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Relationships between academic and psychosocial skills of community college students

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Relationships between academic and psychosocial skills of community college students

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Content Running head: ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 1
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS OF
COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS

by

Steven Sedky

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017

Copyright 2017 Steven Sedky

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 2

Acknowledgements
My journey at USC would not be possible without the support and guidance of so many
people who have inspired, advised and motivated me. First, I would like to thank my dissertation
chair Dr. Ruth Chung who always generously provided helpful advice and immense support. I
also want to thank my other committee members, Dr. Briana Hinga and Dr. Luis Andrade, for
their keen insight and encouragement.
I was incredibly privileged to be part of a cohort that became a community of students
who cared and collaborated over the course of three years. We have developed incredible
friendships and have worked through the best of times and challenging times. I want to thank
Dylan, Peter, Stu, Karen, and Sue Jean.
Even though I have only been working in higher education for a few years, I have learned
and been privileged to work with some tremendously talented colleagues. My work family has
always supported, challenged, and inspired me to improve and be the best possible educator I can
be. I want to thank Dr. Georgia Lorenz, Brenda Benson, Lori Meono, Sal Veas, Fran Chandler,
Joy Tucker, Marce Kelly, Aileen Huang, Nathan Khalil, Tom Paccioretti and so many others.
I would not be here if it were not for the decades of support and love my family has given
me. I cannot begin to thank or express the amount of love I have for my incredible parents. I also
thank my sister and brother-in-law for always pushing me to do my best in my academic
endeavors and work.
I would also like to thank God, whose many blessings have made me who I am today. I
praise God for His compassion and love.
Lastly, I spent a decade of my life working for large companies and organizations, but,
after I began working in education, I found a career I was truly passionate about and wake up
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 3

excited every day for work. My students continue to inspire and teach me every day, and I am
grateful that I am able to teach and lead them. I want to focus my time and effort to advance the
lives of students; this degree and dissertation are a step in that direction.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 4

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Statement of the Problem 10
Background of the Problem 10
Psychosocial Skills: Beyond Cognitive Ability 11
Theoretical Framework 13
Importance of the Study 14
Purpose of the Study 15
Chapter Two: Literature Review 16
Community Colleges: A Background 16
Role of Community Colleges and Student Demographics 18
Family Factors That Influence Community College Students’ Success 20
Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Skills. 25
Psychosocial Skills 25
Summary 30
Purpose of the Study 31
Research Question 1 31
Research Question 2 32
Chapter Three: Methodology 33
Participants 33
Instrument 35
Academic Skills 35
Psychosocial Skills 36
Procedure 37
Chapter Four: Results 40
Research Question 1: For community college students, do academic and psychosocial skills
levels (e.g. commitment, self-management and social support) differ by students’ race, gender
and parental level of education? 40
Figure 1. Gender and parental ed interaction. 43
Research Question 2: Do psychosocial skills predict academic skills for each racial group
controlling for age? 47
Chapter Five: Discussion 53
The Relationship of Students’ Demographics to Academic Skills 53
The Relationship of Students’ Demographics to Psychosocial Skills 55
Commitment 55
Self-Management 56
Social Support 57
The Relationship Between Psychosocial and Academic Skills 59
Psychosocial skills and Academic Skills Score: Multivariate Regressions 59
Implications for Practice 60
Recommendations for Improving Students’ Academic and Psychosocial Skills 61
Limitations of the Current Study 62
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 5

Directions for Future Research 63
Conclusion 65
References 66

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 6

List of Tables
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Sampled Students 34
Table 2: ANOVA between Race, Gender, and Parental Education with Academic Skills 41
Table 3: Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlation Matrix for Regression Variables 41
Table 4: Post Hoc Table for Academic Skills Score and Race 42
Table 5: MANOVA Between Demographic Variables and Psychosocial Skills 43
Table 6: Main Effects for Demographic Variables with Psychosocial Skills 44
Table 7: Post-Hoc Analysis of Difference in Commitment by Race 45
Table 8: Post-Hoc Analysis of Differences in Self-Management by Race 46
Table 9: Post-Hoc Analysis of Differences in Social Support by Race 46
Table 10: Post-Hoc Analysis of Differences in Social Support by Level of Parental Education 47
Table 11: Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills,
with Age 48

Table 12: Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills,
with Age & Asian 49

Table 13: Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills,
with Age & Black 50

Table 14: Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills,
with Age & Mexican 50

Table 15: Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills,
with Age & Other Hispanic 51

Table 16: Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills,
with Age & White 51

Table 17: Univariate Models for Psychosocial Skills Controlling for Age 52

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 7

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand academic and psychosocial skills of different
demographics of community college students and to investigate the relationships between these
skills among students. Differences in skill levels emerged, and many of these differences were
consistent with equity gaps in academic achievement in existing literature between historically
underrepresented groups. This study found that psychosocial skills predict academic skills and
notably among psychosocial skills, social support is most predictive of academic skills. Also the
study found among all racial groups psychosocial skills did predict academic skills and age was
not a confound. Institutional support and the ability to manage and navigate barriers to success
are also critical aspects of social support. Administrators and faculty should create an
environment where students feel they belong and create institutional support systems that are
designed for students and easily accessible to them. Additionally, academic advisors and
counselors should be cognizant of common barriers to success for their student population and
provide resources and services to support students navigate those barriers.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 8

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Society’s economic growth depends on the transference of innovative technologies and
knowledge to a workforce prepared to learn and implement progressively more complex skills
(Blank, 2016; Beladi, Marjit, & Weiher 2011; Topel, 1999). As jobs become increasingly
specialized and require more skilled employees, higher education attainment becomes vital to the
continued economic success, health, family stability, and even social connections among
members of society (Goldin & Katz, 2007; Hout, 2012). Given the strong correlation between a
highly skilled workforce and the aforementioned benefits, an educated population clearly
provides economic and social benefits to both the individual and to society.
In the United States, there is a disparity growing between the number of educated
workers and the number of jobs that require higher education. By 2020, fewer jobs will be
available for high school graduates, whereas the number of jobs available for those with
associate’s degrees will increase. Specifically, between 2010 and 2020, 25.9 million job
openings will require, at minimum, an associate’s degree (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2013).
Therefore, to meet the economic demands of an increasingly advanced workplace, it is vital that
community colleges and universities produce more workers with degrees.
For students to complete higher education and be successful in their careers, however,
students must be prepared to meet the demands of college. For over 100 years, psychologists
have primarily studied cognitive factors that contribute to an individual’s success in education,
work, and life, as intelligence was thought to be the primary predictor of achievement (Brody,
1997; Carroll, 1993; Lipnevich et al., 2016; Schmidt & Hunter, 2004). More recently, studies in
education, psychology, and economics show that non-cognitive skills, or psychosocial skills,
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 9

may be just as important to academic achievement as a person’s IQ or other measures of
cognitive ability (Lipnevich et al., 2016).
Although colleges and universities provide skills for a future work force, entry into these
institutions is often competitive and cost-prohibitive. Community colleges, with open admission
and lower tuition, help to increase access and make higher education more attainable. However,
community college student success rates are low: only 39.9% of students who start at community
college receive a degree or certificate within 6 years (Shapiro, Dundar, Ziskin, Yuan, & Harrell,
2013). Given this low success rate, it is important to identify factors that may increase the
probability of students completing college. Psychosocial skills, outside of the domain of
cognition, may be one way to explain individual differences that predict academic success given
that research indicates students with these skills outperform their peers (Duckworth, Peterson,
Matthews, & Kelly, 2007). Thus, psychosocial skills have the potential to increase community
college student success rates. In the past decade, research has shown that psychosocial skills
contribute to positive academic outcomes, such as grades and enrollment persistence (Markle,
Olivera-Aguilar, Jackson, Noeth, & Robbins, 2013). Psychosocial skills development, therefore,
may aid community college students in achieving educational goals and result in higher-skilled
and paying jobs. However, we know very little about the psychosocial skills of community
college students and how these relate to their success in college.
It is also important to consider the context of community college students and recognize
the challenges they face while attending school. Most community colleges have diverse student
populations, including many students who have first-generation status, require remediation, or
face other challenges (e.g., working while going to school, family obligations and financial
constraints). It appears that these challenges may be related to college student success rates. For
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 10

example, students from high-income families graduate college at a much higher rate (68%)
compared to students from lower income families (29%; Bowen, Chingos, & McPherson, 2009).
Although there is some evidence that parental level of education and other factors, such as
generational status, may influence community college students’ academic success, it is unclear
what specific role these factors play.
Statement of the Problem
There are many questions regarding the factors that contribute to the academic success of
community college students, particularly the types of non-academic and family factors needed to
succeed. This study adds to existing research by examining the non-cognitive factors that
influence the success of community college students in higher education. Specifically, this paper
examines differences in level of psychosocial skill levels, considering students’ demographic
background, whether family socioeconomic status is predictive of students’ psychosocial skill
level, and whether psychosocial skill level is predictive of students’ academic performance.
Background of the Problem
As previously mentioned, as the American economy continues to develop, the number of
jobs increases for students with a college education. A report on job growth and education
requirements found that, in 10 years, two-thirds of all jobs in the United States will require at
least some college education, and, currently, only 45% Americans have a higher education
degree or certificate (Matthews, 2016). Community colleges can play a significant role in
increasing the number of students with college credentials. In fall 2014, 42% of all college
students attended community colleges (Ma & Baum, 2015). Thus, community colleges are a
major component of the higher education landscape and are a driver of producing skilled workers
for the economy. Although 80% of community college students start their higher education
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 11

careers with the intention of transferring and completing a bachelor’s degree, only 25% achieve
this. Of those students who do transfer, only 17% complete a bachelor’s degree within 6 years of
transferring (Jenkins & Fink, 2015). Furthermore, research shows that, within 6 years, fewer than
half of community college students who transfer receive any college-level credential (Shapiro et
al., 2013). These data demonstrate community colleges have the capacity to produce more skilled
workers but need to increase retention and graduation rates to better support students and the
economy.
Psychosocial Skills: Beyond Cognitive Ability
Traditionally, cognitive skills measurements have been the focus of studies of academic
success, but research is beginning to expand to include the role of non-cognitive skills. In fact,
psychosocial and study skill factors may contribute more to predicting college outcomes than
standardized achievement scores and high school GPA (Robbins, Lauver, Le, Davis, Langley, &
Carlstrom, 2004). In this context, study skills are a construct comprised of actions contributing
to academic performance such as meeting class expectations, taking notes, and preparing for
exams. The authors also found that the best predictors for GPA were academic self-efficacy and
achievement motivation. These two constructs may be important for our understanding of the
influence of psychosocial skills on academic performance.
The phrase “psychosocial skills” is used as an umbrella term referring to a category of
variables related to one’s psychological development in and interaction with a social
environment (Lipnevich, Preckel, & Roberts, 2016). One conceptualization includes personality,
motivation, study skills, intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, and a wide array of factors outside
of cognitive ability (Markle et al., 2013). Research found academic goals, academic self-
efficacy, and academic-related skills were strong predictors of college retention. The same study
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 12

also found achievement motivation to be among the strongest predictor for GPA (Robbins,
Lauver, Le, Davis, & Langley, 2004). Given the existing research on psychosocial skills, this
study sought to understand the relationship between community college students’ psychosocial
skills and academic skills.
Previous research demonstrated that students’ cognitive and psychosocial skills develop
over the course of college. Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) tracked 3,000 students over 20 years
and found that students’ autonomy, locus of control, and self-efficacy changed over time.
Students profoundly change and mature while in college in a variety of ways. It seems important
to understand the psychosocial skills of students and how these influence their success.
Understanding how these skills change over time may be an opportunity to provide interventions
to support development of psychosocial skills.
Relationship of socioeconomic status on students’ psychosocial skills. Socioeconomic
status (SES) is typically conceptualized as three indicators: parental income, parental education,
and parental occupation (Gottfried, 1985). SES is a construct that represents an individual or
family’s position within a society through a social ranking process based on wealth, power, and
social status (Mueller & Parcel, 1981). Research has found a strong positive correlation between
parental education and income in the United States (Hauser & Warren, 1997). One objective of
this study was to understand the relationship between SES and community college students’
academic and psychosocial skills level. Existing literature documents the impact SES has on
academic achievement (Bowen et al., 2009), but a gap in the literature exists addressing the
impact of SES and other demographic factors on community college students’ academic and
psychosocial skills level.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 13

Theoretical Framework
Bronfenbrenner’s (1998) ecological systems framework can provide a context for
understanding community college students’ psychosocial skills and academic performance. This
framework is based in developmental psychology and focuses on the process by which an
individual is shaped by the interaction with his or her environment. Ecological framework
identifies five different levels, or systems, by which an individual is shaped by other people,
communities, and cultures.
The most relevant ecological system to the current study is the microsystem, which
consists of people and organizations that interact with the individual (e.g., family, peers, school).
This microsystem is the most proximal context to an individual’s development; therefore,
academic and psychosocial skills are theoretically most influenced by the microsystem. A
practical example of this would be the extent to which parents, siblings, professors, and
counselors directly encourage development of a student’s psychosocial and academic skills
through teaching and providing academic and study skills support. All these individuals have
direct contact with students and ,through their interactions, can influence the students’ skills. The
second level of the ecological framework is the mesosystem, which represents the interactions
among the elements of the microsystem. The interactions among parents, instructors, counselors,
and students may influence students’ academic and psychosocial skills. For example, a parent’s
lack of education may lead to the downplaying of the importance of college, which could affect
their children’s commitment to higher education, which, in turn, could affect academic success.
The third level of the ecological framework is called the exosystem and includes influences such
as SES, neighborhoods lived in, and overarching school systems that do not necessarily have a
direct impact on the student. For example, if a school’s administration decided to fund a campus
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 14

effort to develop the psychosocial skills of its students, this has an indirect effect on the
individual. The fourth level encompasses an individual’s cultural context, such as a students’
SES status, into which they are born and raised, which can have either a positive or negative
impact on their development. The final, fifth, level is the chronosystem, which is the life and
generational events that one experiences throughout the lifespan. For a student entering college,
events experienced (e.g., break-up of a relationship, family financial strain, overwhelming work
demands) can either promote or decrease the likelihood of a positive transition to college.
Importance of the Study
A college education is increasingly important to achieve financial and social success in
the current dynamic U.S. economy. Forty percent of students in higher education are in
community colleges, so institutional effectiveness and support services offered by these schools
provide essential supports to a sizeable proportion of the higher education population (Monaghan
& Attewell, 2015). Specifically, three factors have shown to contribute to college attainment:
cognitive, non-cognitive, and family background (McGue, Rustichini, & Iacono, 2015). Another
study (Robbins et al., 2004) showed psychosocial and study skill factors contributed to
predicting college outcomes. Most community colleges have diverse student populations,
including many students who have first-generation, require remediation, and face other obstacles.
Nearly 40% of community college students receive a degree or certificate within 6 years, which
demonstrates the need for further studies to better understand and provide recommendations on
how to increase these rates (Shapiro et al., 2013).
Most studies of college students’ psychosocial skills are of traditional college students in
residential environments. This study is unique because of the focus on the psychosocial skills of
community college students and the relationship between socioeconomic status and academic
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 15

performance. Further understanding of how psychosocial skills contribute to the academic
performance of community college students may provide additional insights into increasing
completion rates and increasing transfer rates. Additionally, understanding psychosocial skill
differences in community college students may better assist in understanding academic
achievement differences between groups of students.
Another unique aspect of this study is the examination of the role that student and family
characteristics may play in psychosocial skills development. The American educational system is
marked by inequity of achievement that is often predicted by the demographics of race and
family income. This inequity poses a persistent problem for the educational system in the United
States, and developing psychosocial skills of at-risk students may provide a step towards
promoting educational achievement with students who tend to have lower levels of academic
performance.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to explore academic and psychosocial skills of community
college students to better understand how psychosocial skills contribute to academic
performance. I examined demographic differences such as race, gender and SES (conceptualized
as parental level of education) in relation to students’ academic and psychosocial skills as well as
the relationship of psychosocial skills with academic performance. This led to two research
questions: (1) For community college students, do academic and psychosocial skills levels (e.g.
commitment, self-management and social support) differ by students’ race, gender and parental
level of education? and (2) Do psychosocial skills predict academic skills for each racial group
controlling for age?

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 16

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Community college students face numerous challenges in successfully navigating
college and finishing their degrees, or transferring to a 4-year institution. Outside of cognitive
skills, psychosocial skills may contribute to academic achievement, and developing these skills
may be critical in student persistence. The following section provides an overview of (1) the role
of community colleges and student characteristics; (2) the relationships among family
socioeconomic status, social capital, parental education level, race and gender and its
relationship to the academic success of college students (and or psychosocial skills); and (3) the
role of psychosocial skills in community college students’ success.
Community Colleges: A Background
Community colleges were established in the United States in the early 1900s in response
to the need for trained workers to support the growth of American industry, society’s desire for
class equality, and an increase in individuals’ desire to achieve academic credentials (Cohen &
Brawer, 2003). Colleges and universities are training grounds where many Americans gain the
skills and experiences they need to be successful in the job market. Community colleges, in
particular, play a pivotal role in preparing students to enter the job market. One of the primary
missions of community colleges is to provide career technical education. This vocational training
lasts only a few years and provides skills to prepare students for careers in various trades and
industries. Additionally, community colleges prepare students to transfer to 4-year colleges to
obtain a bachelor’s degree, which typically allow students to earn higher incomes than an
associate’s degree.
As a pathway to 4-year colleges and universities, community colleges play a major role
in American higher education. These public 2-year institutions enroll about 40% of all
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 17

undergraduate students in the United States and students typically complete vocational programs
culminating in certificates or associate’s degrees (Aud et al., 2012). The California community
college system specifically plays a significant role in American higher education because of its
sheer size. According to the California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office (2016), in the
2014–15 academic year, California community colleges had 113 schools in the system serving
2.1 million students, which is the largest system of higher education in the nation. Because of the
vast size of the California community college system, the effectiveness of their schools in
educating students has significant impact on millions of students.
Student success rates are the primary measure of community college effectiveness in
educating students. One distinguishing feature of community colleges, compared to other types
of education, is the open admissions policies that allow any individual meeting basic
requirements to enroll, as opposed to the admissions process required of a 4-year institution.
Open access may lead to some challenges in measuring the schools’ success rates.
The most common way to measure student success rates in community college is student
degree completion or transferring to a 4-year school. Community college students are less likely
to eventually complete a bachelor’s degree than students who start their college career at a 4-year
school (Long & Kurlaender, 2009). Specifically, in the California community college system
between 2009 and 2011, the 3-term persistence rate ranged from 70.3% to 71.7%. In the 2014–
15 school year, the pass rate in for credit class was 70.5% (California Community Colleges
Chancellor’s Office, 2016). This means that 30% of students in California community colleges
do not make it to the start of their second year, which suggests that many students leave
community colleges before even reaching the halfway point in their education.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 18

There are key differences between community college students and traditional college
students at four-year institutions. Community colleges tend to have student bodies that are more
diverse in terms of race/ethnicity and age and students are more likely to work (part or full time)
compared to 4-year students. In addition, students who begin higher education in community
colleges are often not prepared for college-level work, partially because of the open access
admission policies discussed previously (Monaghan & Attewell, 2015). Community colleges
play an important role in higher education and better understanding of the skills that relate to
academic success may help these students become more successful.
Role of Community Colleges and Student Demographics
Community colleges have grown in both size and influence since their inception; as of
2014, 42% of all undergraduates were enrolled in community college (Ma & Baum, 2016). The
popularity of community colleges is due to the low cost of tuition and fees; for example, the cost
in California is $1680 (Ma & Baum, 2016) and the proximity of schools to students’ homes.
Ninety-six percent of students are in-state residents, and the median distance from students’
homes to campus is 10 miles (Horn, Nevill, & Griffith, 2006).
Community colleges serve a variety of purposes: academic transfer preparation,
occupational education, developmental education, continuing education, and community service
(Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Academic transfer, one of the distinguishing aspects of community
college compared to a 4-year institution, allows students to use these schools as a springboard to
universities and allows for more accessibility to college in terms of cost and location (see
previous paragraph). In addition, the occupational programs provided by community colleges are
designed to provide training in general skills, prepare students for specific vocational
employment and serve as terminal education programs (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Community
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 19

colleges also offer continuing education for adults who want to develop new skills to change
careers or for personal enrichment. Lastly, community colleges provide cultural or educational
events to the surrounding community. The numerous needs that these institutions address
highlights how community colleges serve many different constituencies and needs.
As such a diverse set of goals implies, there are several features that distinguish
community college students from traditional, 4-year institutions. At many 4-year schools,
students’ lives revolve around academics, peers, and social events, whereas community college
students are often older, with full- or part-time jobs and family responsibilities and school is only
one focus (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). The challenges presented by juggling many distinct roles is
compounded by the remedial coursework required for many students before starting college-
level classes (Townsend & Twombly, 2007). Because many students come into community
colleges unprepared for higher education, these institutions expend significant resources in
developmental education to prepare students for adequate performance in college- level courses.
According to Achieving the Dream: Community Colleges Count, a longitudinal study of over 80
colleges in 15 states, 59% of students were referred to developmental math courses and 33% to
developmental reading courses (Bailey, Jeong, & Cho, 2010).
Broadly speaking, some of these challenges may be attributed to students’ and families’
lack of resources. These challenges are not equally experienced regardless of student
demographics, but tend to occur more often among non-white students. The result is a large
disparity between white and historically underrepresented groups when examining key indicators
of academic success (e.g., degree completion). Often politicians and leaders celebrate diversity
and highlight inclusion or access, but it is critical to disaggregate key academic indicators by
race to understand if outcomes are equitable (Harris & Bensimon, 2007).
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 20

Gender is another possible demographic factor that may help us to understand differences
in academic and psychosocial skills among students. Recent data show that women attend
college at higher rates, earn higher grades in college, and graduate at higher rates than men
(Kena et al., 2016). One longitudinal study shows women’s higher non-cognitive skills
contribute to their higher educational attainment (Jacob, 2002).
Family Factors That Influence Community College Students’ Success
Socioeconomic Status (SES). SES is a construct that represents an individual’s or
family’s position within a society through a social ranking process based on wealth, power, and
social status (Mueller & Parcel, 1981). Contemporary research conceptualizes SES as a
combined sociological and economic measure based on parental income, parental education, and
parental occupation (Gottfried, 1985). Often SES distinguishes access to cultural and educational
opportunities and family support a student has at his or her disposal. Typically, when describing
an individual’s level of SES, three categorical descriptions for families or individuals are used:
low, medium, and high (Mueller & Parcel, 1981). When categorizing individuals or families,
typically a combination of income, education, and occupation is used; in some cases, it may be a
single variable or a combination of two.
This study used parental level of education as a proxy for SES based on the dataset this
study used. Other studies used parental level of education as a proxy for SES (Pergamit, Huang,
& Lane, 2001; Soteriades & DiFranza, 2003). Studies have demonstrated strong positive
correlations between education and income. A longitudinal data set using participants from
several countries between 1960 and 1990 demonstrated that level and distribution of education
plays a significant role in making income distribution more equal (Gregorio & Lee, 2002).
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 21

Research also points to parental level of education as a critical aspect of SES when considering
policy and research in students’ academic achievement (Davis-Kean, 2005).
In addition to the differences previously mentioned, community college students are also
likely to differ from traditional college students in their socioeconomic status. When compared to
4-year schools, community colleges enroll a larger percentage of low-income students and enroll
the most students from the bottom socioeconomic quintile (Horn et al., 2006). Also, when
compared to high SES -year college students, low SES students work more, study less, are less
involved with campus life and report lower GPAs. Due to community college students’
likelihood of having outside commitments such as work and household responsibilities, they are
more likely than 4-year students to enroll part time (Townsend & Twombly, 2007). In addition,
students who work or have household responsibilities have less time to dedicate to studying.
(Belfield, Jenkins, & Lahr, 2016). Nine years after starting college when compared to middle-
and high-SES students, low-SES students have lower levels of educational attainment and lower
income (Walpole, 2003).
Given these challenges, students from low SES backgrounds often have less successful
college outcomes than students from middle- and high-SES backgrounds for a variety of reasons.
From a sociopolitical perspective, lower SES students have less access to more selective schools.
Low-SES students who have long been part of higher education are overrepresented at less-
selective colleges and are less likely to enroll in college (Hearn, 1984). Low-SES students have
obstacles to education and less successful outcomes when compared to middle- and high-level
SES students.
One of the purposes of this study was to explore differences in student academic skill
based on parental levels of education. Research on low-SES students who are first-generation has
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 22

been applied to a more limited extent to explain patterns of college enrollment and success rates
in college (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001; Hossler & Stage, 1992). Studies have used parental
education level as a proxy for SES and make the point that parental education level may have
more of a direct link to skills attainment due to parents with higher levels of education having
more resources to expend on children and time interacting with them (Goodman, Sands, &
Coley, 2015).
Parental level of education. A large body of literature demonstrates that students whose
parents have higher levels of education have more successful college outcomes. For example,
mothers who are highly educated are more likely to discuss children’s academic performance
than less-educated mothers (Stevenson & Baker, 1987). Stevenson and Baker (1987) also found
these more highly-educated women have higher academic achievement expectations and
demands for their children. One study focusing on parental differences in grades and educational
goals of middle and high school students found parental educational level had a positive impact
on students (Smith, 1989). In addition, early parental expectations for elementary school
predicted middle school achievement, and the authors posit that parents have an impact on
children’s academic achievement through a strong hope their children will succeed in college
(Froiland, Peterson, & Davison, 2012).
Social capital and SES. Closely related to SES, social capital plays a role in educational
outcomes of college students. Bourdieu (2011) posits social capital is "the aggregate of the actual
or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less
institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition” (p. 86). Put another way,
social capital is the sum of economic and cultural capital derived from social networks based in
reciprocity and trust. One review of research between the relationship of social capital and
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 23

educational achievement found social relationships between family, community, and school play
a pivotal role in promoting educational achievement (Israel & Beaulieu, 2004). Wells (2008)
found “accumulated social and cultural capital will likely have an influence on college student
decision making, and the effects that this may have on student decisions are likely to be
especially strong during the first years of postsecondary schooling” (p. 30). Because this study
examined parental level of education and students’ academic and psychosocial skills, it is
important to note that social capital is often passed down from one generation to the next.
Additional research demonstrated the relationship between social capital and success
within society. Putnam (2001) states “a well-connected individual in a poorly connected society
is not as productive as a well-connected individual in a well-connected society” (p. 20). A low-
SES student is likely poorly connected in a richly networked society and, thus, is at a
disadvantage in the job market and socially. Education is perceived to be one of the factors that
levels the economic playing field for low SES students but, often, may be reproducing existing
hierarchies (Wells, 2008). Strengthening these students’ academic and psychosocial skills may
provide greater access to social capital and thus further economic and educational benefits.
First-Generation college students. Students who have parents who have not attended
college are at a disadvantage when accessing and performing in higher education. A study from
the National Center for Education Statistics found that students whose parents did not attend
college face additional challenges accessing higher education and potentially show more
negative outcomes in persistence and degree attainment (Choy, 2001).
In addition, there are disparities between resources available to first- and second-
generation college students. In a study that assessed the college knowledge of first- and second-
generation college students, students with parents who had a college education received
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 24

significantly more emotional and financial support while in college (York-Anderson & Bowman,
1991). This may be because students with parents who graduated from college were more
familiar with the college experience and able to provide a wider range of support for their
children (York-Anderson & Bowman, 1991). Thus, it seems parental level of education is likely
to have an impact on academic and psychosocial skills as parents with higher levels of education
may be able to provide better advice and ensure that their children are prepared to meet the
challenges of completing a college education.
First-generation college students are more likely to have lower academic achievement
rates in high school and come from lower SES backgrounds than second-generation college
students. Another challenge for first-generation students is the transition into the role of a college
student, which can be perceived as different, and leaving their peers and family behind (Rendon,
1995). When comparing performance and perceptions of college between first-generation and
non-first generation, first-generation students completed fewer units in their first year, studied
fewer hours per week, worked more hours per week, and reported they perceived faculty were
less concerned with students and teaching (Terenzini, Springer Yaeger, Pascarella, & Nora,
1996). Overall, the research shows first-generation college students have more challenges in
transitioning into college and perform worse academically than their peers. If these students were
to have stronger psychosocial skills, they may perform better in college. However, this challenge
can be mitigated by obtaining a four-year degree, as their outcomes were the same compared to
students whose parents completed higher education (Choy, 2001). This emphasizes the
importance of degree completion to these students.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 25

Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Skills
Before providing a review of select psychosocial skills, it is valuable to understand
differences between cognitive and non-cognitive skills and review research that combines both.
In this context, the terms non-cognitive skills and psychosocial skills can be used
interchangeably. Cognitive skills relate primarily to thinking, learning, and reasoning, as
measured by SAT scores and grade point averages, which is commonly used for college
admission Cognitive and non-cognitive skills are equally important for social performance and
non-cognitive skills influence schooling decisions which heavily influence income by virtue of
school selections (Heckman, Stixrud, & Urzua, 2006). Cognitive ability, non-cognitive skills,
and family background all contribute to college attainment (McGue et al., 2015). A meta-
analysis of 13 years of research exploring the role of cognitive and non-cognitive skill on college
students’ GPA found several positive relationships. In terms of cognitive skills, a medium-size
positive correlation was found between high school GPA, SAT, ACT and college ‘A’ level
scores. Also, medium-size positive correlations were found for college GPA and non-cognitive
factors of academic self-efficacy, grade goal, and effort regulation. Non-cognitive and cognitive
factors of performance self-efficacy, high school GPA, ACT, and grade goal were all strongly
correlated with GPA (Richardson et al., 2012). Thus, it is important to consider and compare
both the roles of cognitive and non-cognitive when seeking to understand college student
performance.
Psychosocial Skills
Psychosocial skills is a term that refers to a variety of constructs from both the education
and psychology literature. These skills include, but are not limited to: conscientiousness, grit,
intrinsic motivation, resiliency, self-concept, self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, teamwork and
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 26

time management. They are closely related to, and at times used interchangeably with, terms
such as: non-cognitive characteristics, socioemotional skills, soft skills, affective skills and
twenty-first-century skills from the fields of economics and policy. Developing students’
psychosocial skills can be seen in school mission statements from around the world (Bebell &
Stemler, 2013) and employers have identified these skills as essential to workplace success
(Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006). Of these, there are a subset of psychosocial skills, such as
self-efficacy and commitment, that are closely linked with academic performance.
Self-efficacy. Bandura (1997) described self-efficacy as "the belief in one's capabilities to
organize and execute courses of action required to produce given attainments" (p. 3). Efficacy
beliefs strongly influence decisions for courses of action, effort, persistence and overcoming
setbacks and challenges. In a large study of first-year college students, researchers found that
self-efficacy and optimism were the strongest predictors of academic performance and
adjustment to college life (Chemers, Hu & Garcia, 2001). Bong and Skaalvik (2003) posit self-
efficacy predicts motivation, emotion, and performance and acts as an active precursor of self-
concept development. Similarly, other researchers have found close relationships to other
constructs related to self-efficacy. A meta-analysis of 149 studies on psychological traits and
found that self-esteem, neuroticism, and locus of control were highly correlated. Core self-
evaluation may be a higher-order construct that includes self-esteem, neuroticism, locus of
control and generalized self-efficacy (Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002). Together, research
has consistently shown a strong relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance.
Expectancy-value theory as related to self-efficacy. Although not typically defined as a
psychosocial skill, expectancy-value theory is a non-cognitive perspective that may shape
college students’ performance. One of the founders of the theory, Atkinson (1957), found that
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 27

three aspects drive behavior: motive, expectancy and incentive. He defined expectancy as
cognitive anticipation, usually triggered by a situational cue that has a consequence, and the
strength of the expectancy is proportional to the likelihood of the consequence. These studies
showed a positive correlation between achievement motivation.
Starting in the 1980s, Jacquelynne Eccles expanded this research into the field of
education, proposing an expectancy–value model of achievement performance and choice
(Eccles, 1983). One construct is ability belief, which measures individual’s self-perception of
skill at a task or in a specific domain. Another construct, expectancy, examines one’s expectation
of performance and could measure expectation of the ability to learn something new. Also, an
individual’s perspective of usefulness, importance and interest in a task is an important aspect of
the model. Measures of usefulness relate to how learning a task is generalizable and one’s
perception of usefulness in a domain. Finally, interest is related to one’s own feelings of
involvement with a task (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Like self-efficacy, expectancy-value theory
demonstrates how students’ thoughts and perspective on academics influences outcomes. Other
psychosocial skills are similar or may be somewhat related to self-efficacy, so relationships
between these two constructs may exist as well.
Personality, Five-Factor model, and conscientiousness. Research in the areas of
personality, the Five-Factor model, and consciousness has demonstrated relationships to post-
secondary academic performance. R.B. Cattell (1943) began studying personality traits and is the
forefather of the Five-Factor Model, which is also known as the Big Five. The Big Five
personality traits include openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,
and neuroticism. One study found openness to be a predictor of SAT verbal scores, while
consciousness best at predicting both high school and college GPA (Noftle & Robins, 2007). In a
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 28

meta-analysis of 58 published studies investigating the impact of the Big Five personality factors
on academic success in college, researchers found neuroticism is related to academic satisfaction
and conscientiousness correlates with grades (Trapmann, Hell, Hirn, & Schuler, 2007). Several
other major studies have shown strong relationships between consciousness and academic
achievement (Poropat, 2009; O’Connor & Paunonen, 2007; MacCann, Duckworth, & Roberts,
2009). Extensive research has shown relationships between conscientiousness and academic
performance in higher education. This personality trait fits well with other psychosocial skills
and can benefit community college students. The instrument used in this study to measure
psychosocial skills measure two skills, academic skill and commitment, that strongly relate to
conscientiousness (Markle et al., 2013).
Commitment. Students’ commitment to earning a college degree is an important
psychosocial skill. A study conducted of college students and parents demonstrated how parental
attitudes and values about higher education contribute to their children’s commitment levels
(Hackman & Dysinger, 1970). In another study that focused on self-esteem, social support, and
participation in student services on students' adjustment and commitment to college, students
who were better adjusted to campus life were more likely to be committed to the goal of a
college degree and more committed to their university (Grant-Vallone, Reid, Umali, & Pohlert,
2003). The research shows students’ commitment level is influenced by parents and is related to
adjustment to campus life. Thus, it may be possible to influence community college students’
commitment towards completing degrees and certificated by doing outreach to parents and help
new students adjust to campus life.
Self-regulation, self-discipline, and emotional regulation. A study of college students
on self-regulation and performance found higher levels of self-regulation and academic
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 29

performance associated with students who had high concern for both learning and performance
goals than by the others (Bouffard, Boisvert, Vezeau, & Larouche, 1995). In a study of middle
school students, self-discipline accounted for more than twice as much variance as IQ in final
grades (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005). This suggests that many students may not be living up to
their academic potential due to lack of self-discipline. In a study that examined
conscientiousness, grit, and emotion regulation in high school students, conscientiousness and
emotion regulation predicted school outcomes (Ivcevic & Brackett, 2014). Clearly, self-
regulation, self-discipline and emotional regulation may be skills that support outcomes of
community college students.
Sense of belonging. In a key study in student development literature, Hurtado and Carter
(1997) test a conceptual model for sense of belonging in Latino students. The study found
membership in student clubs and religious organizations and student discussions of coursework
outside of the classroom contributed positively to students’ sense of belonging, while perceptions
of hostile racial climates contributed negatively. Strayhorn (2012) used the theoretical construct
of sense of belonging in his empirical research on diverse student populations including Latinos,
gays, black male students, and first-year students of color. He highlights persistence and
retention as priorities for higher education institution and demonstrated this construct is
important for all students given it is a key to educational success. In another study that
investigated sense of belonging in first-year students, researchers found that the perception of
valued involvement was characterized by supportive peer relationships and the belief that faculty
are compassionate (Hoffman, Richmond, Morrow, & Salomone, 2002). These findings can be
insightful to student service professionals and professors on how to create and support
environments that provide a sense of belonging to students to support persistence and academic
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 30

achievement. Also, this study used social support as a measure which sense of belonging is a
critical aspect of the overall understanding of social support.
Summary
Community college is distinctive in higher education for serving higher proportions of
first-generation college students, students from low-income families, African-American, Latino
and remedial students than traditional four-year schools (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Low SES
students face a variety of obstacles in college including having to work more, study less, less
involved in campus life and additionally report lower GPAs. Additionally, after tracking students
post- college when compared to middle and high SES students, low SES students have lower
levels of educational attainment and income (Walpole, 2003). In relation to SES, the concept of
social capital was explored which is the sum of benefits an individual reaps from his or her social
network. Thus, low SES students and first-generation students are likely to benefit little from
social capital derived from their networks. Additionally, social capital and its benefits including
jobs and access to resources, are passed from one generation to the next (Bourdieu, 2011).
This study used parental education level as a proxy for SES as other studies have and
demonstrated the relationships between the two variables (Goodman et al., 2015; Lee, Sax, Kim,
& Hagedorn, 2004). Various studies have shown children with parents with higher levels of
education have higher levels of academic achievement (Stevenson & Baker, 1987; Smith, 1989).
Additionally, first-generation students have lesser levels of academic success than non-first-
generation students (Choy, 2001; Terenzini et al., 1996).
The second independent variable of the study is psychosocial skills, which consists of a
variety of constructs from the education and psychology literature including conscientiousness,
grit, intrinsic motivation, resiliency, self-concept, self-efficacy, self-regulated learning,
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 31

teamwork and time management. Many schools have included some type of these traits in their
mission statements (Bebell & Stemler, 2013) and employers identified these skills as critical for
the workplace (Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006). It is also critical to differentiate these from
cognitive skills which have been typical measures for indicators of success and recognize
research finds both are critical for academic success (Richardson et al., 2012). Studies have
shown self-efficacy to be a strong predictor of academic performance and motivation (Chermers,
Hu, & Garvia, 2001; Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). Another psychosocial skill, commitment, is
important to student success; one study demonstrated students who were better adjusted to
campus life were more committed to earning a college degree and to their school (Grant-Vallone,
Reid, Umali, & Pohlert, 2003). Self-regulation, self-management, and emotional regulation all
contribute to student academic success are related to the psychosocial skill of self-management.
Purpose of the Study
The goal of this study was to explore the relationships of psychosocial skills to academic
skills in a diverse population of community college students. The primary objective was to
determine if psychosocial skills (e.g. commitment, self-management, and social support) predict
academic skills. Secondarily, I examined whether there are group differences by race, gender,
college-generation status, and parental level of education in students’ academic and psychosocial
skills.
Research Question 1
For community college students, do academic and psychosocial skills levels (e.g.
commitment, self-management and social support) differ by students’ race, gender and parental
level of education?
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 32

Hypothesis 1: Groups of students with different demographic variables of race, gender, and
parental level of education will have different academic and psychosocial skill levels.
Research Question 2
Do psychosocial skills predict academic skills for each racial group controlling for age?
Hypothesis 2: Psychosocial skills will predict academic skills for students.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 33

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study investigated patterns of academic and psychosocial skills of community
college students. This chapter includes information on study participants, instruments used, data
collection procedures, and proposed analyses.
Participants
Participants are from a California community colleges located in a large urban area with
diverse study populations. According to the California Community College Chancellor’s Office
(2016) 31,239 students were enrolled in Spring 2016. During the same semester, 41.3% students
were enrolled as full-time students while 58.7% were part-time. In the most recent data available,
the 2009-10 cohort had a persistence rate of 76% (California Community College Chancellor’s
Office, 2016).
The current study included 4,404 students in the 2014–15 and 2015–16 academic terms.
Female students comprised 49% (n = 2161) of the sample, and males comprised 47% (n = 2064).
Three percent of the sample (n = 179) did not report their gender. Students reported their
race/ethnicity as follows: 30.1% Mexican/Mexican American; 29.7% Puerto Rican or other
Latino; 14.5% White; 9.8% Black or African American; 8.4% Native American, Hawaiian, or
Pacific Islander; and 5.8% Asian/Asian American. A small proportion of the sample (6.5%; n =
286) did not report their race or ethnicity. As expected, students were primarily single (85.9%; n
= 3784), with a small proportion married (1.5%; n = 60) or divorced, separated, or widowed
(.9%; n = 40). Only 1.4% reported living with a partner (n = 62), and 10.4% did not report
marital status (n = 458). Most students said that they planned on working at least 10 or more
hours a week while attending school (59.2%; n = 2607), while 19.4% (n = 855) reported that
they did not intend to work, and 13.4% (n = 589) reported that they would work fewer than 10
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 34

hours a week. Again, a small percentage of students (8%; n = 353) did not report their intention
to work.
As noted in Table 1, the demographic category “Native American/Hawaiian/Pacific
Islander/ Other/ Other American” included 369 students, and 291 identified as “other.” The self-
identification of “other” cannot be conclusively defined, as this could mean students who have
mixed heritage, are of middle eastern descent, are international students or have any number of
other student racial or ethnic identities. For conceptual clarity, this group was excluded from
subsequent analyses.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Sampled Students
Demographic Descriptive Statistics
N 4404
Age 19.25 (1.71)
Sex
Male 2064 (47%)
Female 2161 (49%)
Ethnicity
Mexican/Mexican American

1239 (30.1%)
Puerto Rican/Other Latino 1223 (29.7%)
White 599 (14.5%)
Black/African American 432 (9.8%)
Native American/Hawaiian/Pacific Islander/
Other/ Other American
369 (8.4%)
Asian/Asian American 256 (5.8%)
Marital Status
Single 3784 (85.9%)
Married
Divorced, Separated, or Widowed
60 (1.5%)
40 (.9%)
Employment Status
Working less than 10 hours a week

589 (13.4%)
Working more than 10 hours a week 2607 (59.2%)
Not working 855 (19.4%)

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 35

Instrument
This study used SuccessNavigator (ETS, 2013), an online assessment tool that measures
academic and psychosocial skills. The assessment is designed to increase student success and
retention by providing data to counselors and administrators to inform interventions that help
students succeed in college (Markle et al., 2013). SuccessNavigator was used for this study
because it measures both academic and psychosocial skills and has demonstrated strong
reliability and validity (see below).
SuccessNavigator is a 92-item survey that most students complete in 20 to 30 minutes
(Appendix A). In addition to closed-ended questions on students’ demographic information (e.g.,
gender, age, race, etc.), the survey also asks for students’ SAT and ACT scores, educational
progress status, educational goals, use of campus services, and personal life challenges. The
survey is also comprised of questions about students’ academic and psychosocial skills based on
a six-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). The output includes
categorical data (e.g., low, moderate, high) for academic skill and psychosocial skills subscales
(commitment, self-management, and social support). After completing the survey, students
received an individualized score report with information on academic and psychosocial skill
areas. The report also provided definitions of the four skill areas, resources for improvement,
and descriptions of behaviors and traits of similar students with similar scores. Counselors get
more detailed reports, including data related to retention.
Academic Skills
SuccessNavigator measures strategies students use that are related to academic success (α
= .86) and this construct, academic skills, is comprised of items on two subscales. The
organization subscale focuses on strategies for organizing work and time (e.g., “I write a daily
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 36

to-do list”; α = .80). Meeting class expectations measures how often students complete
assignments and students’ classroom behavior (e.g., “I complete my assignments on time”; α =
.83).
Psychosocial Skills
Most of the instrument measures three psychosocial skills: commitment, self-
management and social support. All four skills areas from this instrument—academic,
commitment, self-management and social support—demonstrate reliabilities above .85.
Commitment. In this survey, commitment is defined generally as working toward an
academic goal. This construct is comprised of two subscales: commitment to college goals and
institutional commitment. Commitment to college goals includes questions that ask about
perceived value and willpower to complete college (e.g., “one of my life goals is to graduate
college”; α = .84). Institutional commitment includes questions that ask about attachment and
positive evaluations of a (e.g., “this is the right school for me”; α = .90).
Self-Management. Self-management measures students’ reactions to stress and events in
their daily life. This construct is comprised of three subscales: sensitivity to stress, academic self-
efficacy, and test anxiety. Sensitivity to stress includes questions about the presence of negative
feelings due to pressure or demands (e.g., “I get stressed out easily when things don’t go my
way”; α = .88). Academic self-efficacy includes number items and asks about students’ belief in
his/her ability to perform and achieve in school (e.g., “I’m confident that I will succeed in my
courses this semester”; α = .86). Test anxiety is comprised of items that measure students’
negative feelings and thoughts that are induced by test-tasking (e.g. “when I take a test, I think
about what happens if I don’t do well”; α = .88).
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 37

Social support. Social support is defined as students’ frequency of connecting with
people and student resources (overall α = .89). This construct includes three subskills:
connectedness, institutional support, and barriers to success. Connectedness asks about students’
sense of belonging and engagement (e.g., “I feel connected to my peers”; α = .86). Institutional
support asks how often students seek help from established resources (e.g., “if I don’t understand
something in class, I ask the instructor for help”; α = .86). The barriers to success subscale
includes items that ask about students’ financial pressures, family and work responsibilities, and
knowledge about navigating college (e.g., “family pressures make it hard for me to commit to
school”; α = .78).
Parental level of education (SES). Parental level of education serves as a proxy for
socioeconomic status. For the purposes of the study, parental education is operationalized as the
highest level of education either parent attained. The levels in this study are less than a high
school diploma; high school diploma or equivalent; some college/university or
associates/vocational degree; bachelor’s degree; and some graduate studies and graduate degree.
Validity. The instrument is based in part on the Big Five theory of personality, with one
component, conscientiousness, as the foundation of two major factors: academic skills and
commitment. The development of the instrument also took into consideration services available
on college campuses such as first-year experience programs, tutoring, and counseling services.
Additionally, faculty, administrators and students from nearly 50 colleges reviewed the questions
for face validity to confirm they align with undergraduate success (Markle et al., 2013).
Procedure
This study used an existing dataset of students who completed the survey in the 2014–
2015 and 2015–2016 academic school years. Over 90% of students who complete the assessment
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 38

are enrolled in a counseling class for which they get college credit toward graduation and
transfer. The staff and administrator who oversee the implementation of the instrument have
access to the web-based database. Other programs with counselors use it for their special
programs geared toward African American, Latino/a, veterans and other programs that serve
under-resourced students.
In the fall semesters, there were usually 60 to 65 sections of the class, with fewer sections
available in the spring (35 to 40), winter (10 to 12), and summer (10 to 12). Most sections of the
class had between 25 and 35 students. Over 75% of the classes are on campus while the
remainder are online. Currently, about 80% of the classes use the survey instrument; individual
instructors have the discretion to choose to use it but are encouraged by the counseling
department.
The purpose of the class is to teach skills necessary for college success, such as academic
strategies and life management skills. Each section of the class is taken to a computer lab in the
library as a group during the semester for one session to complete the survey online. Different
class sections take it at different times throughout the 16-week fall and spring or 6-week winter
or summer term. Logistics differ from class to class, but, typically, the class spends about 35
minutes in the computer lab completing the survey. Then, immediately after or, sometimes, in
the following class, the counselor debriefs the students. After students complete the survey, they
receive their results and a counselor who specializes in the survey debriefs and interprets results
to the class as a whole. The counselor goes over academic skill and each psychosocial skill,
explains definitions of each, and explains how to improve in each area. In rare instances, the
instructor of the class will lead the debriefing section if he or she feels familiar and confident
with the instrument. Students have the option to schedule a follow up appointment with the
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 39

specialized counselor to further discuss and get a one on one interpretation of the results but few
students pursue this option.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 40

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between college students’
academic skills and psychosocial skills and to examine how these relationships may differ by
various demographic variables. The first research question examined how demographic groups
differ by academic skills scores and by psychosocial skills scores (commitment, self-
management, and social support). The second research question explored the predictive efficacy
relationship between psychosocial skills and academic skills for groups of students from
different racial groups.
Research Question 1: For community college students, do academic and psychosocial skills
levels (e.g. commitment, self-management and social support) differ by students’ race,
gender and parental level of education?

The dependent variables academic skills and psychosocial skills (commitment, self-
management and social support) both differ significantly (in most cases) by gender, race, and
parent’s educational level. To examine how these groups differ, a three-way ANOVA was run
with academic skills and psychosocial skills, and a three-way MANOVA was conducted for
psychosocial skills and the same demographic variables (commitment, self-management and
social support).
The results for the first ANOVA, looking at the relationship of gender, race, and parental
education with academic skills, is shown in Table 1. Results show that female students’ mean
academic skills score was statistically significantly higher than male students’ mean academic
skills scores. In addition, the F test showed that there were significant differences between racial
groups on academic skills scores. Finally, there was a significant interaction between gender and
parental level of education.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 41

Table 2
ANOVA between Race, Gender, and Parental Education with Academic Skills
F df P
Race 4.35 4 .002
Gender 20.27 1 .001
Level of Parental Ed .852 4 .492
Race x Gender 1.16 4 .325
Race x Highest Level Ed .98 16 .476
Gender x Highest Level Ed 2.12 4 .076
Race x Gender x Highest Level of Ed .54 16 .930

Table 2 shows the correlation matrix of all study variables, including age. Academic
skills showed a strong, significant, and positive correlation with commitment, self-management,
and social support.
Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlation Matrix for Regression Variables
M SD
Academic
Skills Commitment
Self-
Management
Social
Support
Academic skills 97.10 16.00 1.00 .38** .31** .55**
Commitment 101.83 15.00 1.00 .14** .41**
Self-Management 88.50 19.70 1.00 .46**
Social Support 101.20 15.50 1.00
Note: **p < .001.

Post hoc tests were performed to further explore the results of the previous ANOVA
analysis (e.g., differences in mean academic skills scores among the reported racial groups).
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 42

Table 4 reports the means and standard deviations of the academic skills score for each of the six
racial groups and reports which racial groups score higher than others.
Table 4
Post Hoc Table for Academic Skills Score and Race
M SD
Significantl
y Higher
Than
1 Asian, Asian American 98.44 15.52
2 Black, African American 97.44 15.82
3 Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano 95.85 15.80
4 Other Hispanic, Puerto Rican 95.77 15.34
5 White (non-Hispanic) 100.41 16.35 3, 4
Note: “Significantly higher than” based on p < .05.

The results of the post hoc analysis for differences in academic skills scores among racial
groups showed that White students had significantly higher Academic skills Scores than all
Latino students (i.e., Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano, and Puerto Ricans).
After plotting the male and female students’ academic skills scores separately by parental
education level, results showed that, with one exception, female students had higher academic
skills scores than male students. The exception to this is male students who had parents with
grade-school-level education: they showed higher academic skills scores than female students
with parents who had the same level of education.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 43

Figure 1. Gender and parental ed interaction.
The next step was to run a MANOVA to test whether there were demographic differences
in students’ psychosocial skills scores. The overall model was significant, F(3. 15) = 3.915; p <
.001. The main effects and interactions for the entire model are reported in Table 5. All three
main effects of race, gender, and parental education were statistically significant. However, none
of the interactions were statistically significant.
Table 5
MANOVA Between Demographic Variables and Psychosocial Skills
DVs = Commitment, Self-Management, and Social Support
F p
Race 4.58 .001
Gender 35.65 .001
Highest Level of Parental Ed 2.97 .001
Race x Gender 1.12 .336
Race x Highest Level of Parental Ed .66 .965
Gender x Highest Level of Parental Ed 1.051 .398
Race x Gender x Highest Level of Parental Ed 1.21 .156
95.826
101.102
99.724
101.438
102.211
98.26
96.134 96.053
95.063
98.341
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
Grade/ school or
less
High school or
equiv.
Some college +
Associate/Voc
Bachelor's + Some
grad
Graduate degree
ACADEMIC SKILLS SCORE
Chart 1: Gender and Parental Ed Interaction
Female Male
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 44

Table 6 shows that the overall model was significant for each dependent variable
(commitment, self-management, and social support). The main effect of race was statistically
significant for all three dependent variables. The main effect of gender was significant for
commitment and self-management, but does not show significant differences for social support.
Parental education was statistically significant for commitment and social support, but not for
self-management. Interaction effects are not shown due to insignificance.
Table 6
Main Effects for Demographic Variables with Psychosocial Skills
df F p
Race Commitment general skill score 4 8.20 .001
Self-Management general skill score 4 3.03 .017
Social Support general skill score 4 2.58 .036
Gender Commitment general skill score 1 3.97 .047
Self-Management general skill score 1 83.07 .001
Social Support general skill score 1 .15 .698
Highest Level of Parental
Ed
Commitment general skill score 4 1.20 .311
Self-Management general skill score 4 1.01 .401
Social Support general skill score 4 3.10 .015

Next, MANOVA was conducted to test for statistically significant main effects broken
down by each of the dependent variables (commitment, self-management, and social support).
For commitment, there were significant differences among all three demographic variables
(Table 7). Overall, there were several statistically significant differences among the reported
racial groups. African Americans and Latino groups showed the highest commitment scores.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 45

Specifically, Latino and African Americans all showed significantly higher commitment scores
than Asian and White students. Females performed better than males in commitment scores
(females M = 103.25, SD = 14.23; males M = 100.33, SD = 15.68).
Table 7
Post-Hoc Analysis of Difference in Commitment by Race
M SD
Significantly
Higher Than
1 Asian, Asian American 97.36 16.18
2 Black, African American 101.94 15.43 1, 5
3 Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano 103.37 13.50 1, 5
4 Other Hispanic, Puerto Rican 103.54 13.92 1, 5
5 White (non-Hispanic) 97.99 17.01
Note: “Significantly higher than” based on p < .05.
Self-management scores showed significant main effects for race and gender (Table 8).
Overall, African Americans had the highest self-management scores. Native American students
scored higher in self-management than Puerto Rican and Other Latino students. African
American students scored significantly higher in self-management than all other groups except
Native American students. Male students performed better than female students in self-
management (males M = 93.93, SD = 19.08; females M = 83.35, SD = 18.94).

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 46

Table 8
Post-Hoc Analysis of Differences in Self-Management by Race
M SD
Significantly
Higher Than
1 Asian, Asian American 86.63 18.34
2 African American 92.37 20.21 1, 3, 4, 5
3 Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano 88.92 18.85 4
4 Other Hispanic, Puerto Rican 86.73 19.62
5 White (non-Hispanic) 87.92 20.61
Note: “Significantly higher than” based on p < .05.

Social support showed significant main effects for race (Table 9) and level of parental
education (Table 10). African American students and White students reported the highest levels
of social support. African American students and White students scored significantly higher than
Asian Americans and Latinos on social support.
Table 9
Post-Hoc Analysis of Differences in Social Support by Race
M SD
Significantly
Higher Than
1 Asian, Asian American 99.64 14.38
2 Black, African American 104.74 15.60 1, 3, 4
3 Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano 100.29 15.60
4 Other Hispanic, Puerto Rican 100.20 15.08
5 White (non-Hispanic) 103.26 15.86 1, 3, 4
Note: “Significantly higher than” based on p
< .05.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 47

Students whose parents have the lowest levels of education showed the lowest levels of
social support. Students whose parents have less than a high school education have the least
social support, which was significantly less than all other groups. Students whose parents have a
graduate degree also have more social support than students with parents who have some college
and students whose parents have a high school degree or equivalent (Table 10).
Table 10
Post-Hoc Analysis of Differences in Social Support by Level of Parental Education

M SD
Significantly
Higher Than
1 Less than High School Diploma 99.22 15.46
2 High School Diploma or Equivalent 101.42 15.80 1
3 Some College/University or
Associates/Vocational Degree 101.82 15.09 1
4 Bachelor's Degree or Some Graduate Studies 103.40 15.04 1
5 Graduate Degree 105.24 15.45 1, 2, 3
Note: “Significantly higher than” based on p < .05.
Research Question 2: Do psychosocial skills predict academic skills for each racial group
controlling for age?

The following section examines students’ academic skills scores predicted by
psychosocial skills scores. A multivariate regression model with self-management, commitment,
and social support significantly predicts academic skills score and explains 33.7% of the variance
in academic skills. All three variables (self-management, commitment, and social support)
significantly contributed to the prediction of students’ academic skills score. The betas showed
that social support contributed the most to academic skills, followed by commitment and self-
management, respectively.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 48

Initial correlational analyses revealed a positive, significant correlation between age and
several study variables. Given these findings, age may be a possible confounding factor due to
maturation with academic and psychosocial skills, and, therefore, was added as a control to the
regression analysis (Table 11). The R
2
of .34 tells us that our newer model has added a mere .003
to the R
2
which only explains an extra 0.3% of the variance in academic skills. Coefficients
indicate that all three variables still make a significant contribution to the prediction of academic
skills scores. Clearly, examining this second model shows that age is not a confound that
underlies and explains academic skills.
Table 11
Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills, with Age
R
2
F Β t p
Overall Model .34 533.35 -- -- .001
Age 0.30 5.79 .001
Self-Management (IV) 0.20 13.35 .001
Commitment (IV) 0.07 5.60 .001
Social Support (IV) 0.45 28.05 .001

The following tables (Tables 12–16) test if the model where the DV academic skills is
predicted by the IVs psychosocial skills (self-management, commitment, and social support) is
still significant when controlling for each ethnicity category in addition to age. In order to do
this multiple regression analysis, dummy variables were created for each of the ethnicity
categories and a regression was run with age and each ethnicity category for a total of 5 multiple
regressions. The dummy variables are coded as 1 for the category (ex. Black) and 0 for not in
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 49

that category. The dummy variables created were Asian, Black, Mexican, Other Hispanic, and
White.
To explore the predictive relationship between academic skills and psychosocial skills, I
ran separate regression analyses with each construct predicting the other, to see which would be
a more significant predictor. Given that both analyses were significant at .001, I retained the
model shown in Table 12.
Table 12
Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills, with Age & Asian
R
2
F Β t p
Overall Model .34 378.12 -- -- .001
Age 0.32 5.31 .001
Asian 3.37 3.99 .001
Self-Management (IV) 0.19 12.33 .001
Commitment (IV) 0.07 5.51 .001
Social Support (IV) 0.45 26.54 .001

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 50

Table 13
Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills, with Age & Black
R
2
F Β t p
Overall Model .34 375.59 -- -- .001
Age 0.34 5.72 .001
Black -1.85 -2.74 .006
Self-Management (IV) 0.19 11.90 .001
Commitment (IV) 0.07 5.51 .001
Social Support (IV) 0.45 26.71 .001

Table 14
Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills, with Age & Mexican
R
2
F Β t p
Overall Model .34 375.23 -- -- .001
Age 0.31 5.13 .001
Mexican/Chicano -1.15 -2.52 .012
Self-Management (IV) 0.19 12.21 .001
Commitment (IV) 0.07 5.57 .001
Social Support (IV) 0.44 26.21 .001

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 51

Table 15

Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills, with Age & Other
Hispanic

R
2
F Β t p
Overall Model .34 375.19 -- -- .001
Age 0.32 5.27 .001
Other Hispanic -1.14 -2.49 .013
Self-Management (IV) 0.19 12.21 .001
Commitment (IV) 0.07 5.35 .001
Social Support (IV) 0.45 26.38 .001

Table 16
Multivariate Regression Between Academic Skills and Psychosocial Skills, with Age & White
R
2
F Β t P
Overall Model .35 385.06 -- -- .001
Age 0.28 4.69 .001
White 3.73 6.24 .001
Self-Management (IV) 0.21 12.94 .001
Commitment (IV) 0.07 5.79 .001
Social Support (IV) 0.43 25.63 .001

Univariate models were run to examine how well academic skills predicts the three
psychosocial skills separately (Table 12). Each regression was statistically significant. Self-
management accounted for the least amount of variance (9.7%), and commitment and self-
management accounted for 14.4% and 30.3% of the variance, respectively. The same variables
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 52

that contributed the most to the multivariate regression to predict academic skills with the highest
beta value were the ones that academic skills best predicted when the DV and IV were reversed.
The models in Table 12 controlled for age by adding it as an independent variable in each of
these three models. After adding age to each of these models, the regressions remained
significant (p = .001 for all three new models).
Table 17
Univariate Models for Psychosocial Skills Controlling for Age
R
2
F Β t p
Self-Management

Overall Model .10 231.00 --
--
.001
Age .16 2.70 .007
Academic skills (IV) .38 21.10 .001
Commitment

Overall Model .15 358.40 -- -- .001
Age .07 1.60 .121
Academic skills (IV) .36 26.60 .001
Social Support

Overall Model .31 928.2 --
--
.001
Age -.12 -2.90 .003
Academic skills (IV) .54 43.10 .001

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 53

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between academic and
psychosocial skills in community college students. Specifically, the study examined
demographic differences in academic and psychosocial skills (e.g. commitment, self-
management, and social support) by students’ race, gender, and parental level of education. The
study also investigated the predictive efficacy between psychosocial and academic skills for
students of different racial groups while controlling for age.
As hypothesized, the results of the study revealed that academic and psychosocial skills
do differ depending on community college students’ race, gender, and parental level of
education. As for the hypothesis for the second research question, the study results showed
psychosocial skills do predict academic skills overall and for different racial groups when
controlling for age. This chapter provides a discussion of these results, as well as implications for
practice. Limitations of this study, as well as possible avenues for future research, are also
discussed.
The Relationship of Students’ Demographics to Academic Skills
One aspect of the present study was to explore the relationship of students’ academic
skills to their demographic characteristics; in this study, academic skills were used as a proxy for
college success. One main effect in the study were differences in academic skills related to race.
White students had the highest score for academic skills overall and showed significantly higher
scores than Latino students, which aligns with national reports. According to the National Center
for Education Statistics (Kena et al., 2016), in 2015 the percentage of 25- to 29-year-olds who
had attained an associate’s or higher degree was 54 for White and 26 for Latino students. The
results of this study validate Crisp and Nora’s (2010) research in college students on factors that
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 54

relate to student success in students including Latino students. Parental education, preparation for
college level work, and number of hours worked while in college were all factors that influenced
persistence and transfer of Latino students to 4-year colleges. Historically underrepresented
groups, including Latino students, have less social capital (Bourdieu, 2011), including access to
higher-performing high school, college-educated parents and access to scholarships, which all
factor in college student success. These factors may influence Latino students’ academic skills
scores.
Female students showed significantly higher academic skill scores than males, which also
aligns with national data. According to the NCES in 2015, 39% of females aged 25 to 29 had
completed a bachelor’s degree or higher, compared to only 32% of males (Kena et al., 2016).
One study (Conger & Long, 2010) found females outperform men in college because they come
in with better grades from high school, which is a strong predictor of college success. There was
one exception to this finding: male students had higher academic skills if the students’ parents
have less than a high school education. This may be due to differences in parenting styles from
parents with different SES levels. For example, parents with lower levels of education may treat
and have different expectations for male and female children. Also, it is important to note that
this finding is contrary to the literature in the area and may be due to the large sample that gave
power to a result that, while statistically significant, is not meaningful. Overall, this study’s
results align with national data to confirm female students have stronger academic skills which
helps them have better college completion in part due to better high school performance.
Given that community colleges serve large populations of students who require
remediation, are more likely to come from lower SES background and more likely to have
parents with lower educational attainment levels than traditional 4-year schools, there was a
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 55

surprising lack statistically significant differences in academic skills. White and American
Indian/Native Hawaiian were the two racial categories that scored significantly higher than the
Mexican and other Hispanic categories. To improve African-American and Latino students’
academic skills, faculty should emphasize teaching students effective study skills and providing
additional resources to these students, including student advising and tutoring services.
Additional outreach efforts and interventions to strengthen study skills and provide additional
academic counseling and tutoring early on in Latino students’ college careers may assist in
strengthening their academic skills, which would likely be a factor in increasing their academic
achievement.
The Relationship of Students’ Demographics to Psychosocial Skills
The second aspect of interest in the study was the predictive efficacy psychosocial skills
to academic skills for groups of students from different racial groups while controlling for age.
The following sections discuss differences found broken down by each psychosocial skills:
commitment, self-management, and social support.
Commitment
This is the first study to compare African American and Latino commitment levels in
community college, and we found that African American and Latino students reported the
highest commitment scores among all groups. Historically underrepresented college students,
including African American and Latino students, are more likely to be first-generation college
students enrolled in community college and come from lower SES backgrounds (Horn et al.,
2006). Often, there is a sense of pride to be first in one’s family to attend college, which may
explain why these two groups would be more likely to report higher commitment to a
community college than other groups.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 56

Similar to commitment, previous research in motivation (Próspero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007)
showed motivation in first-generation college students was a significant predictor of academic
achievement. Many students who enroll in community college aspire to transfer to complete their
bachelor’s degree at another institution, so they may be less committed to community college.
Therefore, at the time of taking the survey, students may be less committed to community
college and thinking of the schools more as a stepping stone to a 4-year intuition. Black and
Latino students transfer at a lower rate and are more likely to be first-generation college students
who are less knowledgeable on how to navigate the college and transfer experience which may
contribute to the increase their commitment scores.
When looking at the differences between males and females on reported levels of
commitment, females had significantly higher commitment scores than males. There is no
previous literature found to support this finding, although this is parallel to a previous finding of
this study that females have higher academic skills levels. It is likely for females there is a
relationship between commitment and academic skill and this could be further studied.
Self-Management
African-American students reported the highest scores in self-management. In the survey
instrument, one of the subscales that contributes to the construct of self-management is
sensitivity to stress. Very little research has been conducted and published on stress and African
American students in college and even less so on community college students (Negga,
Applewhite, & Livingston, 2007). Previous research has not shown a correlation among self-
esteem, social support, and stress for African Americans, which is in line with the findings of
this study (Negga et al., 2007). The experience of African American college students may be
different in some ways, or, perhaps, other issues may be more substantial to these students
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 57

besides concerns of stress, such as belonging in college and isolation (Negga et al., 2007). Social
support, which will be discussed in the next section, is an important factor in college students’
stress levels; the more social support a student has, the less likely they are to experience stress in
college. As several studies have shown that social support has a moderating impact on student’s
stress levels, that could also be the case in this study, although that relationship was not
measured here (Reeve, Shumaker, Yearwood, Crowell & Riley, 2013; Wilks & Spivey, 2010).
Another component of self-management is self-efficacy, which has little previous
research in relation to African Americans. There is some previous research that supports the
findings of the current study, as Okech and Harrington (2002) found a significant relationship
between Black consciousness and academic self-efficacy. This is notable, given that the unique
African American experience and identity contributes, through a stronger sense of black
consciousness, to feelings of self-efficacy.
Community colleges may help to improve all students’ self-management skills, including
sensitivity to stress and self-efficacy, by providing students with faculty/advisor support on how
to cope through difficult stressful college student challenges, time management and study skills.
Additionally, college administrators should find ways to encourage students to take advantage of
available student support services such as tutoring, psychological counseling, academic advising
and other services and encourage students to participate in these services. Advising and
communicating to students about ways to build self-management skills through developing self-
efficacy and managing stress will help students become more successful in college.
Social Support
African American and White students scored significantly higher than all other groups in
social support scores, which included connectedness and institutional support subscales. The
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 58

college in this study has several resources dedicated to African American students, including a
center on campus for advising and a club which are staffed by several counselors. This support
system is well established on campus and was established in the late 1980s. This may be one
contributing factor related to the African American students’ high scores and add to students’
feelings of connectedness and institutional support. White students are more likely to come from
higher-income households and have parents who have attended college, so they are likely to get
support from parents and know how to navigate institutional support resources (Perna & Titus,
2005).
One way in which community colleges can increase their students’ feelings of social
support may be to provide peer advising in areas that are critical for student success and often
challenging for students to navigate, including financial aid, course enrollment, psychological
support, and career counseling. Additionally, faculty should use technology to reach out to
support students who are struggling early in the semester who may otherwise lose hope.
Proactive technology could alert faculty to which students may be struggling and faculty would
need to make genuine efforts of concern and support to assist these students. This could be as
simple as a personalized email inviting students to talk after class that demonstrate support and
may increase students’ feelings of connectedness. Also, different racial groups may need
different approaches in efforts to create students’ feelings of connectedness and institutional
support. For example, on the campus where this study was conducted, the center for African
American students has more programs and resources than the Latino center for students.
Providing additional funding and implementing effective practices to the Latino center may
increase Latino student success rates.
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 59

The study found a positive correlation between students’ scores of social support and
level of parental education. Students who had a parent with a graduate degree scored
significantly higher than those with parents who earned less than a high school diploma, a high
school diploma, or attained some college or an associate’s degree. The more highly educated
parents are more likely to encourage and support their children’s college aspirations (Coleman,
1988). Most importantly, the parents can advise their children on how to navigate the college
experience, including choosing a school, deciding on a major, getting financial support and other
college divisions (Choy, Horn, Nunez & Chen, 2000). This shows that colleges should identify
and provide additional resources and support for first-generation college students to improve
their college outcomes. College staff could provide services and programming to feel connected
and institutional support for these students would include additional academic advising and
additional support for financial aid.
The Relationship Between Psychosocial and Academic Skills
The second research question presented in the study examined students’ academic skills
scores predicted by psychosocial skills scores. Self-management, commitment, and social
support significantly predicted academic skills score and explained a large variance (34%) in
academic skills. All three variables (self-management, commitment and social support)
significantly contributed to the prediction of students’ academic skills score; however, social
support contributed the most to academic skills, followed by commitment and self-management,
respectively.
Psychosocial skills and Academic Skills Score: Multivariate Regressions
One important finding of this study is that social support was strongest in predicting
community college students’ academic skills. In this study, social support is defined as
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 60

connecting with people and student resources for success. Therefore, based on this study, it
appears that students who have strong connections with others and leverage campus resources
may be more likely to be academically successful. Practically, students who befriend others with
academic ambitions and with families who provide support for obtaining a college education are
more likely do to well in college. Additionally, students who navigate the college experience and
utilize campus resources are, again, more likely to do well in college. For example, these are the
students who seek out academic counseling, visit office hours, utilize career counseling and
tutoring and join clubs are more likely to have higher levels of academic achievement.
Emphasizing the importance of support systems and teaching students about institutional support
resources through highlighting these elements in new student orientations and having faculty in
their classes encourage students to develop networks and use campus resources may increase
academic skills and thus academic success.
The study found for all racial groups psychosocial skills predicted academic skills. The
study also tested to see if age was a confound and found it was not.
Implications for Practice
The results of this study provide important implications for community college
administrators, faculty, academic advisors and researchers. Community college professionals
should understand demographic differences of students’ academic and psychosocial skills in
order to support better advising and programming for different populations. Additionally, the
importance of psychosocial skills to academic success is important for faculty to acknowledge in
order to better deliver student advising. For researchers, this study begins to add to the limited
existing literature community college students’ academic and psychosocial skills.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 61

Recommendations for Improving Students’ Academic and Psychosocial Skills
This study explored differences in academic skills by students’ race, gender, and parental
level of education and found several statistically significant differences in scores which mostly
reflected national data and related to historical inequities in higher education. In this study,
Latinos had lower academic skills, which corresponds to national data showing lower rates of
college degrees or certificates when compared to whites in the 25-to-29 age category (Kena et
al., 2016). Community colleges and, especially, Latino-serving institutions should find ways to
provide interventions for Latino students who may need support in developing their academic
skills which could increase their college success rates. Females had significantly higher
academic skill scores than males, which also matches national data (Kena et al., 2016).
Community college administrators and academic advisors also have an opportunity to provide
better advising and interventions for male students which may increase their academic success
rates. A study on facilitating retention and transfer of first generation students in community
college concluded administrators and faculty should create conditions for optimal learning, focus
on collaborative learning, infuse the curriculum with multicultural perspectives, diversify faculty
and staff; and designate transfer as a high institutional priority (Rendon, 1995). This study also
found that, with one exception, students whose parents have higher levels of education have
higher academic skills. Students who have parents with lower levels of education have less social
capital, and first-generation college students have less support from parents in navigating college
and may be less likely to get support from parents that may contribute to lower levels of
academic skills. Existing literature on community college students’ academic skills is very
limited, and this study demonstrates the need to further understand these dynamics, particularly
why African Americans and Latinos scored highest in commitment and African Americans
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 62

scored high in self-management and social support. Understanding these results better would
help in making specific recommendations for improving students’ psychosocial skills in the
future.
This study found that psychosocial skills predict academic skills and highlights the
importance of students’ sense of belonging for academic success, especially for historically
underrepresented student groups (Strayhorn, 2012). Institutional support and the ability to
manage and navigate barriers to success are also critical aspects of social support. Administrators
and faculty should create an environment where students feel they belong and create institutional
support systems that are designed for students and easily accessible to them. Some practical
examples for faculty are to share study skills tips before exams in class and to emphasize
persistence in learning, even if students perform poorly on assignments assigned early on in the
semester. Also, on the first day of class, when faculty go over the syllabus, they can also
highlight resources such as student advising, tutoring and others that students can benefit from.
Additionally, academic advisors and counselors should be cognizant of common barriers to
success for their student population and provide resources and services to support students
navigate those barriers.
Limitations of the Current Study
One limitation of the current study was the use of an existing dataset, as opposed to
questions specifically designed for the research hypotheses. These data were used because of the
robust reliability and the ease of the assessment usability, but one drawback is that this
assessment tool is used in both traditional 4-year colleges and community colleges without
regard to differing levels of commitment and transfer aspirations of community college students.
If this instrument were tailored specifically for community college students, results may have
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 63

been different for commitment scores and, potentially, other areas as well. For example, some
questions are more related to traditional 4-year institutions such as questions on Greek life and
intramural sports which do not exist at most community colleges.
Other limitations include generalizability of results and the measurement of demographic
variables and academic skills. The community college used in the study has a large Latino
population and is an HSI and, therefore, may not be generalizability to other community college
populations. This study also used parental education level as a proxy for SES and does not take
into consideration other factors that are part of SES, including family income and parental
occupation (Gottfried, 1985). If other SES factors were considered in this study, a richer and
more detailed profile of students may have emerged. Relatedly, this study used academic skills
as a proxy for academic success. There may be some students in the study who have strong study
skills but may not perform at a high level in college, which may overgeneralize results of the
study. Lastly, we asked students to self-report information on their academic and psychosocial
skill levels. Students may be reluctant in answering questions that may reflect negatively on their
skills or, conversely, may overestimate their skills. Because the data in the study is self-reported,
the findings of the study may not be as accurate if the skills had been assessed in another way
other than self-report.
Directions for Future Research
The emerging literature in student psychosocial skills and continued research in academic
skills has promise to increase postsecondary student success rates through additional research
and informing practice. A variety of research opportunities exist to further understand these
areas. One critical area is to understand differences in academic and psychosocial skills of
community college students when compared to traditional college students. These populations
ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 64

are different, and it is likely differences would emerge when studying the groups. Additionally,
understanding these differences would better inform administrators in how to plan more effective
programming and interventions for students.
This study used an instrument to study academic and psychosocial skills at one
community college, but many opportunities exist to more broadly understand these students’
skills. The importance of social skills, which includes connectedness, institutional support and
barriers to success, should be further researched in the context of community college students in
addition to the literature that exists for traditional college students. Broader understanding of the
actors and institutional agents, including professors and counselors, who can have an impact on
these skills and currently contribute to their development may yield a better understanding of
how to better teach students these skills. Also, a deeper understanding of how students’ skills
develop over time through a longitudinal study, or a more detailed understanding through
qualitative measures, such as a focus group, may provide deeper insight into how students
develop these skills and their awareness of them.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 65

Conclusion
The American economy needs more college graduates to fill job openings that require
specialized skills. It is critical that colleges increase the number of students completing degrees
and certificates to provide workers who will contribute to the growth and success of the future
American economy. Further understanding of how to develop college students’ academic and
psychosocial skills may increase the number of students completing colleges and filling high-
skill and high-wage jobs.
The purpose of this study was to understand academic and psychosocial skills of different
demographics of community college students and to investigate the relationships between these
skills among students. Differences in skill levels emerged, and many of these differences were
consistent with equity gaps in academic achievement in existing literature between historically
underrepresented groups. Additionally, this study found that psychosocial skills are highly
predictive of academic skills among all racial groups of students. Notably among psychosocial
skills, social support is most predictive of academic skills. This study highlights the importance
of social support as a predictor for academic success. With this new knowledge, researchers can
continue to understand the importance of academic and psychosocial skills and how they can
contribute to college student success.

ACADEMIC AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SKILLS 66

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand academic and psychosocial skills of different demographics of community college students and to investigate the relationships between these skills among students. Differences in skill levels emerged, and many of these differences were consistent with equity gaps in academic achievement in existing literature between historically underrepresented groups. This study found that psychosocial skills predict academic skills and notably among psychosocial skills, social support is most predictive of academic skills. Also the study found among all racial groups psychosocial skills did predict academic skills and age was not a confound. Institutional support and the ability to manage and navigate barriers to success are also critical aspects of social support. Administrators and faculty should create an environment where students feel they belong and create institutional support systems that are designed for students and easily accessible to them. Additionally, academic advisors and counselors should be cognizant of common barriers to success for their student population and provide resources and services to support students navigate those barriers.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Sedky, Steven (author)

Core Title Relationships between academic and psychosocial skills of community college students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 08/30/2017

Defense Date 05/09/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic skills,community college students,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychosocial skills

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Andrade, Luis (committee member), Hinga, Briana (committee member)

Creator Email Sedky@me.com,sedky@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-424879

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