learning and Development
Consultant will be responsible for facilitating the training schedules of objectives and
subsequently monitoring the instructors’ implementation of the framework at each site. The
Instructors will attend training on the curriculum, administer pre surveys, implement the
curriculum to participants in the program and administer post surveys. The students will be
required to complete the duration of the program, complete pre/post surveys, attend one focus
group (if selected), and complete a culminating project. Lastly, the site-based directors at each
partner organization will be responsible for maintaining consistent and relevant program records
including behavioral reports, attendance, and curriculum materials for each participant.
The table below outlines the organizational performance goals set forth by Onward
Education. There is a breakdown of stakeholder specific goals and their respective dates of
expected completion.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 20

Table 1
Stakeholder
Goals

Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of Onward Education is to provide support to impoverished students in their
journey to higher education.
Organizational Performance Goal
By November 2017, 100% of participants in Onward Education will complete a
comprehensive personal plan in which they identify several personal, social, and academic
goals and propose a related plan to achieve those goals based upon their individual needs.
Instructors’ Goal

Executive Leadership
Goal
Students Site Directors Goal
Within 12 weeks
following completion of
curriculum training
program, all Instructors
apply the strategies and
steps taught during the
training.

By January 2017, the
Learning and
Development
Consultant will
complete communicate
portfolio requirements
for all instructors.
By June 2017, 90% of
students will complete
the personal education
plan as evidenced by
culminating projects
and attendance.

By January 2017, the
Site Coordinator will
meet and discuss the
portfolio expectations,
including the pro-social
skill framework with
each instructor.

Stakeholder Group for the Study

Though it is the shared responsibility of all key stakeholders to aide in reaching the goal
of implementing the pro-social skills framework that increases positive identity development and
pro-social skills to 80% of participants in programming that is offered through Onward
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 21

Education, this study focused primarily on the training and subsequent behaviors of the
instructors. While a complete analysis involved all stakeholders, the instructors were directly
engaged with the framework as well as its recipients. The instructors served a significant role in
ensuring that the framework was implemented with fidelity; they were also responsible for
exhibiting the specified facilitative behaviors that were introduced during the training process. If
the instructors’ behaviors, post- training, did not reflect the attitudes and strategies learned
during training student outcomes and responses to the framework would be impacted. For this
reason, the Executive Director along with the Learning and Development Consultant decided
that evaluating the instructor’s role in implementing the framework would help to highlight a
crucial area that affects the participants’ outcomes: instruction. Self-reports, surveys, interviews,
and a skill-based assessment were utilized to measure achievement or progress towards the stated
goal. In the event that the instructors did not meet the established goals, Onward Education
would not be able to demonstrate the effectiveness of their program in improving the social and
behavioral skills of at-risk youth. Consequently, the organization could potentially lose current
and potential funding necessary to continue the work in offering college preparatory services in
underserved communities.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree to which Onward Productions is
meeting its goal of helping 100% of participants complete a comprehensive personal plan in
which they identify several personal, social, and academic goals and propose a related plan to
achieve those goals based upon their individual needs. This analysis focused on knowledge,
motivation and organizational elements related to achieving the organizational goal. While a
complete performance evaluation would focus on instructors’ motivation, the primary focus of
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 22

this analysis was on the curriculum content, instructional delivery, and behavioral outcomes of
the participants. The following questions were utilized to guide this study:
To what extent is Onward Education meeting its goal of helping 100% of participants
complete a comprehensive personal plan in which they identify several personal, social, and
academic goals and propose a related plan to achieve those goals based upon their individual
needs by November 2017.
What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational elements related to achieving the
organizational goal?
What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework

In this study, Clarke and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework was applied to assess the
existent alignment, skills, and organizational gaps at Onward Education. This framework offers a
practical approach to evaluating an organization’s performance and then selecting the best
improvement strategies. In this study, the organization’s mission and stated goals were evaluated
in relationship to the educational program’s objectives and outcomes. A mixed method of data
collection including surveys, focus groups, interviews, and direct observations were utilized to
obtain a complete viewpoint on the alignment and execution of the organization’s mission and
programmatic outcomes. Research-based solutions based on the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(2016) were recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
In explanation of their framework, Clark and Estes (2008) stated that when assessing the
needs of an organization as it strives to achieve a global goal, it is important to consider the
causes for knowledge and motivational gaps. Under this framework, a diagnostic study is
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 23

performed in three areas - knowledge, motivation, and organization prior to developing a
strategic plan. In the knowledge component, researchers examine whether or not employees
understand what they are expected to do and how to execute their duties. When examining the
motivation component, experts specifically gather data on employees’ confidence and interest in
performing these expected duties. These researchers also consider the organizational factors
including resources, finances, and processes that may hinder the institution’s progress. Once the
aforementioned factors were thoroughly assessed, plans for company-wide restructuring are
considered and efforts to close gaps in each of the three areas.
Definitions

Throughout the study there are several terms mentioned that may potentially be interpreted
in a manner that is not intended. For the purpose of clarity and to aide in a seamless
understanding of the premise and findings of this study, it is important to review several concepts
and their significance within this particular study. The term socially appropriate behavior can
best be understood as any transaction between two or more individuals in the form of written,
verbal, and nonverbal communication; the notion of its appropriateness is defined by the extent
to which these interactions are positive; meaning that they are enjoyable, solution-oriented, or
desired within the environment context (i.e. listening when someone is speaking, clearly and
calmly expressing one’s feelings, requesting assistance or clarity when needed, exhibiting safe
physical behaviors with others). The term behavior speaks to any observable actions including
speaking exhibited by any individual; in this study, behavior will not only be mentioned to
reference an undesirable action, such as using profanity, that a person may employ but will
encompass all actions that can be seen and measured. Disorder, on the other hand, will be used
when referencing any patterns of behavior that interferes with an individual’s ability to function
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 24

in normal environments. Some disciplines refer to disorders as the “state of one’s mental
functional,” but for the purpose of this study the focus will remain on observable behaviors. The
term at risk will be used to describe students whose probability of dropping out of school or
becoming a victim of violence is higher than their counterparts. Lastly, the notion of
empowerment is best described as the process of instilling a sense of personal power and control
over one’s decision-making and life outcomes in student and instructors alike.
Overview

This study was presented and analyzed throughout five chapters. The purpose of this
chapter was to provide a brief explanation of the effects of punitive disciplinary practices such as
the zero tolerance policies on students with EBD and to Onward Education as the focus of this
case. It is important that the mission, goals, stakeholders, and gap analysis framework were all
are discussed in this chapter as this sets the foundation for understanding the relevance of
training, which will be discussed in the next chapter. Furthermore, chapter two provides a review
of current literature surrounding the above framework. School policies, teacher biases, and
current interventions for students with EBD will be addressed. Chapter three outlines the
research approach including the methodology regarding choice of participants, data collection,
and analysis. Chapter 4 presents the findings associated with the data collected through a mixed
methods data collection method and in Chapter 5 the outcome of the research is discussed and
recommendations for future work within the organization is provided in order to encourage a
continual effort in maximizing organizational outcomes.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 25

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

There is an absence of systematized and effective interventions for students that live with
emotional and behavioral challenges. To date, this subgroup of students represent over half of the
national dropout rate and are more likely to partake in criminal activity than their counterparts
(Lehr et al., 2004; Wagner, 1995). While several studies have focused on the utility of several
intervention strategies, researchers have yet to identify the most effective way to approach the
challenges that students with emotional and behavioral disorders regularly encounter (Lehr et
al., 2002). As a result, these students face a range of obstacles within and outside of school
boundaries, including high suspension rates, poor academic achievement, and increased
probability of living in poverty (Raffaele-Mendez, 2003; Skiba, 2000). In order to establish a
positive trajectory for these students, it is vital that school and related organizations begin to
identify effective research-based strategies that once implemented, will combat the existent
obstacles in which students with emotional and behavioral challenges inevitably face.
This chapter commences with an overview of the existent literature on school-based
factors that ultimately affect the academic, social and lifelong outcomes for students with EBD.
The content of this review additionally includes current knowledge of those interventions that
have lacked efficacy and an explanation on the benefits of utilizing arts-integrated strategies for
improving student social skills and thus engagement. Following the discussion on the present
circumstances for students with EBD, the chapter provides a detailed description of the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences, which impacts instructors’ ability to
effectively implement programs that meet the needs of students with EBD. In totality, the chapter
offers insight into the historical and contextual facets of school policy and instructional practices
that have hindered progress for this group of students. This information coupled with a review of
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 26

literature delineating effective individual and group practices within organizations affords
readers a broad understanding of a very complex topic and closes with specific research based
recommendations for improving instructors’ approach and attitudes when dealing with students
in the EBD population.
Policies and Practices Impacting Students with EBD

As discussed in the previous chapter, there are several disciplinary and instructional practices,
which ultimately impacts the way in which educators approach students with EBD. The policies
include the zero tolerance culture to the employment of restrictive instructional practices within
schools. Furthermore, research has shown that there may be more implicit factors such as teacher
belief systems and discrimination that may also contribute to the academic failure and early
withdrawal for these students. The below review discusses a summary of the research on the
disparate, yet related factors that are existent within school culture and procedures.
Under-identification of EBD students. Delayed identification of adolescents with emotional
and behavioral disorders coupled with a loose definition of EBD results in late implementation of
intervention services, as students are typically evaluated in high school after having established a
history of socially maladaptive behaviors. While there are currently a number of empirically
evaluated instruments that are now available to accurately and efficiently identify students, 64%
of students with EBD were reported by parents as beginning to exhibit trouble with their
disabilities in grade school, however 16% reported that their emotional problems were not
considered troublesome until high school (Lane et al., 2002; O'Shaughnessy, Lane, Gresham, &
Beebe-Frankenberger, 2003; Wagner, 1995). The cause of this reactive and thus late
identification problem can be linked to the federal definition of emotional disorders, as it is
required that to qualify for special education not only must emotional and behavioral disorders
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 27

be present, but the disorder must 1. Be exhibited over a long period of time 2. Be considered
severe by the evaluator, and 3. Adversely affect students’ educational performance (Wagner,
1995). According to Lane et al. (2002) it is important to identify students during the early years,
before the maladaptive behaviors become an integral part of their behavioral repertoire.

Referrals. African American students are referred at disproportionate rates than their
counterparts. This reality poses several issues in the field of education, as there are significant
social costs associated with students that are labeled EBD including: early withdrawal from
school, high arrest rates, and low academic performance (Stevenson & Arrington, 2009). The
overrepresentation of African American students as emotionally and behaviorally challenged
predisposes this group of students to unemployment and violence post secondary school, which
contributes to the existent perpetuation of generational poverty and crime in the African
American community (Wagner, 1995). Parrish (2002) found that the likelihood that African
American students are identified as EBD is 1.92 times higher than their white counterparts. Due
to the disability classification of EBD, minority students are placed in restrictive settings where
they are disconnected from the general education curriculum and mainstream culture within a
school (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Instruction. Teachers are not properly trained to teach students with EBD. The existent
behavioral and learning challenges displayed by students with EBD presents an instructional
challenge for teachers (Sutherland, Lewis-Palmer, Stichter, & Morgan, 2008). Oftentimes
teachers are responsible for providing remedial instruction in conjunction with behavioral
management to students with EBD, as they present undesirable behaviors in the context of the
classroom, which includes: aggression, disruptive behavior, and low self-efficacy (Sutherland et
al, 2008). Wehby, Lane, and Falk (2003) further attributed a lack of quality instruction to a
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 28

deficiency in teacher training programs where aspiring educators are not properly trained to work
with students with EBD. As a result, teachers’ responses in the classroom are shaped by student
behavioral disturbances. In their research on instructional practices within self-contained
classrooms, Wehby, Lane, and Falk (2003) found that teachers who work primarily with EBD
students spend over 70 percent of their day focused on behavioral issues and consequently less
time is spent on academics as instructional time. Similarly, researchers have found that teachers
eventually respond to aversive behavior by reducing the amount of effort they place into
instruction (Carr, Taylor, and Robinson, 1991). This type of response represents a kind of
counter intervention whereby the adults who are positioned to work with these students
demonstrate escape behavior in the classroom and eventually resort to excluding EBD students
from their classrooms and/or enforcing harsh punishments in attempt to alter their behaviors.
Overrepresentation of minority students with EBD.
As previously mentioned, African
American students are classified with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) at
disproportionate rates compared to their counterparts. A report completed by The U.S.
Department of Education (1997) shows that while African American students represent only
16% of the entire student body, they account for 24% of students identified as having emotional
and behavioral disorders (p. I-42). This is of particular importance, as the social and educational
outcomes for students with emotional disorders include but are limited to juvenile delinquency,
low-academic success, and a poor employment history (Eber, Sugai, Smith, & Scott, 2002;
Wagner, 1995). Teachers’ cultural biases impact the disproportionate referral rates of African
American students. In a study on race disparities in special education, Fierros and Convoy (2002)
found that in schools across the country, African American students represent the special
education population more than any other ethnic group. Furthermore, Serpell et al (2009)
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 29

reported that race plays a major role in the disparate identification of black students as EDB,
particularly in low socioeconomic areas where this group represents less than 13% of the
population. Teachers reportedly misconstrue the cultural-based behavioral nuances that shape the
speech patterns and physical expression of African American students, especially in boys
(Stevenson & Arrington, 2009). Neal, Johnson, & McCray (2003), for example, noted that
following the presentation of a video depicting white and black males, teachers suggested that
the black students engaged in more aggressive behaviors and were less intellectually competent.
Hence, this cultural disconnect between teachers and African American students lead to the high
identification rates for placement in special education as well as referral for alternative
placements outside of the classroom (Sutherland et al., 2008).

Teacher biases. Teachers’ cultural biases impact their interactions with African
American students. Implicit teacher biases impact the behavior of black students with emotional
and behavioral disorders. Aronson, Fried, & Good (2002) noted that students who experience
racial discrimination or stereotypical messages on the account of teachers, exhibit detrimental
behaviors in response to these encounters. Students’ perception of exclusion based on racial
features alone have been found to increase anxiety levels and also result in academic
disengagement as students opt to identify with realms in which they can succeed, such as social
circles or other nonacademic areas (Aronson, Fried, & Good, 2002). In addition, researchers
asserted that as a result of experiencing discriminatory practices, students display behavioral
issues, symptoms of depression, and an unfavorable outlook on life (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton,
2000; Liebkind & Jasinskaja, 2000). These findings are particularly significant for African
American youth as they are at risk for encountering racism more than other minority group
(Sellers, Linder, Martin, & Lewis, 2006).
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 30

Punitive disciplinary practices. Students with EBD are more susceptible to punitive
disciplinary responses within and beyond school walls. Moreover, these approaches chiefly
affect minority students as school personnel employ punitive disciplinary practices at higher
rates specifically when issuing consequences to African American students. Losen, Hodson, Ee,
& Martinez (2014) noted that as black males, especially, are increasingly identified as
emotionally disturbed, the rate of suspensions for this group also increases. Local and national
studies have shown that as a whole, students with EBD are expelled from school at significantly
higher rates compared to the general school population (Zhang, Katsiyannis, & Herbst, 2004).
According to Solórzano et al. (2013), 27% of young men have reportedly experienced severe
consequences such as suspension or expulsion at least once throughout their time in high school
while only 13% of female students shared a similar experience (Solórzano et al, 2013). In fact,
several studies have indicated that the perceptions of school personnel directly effects the high
suspension rates for boys as particular behaviors are recognized as hostile or disruptive
according to school-wide or personal standards (Skiba, 2000). Wald and Losen (2003) reported
that black males are more likely to be suspended than any other subgroup as they represent 34%
of students suspended, which is double the amount of the total population.
These policies oftentimes mandate suspension and/or expulsion for infractions as
egregious as possession of a weapon to less harmful behaviors such as verbal aggression in the
classroom (Skiba, 2000). Many researchers have noted that the use of exclusionary discipline
practices contribute to disengagement from school and low academic performance across
subjects ((Raffaele-Mendez, 2003). Skiba (2002) asserted that students, who breach the rules of
conduct, continue to exhibit the same behaviors following suspension. In other studies,
researchers found that suspension and expulsion increases behavioral issues for some students
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 31

(Teske, 2011). In his meta-analysis on risk factors affecting EBD students, Teske (2003) noted
that research has consistently shown that when punishment is used as a method for behavior
modification, the student is more likely to repeat the behavior; additionally, he mentioned an
example in Georgia whereby the student court referrals increased over 1,000 percent following
the introduction of campus police. When considering the increased likelihood that African
American students are suspended several times more often than other students in special
education and pairing that information with the linkage of exacerbated behavioral issues and
expulsion, one might ponder the implications of repetitive exclusion of black students in school
environments (Raffaele-Mendez, 2003).
Prison pipeline. Exclusionary practices in schools have been linked to the high
incarceration rates of African American students. Eber et al. (2002) found that compared to
typical students and those with other disabilities students with EBD are disproportionately more
likely to be arrested. This finding was also maintained in the 2011- 2012 report by the Office of
Special Education Programs (OSEP), which showed that while black students represent less than
20% of students with identified disabilities, they are disproportionately represented (50%) in the
juvenile justice system. There are numerous risk factors associated with the implementation of
punitive disciplinary practices extending beyond school walls. Exclusionary practices in schools
have been linked to the high incarceration rates of African American students. In a report issued
by the National Center for Juvenile Justice (2012), researchers suggested that there is a linkage
between the usage of punitive discipline in schools and the increase in the juvenile justice
system. In one study, 75% of ninth grade students permanently withdrew from school
subsequent suspension or expulsion. The trajectory for high school dropouts includes
engagement in criminal activity and thus higher arrest rates (Wagner, 1995). The introduction to
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 32

social exclusion and rejection produces people who are desensitized to such treatment and are
therefore more likely to repeat harmful behaviors (Martinez, 2009).
Interventions
Academic and behavioral interventions. There are few academic interventions that
effectively support students with EBD. Current research concerning students with EBD primarily
addresses deficits in social skills and coping abilities (Sutherland et al., 2008). However,
considering the low academic achievement status and negative outcomes, including an increase
in dropout rates and criminal activity, it is necessary to take a closer look at methods for
improving outcomes for students with EBD (Wagner, 1995). Wehby et al. (2003) suggested that
in order to improve the current state of instruction for students with EBD, efforts must be made
to develop effectual academic intervention programs, bridge the gap between general and special
education, and train support personnel in research-based strategies. For example, Sutherland and
Wehby (2001) found that utilizing reinforcers such as praise and increasing students’
opportunities to engage in the classroom improved the academic performance of students with
EBD.
Nonacademic interventions. Few behavioral interventions have been identified as effective
when working with emotionally and behaviorally challenged students. Students with EBD
infrequently receive an individualized behavioral support plan that involves school personnel and
family alike and includes approaches such as the wrap-around process and the positive behavior
intervention support (PBIS) (Todd, Sugai, Horner, & Sprague, 1999). PBIS a systems approach,
also known as a primary intervention, is developed to target the academic and behavioral deficits
of students. Contrary to the utilization of a punitive system, PBIS is a proactive approach that
educators implement to promote positive social behavior. Students are made aware of the
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 33

available rewards that can be earned for meeting the behavioral expectations of teachers. A
significant aspect of this approach is that it is generally employed throughout an entire school or
classroom, which helps to establish a climate where students are all receiving support in
acquiring social competence. Additionally, the wraparound process – a system that pairs direct
service personnel with a student throughout the day - is employed to assist in developing a
supportive community for students with EBD that includes their parents, educators, mentors, and
others who are directly involved in their lives (Todd et al., 1999; Wagner, 1995).
Multi-disciplinary response. There are various behavioral intervention strategies for EBD
students, however effective and comprehensive program implementation is necessary in
addressing the issues faced by these students. There is a need for multi-disciplinary approaches
to addressing students with EBD. Effective and comprehensive program implementation is
necessary in addressing the issues faced by students with EBD.
Existent gaps in research. There are various behavioral intervention strategies for EBD
students; however, effective and comprehensive program implementation is necessary in
addressing the issues faced these students. There is a need for research that highlights the
effectiveness of culturally responsive interventions. Serpell et al. (2009) highlighted the existent
cultural tension that exists between African American students and teachers, which is linked to
the negative school-based experiences, high referral rates, and ineffective services. Furthermore,
Aronson et al. (2003) noted that there is a correlation between depression and African American
students’ perception of racial discrimination. While students’ perception of discriminatory
practices in schools may be due in part to beliefs acquired in cultural socialization, educators will
benefit from a more in depth understanding of the way in which these factors influence student
achievement (Stevenson and Arrington, 2009). Harris-Murri, King, & Rostenberg (2006)
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 34

suggested integrating culturally responsive strategies into preexisting interventions, such as the
Response to Intervention Model, a method that employs a prescribed, three-tiered response
approach to intervening with students who have behavioral, emotional, and academic challenges.
However, other researchers posited that cultural responsive interventions should be implemented
within the context of the curriculum and other school programming (Ladson-Billings & Tate,
2006). To date, there is sparse evidence on effective interventions for students with EBD, and
less research that focuses primarily on interventions for African American students (Serpell et al,
2009).
Out of school support and programs. There is also a need for further research in effective
out of school programs. To date, a plethora of research exists on the aforementioned
interventions within the classroom and general school environment. The silver lining in the
current circumstance lies in the available opportunities for researchers to explore the benefits of
programs designed to reinforce social skill interventions during the extended school day. Current
research emphasize that students with EBD experience issues with socialization more so than
students in any other disability group (Wagner, D'Amico, Marder, Newman, & Blackorby,
1992). These students struggle to maintain positive, meaningful relationships and they lack the
ability to express themselves in a socially appropriate manner. Individualized training in social
skills has been noted as an efficacious treatment for emotionally and behaviorally challenged
students. Neel, Cessna, Borock, and Bechard (2003) assert that instruction centered on the
affective engagement of students is most ideal for EBD students as they are taught social skills
and strategies for interpreting the world. Likewise, a Hanover Research Report (2013) noted the
importance for interventions developed to teach self-expression and interpersonal skills to
students with EBD. Furthermore, there are opportunities to contribute to the discourse on the
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 35

utilization of arts programming as a vehicle to teach social skills to students with EBD. Current
research shows that increased exposure to arts programming have resulted in favorable outcomes
for students with social challenges; engagement in the arts have been found to increase the
community involvement, academic performance, and secondary school enrollment for at-risk
students (Catterall et al, 2012). In their research, Catterall, Dumais, and Hampden-Thomas
completed a longitudinal study designed to follow students who were involved in music
education, visual, and performance arts. They found that the likelihood of a student entering
college increased along with the frequency of their exposure to the arts. Students who had high
exposure to arts programming were 23% more like to enter post secondary school than those
who had limited exposure. Likewise, they found that students who were more frequently
engaged in the arts had higher percentages in involvement in school government, reading the
daily news, and volunteerism. Additional studies may be conducted to explore the benefits of the
arts on students with specific emotional and behavioral challenges.
This study is piloted with the intent to discover the way in which arts integration may be
employed to support the social development of students with EBD or are predisposed to
circumstances that have been documented. In addition to the evaluation of specific program
features that impact student growth, I will analyze the intersection of effective programming and
various structural facets such as training, employee motivation, and resources. While it is
necessary to design instructional modules that effectively address the needs of EBD students, it
is equally important to ensure that there are organizational systems in place to support the effort.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 36

Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences

The existent skills and company-wide mindsets within an organization are essential to
improving performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). It is vital that employees are equipped with the
necessary skills to implement any intervention albeit in the classroom or in the administrative
office. In addition to professional development, employees benefit from working in
environments that foster a way of thinking about the company that is conducive to reaching the
stated objectives. For this reason, organizational leaders are successful when they create systems
that support employee growth and motivation (Bolman & Deal, 1997). As this is the case for all
companies, the instructors in this study are more likely to be successful in their attempt to
support students if they acquire the necessary skills and receive training the enhances their
morale and motivation.
Knowledge and Skills
When designing information acquisition and building knowledge schema, learning
theorists adhere to specific strategies in order to maximize learning processes and the related
outcomes (Mayer, 2011). Rueda (2011) explored a standard cognitive approach to learning
whereby learning scientists assume that knowledge can be divided into different types:
declarative, procedural, and metacognitive, and Mayer (2011) reviewed effective approaches for
improving knowledge construction. In this section, I will discuss the ways in which knowledge-
related factors such as declarative, procedural, and metacognitive functions influence instructors’
ability to effectively promote identity development and pro-social skills using art-based
strategies. Current research highlight the significance of acquiring knowledge within the three
aforementioned domains, and I examine how the implications of instructors’ acquisition of
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 37

knowledge in these areas can be leveraged to enable instructors to explain and implement
strategies for promoting identity development and pro-social skills in the classroom.
Knowledge types. In the field of learning, there are various types of knowledge that
facilitates the cognitive processes necessary to fully learn and transfer any skill (Clark & Estes,
2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). There are three domains of knowledge that should be
considered when designing or teaching a work-based training course. The first knowledge type
that serves a foundation to learning is declarative knowledge. Under the umbrella of declarative
knowledge are two specified branches of knowledge: conceptual and procedural (Rueda, 2011).
Rueda (2011) explained that conceptual knowledge includes the learning of theories, principles,
or taxonomies of items or ideas whereas procedural knowledge is one’s ability to implement the
functional steps required to complete a task. Metacognitive knowledge, which involves our
ability to self-regulate and reflect, enables us to discern the purpose and rationale for making
decisions that are pertinent to the completion of a task (Bandura, 2005; Rueda, 2011). Together,
these knowledge types influence our ability to effectively transfer information into learning
experiences that can be employed in our respective fields when we approach novel and
transformative tasks (Mayer, 2011).
Stakeholder knowledge influences. In this section I analyze current literature that
discusses the underlying factors and processes in which instructors should know in order to
foster positive identity development and pro-social skills through instruction. I begin by
providing a brief explanation of both the factual and conceptual knowledge that instructors must
know prior to leading sessions that promote positive identity and pro-social behaviors. Second, I
discuss various procedural and metacognitive influences that enable instructors to effectively
impact participants in the program. Finally, I discuss the significance of motivation as it relates
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 38

to learning and the way in which motivational factors impact what an individual will do with the
knowledge they acquire. Various researchers who study the relationship between learning and
organizational transformation proffer that motivation is an important factor is reaching
organizational goals as knowledge in and of itself does not equal learning and therefore an
individual or community that is driven to utilize the information in order to effect change will
activate the knowledge necessary to do so (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
Declarative knowledge influences. There is specific information instructors should know
about identity in order to effectively provide instruction on the topic and facilitate the learning
process. When many people consider identity they think of the way individuals’ self-description
of their personality traits and phenotypical qualities. However, Tsang, Hui, and Law (2011)
noted that identity is an involved social construct that is influenced by an individual’s
intrapersonal processes as well as external factors. The course of developing an identity exists
throughout the human lifespan and notably involves various types and stages (Tsang, Hui, &
Law, 2012; Phinney, 1989). According to identity theorists, identity is structured by personal
factors, which includes particular views about one’s characteristics, abilities, and esteem (Stets &
Burke, 2000; Tsang, Hui, & Law, 2012).
In contrast, in his theory on identity, Erickson (2005) suggested that there is a relational
interaction between the individual and society whereby human beings define their existence
based on a specific position they hold within a larger environmental context. He furthered
asserted this notion through an analysis and conclusion that individuals also structure a collective
identity in that their self-perceptions are cultivated by a connection to the practices and beliefs of
their racial and ethnic groups (Erickson, 2005). Erickson and other identity theorists and
researchers acknowledged that through the fusion of each type of identity, individuals develop a
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 39

perception of their lives in respect to the world and consequently form an identity (Erickson,
2005; Stets & Burke, 2000).
Moreover, it is important that instructors in this study understand that the various types of
identity are intertwined and their effects on positive identity formation are interconnected.
Research on identity formation has emphasized a more conceptual relationship between the three
types of identity in that the development of a positive identity is closely related to one’s ability to
cope with environmental factors and also acquire self-awareness (Tsang, Hui, & Law, 2012).
Stets & Burke (2000) asserted that while it is important to consider an individuals’ personal
belief systems, it is also important to realize how their belongingness to a specific group and
their perceived role within that group affect their overall identity. Phinney (1989) addressed the
underlying implication of this perspective as it relates to membership in cultural ethnic groups.
He posited that members of explicit groups internalize, and hence identify with the perceptions
held by the dominant group and that individuals who have a positive view on their ethnic group
are more likely to achieve at higher levels and maintain healthy relationships (Phinney, 1989).
As is the objective of the instructors discussed in this study to foster the positive identity
development of minority students, it will be essential that they are able to identify and articulate
the key concepts of identity formation and their interconnectedness. As discussed by Mayer
(2011), understanding the key terminology and factors related to a topic enables learners to more
effectively process meaningful information and apply the knowledge to later lessons and tasks.
Considering this stance on efficient learning, I hypothesize that the instructors in this study will
benefit from learning that there exists three types of identities that ultimately culminate into one
general sense of self.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 40

Procedural influences. In addition to acquiring specific declarative information
regarding identity development, instructors will benefit from learning effective strategies for
promoting positive identity development in the classroom. McGinnis (1984) introduced the
concept of skill streaming, a four-part instructional approach, which can be used to teach pro-
social skills to students who exhibit behavioral maladjustments. McGinnis emphasized that
adults can assist in learning desirable behavioral skills by using specified proactive strategies
such as reminding students of expected behaviors and acknowledging when students behave
appropriately (McGinnis, 1984). Likewise, McGinnis asserted that positive self-esteem, a more
internal construct compared to behavioral factors, can be developed by explicitly teaching
students the necessary skills to be socially competent.
In addition to classroom- based strategies, Day-Vines and Terriquez (2008) noted that
allowing students to partake in community-based initiatives also improves self-esteem as well as
problem-solving skills. In their study on interventions with minority students, Day-Vines and
Terriquez (2008) found that students are more successful when their undesirable behaviors are
addressed through an approach that leverages students’ strengths such as resiliency rather than
focusing on their deficits. In conjunction with McGinnis’ skill-streaming strategies, instructors
may praise behaviors that are relative to resiliency such as persisting through a task or difficult
social situation. Moreover, Dembo & Eaton (2007) emphasized strategies for promoting student
independent practice for successful learning. They posited that in order to establish and maintain
motivation towards continued success in exhibiting desirable behaviors, students should acquire
a skill set that includes setting goals and rewarding their own efforts as they are primarily
responsible for their own success (Dembo & Eaton, 2007).
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 41

It was my hypothesis that instructors can best support the development of positive
identity through successful application of the four instructional strategies mentioned above:
explicit instruction on pro-social behaviors through a skill-streaming approach; incorporation of
community-based activities into lessons; acknowledgment of students’ individual strengths; and
by teaching goal setting and self-rewarding skills. Thus, in order to successfully promote identity
development in the classroom instructors must be trained on how to successfully employ these
methods. In his explanation of effective knowledge construction, Mayer (2011) noted that people
learn better when they are guided through relevant processes and allowed the opportunity to
practice the skills prior to applying them in an actual setting. In acceptance of this learning
principle, instructors will receive training on the above strategies and they will be afforded the
space to practice aligning these strategies with specific grade appropriate goals for fostering
student identity. The table below displays the assumed knowledge influences in this study.
Table 2
Knowledge
Influences

Organizational Mission

The
mission
of
Onward
Education
is
to
provide
support
to
impoverished
students
in
their

journey
to
higher
education.

Organizational Global Goal
By
November
2017,
100%
of
participants
in
Onward
Education
will
complete
a

comprehensive
personal
plan
in
which
they
identify
several
personal,
social,
and
academic

goals
and
propose
a
related
plan
to
achieve
those
goals
based
upon
their
individual
needs

Stakeholder Goal
By June 2017, all instructors will explain and implement strategies for promoting identity
development and pro-social skills in the classroom during each scheduled program session.

Assumed Knowledge
Influence

Knowledge Influence
Assessment

Learning Solution
Principle

Proposed Solution

Declarative:
Factual: Instructors
need knowledge that
there are 3 different
types of identity
including personal,
Using a pre-
assessment tool,
instructors will be
required to identify
each of the three types
of identity.
People learn better
when they receive
pre-training in the
characteristics of key
concepts and when
information is
During the training,
the trainer will use a
multimedia
presentation format,
including images to
introduce the three
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 42

relational, and
collective.

Conceptual:
Instructors need
knowledge on how
the 3 identity types
are connected to one
another.

Using a pre-
assessment tool,
instructors will be
required to
demonstrate an
understanding of how
the three identity
types are related.
introduced in
manageable parts.

People learn better
when unfamiliar
material is related to
familiar knowledge
and when given the
opportunity to
elaborate on the
presented material
(Schraw
&
McCrudden,

2006).
terms and will briefly
give examples of how
her aspects of her life
fit into each area.

Trainees will be given
the option to write a
narrative, poem, or
short essay that
responds to a prompt
that asks them to
analyze the way in
which a particular
student’s or family
member’s three
identity types are
connected. Trainees
will share and discuss
in pairs and in a
whole group format.
Procedural:
Instructors need to
know
how
to

implement
strategies
for facilitating
positive identity
exploration and
development.
Instructors will
complete a pre-
assessment requiring
them to align specific
strategies with
appropriate goals for
developing identity in
students.
People learn better
when material is
presented in the
context of a familiar
situation and when
scaffolding is used to
guide them as they
practice applying
relevant skills
(Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001;
Scott & Palincsar,
2006).
Instructors
will
be

trained
on
the

process
of
writing
an

auto-‐ethnography

and
they
will
be

instructed
to

complete
a
social,

personal,
and

academic
goal
based

on
information

provided
in
a
sample

case
study
of
a

student.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 43

Metacognitive:
Teachers need to
know how to reflect
on the effectiveness of
lessons in order to
modify instruction in
a timely manner.
Instructors will
complete a survey that
asks them to evaluate
the effectiveness of
strategies used to
promote identity
exploration in the
classroom.
Modeling to-be-
learned strategies or
behaviors improves
self-efficacy, learning,
and performance
(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009).

Instructors
will

engage
in
bi-‐monthly

meetings
where
they

can
discuss
their

lesson
plans,
explain

their
rationale
for

choosing
specific

strategies,
and

model
their

decision-‐making

process
so
that
they

may
support
other

instructors
and

develop
individually

as
a
member
of
a

professional

community.

Instructors will
participate in a peer
modeling process that
displays their thinking
about decision-
making, which will
allow participants to
consider their own
criteria for making
decisions.

Metacognitive knowledge influences. Furthermore, in order to impact the positive
identity development of young people in their programs, instructors will benefit from an
understanding of the metacognitive habits that support the overall process. In their research on
the utilization of reflection in the classroom environment, Guthrie and Jones (2012) asserted that
the experience offered through instruction does not guarantee instruction in and of itself, but it is
through intentional reflective practices that individuals can learn from their experiences.
Similarly, in their study on teaching auto-ethnography to black students, Camangian (2010)
found that creating environments where students can engage in critical reading and self-
reflection is a critical approach to reducing the existent tensions experienced by youth of color.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 44

They further noted that producing auto-ethnographies, a reflective tool, allows students to engage
in a critical exploration of their lives and promote positive identity development.
Additionally, Guthrie and Jones (2012) noted that reflection assists in integrating
information from experiences and classwork. In concert with Phinney’s (1989) finding that the
collective identity of ethnic minorities contribute to the formulation of their identity even when
the message is detrimental, Camangian (2010) found that by allowing students to develop and
share their auto-ethnographies, educators can aide in the development of “a more “humanizing,”
sense of self and view of others” (p.180). It is through the type of self-analysis that individuals
realize a more functional personality and they acquire an acceptance of their own race and
experiences (Phinney, 1989).
By incorporating the various knowledge influences into a comprehensive and experiential
training, instructors will develop the knowledge and skills necessary to promote positive identity
development in the classroom. Tsang, Hui, and Law (2012) noted that cultivating adolescents’
esteem, awareness, and meta-cognitive habits could foster a desirable and effective identity. If
the instructors in this study are engaged in a strategic and practical training that emphasizes the
relevant facts, concepts, procedures, and habits for developing pro-social skills and positive
identity development, they in turn will be able to implement the necessary strategies for
achieving this goal in the classroom. In the table below, I outlined the various knowledge
influences and accompanying strategies for assessing and providing instruction on the factors
and processes for promoting positive identity development. The table also includes a description
of the instructors’ goal and shows how this goal aligns to the larger organizational goal.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 45

Motivation

While a salient component of organizational change involves designing experiences
whereby learners may engage in effective knowledge construction in order to reach their
potential, motivation acts as a driving force that initiates and maintains the behaviors necessary
to realize change. Clark and Estes (2008) explained that there are three areas of motivation that
affects individuals’ pursuit, or lack thereof, of a specific goal: active choice, mental effort, and
persistence. Active choice can be explained by the moment a person initiates behavior in
working to achieve a goal. The action of attempting to complete the goal is considered a choice.
The degree to which a person invests effort towards learning and understanding a novel concept
or task is known as mental effort. Lastly, persistence is defined as commitment to remain on the
course of task completion despite obstacles or competing priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). In this
review, I examine various motivated-related influences that impact the instructors’ initiative and
fortitude when implementing strategies for fostering positive identity development in the
classroom. Motivation plays a chief role in working towards results for it is a force that allows us
to persist towards our goals (Mayer, 2011). Researchers on motivation have indicated multiple
theories on motivation so as to describe its relationship to our belief systems, self-esteem, values,
and expectations (Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006; Shraw & Lehman 2009). However, for the
purpose of this study I focus on two specific constructs: the attribution and self-efficacy theories
and discuss the relationship between each theory and the art instructors’ motivation levels.
Attribution Theory. The attribution theory furthers our understanding of how individuals
process events and personal experiences. Anderman & Anderman (2006) explained that in their
attempt to make sense of the world around them, people attribute experiences such as failure
and/or achievement to a specific cause. It is the very reason in which the experience is attributed
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 46

that affects motivational levels. Attributions impact behavior and therefore performance as an
individual’s internalization of a failure or perceived lack of control over a situation may prevent
future pursuance of similar circumstances. An important facet of the attribution theory is that
there are three dimensions in which people characterize their experiences. The locus dimension
emphasizes if an individual attributes the experience to an internal or external factor. Stability,
which is the second dimension denotes whether or not the attribution will persist over an
extended period of time. Lastly, the controllability dimension denotes if the individual believes
he/she had control over the situation. The attribution theory is a noteworthy construct in
considering the motivating factors of instructors as they aim to shift the behaviors and belief
systems of others. If they are to be successful in their efforts they must understand how
attributions impact their motivation and influence their behaviors in the classroom (Anderman &
Anderman, 2006, p.1).

Instructor’s attribution. In a study on teachers’ attribution for student misconduct,
Kulinna (2007) asserted that teachers’ actions towards students are influenced by the attributions
they make regarding student misbehavior and academic failure. These attributions are implicitly
communicated to students, which in turn affect students’ behaviors and sense of self (Reyna,
2000). Kulinna (2007) noted that teachers view behavioral issues as problems that students must
address themselves and many times they identify external factors such as students’ families and
social lives as the causes of misbehavior. Anderman and Anderman (2006) explained the
disadvantageous effect of attributing negative characteristics to causes that are out of the control
of students as this may be more likely disempower students as they are not taught that they can
control the issue by behaving differently.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 47

Reyna (2000) researched the relationship between teacher attribution and stereotypes and
found that when teachers implicitly or explicitly communicate that they do not believe in their
students’ ability to change due to accepted stereotypes such as “young people are lazy,” these
stereotypes impact students’ perception and eventually their behaviors (p.97). Anderman and
Anderman (2006) asserted that, in contrast, when mastery-oriented beliefs are communicated to
young people, they tend to strive to achieve more. Moreover, these researchers have emphasized
that internal, stable, and uncontrollable attributions are most damaging to students’ motivation
and self-esteem (Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Reyna, 2000). In her research Kulinna (2007)
found that during instances where teachers attempt to employ strategies to address behavioral
issues, they do not use methods that are directly related to the attributions they had assigned to
the behaviors. Anderman & Anderman (2006) offered various strategies that can be utilized in
order to positively impact students attributions and hence their behavior. These strategies include
providing specific feedback, responding with praise, and acknowledging incremental progress
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006).
In this study, I hypothesized that understanding the impact of teacher communication on
student attribution and behavior, instructors will be more likely to believe in their ability to effect
individual change in each of their students. In instances where the instructors do not observe an
immediate change, they can refer to their strategies and change their own behaviors in pertinent
ways. In his explanation on motivation, Mayer (2011) asserted that when individuals attribute
failure and achievement to their own efforts they are more likely to give more effort to the task.
Hence, as they work intentionally to promote positive identity development in the classroom, the
instructors in this study will benefit from the perception that students’ maladaptive behaviors are
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 48

a reflection of their own efforts versus external factors such as students’ home and social
environments.
Self-efficacy theory. Bandura (1986) introduced the construct self-efficacy, which serves
as the groundwork for understanding motivation in modern research (Pajares, 2009). Self-
efficacy is best defined as an individual’s belief in their ability to perform a task or achieve a
specific goal; it explicitly explores how one’s perception of their abilities affects their
motivation. The self-efficacy theory implies that if an individual is confident in their abilities,
they will engage in behaviors that aid in achieving a specific task. On the other hand, if an
individual is not confident, they will not believe that it is possible to reach a desirable outcome
and therefore will not attempt to complete the task. The self-efficacy of a person influences all
other motivational influences in that a person with insecurities will exhibit a decrease value and
interest in that task. People develop self-efficacy levels from past failures and successes as well
as social experiences where the belief in their abilities or the abilities of others with whom they
relate were either validated or rejected (Pajares, 2009, p.1).
Instructor’s self-efficacy. Goddard and Goddard (2001) asserted that the perception of
efficacy is a significant factor in organizational and/or personal development. Like Goddard &
Goddard, many researchers have begun to explore the way in which collective efficacy, the
belief in a groups’ ability to achieve a goal, impacts individual motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Goddard & Goddard, 2001). Clark & Estes (2008) proffered that in order to be driven towards
teamwork, members of a team must believe that other members can perform at an adequate level.
In their study on collective efficacy in urban schools, Goddard & Goddard (2001) found that
when schools embrace a system-wide mastery culture, teachers’ self-efficacy increase as teachers
are more confident in their abilities when they believe in their colleagues’ ability to make
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 49

changes. Likewise, Squire-Kelly (2012) noted that when teachers believe that they can control
the learning environment they are more effective in promoting student achievement. In their
study, teachers reported that professional empowerment allows them to better impact student
achievement for they tend to thrive when they know they have the necessary skills to make a
difference (Squire-Kelly, 2012).
Mayer (2011) asserted that people do their best when they believe that their efforts will
be rewarded. In this study, I propose that with proper training and explicit communication and
feedback on the acquired skills, the instructors will believe in their ability to collectively
influence students and ultimately foster positive identity development. Goddard and Goddard
(2001) stressed that the more efficacious a teacher, the more positive the behaviors that they
exhibit, which then impact student achievement. Clark and Estes (2008) similarly noted that in
developing individual and group confidence it is important to build confidence in performing
specific tasks rather than to build confidence in a general sense. I hypothesized that following the
training; the instructors in this study would experience a solidified sense of efficacy in
implementing the specific skills necessary to promote positive identity development. The table
below outlines the previously discussed motivational influences along with the proposed
assessment and training solutions gathered to address their stated goal.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 50

Table 3
Motivation Influences
Organization Influences

Organizational factors such as lack of clearly defined processes and goal alignment also
impact companies’ success and connect with performance gaps in learning and motivation. Clark
and Estes (2008) explain that gaps in skills and efficacy are oftentimes related to breakdowns in
policies, communication, systems, and resources at the leadership level. These gaps inevitably
Organizational Mission
The mission of Onward Education is to provide support to impoverished students in their journey
to higher education.
Organizational Global Goal
November 2017, 100% of participants in Onward Education will complete a comprehensive
personal plan in which they identify several personal, social, and academic goals and propose a
related plan to achieve those goals based upon their individual needs.
Stakeholder Goal
June 2017, all instructors will explain and implement strategies for promoting identity
development and pro-social skills in the classroom during each scheduled program session

Assumed Motivation
Influences
How Will It Be
Assessed?

Motivational
Solution Principle
Proposed Solution
Attributions
Instructors should feel
that students
maladaptive behaviors
and internalized failures
are reflective of the their
own efforts rather than
social environments
outside of the classroom.
Instructors will be
asked to complete a
likert-scale survey
that focuses on
various attributions
to student failure
and maladjusted
behavior.
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
individuals attribute
success or failures to
effort rather than
ability. (Anderman
& Anderman, 2009).

Instructors will attend
training where they
will be taught
strategies for
increasing and shaping
desired behaviors and
for implementing
reflection into the
curriculum.
Self-efficacy
Instructors need to
believe that they have
the skills to effectively
impact students’ self-
esteem and to change
student behavior.
Instructors will be
asked to complete a
likert-scale survey
that measures their
confidence
regarding their
ability to influence
student behavior.
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
learners have
positive expectancies
for success (Pajares,
2006).

During training,
instructors will be
informed on the
various ways the
presented information
will be useful in their
lives.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 51

affect the existent culture of an organization as employees experience interpersonal and process
related conflict (Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein (2004) suggested that culture illuminates
organizational situations and therefore when aiming to shift the culture of an organization, one
must analyze the existent group cultures. According to Schein (2004), culture can be identified
as shared implicit and deeply ingrained beliefs and behaviors in which a group identifies over a
period of time. Furthermore he describes three levels of culture: visible artifacts; shared values,
beliefs, norms, rules; and underlying assumptions (Schein, 2004). The intertwined effects of
these three levels directly impact individual’s behaviors within the company as well as any
efforts towards change. Bolman and Deal (1997) suggests that in order to develop thriving
organizations, leaders practice the art of fostering bonds among employees through well-
established cultures and values.
Organizational alignment.
In respect to the instructors addressed in this study, the
current environment does not encourage a collective mindset regarding instructor responsibility
and student value. For instance, the program’s environment is not designed in a manner that
supports the emotional and safety needs of students with EBD or similar needs, which is a key
indicator of a successful program (Neel, Cessna, Borock, and Bechard, 2003). The instructors do
not collectively articulate that there is an organizational wide effort to create emotionally safe
places for students nor do they speak of this as an organizational value.
Organizational culture provides a framework for colleagues as they consistently navigate
those behaviors that are encouraged and restricted within their group (Schein, 2004). Clark and
Estes (2008) note that organizations seeking performance improvement methods, would benefit
from first addressing the alignment of the overarching vision with departmental goals and shared
norms. Presently, the instructors discussed in this study do not share a common language
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 52

regarding best practices nor is there a shared framework that addresses the organization’s global
goals. As mentioned earlier, an absence of goal alignment can negatively impact performance
goals and ultimately the culture as a whole (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2004).
Organizational support. In addition to setting clearly communicated goals, organizations
also maximize success when leaders regularly encourage employees (Clark and Estes, 2008).
Similarly, Bolman and Deal (1997) asserted that leaders are most successful when they
communicate their belief in employees’ talents and skills, thus demonstrating value for people
and their respective contributions to the organization. Hence, productivity levels are expected to
improve through the intentional empowerment and inspiration of employees. This is also a
critical component in improving the overall instructional morale and collective efficacy.
The table below displays a summary of the key influences that affect instructors’
performance including: motivation, skill development, and organizational restructuring. The
contents in the table delineate the specific skills, mindsets, and structures that are specifically
necessary for Onward Education to achieve the objectives set forth in this study.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 53

Table 4
Summary Table of Assumed Influences
Assumed Influences on Performance
Knowledge Motivation Organization
Factual:
Instructors need
knowledge that there are 3
different types of identity
including personal,
relational, and collective.

Conceptual:
Instructors need
knowledge on how the 3
identity types are
connected to one another.

Attributions:
Instructors should feel that
students maladaptive behaviors
and internalized failures are
reflective of the their own
efforts rather than social
environments outside of the
classroom.
There is no systemic support
system that addresses students’
behavior (Sugai & Horner, 1999).
Procedural:
Instructors need to know

how to implement
strategies for facilitating
positive identity
exploration and
development.
Self-efficacy: Instructors need
to believe that they have the
skills to effectively impact
students’ self-esteem and to
change student behavior.
There is no common language
shared among stakeholders when
discussing strategies and concerns
for the emotional and social needs
of students with EBD. (Neel,
Cessna, Borock, and Bechard,
2003).
Metacognitive:
Teachers need to know
how to reflect on the
effectiveness of lessons in
order to modify
instruction in a timely
manner.
The curriculum does not include
modules that address the social
and self-help skills necessary for
students with EBD (Neel, Cessna,
Borock, and Bechard, 2003).

When assessing the needs of an organization as it strives to achieve a global goal, it is
important to consider the causes for knowledge and motivational gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge and motivational influences together drastically impact learning, climate, and
achievement with organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011). With this in mind, change
agents must employ strategies and principles founded in constructs on learning and knowledge
construction in order to efficiently achieve organizational and stakeholder level goals. As Mayer
(2011) asserted, learning occurs when behaviors change in response to newly acquired
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 54

knowledge. Furthermore, the efficacy of organizational systems relies on the close alignment of
global goals with professional training, available resources, and communicated values.
Opportunities for employee development is most rewarding when the content addresses the
practical needs of employees and reviews strategies for actual implementation in the context of
the workplace. Researchers also emphasize the importance of considering motivational aspects
such as employee attitudes and collective efficacy when designing organizational systems and
trainings (Bolman & Deal, 1998; Clark & Estes, 2008). By following research-based strategies
for restructuring organizations, I can productively assist the instructors in reaching the goal of
implementing strategies for fostering positive identity development in the classroom.
In the next chapter, I delineate the selected methods for assessing the aforementioned
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The explanation includes my
methodology for employing a qualitative approach to validating instructors’ gaps in knowledge
relating to their understanding of identity and the processes that are most appropriate for
facilitating identity development. Instructors’ motivational needs, additionally, will be validated
through the utilization of questionnaires designed to capture the existent attitudes on attribution
and collective efficacy. Similar methods were used to confirm various organizational gaps
including system misalignment and cultural morale and language.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 55

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

This study is a case study aimed to discover the impact of a pro-social skills curriculum
as perceived by instructors whose goal is to address the behavioral and social development needs
of students with emotional and behavioral challenges. A qualitative approach was suitable for
this study for several reasons. Qualitative research, in nature, is structured in such a way that
enables investigators to apply an inductive design whereby a search for meaning and significance
of various aspects of the topic is employed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The purpose of this study
was to construct further knowledge about the utilization of arts-integrated programming to teach
social skills and to gain an understanding of how instructors experience the process. The
narratives and information that were gained through interacting with the instructors revealed
implications for teaching pro-social skills in the future and furthermore, the data derived from
this study may contribute to the discourse on the types of interventions that are most effective for
students with EBD or comparable challenges.
Additionally, the qualitative approach was ideal in this project as a case-study design
allows for a richer, more descriptive analysis of one particular system (Maxwell, 2013). Again,
this study highlighted the existent process within one organization. The analysis is beneficial to
any organization that may share a similar scope of work for the demographic of students that are
served in this study. The use of descriptive language allows readers to discern whether or not the
population, the size and location of the organization, and the curriculum closely matches their
own.
While the study is primarily qualitative in that the approach is designed in a manner that
allows for exploration, the method of data collection includes a mixed approach. More
specifically, the study is based in the convergent mixed-method design in which qualitative and
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 56

quantitative data was concurrently collected and compared during analysis (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The mixed-approach allowed for a more comprehensive analysis of how teachers’
perceptions of impact may differ from students’ view of specific outcomes and also allowed for a
comparison between what teacher’s report and what is observed in the field. Overall, the
qualitative methods in this study included semi-structured interviews, a focus group, a purposive
sampling, and the simultaneous collection of both interview and focus group data and data
derived from a set of surveys. This chapter further outlines the purpose of the research, a
discussion of the framework, an explanation of the sampling group, and the data collection
processes and instrumentation.
Purpose of the Project

The purpose of this study was to examine the utility of an arts-integrated framework
in promoting pro-social and emotional development in students with emotional and behavioral
disorders (EBD). This study is aimed to identify the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences that oftentimes hinder instructors’ ability to effectively facilitate learning
interventions that ultimately assist EBD students in growth that is both evident and measurable
and to address those issues so as to improve the program quality.
Research Questions

How do instructors perceive the pro-social skills curriculum initiative to impact students’ social
and emotional growth?
Does the pro-social skills curriculum initiative improve students’ attitudes and beliefs on
communicating and dealing with conflict?

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 57

Conceptual Framework

The existing literature on students with emotional and behavioral disorders highlights
several factors that adversely influence this population’s ability to successfully complete high
school and become productive and contributing members of society. The list includes teacher
bias, disproportionate referral rates for minority students, late identification practices, punitive
disciplinary practices, and fragmented intervention services as the main culprits that negatively
affect student success. In the past years, there has been a spotlight on teacher behavior and the
proclivity of educators to focus on academic-based interventions as a remedy for this population.
While there is a plethora of research on the effects of stereotypical biases of teachers and their
interactions with EBD students, there is limited research on how teachers’ effort and their
perception of their own ability to assist this population influence their performance. However,
the literature on Motivational Theory suggests that one’s sense of efficacy and attribution of
responsibility plays a significant role in determining his/her level of investment to a specific task
or cause. Currently, teachers struggle to assist students with EBD; the literature illustrates that
the majority of these students withdraw early from high school, have low post-secondary
enrollment rates and represent over half of offenders in juvenile correction facilities. Still,
according to the literature, educators are unaware of the most effective intervention strategies to
address students with EBD and depend primarily on academic-based interventions, which fail to
include a comprehensive approach to addressing the emotional and social needs of the child. To
address the aforementioned gaps in the literature, this study is designed to evaluate the efficacy
of a comprehensive arts-based program and to identify the motivational, organizational, and
knowledge based influences that warrant the effectiveness of such programming. The framework
below (Figure 1) displays the interconnectedness of the various factors that influence the
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 58

educational experience and lives of students with EBD, including school-wide organizational
practices and instructor motivation. The figure also shows arts-based programming as a possible
alternative, and transformative intervention as educational leaders wrestle to identify
interventions that have lasting, meaningful outcomes.

• High
drop
out
rates

• Low
enrollment
in

post
secondary
school

• High
criminal

engagement

• Utilization

• BeneZits

• EfZicacy:
Self
and
group

• Attribution:
Effort
vs.

Ability

• High
Referrals
for

Minority
Students

• Punitive
Disciplinary

Practices

• High
Concentration
on

Academic
Interventions

• Late
IdentiZication

School
Practices
Instructors

Students
with

EBD

Transformative

Interventions

MOTIVATIONAL
THEORY

Social
and

Emotional

Growth

ART-‐INTEGRATED

Interventions

Influences

1. Knowledge

2. Motivational

3. Organizational

Running head: TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL

59

Research Design

This study was conducted as a mixed-method case study of one organization in an urban area.
The data collection strategies included surveys, focus groups, interviews, and direct observations so
as to obtain a comprehensive viewpoint on the alignment and execution of the organization’s mission
and programmatic outcomes. As the instructors are the primary stakeholder group of this study,
surveys were designed to gauge their level of effort, perceived ability and sense of efficacy prior to
implementing the curriculum. Upon completion of the curriculum, three instructors were interviewed
in order to gain their perceptions on how the process helped to develop students. Although students
are not the main focus of the study, an additional pre and post survey were administered to collect
data on their perceived growth and also to determine if specific social skills and attitudes were
developed as a result of the program. While this data alone cannot be employed to determine
causality, the analysis may offer insight into the knowledge, motivation, and organizational practices
that are necessary to support students with EBD. This study is inherently limited in that it will only
reflect the experience of one organization in a specific geographical area and therefore results cannot
be generalized.
Nonetheless, the outcome of this research may contribute to the conversation on effective
interventions and practices for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Historically, this
population of students has dropped out of school at alarming rates and fallen victim to various social
costs such as homelessness, poverty, drug abuse, and criminal engagement. In many instances,
teachers witness telltale signs of emotional instability early on in students’ school career and, if
equipped with the proper knowledge and organizational support necessary to improve upon their
investment – they can make a major difference in the lives of these students. The utilization of the
arts such as public speaking, creative writing, and theater has been reported as an effective tool in
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 60

improving school engagement and student academic and social skills across demographics. This
study seeks to bridge the utility of the arts and behavioral health in efforts to impact the discussion on
comprehensive approaches to addressing the needs of students with EBD.
Participating Stakeholders

The study begun with a gap analysis to assess the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences that impede instructors’ ability to effectively facilitate learning interventions that
ultimately assist EBD students in evident and measurable growth. In totality, the study was aimed to
evaluate the extent to which the organization’s mission is aligned with its programmatic objectives
and outcomes. While a comprehensive view of various affiliates within the organization is included,
the study focused primarily on the role of the instructors as they are charged with facilitating the
curriculum. The criteria utilized for the stakeholder group was that the instructors must teach using
the provided pro-social skills framework and they must also attend instructional training on its
contents. Clark and Estes (2008), the creators of the gap analysis framework, suggested that trainings
should be leveraged to allow trainees the opportunity to practice the skills in which they are required
to employ in the natural setting. As the training is a significant aspect of initiating the pro-social
skills framework to address the need for emotional and behavioral growth, instructors will need to
attend a training that will increase the likelihood that the necessary knowledge and skills are
transferred into the instructional sessions. As such, the question that will guide this study is the
following:
1. How do instructors perceive the pro-social skills curriculum initiative impacts students’
social and emotional growth?
Survey Sampling Criterion and Rationale
Criterion 1. Counselors must incorporate art-based strategies into their workshops.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 61

• The study is designed to evaluate how instruction including arts based strategies
can be employed to teach pro-social skills.
Criterion 2. Counselors must attend training.
• Instructors will need knowledge on behavioral strategies and terminology in order
to successfully implement curriculum
Criterion 3. Instructors must provide written commitment to stay for the duration of the
program.
• The curriculum requires consistency and relationships are an integral part of its
implementation
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale

An integral component of the study involves evaluating the alignment and execution of
the mission and programmatic outcomes in a specific case, or organization. For this reason, a
purposive sampling approach was employed and all participants were surveyed prior to the
actual curriculum training. This approach is reasonable in this specific study as in case studies it
is necessary to consider the range of representatives in this particular situation so as to provide a
thorough description of the case. Maxwell (2013) explains that while some studies include the
sampling of a population in order to make generalizations, case studies are geared to convey a
comprehensive narrative of a particular setting or phenomenon. Therefore, total population
participation was required for each of the sixteen instructors that attended the training.
Observation Sampling Criterion and Rationale

Criterion 1. The time frame must be in the middle or closer to end of the sessions.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 62

• It is important to provide time for instructors to build relationships with students
and become comfortable with the curriculum
Criterion 2. The observation must be held on the program site.
• Observations that are completed on site will offer more insight into the daily
structure
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale
Over the course of 12 weeks, 15 field observations were completed across five program
sites in order to capture the degree of skill transference from the training to the instructors’
respective worksites. Two of the seven program sites were unavailable for observations due to
site- specific challenges. Of the participating instructors, a total of 11 instructors were observed.
Two instructors were observed twice based on their availability. Observations took place at least
three weeks following the start of the program sessions in order to allow the instructors to
become familiar with the students and the curriculum. Oftentimes, solid relationships between
teachers and students are not accomplished until after several meetings; it is important to
establish a healthy rapport with students so as to gain their respect and buy-in (Faranda &
Clarke, 2004). The goal of the observation was to triangulate information gathered from the
surveys and the focus groups. This ensured that any statements made are validated from
additional sources and together support any conclusions that derive as a result. As stated in
Maxwell (2013), the observation is a valuable method when seeking specific information about
participants’ behavior. In this study, it is vital to observe the way in which the instructors’
purported attitudes about their sense of efficacy and effort are actualized during the sessions.
Each instructor was informed that he/she would observed during a specific time frame and this
information will also be shared with the site directors. When both parties are aware that
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 63

observations are taking place, they can ensure access into the workshops and additionally all
schedules can be synchronized.
Data Collection and Instrumentation

As the purpose of this study is to examine the utility of an arts-integrative curriculum in
promoting pro-social and emotional development in students with emotional and behavioral
disorders (EBD), it was necessary that information on the processes and outcomes be gathered
through various means including interviews, focus groups, observations, and surveys. The
utilization of interviews allowed the emergence of a deep and rich perspective on the
curriculum’s efficacy. Three instructors were interviewed on four domains: instructional
approach, instructional strategies, student engagement, and climate. Each of these areas
collectively address aspects of the curriculum in which the instructors were trained. The
interview process allowed instructors to elaborate on processes and interactions that were noticed
during observations. The observations, served as an opportunity to capture real-time data on
teacher and student behaviors during instructional time. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) note that
observations are especially useful as they provide a first-hand account of the subjects being
researched. The data collected during the observations served as a point of triangulation during
the analysis phase. Furthermore, students and instructors were asked to complete surveys, which
were used to assess the change in their knowledge and attitudes before and after participating in
the trainings and program, respectively. These surveys were utilized to discern if there is a
relationship between the implementation of the curriculum and student growth. The instructors
were specifically asked questions regarding the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
aspects of their work. In contrast, students were asked questions relating to the development of
specific social skills and attitudes. Lastly, six students of were invited to attend a focus group.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 64

The focus group, like the interview, allowed students to provide in depth accounts of their
experiences that cannot be captured in a survey. Collectively, the various methods allowed for
further promotion of reliability and validity within the findings.
Surveys
A purposive sampling approach was employed and all participants were surveyed prior to
the actual training. Participants were not required to identify themselves. This approach is
reasonable in this specific study as in case studies it is necessary to consider the range of
representatives in this particular situation so as to provide a thorough description of the case.
Maxwell (2013) explains that while some studies include the sampling of a population in order to
make generalizations, case studies are geared to convey a comprehensive narrative of a particular
setting or phenomenon. Therefore, total population participation was required for each of the
instructors that will attend the training.
The survey was administered and collected prior to the training. Instructors were asked to
respond to 12 questions, which asked about their perceptions on teaching, their source of
motivation, and the organizational structures that are in place to support them. Instructors were
asked complete the surveys and place in an envelope, which was collected by the researcher.
Students received a 25-item survey during the first day of the workshops. Instructors
were asked to administer the surveys, collect them after 20 minutes, and conceal them in an
envelope that was mailed to the researcher. It was required that the provided envelope is left
unhampered and the seal unbroken. A combination of face and content validity strategies were
employed to ensure that the survey items actually measure the aforementioned domains for both
students and instructors. In addition, member checks were performed by way of the interview
and focus group. Maxwell (2013) suggests that the practice of member checking (also known as
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 65

respondent validation) is a vital method for excluding the possibility of misinterpretation of data.
This method coupled with triangulation ultimately increased the reliability and validity of the
responses.
Interviews
Three instructors were interviewed on one occasion for one hour. Interviews were
scheduled via an online scheduling format, which allowed the instructors to select a time that is
most convenient for them. The interviews followed a formal setup whereby interviewees met
with the interviewer to discuss pre-determined questions. The line of questioning followed a
semi-structured format as the interviewer aimed to ask specific questions, but did not require the
interviewees to follow a predetermined order. This strategy was most appropriate for this study,
as it is possible that emerging ideas may be presented during the conversation. In case studies,
this is a particularly useful approach as a less structured format allows the interviewer to intently
follow the discussion and discover new concepts that may be unique to the organization
(Merriam and Tisdell, 2016).
Focus Groups
Six students from one of seven program sites were interviewed on one occasion for one
hour. An online scheduling format was utilized to arrange the focus group. This allowed the
instructors to select a time that was most convenient for them and they also selected students
based on their availability. The instructors determined the best location for students to meet, as
the focus group was held at a location that was most accessible. The line of questioning followed
a semi-structured format as the interviewer aimed to ask specific questions, but did not require
participants to follow a predetermined order. This strategy was most appropriate for this study, as
it was expected that emerging ideas might be presented during the conversation. Merriam and
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 66

Tisdell (2016) explained that, similar to an interview, a less structured format, allows the
interviewer to discover new ideas that may be unique to the organization.
Observation
Over the course of 12 weeks, 15 field observations were completed across five program
sites in order to capture the degree of skill transference from the training to the instructors’
respective worksites. Two of the seven program sites were unavailable for observations due to
site- specific challenges. Of the participating instructors, a total of 11 instructors were observed.
Two instructors were observed twice based on their availability. Observations took place at least
three weeks following the start of the program sessions in order to allow the instructors to
become familiar with the students and the curriculum. Oftentimes, solid relationships between
teachers and students are not accomplished until after several meetings; it is important to
establish a healthy rapport with students so as to gain their respect and buy-in. The goal of the
observation was to triangulate information gathered from the surveys and the focus groups. This
ensured that any statements made were validated from additional sources and together support
any conclusions that derive as a result. As stated in Maxwell (2013), the observation is a valuable
method when seeking specific information about participants’ behavior. In this study, it was vital
to observe the way in which the instructors’ purported attitudes about their sense of efficacy and
effort are actualized during the sessions. Each instructor was informed that he/she will be
observed during a specific time frame and this information will also be shared with the site
directors. If both parties are aware that observations are taking place, they can ensure access into
the workshops and additionally all schedules can be synchronized. The observation protocol
consisted of an inventory list, in which specific indicators were operationalized to describe
instructional and environmental characteristics that are aligned with the stated essential features
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 67

of a successful program. The inventory list also guided the researcher to search for the various
strategies and approaches that are reviewed during the curriculum training.
Documents and Artifacts
Photographs of the instructional environment were taken during observations. This
allowed the researcher to further study the details of specific activities and interactions in order
to capture pertinent information that could not be captured using the protocol, solely (Merriam
and Tisdell, 2016). Additionally, samples of student work and instructor lesson plans were
reviewed in the quarterly portfolios. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that through arts-
integrative research and the collection of samples, researchers can examine the way in which
people process their experiences as many times this meaning-making is done through art.
Data Analysis

The data analysis process begun by preparing the raw data from the surveys, interviews,
focus groups, and observations for analyis. Survey data was cleaned and analyzed while other
data such as interviews and observations were still being collected. According to Creswell (2014)
in qualitative research, it is common for researchers to begin the analysis process while
continuing to collect other types of data. In fact, this process enable researchers to pinpoint
emerging themes and patterns in which they may follow-up with in a later interview or focus
group session. Each interview and was transcribed using an open coding method to develop
reoccurring concepts and categories found across participant responses. These concepts were
then further analyzed in an axial coding process whereby a more thorough review of the
interviews took place in order to confirm the accuracy of the concepts and draw connections
between specific concepts; this aspect of coding allowed me to disaggregate the core themes and
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 68

combine their meanings under a larger heading. This same process was completed during
analysis of observations and focus groups.
The analysis component begun following the distribution and collection of the surveys
and once the first interview were completed. Throughout the entire process, analytical memos
were completed as a method for commenting on the implications of emerging themes. In their
discussion of the grounded theory, Corbin and Strauss (1990) noted that the elimination of
memoing during the analysis process will result in an underdeveloped explanation of findings.
While the data from the interviews, obervations, and focus groups were collected a codebook
reflecting the themes and concepts from each response and session were documented along with
the frequency of each theme in order to account for typicality .
During the survey analysis, data from each survey was entered in a Microsoft Excel
worksheet and underwent a data cleaning a process whereby each entry was scrutinized to ensure
that all inconsistncies were removed. The cleaning process also included a check for missing
data as this is an essential step in verifying the accuracy of data. All missing data was replaced
by substituting the mean value that was found using the available cases. According to Merson
(2010) it is necessary to identify all missing data in order to determine if there is a pattern or if
the missing information is random and not indictaive of a flaw in the tool. Any missing data
could have threatened the generalizability of the findings as the conclusions were limited to those
particpants who responded. Any conflicting data is reported in the discussion as a limitation of
the study. Once the survey data was scrubbed, a descriptive analysis of the data was provided
using visuals to summarize information about the study’s participants. The visual displays
further highlight findings about specifc patterns that emerged from the data. The relationship
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 69

between this evidence and the research questions are discussed in chapter four of the study.
Frequencies were calculated using the survey data. Since the instructor stakeholder group was
less than 20, the percentage of stakeholders who strongly agreed or agreed is presented in
relation to those who strongly disagreed or disagreed. For the student stakeholder group, the
means and standards deviation were presented to identify average levels of responses.
Additionally, a descriptive statistical analysis was following the submission of all survey results.
For interviews and observations, data analysis also begun during data collection. I wrote
analytic memos after each interview and each observation. Furthermore, I documented my
thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to my conceptual framework
and research questions. Following the completion of each interview, I transcribed and coded the
data. In the first phase of analysis, I used open coding, while looking for empirical codes and
applying a priori codes from the conceptual framework. A second phase of analysis was
conducted where empirical and a prior codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the
third phase of data analysis I identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the
conceptual framework and study questions. Finally, I analyzed the documents and artifacts for
evidence consistent with the concepts in the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness

Various methods of data collection including surveys, focus groups, interviews, and
observations were utilized in this study in order to triangulate the claims and accounts of the
subjects in this study. Likewise, the use of interviews and focus groups will serve a dual function
in that as the primary investigator, I was able to confirm my perceptions of observed events as a
means to eliminate biases. When triangulation is employed during data analysis, emergent
themes can be identified from various sources as individual accounts can be compared to others’
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 70

through a process known as member-checking; this information is then further validated during
analysis of the observation data. While Merriam and Tisdale (2016) note that reliability is
challenging to achieve in qualitative studies, I aimed to maintain the trustworthiness of this study
by including rich descriptions of the student demographics, instructional environments, and
organizational structure to allow readers to determine the transferability of the skills and
strategies described within. Furthermore, credibility was maintained through assurance that the
survey items were closely align to the stated research questions; this ensured that the tools
measure what they are purported to measure and the presented data accurately reflects outcomes
that were in question (Maxwell, 2013).
Ethics
All researchers are obligated and mandated by federal laws and Institutional Review
Board (IRB) policies to consider and respect participants’ rights to privacy, voluntary
participation, confidentiality, and permission to withdraw. To that end, these efforts combined
ensure that respondents are safe and respected and in turn this safeguards authentic and reliable
responses.
Informed Consent to Participate
Participants were provided an invitation to participate. Within this introduction,
participants were notified of the study’s purpose, benefits, and risks. Following the invite,
participants were asked to sign a written consent form, that in clear language explains their
rights, including the right to withdraw at any time. Furthermore, the form outlined the
requirements of participation including the amount of time participants would be asked to set
aside for interviews and other protocols. Additionally, separate assent form was solicited for
student participation in the study, for the students selected for the focus group. The Office for
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 71

Human Research Protections does not require parental consent when a study takes place in a
classroom setting.
Voluntary Participation
Participants were informed that their participation in the study is voluntary and they are
not subject to receive any awards or punishments for their contribution. Additionally,
participants were notified that under no circumstances may and individual coerce them to remain
in the study and that they were able to withdraw at any point during the study.
Confidentiality
Participants were made aware of their right to privacy as indicated by the Office of
Human Research Protections. The research may in no manner indicate characteristics or details
that may allow readers to trace the information back to a participant. Likewise, participants’
identification is not revealed in any reports and a pseudonym was utilized when necessary.
Separate permission to record
Participants that were involved in the interview and/or focus group process were given an
additional form requesting their permission to record in order to accurately capture their
statements. Each participant were reminded of their right to withdraw at that time and were
assured that if they remain their identities would be kept confidential.
Storage and security of the data
Participants were assured that for purposes of checking the data, the location of their sites
would be used, but would not be published and that any data containing revealing information
would be stored in a file cabinet at my place of work. Each participant was informed that data
would be shredded and discarded one year following publication of the findings.
Following all written correspondence, I supplied participants with my contact
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 72

information and the numbers for the IRB and local support offices, where they could reach to
report an unusual or violating behaviors on behalf of the researcher.
In addition to the ethical principles and guidelines regarding the studying of human
subjects, participants should be aware that I am acting as an external consultant for Onward
Education. To that end, the participants should not be concerned about the potential for any
retribution that might result from their verbal input or actions during the study.
It is important to note that I have an intricate background in arts-integrative programming
as I have been in the capacity of a student, instructor, and administrator within community based
arts organizations. Creswell (2014) suggests that one’s background may influence their
interpretation of the findings. Moreover, as I am a product of a similar socio-economic
background as the students in this study, my ability to objectively interpret their behaviors during
observations and focus groups interactions may impact the data collection processes for I am
more inclined to interpret interactions from a personal standpoint. This inherent bias can also be
perceived as strength that I bring to the study in that my close understanding of the population
increases my competence in interpreting the data and thus increases credibility. Merriam and
Tisdale (2016) assert that the researcher’s experience determines the credibility of a study in
qualitative designs. Be that as it may, I intend to employ the aforementioned strategies to ensure
that I carryout the research in the utmost ethical manner.
Limitations and Delimitations

Due to the nature of case study based research, the findings discussed in the analysis are
inherently limited as the data reflects outcomes that are unique to a specific organization in the
northeast region of the country. While there may be various demographic differences within
other organizations, this study contributes to the conversation on the implications of education
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 73

that incorporates arts-integrative strategies in improving students’ ability to acquire socially
significant behaviors. Additionally, the instructors who volunteered to participate in this research
received limited training due to the limited time allotted to formally introduce the pro-social
skills framework and practice the suggested strategies. There may be some variance in outcomes
if the training was extended to ensure skill transference. While this may be true, researchers who
look to adapt the procedures outlined in this study may only benefit from more desirable
outcomes in the event that the training is thoroughly designed to ensure that the instructors are
well prepared to independently implement the desired skills.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 74

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS

The purpose of this project was to examine the utility of arts integrative strategies in
promoting pro-social and emotional development in students with emotional and behavioral
disorders (EBD). Ultimately the study was designed to investigate instructors’ perceptions on the
value and applicability of a framework, which emphasizes the use of arts-integration to promote
social and behavioral improvement in students who are enrolled in a college preparation
program. Moreover, this study was aimed to identify the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational (KMO) influences that oftentimes hinder instructors’ ability to effectively
facilitate learning interventions that ultimately assist EBD students in growth that is both evident
and measurable and to address those issues so as to improve the program quality. The guiding
research questions employed throughout the study were as follows:
How do instructors perceive the pro-social skills curriculum initiative to impact
students’ social and emotional growth?
Does the pro-social skills curriculum initiative improve students’ attitudes and
beliefs on communicating and dealing with conflict?
In order to explore the response to these questions, a convergent mixed-method design
was used to gather information on the ways in which instructors’ perspectives aligned with
student views regarding the value of the program. Following completion of the collection phase,
the data was triangulated and analyzed, and finally organized to present the findings that are
presented in this chapter.
Background

The focus of the pro-social skills curriculum development initiative at Onward Education
is to prepare adult stakeholders, including counselors and mentors, to foster environments
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 75

whereby students can flourish academically, personally, and socially. In attempt to restructure
the organization’s counseling component, the leaders at Onward Education decided to redefine
the role of their counselors and support staff, who were historically hired to recruit students to
the program, offer college enrollment counseling, and to provide emotional support to students,
when necessary. Following the development of new organizational goals, the leadership team at
Onward Education made the decision to transform the counseling position to a more
instructional-based role that required the counselors to lead student workshops, which addressed
the social and emotional needs of students. This transition required that the counselors, who all
have varying professional backgrounds and educational levels, receive ongoing training in social
skill development, in order to achieve the organization’s goal of preparing low-income students
for post-secondary school enrollment. Furthermore, the organizational leaders along with the
directors of each of the 7 sites considered the accuracy of their usage of the term “counselor”
when capturing the role of their social and emotional learning staff. Although the organization
have not yet come to a mutual agreement regarding the desired title for this role, the above
counseling group, is referred to as instructors for the purpose of this study.
At the onset of the curriculum initiative, a stakeholder interview with the leadership team
revealed that the instructors’ experience working with students ranged from 1-13 years, and that
while some of the instructors had earned a four year degree others had not; therefore, the
instructors presented varying levels of understanding regarding how to effectively teach students.
In consideration of the goals and objectives outlined by the leadership team during the
stakeholder interview process, the initial phase of the initiative was designed to teach the
instructors strategies for leading students through an individualized education plan that includes
goal setting, reflection, and intellectual exploration of identity development. This phase,
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 76

additionally, included training in methods for developing a systemic climate that supports the
individual growth of each student. To that end, a pro-social skills framework was developed and
refined in order to reflect a blend of the Onward Education values with the formula for creating
an organizational climate that is conducive to student development.
Document Analysis

As the ultimate goal of Onward Education is to develop college ready students, it was
pertinent that all stakeholders collectively addressed a comprehensive set of variables impacting
student achievement. To that end, the pro-social skills framework was uniquely developed to fit
the Onward Education objectives. The first draft of the framework was developed following
stakeholder interviews with program directors, curriculum specialists, and the leadership team
who shared their perspectives regarding the instructors’ needs. Secondly, site-based observations
of the social emotional learning courses were observed and emerging concepts were gathered
and organized to highlight the key strategies in which practitioners, consistently utilized to
engage students and address their social, academic, and personal needs. Additionally, the
development of the framework was informed by the research that was outlined in the literature
review of this study, which suggested that authentic education and empowerment occurs when
educators advocate for and achieve equitable curricula and also facilities that maintain a safe and
nurturing environment where students can learn. This approach combats the systematic campaign
to attribute the deficiencies in minority achievement to cultural inability, or what Gorski (2008)
refers to as a deficit theory. This theory has been the premise in which educators have
historically referenced so as to forgo the responsibility for successfully educating students
(Gorski, 2008). Finally, the pro-social skills framework was adapted to reflect the COMPASS
framework in which the organization had utilized to guide and measure outcomes for their
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 77

academic teachers. Discussion with the program leadership team and further document analysis
revealed that The COMPASS framework, which was created and implemented by an active
consultant was used as a basis for program evaluation between and within program sites. With
the intent to align the new system for social and emotional instructors with an existent
organizational structure, the pro-social skills framework was developed. The table below shows
the alignment between the key indicators in the COMPASS framework and the Pro-Social Skills
framework.
Table 5
COMPASS Framework and Pro-social Skills Framework

Indicator Description/Evidence -
COMPASS
Indicator Description/Evidence –
Pro-Social Skills
C Community relevant activities parallel
important topics within the student
community
Community
relevant
projects
that
are

aligned
with
student
goals,
student

individual
communities,
and
student

led
formation
of
identity

development.

O Organized learning flows well and follows an
appropriate plan that is available for review
Counselors
design
learning
activities
by

employing
a
hierarchy
of
ASCA
standards,

student
personal
education
plan
(PEP),

and
student’s
personal
co-‐developed

goals,
which
can
be
derived
from
the
ASCA

Standards.

M Meaningful tasks are academically important
and connect students with content
Tasks
are
project-‐based
and
conceived

with
counselor’s
support
and
the
projects

relate
to
students’
career/passion

interests.

P Previewed activities are advance selected
materials that demonstrate instructors’ prior
knowledge
Learning
resources
are
developed
to

inform
students’
projects
and
instructors

are
versed
on
information
prior
to
leading

workshops.

A Academic habit forming activities foster
research, academic independence
Student
becomes
co-‐facilitators.
Students

follow
an
inquiry
approach
and
employs

reflection,
discussion,
and
evidence-‐based

reading/writing
during
workshops.

S Skill building activities clearly connect to
appropriate standards
Skills connect with goals identified by
ASCA standards for personal development.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 78

S Student interest motivated activities engage
students as evidenced by students on task and
show genuine interest in learning; Evidence
of differentiated instruction (skill, interest)
Students modify counselors “big idea”
goals based on their individual projects.

In order to introduce the pro-social skills framework and accompanying observation tool
to the instructors, they were scheduled to attend additional training for professional development.
The training was delivered via one face-to-face and two modular (online) trainings on the
framework and art-integrative strategies for fostering identity development in effort to develop
the whole child. The Pro-Social skills framework was additionally utilized to complete site-based
observations in effort to support instructors and provide objective feedback during the initial
phase of program implementation. The instructors were ensured that observations were not
evaluative, but were employed to inform training needs and to provide individual feedback for
further development. Instructor observations were scheduled for 1-2 times for a total of 20
minutes per observation. However, due to scheduling conflicts, instructors at 3 different sites
were not observed. Classroom observations were completed following the first three weeks of
the program session in order to allow the instructors to become familiar with the students and the
framework. Oftentimes, solid relationships between teachers and students are not accomplished
until after several meetings; it is important to establish a healthy rapport with students so as to
gain their respect and buy-in (Faranda & Clarke, 2004). Each instructor was informed that he/she
would be observed during a specific time frame and this information was also shared with the
site directors. Additionally, following the closing of the 12- week winter session, instructors
submitted portfolios, which included exemplars of their lesson plans and samples of student
work in relation to the pro-social skills framework. The portfolios were reviewed as part of the
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 79

analysis in order to gain insight on the level at which the instructors transferred skills learned
during the training.
Stakeholder Group

Although this study represents a larger community of stakeholders including academic
instructors, social and emotional learning instructors (SEL), program directors, students and
families, the SEL instructors and students were the chief participating stakeholders. During face-
to- face training, surveys were administered to 16 instructors, who represented programs from a
total of 7 sites throughout the state, as a means to capture their collective attitudes on the
significance of the program and the underlying assumptions regarding the efficacy of the
program. As previously stated, the instructors’ experience teaching students ranged from 1-13
years. Nine of the instructors had completed four-year degree programs while others were
currently enrolled in college. Over the course of 12 weeks, 15 field observations were completed
across five program sites in order to capture the degree of skill transference from the training to
the instructors’ respective worksites. Two of the seven program sites were unavailable for
observations due to site- specific challenges. Of the participating instructors, a total of 11
instructors were observed. Two instructors were observed twice based on their availability.
Following the conclusion of the 12 -week winter session three instructors representing separate
sites, 1 site in the northern region of the state and 2 in the southern region of the state,
volunteered to participate in a semi-structured interview where they reflected on the utility of the
social skills framework, which promotes art-integrative strategies, the process of implementing
suggested strategies, and the resources needed to effectively execute the work. Each of these
instructors was observed at least one time during the observation cycle. Only one instructor
reported 10- 15 years of experience and the other two reported 3- 5 years of experience.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 80

Additional qualitative data was collected from 6 student participants, ages 12-17, during a focus
group; the students provided insight on their perceived benefits of the program. It is important to
note that the students in the focus group represented a small sample of students from 1 program
site. It is equally important to note that the students represent a site that is different from those of
the instructors were available for an interview. As it is requirement for enrollment into the
program, the students all live in low-income households and attend public school. An additional
40 students across two program sites completed the survey, which was designed to gauge their
attitude on community involvement, their ability and inclination to work with others, and their
sense of self-worth. Pre and post surveys were administered at the beginning and end –
respectively – of the program so as to ascertain if there were any changes in their views over the
course of the 12-week session. The surveys, which were developed for the purpose of this study
were administered by instructors and sent to the principal investigator via mail.
While the students in this study have not been universally identified as emotionally and
behaviorally disturbed, it is important to note that according to their instructors many of the
students exhibit behavioral concerns that align with the key clinical identifiers of children who
are emotionally and behaviorally disturbed. With equal importance, we also acknowledge the
existent culture of under identification of EBD students within inner city schools that can be
attributed to a federal requirement of late identification, which states that children can only be
evaluated after a long history of socially adaptive behaviors and the behaviors must be
considered severe by the evaluator (Wagner, 1995). The range of social behaviors that mirror
EBD indicators and are exhibited by students in the program, include but are not limited to: An
impaired ability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers; consistent challenges when working with others in learning situations; difficulty
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 81

learning from experiences; behavior does not improve with typical disciplinary methods; talks
incessantly; frequently talks without permission or interrupts conversations; looks depressed
almost all the time without regard to circumstances. These behaviors, although mild, may act as
the start to a gradually developing disorder which is deemed to exacerbate overtime, if
unaddressed. For this reason, this study was designed to garner a deeper understanding of the
way in which alternative intervention strategies such as the pro-social skills framework might be
utilized to address socially maladaptive behaviors in students. As such, the below results
demonstrate the outcomes and findings that have emerged following the program
implementation and subsequent evaluation.
Results

If instructors are to effectively address students’ social and behavioral needs, they need to
acquire pertinent knowledge regarding the concepts and processes that influence behaviors and
facilitate identity development, they benefit from a shared mindset regarding their individual and
collective ability to address the behaviors, and they also benefit from operating within an
organization that clarifies the policies, systems, and resources available to support their needs.
Clark and Estes (2008) assert that collective mindset and capabilities within organizations are
crucial when facilitating performance improvement efforts. To that end, the instructors in this
study were surveyed regarding their ability to identify the conceptual and procedural factors
involved in supporting student identity development. Additionally, the survey was designed to
gauge instructors’ motivation to pursue the organizational goals. Mayer (2011) refers to
motivation as a force that allows us to persist towards our goals. As there are various facets of
motivation that impacts organization, the survey in this study was also structured to capture
instructors’ self-efficacy and to develop an understanding regarding the factors in which
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 82

instructors attribute their success and failures. Anderman & Anderman (2006) stated that
attributions impact behavior and is therefore a significant motivational element. Likewise, an
individual’s self-efficacy or belief in their ability to fulfill a particular requirement also impacts
motivation (Goddard & Goddard, 2001). Finally, the instructors’ perception of organizational
support was surveyed. Organizational alignment and culture are fundamental influences as these
factors provide a framework for teams as they navigate the behaviors that are advanced within
their company.
The data below outlines the results from the instructor’s survey, which highlights
instructors’ perceptions on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact
their work. Furthermore, the data below displays student responses to questions that were
extracted from the student survey; the questions were geared to solicit their views on the three
aforementioned influences as it relates to their experience in the program. The results from the
student and instructor surveys, coupled, are included under each domain of the KMO framework.
This juxtaposition of data will allow for a comparative analysis of the way in which instructors’
perspectives align with students’ views.
Knowledge Results
Identity Development
In an effort to shape students’ social and behavioral skills and eventually promote the
development of a healthy sense of self, it is important for instructors to grasp the concept of
identity beyond the typical belief that it is solely related to one’s physical traits. Identity consists
of multiple factors including individuals’ perception on their relationship with society as well as
their perception on their abilities and characteristics (Erickson, 2005; Stets & Burke, 2000;
Tsang, Hui, & Law, 2012). Therefore, the knowledge based survey questions were aimed to
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 83

measure if instructors understand that identity is an involved social construct that includes
intrapersonal processes and external factors. Likewise, it was important for instructors to learn
that student identity is closely related to their development as well. In effort to capture
information regarding instructors’ understanding of the various components of identity, they
were asked if they believe that “Identity development is an essential component of student
development,” accordingly, 75% (n=12) of instructors responded that they strongly agree and
25% (n=4) instructors agreed. All of the instructors who participated agreed with the relevance
of identity development when working to foster growth in their students. The figure below
displays the results for instructors’ knowledge and attitudes on identity development.
Figure 1
Instructor Survey Results for Relevance of Identity Development

By the same token, students’ perception regarding their abilities and their unique roles in
society is an integral aspect of identity development. Thus, it was important to monitor the way
0%

25%

75%

0%
0%

Identity
Development

Unsure
Agree

Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 84

in which the implementation of the social skills framework impacted students, if at all. During
the pretest students were asked several questions to assess their attitude in relation to their sense
of self. At the end of the 12 -week session students were asked to complete the same survey so
that results may be analyzed to determine if there was a change in perspective following the
completion of several weeks. During the pretest, when asked if they feel they could make a
difference in the world, 30% of students (n=12) responded that they were unsure, 27.5 % (n=11)
responded “agree” , 40%(n=16) responded “strongly agree” , and 2.5% (n=1) responded that
they “disagree” with this statement. During the posttest, 17% (n=7) responded that they were
unsure, 42.5 % (n=17) responded “agree”, 30%(n=12) responded “strongly agree”, and 10%
(n=4) responded that they “disagree” with this statement. In addition, students were asked if they
are “valuable to other people.” In response to this question student pretest results were as
follows: 50% of students (n=20) responded that they were unsure, 12.5 % (n=5) responded
“agree” , 35% (n=14) responded “strongly agree” , and 2.5% (n=1) responded that they
“disagree” with this statement. In the posttest, 30% of students (n=12) responded that they were
unsure, 27.5 % (n=11) responded “agree”, 35%(n=14) responded “strongly agree” , and 2.5%
(n=1) responded that they “disagree” with this statement. Furthemore, in an effort to gauge
students’ perspectives on their respective communities, students were asked if they “understand
issues affecting their community. In response, 32.5% of students (n=13) responded that they
were unsure, 30 % (n=12) responded “agree”, 32.5% (n=13) responded “strongly agree”, and 5%
(n=2) responded that they “disagree” with this statement. During the posttest, 17% of students
(n=7) responded that they were unsure, 50 % (n=20) responded “agree” , 30% (n=12) responded
“strongly agree” , and 2.5% (n=1) responded that they “disagree” with this statement. The data
shows that following the implementation of the 12-week session, students’ attitudes begun to
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 85

shift. While there was a 15% increase in the number of students who agreed they could change
the world, there was also a 7.5% increase in the number of students who disagreed with this
sentiment. Overall, there was a 15% increase in students who believed that they are valuable to
others. Finally, there was an 18% increase in the number of students who agreed that they
understood the issues affecting their community. The figures below summarize the students’
knowledge and attitudes on the relevance of identity development.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 86

Figure 2
Student Survey Results for Relevance of Identity Development

Figure 3
Student Survey Results for Relevance of Identity Development

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

I
can
make
a
difference

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

I
am
valuable
to
others

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 87

Figure 4

Student Survey Results for Relevance of Identity Development

The Role of Self-Esteem
Furthermore, in order to gain a sense of instructors’ knowledge on the interconnection
between students’ self-esteem and identity development, they were asked if they believed that
“When students are aware of their strengths, they are more likely to perform well in school.” In
response to this question 69% (n=11) of instructors “strongly agreed”, 25% (n=4) “agreed” and
.06% (n=1) disagreed. In this case, 93% of instructors agreed that self-esteem impacts student
performance. The figure below displays instructors’ responses to this question.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
responses

I
understand
issues
affecting
my
community

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 88

Figure 5
Instructor Survey Results for The Role of Self-Esteem

By comparison, when students were asked if they have good qualities, 7.5% of students
(n=3) responded that they were “unsure”, 27.5 % (n=11) responded “agree” , 65%(n=26)
responded “strongly agree” , and 0% (n=0) responded that they “disagree” with this statement. In
the posttest, 15% of students (n=6) responded that they were unsure, 30% (n=12) responded
“agree”, 47%(n=19) responded “strongly agree”, and 5% (n=2) responded that they “disagree”
with this statement. The data shows that following the 12-week session, there was a 15%
decrease in the number students who believed that they have good qualities. The figure below
displays the results for instructors’ and students’ knowledge on the role of self-esteem in
facilitating the development of pro-social skills and students ‘ attitudes regarding their self-
esteem before and after the implementation of the framework.

0%

69%

25%

6%

0%

Self-‐Esteem

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 89

Figure 6
Student Survey Results for The Role of Self-Esteem

Setting Goals as an Instructional Strategy

Regarding goal setting and its relationship with developing students’ social skills,
instructors were asked if “When students set goals, they are more likely to succeed.” In response,
43% (n=7) of instructors “strongly agreed”, 51% (n=8) agreed, and .06% (n=1) stated that were
unsure. The majority of 93% agreed or strongly agreed that it was important to set goals for
success. The figure below displays instructors’ attitudes on the role of goal setting.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

I
have
good
qualities

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 90

Figure 7
Instructor Survey Results for The Role of Goal Setting

By comparison, students were asked if they agreed with the following statement “It is
important for me to set goals throughout my entire life.” The results were as follows: 12.5% of
students (n=5) responded that they were unsure, 22.5 % (n=9) responded “agree” , 62.5%(n=25) ,
responded “strongly agree” , and 2.5% (n=1) responded that they “disagree” with this statement.
During the posttest “7.5% of students (n=3) responded that they were unsure, 25 % (n=10)
responded “agree” , 62%(n=25) responded “strongly agree” , and 5% (n=2) responded that they
“disagree” with this statement. Also, when asked if they agreed with the following statement “I
can improve myself by working hard to achieve my dreams,” students’ responses were as
follows: 5% of students (n=2) responded that they were unsure, 5 % (n=2) responded “agree” ,
90% (n=36) responded “strongly agree” , and 0% (n=0) responded that they “disagree” with this
statement. During the posttest, 5% of students (n=2) responded that they were unsure, 20 %
(n=8) responded “agree” , 72%(n=29) responded “strongly agree” , and 2.5% (n=1) responded
6%

51%

43%

0%
0%

Goal-‐Setting

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 91

that they “disagree” with this statement. There was 2% growth from pre to post in the number of
students who agreed that setting goals could impact their lives and that they could possibly
achieve their dreams. Overall, we the data shows increases in students’ knowledge on the issues
affecting their community and their ability to change their present conditions. Likewise, the
instructor data conveys a general understanding of the role of identity development in facilitating
student growth. The figures below display a summary of the instructors’ and students’ attitudes
and knowledge on the role of goal setting when developing pro-social skills and facilitating
identity development.
Figure 8
Student Survey Results for The Role of Goal Setting

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

It
is
important
for
me
to
set
goals

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 92

Figure 9
Student Survey Results for The Role of Goal Setting

Motivation Results
Attribution
In the discussion on the motivational influences that impact teachers’ ability and effort to
facilitate social and behavioral change in students, it was found that in order to be effective,
instructors should feel that students’ maladaptive behaviors and internalized failures are
reflective of the their own efforts rather than social environments outside of the classroom.
Anderman and Anderman (2006) explained that when teachers attribute student display of
undesired behaviors to elements outside of the learning environment, students are more likely to
adapt this way of thinking for they are not taught that they have the power to control their own
behavior, to change, and to achieve the desired outcomes in their own lives. Therefore,
instructors in this study were asked to respond to survey questions regarding their view on the
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

I
can
improve
myself
through
hardwork

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 93

existing locus of control when attempting to influence student behavior. Furthermore, it is
equally important that instructors believe student growth is directly related to the effort that the
instructors themselves invest in both planning and professional development. According to
Mayer (2011) individuals exert more effort when they attribute success and failure to their own
efforts. With this said, the instructors in this study will perform sufficiently if they actually
believe in their own capabilities to achieve the established goals and seek ways in to improve
their approach when necessary. Hence, the survey was constructed to test instructors’ beliefs on
their abilities to fulfill organizational expectations. Moreover, student attribution was surveyed
as a means to gather information about their perceived locus of control and their attitudes
regarding their own ability to change their lives. During training, the instructors were taught the
principles of the attribution theory and discussed the way in which their messages may or may
not impact student attribution. This inclusion of student attribution was influenced by researcher
Kulinna (2007) who noted that teachers identify external factors such as students’ families and
social lives as the causes of misbehavior. Such messages are likely to disempower students if
they are not taught that they can control the issue by behaving differently (Anderman &
Anderman, 2006). Again, pre and posttests were administered to compare responses following
the implementation of strategies discussed in the social skills framework.
The results are as follows: When instructors were asked if the way students behave in
class is out of their control, 57% (n=9) responded that they “disagree” and 43% (n=7) responded
“strongly disagree”. Furthermore, when they were asked if students misbehave because teachers
are not properly skilled to teach positive behaviors 12% (n=2) of instructors responded that they
were unsure, 19% (n=3) agreed, 56% (n=9) disagreed, 13% (n=2) strongly disagreed. This data
shows that while 100% of instructors’ agreed that they are able to control student behavior, there
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 94

is a varying level of awareness regarding the way in which their skill level affects their ability to
facilitate student growth. There is a blind spot in instructors’ awareness of their individual
training needs, however this does not negatively affect their self-efficacy. The figures below
displays the survey results for instructors’ perceptions on their ability to influence student growth
and their views on the importance of improving their individual capacity.
Figure 10
Instructor Survey Results for Instructors’ Perception of Attribution and Growth Mindset

0%
0%
0%

57%

43%

Attribution
&
Growth
Mindset

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 95

Figure 11
Instructor Survey Results for Instructors’ Perception of Attribution and Growth Mindset

In relation to instructors’ motivational influences, students were asessed to gain insight
on whether or not they possess a growth mindset. They were asked if they agree with the
following statement, “The more I practice a skill, the more successful I will be.” In response, 5%
of students (n=2) responded that they were unsure, 22.5 % (n=9) responded “agree” ,
72.5%(n=29) responded “strongly agree” , and 0% (n=1) responded that they “disagree” with
this statement. During the posttest, 2.5% of students (n=1) responded that they were unsure, 30
% (n=12) responded “agree”, 65%(n=26) responded “strongly agree”, and 2.5% (n=1) responded
that they “disagree” with this statement. There was no change in students’ perception that they
are able to change their lives in a positive manner. The figure below summarizes data regarding
students’ perceptions on their own ability to change.

12%

19%

0%

56%

13%

Attribution
&
Growth
Mindset

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 96

Figure 12
Student Survey Results for Perceptions On Attribution and Growth Mindset

Instructor Efficacy

In addition to the way in which attribution influences individuals’ behaviors, self-efficacy
also impacts one’s decision to pursue a goal. Bandura (1986) notes that if individuals are not
confident in their ability to reach a goal, they will not work towards completing the specified
task. As a result, instructors’ self-efficacy was measured to gain insight on their attitude
concerning the belief that they make a difference in student lives. Again students’ perspectives
were solicited by way of a pre and post surveys so as to compare responses following the
implementation of strategies discussed in the social skills framework.
When asked the following question, “I am able to influence student behavior” 43% (n=7)
of instructors responded strongly agree, 51% (n=8) agreed, and 06% (n=1) disagreed. When
asked if it is important to tell students that they are behaving inappropriately 37% (n=6) strongly
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

The
more
I
practice,
the
more
successful
I
will
be

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 97

agreed, 57% (n=9) agreed, and .06% (n=1) were unsure. Additionally, when asked if they could
teach students how to become better decision makers 43% (n=7) strongly agreed and 57% (n=9)
agreed. Lastly, instructors were ask if the work the work they do makes a huge difference in
student lives and 57% (n=9) agreed, 37% (n=6) strongly agreed, and 06% (n=1) were unsure. In
summary, the above responses indicate that the majority of instructors (93% - l00%) have
positive viewpoints on their abilities to influence student behavior. The figures below displays
the results explained above.
Figure 13
Instructor Survey Results for the Role of Self-Efficacy

0%

51%

43%

6%

0%

Self-‐EfMicacy

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 98

Figure 14
Instructor Survey Results for the Role of Self-Efficacy

0%

57%

37%

6%

0%

Self-‐EfMicacy

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 99

Figure 15
Instructor Survey Results for the Role of Self-Efficacy

0%

57%

43%

0%
0%

Self-‐EfMicacy

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 100

Figure 16
Instructor Survey Results for the Role of Self-Efficacy

In comparison, students were asked questions to gauge their efficacy when working to
apply the behaviors in which the instructors are attempting to change. In response to the
statement “I can work cooperatively with a group of people,” 7.5% of students (n=3) responded
that they were unsure, 32.5 % (n=13) responded “agree” , 55%(n=22) , responded “strongly
agree” , and 5% (n=2) responded that they “disagree” with this statement. During the posttest
“7.5% of students (n=3) responded that they were unsure, 22.5 % (n=9) responded “agree” ,
50%(n=20) responded “strongly agree” , and 17.5% (n=7) responded that they “disagree” with
this statement. Likewise, in response to the statement “I do not get along with others,” 17.5% of
students (n=7) responded that they were unsure, 2.5 % (n=1) responded “agree” , 2.5%(n=1) ,
responded “strongly agree” , and 77.5% (n=31) responded that they “disagree” with this
statement. During the posttest “20% of students (n=8) responded that they were unsure, 5 %
0%

57%

37%

6%

0%

Self-‐EfMicacy

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 101

(n=2) responded “agree”, 0%(n=0) responded “strongly agree” , and 72.5% (n=29) responded
that they “disagree” with this statement. In response to questions regarding perceived ability to
work with others, there 18% decrease in the number of students who stated they were able to
work with others and a 5% decrease in the amount of students who responded that they get along
with others. Thus far, the results show a decrease in students’ perceptions on their ability to
productively socialize with others. In contrast, there was an increase their individual knowledge
of community affairs and their perceived ability to change. These results reflect the instructors’
responses as they generally agreed that they could influence student behavior. However,
instructors’ ability to faciliate group processes was not assessed. The figures below displays pre
and post results regarding students’ beliefs in their ability to socialize with others.
Figure 17
Student Survey Results for the Role of Self-Efficacy

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

I
can
work
cooperatively
with
others

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 102

Figure 18
Student Survey Results for the Role of Self-Efficacy

Organizational Results

Equally important to the knowledge and motivational influences that affect instructors’
determination and ability to achieve the stated goals are the organizational systems and policies
created to support the instructors in their endeavors. Clark and Estes (2008) explained that
knowledge and motivational gaps are oftentimes reflective of lack of communication and
alignment of goals with available resources and methods on behalf of leadership. To that end, the
instructor- based survey was designed to probe instructors’ perceptions on the level of support
that exists within the organization. Students were also asked to respond to questions that gauge
their views on the relevance of community involvement and their plans to be involved, which is
a desired student outcome within the organization. According to Day-Vines and Terriquez
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

I
do
not
get
along
with
others

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 103

(2008) community-based initiatives have also been found to improve self-esteem as well as
problem-solving skills. Thus, the results below are presented to indicate the way in which
instructors’ views on particular organizational influences correspond with student attitudes
regarding relative issues.
Organizational Alignment and Support
When asked if there are systems in place that help support student development, 06%
(n=1) of instructors were unsure, 57% (n=9) agreed, 31% (n=5) strongly agreed, 06% (n=1) was
strongly disagreed. Moreover, when asked if the organization empowers students to make a
difference in their communities, 37% (n=6) of instructors agreed and 63% (n=10) strongly
agreed. In summary, 88% of instructors agreed that there are actual systems in place to support
student development, while 100% agreed the organization is geared to promote student
community involvement. Hence, while instructors are aware of the organizational values, they do
not all agree that there are existent systems aligned to support those values. The figure below
displays the results regarding instructors’ views on the state of support and alignment within the
organization as they attempt to engage students in the commuity.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 104

Figure 19
Instructor Survey Results for Organizational Support and Alignment

6%

57%

31%

0%

6%

Organizational
Support
&
Alignment

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 105

Figure 20
Instructor Survey Results for Organizational Support and Alignment

Regarding student responses, when asked if they plan to be involved in programs that
help to improve the community, 2.5% of students (n=1) responded that they were unsure, 40 %
(n=16) responded “agree” , 57.5%(n=23) responded “strongly agree” , and 0% (n=0) responded
that they “disagree” with this statement. During the posttest, 17.5% of students (n=7) responded
that they were unsure, 40 % (n=16) responded “agree” , 40%(n=16) responded “strongly agree”,
and 2.5% (n=1) responded that they “disagree” with this statement. In the pre test 98% of
students expressed interest to be involved in the community-based programs, however following
the 12-week session only 80% expressed intent to be involved and there was a 15% increase in
the number of students who expressed uncertainty. While it is unclear of which factors
infleunced the shift in student perspectives, their views may be a reflection of the misalignment
between organizational values and programming as expressed by the instructors. The figure
0%

37%

63%

0%
0%

Organizational
Support
&
Alignment

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

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below depicts students’ responses regarding their intentions to participate in civic affairs,
preceding and following the implementation of the framework.
Figure 21

Student Survey Results for Organizational Support and Alignment

Findings

In addition to the utilization of surveys to measure instructors’ and students’ attitudes
regarding the KMO factors that primarily influence the behaviors of the primary stakeholders
(instructors and students) in this study, a qualitative approach was also employed in order to
unearth emerging ideas and factors that may also affect the instructors as they work to cultivate
pro-social behaviors in students. Collectively, data from the survey responses, instructor
interviews, and student focus group and workshop observations were all gathered so as to answer
the following inquiries:
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Unsure
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Disagree

Percentage
of
Responses

I
plan
to
be
involved
in
community
programs

Pre
Test
Score

Post
Test
Score

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How do instructors perceive the pro-social skills curriculum initiative to impact
students’ social and emotional growth.

Does the pro-social skills curriculum initiative improve students’ attitudes and
beliefs on communicating and dealing with conflict?

Several themes and findings related to the above research questions emerged after employing
the aforementioned strategies. The themes, which include socio-cultural influences, instructional
approaches, and multi-disciplinary approaches and related findings are presented and supported
by the data related to these questions. A synthesis of the results is discussed at the end of this
chapter.
Sociocultural Influences: Lived Experiences
Identity formation is an involved process that is influenced by one’s daily interactions
with their environment, including familial circumstances as well as societal events at large.
Erickson (1968) discussed the relationship between identity development and the social
environment and noted that people develop in response to their social context and for this reason
identity is ever changing as an individual’s interaction with the social environment is
transformative in nature. Several common themes regarding the sociocultural influences in
students’ lives were unearthed during instructor interviews. Collectively, the instructors spoke to
the importance of creating alternative environments for students as a means to compete with
negative external factors. Additionally, the instructors expressed that there are benefits in
creating an environment by building a rapport with students, securing a safe haven, and raising
students’ awareness of the socio-cultural factors that impact their lives. All three of the
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instructors referenced students’ home and program environments as vital factors that ultimately
impact student development.
Alternative Environments. A common thread that emerged through participants’
narratives was the perception of a consistent struggle with competing external factors, and
therefore a need to create safe environments that are not existent in the community and home
environment. All three instructors communicated a perceived control over their ability to
effectively facilitate students’ identity development, but referenced neighborhood and familial
strife as environmental influences that constantly hinder their progress. When asked if there are
perceived external factors affecting their work, all three instructors acknowledged that they
perceive the influence and attractiveness of the streets to sometimes be more influential than
education. During the interviews, each instructor communicated that the lure of activities in the
community interferes with their ability to maintain lasting results with students. One instructor
specifically referred to this dynamic as a “constant tug of war” that exists between participants’
home environments and the program. Additionally, in attempt to explain the level of violence
and student temptation to engage in counterproductive activities, one instructor explained:
The ignorance in these communities, the ignorance has gotten to proportions where I
can't even comprehend. By ignorance, I mean the lack of humanity. People just
committing senseless acts of violence. The accessibility of drugs and guns. Those are all
challenges that these students face every day on their way to and from school. On the
way here. These are things that they see and a lot of times, I probably would say males
are more attracted to that type of life than females. For some reason, they're attracted to
that. It seems like that sort of lifestyle is more exciting than school…That's a challenge
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for us because we're competing with something that we ... It's an uphill battle because we
don't see them as often as the folks on the street see them.
During a separate interview, one instructor expressed the desire to be proactive in order to
prevent students from entering the criminal justice system. When discussing the decision to
transition to a career in Education, the instructor shared, “I felt like I could do more” and
suggested that programs such as Onward Education allows educators the opportunity to
proactively intervene in students’ lives ahead of time.
In attempt to explain the necessity of programs that focus on the social needs of students,
an instructor emphatically shares:
I'm speaking from the heart, I just feel like this program is definitely, definitely a need in our
community. There are so many negative issues and so many negative instances and there's
really not much for students in the inner city. Students in our urban districts. They really
don't have many positive activities.
Likewise, during the focus group, a student shared that the program has helped him. He
expounded upon his thoughts with the following statement:
I trust my instructors here more than I do my counselors at school, the instructors know
our problems and the listen to us, with our counselors at school, its hard to get their
attention, the Onward Education instructors have more time. The counselors at school are
like “you got ten minutes to talk.” If you need to cry for an hour the instructors here are
there for you. As a person who suffers from anxiety and ADHD and other the mental
stuff the Onward Education office has been a great help. It’s been 3 weeks since I’ve seen
a counselor at school.
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Additionally, when asked about the benefits of the program, another student responded “In
school, like if you say something you get judged very quickly because people change their
personality, but here I think that everybody acts like who they really are, we’re like a family, we
really grew into a family.” Building community within the program was viewed as a strategy for
competing with the external factors in which students face daily. Each instructor insisted that
building and maintaining a positive rapport helps to build community in the program and this
serves as a healthy alternative for students. They also asserted that building culture could offer a
healthy alternative for students who are lured by the affection they feel for people who expose
them to risky activities.
Building rapport. Moreover, during the interviews, all 3 instructors collectively
identified relationship building as a top priority during the initial weeks of the session. One
instructor, for instance noted the importance of “building that rapport with them and
understanding or showing a sense of interest in their interests”. Fostering a relationship with
students was deemed important as students have self-protective behaviors and their pride acts as
a barrier to making authentic connections. One instructor shared her views on the importance of
developing relationships when she said:
Sometimes you have to pull things out of students, or a lot of students don't believe that
they need the help. Maybe they come to the program for other reasons, but a lot of
students are very independent, so it's more asking them all the time, "Are you okay? You
sure you don't need nothing? Are you absolutely sure?
The instructors attributed their ability to relate to students as an entryway to fostering a healthy,
trusting relationship with students. One instructor stated:
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When I told them specific things about myself, they opened up. You have to take the
right approach with them; there was one student whom I spoke to in this way and I'm
happy to say that after we had that discussion, his behavior did change.
Building a rapport was noted as a crucial step in the process towards facilitating identity
development. Neel, Cessna, Borock, and Bechard (2003) assert that instruction centered on the
affective engagement of students is most ideal for EBD students as they benefit from
environments whereby they can develop positive and meaningful relationships. While the
instructors at Onward Education have begun to implement art-based strategies in order to
promote social skill development, they have collectively suggested that first and foremost they
must make a connection with students. Such an assertion supports the claims in current research
that cultivating a safe environment is vital when working to teach social skills to students with
emotional and behavioral challenges.
Safe Havens. Furthermore, from the interview process emerged the notion of a need to
create a space where students feel a sense of belonging. The instructors in the study intentionally
foster a climate where students feel accepted and supported. During interviews, all three
instructors echoed a shared sentiment that participants in the programs are emotionally and
socially guarded as self-protection is viewed as a defensive strategy to prevent being hurt by
another person. One instructor shared, “we are addressing students’ need for protection by
connecting with students.” An other instructor, shared for instance that the instructors and the
students have “sat and had group sessions and I've had students talk about how their relative has
been shot, how their neighbors have been shot, how there's problems in their area.” The
instructor continued to explain, “Right by their house, there's instances of violence and they talk
and it's almost like they're desensitized by it.” When asked how they are tackling this perception
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of desensitization, instructors collectively share that building a rapport with students is viewed as
a means for ultimately influencing their behaviors. One instructor insisted that there is a need to
increase the focus on social and emotional needs for participants. This particular instructor
suggested that “teachers do not normally ask ‘How are you today? Is everything all right?’
Everything is more focused on going to school, get good grades, prep for the test that you need to
take, or SATs, and things like that.” Similarly, during the focus group, students expressed that
they experience an increased level of comfort. One student said:
In here I learned how to communicate with people, so even if I don’t know them I can
talk to them kind of, before I came here I didn’t talk to nobody but since a few weeks past
I got comfortable with other people.
Likewise, the instructors expressed a shared view that it is important for instructors to exercise
transparency with students. One instructor stated that when they are honest about their personal
experiences students are then able to foresee “what is possible, regardless of what's happening
now.” In the focus group, a student echoed the instructors’ perspective. One student shared “the
teachers here are not like teachers in school, they are more involved, we can trust the teachers,
we have a bond with them… you can tell them who you are.”
All in all, it is apparent that the instructors have made strides in fostering relationships
with students and creating a safe place. In respect to facilitating identity development and
fostering pro-social skills in young people, a perception of safety is a key component.
Socio-cultural awareness. In addition to laying the foundation for healthy relationships
and establishing a sense of safety among student participants, the instructors spoke to the
importance of helping students to understand the implications of their impoverished and low
socioeconomic status. During interviews, all three instructors addressed the fact that students are
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becoming more aware of the implications of their home situations and are beginning to see
themselves as “other.” One instructor further explained that oftentimes students say directly that
adults, specifically the adults who serve them in schools and programs such as Onward
Education, “have no idea what it's like to live in the projects.” The same instructor shared that
students generally make comments along the lines of, “you have no idea what it's like to live in a
drug-infested area. You have no idea what it's like to wake up hungry." One instructor noted that
this existence is at the forefront of students’ lives each day. He shared:
They do come from the same neighborhood; a similar neighborhood and unfortunately
these neighborhoods are stricken with a lot of challenges. From crime, being one. Drugs
being another. Some of our students, you can tell that they're from lower social economic
status. It's to the point where we've discussed during lunchtime how some students ask
for seconds and thirds and if there's still more, they want to pack food to go.
Nonetheless, according to 2 out of 3 of the instructors during the interview process, while
students are cognizant of the obstacles they must face, students are also aware of their
professional aspirations. One instructor who teaches middle school students in the program
explained that the students dream of holding traditional positions such as “teachers, lawyers,
doctors, and police officers” and regarding male students “many of them want to be athletes.” In
contrast, an instructor who teaches high school noted that students are “not sure about what they
want to do in life.”
During a workshop observation, instructors addressed student identity and worked to
facilitate productive meaning making in their lives. The instructor was observed, for example, to
ask students to write a poem about “police relationships with inner city children” and they were
expected to present their writings at the end of class. During the observation, after each student
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shared their individual experiences with police officers, the instructor would ask questions such
as “how did that make you feel” or “why do you think she responded like that.” After students
attempted to respond, other students would share their perspective regarding a similar situation.
Such exercises have also impacted students’ ability to open up to one another. In an interview
one instructor shared that many of the students have begun to overcome their weariness with
opening up to others and are possibly exhibiting a more vulnerable side of their personalities.
Another instructor stated that students in the program:
Walk around in an armor because it's a survival tactic in this type of environment. It's a
defense mechanism when you're coming from the neighborhoods they come from. If you
look vulnerable, you're going to get picked on.
This interpretation of student behavior aligns with Stets & Burke’s (2000) assertion that
individuals develop a perception of their lives in respect to the world they live in.” The students
in the program all live in low socio-economic environments where they frequently encounter
violence and aggression. Despite the multitude of external challenges that students face daily, the
instructors in this study have begun to embody this understanding and in turn utilize this
knowledge in order to galvanize and empower the students to individually develop so that the
students may exhibit the necessary behaviors to be college and career ready.
Instructional Approaches
Social cognition, which is the way in which people think about their own ideas, emotions,
and actions and those of others, is a fundamental component of identity development. To that
end, instructors typically aim to utilize specific strategies when attempting to cultivate a skill set
in students. Regarding students with emotional and behavioral challenges, researchers suggest
that the purposeful cultivation of self-worth, awareness, and metacognitive practice could nurture
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a positive identity (Tsang, Hui, and Law, 2012). Among researchers, the recommendations for
classroom-based strategies have included goal setting and the incorporation of community based
activities (Day-Vines and Terriquez, 2008). During the study, a common thread throughout the
narrative was instructors’ explicit teaching of skills, such as decision-making, in which they
deemed necessary when developing socially competent students. In addition to the previously
recommended instructional strategies, there was also the emergence of the importance of self-
awareness, community-based initiatives as well as utility of discussion, reflection, and arts
integration in facilitating the development of pro-social skills.
Self-awareness. A common thread shared among instructors was the perceived
importance of assisting students to cope with environmental factors by way of facilitating the
acquisition of self-awareness. In the interviews, as all three instructors referenced the issues
students face, they additionally spoke to leveraging this understanding by fostering experiences
whereby students can make meaning of their lives. In an interview, one instructor imparted that
there is an unfortunate“accessibility of drugs and guns.” He proceeded to explain,
These are all challenges that these students face every day on their way to and from
school. On the way here. These are things that they see and a lot of times. I probably
would say males are more attracted to that type of life than females. For some reason,
they're attracted to that. It seems like that sort of lifestyle is more exciting than school.
In response to this, instructors aide in students ability to solidify an identity by urging students to
increase their self-awareness and consider their lives in ways that they are not often afforded the
opportunity to do in other environments. For example, one instructor shared that they introduce
students to,
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Self-assessments basically, where they think about the easy things. Easy assignments,
easy topics, but these are things that they usually don't think about, but once they begin to
think about it, they start seeing themselves and also what they are. It may be a little
tedious but it gives them an opportunity to think about things they normally don't think
about.”
An example of this type of assignment was observed in 11 out of 15 site visits. During
one observation, students were instructed to complete a Myers-Briggs personality test that
prompted them to consider if they were more extroverted or introverted. During another
observation, students completed another personality assessment, which upon completion
provided recommendations on which industries might be most suitable for work. Following the
completion of the assessments, students shared out their results with the class and the instructor
commented on the results. Moreover, all three instructors noted that students are constantly
confronting a new identity in academic settings that differ from their home or other safe places.
During an interview, one instructor recalled a circumstance where a participant was behaving in
a manner that was unsuitable for an academic environment. He said, “He would have this
attitude where he was just behaving like he was on the block basically” and in response to this
behavior the instructor stated that he pulled the student to the side and reasoned with him to dress
appropriately in such settings. The instructor recalled that afterwards this particular student
begun to wear his pants at waist level upon arriving to the program.
The instructors’ collective recount of their approach to encourage self-awareness in
students coupled with the activities in which they are exposing students aligns with current
research on identity formation. For instance, Tsang, Hui, & Law (2012) highlighted that a
positive identity is developed when individuals can both cope with environmental influences and
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become more self-aware. It is clear that the instructors have begun to facilitate this very process
with students.
Community-based service. The utility of community service in developing pro social
skills emerged as a common theme among the instructors in the study. The instructors explicitly
taught skills necessary to be socially competent through the employment of community-based
service and teaching students to think critically about strengths, areas of improvement, and
decision making. This type of work is consistent with the research which states that positive self-
esteem can be developed by explicity teaching students and allowing students to be involved in
community centered intiatives (McGinnis, 1984). When asked if students were involved in
community service projects, all three instructors in this study collectively agree that this is a
relevant, and effective strategy in fostering identity development and pro social skills. However,
it was also apparent that there is a need to streamline this approach across all grades and sites
within the organization. For instance, one instructor explained:
Yeah we have students that they have community service projects and there's a school
across the street from this university. It's a school for disabled students. I mean physically
disabled. You have students who are in wheelchairs and walkers and they have a lot of
disabilities and we have students from our program who volunteer and they have to. They
do their community service hours there. So that's one way that they give back to the
community and they see how fortunate they are to be in a situation they are and not so
much like the students that they work with. So that's one thing that we do. We’ve also
had walks. We've had AIDS walks. Whenever there's a ... Every month there's awareness.
You have cancer awareness month, breast cancer awareness month, I believe it's in
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October, there's a diabetes walk. So we just try to get the kids dealing with their
community and raise awareness.
Another instructor shared that while community engagement is included in the program
schedule, students are not always aware of the benefits. She said:
We do have community service week, where I think each program creates an activity
involved in community service. I know for us, for the most part, we work with the food
bank. Some students, they know that there is a food bank but they don't really understand,
if you needed something, how you're able to get it from a food bank, or different things.
There's people out there who really are not eating, so students collect cans and different
things like that, and go to the food bank. They're actually going on Monday. For the most
part, I know a lot of the younger kids, and maybe the ninth and tenth graders, don't talk
too much about community service and being involved in the community, besides
programs where maybe they do karate or dance class, or something like that. They don’t
talk about direct community service, giving back.
Comparatively, students within the program spoke to the benefits of community service
in their lives. In the student focus group 4 out of 6 students acknowledged peer mentorship as the
preferred type of community service. One student explained, “The eleventh graders are mentors
to the freshman class that comes in.” When asked about the community service initiative to build
a garden in their school, one student shared:
I love our projects, they gave me a leadership role and with that I can interact with
everyone and even the teachers, even if I don’t like the teacher. I learned how to
communicate. I am helping my community so even after I leave my kids will be here and
they can say ‘my mom did that.’ I would love for all of our kids, even our family
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members just to enjoy the building that we’re in, but even if it don’t get built I know that
we worked so hard to make it a possibility and its so cool because we have a floor plan
and a community garden and we’re working as a community.
By introducing students to community service initiatives, the instructors are teaching students to
interact with their environments in a positive manner. Such an approach also empowers students
as they learn, firsthand, that they are capable of making a difference in the world.
Group-based discussion. In addition to community service, public speaking by way of
group discussion is also utilized as a strategy to improve students’ social skills. During the
interviews, all three instructors attested to the benefits of engaging students in group-based
discussion. One instructor in particular pinpointed that “being capable of understanding
something that another person is going through, rather than judging, and being able to love
themselves” is a perceived important skill. When asked about the perceived benefits of group
discussion, one instructor responded, “I like them to disagree so they can have an open
discussion.”
In comparison, when asked in what ways have they changed over the session, one student
responded, “the first time I came I didn’t know anybody so I was like in my own little comfort
zone but after Saturday classes I came out of my shell and I made new friends here.” Moreover,
in 12 out of 15 observations instructors were observed to lead group-based discussions. In one
observation, for example, the instructor asked the students to sit in a circle and discuss one “good
thing of the week.” Many of the students participated and responded to each other using non-
verbal gestures such as a nod of agreement and there were instances of mutual laughter. In
another observation, the instructor directed students to talk about their neighborhoods. In this
observation the students responded to a writing prompt titled, “Where I’m From” and after
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writing, they each shared their poem and discussed similarities. It was apparent that the
instructors were able to practice the actual strategies learned during training including how to
lead a productive discussion and ways to incorporate art-based strategies in order to promote
student engagement.
Instructors additionally noted the importance of storytelling, as a conversational
framework. The instructors collectively agreed that their own stories, whether directly relatable
or not, “could really be beneficial to a young person and they could definitely make a change in
their lives.” When asked in what ways storytelling helps, one instructor said, “I think that has
helped the most part because it shows them what the future could be. It shows them where they
can get, regardless of what's happening now.” In the same spirit, when asked how instructors in
the program have helped them, a student in the focus group shared, “they taught us from their
experience. They will be like I went through this, I know this, let me help you.” Interestingly,
this notion of discussion and storytelling as effective strategies for teaching social skills has not
been thoroughly examined in current literature. Among effective strategies, many researchers
have emphasized the efficiency of more direct methods of teaching social skills such as skill-
streaming approaches and goal setting (Dembo & Eaton, 2007; McGinnis, 1984). Hence, there
may be a need for further inquiry regarding the utilization of group-based discussion and
storytelling in future research.
The role of reflection. In addition to developing interpersonal skills through discussion,
a consistent theme in the narrative was instructors’ engagement in intentional reflective
activities. Two out of three instructors shared that student reflection has been included at the
closing of activities and subquently used to provide instructors insight on the effectiveness of the
social skills workshops. During an interview one instructor reported,
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After the session is over I'll get an opinion from them in writing. I'll ask them for a
writing assignment. I'll ask them, you know nothing long, nothing expansive, just two,
three paragraphs of concisely written paragraph to just talk about what you just
experienced, like directly to the point of what's this experience, and what they feel and
what they got out of it and it does help.
Likewise, 9 out of 15 instructors were observed to require students to complete their written
reflections prior to leaving the workshop. In one observation, students were asked to complete a
pre-made reaction form, which included questions such as “was this workshop helpful” and
“what did you learn today.” In another workshop, students were asked to complete a free-write
on what they learned about the effects of “catastrophic thinking.” The integration of reflective
writing helps the instructor to better understand student needs; it is essentially a strategy for
student input. When asked which method of reflection is employed at her site, one instructor
shared that through the utilization of surveys, they learn about student perception. She explained,
for example that by way of a survey instructors learned that students want more time to discuss
social and emotional centered topics. She further suggested, “When we do surveys, they (the
students) always say that they want to talk about life.” Ultimately, both surveys and student
reflection are productive ways to contemplate the quality and relevance of the instruction.
Guthrie and Jones (2012) noted that professionals must engage in intentional reflective practices
in order to become more proficient. Thus, the instructors at Onward Education have begun to
progress towards becoming more effective practitioners.
Arts-integration. Throughout the interviews, it also became clear that the instructors
have gradually begun to employ art-centered activities as a strategy to promote positive identity
development with participants. All three instructors agree that learning how to utilize art-based
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strategies to engage students has been beneficial. A combination of site visits revealed that
among the mediums of art that have been introduced to program participants the following are
included: collages, creative writing (specifically reflections), and public speaking. Each of these
methods promotes self-expression, civic involvement, and help students to develop a positive
identity (Williams, 2008). During an interview, an instructor expressed that the main benefit in
integrating art-based strategies in the classroom is that this promotes self-expression. The
instructor explained:
Students don't have that chance to actually maybe draw out how they feel, or put it in a
poem, or even just talk about it. I think that helps, for the most part, because if they did
incorporate that in school, then teachers would know why a certain student acted up, or
they would understand why this student sits in a corner by herself. It makes it easier to
teach those students.
Another instructor explained that another valuable instructional strategy is the use of free writing
and reflection. The instructor described the way in which this process takes place in the
classroom:
After the session is over I'll get an opinion from them in writing. I'll ask them for a
writing assignment. I'll ask them, you know nothing long, nothing expansive, just two,
three paragraphs of concisely written paragraph. I tell them to just talk about what you
just experienced and what they feel and what they got out of it and does it help. This time
is where they express themselves and they express what they learn and what they got out
of the session. I try to do that every time that we have a session.
The instructor further described an assignment whereby students were asked to use a
form of written self-expression to explore a topic titled “Why Am I Here,” whereby students
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were asked to reflect on their perceived purpose in life and share their reasons for enrolling in the
program. Furthermore, during site visits 13 out of 15 instructors were observed to incorporate art
as students worked on culminating projects and assignments such as collages. In one
observation, an instructor asked students to create a vision board that displays their goals in the
future. The students were told that they would present their boards once they were completed.
Likewise, a review of the portfolios revealed that such approaches ultimately lead to group-based
projects, which contributes to the acquisition of pro social skills. When asked about the
consistency in which the art-based strategies that were taught during the training are utilized in
the student-centered workshops, one instructor responded, “I mean, we are using what we
learned. Not way in depth yet, but we have started.” All three of the instructors expressed that
they were eager to learn the arts-based strategies versus the typical academic approach, but need
more scheduled time with students in order to introduce lessons in a practical manner. Due to a
limited schedule where the instructors meet with students for a short period of time each week,
they were only able to gradually employ the strategies for incorporating arts. As the instructors
collectively intimated a prioritized focus on building relationships with and between students
while slowly introducing arts-based strategies to promote self-expression, an underlying theme
surfaced regarding their desire to work with students more frequently so as to fully address their
needs. This pattern of thought, when further analyzed presented a larger matter, which is the call
for an organizational structure that addresses the needs of each student comprehensively, taking
into consideration academics as well as social, emotional, and behavioral components.
Multi-disciplinary Approaches
In the past years, there has been a spotlight on the lack of appropriate training for
teachers as well as the proclivity of educators to focus on academic-based interventions as a
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remedy for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. While it is necessary to design
instructional modules that effectively address the academic needs of EBD students, it is equally
important to ensure that there are organizational systems in place to support their social growth.
In fact, focusing on deficits in content related subjects alone has been unfruitful as many students
with behavioral challenges withdraw early from school due to the social exclusion experienced
when placed in remedial courses and/or retained in a prior grade (Eber, Sugai, Smith, & Scott,
2002; Wagner, 1995). Moreover, researchers have identified low self-efficacy regarding
academic performance as a probable cause of behavioral issues in the classroom (Sutherland et
al, 2008). In contrast, EBD students have been found to perform well when there is an increased
opportunity to engage in the classroom by way of activities that promote self-expression and
interpersonal connections (Hanover Research Report, 2013; Sutherland and Wehby, 2001). As
scholars have suggested, the instructors in this study have emphasized the need for a balanced
organizational structure that holistically integrates social skill development into their philosophy
and practices. In their explanations, two subthemes emerged, including the role of the whole-
child approach and the need of alternative trainings.
The whole-child approach. The most notable theme uncovered throughout the narrative
was instructors plea for an organizational shift that logistically and theoretically incorporates
strategies for focusing on the whole child as social issues are viewed as equally important as
academics. All three instructors interviewed expressed a sense of urgency in creating a
supportive space in which students could flourish. One instructor noted that the program allows a
space where students and instructors can learn from each other. He said,
Everyone has a story to tell and we can all learn from each other if we decide to share
those stories, but too many people are either shy, embarrassed, ashamed and don't want to
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share their stories, but little do they know that their stories could really be beneficial to a
young person and they could definitely make a change in their lives. One situation that
we had with a student was a very bright student who didn't want to participate. Who
didn't want to be a part of the program and he didn't have a real reason. He just didn't feel
like being here. He just mentioned that his mother was making him come here. So it was
just a matter of setting him down, talking to him and asking him, "What are you going to
do if you are not here? What are you going to do with your time?" Everything that he
mentioned was just wasteful, so that was when I just spoke to him about how the benefits
of the program and he can still do some of those things that he wanted to do, after the
program. You know, so it was more or less like time management and speaking to him as
to the benefits of the program and how to get a chance to meet new people from different
schools and so on and so forth and let him know how he can benefit from the program
despite doing the things that he wanted to do outside of the program, which could
possibly get him into trouble.
Likewise, the instructors agree that identity development and the development of pro-social
skills are important components in preparing students to be successful in career and college, an
ultimate goal of Onward Education. One instructor stated,
Identity development is something that is crucial for so many reasons. First and foremost,
you've got to know yourself before you can do anything. You have to know who you are
and what you stand for. What you dislike, what you like. What are your passions and
identity development is ... It's almost like you can have endless topics with that.
Another instructor echoed a shared sentiment in the following statement,
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 126

I mean, I think identity is extremely important and I think that's how we become who we
are. I think that, I mean, even at my age, or older than I am, you're still trying to figure
out certain things about yourself. There's always that reflection time. I think with students
in school, they don't have that reflection time or they don't have that opportunity to
express what's going on.
Furthermore, there is some evidence that the organization has begun to implement
policies and systems to support instructors’ needs, however there is still need for additional
resources that address student social behavior. For instance, it was indicated during the
stakeholder interviews with the administrative team that the program leaders have issued a policy
requiring all instructors to utilize the social skills framework when constructing their workshops.
As a measurement method, the leaders have mandated that instructors at each program site
submit portfolios, an artifact displaying the instructors’ plans and exemplars of student work, as
a demonstration of their cumulative performance. While the organization has begun to make
strides in emphasizing the importance of social and emotional learning, they have yet to codify
the schedule related resources necessary to do so. For instance, during interviews, all three
instructors expressed a desire to work with students for two to three years versus one school
year. They explained that they would like more time to work directly with the same students to
effectuate change, observe changes, and witness milestones. One instructor stated “if I had the
same students each year, it would be easier for me to see them progress.” Additionally, each
instructor stated that they are unable to meet consistently each week as academics continue to be
the primary target. One instructor shared,
There are issues larger than the classroom and academics. Students have so many
challenges that are more important than the traditional classroom. Some students are
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 127

struggling to meet basic needs. We have some students who ask for seconds during lunch
to take home and share with siblings.
All three instructors perceive such challenges to be a separate issue from the need for academic
support and would like for the leadership team to consider focusing equally on these components
in order to address the whole child. For instance during an interview, one instructor expressed his
perception of the benefits of teaching students to consider the consequences of their decisions.
The instructor said, “I think that if we can target students with decision making very early on, it
can have great benefits.” Another instructor reflected that the purpose of becoming an instructor
in this program was to prevent young people from making decisions that would result in
incarceration, or regrettably end in death. He said,
I did that for about six years and I've noticed how these young people have so many
issues and so many problems and I felt like I could do more. So when I had the
opportunity to become a counselor, I jumped at it because I don’t want them to end in
prison or worse.
All three instructors suggested that they want to prevent students from “falling through the
cracks” as students are constantly exposed to the “jail culture,” as referenced by one instructor.
Be that as it may, the instructors expressed a desire to consciously challenge this fact by means
of education.
Alternative training. Another common theme that emerged throughout the narrative was
the perceived benefits of training that emphasizes strategies such as discussion-based lessons,
narrative writing, and public speaking. During the interviews, all three instructors shared the
perception that the training on integrating art-based strategies to facilitate identity development
as a useful resource that equipped them with effective strategies for engaging students. The
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 128

training emphasized new instructional approaches for instructors. When asked if the training
topic was relevant and important in their work, one instructor responded, “Identity development
is something that is crucial for so many reasons. First and foremost, you've got to know yourself
before you can do anything.” When asked the same question another instructor noted, “It’s up to
us to fan that spark and make it grow, we have to feed the spark because that’s where it starts.”
Likewise, when asked about the perceived utility of the topic, an instructor stated, “I did get
some ideas for new approaches with the assignment that was given at the training.” Another
instructor expressed excitement to learn about different approaches versus the typical academic
approach. He shared:
I was excited when we started, because I'm new. When we started to learn about those
different approaches and things like that, that's something that I really enjoyed. I would
say it is meaningful to get into the social and emotional aspect of students, and trying to
dig deeper to know the students on a different level because most workshops, most things
are surrounded around college access or academics.
Furthermore, during site visits all 15 instructors observed employed strategies learned
during the training. In one workshop, an instructor was observed leading a vision board lesson
whereby students were instructed to cut out photos from magazines that represent the life they
would want to lead in the future. Prior to beginning the activity, students sat in a circle to discuss
their ideas with their classmates. The utilization of discussion and art-based strategies were two
chief concepts taught during the training. Squire-Kelly (2012) noted that when teachers believe
that they can control the learning environment they work more effectively to promote student
achievement. It is apparent that the participants in this study have begun to transfer the skills
acquired during the social skills training in order to progress towards the ultimate organizational
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 129

goal, which is develop students pro social skills and aide in the development of a solid sense of
self that will increase the likelihood for success in post-secondary school.
Synthesis

In summary, the instructors in this study have displayed an understanding of the
coneptual, procedural, and metacognitve facets that are involved when working to develop
students’ social skills. To this end, they have begun to guide students through the process of
heightening their sense of self and they have gradually begun to implement art-based strategies
to promote student enagement and facilitate identity development. Also, in efforts towards
reaching their global goals, instructors have begun to implement clearly defined processes such
as reflective writing as an evaluative tool and immersing students in an environment whereby
group-based discussion is a primary instructional strategy. During observations, 12 out of 15
instructors were observed to incorporate discussion prior to asking students to engage in the
planned activity for the day. Likewise, each instructor utilized student feedback at the closing of
each workshop. However, there is a lack of alignment in the method of soliciting student
feedback. In 4 out of 15 observations instructors utilized surveys while others have reported
requiring students to write reflections. One instructor was observed to employ a feedback form
that included several questions such as “what did you like about this workshop” and “what could
be improved,” an instructional strategy that was modeled during the training.
Instructors’ acquisition of the ongoing knowledge based influences, which inform the
way in which they may facilitate student identity development has begun to impact their
classroom approach. Seventy-five percent of instructors in the study agreed that identity is
essential to student development. In relation to instructors’ cognitive awareness, the data shows
slight changes in student attitudes, which has occurred over the course of 12 weeks. Following

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 130

the closing of the 12-week session, 42 percent of students reported that they feel they can make a
difference in the world. This was a 15 percent increase from student responses on the pretest
survey. Likewise, following the 12-week session, 27 percent of students reported that they feel
valuable and 50% reported that they understand the issues affecting their communities. In both of
the aforementioned categories, there was a 15 percent and 20 percent increase, respectively, in
the students’ report on their sense of self.
The survey outcomes mirrors the qualitative results by way of interviews, instructors
have reported that when considering identity development, they have come to understand the
interrelationship between internal processing and external environments. Moreover, site-based
observations reveal that the instructors’ understanding of this conceptual relationship has
informed their practice. In several observations, instructors were observed to facilitate
discussions on student self-esteem related topics as “what personality type are you” and “what
type of career best fits you.” Following the 12 week session, instructors’ efforts to improve
students’ self-esteem has not yet begun to significantly impact students’ attitudes as there was
only a 3 percent increase in the amount of students who report to have good qualities. In fact,
after the 12-week session, two students reported that they do not possess good qualities; this was
a 5 percent increase from responses in the pre-test. Regarding goal setting, 50% of instructors
agreed that setting goals help students to be successful in school. However, only one instructor
reported actually employing goal-setting strategies during the interview. Furthermore, when
asked in what ways their instructors have helped them, students did not mention that they have
learned how to set and work towards specific goals. In fact, during the pre-test 22 percent of
students agreed that it is important to set goals in life and during the post-test only 25 percent of
students concurred with this statement. This was only a 3 percent increase, which is not a
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 131

noteworthy change. However, following the 12-week session, 20 percent of students agreed that
they could improve their lives by working hard; this was a 15% increase from the posttest.
Similarly, the instructors in this study exhibit confidence in their abilities to facilitate
student identity development and have shared a collective behavior that they have the power to
influence change in student behavior. In the survey, 56 percent of teachers strongly disagreed
with the notion that student behavior is out of their control and 43 percent strongly disagreed
with the same statement. During the interview process, instructors attributed shifts in student
behavior to their ability to foster healthy relationships and create safe environments for students.
Likewise, students reported that the instructors have made a difference in their lives by sharing
their personal experiences and offering advice. Students also shared that the instructors in this
study encourage them to be their best and to rise above their current situations at home, school,
and within their communities. Following the 12-week session, there was an 8 percent increase in
the amount of students who agreed that the more they practice a specific skill, the more
successful they will be.
Regarding self-efficacy, between 93 and 99 percent of instructors responded confidently
when asked if they were able to influence student behavior and make a change in their lives.
Results from the instructor based interviews convey that instructors not only believe in their
ability to shape student behavior, but they are also certain of their abilities to create a safe
environment for students. In comparison, student responses during the focus group indicate that
instructors are always available to consult them during difficult times and as result, they feel a
sense of belonging. Moreover, students report that instructors facilitated their social development
as they are now more emotional available and interested in the fellow classmates. The
importance of instruction that is engagement-centered instruction has been cited as the most ideal
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 132

form of intervention for students with emotional and behavioral challenges (Neel, Cessna,
Borock, and Bechard, 2003). The fact that students report feeling safe after 12 sessions indicates
that such interventions might render favorable results for EBD students and similar populations.
The quantitative data with regard to the organizational factors influencing instructor
performance indicated that the instructors feel supported by the leadership team within the
organization. However, the qualitative data depicts an inconsistency in the evaluation process
and instructors’ utilize differing methods to gauge the effectiveness of their workshops. While
each instructor consistently utilize some method of student feedback to inform their practice, it is
not clear if instructors are all holding their workshops to the same standards and/or working
towards similar objectives. Clark and Estes (2008) suggests that organizational polices are
streamlined in order to prevent gaps in performance. Student responses in the survey may
indicate the potential threat of a gap in shaping students’ attitude regarding community service,
which is a recommended activity to improve students’ sense of self. When asked if they plan to
be involved in community related programs, there was no change in the number of students who
agreed during the pretest and posttest stages. Moreover, the number of students who stated that
they were unsure increased by 15 percent and while 57.5 percent of students agreed with this
statement in the pretest, only 40 percent agreed in the posttest – a 17.5 percent decrease in
interest in community related programs. If all of the instructors utilized a similar method when
evaluating the outcome of each intervention strategy, community involvement being the topic of
discussion in this case, they will be more likely able to solicit student feedback on ways to
improve this aspect of the suggested intervention strategies for facilitating pro social
development.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 133

In all, the quantitative and qualitative data combined indicate that the instructors in this
study have created environments that nurture the needs of students with emotional and behaviral
challenges in each of the three areas: understanding the role external factors, aiding students in
developing self-awareness, and creating an inclusive and communal learning environment. This
practices are aligned with the recommendations of several researchers including Erickson (2005),
who asserted that identity development is in close relationship with the beliefs and practices that
are formed within a given group. To his point, with the guide of the pro-social skills framework
the instructors at Onward Education have begun to provide students with a space in which they
can develop in a positive manner.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 134

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this dissertation was to evaluate a statewide college preparatory education
program that serves students from low socio-economic families. In addition to the utilization of
surveys to measure instructors’ and students’ attitudes on identity development, perception of
control over decision making, and organizational culture, interviews, focus groups, and site-
based observations were also completed so as to triangulate data and draw conclusions regarding
the current climate of the organization. The study was aimed to explore the following inquiries:
How do instructors perceive the pro-social skills curriculum initiative to impact students’
social and emotional growth?
Does the pro-social skills curriculum initiative improve students’ attitudes and beliefs on
communicating and dealing with conflict?
Discussion

Sociocultural Influences: Lived Experiences
The instructors in the study identified various socio-cultural influences as impactful when
facilitating the social and emotional growth in students. As they continue to combat the inherent
challenges that are presented within students home and community settings, the instructors found
that it is beneficial to create an alternative environment that not only provides a constructive
outlet for students but offers a sense of emotional security whereby students feel safe, protected,
and a sense of belonging. The instructors noted the importance of an alternative environment as
students were able to socially develop among a community that understood their needs,
embraced their challenges, and provided them with tools to become better versions of
themselves. The students, similarly, noted the level of instructors’ involvement and consistency
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 135

as a contributing factor to their decisions to begin engaging in fruitful and positive
communication with the adults and their peers alike. Such alternative environments as the one
presented in this study may offer insight on the benefits of creating programs that emphasize
intentional shaping of a climate that is conducive to meeting the needs of students with social,
emotional, and behavioral challenges. In their discussion on the sociocultural approach to
learning, Lave and Wenger (1991) noted that change occurs continuously within any given
context, as individuals constantly interact with the environment they develop and gain a broader
sense of self. This in particular is important for students who exhibit social maladjustments as
they must learn that they too have the capabilities to constructively interact with others, make
sound decisions, develop meaningful relationship, and create a better world.
Also uncovered in the data, were details regarding instructors’ approaches to creating the
alternative environment that made it possible for students to begin to reflect on their lives,
express themselves, and collaborate with their peers. Chiefly, the instructors found that it was
important to initially focus on fostering a relationship with each student before extensively
utilizing specific art-based strategies to facilitate identity development. When describing the
significance of establishing a solid relationship with students, all of the instructors explained that
student exhibit protective behaviors upon entering the program, which must be addressed in
order to encourage them to speak freely among others. The students also referenced an existing
bond with their instructors, which assured them that they were in a safe environment where they
can depend on others for emotional support. More specifically, the data showed that in an effort
to foster trust with students, the instructors were intentionally transparent with students about
their own trials and tribulations in life and utilized their personal stories as exemplars for
overcoming obstacles in life.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 136

Regarding identity development, the instructors in this study were able to employ many of
the activities in which they eventually would require students to make a connection. The
instructors’ understanding of their own identities allowed them to model the very skills in which
they want the students to possess. This self-awareness also served as an inroad to facilitating
activities in which students were required to discuss and explore the sociocultural factors that
affect their communities. The level of comfort offered and facilitated by the instructors set the
stage for students to engage in a vulnerable, yet productive process whereby they could begin to
make meaning of their lives and develop the appropriate goals for overcoming their perceived
obstacles. Moreover, students were able to heighten their awareness on social issues that impact
their lives. This awareness enables students to identify alternative solutions when making
decisions and also accept and recognize individual differences.
Instructional Approaches
The data indicated that as the instructors worked to foster healthy relationships with
students, they found three instructional strategies to be most effective in facilitating the self-
exploration process. First and foremost, all of the instructors reported that they thought it was
beneficial to engage students in activities such as Myers-Briggs personality assessments, to help
improve self-awareness. While this particular self-assessment was simple and undemanding, the
instructors noted that these assignments allowed students the opportunity to reflect on themselves
in ways they normally do not have time to do. These activities served as personal ice-breakers as
students became acquainted with engaging exercises that required a shift in their thinking; a shift
that would be necessary in order to effectively explore their lives at a more critical level.
Researchers have identified student engagement as a crucial component when working with
students who have emotional and behavioral challenges (Sutherland and Wehby, 2001). Tsang,
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 137

Hui, & Law (2012) asserted that a positive identity is developed when individuals can both cope
with environmental influences and become more self-aware. Nonetheless, when shaping new
behaviors, it is important that professionals begin with less complicated expectations and
instructions. This will allow a gradual progression towards the desired goals.
In addition to raising students’ self-awareness, the instructors in this study also
acknowledged the benefits of community –service, public speaking, and reflective writing. The
instructors all agreed that by way of the community service initiative, students are experientially
learning to interact with the environment in a productive manner. Students shared a comparable
sentiment as they reflected on the ways in which they have changed as a result of their
involvement in community service. The students reported that they felt empowered to make a
difference. In contrast, the survey data indicated that while most students strongly agreed that
they would want to be involved in community –based projects prior to the program, following
the twelve weeks many stated that they were unsure if they would want to participate. While the
reason for this contradiction in the data is unknown, the data may be reflective of the start of a
shift in students’ perception as they are working to make sense of their experiences. This may
also be reflective of the effects of various types of community service as the data also revealed
that students preferred peer-mentorship programs as an option for community service.
Furthermore, all of the instructors in the study highlighted the benefits of group-based
discussion in fostering pro-social skills in students. Through discussion, students were able to
learn to disagree and practice expressing themselves in a constructive manner. The students in
the study shared that they were also able to develop friendships after a few weeks of engaging in
classroom discussions. Finally, the instructors noted that reflective writing offered students yet
another opportunity to express themselves. The reflective practices also allowed students to
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 138

provide input regarding the desired structure of the program. According to the instructors, the
students constantly shared a desire to discuss more social and emotional related topics. The
student-centered discussions and reflective writing exercises, together, promoted self-expression,
which is an essential component when facilitating social development in students. In fact,
researchers have noted that this is especially significant for students who exhibit socially
maladaptive behaviors as these students experience issues with socialization more so than
students in any other disability group (Wagner, D'Amico, Marder, Newman, & Blackorby,
1992).
Multi-disciplinary Approaches
Regarding the utilization of the multi-disciplinary approaches discussed above, the data
revealed that while instructors perceive benefits in the arts-integrative framework, they believe
that in order to effectively utilize these strategies the organization must fully adapt a holistic
approach for students. The instructors expressed a desire to allot more time for introducing arts-
based strategies such as public speaking and creative writing to promote self-expression,
improve students’ self-concept, and ultimately facilitate positive identity development.
Currently, the organization has not created a structure that allows more time for instructors to
focus on pro-social skills development in scheduling. Nonetheless, there has been improvement
in that there is a shared framework that addresses the organization’s global goals. Instructors
have adapted a shared mindset regarding their ability to influence student behavior. In the future,
the organizational leaders would benefit from implementing a schedule that balances social skills
instruction with academic-based instruction.
In consideration of the attribution aspects of motivation, it is clear that instructors
empower students to control issues in life by encouraging them to adapt new behaviors.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 139

Instructors have aligned their approach with the mastery-oriented mindset, which promotes
continual growth as opposed to the alternative, which would be to reflect a mindset that students
are incapable of growth for reasons outside of their control. Anderman and Anderman (2006)
note that when individuals internalize that their shortcomings are due to innate and/or learned
characteristics they will not persist as their motivation and sense of self suffers.
In all, the instructors in this study express a belief in their ability to influence students; however,
they also acknowledge that there are external factors in which they must compete. The data
revealed that instructors believe it is essential to foster an inclusive and safe climate whereby
participants are encouraged to engage in light dialogue prior to delving more deeply into
personal experiences. Also, according to both instructors and students, students want more
opportunities to discuss life versus completing academic-oriented tasks. Currently, the
organization focuses primarily on the academic component of college readiness versus the social
factors that also impact a students’ readiness. This is especially important as learning prosocial
skills prepare students to be able to successfully interact with the world, including areas that are
primarily centered on academic scholarship. In order to be effective in the college environment
students should be able to work with others, communicate with instructors and college
administrators, plan, and advantageous decisions. Thus, it is vital that through intentional
training, instructors develop knowledge of identity, the different types of identity, and the way in
which these concepts influence students’ behavior and ability to make meaning in their lives.
Once teachers are able to conceptualize this, they can create workshops to help students become
more personally aware of themselves and how their lives are impacted by society. When
instructors are aware and equipped with the tools, they can facilitate this this process for
students. This will then increase students’ ability to reflect and articulate
their
experiences

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 140

within
their
environment
as
opposed
to
ineffectively
reacting
to
the
various
circumstances

they
encounter.
The
findings
showed
that
students
are
becoming
more
aware
and
are
able

to
speak
about
their
environment.

In order to ensure the organization continues to work towards their goal of fostering a
sense of self in students and preparing the whole-child for entry into post-secondary school, it is
important to construct a plan for further monitoring of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that impact the organization. The recommendations below serve as a
guide for future implementation of the strategies that were implemented throughout the study.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO
Influences

Knowledge Recommendations
When designing information acquisition and building knowledge schema, learning
theorists adhere to specific strategies in order to maximize learning processes and the related
outcomes (Mayer, 2011). Rueda (2011) explored a standard cognitive approach to learning
whereby learning scientists assume that knowledge can be divided into different types:
declarative, procedural, and metacognitive, and Mayer (2011) reviewed effective approaches for
improving knowledge construction. In this section, I will discuss the ways in which knowledge-
related factors such as declarative, procedural, and metacognitive functions influence instructors’
ability to effectively promote identity development and pro-social skills within art-based
programming. Current research highlight the significance of acquiring knowledge within the
three aforementioned domains, and I examine how the implications of instructors’ acquisition of
knowledge in these areas can be leveraged to enable art instructors to explain and implement
strategies for promoting identity development and pro-social skills in the classroom.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 141

Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

Assumed
Knowledge
Influence:
Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Declarative:
Factual:
Instructors need
knowledge that
there are 3
different types of
identity including
personal,
relational, and
collective.

Conceptual:
Instructors need
knowledge on
how the 3 identity
types are
connected to one
another.
HP Y Training is
necessary when
employees need
guided practice, and
feedback and when
tasks require a
higher level of
knowledge (Clark
& Estes, 2008).

People learn better
when they receive
pre-training in
characteristics of
key concepts and
when information is
introduced in
manageable parts
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

People learn better
when unfamiliar
material is related
to familiar
knowledge and
when given the
opportunity to
elaborate on the
presented material
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Trainees will undergo
training whereby they
will be presented with
a multimedia
presentation, which
includes images to
introduce the three
terms and will briefly
give examples of how
her aspects of her life
fit into each area.
Trainees will undergo
training whereby they will
be given the option to write
a narrative, poem, or short
essay that responds to a
prompt that asks them to
analyze the way in which a
particular student’s or
family member’s three
identity types are
connected. Trainees will
share and discuss in pairs
and in a whole group
format.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 142

Procedural:
Instructors need
to know how to
implement
strategies for
facilitating
positive identity
exploration and
development.
HP Y Effective training
must offer a
specific procedure
that shows trainees
how to accomplish
a performance goal.
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
People learn better
when material is
presented in the
context of a familiar
situation and when
scaffolding is used
to guide them as
they practice
applying relevant
skills (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001;
Scott & Palincsar,
2006).
Instructors will be required
to critique the strategies
utilized in a sample lesson
plan. They will be
provided a job aide, which
displays both a strong and
weak example. Trainees
will be asked to
independently analyze the
material.
Metacognitive:
Teachers need to
know how to
reflect on the
effectiveness of
lessons in order
to modify
instruction in a
timely manner.
HP Y New knowledge
must be acquired in
a way that allows
for editing until it is
automated and
accurate (Clark &
Estes, 2008).

Modeling to-be-
learned strategies or
behaviors improves
self-efficacy,
learning, and
performance
(Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009)

Instructors will be required
to improve a former lesson
plan by incorporating new
strategies that would help
to promote positive
identity development and
explain their rationale for
choosing these strategies.

The trainer and trainees
will provide feedback on
each other’s plans.

Guided practice with
decision-making
procedures will allow
participants to consider
their own criteria for
making decisions.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 143

Declarative knowledge influences and solutions. In order to facilitate the development
of student identity, instructors need knowledge that there are 3 different types of identity
including personal, relational, and collective. Instructors additionally must understand the way in
which these three identity types interrelate with one another. Clark and Estes (2008) note that
training is necessary when employees need guided practice and feedback and when tasks require
a higher level of knowledge. This level of skill acquisition would require trainers to prepare a
well-designed module or workshop that incorporates an explanation of key objectives and
terminology, and a designated timeframe for learner centered practice in applying the targeted
skills with support and consistent guidance from trainer. In consideration of the proposed
principle for targeting knowledge related gaps, it would be beneficial then to design a training,
for instructors, that incorporates a simulated activity including job aides that requires all trainees
to analyze the various identity types and engage in an activity in which they are encouraged to
relate the three concepts to their students’ lives while receiving direct feedback from the trainer.
Mayer (2011) noted that people learn better when they are guided through relevant processes
and allowed the opportunity to practice the skills prior to applying them in an actual setting.
Furthermore, in a meta-analysis on the perceived effective feedback for teachers, Thurlings,
Vermeulen, Bastiaens, and Stijnen (2012) found that among four theoretical approaches to
feedback based on knowledge acquisition, there is a consistent thread, which indicates that
feedback is most effective when provided in a timely manner and when it is relevant to learners’
objectives, and task-oriented. In acceptance of this learning principle, instructors will receive
training on the above strategies and they will be afforded the space to practice aligning these
strategies with specific grade appropriate goals for fostering student identity. Clark and Estes
(2008) suggest that demonstrations relating to a specific performance goal is integrated into the
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 144

training. Therefore, the recommendation being made in this study is that instructors undergo
training whereby they are required to write a narrative, poem, or short essay that responds to a
prompt that asks them to analyze the way in which a particular student’s or family member’s
three identity types are connected and engage in dialogue regarding the implications of ideas on
their teaching.
Procedural knowledge influences. In addition to acquiring specific declarative information
regarding identity development, instructors would benefit from learning effective strategies for
promoting positive identity development in the classroom. Clark and Estes (2008) stated that
effective training must offer a specific procedure that shows trainees how to accomplish a
performance goal. In addition, Gallimore and & Goldenberg (2001) noted that people learn better
when material is presented in the context of a familiar situation and Scott and& Palincsar (2006)
asserted that learning is further enhanced when scaffolding is used to guide them as they practice
applying relevant skills. Combined, the aforementioned principals infer that trainees should
undergo a process that includes rehearsals and/or routine practice of applying the skill in which
they are expected to learn. This aspect of learning would coincide with Clark and Estes (2008)
suggestions for employee training whereby trainees are shown exactly how to perform specific
work related procedures and are then provided feedback. In this case, the recommendation for
instructors who are learning to support identity development of in the classroom might be to
complete the actual exercises, such as personal and reflective writing in which they would
require from their students.
In a study on evidence- based practitioner training Parson’s, Rollyson, and Reid (2012)
asserted that integrating training components such as modeling, rehearsal, and timely feedback
enables staff to confirm target skills, reduces the required time for training, and establishes a
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 145

high degree of trainee acceptance. While there was no explanation of an experimental relation
that exists between evidence-based training and high staff acceptance, the authors proffer that
trainees benefit when they acquire skills that can be utilized on the job immediately and they
appreciate the timely feedback provided throughout the scaffolding process. In keeping with this
principle, instructors in this study were required to complete two activities in which they would
ultimately teach their students: they were trained on the process of writing an auto-ethnography
and they were instructed to complete a social, personal, and academic goal based on information
provided in a sample case study of a student.
Metacognitive knowledge influences. Furthermore, to improve the facilitation of positive
identity development of young people in their programs, instructors need to acquire the skills on
strategies for reflecting on the effectiveness of lessons in order to modify instruction in a timely
manner. Denler, Wolters, and Benzon (2009) posited that when teaching it is vital to model to be
learned strategies or behaviors in order to improve self-efficacy, learning, and performance.
Similar to the utilization of rehearsals as described under the umbrella of procedural knowledge,
trainers or other learners may model the questions one may ask when working to improve the
quality of their work. A demonstration of how to think about our thinking or engage in a
metacognitive process assists learners in becoming performing this task independently when
faced with novel situations. In regard to this study, the recommendation for instructors would be
that they engage in a professional learning community where they can collectively learn effective
strategies for making decisions when developing, implementing, and revising lessons.
Prytula (2012) conducted a study on teacher metacognition within the context of a
professional learning community. In the study she found that the professional learning
community acted as an incubator in which teachers’ metacognitive skills could be developed and
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 146

supported amongst one another. In the study, teachers were able to collaborate in an environment
whereby a common goal and shared framework for approaching this goal existed; by and by,
they were then able to critique their ideas and then act upon their thoughts with varying effort.
As professional learning communities exist as a proactive strategy in creating an environment
that fosters metacognition, it is recommended that the instructors in this study engage in bi-
monthly meetings where they can discuss their lesson plans, explain their rationale for choosing
specific strategies, and model their decision-making process so that they may support other
instructors and develop individually as a member of a professional community.
In the table above, I outlined the various knowledge influences and accompanying strategies for
assessing and providing instruction on the factors and processes for promoting positive identity
development. The table also includes a description of the instructors’ goal and shows how this
goal aligns to the larger organizational goal.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction
While a salient component of organizational change involves designing experiences
whereby learners may engage in effective knowledge construction in order to reach their
potential, motivation acts as a driving force that initiates and maintains the behaviors necessary
to realize change. Clark and Estes (2008) explained that there are three areas of motivation that
affects individuals’ pursuit, or lack thereof, of a specific goal: active choice, mental effort, and
persistence. Active choice can be explained by the moment a person initiates behavior in
working to achieve a goal. The action of attempting to complete the goal is considered a choice.
The degree to which a person invests effort towards learning and understanding a novel concept
or task is known as mental effort. Lastly, persistence is defined as commitment to remain on the
course of task completion despite obstacles or competing priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). In this
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review, I examine various motivated-related influences that impact the instructors’ initiative and
fortitude when implementing strategies for fostering positive identity development in the
classroom. Motivation plays a chief role in working towards results for it is a force that allows us
to persist towards our goals (Mayer, 2011). Researchers on motivation have indicated multiple
theories on motivation so as to describe its relationship to our belief systems, self-esteem, values,
and expectations (Eccles, 2006; Pajares, 2006; Shraw & Lehman 2009). However, for the
purpose of this study I focus on two specific constructs: the attribution and self-efficacy theories
and discuss the relationship between each theory and the art instructors’ motivation levels.
Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes,
No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Attributions –
Instructors should
feel that students
maladaptive
behaviors and
internalized failures
are reflective of the
their own efforts
rather than social
environments
outside of the
classroom.
HP Y Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
individuals
attribute success
or failures to
effort rather than
ability.
(Anderman &
Anderman,
2009).
Instructors will attend bi-
monthly meetings where
they will develop
professional goals, and
engage in a reflection
cycle to analyze their
successes and
accomplishments and
create self-formulated
attributions.
Self-efficacy –
Instructors need to
believe that they have
the skills to effectively
impact students’ self-
HP Y Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
learners have
positive
Instructors will share
curriculum ideas,
collaborate on lessons
and resource
development, and share
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 148

esteem and to change
student behavior.
expectancies for
success (Pajares,
2006).
strategies in order to
improve efficacy.

Attribution. In effort to address the performance influences that are impacted by one’s
motivation or lack thereof, instructors whose work it is to facilitate the identity development
students’, should learn and perceive that students maladaptive behaviors and internalized failures
are reflective of their own efforts rather than the social environments outside of the classroom.
Anderman and Anderman (2009) noted that learning and motivation are enhanced when
individuals attribute success or failures to effort rather than ability. This principal of learning
suggests that learners will benefit from an increased awareness that the ability to reach their
goals rest in the level of personal investment into the work versus a specific personality trait or
predisposition for skill acquisition. Attribution, which is a crucial construct for improving
motivation in individuals, plays an integral role in solidifying performance solutions, and
therefore it is recommended that instructors in this study learn specific methods that may help
them to effectively intervene with students throughout the learning process.
In a study on deconstructing teachers’ perceptions on disruptive and struggling students,
Chang and Davis (2009) conducted a meta-analysis on strategies for encouraging teachers to
consider the way in which they may improve the overall quality and productivity of their work.
As a result of their study, there were several implications for teacher practice including a call for
teachers to become more aware of their judgment and to focus on specific difficult situations
instead of placing blame on the child or issues beyond their control. According to the authors,
teachers benefit from shifting their focus to pinpointing potential strategies for addressing the
situation and/or identifying resources that may be helpful in solving the issue. As the perceived
ability to control one’s environment is an essential factor in teachers’ motivation, it is
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 149

recommended that instructors attend training to learn strategies for increasing and shaping
desired behaviors in students.
Self-efficacy. In addition to expanding teachers’ repertoire in responding to students with
challenging behaviors, instructors need to actually believe that they have the skills to effectively
impact students’ self esteem and to change student behavior. Pajares (2006) stated that learning
and motivation are enhanced when learners have positive expectancies for success. This
principle implies that if an individual believe in their ability to effectively approach a variety of
situations they will more readily approach learning novel skills and experience greater
motivation when taking on difficult tasks. As Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that motivation is a
determining factor when evaluating staff performance, it is recommended that the perceived self-
efficacy of the instructors are considered when designing a schema for professional learning.
Therefore, it is recommended that instructors explore their self-efficacy and identify methods for
improving or maintaining high levels of confidence in their work.
Chao, Forlin, and Ho (2016) and Watson (2006) studied the effects of short- term
professional development on the perceived self-efficacy of teachers. Both studies concluded that
teachers’ level of self-efficacy improved following workshops that focused on a specific aspect
of their work, including the integration of students with special needs in regular education
classrooms. The authors suggest that collective discussion coupled with training may have
contributed to the positive attitude shifts in teachers. As short term training has been
demonstrated to render desirable effects in boosting teachers’ confidence, it is recommended that
during training instructors are informed about the various ways the presented information on
identity development will relate to their work. This strategy will be employed as an effort to
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make meaningful connections between the training and the instructors’ goals so that instructors
may realize their potential for making a difference.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The cultural setting and communicated expectations within the
organization are integral to instructors’ development and progression towards goals. As efforts
are made to influence instructors’ behavior, it is recommended that a comprehensive intervention
take into consideration the impact of organizational structures. Clark and Estes (2008) note that
in order to successfully implement change initiatives, organizations must provide adequate
knowledge, skills, and motivational support for everyone. Therefore, the recommendation in this
case would be that instructors will undergo short-term training that address the key terminology,
skills, and motivational support needed to feel prepared and empowered to systematically
address student behavior. Furthermore, it is recommended that instructors establish an online
community among themselves where they can share resources, engage in discourse, and reflect
on their practice. Such an infrastructure can promote learning as they can be effectively and
strategically used as instructional resources (Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) further
emphasized the importance of organizational alignment between practices and the stated goals.
For this reason it is recommended that instructors will learn the components of a framework that
outlines strategies for leading workshops on student identity and social skill development. The
below table conveys the organizational influences and hence their relative recommendations.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 151

Table 8
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural setting:
Within the
organization, there
is a need for a
systemic support
system that
addresses students’
behavior.
HP Y In order to
successfully
implement change
initiatives,
organizations must
provide adequate
knowledge, skills,
and motivational
support for
everyone (Clark &
Estes, 2008).

Instructors will undergo
short-term training that
address the key
terminology, skills, and
motivational support
needed to feel prepared
and empowered to
systematically address
student behavior.
Cultural model: The
organization lacks
common language
shared among
stakeholders when
discussing strategies
and concerns for the
emotional and social
needs of students.
Y Y Knowledge of
everyday cultural
practices can be
effectively and
strategically used as
instructional
resources (Rueda,
2011).
Instructors will establish
an online community
among themselves
where they can share
resources, engage in
discourse, and reflect on
their practice.
Cultural model: The
organizational-wide
curriculum does not
include modules
that address the
social and self-help
skills necessary for
student
development.
Y Y Organizational
change occurs when
there is an
alignment of the
structures and the
process of the
organization with
goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008).

Instructors will learn the
components of a
framework that outlines
strategies for leading
workshops on student
identity and social skill
development.

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Cultural models. Instructors would benefit from the integration of a common language
shared among stakeholders when discussing strategies and concerns for the emotional and social
needs of students. Rueda (2011) noted that in organizations knowledge of everyday cultural
practices can be effectively and strategically used as instructional resources. To this point, adult
learners can engage in consistent dialogue and interaction relating to their work and also foster
pathways to increase cooperation among all stakeholders. In the context of this study, it would be
advantageous for instructors to partake in a professional network where they can participate in
“joint problem solving” activities as noted by Rueda.
Schein (2004) suggested that culture illuminates organizational situations and therefore
when aiming to shift the culture of an organization, one must analyze the existent group
cultures. According to Schein (2004), culture can be identified as shared implicit and deeply
ingrained beliefs and behaviors in which a group identifies over a period of time. Furthermore
he describes three levels of culture: visible artifacts; shared values, beliefs, norms, rules; and
underlying assumptions. Similarly, Marzano (2009) noted that a shared language allows key
stakeholders to engage in deliberate practice and enables teachers to discuss what works and
what does not work. To this end, it is recommended that the instructors in this study establish an
online community among themselves where they can share resources, engage in discourse, and
reflect on their practice.
Cultural settings. Furthermore, there is a need for a systemic support system that
addresses students’ behavior. Clark and Estes (2008) asserted that in order to successfully
implement change initiatives, organizations must provide adequate knowledge, skills, and
motivational support for everyone (Clark & Estes, 2008). The authors suggest that each
organizational member undergo training to improve their ability to work as a collective unit; the
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training should include the new knowledge necessary to achieve the established goals and the
skills needed work efficiently within a team. It would be recommended then that the instructors
in this study collaborate to establish a system that will enable them to productively address
student behavior
Bolman and Deal (1998) emphasized the importance of considering motivational aspects
such as collective efficacy when designing organizational systems and trainings. A shared sense
of confidence can be achieved by codifying the way in which individuals perform daily tasks. As
Mayer (2011) asserted, learning occurs when behaviors change in response to newly acquired
knowledge. Furthermore, the efficacy of organizational systems relies on the close alignment of
global goals with professional training, available resources, and communicated values. To this
end, it is recommended that instructors in this case study undergo short-term training that address
the key terminology, skills, and motivational support needed to feel prepared and empowered to
systematically address student behavior.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan

Implementation and Evaluation Framework
In this study, the New World Kirkpatrick Model was employed to ensure that the
implementation and evaluation stages are both practical and effective. Kirkpatrick’s model
emphasizes the notion that when considering training designs, one must begin with the end
product or desired outcome in mind (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Once the desired product
is determined, it is then suggested that trainers then focus on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that are necessary to produce the desired behaviors (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Following
the identification of preferred outcomes and discussion of expectations, Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016) suggest that trainers translate their goals into measurable and observable
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success indicators that conveys an objective depiction of the desired outcomes. These indicators
become the focal point when constructing a plan for data collection. When closely followed, the
New World Kirkpatrick Model, which was adapted from Kirkpatrick’s Four Level Model of
Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) enables trainers and evaluators to align
intermediate solutions with the larger global goals of an organization while encouraging
participation from stakeholders within the organization (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Onward Education, a federally funded organization, located in the northeastern region of the
country, faces the challenge of demonstrating their program’s effectiveness in producing lasting
outcomes in participants’ lives. Their mission is to increase post secondary enrollment for
students from low-income communities, however the company has not solidified a strategic
method to ensure that it is perpetually working towards this goal. Like many other college
preparatory programs, Onward questions if their work effectively impacts students' behaviors
outside of their workshops. In other words – are they truly preparing student with what it takes to
be successful in college? The organization primarily serves students in underrepresented areas,
that may/may not have emotional and behavioral challenges, but are exposed to several risk
factors such as domestic violence, abuse, and poverty. The founder of the organization has stated
that he and the Onward team deeply believe in restoring their community and they perceive
social development to be a tool for healing and providing a platform for authentic self-expression
The organization has set a goal to implement an arts and behavioral skills integrated
curriculum that increases positive identity development and pro-social skills to 90% of
participants. This goal was selected, as it is crucial to empower those who are voiceless by
providing a framework that enables them to acquire pro-social skills as well as aide in the
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creation of a purposeful narrative of their experiences versus an account that allows them to feel
helpless, alienated, and victimized. If the participants in Onward ’s program can improve socially
and personally, Onward would be ultimately fulfilling its mission to help students develop a
positive identity and become productive citizens. Hence, the proposed recommendation for this
study is that the instructors in this study implement a comprehensive curriculum that addresses
the social, personal, and emotional needs of students through an arts-based approach. In order to
do so, instructors must undergo a training program that prepares them to address the identity
needs of students, learn strategies for implementing the curriculum, and effectively evaluate their
progress. Additionally, this project examined the organizational structures that are necessary to
effectively implement the curriculum and as a result recommended that a professional learning
community is established along with a standardization of a culture that embraces a similar
language and process in addressing the needs of the program participants.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicator
As the administrative team within the organization make a concerted effort to achieve the
stated global goals it is necessary to monitor stakeholders’ progress to ensure that the general
organizational behavior is geared towards the outcomes. As such, there are leading indicators
that may be observed throughout the implementation of the intervention, which will convey if
the organization is progressing or if a systemic adjustment is will be needed. As Onward
Education aims to increase the number of students enrolled in college by way of addressing their
social and personal skills through counselor-led workshops, the administrative team may observe
shorter-terms outcomes along the way. One internal outcome, for example, would be to monitor
the number of student-led discussions in the workshops. This data may be collected through the
utilization of observation forms. Additionally, program administrators may employ interviews
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 156

and observation forms to monitor the amount of time instructors spend planning student-centered
lessons that emphasize reflection and artistic expression through writing and public speaking.
There are also external outcomes that may be monitored short-term in order to ensure
progression. Each semester, administrators can look at the number of students who receive 80%
or higher in the academic coursework. This data may be extracted from student progress reports.
Table 9
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase the statewide college
enrollment of students.
Number of students
enrolled in college.
Data from students’
home school about
college enrollment.
Increase the number of students
receiving 80% and above in
coursework.
Percentage of students
receiving a grade of B or
higher in ELA and Math.
Solicit data from
students’ quarterly report
cards.
Internal Outcomes
Increased level of student-centered
discussion in workshops.
The amount of time spent
in-group discussion in
workshop.
Aggregate data from
observation forms.
Increased planning that includes
topics on student identity and
activities such as writing and public
speaking.
Feedback from instructors
on the workshop plans.
Data from counselor
interviews and
observations.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. Stakeholder behavior is a critical component when working to
improve organizational performance. Therefore it is pertinent that instructors’ behaviors are also
monitored to ensure progression towards the global goals. As it is a goal to create a professional
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 157

learning community among instructors, administrators will benefit from monitoring the number
of times instructors attend the pre-scheduled bimonthly meetings whereby each team member
will engage in activities that are developed to improve their professional skills. Such behavior
may be monitored and documented using meeting agenda notes to track the number of meetings
logged by instructors. In addition to bimonthly meetings, instructors’ involvement in an online
community, created to encourage continuing discourse, will be monitored, by tracking the
frequency each counselor contributes to an online discussion. Moreover, instructors will be
required to model each assignment for students so that they may promote accuracy in completing
the tasks. Instructors’ independent work will be observed in the quarterly portfolios. Finally,
observation data will allow administrators to monitor the transference of skills from training to
the work place, as the observation tool will capture information regarding instructors’ focus in
identity development in workshops. The following table offers an outline to the aforementioned
critical behaviors and further delineates the method and metric associated with each behavior.
Table 10
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Instructors will attend bi-monthly
meetings where they will develop
professional goals, and engage in a
reflection cycle to analyze their
successes and accomplishments and
create self-formulated attributions.
The number of
meetings logged
by instructors
Meeting Agenda
notes
2/17-
5/17
2. Counselor will model expected student
behavior by completing each proponent
of the assignment before presenting to
students.
The number of
counselor
completed
assignments
Counselor Portfolio
which includes
counselor created
exemplars
2/17-
5/17
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 158

3. Instructors will establish an online
community among themselves where
they can share resources, engage in
discourse, and reflect on their practice.
The frequency of
engagement on
the online
structure
Trainer will share
information online
and track the amount
of times instructors
engage
2/17-
5/17
4. Instructors will learn the components
of a framework that outlines strategies
for leading workshops on student identity
and social skill development.
The number of
workshops that
are focused on
student identity
Data collected during
observations and
lesson plans
2/17-
5/17

Required drivers. In order to sustain the occurrence of critical behaviors it is crucial to
strategically form support systems that will essentially motivate stakeholders to perform the
desired behaviors. These motivators are what Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) refer to as
critical drivers. One critical driver referred to as a reinforcing driver may be utilized to encourage
the transference of skills from training to workplace. Two reinforcing strategies in this case
would be to provide instructors with job aides to demonstrate exemplary lesson planning and to
allow reiterate important skills through two asynchronous virtual trainings. While instructors
benefit from being able to access pertinent information in a timely manner, Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick (2016) emphasize the utility of providing consistent encouragement. Therefore,
instructors will attend online meetings where they will have the platform to discuss challenges
and to receive feedback from a supportive environment. Instructors will be also rewarded for
their work in order to continue a healthy momentum of responding in a desirable manner.
Rewards will be presented in the form of private and public praise so as to acknowledge those
instructors who develop exemplary plans and progress towards meeting the stated goals. The
table below provides a visual for the above explanation of the required drivers that are necessary
to support critical behaviors.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 159

Table 11
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Instructors will be provided a job aide which displays both a
strong and weak examples of lesson planning
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Instructors will be provided 2 asynchronous virtual trainings
outlining the key components of the lesson plan as reviewed
in the training
Fall 2016 and
Spring 2017
1, 3

Encouraging
Instructors will attend online meetings to discuss challenges
and successes of curriculum implementation
Bi monthly 1, 2, 3
Instructors will engage in online social community whereby
they may share exemplars of student work and resources
that are geared towards enhancing the curriculum
Ongoing 3, 4

Rewarding
Program Directors will observe instructors’ workshops and
offer specific feedback and praise for delivering student
centered lessons
Semi-
annually
1,3,4
Administrators will acknowledge the curriculum portfolio
and program that closely meets established goals and
demonstrate progress towards meeting goals.
Annually 1,2,3,4

Monitoring. There are several strategies that may be employed to guarantee the
occurrence of the required drivers. Program Administrators can complete informal observations
on an ongoing basis in order to ensure instructors are leading workshops that are aligned with the
listed components in the framework. Administrators may also include a predetermined time for
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instructors to meet and plan in order to reinforce a standardized culture and professional learning
community. Furthermore, administrators may acknowledge instructors for making progress
towards the determined goals and provide incentives that are worthwhile to their team.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, specifically the
face-to-face and virtual training on identity development, the stakeholders will be able to:
1. Identify the 3 different types of identity including personal, relational, and
collective, (D)
2. Accurately draw connections between the 3 identity types and explain how they
are connected to one another, (D)
3. Create workshop plans which include strategies for facilitating positive identity
exploration and development, (P)
4. Reflect on the effectiveness of lessons in order to modify instruction in a timely
manner, (Metacognitive)
5. Attribute students’ maladaptive behaviors and internalized failures to specific
instructional strategies within the program, (Attribution)
6. Indicate confidence that they have the skills to effectively impact students’ self-
esteem and to change student behavior. (Self-efficacy)
Program. The aforementioned learning goals will be addressed with a training program
that includes an explanation of various strategies that may be utilized to foster and facilitate
identity development including auto-ethnographic writing, student-centered workshops, and
project based learning. The learners, the instructors, will study and discuss the various types of
identity, the ways in which they are formed, and the instructors’ role in supporting students in
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 161

their quest to solidify a healthy identity. Additionally, the instructors will review the goals of the
organization under which they work and learn to align their lesson plans with the stated goals.
Furthermore, the instructors will learn and experience the benefits of working within a learning
community and how to reflectively evaluate their own work and make decisions to implement
change when necessary. The training program is blended, consisting of two asynchronous
trainings and one face-to-face workshop.
During the e-learning modules, learners will be provided job aids, exemplars, and
pertinent information regarding instructional strategies, specific activities, and the global goals of
the organization. One job aid will display a flow-chart, which outlines the various components of
the arts-integration framework from which they will organize their lessons. An additional job aid
will include an exemplar of an auto ethnography that the instructors may refer to when designing
lessons. The video will include intermittent periods in which the narrator will check for
understanding. A list of review questions will be presented to further support with the processing
of the included information.
During the in-person training, learners will focus on applying the skills that were
discussed in each of the e-learning modules. They will specifically practice completing various
recommended activities that are geared to promote reflection and discussion for students.
Furthermore, the instructors will be allowed the opportunity to share their work and receive
feedback from their fellow colleagues. This practice is designed specifically to encourage
collaboration among the instructors.
Components of learning. Prior to implementing the recommended strategies at their
specific sites, it is important that the instructors fully process the pertinent key points that fall
under the umbrella of declarative knowledge. It is also vital that the instructors understand and
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feel confident in their ability to implement the skills and procedures upon returning to the
workplace. For this reason, it is necessary to evaluate learning for the declarative and procedural
factors that are taught. To this point, Table A lists the evaluation methods and timing for these
components of learning.
Table 12
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using open-ended
questions.
In the asynchronous videos at the mid point and
closing of the presentation.
Verbal check for understanding Intermittently throughout presentation in the face
to face training and documented via observation
notes.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right
now.”

Demonstrations in groups and individually
using job aids and prompts from trainer
During and at the end of workshop
Application of the skills Documented via observation notes

Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre and post survey During the workshop
Confidence “I think I can do it on the
job.”

Survey items Following workshop
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and
feedback
During the workshop and bi-monthly check-ins

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 163

Level 1: Reaction
The below table, outlines the methods that will be utilized to measure participants’ reactions to
the training modules including the asynchronous training and the face-to-face training. The
following components of participant reactions are included: engagement, relevance, and
customer satisfaction. The time in which each component will be evaluated is also included.
Timing is based on recommendations from Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick regarding the most optimal
time to collect information from participants during interventions.
Table 13
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Completion of online modules/lessons/units Ongoing during e-learning modules
Attendance in bi-monthly meetings Ongoing during scheduled meetings
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every module and the
workshop
Customer Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every module and the
workshop

Evaluation Tools
During the face-to-face portion of the training, a survey will be distributed to collect data
about the perceived utility of the training, instructors’ confidence in their ability to transfer the
addressed skills, and their commitment to apply the skills covered during the training, and their
overall satisfaction with the content and delivery of the information. During the workshop, Level
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 164

1 will consist of a periodic check in with instructors to ask about the relevance of the content to
their work and to also ensure that they are completing each step of the process. Level 2 will
include individual share-outs of completed activities and the counselor will provide feedback as
needed. Additionally, the counselor will randomly ask instructors to discuss their understanding
of the purpose of each exercise and to provide examples of methods they could use to apply the
discussed strategies in the particular workplace environments.
As the training evaluation form will be administered directly following the training, a
follow-up evaluation procedure will be implemented after a delayed period of time. This
survey will address levels 1-4 of Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) model and can be used
to evaluate the relevance, application, and results of the training.

L1: Reaction What I learned in the workshop has been
valuable to enhance student social and
emotional skills.
L2: Learning I was able to lead student-centered
workshops on identity development more
thoroughly after the workshop than before.
L3: Behavior I refer to the job aide and virtual trainings
for completing my lesson plans.
L4: Results I am able to lead workshops that are
student centered and promotes pro social
skills.

Data Analysis and Reporting
Following the administration of the evaluation survey, the findings will be reported in a
statistical manner to depict instructors’ attitudes and behaviors and compare their responses in
the delayed survey to those in the initial survey, which directly followed the training. The data
will additionally convey the extent to which instructors were able to implement the strategies
learned during the training and the perceived benefits of the strategies in which they were able
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 165

practice in their workshops. The dashboard below will report the data on two procedural skills
including the frequency of delivery of identity-centered workshops and the inclusion of creative
writing in each workshop. Similar dashboards will be created to monitor levels 1 and 3.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 166

Figure
22

Training Strategies

The training, as described in this study, was designed and implemented with the
overarching goals of the organization and the necessary behavioral outcomes positioned as the
driver of all decisions made. The Kirkpatrick Model emphasizes the construction of a system that
begins with determining the organizational needs and then identifying the performance gaps that
require direct attention. This approach ensured that the training focused on very specific, and
narrow objectives which reduces the chance that any resources will be misappropriated to efforts
that are not aligned with the goal. The framework, additionally, places learning at the forefront of
the endeavor, and therefore the stakeholders’ progress is constantly evaluated by means of
observing behaviors and collecting feedback, in order to maximize the transfer of learning post
training. Furthermore, the training as designed includes a thorough evaluative measure that can
0
2
4
6
8
10
12

Identity_Centered

Creative
Writing

Training
Strategies
Implemented

Site
2

Site
1

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 167

help to convey the areas in which the training have resulted in a return on stakeholder’s
expectations as well as the areas, which need further consideration.
Summary

In all, in this study the New World Kirkpatrick Model was utilized to develop,
implement, monitor, and evaluate an organization’s progress towards achieving specified global
goals within the organization. Onward Education aimed to improve the quality of instruction as
well as impact the lives of young people by incorporating social and emotional centered
strategies in the social and emotional component of their pre-college programs. The initial step in
the model included identifying the desired results before designing training modules.
Subsequently, indicators were developed to ensure that the chosen stakeholder group
(instructors) was progressing towards the ultimate goals. During the design phase, objectives
were developed for the training along with evaluation tools and the necessary media platforms
were selected for effective delivery. It is expected that by integrating the Kirkpatrick framework,
the organization’s training goals and efforts will be aligned and hence generate optimal results.
Moreover, it is expected that the training will be meaningful and relevant for the stakeholder
group, which in turn may influence their behaviors at their respective school sites, and eventually
improve the quality of their work.
Conclusion

The implications in this study are noteworthy as oftentimes students with emotional and
behavioral issues, especially those students who originate from low socioeconomic communities,
are marginalized in school environments and consequently in society. Researchers have
identified teacher bias and punitive disciplinary practices as socially exclusive practices that
results in academic disengagement, increased behavioral issues, and ultimately a lifetime of
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 168

misfortune as students engage in delinquent activities and/or assume low income professional
roles due to prior failure in school (Eber, Sugai, Smith, & Scott, 2002; Wagner, 1995). Rapport
building was noted as a crucial step in the process towards fostering pro-social skills and
facilitating identity development. Neel, Cessna, Borock, and Bechard (2003) assert that
instruction centered on the affective engagement of students is most ideal for students with
social, emotional, and behavioral challenges as they benefit from environments whereby they can
develop positive and meaningful relationships.
While instructors perceive the arts-integrative framework and emphasis on identity
development as a necessary intervention in order to reach their organizational goals, which are to
help students to prepare for college, they recognize that there are pertinent organizational
structures that are necessary for supporting such work. Hence, this study uplifts the call for a
more holistic approach when teaching students with emotional and behavioral challenges. While
academics are an important component, it is time to consider the utilization of a multi-
disciplinary framework that upholds the significance of social and emotional learning. Be that as
it may, this study, though enlightening, is limited in that it only demonstrates the benefits of an
art-integrative framework for teaching with one demographic, within a specific region. In the
future, researchers may build upon this discussion by exploring the various benefits that various
types of arts-integration such as music and visual arts may offer students with emotional and
behavioral challenges.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 169

APPENDIX A
Survey Items

Teacher Perception Questionnaire
Directions: Read each statement. Check the box that best responds to each question.

Strongly
disagree
Disagree Strongly
agree
Agree Not
Sure
1. Identity development is an
essential component of student
development.

2. When students are aware of their
strengths, they are more likely to
perform well in school.

3. It is important to tell students that
they are behaving
inappropriately.

4. When students set goals, they are
more likely to succeed.

5. I am able to influence student
behavior.

6. The way students behave in my
class is out of my control.

7. Students misbehave because
teachers are not properly skilled
to teach positive behaviors.

8. I can teach students how to
become better decision makers.

9. There are systems in place that
help support student
development.

10. The work that I do makes a huge
difference in student lives.

11. The use of culturally relevant
texts is important to everyone in
the organization.

12. The organization empowers
students to make a difference in
their communities.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 170

Community Engagement and Social Skills Questionnaire (Students)

Directions: Read each statement. Check the box that best responds to each question.

Strongly
disagree
Disagree Strongly
agree
Agree Not
Sure
1. I plan to become involved in my
community.

2. I plan to help others who are in
trouble.

3. I am committed to making a
positive difference.

4. I plan to be involved in programs
that help to improve the
community.

5. I understand the issues that affect
my community.

6. I am knowledgeable of issues
facing the world.

7. I feel that I can make a difference
in the world.

8. I can listen to other people’s
opinions.

9. I can work cooperatively with a
group of people.

10. I can communicate well with
others.

11. I am unable to successfully
resolve conflicts with others.

12. I do not get along with others.

13. I try to find effective ways to solve
problems.

14. When trying to understand
others, I place myself in their

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 171

position.

15. I can solve problems by talking
them out.

16. I am able to make a difference in
the world.

17. I am valuable to other people.

18. Others appreciate my unique
abilities.

19. I have a negative attitude towards
myself.

20. I have good qualities.

21. The more I practice a skill, the
more successful I will be.

22. It is important for me to set goals
throughout my entire life.

23. No one can learn to be successful,
you are born to fail or succeed.

24. Goal setting does not help people
to achieve their dreams.

25. I can improve myself by working
hard to achieve my dreams.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 172

APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol
Introductory Protocol
Hello and thank you for taking the time to speak with me today. I am Shannon Stanford, a
student at the University of Southern California. Again, I would like to ask you a few questions
regarding your experience as an instructor for social and emotional courses offered Onward
Education. Specifically, the questions will involve your perceptions on the way in which the
program has impacted students. I will also ask several questions regarding specific strategies that
were used during your instruction. The goal is to gain a sense of how such programs can be
further developed to support student social development. I especially want to understand how
your approach led to specific changes in the instructional environment and in individual students.

Before we begin, I want to remind you that your participation is voluntary and that you are able
to withdraw at any time. During the interview, I will record your responses to ensure that I
accurately capture your statements, however the recordings will be destroyed following
transcription. All of your statements will remain confidential. In my report, I will discuss any
rising trends that occur following the triangulation of information that I receive in other
interviews, student focus groups, and surveys. Your name will be replaced with a pseudonym
and I will not include any descriptions that will allow others to trace the research to back to you.
Prior to completing my report, I will allow you to review my transcriptions to ensure that I am
portraying your voice in a manner that you see best fit.

The interview should take no more than one hour. During this time, there are several questions
that I would need to cover. If we are running short on time, I may need to interrupt you to make
sure we get to all of the questions.

Do you have any questions before we begin?

Research
Question(s)
How do instructors perceive the pro-social skills curriculum initiative to
impact students’ social and emotional growth?
Does the pro-social skills curriculum initiative improve students’ attitudes
and beliefs on communicating and dealing with conflict?

I. Introduction
1. Have you been an artist your whole life? What is your medium?

2. What or who motivated your interest in the arts?

3. What or who motivated your interest in teaching the arts? Especially, inner city youth?
a. How long have you been teaching?

4. Tell me about the students in your classroom.
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 173

a. Do they come to your class interested in the arts?
b. What gifts/skills/ strengths do they bring?
c. What challenges do they bring?
d. What are some of the obstacles they face in their communities?

5. What are some of the behavioral challenges your students face in class?
a. Tell me about a time when you heard a student talk about their own
challenges?
b. How did s/he deal with that challenge?

II. Framework

6. I'm interested in learning more about how the framework can be used in the
classroom, how has this framework working for you?
a. Is it easy and fun to implement?
b. Do the kids like the content?
c. Do you? Is it extra work for you?
d. What do you like about the curriculum?
e. What don’t you like?

7. In what ways, if any, has the framework helped to improve your classroom
instruction?

8. In what ways, if any, has the framework helped to improve your students’ social
behavior?
a. Tell me more.

III. Instructional Approach

9. In what way did your knowledge of identity development inform your approach to
teaching?

a. What, if anything, changed in your approach to instruction after learning about
identity development?

10. How did you decide what to teach?

11. Tell me about a time when you needed to adjust a lesson?
a. How did you decide to change this lesson?

12. How do you know if a session went well?
a. What do you achieve in a successful lesson?
b. What do students achieve in a successful lesson?

13. How did the resources available to you allow you further support student
development?
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 174

a. If you could request any additional resources, what would they be?

14. What kinds of texts were students introduced to?

15. What specific skills did students need to know in order to develop a strong sense of
self?

16. What specific skills did students need in order to effectively work with their peers?

IV. Student Development

17. In what ways can you as an instructor make a difference in students lives?

18. In what ways do you support student development?

19. Tell me about a challenging situation you experienced with a student.
a. How were you able to persist through this situation?

20. In what ways were you able to help student change their behaviors?
a. Were any of these factors outside of your control?

21. In what ways did students change during the program?
a. What specific things did you do to support these changes?
b. In instances, whereby students did not grow, were there things you could have
done differently?

22. How were students involved in their communities during the program?
a. If students were not directly involved in communities, what types of activities
included topics on the community?

23. How do you know when a student’s attitude or beliefs have improved?
a. Give me an example.

24. Give me an example of a time when you observed a positive change in students'
ability to communicate.

25. Is there anything else that you would like for me to know?

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 175

APPENDIX C
Observation Protocol

Pro-‐Social
Skills
Observation
Protocol

Instructor/Site:

Date:

Observer
Initials:

Indicators

Based
on

Documen
tation

(D)
or

Site
Visit

(S)

Observed

Not
observed

Student – Instructor Relationship

Students collaborate with peers to complete a task.

Students engage in large group discussion regarding topic.

Students work to solve problems when approaching a task.

Students speak to one another using kind, encouraging language.

Students set goals at the onset of the lesson.

Students persist through a task or difficult situation.

Student develops IDENTITY

Students seek guidance from counselor when completing a task.

Student and counselor demonstrate positive relationship.

Students participate, plan, or discuss community-based activities.

Students engage in individual reflective exercises including writing,
speaking, or expression through the arts.

Students read, reference, and discuss culturally relevant texts.

Narrative Evidence of Student-Instructor Relationships

Professional
Standards:
Approach and Strategies to Pro-Social
Skills Framework

Instructor uses pro-social skills indicators to inform the lesson.

Instructor facilitates explorative and/or inquiry-based process.

Instructor praises student achievement, engagement, and point of view.

Instructor encourages students to use their unique strengths during tasks.

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 176

Instructor acknowledges specific positive traits about students.

Instructor refers to specific strategies for overcoming issues.

Instructor communicates high expectations for students.

Instructor provides specific feedback regarding student work or behavior.

Tasks are student-led.

Narrative Evidence of Professional Standards/Approaches & Strategies to Pro-Social Skills Framework

Environment

The environment is organized.

Messaging in the classroom conveys core values

Skills and mindsets demonstrated in the classroom convey college
readiness, academic habits, meaningful tasks and community relevance.

Students are respectful of the resources in the classroom (including other
people, furniture, equipment and time).

Narrative Evidence of Environment

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 177

APPENDIX D
Focus Group Protocol
Introduction

Hi Everyone. I am Shannon and I am here today to talk to you about your experience in
the social and emotional learning workshops this session. Just like you, I am a student and I have
been learning about how you all might be able to grow and learn by participating in certain
programs. So, I want to hear your thoughts about how this program has helped you, if it has. If
you are unsure of how this program has specifically helped you, I would like to know more about
that as well. You all are here because your instructors have said that you are very articulate and
thoughtful about your experiences. Because I know that you are all great speakers, I am quite
excited to hear what you have to say. Again, we will be talking about the arts programs including
all of the activities, projects, discussions, and trips.
We will begin by introducing ourselves. I want you all to tell me one thing about yourself
that you would want for me to know. Then, I will as you a few questions about the program.
Each of you will have the opportunity to answer the questions and I ask that you are patient with
your friends while they respond.

Let’s go over a few ground rules that I want you to remember:

• Everyone’s opinion is important
• Let everyone talk; but not at the same time
• There are no right or wrong answers
• It is okay to use first names
• We will listen to each other
• I am taping the session just to make sure that I remember what you say
• Everything we say should remain in this room
• Your names will not be identified with any remarks
• Let’s turn off all electronics
• Have fun

Let’s get started.

I. Self-Perception
1. How did your view of yourself change during the program?
2. In what ways have you grown?
3. Describe how your culture is connected to you views about yourself?
4. What was your greatest accomplishment?
II. Perceptions of Instructor
5. In what ways did your instructor help you during this program?
6. Which qualities did your instructor possess that were most helpful?
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 178

7. Were there things that you instructor could have done differently to support you?
8. Do you feel that your instructor believe in you?
III. Instructional Strategies
9. How did you plan to complete tasks?
10. How did you plan to meet specific goals?
11. How did you know if you were meeting your goals?
12. What was your favorite part about the program?
13. What was your least favorite part about the program?
14. What was the most favorite text you have read during the session? Explain.
15. What was the least favorite text you have read during the session? Explain.
16. Tell me about some activities that required you to think about your community?
a. What did you learn?
b. How has what you have learned about your community prepared you for the future?
IV. Application of Skills
17. What skills did you learn in the last program session that you could use?
18. How will you use the skills you learned in this program at home?
19. How will you use the skills you learned in the community?
20. How will you use the skills you learned at school?
21. Tell me about a conflict that you observed or were a part of?
22. How were you able to overcome this conflict?
23. In what ways did the program prepare you to overcome conflict?
24. In what ways has your ability to work with others changed during this program?
25. Which topics were most relevant to your personal life in this program?
26. In what ways have your ability to talk about yourself changed?
27. What skills, if any, have you learned that prepared you to deal with conflict?
28. In what ways can you help to make a difference in your community?
29. How can you use the things you have learned in this program to make a difference in
your community?
30. Any additional comments?
TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 179

31. What grade are you in?
32. How old are you?
33. How long have you been a participant in the program?

TEACHING ACADEMIC AND BEHAVIORAL 180

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this project was to examine the utility of a pro-social skills framework, which promotes arts integration, in promoting pro-social and emotional development in students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). The overarching inquiry considers instructors’ perception of the impact that the curriculum has on improving the social skills of the students enrolled in the arts program. This study was aimed to identify the knowledge, motivational, and organizational (KMO) influences that oftentimes hinder instructors’ ability to effectively facilitate learning interventions that ultimately assist EBD students in growth that is both evident and measurable and to address those issues so as to improve the program quality. Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework is utilized to assess the KMO influences that are existent in a federally funded organization in an urban, northeastern state. A convergent mixed method approach is applied in the data collection and analysis processes. Although surveys are administered, thus rendering the study a combination of both qualitative and quantitative, the chief design was qualitative in that an inductive approach was taken during data collection and analysis. The analysis of the collected data revealed that instructors value implementation of instructional strategies that promote identity development and foster social skills in students. Furthermore, the findings and results emphasize the benefits of creating safe environments and fostering authentic relationships with students who exhibit emotional and behavioral challenges. The results of this study may be used to contribute to the discourse on effective and innovative strategies for intervening with students who have emotional and behavioral challenges.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Stanford, Shannon Nicole (author)

Core Title Teaching academic and behavioral skills through arts-based programming: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 09/27/2017

Defense Date 07/20/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag arts-based programming,arts-integration,extended school programs,identity-development,OAI-PMH Harvest,pro-social skills,rapport building,social and emotional learning,social skills

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee chair), Carbone, Paula (committee member), Ferrario , Kimberly (committee member)

Creator Email shannon.stanford2@gmail.com,snstanfo@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-439443

Unique identifier UC11265480

Identifier etd-StanfordSh-5786.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-439443 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-StanfordSh-5786.pdf

Dmrecord 439443

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Stanford, Shannon Nicole

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA