University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Diversity in sports: The female athlete's college experience

(USC Thesis Other)

Diversity in sports: The female athlete's college experience

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

Diversity in Sports – The Female Athlete’s College Experience

By
Christina Archer

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
In Partial Fulfillment of the
MASTER OF ARTS
(STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS)
University of Southern California
May 2018

2
Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………4-6

Research………………………………………………………………………………………….6

Interviews……………………………………………………………………………...6-11

Analysis………………………………………………………………………11-14

School Newspaper Coverage…………………………………………………………14-16

Content Analysis……………………………………………………………...16-22

Analysis………………………………………………………………………22-24

History of Women in Sport…………………………………………………………………25-26

The Beginning of Female Athletes and Athletic Competition……………………….26-30

History of Sports in America……………………………………………………………….30-34

History of Women in Sports in America…………………………………………………..34-36

The Subtle Impact of the Women’s Suffrage Movement……………………………36-37

The Implementation of Title IX………………………………………………………37-39

History of Women’s Characterizations in Media………………………………..………..39-40

Traditional Roles Women Played in Media …………………………………………40-41

Lack of Women in the Media………………………………………………………...41-43

Media Coverage of Women’s vs. Men’s Athletics…...………………………………43-46

Media’s Role in Accommodating Stereotyped Images of Women Athletes……………46-50

Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue vs. ESPN Body Issue…………………………….50-52

The Female Athlete Today: What Critics Would Say………………………………….....52-55
Sports and PR……………………………………………………………………………….55-59

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...59-64

3
Work Cited…………………………………………………………………………………..65-71

List of Exhibits

Exhibit A Number of Headlines/Articles Coverage of Male/Female Athletes/Sports Chart.17
Exhibit B Number of Photographs Featuring Male/Female Athletes/Sports Chart………...18
Exhibit C Large Photographs Dedicated to Male/Female Athletes/Sports Chart…………..19
Exhibit D Long Articles Dedicated to Male/Female Athletes/Sports Chart………………..20
Exhibit E Percentage of Student-Athletes at Three Pac-12 Schools Chart………………... 24
Exhibit F Modern Sports History Chart…………………………………………………….31
Exhibit G Professional Sports Leagues in America as of 2018 Chart………………………33
Exhibit H Example Advertisement of Media’s Representation of Women Photo………….40
Exhibit I The Media Gender Gap in 2017 Chart…………………………………………...42
Exhibit J Percentage of Sports Coverage Women’s Sports, 1989-2014…………………...43
Exhibit K Serena Williams Black Cat Suit Photo…………………………………………..48
Exhibit L 2015 Sports Illustrated Covers Comparison Photos……………………………..51

List of Appendices

Appendix 1 Kelsey Plum Interview Transcription………………………………………...72-75
Appendix 2 Shelcie Takenouchi Interview Transcription…………………………………76-78
Appendix 3 Heather Petri Interview Transcription………………………………………..79-83
Appendix 4 Darcy Couch Interview Transcription………………………………………..84-87

4
Introduction

From its formation, the sports industry has been synonymous with hegemonic
masculinity. “… Sports psychologists argue that perhaps more than any other social institution,
sport reflects, constructs, and perpetuates beliefs about male superiority and female inferiority”
(Kane 96). Characterized as aggressive, competitive and strong, men tend to use sport to exhibit
power with society accepting this as the norm. In contrast, women are traditionally depicted as
passive, domestic, and subordinate and do not fit within the established normative parameters of
sports. Societal changes beginning in the late 1980s led to more representations of female
athletes as active, strong and confident through the promotion and marketing by major athletic
brands. However, these changes haven’t been as forward-moving as expected. There is a subtle
promotion of a dynamic female body that moves, runs, fights, jumps, sweats and holds her own
despite the masculine hegemonic industry. Yet most sports advertisements still almost
universally depict female athletes as passive sex symbols, non-threatening subjects, and male
hegemony within the home, workplace and in sport, frequently defaulting to gendered language
within sports media and the presence of a male-female binary. To evaluate how the media
framing of female athletes and women’s sports in mass media, and how the transition from
depicting woman as a passive to an active subject within sports advertisements has progressed
despite far less coverage of female athletes and women’s sports, the author conducted research
through interviews, content analysis, academic journals and broadcast interviews, in hopes that
the findings would support the development of this white paper.
As a former collegiate athlete who played soccer for the University of Washington (UW),
the author was constantly surrounded by the media professionals and aware of her and her team’s
presence in the media. The author has been an athlete her entire life and grew up watching

5
female athletes make groundbreaking achievements towards the acceptance of women in sports.
These women sports pioneers have inspired the author to explore a relative lack of coverage of
female athletes and women’s sports in the media and expose how they are portrayed despite their
accomplishments and extraordinary feats.
This thesis delves into the history of women in sports, including acknowledgment that
while women have participated in sports back to the time of the ancient Greeks, evidence
suggests that barriers to women’s participation in sports still exist today. This thesis will examine
one such barrier: the representation of female athletes and athletics in the media, by looking into
the complexities of how the media depict female athletes and women’s sports, reflected in the
language used to describe them and how coverage commonly focuses more on the athletes’
sexual appeal and “feminine” qualities rather than on their athletic achievements. This thesis also
examines media outlets’ coverage of female athletes and women’s sports through the observation
of headlines, placement of articles, and the number of times women’s sports are mentioned in
print media and online news sites to identify the discrepancies between men and women’s sports.
The thesis also explores through interviews with former and current female athletes how the lack
of coverage of female athletes and women’s sports in the media has affected how they view the
media, what they notice in the media, and their views of how it might change in the future.
Finally, the author offers insight into successful PR strategies for how media can be more equal
in covering and depicting female athletes and athletics. The author is extremely passionate about
the topic she is addressing and hopes that through this white paper, the audience can understand
how the media framing of female athletes and athletics has affected society’s perception of how
women are viewed in sports and to show that although there has been subtle advancement, when

6
it comes to media depictions, there still is much to be done in getting female athletes and
athletics on an equal playing field with their male counterparts.
Research
To begin, the author conducted qualitative interviews with three former female collegiate
athletes. These individuals were Kelsey Plum, who played basketball for UW and currently plays
in the Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) for the Las Vegas Aces; Shelcie
Takenouchi, golfer at the University of Southern California; and Heather Petri, who played water
polo at the University of California, Berkeley before playing on Team USA for the 2000-2012
Olympics. The author also wanted to interview an individual who was currently heavily involved
in sports but didn’t play in college, to gain a different perspective, and chose Darcy Couch, an
associate sports information director at the University of Southern California. A wide range of
interview questions were created after the author carefully reviewed each individual’s
background and athletic story. The author selected diverse athletes from different sports to
explore whether there were any differences between each individual’s answers. The author also
chose to specifically interview only female athletes on their experiences with the media, the role
they believe the media played in how they viewed themselves, and their insights on media’s
overall framing of women in sports.
Interviews
Before conducting the interviews, the author performed thorough secondary research to
learn about each interviewee and her respective story. This enabled the author to develop
thoughtful questions intended to help the interviewee explore themes related to the author’s
hypothesis. The interviewees were allowed to not answer questions if they felt uncomfortable.

7
Throughout the process of deciding who to interview, the author immediately thought of
Kelsey Plum, a point guard with the WNBA Las Vegas Aces. Already a highly touted athlete
coming out of high school, Plum garnered increasing media attention throughout her four years
playing basketball for UW. While attending UW, Plum won a gold medal with the USA
Basketball Women’s under-19 team, led the Washington Huskies to three NCAA tournament
appearances and broke the NCAA women’s single-season scoring record with 1,109 points, a
figure that beat both male and female precursors. She also set the NCAA record for career
scoring in women’s basketball with 3,527 points. Plum was the No. 1 draft pick in the 2017
WNBA Draft by the San Antonio Stars.
The author believes that Plum, apart from being a star on the court, also represents a
group of female basketball players who are resisting stereotypes by disregarding them. An
unabashed promoter for all women in sports, Plum supported the U.S. Women’s Hockey Team
in its contract dispute for equal pay and has constantly told the media that while comparisons to
male athletes are nice, there are many female athletes whom she respects as much or more. Plum
is all too familiar with how the media portrays women in sports and hopes to contribute to the
change of that perception. Her experience highlights the struggle female athletes face for
recognition, even when they are superior athletes to their male counterparts. Although she
initially attracted media attention because of her sheer athletic talent and accomplishments, in the
interview, she explains her recognition of the importance of appearing attractive and looking
feminine in order to maintain that coverage, as well as to gain more exposure and obtain
sponsorships. Today she admits that while the process she underwent was not necessarily
reflective of who she was as a human being, she understood that by meeting society’s beliefs and
perceptions placed on female athletes, she could cheat the system and achieve what she wanted.

8
She fulfilled the stereotypical portrayal of female athletes in the media but used it for her own
advantage, and through her extraordinary performance as a professional basketball player is
slowly changing the narrative the media has on female athletes and athletics. Plum aspires to
show that women are just as capable as men and dismantle the media framing that encourages
sexist commentary directed toward female athletes.
The author’s second interview was with former collegiate golfer Shelcie Takenouchi,
who offered some insights similar to Plum’s. Takenouchi played golf for the University of
Southern California from 2006-2009, and unfortunately, the stereotypes Plum recounted and
endured throughout her collegiate career were still prevalent while Takenouchi played. Although
not as well-known as Plum, Takenouchi recalled specific sexist terms the media used to describe
her, including some negative terms referring to her “unlady-like” traits.
Takenouchi played golf during a time where more collegiate females were emerging onto
the golf scene and people welcomed it. Like Plum, Takenouchi was aware of how she dressed
and her overall physical appearance, but said it was not to gain media attention and fulfill others’
perceptions, but because she valued looking “put together”. Although Takenouchi hasn’t golfed
competitively in the last decade, she is aware of the media’s tendency to depict female athletes as
feminine and physically attractive instead of focusing on their performance. She views that
practice as diminishing to the female athletes’ accomplishments and unfortunate that being
physically attractive is more valued than what the player achieved. Though Takenouchi is no
longer a competitive athlete, her current work revolves around sports. She works in a heavily
male dominated industry, yet says she is highly valued as her experience as a former collegiate
athlete allows her to relate to other female athletes her company interviews and clients that
sponsor female athletes or tournaments.

9
The author also interviewed former four-time Olympian, water polo player Heather Petri.
Petri has a very interesting story as to how she began playing water polo. Because her high
school team did not have a women’s water polo team, Petri took matters into her own hands and
started one her junior year. After high school, she attended UC Berkeley, where she played
collegiate water polo from 1997-1999, took the 2000 season off to compete as a member of
Team USA in the Sydney Olympics, and returned for the 2001 season. Petri is one of the most
decorated female water polo players in the world, and one of only two US female water polo
players to have competed in four Olympic Games, earning one gold, one silver medal and two
bronze medals. In addition, she won gold medals in three Pan American Tournaments, and three
World Championship gold medals as a member of Team USA.
Despite her impressive athletic resume, Petri encountered sexist commentary in regards
to the sport she played and about her body. She understood that the media not only wanted to tell
a good story but also sought out individuals who were attractive for interviews. It never bothered
her that she looked a certain way and wasn’t the ideal candidate for an interview. Similar to Plum
and Takenouchi, Petri was proud of being a female athlete who excelled at a sport. She was
proud of her strength and of what she could do with her body to achieve success.
Since her days as an Olympic competitor, Petri says she has seen a shift in the media’s
focus on female athletes because they have been performing well. With more female athletes in
general, there is more of an opportunity for the media to tell their story. However, more coverage
doesn’t mean less media framing and sexist commentary. Petri firmly believes that in order for
the media to change how it frames female athletics and women’s sports, it must focus solely on
what female athletes are doing. By shaping the narrative into showing the strengths of what
female athletes actually do, people will stop viewing them as the stereotypes placed on them.

10
Interviews with the three former collegiate athletes provided the author with valuable
insights into their experiences with the media. The author better understood the role the media
plays in how these women perceived themselves and their opinions of how they felt about the
media framing of women in sports. For the fourth qualitative interview, the author sought an
individual who did not play a sport in college, but rather has been heavily involved with sports
through a different avenue. This individual was Darcy Couch, an associate sports information
director for USC Athletics. The author expected Couch would provide excellent comments based
on her experience observing student-athletes’ interaction with the media, and created a number
of new interview questions that were more appropriate for Couch’s role with collegiate sports.
Before joining USC, Couch had been a sports writer for the Contra Costa Times, then
worked as the assistant media director for USA Water Polo and as the assistant director of media
relations for the Big West Conference. As one of the only female writers for the Contra Costa
Times, Couch was assigned to cover male and female high school sports, and noticed that
outside of the high school level, the paper did not cover women’s sports. Her early indication
that newspapers weren’t as interested in women’s sports was through the recognition that there
was only a beat writer for UC Berkeley’s men’s basketball team and that the only time the
newspaper covered a UC Berkeley’s women’s basketball game was to report that a player had
passed away from meningitis.
Today, as one of USC’s associate sports information directors, Couch cannot recall any
student-athletes being asked inappropriate questions or sexist language during a media interview.
She has seen some female student-athletes put more effort toward expressing their femininity but
could not say that was related to the stereotypes placed on female athletes or just because the
athletes’ choice. Couch doesn’t support the premise that the media have played a role in how

11
female athletes view themselves, but rather that it’s the nature of sports and society cannot
resolve seeing tough women play a game that they’re accustomed to seeing men play. Couch is
aware of the sexist commentary that may be used when media describe female athletes and
believes that more thorough coverage and more effort to tell the real stories can change the
media framing of female athletes and women’s sports. She believes it is important to have beat
writers assigned to regularly cover women’s sports who can get to know these female athletes
outside of their sport, so they can tell stories outside of their play.
Analysis
After all four qualitative interviews were completed, the author conducted a content
analysis to identify several common themes.
All four interviewees’ insights and beliefs supported to some degree the author’s
hypothesis in that the media frames female athletes and athletics. Although some of the
interviewees’ answers varied depending on their individual experience as an athlete and their
involvement with the media, the author identified more similarities than differences.
Among the three former collegiate athletes, the two who went further in their athletic
careers, whether to play professionally or in the Olympics (Plum and Petri) had answers more
similar than that of the athlete (Takenouchi) who stopped playing competitively after college.
Plum and Petri were more heavily exposed to the media even while in college, as the media
expected they would continue their athletic careers post-graduation.
Both Plum and Petri confirmed their belief that the media encourages female athletes to
look a certain way, and places a higher value on them by featuring them over their less-attractive
peers. Plum in particular expressed that she felt the need to look a certain way in order to get
sponsorships and attract recognition from major brands, and she intentionally changed her

12
appearance by wearing more makeup and getting a tan and eyelash extensions to gain a favorable
opinion from the media. During post-game interviews, if she knew it was going to be with a top
sports media outlet or publication, she made sure to put on makeup to appear more feminine. Her
actions to look more feminine translated into her successfully gaining more opportunities with
brands and positive reactions from the media and fans.
In contrast, Petri reported she didn’t feel the need to look more feminine, although she
was aware that media portrayed her and her water polo teammates as looking “manly”. She also
observed how the media tended to do post-game interviews with the female athlete who looked
the prettiest and less muscular, not necessarily the athlete who had performed the best.
Moreover, it’s not only through choosing who they want to speak to on their broadcast,
that showcases the media’s bias for focusing on appearance. In their interviews both Plum and
Petri mentioned reporters who had commented on physical appearance rather than their athletic
accomplishments, including questions about losing weight and seeing it translate on the court,
and how a country would feel about the exposure of naked bodies.
The author also observed that all interviewees could immediately name words and
stereotypes the media had used in reference to them or their fellow female athletes. Sexist
commentary and language was prevalent in their answers. Words and phrases that stood out to
the author were “you’re playing a boy’s sport”, “tomboy”, “butch”, “lesbian”, “manly”, “good
for a girl”, “can’t perform at the same level as men” and “she plays like a girl”. All of these
words and phrases have a negative connotation behind them and diminish the female athletes’
ability and accomplishments. From a positive perspective, Couch recalled having heard the
phrase, “you’re so strong” expressed by someone who was surprised and impressed by a woman
athlete. Couch believes that reporters may not think as highly of women athletes or appreciate

13
the athleticism required in women’s sports as in men’s sports. This issue may translate to
reporters comparing female athletes to their male counterparts when a female athlete does
something of significance, and the comparisons may inadvertently make what the female athlete
accomplished seem not as significant because “a girl did it.” Plum said, “It’s lazy in that as a
society we don’t take time to watch female sports and get familiar with female athletes. It just is
easier to compare the actions of a female athlete to a male athlete.”
Lastly, the interviewees gave varied responses in regards to the effectiveness of
promoting women’s athletics by using conventionally attractive, feminine images of female
athletes. Both Plum and Couch felt that it is effective because society likes to “see pretty people
do cool stuff. They are able to view women who are real and are relatable instead of viewing
models who are unrealistic looking.” Petri felt the opposite, while Takenouchi declined to
answer. Petri’s negative response, however, was similar to Plum’s response in that she expressed
her belief that “society needs to see models who have muscle and look like they work out. It
needs to be an accurate depiction of the female athlete body and not something that causes
people to just purchase products and make revenue.”
All three collegiate athletes voiced how proud they were of being good at their respective
sports. They didn’t view themselves as female athletes being good but rather as just athletes who
could compete well. They were all quite aware of the detrimental way the media tends to frame
female athletes and the way in which overall society views female athletes, and they all
expressed hope that the media would eventually stop using sexist commentary when describing
female athletes. The author was able to conclude from the qualitative interviews that all four
interviewees were optimistic that the media would start being held to more accountability for
their actions in depicting female athletes in biased, stereotypical ways. They expressed their

14
belief that focusing on women’s capabilities and shaping the narrative would help to change the
media framing, and the absolute importance of broadcasting more women’s games, showcasing
female athletes and highlighting their capabilities.
School Newspaper Coverage
The author also conducted content analysis of print articles from three university
newspapers over 30 days, to determine whether female athletes received unfair and/or unequal
media coverage in comparison to coverage about sports played by male athletes.
The author defined “unfair and unequal” as:
• That there is less coverage of female athletes;
• That coverage would not emphasize female athletes’ athleticism;
• That photos would be smaller in female athlete coverage; and
• That content and its placement would be in a secondary or lesser position on the page.
In order to test this hypothesis a content analysis of news coverage related to fall
sports played in November 2017 was performed. During this month, the sports sections and
special edition sports publications of newspapers published by three universities in the
Division I conference were examined. The newspapers selected were from three of the 12
top universities from the Pac-12 conference, a leader in collegiate athletics. The author
chose the University of Washington (UW), where she was an undergraduate student-athlete,
and the University of Southern California (USC), where she is currently a graduate student.
The University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) was chosen as it is a rival of USC. All
three universities are known for their athletic programs and have more female athletes than
male athletes. USC competes in 25 sports with 678 student-athletes, comprised of 322 men
and 356 women. UW competes in 18 sports and has 840 student-athletes, of whom 397 are

15
men and 443 are women. And UCLA has 22 sports and 931 student-athletes, including 427
men and 504 women. The newspapers analyzed were:
• Daily Bruin
• Daily Trojan; and
• UW Daily
The number of newspaper issues analyzed were dependent on the publishing
schedule of each university. Also, the number of articles was dependent on the space and
number of pages each school newspaper dedicated to the sports section or special sports
edition. Both UW and UCLA published special edition sports publications in addition to
their daily publications that emphasized football, basketball or both, during the research
timeframe. In November 2017, UCLA’s Daily Bruin published 19 newspaper issues
containing 104 sports articles; USC’s Daily Trojan published 18 newspaper issues with 57
sports articles, and UW Daily, whose format was least similar to the others, published nine
issues, including three special sports editions, containing a total of 28 articles. Whereas the
Daily Bruin and Daily Trojan published a new issue Mondays through Fridays, each issue of
the UW Daily – despite having “daily” in its title – covered more than a single day in each
addition. A total of 189 articles was analyzed in this study.
The author had to consider the relative popularity and success of each sport’s team at
each university she assessed, because not every university excels at the same sport, and the teams
that are succeeding will typically receive more coverage. Therefore, it was important for the
author to recognize that factor while examining the coverage of each school newspaper. Another
variable that was identified while examining media coverage of male and female sports teams,
was that each newspaper was designed differently and that the placement of articles and

16
photographs were dependent on the publication’s specific design. The Daily Bruin and the Daily
Trojan are designed to reflect a more traditional newspaper format with a top and bottom, folded
over in the center. In contrast, the UW Daily is formatted as a book and has a fold in the middle
of the left and right pages. Importantly, the designation of whether the articles were considered
“short,” “medium,” or “long” in length and the photographs defined as “small,” “medium,” or
“large” were based on the author’s judgement, by subjectively comparing them to other articles
and photos that appeared on the respective publication’s pages.
Content Analysis
The author conducted her content analysis to include the following parameters:
• Overall number of headlines and articles dedicated to male and female sports
and/or athletes.
• Overall number of photographs of male and female athletes and/or sports.
• Relative size of photographs of male and female athletes and/or sports.
• Overall number and relative length of articles (length was determined based on
total visual dominance on the page).
• Assessment of the general nature of the language used (with particular attention
spent to identify sexist language, gender stereotypes, physical appearance and
athletic performance description).

17
Number of Headlines/Articles Covering Male and Female Athletes/Sports

Exhibit A
Among all three school newspapers, a total of 189 headlines/articles relating to
athletes were found during the review period. Of these, 66.7 percent (126) referred to male
athletes/sports and 33.3 percent (63) to female athletes/sports. The sport most covered was
football, with men’s basketball ranked second. As shown in Exhibit A, all three schools
dedicated more headlines and articles to male athletes/sports across the board. Individually,
USC’s Daily Trojan contained 57 headlines; 66.7 percent (38) of which were male athlete or
sports-related and 33.3 percent (19) covering female athletes/sports. UCLA’s Daily Bruin
included 104 headlines; 60.6 percent (63) of these covered male athletes/sports, whereas
39.4 percent (41) female athletes/sports. Lastly, the UW Daily had 28 headlines, of which
89.3 percent (25) related to male athletes/sports and only 10.7 percent (3) covered females.

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
UCLA Daily Bruin USC Daily Trojan UW Daily
63
38
25
41
19
3
# of Articles
Article Coverage
Articles of Male Athletes/Sports Articles of Female Athletes/Sports

18
Comparison of Number of Photographs Featuring Male and Female Athletes/Sports

Exhibit B
Among the three school newspapers, considerably more photographs were published
of male athletes, including those directly accompanying the article as well as additional
photographs included on continuing pages. A total of 236 photographs, of which the author
classified 41.1 percent (97) as “large,” 24.2 percent (57) as “medium,” and 34.7 percent (82)
as “small” were published during the month of November 2017. Of these, 67.8 percent (160)
were of men and 32.2 percent (76) were of women. Football photographs accounted for a
large number of the total. As noted in Exhibit B, over 50 percent of the photographs
published by each school were of males and their sports. In the USC Daily Trojan, a total of
62 photographs were published; 64.5 percent (40) were of male athletes/sports and 35.5
percent (22) were of female athletes/sports. There were 132 photographs published in the
Daily Bruin: 60.6 percent (80) were of male athletes/sports and 39.4 percent (52) included
female athletes/sports. Of the UW Daily’s 42 photographs, 95.2 percent (40) contained male
athletes/sports while merely 4.8 percent (2) were of female athletes/sports.
0
20
40
60
80
UCLA Daily Bruin USC Daily Trojan UW Daily
80
40 40
52
22
2
# Photographs in
Men's & Women's Sport Articles
Male Female

19
Comparison of Large Photographs Dedicated to Male vs. Female Athletes/Sports

Exhibit C
The author found that 97 large photographs in the newspapers, 72.2 percent (70) of
which were of male athletes/sports and 27.8 percent (27) were devoted to female
athletes/sports. Football encompassed more of the largest photographs than any other sport.
Exhibit C shows how male athletes/sports dominated the large photographs among all three
schools’ coverage. The Daily Trojan published 30 large photographs, of which 70 percent
(21) were of men and 30 percent (9) were of women. Of 58 large photographs found in the
Daily Bruin, 70.7 percent (41) were of male athletes/sports and 29.3 percent (17) were of
female athletes/sports. There were nine photographs in the UW Daily; 88.9 percent (8) of
these featured male athletes/sports; 11.1 percent (1) were of female athletes/sports.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
UCLA Daily Bruin USC Daily Trojan UW Daily
41
21
8
17
9
1
# of Photographs
Large Photographs in Articles
Men's Sports Women's Sports

20
Comparison of Long Articles Dedicated to Male vs. Female Athletes/Sports

Exhibit D

Among the total 189 articles written in the three school newspapers over the review
period, male athletes received 66.7 percent (126) and female athletes received 33.3 percent
(63) of coverage. These results indicate the male athletes/sports had more coverage than
females, as shown in Exhibit D. Of the 57 articles published in the Daily Trojan, more were
written on male athletes/sports than females irrespective of article size. When considering
length of article, of the Daily Trojan’s 20 long articles, 85 percent (17) covered male
athletes/sports in comparison to 15 percent (3) on female athletes/sports. The Daily Bruin
published 71 long articles; 62 percent (44) of which were dedicated to male athletes/sports
and 38 percent (27) to female athletes/sports. The UW Daily published 16 long articles; 100
percent were devoted to men.

0
10
20
30
40
50
UCLA Daily Bruin USC Daily Trojan UW Daily
44
17
16
27
3
0 # of Long Articles
Long Articles Dedicated to
Men's & Women's Sports
Men's Sports Women's Sports

21
Written Language Analysis

The author also assessed the nature of the language used (the key characteristics here
being sexist language, gender stereotypes and athletic performance description) in the articles
that appeared in the three selected university newspapers over the review period.
Sexist Language

The written language analysis of all accessed articles showed that none of the
schools published content that used inappropriately sexual language, and that the
photographs published were appropriate relating to the sport.
Gender Stereotypes, Athletic Performance
Descriptions of female athlete achievements and performance were presented in an
equitable and arguably respectful manner, using words such as “talented,” “focused,” and
“consistent” to describe both male and female athletes/sports. However, the author noted
that in some articles covering male athletes/sports, words such as “tough,” “aggressive,”
“intense,” “athleticism” and “strong” – which typically suggest male characteristics and
competitiveness -- were used more often than in the articles written about female
athletes/sports. Many of the articles for females did not even use descriptive words; rather,
they tended to note highlights of the games without mentioning of the athletic ability of any
athlete.
Discussion of the Results
The results of the Content Analysis would appear to support the author’s hypothesis
that female athletes receive unfair and unequal media coverage in comparison to male
athletes. There was significantly less coverage of female athletes/sports overall. Even if a
female athlete/sport was covered, more often than not, the articles were shorter and the

22
photographs used were smaller than the coverage dedicated to male athletes/sports. The
analysis did not note any coverage using derogatory or gender-based language. Athletic
performance was somewhat less covered in the articles on female athletes/sports articles,
but the schools’ writers appeared to be conscientious in writing articles that used
appropriate terminology.
Analysis
The most popular sports were found on the front page of each school’s sports
section, with the main article usually being the longest and having the largest photo in color.
Football was the No. 1 sport, with men’s basketball the second most covered in all three
school newspapers. Interestingly, although the women’s soccer team at UCLA had advanced
to play in the post-season NCAA tournament, the coverage was somewhat minimal in
comparison to that of football and men’s basketball. Articles about women’s soccer were
shorter and photos were rarely as large as the men’s sports. Even when the UCLA women’s
soccer team advanced to the semi-final and championship games, the coverage was still not
representative of their success.
There appears to be a definite discrepancy in the coverage of female and male
athletes/sports. The three school newspapers analyzed did a good job in writing material
using appropriate language. However, the overall amount of coverage awarded to both male
and female athletes/sports was uneven. Interestingly, even when male and female sports
were played in the same season, like basketball, the two teams did not receive the same
reportage. On November 29, an article in the UCLA Daily Bruin had the headline “Women’s
Basketball Defeats UC Riverside 68-48”. The article was long in length with a small color
photo. The men’s basketball article on the same page was long in length with a large color

23
photo in the center of the page. Looking at the page, the author’s eyes were drawn to the center
due to the size of the photo. Both articles continued onto a second page. The women’s basketball
article with a small color photo was a few paragraphs long. The men’s basketball article bordered
a larger color photo of a basketball player on the same page. Again, due to the size and position
of the article and photo, it captured the reader’s attention. This example was seen to varying
degrees in the newspapers, illustrating the difference in the reportage of male and female sports.
Another example showed the UCLA women’s soccer team’s progress in the NCAA tournament.
Some of the articles were long in length but the photos were small. And, although they were on
the front page, many times articles for male sports were at the center of the page and had larger
photos and longer content, which gave the perception of being more important. Often, regardless
of the sport, the male sports coverage tended to have larger photos positioned on the page, which
naturally draw more attention.
Thanks largely to Title IX regulations, the percentage of female student-athletes in
comparison to male student-athletes is nearly the same or very close in all three universities, as
shown in Exhibit E. Despite this progress towards increased participation of women in sports,
there still appears to be a need for further improvement towards equal media coverage. The
results as shown in the results of this analysis provides evidence of the inequality of coverage in
women’s sports compared to men’s sports, thus indicating that the school newspapers appear to
be mirroring the overall media practices when covering professional athletes and sports in
society as a whole.

24

Exhibit E

322, 47%
356, 53%
# of Student Athletes
University of Southern California
Male Athletes
Female Athletes
427, 46%
504, 54%
# of Student Athletes
University of California, Los
Angeles
Male Athletes
Female Athletes
397, 47%
443, 53%
# of Student Athletes
University of Washington
Male Athletes
Female Athletes

25
History of Women in Sport
Sports have long been referred to as an activity used for entertainment played
predominately by men. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, an athlete is defined as “a
person who is trained or skilled in exercises, sports, or games requiring physical strength, agility,
or stamina”. This person is typically viewed by society as a male who is strong, powerful, and
skillful. “Beginning in the 19th century when sports remained primarily a local affair, the players
who participated were generally considered by the public for what they were – talented young
athletes” (Abrams). Newspapers solely reported on athletes’ and teams’ athletic
accomplishments and what they produced on the field or court. What athletes did in their
personal lives and their social and political views were not relevant to the public. However, as
the 20
th
century progressed this ideology changed:
“Sports figures began to be recognized more as celebrities like Hollywood stars, valued
for the entertainment they provided. For youngsters growing up in the cities and towns of
America, athletes became their role models. As such, they were held to a higher standard
of conduct away from the ball fields where they demonstrated their athletic excellence.
The media began to cover their scandals like the movie stars chronicled in tabloid
magazines” (Abrams).

With today’s media constantly producing content and social media being prevalent, society has
become obsessed with their favorite athletes’ private lives. Society idolizes professional athletes
and aspires to follow in his or her footsteps. Young boys observe male professional athletes’
actions and strive to emulate those acts. They are able to follow these athletes as they grow up,
however, young girls don’t have the same luxury in following their favorite female professional
athletes. With the media’s lack of coverage and sexist portrayal of female athletes, young girls
are forced to look up to male athletes. They cannot relate to these men as easily as they would
with females who look, run, and play similarly to them. This shortage of female athlete role
models was first due to the prohibition of women participating in sports. And secondly, by how

26
cultural influences including media coverage or lack thereof of exposure as well as use of
gender-related terminology. However, before examining the media’s lack of coverage and the
sexist portrayals of female athletes, the history of how women’s participation in sports began
will be explored.
The Beginning of Female Athletes and Athletic Competition
Women’s involvement and contribution in sports goes back to the ancient world. Female
athletes were prevalent in Egyptian, Minoan, Etruscan and Greek civilization as depicted in
ancient art and artifacts. In ancient Egypt, women participated in swimming and ball games
similar to soccer. Yet, there is no archival evidence of Egyptian women involved in organized
teams or legitimate competitions (“A General Introduction to The History of Women in Sport”).
The women in the Minoan civilization participated in bull vaulting, a popular activity among the
aristocratic ruling class. Clay seals also reveal that women participated in running, with some
scholars implying swimming and hunting were also performed.
The separation of gender in sport was significant in Ancient Greece, where the first
athletic competitions took place. The Olympic Games started in 776 BC at Olympia in honor of
Zeus. The games brought those from all over Greece and the Greek colonies to participate in
events such as wrestling, running, boxing, horse racing, chariot racing and the pentathlon. Men
were only allowed to participate, as wars were stopped in order for those to compete. Women
were not allowed to participate, however, in response they created their own games called the
Herean Games, dedicated to the goddess, Hera, that took place every four years (Lambert). The
Herean Games had only one event: a footrace for maidens on a course that was one-sixth of the
men’s distance. Three footraces for three age divisions took place at the Herean Games with the
winners receiving an olive wreath crown like the victors in the men’s games (Scanlon). Women

27
were forbidden to attend or watch the men’s Olympic Games, however, maidens were allowed to
attend in hopes of finding a man to marry. Sparta women were the exception to the restriction of
women participating in sports. Sparta women had more freedom than any women in the Greek
city-states. Beginning at birth, Sparta women were treated of equal importance and respect as
men. “It was the only Greek city in which woman was treated almost on equality with man.”
(Fantam et al. 57). Sparta women were allowed to receive a proper education similar to that of
boys, as well as were highly encouraged to participate in sports. The Spartans were strategic in
that they strongly believed and convinced that strong and fit Spartan women would produce
warriors in the making. Although they were provided more freedoms, Sparta women’s role was
still similar to the traditional responsibility of all women: they were expected to produce healthy
male children for the military and healthy female children for more reproduction.
The fall of the ancient empires led to a change in women’s participation in sports. During
the Middle Ages and the Italian Renaissance, peasant women in Europe partook in footraces and
folk football while noblewomen hunted, rode horses, and bred falcons for hunts. Centuries later
in China, throughout the Yuan dynasty and Ming dynasty, women played Cuju, a game similar to
soccer and were permitted to be professional players. In the Americas, Native American women
were immersed in sporting activities such as stickball and footraces. However, much changed in
sports as the world underwent massive transformation with the Age of Exploration, the
Enlightenment, and the expansion of modern imperialism (“A General Introduction to the
History of Women in Sport”).
Despite the advances, sports were still widely deemed to be unsuitable for women.
However, this notion began to steadily change as more women began getting involved in specific
sports and receiving praise. “Golf, croquet, and archery were accepted as appropriate sports for

28
women because they did not involve physical contact or large amounts of physical exertion” (“A
General Introduction to the History of Women in Sport”). These sports were the most popular
among upper class women of Europe and North America amid the 16
th
to 19
th
century. Although
the number of women participating in sports was rising, there was still discrimination that
stopped them from making more progress. “Centuries of discrimination shaped by cultures and
beliefs of a number of societies deemed it ‘unladylike’ for women to partake in numerous
physical activities” (George et al.). Conformists considered sports to be masculine, played
merely by men. They thought women who played sports were unfeminine. Those in the medical
field had a similar belief, but felt that participation in sports could damage women’s reproductive
organs, effectively eliminating their ability to play their primary role in society: that of bearing
children.
“Based on eugenic pseudoscience, doctors promoted the idea that vigorous exercise
would cause nervous diseases or hysteria. Physicians and doctors…had no evidence of
this and claimed that adolescent girls needed more rest when they developed their
menstrual cycle…. These combinations of falsehoods formed the frailty myth, which many
were convinced that the female body was not designed for strength or fitness. The major
purpose of a woman’s life to the eugenicists was that women reproduced” (“A General
Introduction to the History of Women in Sport”).

These ridiculous conceptions caused women to be banned from sports activities while
simultaneously inspiring them to continue their fight for the advancement and equal opportunity
to participate in sport.
The introduction of the bicycle allowed for women to experience more freedom. People
of all social classes took part in cycling. However, women were hindered by having to wear
conventional clothing that restricted them from moving freely. Later, pants, called bloomers,
were designed to fit comfortably under a dress. As more women welcomed the new design, it
also was implemented in activities such as gymnastics, horseback riding, and skating (“A

29
General Introduction to the History of Women in Sport”). However, these activities were only
performed by women as leisure and for fun, rather than played competitively.
As more women pursued physical activity, they became more determined and driven to
create change. During the late 19
th
century and early 20
th
century, major changes took place as
women competed in tennis, bowling and rowing (“A General Introduction to the History of
Women in Sport”). However, the major catalyst was the advent of the modern Olympics in 1896
by Baron Pierre de Coubertin. de Coubertin, an anti-feminist who was not an advocate for
women athletes, formed the organization and the Olympics according to his own terms. The
denial of women as participants in the Olympics and other male sports’ establishments was the
cause of the start of women’s sports clubs. Alice Milliat, a strong advocate for women in sports,
started the Fédération Sportive Féminine Internationale (FSFI), “…an international organization
for women which would provide a forum for competition as well as a regulatory body for their
control” (G. Schultz), which established the first Women’s Olympic Games in 1922. Held in
Paris, the one-day event had 20,000 spectators who watched five nations compete in 11 events
(G. Schultz). These persistent efforts caused Olympic officials to accept the fact that women
were going to keep pushing to compete in international sports regardless of whether the
International Olympic Committee (IOC) let them represent their countries as men did in Olympic
competitions. In 1926, an agreement was made in which the FSFI would follow the International
Association of Athletic Federation guidelines. Efforts to limit and exclude women from the
games and overall sport activity were overturned, and women were finally able to compete in the
same contests as men. While elsewhere in the world, women were making historical moves in
the advancement of sport in the world, in the U.S., discrimination and exclusionary challenges
based on both race and gender were prevalent. Therefore, it is useful to explore how sports were

30
brought to America and developed, to understand how women were discriminated from equal
participation in sport.
History of Sports in America
The historical development of sports has been widely discussed, with changes occurring
through the years, reflecting changes in social attitudes. On the whole, sports, have crossed over
racial, economic and gender inequity, which had dictated not only who could participate but who
could attend sporting events. “Access to organized sports, then, was generally restricted by race
and gender, and often class” (“Sports Through the Nineteenth Century”). As stated by Kenneth
Macri:
“Sports provide key dynamics when it comes to the augmentation of communal principles
by enhancing the physical and mental well-being of individuals and the integration of
social classes...The world of sports affords us the opportunity to gain vital insight into the
sensitive issues of racism, sexism, and classism” (“Not Just a Game: Sport and Society in
the United States”).

It is safe to say that sports or some rendition of sports, have been around a long time. Those
dating back hundreds of years are the remnants from which modern day sports have developed.
Because more men than women colonized the United States, most activities were predominantly
enjoyed by males, with each gender having their respective “place” in society. The majority of
these activities began as a form of recreation, later evolving into something more organized with
standardized rules. The original rudimentary leisure activities that civilizations participated in
served to distract mostly men from their daily routine of work and idleness.
“Most common were activities like hunting and fishing, where leisure and labor cannot
even be distinguished from each other. The most likely form of "sport" might be simple
ball games, played according to uncodified rules with available equipment in pastures or
clearings. Folk games and recreations were part of communal pre-industrial life; they
grew out of face-to-face relationships, and expressed the tensions and cohesiveness of
particular localities” (“Sports Through the Nineteenth Century”).

31
During the time of colonization, familiar practices and games were brought to America from the
ancestral homeland, which is why many modern sports played in the U.S. are strongly rooted in
British heritage. Looking at the origins of modern sports, it would be evident that these basic
games were the precursor of what we know today; from cricket, baseball was developed, and
from rugby, came another popular American pastime, football.
Exhibit F lists some of the most popular sports in America, their origin and the year they
were introduced or invented.

MODERN SPORTS HISTORY

Country of
Origin
Year in
America
Location Began in
America Inventor
Baseball /1 Europe 1838 New York Abner Doubleday
Basketball /1 America 1891 Massachusetts Dr. James Naismith
Football /1 England 1800s Connecticut Walter Camp
Ice Hockey /1 Canada 1872 Montreal James Creighton
Soccer /1 England 1800s New England

Tennis /2 England 1873

Major Walter Wingfield
Golf /1 Scotland 1888 New York John Reid
Boxing /3
Modern
Greece 1830s New England Marquess of Queensbury
Volleyball /4 America 1895 Massachusetts William Morgan

Exhibit F

As Exhibit F shows, most organized sports originated in some form from Europe.
However, two sports, basketball and volleyball, were invented in America. In 1891, James
Naismith, an instructor at the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) was tasked to invent
an activity that youth could play indoors during the winter. Within two weeks of brainstorming,
he created the game of basketball using peach baskets. He came up with 13 rules to play, some of
which are still being used. The game gained popularity through the YMCA and the students he
had taught there, who helped spread the game elsewhere. The sport further progressed into

32
higher education institutes when Naismith, a physical education teacher, taught the game to
students at the University of Kansas (“Basketball Origins, Growth and History of the Game”).
After meeting Naismith in Springsfield, Massachusetts, William Morgan, who was the YMCA
Director of Physical Education, became motivated to invent a game for older students. During
the same year as Naismith, Morgan invented the game called volleyball (Bellis).
With the invention of these new games, the culture and popularity of sport in America
developed and grew. The forming of the YMCA merged healthy physical exercise with the
ideals of Christian fellowship and intellectual stimulation. Clubs that began to form during this
time were introduced by the more influential, wealthy gentry, which perpetuated gender, class
and racial discrimination. With the development of more advanced athletic games, these high-
amateur and professional level sports left the majority of Americans out. And not surprisingly,
women were included in that group of excluded Americans, as they were still being perceived as
too delicate and passive.
“These first glimmerings of modern sports were highly gendered--broad shoulders and
expanding lungs were "manly" ideals--and while some reformers like Catherine Beecher
recommended athletics for young women, the overwhelming emphasis of these early
years was on sports for men. In important ways, the language of the new athletic
advocates was infused with the rigid gender definitions of bourgeois culture” (“Sports
Through the Nineteenth Century”).

As sports such as football, baseball, basketball, and hockey continued growing in popularity,
businessmen started to see the economical possibility of generating large amounts of revenue
from these sports. Professional teams were formed in specific sports, which led to the founding
of leagues to regulate the athletes and organizations. All teams under a given league were
governed by set rules and regulations regarding franchising, financing, management, and
championship schedules. Exhibit G shows the leagues of the most popular and highest revenue
sports. The four top leagues in America, also known as the “Big Four,” are the National Football

33
League (NFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), and the
National Hockey League (NHL). In addition to these “Big Four” leagues, Major League Soccer
(MLS), has gained popularity through the years, as well. These leagues encompass professional
sports and the athletes that play in these sports. Not surprising, the athletes in these leagues are
all male.
PROFESSIONAL SPORTS LEAGUES IN AMERICA

Exhibit G
Many of the early leagues that had been formed either disbanded or combined to form
stronger leagues. The formation of the leagues listed in Exhibit G have helped to establish the
foundation of sports in America and keep the organizations stable and successful. Teams have
been added through the years to the numbers they are today. These leagues have aided in the
development and growth of male athletes and athletics but have not carried over to the female
side as of yet. Despite outstanding female athletes competing and rightfully earning their place in
the world of sports, little has changed in the attitude of this male-dominated arena. The progress
has been more slow and arduous.
LEAGUE SPORT YEAR FOUNDED
# of Teams in
2018
Major League Baseball
(MLB) Baseball 1903 30
National Hockey League
(NHL) Ice Hockey 1917 31
National Football
League (NFL) Football 1920 32
National Basketball
Assoc. (NBA) Basketball 1949 30
Major League Soccer
(MLS) Soccer 1996 23

34
Revenues are stable or have increased in the top five leagues shown in Exhibit G above
through a loyal fan base, sponsorships and media. Sports involving individual female athletes,
such as golf, tennis and swimming, have tended to gain more recognition than female team
sports such as basketball and soccer. However, in an effort to promote female athletes and their
teams, women-only leagues were founded, some of which have had short lifespans. Two of the
most widely known women’s professional leagues today are the Women’s National Basketball
Association (WNBA), which was founded in 1997, and the National Women’s Soccer League
(NWSL), founded in 2012. The first attempts to establishing soccer leagues for women, the
Women’s United Soccer Association (2001-03) and Women’s Professional Soccer (2009-11),
folded due to their inability to generate enough revenue and falling into deficits due to reckless
spending and mismanagement. (Goff) In 2012, the NWSL was founded with the involvement of
the U.S. Soccer Federation and although it still lags behind the MLS in terms of support and
funding, it is sustaining itself. However, the difficulty in continuing to maintain successful
women’s professional sports leagues remains. For throughout history, women have, and are still
fighting to be recognized for their athletic ability and competitive spirit much like their male
counterparts.
History of Women in Sports in America
After the Civil War, sports became more recognized, baseball became the new “national
pastime” and football became more popular in colleges. Teams started forming and games were
played within and between schools. In the early 1900s, women participated in informal
recreational rather than competitive activities. Activities such as horseback riding and swimming
were considered non-exerting and less physical activities that women engaged in for pleasure. By
the late 1800s and early 1900s, more women became interested and sought to participate in more

35
competitive activities which led to the formation of informal clubs that were more athletic in
nature such as croquet, tennis, bowling and archery. Although female participation in sport had
still not advanced much, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, women began to form their own
athletic clubs in colleges and were allowed to play within their own schools as intramural, club
and sorority matches. Colleges followed suit and formed similar clubs that sponsored co-ed
competitions. However, these were not considered actual college sports as competition remained
within the colleges as opposed to between colleges (Bell).
It wasn’t until 1896, when the groundbreaking basketball games featuring the University
of Berkeley vs. Stanford and the University of Washington vs. Ellensburg Normal School, that
women’s intercollegiate athletics was born. Competition in women’s sports grew after this, but
was still uncommon (Bell).
As women became more intrigued with sport and competition, there came a need for
avenues to support and help develop these interests. The societal mindset of associating strength,
agility and athleticism only to males had to be changed. Starting with the Olympics, which in
1900 had only 22 women participants, great strides have been made to see women as athletes
who are equally capable of representing their country as men are. In an effort to change the
views and inequalities as well as to allow more women to take on the role of athletes, in 1969,
the Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (CIAW) – which was later replaced by
the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) in 1971 -- moved towards a
status more in line with men’s athletics. The “History of Sports Prior to Title IX” states that “in
1969, a schedule of national championships for women’s sports was announced that included
gymnastics and track and field. Swimming, badminton, and volleyball followed in 1970 and in
1972, basketball was added.”

36
The progress continued as women of all ages began to show that they deserved a place in
athletics. Looking at the past, one can definitely see progress has been made by the sheer
increase in the number of female participants from youth to adults. From the formation of two
student baseball teams in 1866 at all-female Vassar College to the U.S. Women’s National
Soccer Team winning the World Cup in 2015, women are a force with which to be reckoned.
And all this was made possible by women coming together and using their voice to let society
know they could be both female and athletes.
The Subtle Impact of the Women’s Suffrage Movement
For too long, established beliefs of what it meant to be a female were in direct opposition
to what it meant to be an athlete. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the role of the woman
was largely limited to the home as the wife and mother. Women were expected to do the
domestic work that included cleaning, cooking, tending to children, making goods for others to
purchase, and preserve farms (“The Role of American Women Before, During & After WWI).
Men, on the other hand, were working jobs outside of the household that involved manual labor
and heavy thinking. They performed jobs in factories, offices and retail establishments and many
were able to attend college to receive an education. It was expected that they would earn wages
and provide for their family. However, these roles became less defined as World War II occurred
(Miller). As men were fighting in the war, women were forced to work “...in nontraditional jobs
as mechanics, police officers and truck drivers as necessary replacements for men who had left to
fight in the war” (Lee). Many women were finally receiving a taste of what working for wage
and supporting their families was like. However, when the war was over, the return of the men
caused women to have to go back to their pre-war jobs, but some refused. This short taste of
freedom allowed women to feel confident in the progress that was taking place and the new

37
opportunities that they’d been given. Women’s roles were finally expanding into areas
traditionally occupied by men and they weren’t going to stop making advancements toward
equal opportunity. The world of sport was no exception. “When World War II ended,
organizations for women in sport began to increase as sport became more competitive and
intercollege and interscholastic competition spread” (Bell). Women began to recognize the
significance of deciding their own fate about sports as they were inspired by the suffrage
movement of the 1920s and 1930s.
During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights movement was taking place in the United
States. The drive for civil rights assisted in a rise of position for women and minorities.
“In this climate of change, many major intercollegiate athletic organizations amended
their rules to make it possible for women to participate in programs. Supporters used this
momentum to push for legislative change at the highest levels, which they finally got in
the form of Title IX” (“The Importance of Women & Girls in Sports”).

The new movement of feminism within the larger social improvements pursued by the Civil
Rights movement, encouraged women to press for legislative action that would provide for
greater equality in both work and in athletics dealings.
The Implementation of Title IX

American values started to shift throughout the 1970s, specifically in regards to
portrayals of women. While women did not experience identical challenges regarding education
and job discrimination as people of different races, they faced considerable sexism, and women’s
rights activists aimed their efforts toward legislative solutions (Greendorfer). Dr. Bernice
Sandler, known as the “Godmother of Title IX”, “... began fighting for the rights of women in
education after she personally experienced sex discrimination when she was told she came on
“too strong for a woman” to be hired in academia” (“Title IX - The Nine”). She worked

38
alongside Representatives Patsy Mink and Edith Green and Senator Birch Bayh to introduce a
bill that included specifications for gender equality in education. According to Sandler:
“... many people believed there was no discrimination against women. The feeling was
women didn’t need to go to go college because they were all going to get married and
have children and therefore they didn’t need a college education. So we had better give
preference to the men because they’re going to be working, and the women will be just
sitting at home with their degrees.”

Sex discrimination was barely addressed as being problematic, so there was very little attention
toward the issue, which allowed for the law to pass. Dr. Sandler and Representative Green
organized and led hearings which documented discrimination against women in regard to
education and employment. They strived to increase the defenses for women. When making the
case for the law, Senator Bayh knew that Title IX wouldn’t resolve the many issues around the
gender inequality of Americans. But he knew that it was “... an important first step in the effort
to provide for the women of America something that is rightfully theirs” (Rothman). Women’s
opportunities to participate in sport and competitive activity was no longer restricted in the U.S.
after the U.S. Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights passed the historic law, Title IX
of the Education Amendments of 1972. Title IX states:
“No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation
in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under an education
program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (“Title IX and Sex
Discrimination”).

Title IX brought attention to the many problems of sexism that were taking place on school
campuses and caused people to further examine those problems to effect change. “It forced
institutions that were getting federal funds… to look at their programs and find out if there was
discrimination” (Morrison). One of the programs where gender inequality was the most
noticeable was in sports. Title IX supported the idea of community and commitment as gender
and race discrimination negatively affected the identity of an athlete. Although colleges and

39
universities weren’t required by Title IX to spend equal amounts of money for men and women’s
sports, they still had to provide equal opportunity for participation in sports for both genders.
This meant the reduction or removal of some men’s sports and the addition of women’s sports on
college campuses. The benefits of Title IX is shown in the increase of female participation in
sports. High school girls’ athletic participation increased from 295,000 people in 1971 to 2.8
million in 2002-2003; college women’s athletic participation has increased from 15% in 1972 to
43% in 2001. Also, 2004 the average number of teams offered for females per college and
university was 8.32, up from 2.50 per school in 1972 (Bell). Today, the NCAA sponsors 40
women’s championships, 38 men’s championships, and three combined championships in all
three of its divisions. Title IX demanded American society to accept a woman’s right to
participate in sports equal to her male counterparts, in essence putting them on an equal playing
field. But despite, Title IX’s progressive role in allowing females to participate in sports, women
athletes today still face issues hindering full acceptance as true competitors, due to
characterizations in the media.
History of Women’s Characterizations in Media
According to Business Dictionary, “media” is defined as “Communication channels
through which news, entertainment, education, data, or promotion messages are disseminated.
[It]... includes every broadcasting and narrowcasting medium such as newspapers, magazines,
TV, radio, billboards, direct mail, telephone, fax, and internet”. Media initially described
information delivered through newspapers, magazines and books; after the rise of technology,
the definition has expanded to include radio, television, and internet, including myriad social
media channels that serve as primary sources of news and information for most consumers
(“Role of Media in Our Society”). Media is aimed toward reaching a large audience with the

40
purpose of providing that audience with information and key messages. “The media relationship
with this society is both reflexive - the mass media simultaneously affects and is affected by
mass society - and varied,” a necessary evil that has played a significant role in shaping public
opinion and strengthening, as well as potentially corrupting society (“The Role of Media in
Society”). Consumers are bombarded by news and information in their daily lives. Media has
effectively convinced consumers to believe in certain stories and ideologies. This is especially
true through the media’s representation of women, such as the example advertisement shown in
Exhibit H. The author believes how the average woman is portrayed in mainstream media is vital
in understanding why female athletes and athletics are often perceived as fragile and weak
compared to that of male athletes and athletics.

Exhibit H
Traditional Roles Women Played in Media
Media has played a vital and powerful role in how society view men and women. It hints
at certain ideals and messages throughout consumers’ everyday lives. “All forms of media
communicate images of the sexes, many of which perpetuate unrealistic, stereotypical, and
limiting perceptions” (Wood 31). Consumers ingest these images and portrayals of the different

41
genders until these stereotypes are believed; they begin to view men and women based off of
what they are shown, essentially letting the media do their thinking for them.
Since society has become so accustomed to the perceptions that media feeds us about
genders, its views on men and women have been distorted. According to Julia T. Wood:
“Typically men are portrayed as active, adventurous, powerful, sexually aggressive and
largely uninvolved in human relationships. Just as’ consistent with cultural views of
gender are depictions of women as sex objects who are usually young, thin, beautiful,
passive, dependent, and often incompetent and dumb. Female characters devote their
primary energies to improving their appearance and taking care of homes and people”
(32).

These gender stereotypes followed the traditional roles men and women occupied throughout the
early and middle 20
th
century. Television programs portrayed men to be confident and
knowledgeable, holding leadership and authoritative positions. Men represent established beliefs
of masculinity through demonstrations of independence, toughness, and strength. “Women were
consistently portrayed in domestic roles in the media or seen as an accomplice to their male
counterpart…” (Cumberledge). They also were represented in highly sexualized and eroticized
roles, making them desirable objects to men. These depictions caused men to appear superior to
women, playing an influential role in shaping society’s attitudes of gender roles.
These misrepresentations of how members of particular genders were supposed to act and
look have caused interference with self-image when one compares themselves to what media
depicts as “normal” for men and women. It has become normalized for advertisements to star
men, with women featured in background subordinate roles. The lack of women in prominent
roles deceptively suggests that women are insignificant and inferior to men.
Lack of Women in the Media
Historically, men have controlled media across all platforms – newspapers, magazines,
television, radio, and online - shaping public perception of gender roles. According to the

42
Women’s Media Center (WMC) in its 2017 assessment of women’s role within all areas of the
U.S. media, “Women are not equal partners in telling the story, nor are they equal partners in
sourcing and interpreting what and who is important in the story” (2). This is evident in Exhibit I
as the numbers tell the story.

Exhibit I Women’s Media Center
WMC reports that to this day, men still dominate and control our media, noting:
“…the WMC’s annual examination found that, at 20 of the nation’s top news outlets, men
produced 62.3 percent of news reports analyzed during a studied period while women
produced 37.7 percent of news reports. That WMC “Divided 2017” analysis showed
hardly any progress since the WMC’s previous “Divided” report, when women produced
37.3 percent of news” (“The Status of Women in the U.S. Media 2017” 4).

Unfortunately, the WMC’s findings show very little progress of women’s representation in
media over the past decade, as researcher Jennie Ruby stated “Thirty-seven percent of “behind
the news” workers in radio, television and print news combine are women” during her
presentation, “Off Our Backs: Feminism and Motherhood” in 2007.

43
The WMC annual report also showed that men typically reported on sports, crime and
justice stories, while women are more likely to report on lifestyle, heath, and education. Out of
all the categories the media reports on, sports had the most noticeable difference, with only 11
percent of women reporting sports. In addition, The Associated Press Sports Editors Racial and
Gender Report Card found that “The number of female assistant sports editors at 100 U.S. and
Canadian newspapers and websites fell by roughly half between 2012 and 2014 – from 17.2
percent of all such editors to 9.8 percent…” (“The Status of Women in the U.S. Media 2017” 4).
The drop in female assistant sports editors by nearly half in a year, is a blatant reminder of the
gender gap amid sports journalists. These staggering numbers may cause aspiring female sports
journalists to feel as though their chances are minimal. In addition, fewer women producing
sports stories, may cause a more significant drop in stories covering female athletes and athletics.
Media Coverage of Women’s vs. Men’s Athletics
Although advances in women’s athletics have occurred, there is still a lack of media
attention. After more than 45 years of feminist activism, legal action and social change, male
dominance and centrality still exemplify the coverage and the culture; in the U.S., media are still
controlled predominantly by men who choose what society sees.
Percentage of Sports Coverage of Women’s Sports

Exhibit J (Communication & Sports)

44
According to a recent article jointly published by researchers at Purdue University and
University of Southern California, “It’s Dude Time!: A Quarter Century of Excluding Women’s
Sports in Televised News and Highlight Shows”, there is less coverage of women’s sports on
televised news programs today than there was in 1989. As shown in Exhibit J, the percentage of
coverage of women’s sports has drastically decreased throughout the years, even though girls
and women’s participation in sports has dramatically increased over that same period. There also
have been many new professional women’s leagues created that did not exist in 1989. Purdue
American Studies Professor and President of North American Society for the Sociology of Sport
Cheryl Cooky stated that:
“…in 2014 televised news media devoted a paltry 2-3 percent of its broadcast time to
covering women’s sports. And, in fact, this was lower than the 5 percent of coverage
women’s sports received in 1989. According to our 2014 data, of the 934 Los Angeles
local network affiliate news segments in our sample (over 12 hours of broadcasts), 880
were on men’s sports (approximately 11-and-a-half hours) while only 32 segments, or
about 23 minutes, featured women’s sports. (The remaining time was spent on “gender-
neutral” sports… ESPN’s SportsCenter’s numbers were similar. Of the 405 total
SportsCenter segments in our sample (nearly 14 hours), 376 covered men’s sports (just
over 13 hours) while only 13 segments, approximately 17 minutes featured women’s
sports” (“Despite Soaring Popularity, Women’s Sports Got More Coverage a Generation
Ago”).

These staggering numbers indicate the problem is that society still views female athletes,
women’s sports and their fans as inferior within the context of sports journalism. The news and
stories projected on television play a vital role in influencing how viewers form their opinions on
gender and sports. If there continues to be a lack of coverage of female athletes and women’s
sports on these programs and on television overall, improving fans’ perceptions of women’s
sports will never improve. One particular challenge relates to viewership, in that those in charge
of what airs on these programs may remain biased towards covering more men’s sports because

45
women’s sports don’t traditionally attract comparable audiences. This absence of viewers can
become an excuse for why fewer funds and attention should be devoted toward women’s sports.
The Purdue and USC researchers note that, to make it seem as if programs are discussing
and covering women’s sports, according to the researchers, this decrease in reporting has been
masked through the use of the scrolling ticker at the bottom of the screen. The ticker “functions
as a kind of visual and textual ghetto for women’s sports, allowing the sports anchors to focus
their main coverage almost entirely on men’s sports, while relegating women’s sports literally to
the margins of the screen” (“It’s Dude Time!: A Quarter Century of Excluding Women’s Sports
in Televised News and Highlight Shows” 268). Furthermore, the study found that even with
broadcast limitations of what sports are chosen to be covered on particular days, networks find
time to incorporate more “human interest” stories on men’s sports. An example the researchers
obtained was on July 22, 2014 at 11 p.m. on KNBC-TV, the L.A. news affiliate channel
broadcasted 40 seconds debating whether Los Angeles Laker Kendall Marshall, who had been
traded to the Milwaukee Bucks, would be able to find a good burrito in his new home. This kept
men’s sports at the forefront while subjecting women’s sports as minor and less worthy of
mentioning. By entertaining sports viewers with comical and amusing stories of men’s sports,
the program depicts the human and fun side of male athletes; viewers are able to find their
favorite male athletes and men’s sports teams as relatable as they receive an “inside look” into
their humorous side. If sports networks are taking the time to develop “filler” segments of men’s
sports, it limits their time to cover women’s sports. Unfortunately, the only time the women’s
sports seem to be covered a little more than usual is when the athlete or team is succeeding. This
is evident in the case of the coverage surrounding the U.S. Women’s National Soccer team and
its performance in 2015.

46
Over the past few years, the women’s national team has been more successful than it
male counterparts. When people realized that the U.S. women’s team had won three World Cups
(compared to the U.S. men’s national team, which won none), viewership for games dramatically
increased. According to U.S. Soccer, the U.S. Women’s National Team set a television ratings
record during its victory in the final against Japan of the 2015 FIFA Women’s World Cup,
making the game the most-watched soccer match in U.S. history. “The match clocked in at just
under 23 million viewers, an increase of 77% compared to the final of the 2011 Women’s World
Cup, a match between the same teams” (“Women's World Cup Final is Most-Watched Soccer
Match in U.S. History”). These viewership numbers were immense for the US. Women’s
National Team and for women’s soccer. The author believer there should be equal coverage of
both men’s and women’s sports regardless of the team’s achievements.
Besides the subtle increase in screen time for women’s sports when a team is winning,
the Purdue University and University of Southern California study concluded that the coverage
of women is still sexist. As an alternative to female athletes being sexualized, they were put on a
pedestal for their skill in being able to successfully play a sport while also being a mother or
girlfriend. The study states that:
“The decline in insulting and humorously sexualized stories about women athletes is both
a byproduct of the coverage decrease, but has also caused the decline in coverage.
Women have been covered less, it seems, because sports announcers are no longer
allowed to turn them into sexual objects with impunity” (Bianco).

Media’s Role in Accommodating Stereotyped Images of Women Athletics
Unfortunately, while coverage of female athletes and women’s athletics has steadily
declined over the past 25 years, when female athletes and athletics are depicted in media, they

47
are mainly portrayed as sexualized objects based off of the long-standing philosophy that “sex
sells.”
Sports media has the opportunity to challenge images based on gender types and reflect
the reality of women’s sports, although that is not the widespread practice today; female athletes
profiled in major sports publications appear to be selected for their appearance and feminine
qualities, as opposed to their athletic abilities. It seems that the female athletes’ personal lives are
the emphasis, with reporting based on who they’re currently dating or what clothing brand they
are wearing, in many articles dedicated to women’s sports. Male athletes, on the other hand, are
more likely to be featured in profiles that emphasize their athletic skills, on-field achievements,
and physical capabilities. It appears that the single reason as to why female athletes are featured
in sports media is to attract more male audience members, who are the main consumers and
players of sport (Robson).
The evidence of how female athletes are depicted in the media can be shown through a
review of articles emphasizing the athletes’ beauty and feminine qualities over athletic talent and
achievements. One article, “From Russia with Love,” spotlights professional women’s tennis
player Elena Dementieva and her climb to the top. Instead of discussing Dementieva’s athletic
abilities, the article immediately describes her appearance as, “She’s blonde, she’s beautiful,
she’s a tennis player who hasn’t won a tennis title yet – but she ain’t Anna Kournikova”
(Robson). From its first sentence, Dementieva has become a sexualized object who embodies
beauty and fragility. She also has been weakened through the acknowledgment of not having
won a title and that she isn’t like tennis champion Anna Kournikova. Comparisons between the
two athletes throughout the article use graphic language that have very little to do with sports.
Dementieva is also described as a “sex symbol” or “a gorgeous girl next door” while Kournikova

48
is called a “sizzling sex-pot”. Accompanying photos support the stereotypical image of a blonde,
beautiful, young woman by showing both athletes in poses that are not action shots, wearing
large amounts of makeup and very little clothing. This kind of coverage can be detrimental as it
undermines the female athletes’ athletic abilities and accomplishments and encourages the reader
to form opinions based primarily on their physical assets. There is a further distortion of reality
in that the posed shots showcase the female athletes’ bodies as being slim and toned with
cleavage showing.
The author believes media would never portray a male
athlete as Dementieva was; conventional coverage focuses on
the male athlete’s physical capabilities before mentioning
anything regarding their outward appearance. In the article,
“Reading the Catsuit: Serena Williams and the Production of
Blackness at the 2002 U.S. Open”, Jaime Schultz mentions how
professional women’s tennis champion, Serena Williams
Exhibit K
received much attention for wearing an outfit that described as “a body-clinging, faux leather,
black cat-suit.” One section within the article, entitled “Natural” Athlete or “Supranatural”
Woman?: Reading Serena Williams Muscles” drew upon the matter of Williams’ being a
“suprahuman” with her athletic ability and her phenomenal skill positioning her outside what is
considered “natural” in women’s tennis. By assigning super-hero status and characteristics, it
seems as though Williams is being portrayed somewhat “… as freakish or aberrant among her
peers, rather than superior or transcendent to them”. Calling her “suprahuman” suggests she is
different, because she displays traits culture has customarily labeled as being more masculine

49
than feminine. The section also states that Williams is said to have an “unfair” advantage over
her competition; players are incapable of competing with Williams due to her strength and
athleticism. Williams’ attributes, described as “strong,” “powerful,” and “muscular” are viewed
negatively. Instead of praising her for being strong and having a fit body, this article denigrates
her because she goes against society’s norm of what a female athlete’s body should “look like.”
By looking the way in which society deems appropriate, professional women’s tennis
player Maria Sharapova has received many brand sponsorships; although she has not been a
major contender for Williams in the recent years, she still earns significantly more in
endorsements. This gap in pay and endorsement deals is likely due to appearance; Sharapova is
characterized as “… willowy, white, and blonde, while Williams is a black woman with
prominent, athletic muscles – as is often pointed out, sometimes disparagingly” (Bain). Williams
does not resemble the typical female athlete body that society is used to and wants to continue
seeing. This is clear in a The New Yorker article that expounds on why not everyone has a
favorable opinion of her.
“Part of this is owing to the dueling-isms of American prejudice, sexism, and racism,
which manifest every time viewers, mostly men, are moved to remark on Williams’s body
in a way that reveals what might most charitably be called discomfort… On Twitter,
during the final, some people wrote admiringly about her obvious strength and fitness,
but there were also observations about the size of her butt, her thighs, and suggestions
that her toned arms made her look more like a male boxer or linebacker than like a
women’s tennis player” (Crouch).

Because Williams’ body is not petite and toned but instead features bulging muscles, she is
criticized for not being more feminine, including when wearing flashy and outrageous on-court
outfits, compared to the stylish mini-dresses worn by Maria Sharapova. It seems apparent that
brands want female athletes who fulfill what society finds “acceptable” and “attractive.” Another
example of the perpetuation of women appearing as sexualized objects is in how Sports

50
Illustrated covers female athletes as well as the “average women” on their covers, particularly in
its annual Swimsuit edition, which reinforces these stereotypical images of women. In contrast is
ESPN’s “Body Issue,” which celebrates athletes’ bodies for their capabilities.

Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue vs. ESPN Body Issue of Women in Sports

Sports Illustrated and ESPN Magazine are two major sports publications with printed
special issues that may perpetuate the position that “sex sells.” A review of Sports Illustrated
magazine covers throughout the year 2015, indicates that it perpetuates the trend of sexualizing
women. As shown in Exhibit L, there is no shortage of coverage of women fashion models, but
there is a lack of covers featuring female athletes. According to research conducted on Sports
Illustrated magazine covers in 2015:
“Out of the 85 Sports Illustrated covers, there had only been 10 covers that featured
women, while there had been 75 with men on the covers…Out of the 10 covers that have
women on them, 10% featured a female that has no connection to athletics… 2 out of the
10 covers display a female in either a bikini…30% of the covers with females showed
groups of female athletes, while only 16% of covers with males had 3 or more people...
Only 2 of the women who have modeled in their swimsuit for the magazine this year are
athletes” (Gender Inequality: Sports Media).

In the author’s opinion, the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue directly encourages the
degrading idea that women are a product for male consumption. The cover of this edition, as well
as the women featured within the magazine, are typically female fashion models with an
occasional female athlete. These models have nothing to do with athleticism, instead reinforcing
damaging stereotypes of what an acceptable body of a woman should look like. Sports Illustrated
sexualizes these women to attract its already heavily male fan base while reinforcing the same
message of objectification.

51
2015 Sports Illustrated Covers

VS VS VSSPORTS
ILLUSTRATED COVERS
VS.

Exhibit L (“Gender Inequality: Sports Media”)

As shown in Exhibit L, these Sports Illustrated Covers in 2015 show inconsistencies in
the portrayal of males and females, both as athletes and in general:
“Covers with male athletes focus on their athletic abilities, while covers with female
athletes focus on their bodies. Covers of males who are not athletes still say how they
contribute to sports, however covers of females who are not athletes only show women in
bikinis. Covers with male athletes show their outstanding victories, however covers with
many female athletes show how they revere men for their own victories” (“Gender
Inequality: Sports Media”).

The headlines as well as the photos show female athletes in a different light than male athletes.
Although, aware of the desire to see naked bodies, ESPN chose to approach their Body
Issue through the “… selling [of] bodies and the stories behind them, and those bodies and those

52
stories are an integral part of sports that deserve to be appreciated” (Waldron). The editors
choose to celebrate the human body of male and female athletes by having them pose nude with
strategic coverage of private parts while having each athlete speak about their insecurities over
their body or how their body helps them compete. ESPN wants its audience to see the bodies that
allow these athletes to compete and perform to the best of their ability. They are selling
authenticity and what the actual athletic body looks like. Yet, “while the intention of the
individual interviews might be to relate to the athletes’ accomplishments, the nude photoshoots
serve to obscure the athletic talent with visual sexual appeal” (Halverson). Whether or not ESPN
means it or not, the Body Issue is another example of normalizing the sexualization of women.
This is revealed through double standard responses of the 2017 issue that had Dallas Cowboy’s
running back Ezekial Elliott on the cover. Many people went to Twitter to express disgust over
having a male on the cover. They created much controversy because it was abnormal to have a
man posed nude on a cover of a magazine, especially on the Body Issue. However, if it was a
female athlete on the front cover there would be no complaining. The culture has become so
conditioned to seeing nude images of women that when it comes to nude images of men, it can
be seen as upsetting and culturally inappropriate.
The Female Athlete Today: What Critics Would Say
Comparing historic female gender stereotypes with those of 21
st
century women in sports,
it is clear that female athletes are beginning to challenge sexist barriers and restrictive notions
about women’s physical appearance, athletic ability, and participation in sports. However,
traditional female stereotypes continue to prevail.
The growth of female participation in sport has created commercial and branding
opportunities. In the 1990’s, many ads were aspirational in theme, showing girls and women

53
believing in themselves and working to achieve athletic goals often without overt product sales
pitches. Nike, capitalizing on the trend, became a prominent promoter of women’s sports. In the
fall of 1995 and spring of 1996, Nike launched one of the most memorable ad campaigns,
“Participation,” featuring the commercial “If You Let Me Play”. The spot sent out a strong
message speaking to the confidence young girls could achieve through sports. Excerpts from the
commercial included, “I will like myself more. I will have more self-confidence… I will learn
what it means to be strong. If you let me play sports” (Grow). The message of empowerment was
shown through the dialogue as well as the visuals of young girls as potential athletes.
Subsequent to the release of “If You Let Me Play,” sales of women’s athletic products
skyrocketed. Noticing this huge jump in sales, Phil Knight, the chairman of Nike, reported that
women’s sport and fitness had become Nike’s second highest volume category behind men’s
basketball (Higdeon).
Recognizing a need for a stronger marketing force, Nike created a women’s marketing
team of 40 female employees to work together on creating women’s campaigns. The team used
the strategy of encouraging women to participate in sports for “selfish reasons – for the pleasure
of it” (Lucas). Ads read, “Pursue pleasure everywhere and you are bound to find it”, “We are
hedonists and we want what feels good”, and “If it feels good then just do it”. In addition to this
strategy, the release of the Participation campaign was widely recognized by consumers. The
commercial “If You Let Me Play” was specifically designed to encourage and increase girls’ and
women’s participation in sports, and women, young and old, were able to identify with the ad’s
message.
Nike’s strategy of developing commercials that emphasize female empowerment
challenged the male-focused nature of sports advertising. When Nike began targeting women,

54
they needed to maintain the success of the parent (male) brand. However, using innovative
marketing strategies, female members of Nike’s marketing team successfully challenged male
executives to take action and embrace the promotion of women as dynamic and independent.
The 1999 FIFA Women’s World Cup created unprecedented recognition and marketing
opportunities for competitive women’s sports. As a growing television audience followed the
tournament, women in America felt empowered to compete with and against women. Indeed,
prior to the emergence of high-profile women’s team sports in the 1990s, athletic women were
predominantly seen as engaged in non-contact sports. Deem argues that when women participate
in “activities” such as yoga, keep fit, and swimming, they reinforce traditional ideas about
femininity, such as beauty, grace and female attractiveness. In “Nike Culture: The Sign of the
Swoosh”, Robert Goldman and Stephen Papson argues that the 1990s U.S. women’s national
soccer team gave rise to the notion of “female bonding”, which Nike showed through
“passionate sincerity as the woman athlete and her intensity is to be taken seriously.” During this
time, traditional ideas of femininity began to dissolve and society began to associate women with
the same ideas as men: competitive, determined, dedicated and tough.
Recent communication research has focused on the emergence of women as physically
and mentally active players within the heavily masculine sports industry. Society admires those
who are strong and fit. Female athletes are increasingly recognized for what their bodies do and
how they help them achieve success in their sports. They are embracing their powerful and
muscular bodies and are coming to terms with the idea that their bodies mustn’t look a certain
way to be successful or attractive. This type of mindset translates to that of the average women.
As women see their favorite female athletes look strong and happy, the average woman strives to
emulate them. More women are motivated by working out to gain muscle while living healthier

55
lifestyles. They are encouraged by physical activities such as CrossFit, where they push their
bodies to their limits. Women are more accepting of their own bodies, showing confidence in
themselves. Society is beginning to see the fit, muscular and strong woman as healthy and
wholesome, understanding that being strong is considered the “new beautiful.” Although women
are beginning to change the narrative on how women should be seen in the media, there is still
much that needs to be done in building an audience and gaining more viewers for women’s
sports.
Sport and PR
Sports has served to unite nations, promote social change and affect the national psyche
for many years. Regardless of what language one speaks, sports, is a universal language. Athletes
from different countries speak the same language when they shoot a basketball, put on skies or
swim in an Olympic-sized pool. Athletes can play on the same or opposing team and compete
regardless of race, ethnicity or gender. The enthusiasm portrayed in reporting about an athlete in
media is dictated by a reporters’ choice of words, which paint a visual impression of the athlete
as described by them. However, at times reporters use inappropriate language in their articles,
and this is where the public relations industry and their function can serve as a positive
influential tool. Public relations’ main role within the sports industry is to help promote and
maintain a positive image of a given sports team, athlete, league, coach, or sponsor. While
millions of sports fans may cheer in-stadium and in-home around the world, very few people
acknowledge the impact of public relations in the sports industry. It is critical for the public
relations professional to build strong relationships between the athlete, coach and organization
and fans. In order to create successful and strong relationships, public relations professionals can

56
influence the responsible media depiction of women in sports through the use of the PESO
model.
Public relations is an integration of all media types within the PESO model: paid, earned,
shared and owned. The four media categories work together for an organization to not only
create its consistent message but to distribute that message to gain third-party awareness and
ideally, endorsement. It’s no longer enough to focus solely on earned media through media
relations and other traditional tactics that have served public relations professionals well for
years.
Leveraging the other media types within the PESO model can prove to be beneficial and
generate awareness that could translate to increased revenue for athletes, coaches, leagues, and
organizations. As millions of Americans interact through shared social media platforms like
Instagram, Facebook and Twitter, it is critical for companies to effectively engage with them.
According to Nielson, 87 percent of the U.S. adult population owns a smart phone and social
media reached about 177 million people each week on average in the third quarter of 2016 (“A
New Megaphone: Social Media Gives Consumers a Chance to be Heard on What They Watch”).
“Surprisingly, the heavy social media user group isn’t Millennials. In fact, Generation X (ages
35-49) spends the most time on social media: almost 7 hours per week” (Casey). Social media
represents one of the greatest opportunities for athletes, teams and organizations to connect
directly to their fans. Its use has altered the relationship and the way in which athletes, teams and
fans interact. However, it is not only important to understand which audience to target. Athletes,
teams and their sports organizations need to understand how they can relate to these individuals
and win them over. Public relations professionals have to conduct research to better understand
their athletes’ and teams’ fan base’s preferences to craft and deliver the right content.

57
Sports teams have the unique ability to use their players, who may promote their own
personal brand, their team or organization’s brand or message, and engage with fans. Athletes
can serve as brand ambassadors and create deep relationships on a seemingly personal level with
their fans by communicating with them and vice versa through personal accounts that reach
thousands if not millions of people. This allows for a more authentic connection and enables fans
to now be a part of the sport organization’s story. Therefore, it is important to invest significant
resources into developing a presence on a designated site, player’s or organization’s social media
profile in order to create tangible value and reach the desired audience. Public relations
professionals can help by having male athletes and teams show support of female athletes and
women’s sports through targeted campaigns. Male athletes and teams can post to their social
media platforms, using a given hashtag specifically intended for the campaign. Because more
male athletes have larger followings than most female athletes, they can raise more awareness
regarding the issue of media framing and the lack of coverage of female athletes and women’s
sports in the media. Female athletes can also post to their social media accounts about their
experiences in sports, which could hopefully resonate with young girls who aspire to be like
them. These posts will promote authenticity by allowing girls to better understand their favorite
athletes while also learning about the athletes’ positive and negative experiences, including their
struggles and successes along the way. Representation is important for children. When children
see athletes who look like them, they will likely feel empowered and confident to pursue their
goals regardless of their gender. By implementing the use of shared media within the PESO
model, public relations professionals can create an active community that gives fans a place to
express their passion for their favorite athletes and teams, connect with those athletes and teams,
meet other fans, and engage in stimulating conversations.

58
Additionally, the implementation of owned media through the creation of original content
that can be placed on an athletes’ personal website, blog, or official team website can help
influence the media and consumers to engage in more conversation around the absence of
coverage of female athletes and women’s sports, and explore the sexist commentary media use to
describe female athletes. In this channel, public relations professionals can control the messaging
and tell the story in the way they want it to be told. “... much of what makes sports as a whole
compelling is the narrative behind each game and series. Rivalries compel us, success stories
inspire us, and underdogs make us cheer louder than we knew we could” (Clapp). Consumers
want to hear these different stories and see the unique content around these narratives. Instead of
seeing solely highlights of male athletes and men’s sports, owned media can be used to create
comparable amounts of content revolving around female athletes and women’s sports. By
showing images of female athletes actively playing their respective sports, instead of
objectifying them by presenting them wearing little clothing and unrealistic amounts of makeup
will help counter the effects of the sexualization of women through provocative photographs and
gender-based language. It is vital to develop original content related to the players, coaches, and
teams so that fans can develop a meaningful connection. Having the female athletes share their
personal stories can help the public relate to them as they see the human side of the woman.
Seeing this content may cause user-generated content from young girls who feel more confident
in sharing their personal stories related to sports as well as their opinions regarding the relative
lack of coverage of female athletes and women’s sports in the media. Fans may also create
original content about their unique stories of why they are die-hard fans of specific teams or what
their favorite athlete or team means to them.

59
All of this content can be placed on shared social media channels as well as on athletes’,
teams’ and organizations’ owned sites to further reinforce the message the team wants to project.
The endless amount of engagement granted by social media makes it feasible for athletes and
teams to constantly produce exciting content for people to consume. Also, the nature in which
social media is consumed whether original content around a popular player, reporting a team’s
success, or relaying a comical event that took place within a game can cause virality as other
sports-related accounts pick it up, thus generating a ripple effect. It is vital for public relations
professionals working within the sports universe to be aware of and cultivate the constant
narratives that occur with athletes, team, and organizations, so they can determine how to most
effectively communicate to their publics and media. Public relations remains essential to the
sports industry and can play a key role in shifting the focus to a more equitable one for female
athletes and women’s sports.
Conclusion
There is no reason why all athletes, male and female, can’t showcase their talents and
share the glory. Spectators are in awe of the athleticism of the human body; the unmistaken
ability and fitness of the athlete whose job is to push their bodies to the limit to become
victorious. In essence, these individuals are powerful role models who win not only for
themselves but for their fans. The fan base marvels in the feats that are displayed and
accomplished by the individual athlete or team. And in reality, they are living their own dreams
through the athlete.
Now is the time for female athletes to accept their place in the world of sport. In the
current media environment, with situations of sexual exploitation, misconduct, and unimaginable
acts of abuse coming to light every day, consumers are becoming aware of how these issue have

60
been covered up for many years. The public is no longer desensitized. It’s disheartening, but just
as women are speaking out and finding their voice against the injustice they’ve endured, so must
female athletes speak out about the inequality they have experienced. The author believes that
rampant sexual exploitation is reinforced by society’s attitudes of subjugating women, which is
demonstrated in the widespread use of gender-based language and sexualized photographs
depicting femininity. While great strides are being made toward the elimination of gender-based
language and sexual photographs in reportage, is it enough? Apparently not.
During the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang during February, it was evident that
regardless of the level at which female athletes compete, they were not exempt from
encountering sexism. Regardless of female Olympic athletes’ accomplishments and their success
in winning medals for their respective countries, sexist comments were still being made by radio
and news reporters. One such incident occurred during a conversation on Barstool Radio’s Sirius
XM show, “Dialed-In with Dallas Braden,” where sports radio host Patrick Connor, called a 17-
year old American snowboarder Chloe Kim, a “little hot piece of ass” after Kim won gold in the
halfpipe. Connor went on to say, “She’s fine as hell… Her 18
th
birthday is April 23, and the
countdown is on, baby, ‘cause I got my Wooderson going. That’s what I like about them high
school girls.” (Gregg). Instead of focusing on Kim’s achievements and history-making turn as
the first female snowboarder to land back-to-back 1080-degree spins in the halfpipe at the
Olympics, Connor debased her as just a pretty woman with nice features and not an athlete.
Through his sexist, derogatory comments, Connor diminished Kim’s historical performance by
bringing attention to her looks rather than congratulating her for her outstanding presentation.
And despite, Kim’s accomplishments and being the youngest female snowboarder to win gold at
the Olympics, some of the subsequent media coverage also focused on her appearance, which

61
again demonstrates that even though things may be changing, sexist comments towards female
athletes still prevail.
In addition, a NBC Olympic ski commentator Bode Miller attributed Austrian downhill
skier Anna Veith’s performance struggles to her getting married. Miller’s sexist commentary
included:
I want to point out that she also got married, and it’s historically very challenging to
race on the World Cup with a family or after being married. Not to blame the spouses,
but I want to toss it out there that it could be her husband’s fault (Barney).

Instead of focusing on Veith as an athlete and discussing her knee injury as a more likely reason
as to why she was unable to compete to the best of her ability, Miller brought attention to Veith’s
recent role of becoming a wife. Her marital status was viewed as more important to discuss
rather than her abilities as an athlete. His unnecessary comments caused controversy amongst the
Games’ audience as it is extremely uncommon to hear a broadcaster speak about a male athlete
and his marital status instead of his accomplishments on the field or court.
Nor was sexist commentary during the Olympics limited to American broadcasts.
Canadian commentator Don Cherry compared the appearance of the Canadian Women’s Hockey
Team members to the U.S. team, stating that the Canadian team looked like “fashion models”
and the U.S. team looked like “slobs.” Rather than comparing the athletic style of play of each
team, Cherry chose to emphasize the outward appearance of these female athletes, sexualizing
them as if their looks would have an impact on their athleticism.
In all of these instances, the men who made the sexist remarks later apologized for their
ill-advised, inappropriate comments. However, it shouldn’t have to come down to people taking
to Twitter and other social media platforms to show their distaste towards these kinds of
comments for those to realize that they never should have been made in the first place. It is

62
unfortunate that as a society, apologies for sexist statements prevail over general insistences that
they not be made in the first place.
Although, 43 percent of the Team USA athletes in the Olympics were women and they
had six fewer medal events than the men did, American female athletes were given almost as
much air time as male athletes. The women’s events weren’t solely relegated to the weekdays
and off-prime hours, which had been the case in prior Olympic broadcasts. Although the
women’s hockey gold medal match was played on a Wednesday and not aired during primetime,
the U.S. Women’s Hockey Team’s victory over Canada ranked as the most watched late-night
program in NBCSN history. “The hockey game registered a Total Audience Delivery average of
3.7 million viewers… [and] the NBCSN-only telecast delivered 2.9 million viewers, which is the
largest audience ever for the network in the 11 p.m.-2:15 a.m. ET late-night window (“Team
USA Women's Hockey Gold Medal Is Most Watched Late Night Show In NBCSN History”).
This outcome showed that women’s sports are becoming more attractive and desired by the
consumer audiences regardless of television airtime.
Although there are subtle advancements, more still needs to be done to eliminate the
inappropriate media framing of female athletes and women’s sports. The media is moving
toward the right direction, but it still comes down to educating those at the top as well as society
as a whole that they should not accept current depictions of the female athlete in text and photos.
When reporting, journalists must weed out the old school, stereotypical mentality. One has to not
only eliminate, but also re-educate those who are in charge, in particular, male media executives.
More importantly, to keep moving towards male and female equality, the new and upcoming
reporters working in all media forms must be educated and sensitized. Unfortunately, there still
is conversation around whether female athletes should be considered the “best female athlete” in

63
a respective sport or the “best athlete” overall. In an open letter published in the December 2017
issue of Porter magazine, professional tennis player Serena Williams addressed the sexism that
women face on their journey to athletic success. According to Williams, language is one of the
leading signs of sexism in sport as she said, “People call me one of the ‘world’s greatest female
athletes.’ Do they say LeBron is one of the world’s best male athletes? Is Tiger? Federer? Why
not?” She goes on to conclude that “We should never let this go unchallenged. We should always
be judged by our achievements, not by our gender.” Williams is not the only athlete challenging
mainstream America’s tendency to attach gender-specific adjectives on women who play sports.
Most recently, American skier Lindsey Vonn had been the subject of conversations as to whether
she was the greatest skier of all-time. Vonn, who has won 81 World Cups, trails behind Ingemar
Stenmark of Sweden, who has five more World Cup wins. In an interview with Maverick Carter
on Uninterrupted’s “Kneading Dough”, Vonn said, “It’s very important” when she was asked
about being the winningest skier in history. “… I’m literally not gonna stop skiing until I reach
that mark because I don’t like being ‘the best female.’ I really don’t. I want to be the best -- of all
time, period. And for me just to have that record would solidify my career. And then I can say
I’m the greatest and I don’t need to say female – or American.” (Skiver).
With the help of public relations influencing the media, females can continue on this
incline of bringing awareness of gender inequality in sports. Undoubtedly, female athletes will
continue to be fierce competitors on the field, working hard and playing hard, and they have to
take on the added effort of persisting in bringing awareness to gender inequality in sports. Great
strides can be made towards a better balance and less of a gap between men and women when
the media starts to view them as simply “athletes”. Public relations can be a powerful source for
swaying media’s portrayal of female athletes and women’s sports and can ultimately change

64
public attitude in regards to sexism, respect, equality and the actual definition of who constitutes
being an athlete. Female athletes is not a new phenomenon; on the contrary, they have been
around a long time but have been held back from being appreciated for their ability to use their
strength to compete. Today’s athletes represent not only themselves but the trailblazing athletes
of the past, the young competitors of the future, and at times, their entire country such as when
they compete in the Olympics, a sporting event that once had only 22 women athletes. There has
been progress but there still is much to do to bring gender equality to the athletic arena. With the
assistance of public relations, the narrative of female athletes and the perception of how women
are viewed in sports within the media can be completely altered, reshaping society’s view on
gender roles. Public relations can ultimately lead the way in rejecting stereotypes and instead,
enhancing respect for athletes for their abilities rather than their gender, all while helping change
the conversation and the way in which society views athletes who also happen to be female.

65
Works Cited
“A General Introduction to The History of Women in Sport.” 2017, doi:10.1057/978-1-137-
45797-4_1.

“A New Megaphone: Social Media Gives Consumers a Chance to be Heard on What They
Watch.” What People Watch, Listen To and Buy, 17 Jan. 2017,
www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2017/a-new-megaphone-social-media-gives-
consumers-a-chance-to-be-heard.html.
Abrams, Roger I. “The Athlete as Role Model.” The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com,
23 Sept. 2014, www.huffingtonpost.com/roger-i-abrams/the-athlete-as-role-
model_b_5870816.html.
“Athlete.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/athlete.
Bain, Marc. “Why Doesn't Serena Williams Have More Sponsorship Deals?” The Atlantic,
Atlantic Media Company, 31 Aug. 2015,
www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/08/serena-williams-sponsorship-nike-
us-open/402985/.
Barney, Chuck. “The 'Sorry Games': NBC analysts apologizing like crazy from Olympics.” The
Mercury News, The Mercury News, 16 Feb. 2018,
www.mercurynews.com/2018/02/15/the-apology-olympics-tough-times-for-nbc-and-the-
media/.
Bell, Richard C. “A History of Women in Sport Prior to Title IX.” The Sport Journal, 14 Mar.
2008, thesportjournal.org/article/a-history-of-women-in-sport-prior-to-title-ix/.

Bellis, Mary. “Invention and History of Volleyball.” ThoughtCo, 13 Apr. 2017,
www.thoughtco.com/invention-and-history-of-volleyball-william-morgan-1992597.

66
Bianco, Marcie. “There is less womens sports coverage on TV news today than there was in
1989.” Quartz, Quartz, 16 June 2015, qz.com/428680/there-is-less-womens-sports-
coverage-on-tv-today-than-there-was-in-1989/.
Casey, Sean. “The 2016 Nielsen Social Media Report.” What People Watch, Listen To and Buy,
17 Jan. 2017, www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/reports/2017/2016-nielsen-social-media-
report.html.
Christy, Amanda. “Gender Inequality in Sports Media.” Login, 19 Nov. 2015,
create.piktochart.com/output/9481436-gender-inequality-in-sports-media.
Christeen George, Andrew Hartley, Jenny Paris, (2001) "The representation of female
athletes in textual and visual media", Corporate Communications: An International
Journal, Vol. 6 Issue: 2, pp.94-101, https://doi.org/10.1108/13563280110391007
Clapp, Brian. “Unique Strategies For Using Social Media in Sports
Marketing.” WorkInSportscom Sports Career Blog, WorkinSports.com Publisher Logo,
31 Jan. 2017, www.workinsports.com/blog/unique-strategies-for-using-social-media-in-
sports-marketing/.
Couch, Darcy. In-Person Interview. 14 Dec. 2017.
Cooky, Cheryl, et al. ““It’s Dude Time!”.” Communication & Sport, vol. 3, no. 3, May 2015, pp.
261–287., doi:10.1177/2167479515588761.
Cooky, Cheryl. “Despite Soaring Popularity, Women's Sports Got More Coverage a Generation
Ago.” FAIR, 19 June 2015, fair.org/home/despite-soaring-popularity-womens-sports-got-
more-coverage-a-generation-ago/.

67
Crouch, Ian. “Serena Williams Is America's Greatest Athlete.” The New Yorker, The New
Yorker, 9 Sept. 2014, www.newyorker.com/news/sporting-scene/serena-williams-
americas-greatest-athlete.
Cumberledge, Heather. “The representation of women in media needs to change.” The Arizona
State Press, 18 Oct. 2017, www.statepress.com/article/2017/10/spopinion-age-of-media-
misrepresentation.
Deem, R. (2007). Women and sport. In The Sports Studies Reader. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Dietrich, Gini. “How the PESO Model Changes PR's Conversation.” Cision, 6 Oct. 2016,
www.cision.com/us/2016/10/how-the-peso-model-changes-prs-conversation/.
Fantam et al., Women in the Classical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 57.
Greendorfer, S.L. (1989a). Catch the vision: Future directions for women in sport. Journal of
Physical Education. Recreation. and Dance, 60(3), 31-32.
Goldman, R., & Papson, S. (1998). Nike culture: The sign of the swoosh. (1st ed., pp. 125 126).
London: Sage Publications.
Grow, J. M. (2006). Stories of Community: The First Ten Years of Nike Women's
Advertising. American Journal of Semiotics, 22(1-4), 15, 19.
Halverson, Haley. “The ESPN Body Issue Normalizes Sexual Objectification.” The Huffington
Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 11 July 2017, www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/the-espn-
body-issue-and-the-illusion-of-nudity-based_us_595fa8ade4b08f5c97d06902.
Kane, Mary Jo. Media Coverage of the Post Title IX Female Athlete: A
...www.bing.com/cr?IG=3E4B5A6F626446F38160CAD34B52F864&CID=29DE0B805
42B60541D7B0042556461E8&rd=1&h=2nUwkcJgHJAqs8Aww60_DrJFUuMJTtma1Gj

68
LP2IlPAQ&v=1&r=http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1225&c
ontext=djglp&p=DevEx,5068.1.
Lambert, Tim. “A BRIEF HISTORY OF SPORT.” A History of Sport, 2017,
www.localhistories.org/sport.html.
Lee, Lexa W. “The Lives of Women in the Early 1900s.” Synonym, 29 Sept. 2017,
classroom.synonym.com/the-lives-of-women-in-the-early-1900s-12083174.html.
Lucas, S. (2000). Nike's commercial solution: Girls, sneakers, and salvation. Sociology of Sport,
1st ed, 151-153.
Macri, Kenneth J. “Not Just a Game: Sport and Society in the United States.” Inquiries Journal,
Inquiries Journal, 1 Aug. 2012, www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1664/not-just-a-game-
sport-and-society-in-the-united-states.
Miller, Jean. “What Were the Traditional Gender Roles of Men & Women in the 1900s?” Our
Everyday Life, oureverydaylife.com/were-roles-men-women-1900s-8623722.html.
Morrison, Patt. “Before Title IX came along, many people didn't believe discrimination against
women was a problem.” Los Angeles Times, Los Angeles Times, 16 Aug. 2017,
www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-ol-patt-morrison-asks-bernice-sandler-title-ix-sex-
discrimination-20170816-htmlstory.html.
“Basketball Origins, Growth and History of the Game.” The People History,
www.thepeoplehistory.com/basketballhistory.html.
Petri, Heather. Phone Interview. 12 Jan. 2018.
Plum, Kelsey. Phone Interview. 18 Nov. 2017.

69
Re, Gregg. “Radio host fired for calling Chloe Kim 'hot piece of ass'.” New York Post, New York
Post, 15 Feb. 2018, nypost.com/2018/02/15/radio-host-fired-for-calling-chloe-kim-hot-
piece-of-ass/.
Robson, David. “Male & Female Athletes In The Media: Are They Equally
Portrayed?” Bodybuilding.com, 16 July 2012,
www.bodybuilding.com/fun/drobson42.htm?source=pepperjam&publisherId=21181&cli
ckId=2222280687.
“Role of media in our society.” Global Ethics Network,
www.globalethicsnetwork.org/profiles/blogs/role-of-media-in-our-society.
Rothman, Lily. “How Title IX First Changed the World of Women’s Sports .” Time, Time, 23
June 2017, time.com/4822600/title-ix-womens-sports/.
Ruby, Jennie. “Women in Media.” Off Our Backs a women's news journal , vol. 37, no. 1, 2007,
pp. 14–16. JSTOR, www.jstor.org.libproxy1.usc.edu/stable/pdf/20838762.pdf.
Scanlon, Thomas F. “Games for Girls .” Ancient Olympics Guide: Games for Girls -
Archaeology Magazine Archive,
archive.archaeology.org/online/features/olympics/girls.html.
Schultz, Guy A. “The I.A..-\F and I.O.C.: Their Relationship and Its Impact on Women's
Participation in Track and Field at the Olympic Games. 19 17- 1932 .” The Lrniversity of
Western Ontario, 2000, pp. 1–130.
Schultz, Jaime. “Reading the Catsuit: Serena Williams and the Production of Blackness at the
2002 U.S. Open.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues, vol. 29, no. 3, 2005, pp. 338–357.,
doi:10.1177/0193723505276230.

70
“Sexism in Advertising.” History - WOMEN IN ADVERTISEMENTS AND BODY IMAGE,
womeninads.weebly.com/history.html.
Skiver, Kevin. “Lindsey Vonn says she won't stop until she's 'the best skier of all time,
period'.” CBSSports.com, 6 Mar. 2018, www.cbssports.com/olympics/news/lindsey-
vonn-says-she-wont-stop-until-shes-the-best-skier-of-all-time-period/.
"Sports Through the Nineteenth Century." Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by
Mary Kupiec Cayton, et al., Charles Scribner's Sons, 1993. U.S. History in
Context, http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/BT2
313027009/UHIC?u=mlin_s_martha&xid=cd1eae97.
Sullivan, Nate. “The Role of American Women Before, During & After WWI.” Study.com,
Study.com, study.com/academy/lesson/the-role-of-american-women-before-during-after-
wwi.html.
“Team USA Women's Hockey Gold Medal Is Most Watched Late Night Show In NBCSN
History.” Broadway World - #1 for Broadway Shows, Theatre, Entertainment, Tickets &
More!, BroadwayWorld.com, 22 Feb. 2018,
www.broadwayworld.com/bwwtv/article/Team-USA-Womens-Hockey-Gold-Medal-Is-
Most-Watched-Late-Night-Show-In-NBCSN-History-20180222.
“The Importance of Women and Girls in Sports.” Sportsbook Review,
www.sportsbookreview.com/importance-of-women-in-sports/.
Takenouchi, Shelchi. Email Interview. 12 Dec. 2017.
“The Role of Media in Society.” Globalization101, www.globalization101.org/the-role-of-
media-in-society/.
“The Status of Women In The U.S. Media 2017.” 2017, doi:10.18411/a-2017-023.

71
“Title IX - The Nine.” American Civil Liberties Union, www.aclu.org/other/title-ix-nine.
“Title IX and Sex Discrimination.” Home, US Department of Education (ED), 29 Apr. 2015,
www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/tix_dis.html.
Waldron, Travis. “What ESPN's 'Body Issue' Gets Right, And What It Could
Do Better.” ThinkProgress, thinkprogress.org/what-espns-body-issue-gets-right-and-
what-it-could-do-better-b8b2865dbcaf/.
“Which of your friends needs to learn this term?” BusinessDictionary.com,
www.businessdictionary.com/definition/media.html.
“Women's World Cup Final is Most-Watched Soccer Match in U.S. History.” U.S. Soccer,
USSoccer, 8 July 2015, www.ussoccer.com/stories/2015/07/08/16/59/150708-wnt-
victory-breaks-tv-records.
Wood, Julia T. Gendered Media: The Influence of Media on Views of Gender.
www.bing.com/cr?IG=BF08EF709B724F4F8A28F42437CC5225&CID=3350C56AF69
066DA3545CEA8F73F67CB&rd=1&h=YW4tXtVvwEiONWdpKOpq8bZE1WAmQ2
YdnjF-
RpCthuI&v=1&r=https://www1.udel.edu/comm245/readings/GenderedMedia.pdf&p=D
evEx,5067.1.

72
Appendix 1
Interviewer: Christina Archer

Interviewee: Kelsey Plum

Date of Interview: November 18, 2017

Location: San Francisco, CA via Phone

Christina Archer Question: What sport(s) did you play, and what was the highest level at
which you competed?

Kelsey Plum Answer: Growing up I played basketball, volleyball, baseball, soccer, and baton
twirling. But the sport I played the highest level was basketball, and still is.

Q: Have you ever heard any stereotypes about female athletes?

A: Without a doubt. There is an array of stereotypes but the stereotypes for me would be
“butch”, “lesbian”, “manly”, “capable but not as capable as a man”, and “good for being a girl”.
I’ve also heard stereotypes saying “oh, she plays like a girl” which is seen as a bad thing.

Q: Did you ever experience an interview that began with the reporter asking about your physical
appearance rather than your athletic ability or accomplishments?

A: I have gotten interviews that have asked me about my physical appearance when it came to
losing weight because I lost weight over my college career. But I don’t necessarily think that was
a negative. They were more so complimenting how much better shape I was in. As being a
professional, in certain settings I do get asked about my physical appearance in regards to certain
media outlets. For example, I am going to do an interview with ELLE Magazine. They are going
to ask about me and not really my basketball. So, I don’t think I’ve ever gotten it in a negative
connotation.

Q: What were some words you heard reporters use to describe you? Can you recall any words
reporters frequently used to describe other female athletes?

A: Some words to describe me that people have used in the media were “unopposed” and
“athletic”. I think because I am white they talk about my skillset and my IQ. I get that all the
time that my IQ is really high. Other words that reporters use to describe female athletes are
mostly “teamwork” and “hustle”. It’s normally used as a backhanded compliment.

Q: Did you ever feel uncomfortable knowing that you were a great female athlete in a male
dominated sport?

73
A: I don’t know if I feel uncomfortable but I do know that I feel frustrated at times because I can
have a great performance or make a great play and it’s always compared to a male. By doing so,
that makes it less in society’s terms.

Q: How do you feel when you are compared to male athletes instead of female athletes?

A: At first, when I got compared to male athletes toward the beginning of my professional
career, it was a compliment but at the same time it’s also very lazy. I say that word because we
don’t take the time to watch a lot of women’s sports and be knowledgeable about it. Society
doesn’t know what else to compare it to so it’s just easier to compare it to a man. I think that is
not justifying the female athlete because there have been so many great female athletes that have
come before me and that will come after. I always get compared to male basketball players
which I don’t think is necessarily a bad thing, but there is a lot of great female players that we
can do better on.

Q: Did you ever feel like you had to act a certain way or portray a particular image so that you
would be viewed as feminine?

A: Yes. I was brought up through my high school and college years as a feminist. I’m very
grateful for it now because it has made me good money. But you want to brand yourself as a way
to use yourself as other outlets besides basketball. There is a reason I was able to sign with Nike
and I don’t think it was just because of my athletic performance. I think there are certain things
that I have had to do in my career, whether that’s making myself look a little more feminine on
social media and in certain interviews, and dress a certain way. I think it’s a way to brand
yourself. I’ve done that and I’m glad that I have because it has helped me to make money. I don’t
think it’s necessarily who I am, but I think it’s a perception that I was able to use to my benefit.

Q: So, when you were getting drafted, did you strategically think about what you wore and how
that would make you look a certain way, as well as make you seem more presentable?

A: Without a doubt. Not only being drafted, but also going into my senior year. In certain
interviews, I would always have my hair done and makeup on. This sounds ridiculous but even
for certain post-game interviews when I knew that I was going to be on ESPN, I’d have someone
touch up my face or fix my hair. I felt like for certain outlets I needed to put on a face in order to
save myself later. I started to wear makeup when I played, I would get my eyelashes done and go
tanning. That’s not me but it worked and I’m grateful I did it now.

Q: Did you have someone that helped to advise you on how to dress and how to act?

A: I had multiple people in my circle tell me that if this is what I wanted, this is what I was going
to have to do. I just listened.

Q: Do you think the media has played a role in how you view yourself as a female and a female
athlete?

74
A: Yes, sadly. I think it has and I have been trying to be conscious of that in the last year just
because so many good things have happened. You start to seep into looking at the comments and
opinions of others that builds you up. But when things go wrong it turns you down. I’ve had to
learn that whether I turn the ball over 8 times or score 40, I’m still the same person. It’s a hard
lesson to learn because my career is based off of performance so it can be difficult at times but
it’s something that I will have to continue to deal with in my career.

Q: Have you ever noticed whether the media emphasized female athletes as feminine and
physically attractive rather than on their strength and power? How did that make you feel?

A: I think especially in the beauty circle, it’s frustrating to watch because I’ve seen commercials
and ads where they will have a great athlete in it but they focus on her hair or body. You would
never see that in a man. We don’t talk about how sexy he is. We talk about how he is an amazing
rebounder. But we talk about how Alex Morgan, for example, is so hot even though she is also
really good at soccer. I think we are getting a little bit better, but we still have a long way to go.

Q: Do you believe it is effective when women’s athletics are promoted by using pretty and
feminine images of female athletes?

A: Yes. I think it’s effective because you’re seeing women who are real, not skinny models. I
think it’s effective because it’s relatable because not everyone is 6 feet tall and looks like a
Victoria Secret model.

Q: How likely do you think it is that the media will eventually stop using sexist commentary
when describing female athletes and athletics?

A: I’m an optimist and want it to stop but I think it’s really tough. I’m currently playing in
Istanbul, and in Saudi Arabia women just got the right to drive. I have experienced so many
comments that have nothing to do with me playing basketball here but just talk about how pretty
I am. I really don’t think it’s going to go away anytime soon.

Q: What do you think could help change how the media frame female athletics and women’s
sports in general?

A: We have to first show the product because first off .2% of sports that are broadcasted are
female athletics. How we broadcast a men’s game is how we have to broadcast a women’s game.
I understand that sex sells but I think it is important to understand there is a bigger picture going
on. I think certain companies are starting to see that if they show the real product they will get
better reception to it.

Q: Using your platform to promote change, what’s one issue you want to focus on? How can you
change that narrative of women being just as capable as men in sports?

A: This is something that I’m really passionate about. I hate when people say that I’m “good for
a girl” or “she’s like James Harden”. Certain things like that is frustrating to me. So I feel like for
me going forward as a professional and a woman, I think first as a person and a role model it is

75
important for me to show that you can do anything you want to do as a female. I think it’s cool to
show young women that you don’t have to be a man to be great, but you can be a woman and be
great or greater. You can still be cute and be a baller.

76
Appendix 2
Interviewer: Christina Archer

Interviewee: Shelcie Takenouchi

Date of Interview: December 11, 2017

Location: Los Angeles, CA via email

Christina Archer Question: What sport(s) did you play, and what was the highest level at
which you competed?

Shelcie Takenouchi Answer: Growing up, I was involved in gymnastics, swimming and golf. I
gave up gymnastics and swimming to focus on golf as that was the sport that I had a true passion
for. I played golf through college at USC, which had an NCAA Division I team.

Q: Have you ever heard any stereotypes about female athletes?

A: Some of the more common ones I’ve heard:
• “Can’t perform at the same level as men” / “not as strong as male athletes”
• “Women aren’t as pretty/ladylike if they workout and build muscle to perform well in
their respective sports”
• “Women/female sports can’t draw in as big of a fan-base or crowd as male sports”

Q: Did you ever experience an interview that began with the reporter asking about your physical
appearance rather than your athletic ability or accomplishments?

A: Thankfully no.

Q: What were some words you heard reporters use to describe you? Can you recall any words
reporters frequently used to describe other female athletes?

A: “Young”, “petite/small”, “talented”. It really depends on the athlete, but I’ve heard both
positive – “inspiring”, “gifted/talented”, “hard-working”, “dedicated” – and negative things like
“aggressive”, “intense”, “short/small”, “stocky build”, “intimidating”.

Q: Did you ever feel uncomfortable knowing that you were a great female athlete in a male
dominated sport?

A: No, but I think that my personal experience was a bit more unique than others. As I
mentioned earlier, I grew up during a time where females were really making an emergence on
to the golf scene and you saw a lot of young girls turning out to play the sport. Because of that,
there was always strong support for females in golf. There were times where I asked my local
junior golf organization if I could play in the boys’ division so that I could get more competitive
experience, and they allowed me to do so. There were several times where I won the boys’

77
division and while the boys didn’t particularly like that, I never experienced anything less than
good sportsmanship.

Things like Title IX that were helping to support female athletes were being put in place and
supported at many colleges/universities throughout the nation. I got the chance to see other
females receiving scholarships to some really great academic and athletic colleges/universities
and that was a huge inspiration for me. The females were being accepted at better
colleges/universities than the boys for once!

Q: How do you view yourself in regards to being a female that happens to play a sport and be
good at it?

A: I’ve always been extremely proud to be an athlete who had the ability to compete at the
highest level of amateur golf. I don’t think I’ve really looked at myself as a female that happens
to be good at a sport.

Q: Did you ever feel like you had to act a certain way or portray a particular image so that you
would be viewed as feminine?

A: Not really. I think as a female athlete I was cognizant of looking put together on and off the
golf course and I valued the way I dressed. I didn’t really look to act or dress a certain way for
others, but what made me happy.

Q: Have you ever noticed whether the media emphasized female athletes as feminine and
physically attractive rather than on their strength and power? How did that make you feel?

A: I’ve noticed media emphasize a female athlete’s femininity and physical attractiveness rather
than her ranking or performance (versus strength and power). That used to bother me quite a bit
because it indicated that the female athlete was “good” at her sport because she was pretty, not
because she was actually competitive. I place a high value on performance and I think it’s
unfortunate when certain female athletes get attention for being pretty over and above those that
are actually at the top of the rankings. However, I think history has shown that being pretty and
not a top performer can only take an athlete so far. Those that have achieved success are
mainstays in the public eye and press because there’s no denying their greatness.

Q: Do you believe it is effective when women’s athletics are promoted by using pretty and
feminine images of female athletes?

A: Declined to answer.

Q: How likely do you think it is that the media will eventually stop using sexist commentary
when describing female athletics?

A: With what’s happening in Hollywood and politics right now in regards to sexual harassment
scandals, I think media will definitely be extremely careful about using sexist commentary when
describing female athletes. Will it ever go away completely? Probably not. It’s inherent that

78
there’s going to be some reporter out there that is sexist, but I think we’re starting to witness a
movement where media are much more careful and cognizant about how they cover female
athletes.

Q: What do you think could help change how the media frame female athletics and women’s
sports generally?

A: Declined to answer.

Q: Being that you currently work in the sports PR industry, can you connect your college
experience to what’s going on now with female athletes?

A: Somewhat, although I feel like female athlete empowerment and the attention that’s being
placed on supporting women in sports has significantly amplified since I’ve been in college.

Q: Now that you’re in a male dominated industry in the business world of sports, how is that
different than when you competed? Are there any similarities?

A: I think that my situation is unique and not necessarily the norm in that I’m highly valued as a
female in the business world of sports. I happen to work with clients that sponsor female athletes
or tournaments, so my opinion, presence and support as a woman is something that my
colleagues look to utilize. There are certain things like interviewing female athletes for content
that are more suited for a woman to handle, so it’s nice to feel like I’m indispensable in that
regard. It does sometimes feel like a “boy’s club” when I’m surrounded by men, but they always
treat me with respect and hold me to the same performance standards.

79
Appendix 3
Interviewer: Christina Archer

Interviewee: Heather Petri

Date of Interview: January 12, 2017

Location: Los Angeles, CA via Phone

Christina Archer Question: What sport(s) did you play, and what was the highest level at
which you competed?

Heather Petri Answer: I competed at the highest level in the Olympics and that was in water
polo. But the path I got to get there was not just singular. I swam as well for quite a long time. I
swam until I was 20, more as a fun way. I wasn’t as competitive in swimming as I was with
water polo. I did recreational summer league type swimming my entire life. Only did one to two
years of hardcore swimming. When I was younger I did everything so I tried a lot of sports. It
was how my parents viewed sports. They wanted us to do a lot in order to figure out what we
liked. So, I played volleyball, softball, basketball and rode horses. I tried everything. I was never
a singular athlete until I got older.

Q: Water polo wasn’t offered to you when you began high school. How did you gain the courage
to start the first women’s team?

A: A lot of it had to do with my peers. I had grown up with all of the boys that played water polo
and a lot of the girls I ended up playing with as well. We swam and played all those sports
together. When it was suggested by a parent, I don’t think I would have done it if I hadn’t been
with a friend that just turned to me and said, “Yeah do it!” He was on the boy’s water polo team I
played with. I think with their support it didn’t seem like a scary option. I’m pretty shocked it
came from 14-15 year-old boys. So, I know I was in a very lucky situation in that it could have
been very different. Those boys could have been really negative towards the situation and I
probably wouldn’t have been as excited to try it and play with girls. For me, to look at the
situation with all these girls in terms of starting a program, I think that initial entrance into the
sport gave me some excitement around it rather than a negative outlook. Whether I was playing
with the boys or starting the girls, nothing ever seemed impossible. It seemed like a great option.

Q: Have you ever heard any stereotypes about female athletes?

A: Of course. I had always heard that the stereotypes about females in sports just in terms of
“you’re playing a boy’s sport”. Later, in terms of how strong you got it was “you’re a tomboy”
or “girls shouldn’t do that”. I’m not sure if it was my personality or like I said the situation that I
was in was very positive but I let those things roll off my back. I never thought those things
applied to me. I knew that I was a tomboy and if someone called me that I didn’t mind. I enjoyed
it. I loved playing sports and doing stuff that made me happy. It didn’t bother me at all.

80
Q: Did you ever experience an interview that began with the reporter asking about your physical
appearance rather than your athletic ability or accomplishments?

A: Yes. My very first interview at the Olympic games was my first games in 2000 in Sydney. I
had only been playing with the international team for nine months so I had never been in an
interview on camera on a TV. I get pulled out after one of our games. In the game, my suit had
ripped. For a period of time I played with basically no top. It wasn’t like I was flashing everyone
all the time. I was in the water and you couldn’t see much. I took it as part of the game. I moved
forward, we played and it was no big deal. The first thing that was said to me as I got out of the
pool was, “how do you think the Middle East would feel with women playing this game, being
so aggressive, and showing their bodies?” Which completely took me off guard because I didn’t
look at it that way and obviously don’t know what the Middle East feels. Right away I realize
that the way that most of the world looks at females in sport is one way or can be looked at one
way. I didn’t think it was going to be something like that I got asked. It was an interesting way to
be thrown into the spotlight. I luckily had a teammate who jumped in and said, “those are minor
malfunctions of our game and that it’s a really fun thing to watch.” She navigated it in a
professional fashion. It showed me that it’s a lot of the way we look at it and the way we’re able
to share, is what people listen to. If I was to say, “yeah it sucked I was naked the whole time”
and were being aggressive in the interview, that’s what people are going to hear. But if you can
say, “it’s a beautiful sport and it’s fun to watch”, and navigate that in a different way as an
athlete, you can really shape what they’re hearing.

There was also a period of time when our team was in the ESPN Body Issue. ESPN look on it is
much more raw and natural, celebrating athleticism and what we can do with our bodies. Yes,
we’re naked and that’s probably why people take a look at it. I actually thought it was an
interesting point in our sport because we were number one in the world and we didn’t have a
swimsuit sponsor. You look at a team like that in female athletics, and I know that softball went
through it and that other athletes do too but you think that a team that is number one should
definitely have sponsorship and have support. But that’s not always the case. So, it was an
interesting adventure when we had done the shoot because we were getting this attention. A lot
of people thought it was great while a lot of people thought it was really bad that we did this. But
again, it was another way in the media to shift the narrative. I looked at it as a really empowering
part of my life. I used to be very shy and if I was asked in the beginning of my career “if you
would be naked ever in your life in a picture”, I would have said no! But I realized a lot of my
confidence in life and being who I am came through sport. I’m proud of the fact that I’m strong
and proud of what I can do with my team. So, I use it as a way to share that.

Q: What were some words you heard reporters use to describe you? Can you recall any words
reporters frequently used to describe other female athletes?

A: It’s always about being female. They don’t necessarily use the words “fierce competitor”. It’s
always fluffier. They want to look at us as still women instead of saying, “she’s a badass” or
“look at what she accomplished”. Even in the photos, seeing some girl in spandex or in her
bathing suit, that was more important than the fact that she just scored seven goals or did
something incredible.

81
Q: Did you ever feel uncomfortable knowing that you were a great female athlete in a male
dominated sport?

A: No. Maybe women do. I thought it was empowering. I celebrated when the others on my team
would teach me stuff. I celebrated when people were saying you shouldn’t be doing this. It’s an
avenue, option and opportunity that was great. And now to look back at all these other athletes
that are female doing it, to me, it just seemed great.

Q: How do you view yourself in regards to being female that happens to play a sport and be
good at it?

A: I think it’s awesome! That sounds really conceited. I hope that every woman should find
something that makes them feel like they can walk on water. For me, it was being in the pool. I
feel most at home being in the water. I felt most at home when I was struggling and trying to be
the best athlete I could be. That helped me be a better person. So if that means you’re a great
writer and you want to keep being in that field or you’re into science, I hope every female can do
or be something that makes them feel that way.

Q: At the Olympics, did you ever feel that the media focused more on the men’s
teams/individuals rather than the women’s teams/individuals?

A: Yes, and no. I think the Olympic media likes a story. If you look back at any quad, there’s
going to be what we call the “golden girl” or “golden team” or “golden boy”. It all circles around
money. So, let’s say the USA soccer team is crushing everyone, then that is where the focus is
going to be. Now, I hope and I think in the last couple of Olympics the focus has started shifting
towards more female athletes because they are really doing well. I think in the beginning there
just wasn’t that many females to highlight. Swimming, gymnastics, and basketball, those are the
sports that they highlight. So, I think that there are more women that are giving them an
opportunity to have a story. In that way, I think it’s hard to answer because I think the media is
driven by money and what is popular.

But if you switch that question to funding, I think that men’s sports and especially in the
Olympics get funded a lot more than the women’s. So, if it’s strictly through media, I don’t know
if it necessarily always falls in line with that statement, but if you’re looking at who they are
pushing and how much money goes towards different teams, there is still a big disparity. So, it’s
crazy that a female athlete that makes basically nothing, is now in the media spotlight because
she is winning but that same athlete who is a male and not winning is getting way more money.
Females are in the spotlight and doing really well with a lot less.

Q: Did you ever feel like you had to act a certain way or portray a particular image so that you
would be viewed as feminine?

A: I think that there is a general feeling of when I trained that we’re masculine. I was super in
shape. I had really strong legs and my upper body was toned. At one point, I had a really short
haircut because I was so annoyed with doing my hair at the pool. People would call me “sir”. So,
I think a lot of that comes from outward perspective of women being that super athletic and I

82
wasn’t even one of the most stronger looking. I was just tall and athletic. In the beginning it was
worse, but I saw it shift over the time of my career. I played on the Olympic team for 13 years
and it was much worse in the beginning where I felt like I was definitely put into a category of
being masculine all the time. Towards the end, I don’t know if it shifted when we started wearing
Lulu Lemon, but that whole culture shift toward athleticism is O.K. and a positive thing now. It’s
almost looked at as beautiful and feminine now which is crazy.

Q: Do you think the media has played a role in how you view yourself as a female and a female
athlete?

A: No. It gave me more fight. I think they just discount us. The media looked at us as not being a
thing to talk about. They would pick a few people that won. Yet, we were winning and were very
successful so it made us just want to be more proud of who we were and what we were
accomplishing even if nobody noticed.

Q: Have you ever noticed whether the media emphasized female athletes as feminine and
physically attractive rather than on their strength and power? How did that make you feel?

A: Yes, one hundred percent. This just dawned on me when you asked the question, but the
media also liked to pick the women who they felt were more attractive for the interviews. This is
historical. If you look at the US women’s soccer team, people like Abby Wambach who is
number one and the best soccer player ever would rarely get called in, but Hope Solo, who is
gorgeous would get called in to have interviews. These things are changing and shifting. But in
the beginning, it was very driven by that. People on camera were always the good looking ones.
It was a lot less about who accomplished something epic versus who looked pretty to stick on the
camera. Over time, I think it has shifted. When I played in the London Olympics, it was better. If
you had a great game they would talk to you but in the beginning it was not like that. It’s shifting
in that we have things that put the actual event in people’s faces like Instagram where you can
see that great shot many times instead of just seeing the face.

Q: Do you believe it is effective when women’s athletics are promoted by using pretty and
feminine images of female athletes?

A: No. The funniest part is that I now work for a swimwear company and it drives me insane
when I see them use a model who has zero muscle and can tell doesn’t even work out. In an
athletic world, I think people are really driven towards athleticism and by seeing someone doing
something really sweet. They’re starting to use actual athletes in Athleta magazines and all these
really cool brands. So, I think that’s shifting. But in the general population, I think they still do
use really pretty photos just so they can sell product or give a good image. Sadly, even though
it’s slowly shifting, I think it still exists.

Q: How likely do you think it is that the media will eventually stop using sexist commentary
when describing female athletics?

A: I hope soon. I think it’s going to shift and I think it’s going to shift real fast because if we
watch what is happening to these people who are being accused, the general shift is to nip it in

83
the bud right away. No one wants that negative piece. So, I think there is going to be a shift
towards really powerful and able athletes soon.

Q: What do you think could help change how the media frame female athletics and women’s
sports in general?

A: The basis of that is to just focus on what they are doing. The capabilities of these women are
incredible. I think that the more we focus on that and show it, we shape the narrative into
showing the strengths of what we actually do. What do soccer players do and why are they so
effective? What do water polo players do or what do swimmers do? And when it’s more about
the action, and less about gender and who you are. It’s first about what you’re capable of. If we
focus on that then everything will fall into place.

84
Appendix 4
Interviewer: Christina Archer

Interviewee: Darcy Couch

Date of Interview: December 14, 2017

Location: Los Angeles, CA In-Person

Christina Archer Question: What sport(s) did you play, and what was the highest level at
which you competed?

Darcy Couch Answer: I grew up playing everything. I first played soccer. Then when I moved
to Australia I started to play basketball and continued playing soccer. I also swam a little bit. I
played some tennis when I moved back to California. Basketball and soccer were the big ones. I
got into volleyball in high school. I couldn’t play soccer and basketball in high school because
they were in the same season so I had to choose. That was very tough because I had played
soccer forever. So, I played basketball, softball, and volleyball while in high school. I decided I
didn’t want to play in college. I wasn’t recruited to play. I probably could have played at a
smaller school for basketball. I played intramural like flag football and basketball throughout
college but that’s as far as I got.

Q: Have you ever heard any stereotypes about female athletes?

A: Yes, definitely. I mean growing up around it for the most part. I feel like it got stronger more.
I don’t know if I paid much attention to it as I was growing up. As I’ve gotten older, there’s
definitely more stereotypes of sexuality. It depends on the sport, but yes, there are stereotypes in
a lot of ways against female athletes.

Q: Working as a sports writer for the Contra Costa Times, did you cover more men’s sports than
women’s sports? When editing stories and writing headlines did you see any differences in the
way in which you wrote them for men’s and women’s sports? Did you have to stick to a
particular layout when placing the stories in the sports section?

A: Everybody did football. It was a lot of high school stuff. I really did a lot of everything. It
wasn’t one sport or one gender over another. I got a chance to cover just about any high school
sport out there at some point. Often, I was one of the only female writers on those beats. There
was one other woman who worked in my department. Outside of high school sports, the rest of
the newspaper was not covering female sports. The only time we were going to cover a Cal
women’s basketball game was after one of their players died of meningitis. We covered Cal
men’s basketball regularly. There was a beat writer for that. That was my first clue that
newspapers didn’t really care that much about women’s sports outside of high school.

Q: As an associate sports information director, did you ever experience an interview that was
being conducted for one of your female athletes that began with the reporter asking about their
physical appearance rather than their athletic ability or accomplishments?

85

A: No. I can’t recall anything. I don’t remember there being something that was totally
inappropriate. I feel like I see it a lot in water polo where reporters will be like, “wow you’re
really tall” or “you’re so strong”, shocked once they see them in person at how strong and fit
some of them are. Usually, it’s not in a negative manner. I think they’re impressed but maybe
they did not think as highly or realize the athleticism that it takes.

Q: Working with both the men’s and women’s water polo teams, do you see any differences in
the way the athletes are treated by the media?

A: Not so much at the college level, even within the U.S. media. When I worked for USA Water
Polo, doing a lot of international water polo, international media definitely was different. The
photos that they will put out of women’s games will be a little more grabby or there is more
exposure shown. Internationally they have less qualms about showing that which is a little
unnerving. There were some photographers when I started here that I made sure I would
credential because they would take inappropriate pictures. I had to keep an eye on what people
were taking pictures of and what’s appropriate and where it goes.

Q: With USC men’s basketball being a revenue sport, how is the media attention towards the
women’s team and how are they looked at from the media?

A: I think the media doesn’t really look at them. It’s hard to say that it’s gender based because a
lot of it is success based. This is LA. We pay attention to winning teams and women’s basketball
for example has not been a consistent NCAA team. So, part of it is that. Part of it is coverage has
changed a lot. When I started here, women’s basketball had a LA Times beat writer that was at
all of our games and covered everything. There was an Orange County Register beat writer that
came to everything. Our games were on the radio that did all of our games. And for whatever
reason, that has changed. Media coverage is strong in a lot of ways so there is no longer beat
writers from the big papers for women’s basketball. Would that change if they started being
competitive on a regular basis? I think that it might. When it’s a battle of the LA teams, there is
usually a writer from those big papers but as far as beat coverage goes, it’s not something they
dedicate their resources to for women. And like I said, the men have had some good programs,
but I think by and large women’s basketball doesn’t get the kind of coverage that men’s does.
Some of that is NCAA based; they put so much money into that final four and that tournament
than the women’s, so the market wants that coverage too.

Q: Can you recall any words reporters frequently used to describe female athletes?

A: The one word that comes to mind is “strong”. That it’s notable the female athletes are strong.
Not sure what is always behind that.

Q: Do you ever see your student-athletes try and act a certain way or portray a particular image
so that they would be viewed as feminine?

A: I’m not sure if that’s the best way to characterize it. Some of my student-athletes do make an
effort to express their femininity. That may just be innate in them. But I know that some, if they

86
are going to go out in public maybe they want to dress up a little bit more. I don’t know whether
it is to stand and say, “I AM FEMININE!” or if it’s a personal choice. But there have been times
that I do know my athletes see this is their chance to dress like a girl. They take advantage of
those opportunities because their shorts and t-shirts they wear at practice are not as feminine as
they would want. They take advantage of the opportunities they have to dress in more feminine
clothes. I think some of them do feel that they need to add these personal feminine touches to
reinforce their femininity.

Q: Do you think the media has played a role in how female athletes view themselves as a female
and a female athlete?

A: No, I don’t think it’s the media that has made sports like that. If the coverage was more
thorough there would be more real stories out there. But I don’t think it’s the media. I think it’s
the nature of sports and our society that can’t resolve tough women playing a game. They see the
male game and it’s so masculine so they don’t understand if women are trying to be masculine or
bring femininity into it. I don’t think it’s a media problem, I think it’s just a societal problem.

Q: Have you ever noticed whether the media emphasized female athletes as feminine and
physically attractive rather than on their strength and power? How did that make you feel?

A: You think about a Britney Grinner, who is her own person, and she got a lot of coverage for
being a great basketball player. She was the face of that sport in a lot of ways. So, I don’t think it
has to be that way. Everybody loves Hope Solo because she has nice eyebrows, pretty eyes and
has the look. But I think it’s more of a marketing issue than it is the media. To be the face of the
sport, you have to have the right face, tell the story to bring in the media. I don’t think that
source is from media coverage as much as our need to brand.

Q: Do you believe it is effective when women’s athletics are promoted by using pretty and
feminine images of female athletes?

A: I do think it’s effective because our society wants to see a pretty person do something cool.
That’s why Lindsey Vonn gets so much more coverage than some of the other female skiers
because there is the look and the prestige. It’s effective because those kind of women end up
getting noticed and getting their sport noticed. I don’t think it’s for the right reasons but it works
in some ways. It’s a great marketing tool for those individuals and the sport but sadly people
don’t notice good numbers and good results as much as they notice the look.

Q: How likely do you think it is that the media will eventually stop using sexist commentary
when describing female athletics?

A: I think it’s getting better. I think in our culture now we are very quick to call people out for
missteps like that. I think that is good because you need to be held accountable for your actions
and that kind of negative language. You think about Don Imus, a radio announcer that talked
about the Rutgers’s women’s basketball team, “nappy headed hoes” and he just got vilified. In
the past you could maybe get away with that because it was O.K. but now there are so many
people scrutinizing and wanting equality and wanting female equality that I think there is more

87
checks and balances in place to minimize that. I think in print it’s definitely monitored a little bit
more.

Q: What do you think could help change how the media frame female athletics and women’s
sports in general?

A: I think more thorough coverage. More effort to tell the real stories. I feel as though not having
beat writers and regular coverage of women’s sports is a big detriment. If I’m not covering a
women’s sports team all the time, I won’t have a thorough knowledge of who I’m covering.
You’re more prone to just be impulsive. When the LA Times or another big paper wants to do a
feature they want to do it on the top scorer or the Olympian. It’s the easy stories that you see on
paper. There’s more chance on stereotyping once you get there instead of making a snap
judgment on who’s worth covering or not. As opposed to if you consistently cover, you start to
know the personalities and the stories, and the tendencies of the team. Then you can tell the real
story of the season or the backstories.

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Political strength, not skirt length: female political figures, media bias, and how public relations can help

PDF

For the love of the game and community: evaluating professional athletes' charitable giving

PDF

Once a Lakers town, always a Lakers town? An in-depth comparison of the branding and communications strategies of the LA Clippers and the LA Lakers

PDF

Being a good sport: effectively implementing corporate social responsibility in North American professional sports

PDF

The Awareness Podcast: a look into how sports can negatively affect a student-athlete's mental health

PDF

When the mighty fall. Pro athletes and the media: how to mitigate and manage a scandal

PDF

From Bernays to Baghdad: the evolution of propaganda as a recruitment tool: examining the Islamic State’s success through propaganda messaging on Twitter

PDF

The out field: professional sports and the mediation of gay sexualities

PDF

Reputation management: golf's answer to participation woes

PDF

The changing landscape of higher education: experiential learning in public relations for the millennial generation

PDF

The importance of event planning in strategic public relations

PDF

The women’s rights movement of today: how social media is fueling the resurgence of feminism

PDF

Infant and maternal health care in Nepal

PDF

Public awareness campaign for dementia in Taiwan

PDF

Comparing breast cancer awareness campaigns through four different ethnicities

PDF

Creating brand evangelists in the 21st century: using brand engagement through social media to develop brand loyalty in teens

PDF

Leadership corruption and the implications to the corporate brand

PDF

Corporate social responsibility strategies, standards and consumer awareness in the jewelry industry: what does it mean to be socially responsible in the jewelry industry? A specific look into pr...

PDF

The happiest place on Earth and finally in mainland China: a white paper to explain what Dalian Wanda Group chairman forgot when he thought he could beat Disney in China

PDF

Digital discourse in the fashion industry

Asset Metadata

Creator Archer, Christina (author)

Core Title Diversity in sports: The female athlete's college experience

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 05/08/2018

Defense Date 05/07/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag athlete,Communications,Female,female athletes,media,OAI-PMH Harvest,Public Relations,Sports

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Floto, Jennifer D. (committee chair), Jackson, Laura Min (committee member), Moeller, Jeff (committee member)

Creator Email christina_archer14@yahoo.com,cmarcher@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-501623

Unique identifier UC11265754

Identifier etd-ArcherChri-6319.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-501623 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ArcherChri-6319.pdf

Dmrecord 501623

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Archer, Christina

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA