University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Strategies for inclusion of students with autism: an online professional learning curriculum for general education teachers

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Strategies for inclusion of students with autism: an online professional learning curriculum for general education teachers

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Content Running head: INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH AUTISM

Strategies for Inclusion of Students with Autism: An Online Professional Learning Curriculum
for General Education Teachers

By

Nancy Rule Wilson

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2017

Copyright 2017 Nancy Rule Wilson
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Table of Contents
Chapter One: Statement of the Problem and Literature Review 4
Statement of the Problem 4
Learner Characteristics 7
General Education Teachers 8
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 9
Causes 11
Lack of Knowledge 12
Lack of policy 14
Solutions 16
Other Curricula 19
Books 19
Online Professional Development 20
Conclusion 25
Chapter Two: Curriculum Overview 26
Curriculum Description 26
Learner Description and Context 27
Intended Audience 27
Prior Knowledge Needed for Learners 27
Theoretical Framework and Research-Based Practices 28
Curriculum Outcomes 32
Curriculum Scope and Sequence 33
Description of curriculum assessments 35
Types of assessments included in the curriculum 35
Description of Curriculum Activities 37
Types of Activities Included in the Curriculum 37
Resources 39
Design Justifications and Acknowledgement of Designer Bias 39
How the Curriculum Addresses the Problem of Practice 39
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Why This Curriculum is Appropriate for the Intended Audience 41
Biases I Acknowledge as Part of My Approach to This Curriculum 41
Assessment and Evaluation Plan 42
Chapter Three: Curriculum 43
Module One 43
Module Two 45
Module Three 47
Module Four 49
Module Five 52
Module Six 54
Module Seven 57

Chapter Four: Recommendations for Implementation 59
Conclusion 61
Appendix A (Terms and Definitions) 62
References 72

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CHAPTER ONE: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND LITERATURE REVIEW
In this literature review will be a discussion of the need for professional development for
K-12 general education teachers concerning students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who
are included in their classrooms. This review will focus on the learning characteristics of both
general education teachers and students with autism. Examined will be the insufficiency of
teacher preparation as well as the lack of policy surrounding the need for professional
development for general education teachers regarding the skills and knowledge necessary to
meet the needs of their students with autism. Also reviewed will be proposed solutions as well
as other curricula that would mediate the insufficiency of teacher preparation concerning the
skills and knowledge necessary to meet the needs of students with autism.
Statement of the Problem
The organizational problem of practice being addressed in this curriculum is the lack of
training for general education teachers in methods for teaching students with autism. In 1975,
the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) P.L. 94-142 was passed into the law.
This act stated that all children with disabilities should be educated to the maximum degree
possible with their non-disabled peers. In 1990, Congress passed Public Law 105-17,
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Although IDEA does not use the term
"inclusion,” it does mandate that students with special needs be provided with needed services.
IDEA also mandates that those students should be educated in what is deemed by the Individual
Education Plan (IEP) team as the least restrictive environment possible (LRE).
Multiple studies have found that a major factor influencing the inclusion of special needs
students in a general education classroom is the positive or negative perceptions of the general
education teachers (Buell, Hallam, Gamel-McCormick, & Scheer, 1999; Freeman & Alkin 2000;
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Robertson, Chamberlain, & Kasari, 2003; Ryndak, Jackson, & Billingsley, 2000; Vakil, Welton,
O'Connor, & Kline, 2009). Those perceptions are influenced by factors such as feelings of
inadequacy due to lack of training in how to teach children with moderate to severe disabilities,
and lack of support (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Yang & Rusli, 2012), as well as lack of
resources (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). MacFarlane and Woolfson (2013) found that teachers
who attended more in-service training sessions held more positive feelings toward inclusion of
students with social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties.
In 2014, the United States District Court for the Central District of California held that a
school district’s failure to provide general education teachers with autism training did not justify
the district’s proposal to place a student with autism in a special day class. The court found that
the child had received significant academic and non-academic benefits from his general
education kindergarten program. Thus, they concluded that the general education classroom was
the student’s least restrictive environment even though the teachers at the school had never
received any training in how to work with autistic children with moderate to severe behaviors
and academic challenges (Sean Bookout, et al. v. Bellflower Unified School District, et. al., CV
13-2710-SH (C.D. Cal. March 21, 2014).
Problems such as teacher training, perception, and acceptance should to be addressed in
order to successfully support students with moderate to severe disabilities in inclusive
environments. It is important to address these problems because, as the number of students
enrolled in special education steadily increases, teacher perceptions of inclusion can positively or
negatively affect the social and academic outcomes of those students (Cook, 2001). As inclusion
of students with disabilities into mainstream classrooms increases, specialized supports and
specialized classroom management are required of general education teachers in order to meet
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the needs of these students (Cook, 2001). The National Research Council (2001) found that
teachers must be familiar with theory and research concerning best practices for children with
autistic spectrum disorders. This would include such things as methods of applied behavior
analysis, incidental teaching, assistive technology, socialization, communication, and the
effective use of data collection systems. Specific problems in generalization and maintenance of
behaviors also affect the need for training in methods of teaching children with ASD (Committee
on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism, and National Research Council Staff,
2001).
Although research provides evidence to support positive outcomes of inclusive education
for both students with disabilities and their typically developing peers, there continues to be
resistance by general education teachers to having students with autism in their classrooms
(Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). General education teachers are the
key to the successful inclusion of students with disabilities in an inclusion classroom (Stanovich
& Jordan, 2000). Many classroom teachers also report feeling inadequate in teaching children
with disabilities due to lack of training, support and resources (Yang & Rusli, 2012). Cook
(2001) found that general education teachers are resistant to the full inclusion model due to the
increased responsibility for the instruction and educational outcomes of students with disabilities.
It was also noted by Cook (2001) that teacher attitudes directly and differentially impact
students’ educational experiences and opportunities.
As inclusion of students with disabilities into mainstream classes increases with the rise
in special education students, specialized supports and specialized classroom management are
required of general education teachers (Ferraioli & Harris, 2011). It has been found that lower
teacher self-efficacy due to limited knowledge or preparedness may potentially lead to negative
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attitudes and more resistance to inclusion of students with ASD (Usher, & MacGrew, 2011).
Odom and Wong (2015) found that educators across the United States want to provide a good
and effective educational experience for students with ASD, but they may not be sure where to
start or what to do. They also found that ASD is not usually a part of their preservice teacher
training. In informal discussions with elementary school teachers from Irvine, Santa Ana,
Newport-Beach, and Los Angeles school districts, all of the teachers corroborated the fact that
they had no preservice nor in-service training in how to work with students on the autism
spectrum.
Many general education teachers feel that inclusion of students with autism could provide
some benefits (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996). However, only one third of teachers believed they
had sufficient time, skills, training, or resources necessary for inclusion. Able, Sreckovic,
Schultz, Garwood, and Sherman (2015) reported that teachers need training on understanding the
autism spectrum disorder (ASD), how to differentiate instruction, and how to provide social
support strategies. A need has also been found for enhancing adaptations to curriculum and
pedagogy, as well as changes in courses and field experiences in preservice teacher education
(Titone, 2005).
Learner Characteristics
Discussed in this section will be the characteristics of learners for this curriculum. The
intended audience for this curriculum is K-12 general education teachers. In turn, the general
education teachers will be using what they have learned to instruct students with autism who are
included in their classrooms. The learning characteristics of both groups of learners will be
addressed in this section.
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General Education Teachers. Typically, the general education teachers for whom this
curriculum is designed have professional knowledge for teaching in three areas: content
knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and general pedagogical knowledge (Ball, Thames,
& Phelps, 2008; Grossman & Richert, 1988; Shulman, 1987). General pedagogical knowledge
involves principles and strategies of classroom management and organization that are not subject
bound (Shulman, 1987). It also includes knowledge about learners, general knowledge of
learning assessment, and an understanding of the various philosophies of education (Grossman &
Richert, 1988). However, the majority of these teachers lack expertise and in-depth knowledge
of students with autism because they have not been trained in effective teaching methods that
help these students succeed in the general education classroom (Klingner, Arguelles, Hughes, &
Vaughn, 2001; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; Talib & Paulson, 2015).
General education teachers are adult learners. Adults learn in a different way than
younger students (Knowles, 1968). They have very different needs and motivations for learning
and are far more self-directed. Adults also come to the learning experience with more life
experiences and responsibilities (Brookfield, 1998; Knowles, & Associates 1984; Malone, 2014;
Taylor, 2003). Eduard C. Lindeman (1926) identified five key theories about adult learners: (1)
adults are motivated to learn if their learning will satisfy their needs and interests; (2) their focus
on learning is life-centered; (3) experience is the most powerful source for an adult’s learning;
(4) adult learning needs to be self-directed; and (5) individual differences among people increase
with age.
Malcolm Knowles (1968) used the term andragogy to describe a set of assumptions or
characteristics that guide adult learning. He proposed four fundamental assumptions which
describe the adult learner as someone who (1) has an independent self-concept and is able to
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direct his or her own learning, (2) has a wealth of life experiences that is a resource for learning,
(3) has learning needs related to the developmental tasks of his or her social role, and (4) is
problem-centered and interested in immediate application of knowledge. Later, Knowles (1984)
added two more assumptions. He suggested the adult learner also (5) is mostly driven by
internal motivation, and (6) needs to know the reason for learning something.
Donovan et al. (1999) identified three key elements of the “science of learning”. These
were: (1) new material and information is more easily learned when it is connected to learner
prior knowledge and is relevant to the learner, (2) mastery of new material and information
requires application in the context of a conceptual or procedural framework, and (3) there needs
to be ongoing monitoring of learning and self-assessment of progress in order to facilitate deeper
understanding and application of the new knowledge. Therefore, in order for professional
learning to make a significant difference for the general education teachers, the curriculum
should include connectedness to the school and classroom settings; ongoing support for the
teachers through coaching and modeling; use of demonstration, practice and feedback (Darling-
Hammond, 1998; Dow & Mehring, 2001); participation of teachers as planners; provision of
choice and differentiated learning opportunities (Gregson & Sturko, 2007; Knowles, et al.,
2005); and engaging teachers in self-assessment of their knowledge and skills in order to
identify the next steps in the learning process (Rodgers, 2002; Trivette et al., 2009).
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Although no two students with autism
behave, learn, or communicate alike, they do share some general characteristics. There is a
common thread of difficulties in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors
(Fein, & Dunn, 2007; Leach, 2010; Smith, 2012). Mesibov et al. (2005) state that students with
autism have relative strength in and preference for processing visual information as well as
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heightened attention to details but difficulty in sequencing or deriving meaning from them.
Students with ASD have enormous variability in attention depending upon the context,
impairment in the social use of language, and difficulty with concepts of time. They have
attachment to routines, intense interests, difficulty disengaging with favored activities, and
marked sensory preferences and aversions. Also, a student with autism may have a delay in
cognitive ability, and sensory issues.
Because people with autism differ dramatically from each other on a large number of
variables, it is important to incorporate these and other factors into individualized interventions
and supports (Mesibov & Shea, 2009; Smith, 2012). Also, the most effective evidence-based
instructional methods should be employed (LeBlanc, Richardson, & Burns, 2009; Mesibov &
Shea, 2011; Simpson, Mundschenck, & Heflin, 2011). In order to be successful learners,
students with autism need to have structure in their educational program as well as the
environment as a way for them to make sense of their environment which reduces anxiety
(Rogers, 2013; Smith, 2012; Whitman & DeWitt, 2011). Behavior is often cited as a reason why
students with autism should not be included in the general education classroom. Therefore,
students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may need positive behavioral support in the
classroom in order to access their learning (DeBoer, 2009; Kluth, 2013; Leach, 2010). Social
difficulties demonstrated by students with ASD vary from individual to individual. (Kluth,
2013; Rogers, 2013). Dawson et al. (2004) stated that these difficulties may include lack of joint
attention, limited verbal initiations, and failure to develop age-appropriate friendships.
The National Research Council (2001) recommended that students with ASD be taught in
the general education classroom skills in the natural contexts in which they would be used.
Many students with autism ASD present with little or no functional speech (National Research
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Council 2001). They rely on behaviors such as pointing, reaching, and eye gaze to indicate their
needs and wants. The general education teachers will need to help these students build their
communication skills through the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)
devices which provide symbols, pictures, photos, and written words (Kluth, 2013; Rogers, 2013;
Whitman & DeWitt, 2011).
In summary, general education teachers need specific pedagogical knowledge in order to
address the specific needs of students with ASD. This instruction should be based on teacher
input and connected to their specific classroom and students. The curriculum should make use of
demonstration, practice, and feedback as well as providing ongoing support through coaching
and modeling. Teachers should engage in self-assessment of their knowledge and skills in order
to identify the next steps in their learning process.
Causes
Discussed in this section of the literature review will be the causes and problems which
necessitate the need for a curriculum that will enable general education teachers to work more
successfully with students on the autism spectrum who are included in their classrooms.
Examined in this section will be the insufficiency of teacher preparation as well as the lack of
policy surrounding the need for professional development for general education teachers
regarding the skills and knowledge necessary to meet the needs of their students with autism.
Given the rising rate of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and the mandate of the
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) which states that students with
disabilities are to be taught to the greatest extent possible with their typically developing peers
(34 Code of Federal Regulations § 300.550(b)), the number of students with ASD in inclusive
classrooms is steadily rising (Simpson, de Boer-Ott, & Smith-Myles, 2003). Although it has
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been shown to be beneficial for students with ASD to be included in general education
classrooms, these students struggle with challenges in social skills, communication, and behavior
(Ferraioli & Harris, 2011).
Lack of Knowledge. New demands are being placed on teachers who may not have
appropriate training for effective inclusion of students with ASD. Autism is a spectrum disorder
that affects children differently and with varying degrees of severity (Busby, Ingram, Bowron,
Oliver, & Lyons, 2012). Talib and Paulson (2015) assert that students with autism often share
fundamental deficits, but no two students with autism are exactly the same. Therefore,
educational approaches that work for some students are not necessarily successful for others
(Handleman & Harris, 2006). In order to meet the unique academic and behavioral needs of
these students appropriately, general education teachers require appropriate skills and knowledge
(Barnhill, Polloway, & Sumutka, 2011; Brock, Huber, Carter, Juarez, & Warren, 2014; Forlin,
2008). Appropriate skills also must be taught to both the children with autism and to their peers
(Forlin, 2008). Teachers must acquire an understanding of the unique learning characteristics of
the students with autism, especially those that may pose challenges in the inclusion environment
(Ferraioli, & Harris 2011.
In 2001, the National Research Council (NRC) suggested that teacher preparation was
one of the weakest elements of effective programming for children with autistic spectrum
disorders. The NRC also found that teachers must be familiar with theory and research
concerning best practices for children with ASD. This would include such things as methods of
applied behavior analysis, incidental teaching, assistive technology, socialization,
communication, and the effective use of data collection systems. However, it has been shown
that general education teachers do not feel equipped to implement interventions that would allow
13

these students to succeed in the general education classroom (Forlin, 2007; Klingner, Arguelles,
Hughes, & Vaughn, 2001; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; Talib & Paulson, 2015).
Often, teachers resent the inclusion of students with autism into their classrooms. In a
study by Soto-Chodiman, Pooley, Cohen, and Taylor (2012), it was found that teacher
resentment was due to the fact that they did not feel prepared for the behavioral and academic
challenges. In the absence of prior training, many of the teachers said they had to overcome their
resentment by relying on personal experience to help them integrate students with ASD into their
classrooms. Ross-Hill (2009) reported that some general education teachers do not support
inclusion due to absence of training for teaching in inclusive settings. General education
teachers have specifically noted concerns about their lack of knowledge and training related to
ASD (Brock et al., 2014; Finke, McNaughton, & Drager, 2009). Odom and Wong (2015) found
that educators across the United States want to provide a beneficial educational experience for
their students with ASD, but they may not be sure where to start or what to do. In the same
study, they also discovered that ASD is not usually a part of preservice teacher training in the
United States.
Professional development for practicing teachers related to serving students with ASD is
sorely needed (Brock et al., 2014). One of the keys to making inclusion work is the need to
improve professional training provided to regular classroom teachers (Dybvik, 2004; Humphrey
& Symes, 2011; Soto-Chodiman et al., 2012). Bellini, Henry, and Pratt (2011) attribute the lack
of trained personnel to inadequacies in teacher preparation programs which is then magnified by
the increasing numbers of students with ASD in our schools. While universities teach the pre-
service teachers about the characteristics of autism and federal laws, many neither focus on how
to teach in inclusive settings nor provide opportunities for practice (Shady, Luther, & Richman,
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2013). Busby et al. (2012) found that teachers reported they had one course in exceptionalities
but none that specifically addressed methods for teaching children with autism. Teachers
working with students with ASD often need specialized training that is over and above what may
be offered in most preservice teacher education programs (Simpson, 2003). Forlin (2008) also
suggests that this problem may be due to the fact that teacher educators are poorly equipped to
take on the role of educating pre-service teachers about inclusion. Even after taking a course in
inclusionary practices, pre-service teachers said they still needed more support in instructional
strategies. As well, once teachers are in the field, they voice similar concerns. (Able, Sreckovic,
Schultz, Garwood, & Sherman, 2015)
Not only is professional development for general education teachers needed, there is also
a more specific need for training on evidence-based practice for students with ASD (Bellini et
al., 2011). No Child Left Behind (2002) mandated that teachers implement strategies that are
scientifically based. Professional development related to meeting the needs of students with
ASD is greatly needed, and preparing teachers to implement evidence-based practices requires
well-planned professional development (Brock et al., 2014). The growth of knowledge and
practices in the area of ASD has been very rapid (Rakap, Jones, & Emery, 2015). Thus, any
professional development for teachers must provide them up-to-date, evidence-based practices
on how to work with children with ASD.
Lack of policy. Another cause for the insufficiency of teacher preparation is the lack of
policy surrounding the need to provide professional development for general education teachers
regarding the skills and knowledge necessary to meet the needs of their students with autism. In
a national survey of state agencies, Henderson (2011) found that state agencies responsible for
implementing IDEA reported that ASD-specific training was relatively rare in teacher education
15

and professional development programs. For those states that were providing ASD-specific
training at the time of study, many of these methods were implemented on a small or limited
scale and were not intended to have an impact on the entire ASD population in the state.
There is also no national policy regarding professional development for general education
teachers on the subject inclusion of students with autism. In 2013, James Moran, a
representative from the state of Virginia, recognized the importance of training for general
education teachers when he introduced Bill H.R. 1509 on the floor of the United States House of
Representatives entitled “Autism Understanding and Training in School Methodologies for
Educators Act of 2013”. In the findings portion of the bill, Congress found that general
education classroom teachers and staff often are not adequately trained to work effectively with
students with autism. It was concluded that training general education classroom teachers and
staff to implement evidence-based practices for educating students with autism would help
provide for the best possible outcomes not only for students with autism, but also for other
students in the classroom. Therefore, the bill would have provided for evidence-based, in-
service training to teachers, paraprofessionals, and other staff on effective ways to teach,
communicate, recognize, and support children with autism spectrum disorder. The training
would have included academic support, behavioral support, communication support, social-
emotional support, and facilitating positive peer interactions and social skills. It would have also
provided for hands-on opportunities to practice and perform newly acquired skills as well as
post-training support to ensure accuracy of implementation in the classroom. This bill died in
committee and was never enacted.
Therefore, due to the insufficiency of teacher preparation, lack of professional
development in ASD, and the absence of clear policy for professional development for these
16

teachers, there is a distinct need for a curriculum that will help general education teachers be
successful in educating their students on the autism spectrum.
Solutions
This section of the literature review will discuss proposed solutions that would mediate
the insufficiency of teacher preparation as well as the lack of policy surrounding the need for
professional development for general education teachers regarding the skills and knowledge
necessary to meet the needs of their students with autism.
It is essential that general education teachers be provided training regarding the
characteristics and learning challenges of students on the autism spectrum so that the teachers
will be able to meet successfully the needs of these students. Recent legislation and research
support the educational practice of inclusion in general education classrooms for students with
ASD (Leach & Duffy, 2009). Shady, Luther, and Richman (2013) found that teaching students
with ASD requires the use of specific methods and strategies with which general education
teachers frequently are not familiar. Children with ASD often have social, communication,
behavioral, and cognitive challenges which can be barriers to successful inclusion (Iovannone,
Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003). Therefore, professional development should include
knowledge of ASD, methods for teaching language and communication, how to manage
maladaptive behaviors, and methods for teaching social skills (Bevan-Brown, Bourke, Butler,
Carroll-Lind, Kearney & Mentis, 2012; Dahle, 2003) as well as differentiation of instruction
(Lovin, Kyger, & Allsopp, 2004; Kaweski, 2011).
One solution that would mediate the insufficiency of teacher preparation is effective
professional development that is rigorous, continuing, and connected with pedagogy and practice
(Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). Teachers also need
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opportunities to reflect, explore, and question what they have learned in order to apply new ideas
into their classroom practice (Bevan-Brown, Bourke, Butler, Carroll-Lind, Kearney & Mentis,
2012; Jones, West, & Stevens, 2006). It is also reported that professional development (PD) for
teachers is likely to be of a higher quality if it is both sustained over a period of time, and
involves a substantial number of hours (Garet et al., 2001; Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Scheuermann
et al., 2003). When teachers participate in training and follow-up activities, they are more likely
to grow in their self-efficacy which leads to willingness to use newly acquired skills (Dunst &
Trivette, 2009; Dow & Mehring, 2001). Scheuermann et al. (2003) found that supervision,
ongoing feedback, and consultation were critical components in effective educational training.
These are important factors that enable educators to implement targeted interventions and
teaching practices with students with ASD (NRC, 2001).
Teachers also need professional development related to evidence-based practices (EBP)
that have been research tested and proven efficacious in the learning of students with ASD
(Marder & deBettencourt, 2015). EBPs are defined as instructional strategies, interventions, or
teaching practices that have been tested experimentally and have shown consistent positive
student outcomes (Mesibov & Shea, 2011; Odom, Collet-Klingenberg, Rogers, & Hatton, 2010).
According to Cook and Cook (2013), terms such as research-based practice, best practice, and
recommended practice often are used synonymously with EBP. However, these terms refer to
practices that might be empirically validated or endorsed in the absence of any substantive
research. Currently, there are 27 agreed upon EBPs (Wong, Odom, Hume, Cox, Fettig,
Kucharczyk, Brock, Plavnick, Fleury, & Schultz, 2015). However, they are not successful with
all students. Therefore, it is critical that teachers learn how to select and implement a best
practice with the students they are teaching (Bevan-Brown et al., 2012; Cook & Cook, 2013).
18

Another solution that has been implemented by several states and organizations is online
training. Organizations such as the National Research Council and the National Professional
Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder (NPDC) have developed video modules
which provide information on how to plan, implement, and monitor evidence-based practices
when working with individuals with ASD. These modules include information on strategies
general education teachers can use in their classrooms such as visual supports which present
information in a way that helps students with ASD focus on key elements, modeling which is
used to visually demonstrate a skill or behavior to a student, and peer-mediated instruction which
supports positive social interactions between peers and students with ASD.
There is a need for policy surrounding professional development for both in-service and
pre-service teachers. Although policy surrounding professional development is not part of this
proposed curriculum, Waitoller and Artiles (2013) have noted that professional development is
an instrument for new policy implementation due to the new educational reforms which require
teachers to learn new skills in order to implement inclusion in their classrooms. This situation
highlights the prospects for professional development as an instrument of policy improvement
(Knapp, 2003). According to Corcoron (1995), in order to make professional development more
effective, policymakers need to be clear about the problems they are trying to solve. According
to Corcoron (1995), those providing professional learning to teachers must be concerned about
the quality of the professional development.
In summary, it is clear that there is a need for professional development for general
education teachers regarding the skills and knowledge necessary to meet the needs of their
students with autism. This professional development should include such capacities as
knowledge of ASD, differentiation of instruction, how to manage behaviors, and how to address
19

the teaching of social skills. It needs to be rigorous and sustained over a period of time. Further,
teachers need to be given supervision and feedback as well as time to reflect and explore.
Teachers should also be given training in evidence-based practices which have been shown to be
effective in teaching students with ASD.
Other Curricula
Discussed in this section will be other curricula that address the need for preparing
general education teachers to understand the characteristics of students with autism spectrum
disorder (ASD) and how they can address their students’ unique educational needs in the
classrooms. There is a dearth of curricula that specifically address general education teachers.
Most of the curricula are designed for special education teachers who work in specialized
classrooms or as support for the general education teachers. However, a few books and web-
based professional development sites are beginning to address the issue of inclusion for students
with ASD.
Books. There is an abundance of descriptive “how-to” books on inclusion for students
with autism which provide general education teachers information about autism and ideas for
structuring the classroom and instruction. Books such as “You’re Going to Love This Kid”
(Kluth, 2003), Making Inclusion Work for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (Smith,
2012), and Successful Inclusion for Students with Autism: Creating a Complete, Effective ASD
Inclusion Program (DeBoer, 2009) offer information on issues such as ASD characteristics,
individualized instruction, and inclusive pedagogy. However, there are no strategies offered in
these texts for providing the general education teachers with ongoing monitoring of learning or
self-assessment of progress in order to facilitate deeper understanding and application of their
new knowledge.
20

In the book, The Autism Inclusion Toolkit – Training Materials and Facilitators Notes,
Maggie Bowen and Lynn Plimly (2008) provide a training package that gives tools for
professional development on inclusive practices. They present activities, speaker notes, and case
studies as well as a CD-ROM with PowerPoint slides, which can be used at the moderator’s
discretion. The book focuses on the triad of impairment, which includes impairment in social
understanding, social communication, and rigidity of thought. It also provides training on
sensory issues and behavior management. However, the book does not address evidence-based
practices or self-assessment of teacher learning.
Kirstina Ordetx (2014) provides a curriculum for teaching theory of mind to students
with ASD in her book entitled Teaching the Basics of Theory of Mind: A Complete Curriculum
with Supporting Materials for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Related Social
Difficulties Aged Approximately 5 to 9 Years. This manual contains a 12-week curriculum which
provides a multi-sensory approach to developing theory of mind and social understanding in
children who have been diagnosed with autism or other related social challenges. There are also
supplementary materials such as worksheets and flash cards. Again, this curriculum does not
actively involve the teachers in using, processing, or evaluating their knowledge and skills as
part of their learning.
Online Professional Development. There is a plethora of online professional
development opportunities for teachers. Most of the presentations are focused on general
interventions for use with students with autism and do not address inclusion within a general
education classroom. The ACE program and the STEPS program are the only web-based
professional learning programs that have been evaluated by researchers. The research team from
the University of Florida (Rakap, Jones, & Emery, 2015) found that the web-based PD program
21

was effective in helping teachers develop and improve their competencies, knowledge, and
skills. They reported that most teachers felt comfortable using the teaching strategies they
learned in the program and had used a few of them in their classrooms. However, they
concluded that in order to support teachers in the use of new practices, the teachers should be
provided with individualized follow-up in order to more effectively implement those practices.
In their evaluation of the STEPS program, Maddox and Marvin (2012) found that the
mentor-supported program significantly improved teachers’ perceived knowledge of ASD
characteristics and confidence in their ability to implement evidence-based practices in their
classrooms. In addition, mentors documented increased use of these practices in the teachers’
classrooms. They concluded that this learning model is efficacious for advancing the knowledge
and skills of teachers working with students with ASD.
The following is an overview of some online training opportunities for teachers.
Autism Competencies for Endorsement (ACE). ACE was a web-based professional
development program that is designed to train teachers working in the field to meet the unique
and diverse needs of children with autism spectrum disorders. The project was funded for four
years. Teachers completed four web-based courses on the nature of autism, interventions for
communication and social development, behavior management and positive behavioral support,
and assessment and diagnosis. The project used a variety of technologies to provide ongoing
interaction during fieldwork, including interactive video and consultation with experts.
Autism Focused Intervention Resources and Modules (AFIRM). AFIRM an extension
of the National Professional Development Center. AFIRM modules are designed to help
teachers learn the step-by-step process of planning for, using, and monitoring evidence-based
22

practices (EBPs) with learners with ASD. Key components of an EBP include the various
approaches that can be used with learners with ASD; behaviors and skills that can be addressed
using the practice; a step-by-step process for applying the practice; and specific resources that
can be download and customized. Each AFIRM module includes case examples that
demonstrate the behavior or practice in use; multimedia presentation of content with audio and
video clips; and interactive assessments that provide feedback based on responses. There are
twenty-seven modules lasting from an hour and a half to three hours. Coaching is also a key
component of this model.
Autism Internet Modules. AIM is designed to provide professional development for
anyone who supports, instructs, works with, or lives with someone with autism. Each module
guides the learner through case studies, instructional videos for some modules, pre- and post-
assessments, and activities. Most of the modules are simply slides of written information about
the intervention. There are currently forty-five modules including use of Picture Exchange
Communication System (PECS), Pivotal Response Training (PRT), and Discreet Trial Training
(DTT).
California Autism Professional Training and Information Network (CAPTAIN).
CAPTAIN is a multiagency network which was developed to support the understanding and use
of evidence-based practices for individuals with autism. CAPTAIN uses PowerPoint modules to
provide professional learning in visual supports, reinforcement with checklist, and video
modeling. The website also links teachers to other self-learning modules on EBPs such as AIM
and AFIRM.
23

Indiana Resource Center for Autism/autism modules on evidence based practices. This
is an online workshop geared for anyone working with individuals with a diagnosis of an autism
spectrum disorder. The course presents the history, diagnosis, prevalence, and etiology of autism
spectrum disorders. There are eight modules consisting of PowerPoint presentations and reading
materials which introduce the twenty-four identified evidence-based practices used with
individuals with autism. Each module has pre-test and post-test questions that are multiple
choice, true/false or fill in the blank. A module is worth two hours of training.
Organization for Autism Research (OAR). OAR provides the Understanding Autism:
Professional Development Curriculum DVD. This is designed to provide middle and high
school teachers with the knowledge and evidence-based strategies needed to support their
students with autism in the general education classroom. It is a central component of the
Curriculum in a Box which provides the DVD for understanding autism, a supplementary
training manual, two guidebooks pertaining to ASD, and a fact sheet. The DVD includes two
75-minute training presentations with video clips. There are participant handouts and activity
worksheets which teachers use to keep track of their work throughout this presentation. The
curriculum also includes facilitator notes for each slide. This curriculum can be used by groups
of teachers at an in-service, during one-on-one coaching or as self-study.
Rethink. Rethink is a website that provides job-embedded professional development for
teachers. It offers guided instruction in behaviorally-based teaching strategies through 7 to10
minute training modules. The site has a library of over 1,500 video-based exercises, lesson
plans, and printed materials to addresses the needs of special education students. There are how-
to videos, articles, examples, and case studies pertaining to positive behavior support. Rethink
also offers printed materials such as lesson plans, data sheets, and worksheets.
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Strategies and Techniques for Effective Practice: Educating children w/autism
(STEPS). The STEPS program was developed to enhance educational programs and outcomes
of students with ASD by providing training and support to teachers and administrators. The goal
of the program is to provide systematic training related to the educational programming for
students with autism. It provides training along with hands-on experiences related to assessment
and implementation of evidence-based interventions. Teachers take part in multiple training
sessions for one year. Throughout the training, the teachers are provided mentoring, feedback,
and support from an ASD Network team member.
The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. The Center
provides video modules for behavior and social emotional support for students with autism. The
content of the modules is consistent with evidence-based practices identified through a review of
the literature. Each modules has a presenter script and handouts. There are activities to at the
end of the module to pull it all together. Participants are asked to break into groups to fill out
form pertaining to what they have learned. They are then are asked to report back and share
ideas. The module ends with a review of key points, after which participants are asked for
questions, parting thoughts, or ideas they might want to try.
While the various online curricula all provide a great deal of information concerning
evidence-based practices to be used in the classroom for students with ASD, most are self-
directed by the teacher and provide little, if any, ongoing support for the teacher. The exception
would be the STEPS curriculum. Another concern is that the general education teacher will not
know which of the training modules included in a website’s curriculum are appropriate for their
classrooms. For example, the PECS program has been found to be an evidence-based practice
but it requires a minimum of two adults to implement the strategy. Therefore, it is doubtful that
25

a general education teacher would be able to implement this EBP in the classroom. Lastly, there
is concern that passively watching an instructional video may not be the most effective approach
to learning for demonstrating the application of new information for classroom practice (Trivette
et al., 2009). Instead, it was found that support and feedback provided in the context of the
classroom help teachers overcome the challenges of application of the newly learned practice.
Thus, a curriculum for general education teachers concerning teaching students with
ASD should have specific goals and objectives for learning. The professional learning should
provide information on issues such as ASD characteristics, individualized instruction, and
inclusive pedagogy as well as evidence-based practices. The curriculum should actively involve
the teachers in using, processing, and evaluating their knowledge and skills as part of their
learning. They should be provided with ongoing collaboration with other teachers and support
staff in order to facilitate deeper understanding and application of their new knowledge.
Conclusion
There is extensive research around the topic of the insufficiency of general education
teacher preparation for inclusion of students with autism and the need for professional
development in this area. It has been shown that a curriculum is needed which will provide the
teachers with information on topics such as ASD characteristics, individualization of instruction,
and evidence-based practices which have been shown to be effective with these students. The
curriculum should also provide teachers practice in using, processing, and evaluating their
knowledge and skills. Through adequate professional development, teachers will have more
positive attitudes of inclusion which will lead to more positive outcomes for their students with
autism.

26

CHAPTER TWO: CURRICULUM OVERVIEW
Curriculum Description
The purpose of this professional development curriculum is to equip general education
teachers to work with students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). This curriculum will
provide teachers strategies to help those students be successful in the general education
classroom. Students with autism can learn in a general education setting when provided with
evidence-based programs tailored to meet their challenges and strengths (Bellini et al., 2011).
Although no two students with autism behave, learn, or communicate alike, they do share some
general characteristics. There is a common thread of difficulties in social interaction,
communication, and repetitive behaviors (Fein, & Dunn, 2007; Leach, 2010; Smith, 2012). This
curriculum will address those difficulties and the strategies, which can be implemented by the
teacher in order to meet their students’ unique academic and behavioral needs.
The curriculum will be taught online. In total, there will be seven modules in which
teachers will explore such topics as what is ASD, what is their role in an IEP, differentiation of
instruction, sensory-integration difficulties, way in which to address behavioral issues, and use of
accommodations and modifications that can help the students learn. Learning is a process that is
cyclical and utilizes active involvement of the learners. It includes observation, reflection,
creation of new concepts, and application of those new concepts in the classroom (Webster-
Wright, 2009). Creating the conditions for teachers to teach and teach well is a crucial factor for
greater student learning and achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2000). Effective, engaging, and
relevant professional development can help teachers provide all students with experiences that
lead to greater learning and achievement. Through participation in this curriculum teachers will
27

be able to take what they already know about how to promote learning in the classroom and
apply this knowledge to teaching students with ASD.

Learner Description and Context
Intended Audience
The intended audience for this curriculum will be K-12 general education teachers. It has
been found that general education teachers need specific pedagogical knowledge in order to
address the specific needs of students with ASD. This instruction is based on input from general
education teachers who have struggled with successfully including a student with ASD in their
classrooms. The curriculum will make use of demonstration and practice. Teachers will also
engage in self-assessment of their knowledge and skills in order to identify the next steps in their
learning process.
Prior Knowledge Needed for Learners
Typically, the general education teachers for whom this curriculum is designed have
professional knowledge for teaching in three areas: content knowledge, pedagogical content
knowledge, and general pedagogical knowledge (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008; Grossman &
Richert, 1988; Shulman, 1987). General pedagogical knowledge involves principles and
strategies of classroom management and organization that are not subject bound (Shulman,
1987). It also includes knowledge about learners, general knowledge of learning assessment, and
an understanding of the various philosophies of education (Grossman & Richert, 1988).
However, the majority of these teachers lack expertise and in-depth knowledge of students with
autism because they have not been trained in effective teaching methods that help these students
28

succeed in the general education classroom (Klingner, Arguelles, Hughes, & Vaughn, 2001;
Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; Talib & Paulson, 2015).
In order to successfully include students with autism into their classrooms, general
education teachers should have prior knowledge of curricular content such as math and reading
in order to be able to learn how to differentiate instruction for students with ASD. The teachers
should also have prior knowledge of classroom management strategies so they will be able to
connect that knowledge to strategies which are deemed successful when used with these
students. Students of all ages bring beliefs and experiences to the classroom that influence what
and how they learn (Campbell, 2003). General education teachers will be given the opportunity
throughout the curriculum to link their prior knowledge to the topics, skills, and competencies
needed to include successfully students with autism in their classrooms.
Theoretical Framework and Research-Based Practices
The theoretical framework used in the design of this curriculum draws upon the adult
learning theory of andragogy. General education teachers are adult learners. Adults learn in a
different way than younger students (Knowles, 1968). They have very different needs and
motivations for learning and are far more self-directed. Adults also come to the learning
experience with more life experiences and responsibilities (Brookfield, 1998; Knowles, &
Associates 1984; Malone, 2014; Taylor, 2003). Eduard C. Lindeman (1926) identified five key
theories about adult learners: (1) adults are motivated to learn if their learning will satisfy their
needs and interests; (2) their focus on learning is life-centered; (3) experience is the most
powerful source for an adult’s learning; (4) adult learning needs to be self-directed; and (5)
individual differences among people increase with age.
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This curriculum also draws on social constructivist theory. Social constructivism builds
on the theory of constructivist learning which emphasizes authentic tasks in a meaningful context
and provides students with real-world learning environments or case-based learning.
Instructional design within a framework of constructivism begins with taking into account the
learner’s prior knowledge, understandings, and interests. Constructivism proposes that new
knowledge is constructed from old. It holds the belief that it is crucial we make connections
between students' prior experiences and new information that is being presented. Thus, transfer
can occur when something the students know from prior learning affects their performance on a
new task (Thorndike, 1923). Constructivism focuses on how learners construct their own
meaning. They ask questions, come up with answers, and interact with the environment. By
doing these things, they incorporate new knowledge with prior knowledge to create new
meanings (Putnam & Borko, 2000).
Social constructivism is a variation of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes the
collaborative nature of learning (Bruner, 1960). This perspective is also closely related to the
developmental theories of Vygotsky (Shunk, 2000). Vygotsky (1978) believed that knowledge is
not simply constructed, it is co-constructed. Thus, social constructivism explains learning as a
function of social interaction. Social constructivism is the theoretical view that knowledge
results from a process of active construction (Mascolol & Fischer, 2005). Learning is seen as an
active process where knowledge is constructed not acquired (Kroll & LaBoskey, 1996). Each
person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge based on their past
experiences and cultural factors. Changes in teachers’ beliefs are more likely to occur in settings
in which teachers consider learning a communal activity (Joyce & Showers, 2002). Joyce and
30

Showers (2002) also assert that teachers grow in their learning when they have time to interact,
study together, discuss teaching, and help one another put new skills into practice.
Within social constructivism are two theories that distinguish different aspects of
learning: situated and social learning. Using Bandura’s theory (2006), social learning
emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of others. Situated learning focuses on learning
as it is socially constructed within different contexts. Lave and Wenger (1991) contend that all
learning is situated because it occurs within contexts that include cultural and physical elements
that act on and with the learner. Situated learning stresses that learning occurs through active
participation in a community of practice (Horn, 2005; Lave & Wenger, 1991). When knowledge
is constructed collaboratively teachers are able to create a shared identity (Horn, 2005;
Moolenaar et al., 2012).
Vygotsky (1978) also believed that learning takes place within what he called the zone of
proximal development. In this, students can, with help from others who are more advanced,
master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own. This model has two
developmental levels: the level of actual development which is the point at which the learner can
problem-solve independently; and the level of potential development (ZPD) which is what the
learner is capable of reaching with guidance or in collaboration with others.
Constructivist learning environments also encourage teacher reflection on experience.
These environments support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation
and are a more student-centered approach. Teaching styles based on this approach make an
effort to move from traditional didactic models to more student-centered methodologies
(Cannella & Reiff, 1994). Bruner (1960) presented curriculum change based on the idea that
learning is an active, social process in which students form new ideas or concepts based on their
31

existing knowledge. He believed that instruction must be concerned with the experiences that
cause the student to be willing and able to learn; instruction should be structured so it can be
easily grasped; and instruction should be designed to be generalized beyond the information that
was given. Wilson (1996) asserts that the constructivist view of learning often means
encouraging students to use real-world problem solving to create more knowledge. The teacher
asks them to reflect on what they are doing and how their understanding is changing.
Constructivist teachers encourage students to assess how the activity is helping them gain
understanding which promotes metacognition (Wilson, 1996).
Metacognition is the awareness of one’s cognitive processing. To ensure that the basic
processes of learning are used effectively, learners need to have awareness and control of their
cognitive processes (Baker, 1989). This higher-level cognition was given the label
metacognition by John Flavell (1976). Baker (1989) states that metacognition includes
knowledge about cognition, about oneself, about aspects of the task at hand, and about strategies
needed to carry out the task effectively. Metacognition plays an important role in promoting
transfer of learning. Students can more readily apply knowledge acquired in one context to
another one if they have awareness of themselves as learners and monitor their strategies and
resources (Baker, 1989).
In summary, several learning theories will be used to inform this curriculum.
Andragogy will be used to frame the way in which the curriculum will be presented and the
activities used. Social constructivism will be used to address the community aspect of learning,
which can bring about changes in beliefs and help teachers develop a sense of self-efficacy
regarding the new teaching strategies they are learning (Showers, Joyce, & Bennett, 1987).
Constructivist thought will be used to structure the curriculum so that teachers will be able to
32

connect prior knowledge, understandings, and interests with what they are learning. They will
also use metacognition to monitor their own learning so that new knowledge can be more readily
applied to their classrooms (Flavell, 1979).

Curriculum Outcomes

By the end of this curriculum, general education teachers will be able to:
1. Understand key terms and concepts related to ASD.
2. Identify the behavioral, communicative, and social characteristics of students with ASD.
3. Adapt lesson plans for individual students with ASD that include modifications and
accommodations.
4. Develop behavioral support strategies for individual students with ASD.
5. Design specific supports to be used in the classroom to support communication and
behavior for students with ASD.
6. Analyze their own effectiveness in working individually and collaboratively with students
with ASD.
7. Reflect on self-efficacy regarding teaching students with ASD.

33

Curriculum Scope and Sequence
I=Introduced
R=Reinforced
M=Mastered
Units or
Modules

Curriculum
Outcomes
Characteristics
of students
with autism
Challenges of
autism in the
classroom
The
IEP
process
and
goal
setting
Identifying
behavioral
issues and
developing
behavioral
supports

Academic
accommodations
and
modifications
Putting it all
together –
designing
behavioral
and academic
supports for
students with
ASD
It Takes a Team: Working
with Parents,
Support Staff,
Paraprofessionals, Other
Teachers, and Outside
Agencies
1. Understand key
terms and
concepts related
to ASD.

I

R

R

R

R

M

M
2. Identify the
behavioral,
communicative, and
social characteristics
of students with
autism

I

R

R

R

R

M

M

3. Modify and adapt
lesson plans for
individual students
with ASD that include
accommodations and
modifications.

I

R

R

M

M
4. Develop behavioral
support strategies for
individual students
with ASD.

I

R

R

R

R

M

M
5. Design specific
visual supports to be
used in the classroom
to support
communication and
behavior for students
with ASD.

I

R

M

M
6. Analyze their own
effectiveness in
working individually
and collaboratively
with students with
ASD

I

R

R

R

M

M
7. Reflect on self-
efficacy regarding
teaching students with
ASD.

I

R

R

R

M

M

34

The curriculum outcomes were chosen based on the specific needs of students with ASD.
There is a common thread of difficulties in social interaction, communication, and repetitive
behaviors (Fein, & Dunn, 2007; Leach, 2010; Smith, 2012). Mesibov et al. (2005) state that
students with autism have relative strength in and preference for processing visual information,
heightened attention to details but difficulty in sequencing or deriving meaning from them,
impairment in the social use of language, and marked sensory preferences and aversions. Also, a
student with autism may have a delay in cognitive ability, and sensory issues. Because people
with autism differ dramatically from each other on a large number of variables, it is important to
incorporate these and other factors into individualized interventions and supports (Mesibov &
Shea, 2009; Smith, 2012). Also, the effective evidence-based instructional methods should be
employed such as video modeling, prompting, and visual supports (LeBlanc, Richardson, &
Burns, 2009; Mesibov & Shea, 2011; Simpson, Mundschenck, & Heflin, 2011).
Behavior is often cited as a reason why students with autism spectrum disorders should
not be included in the general education classroom. Therefore, students with ASD may need
positive behavioral support in the classroom in order to access their learning (DeBoer, 2009;
Kluth, 2013; Leach, 2010). Students with autism also may have social difficulties (Kluth, 2013;
Rogers, 2013). These difficulties may include lack of joint attention, limited verbal initiations,
and failure to develop age-appropriate friendships (Dawson et al., 2004). Many students with
ASD present with little or no functional speech (National Research Council 2001). The general
education teachers will need to help these students build their communication skills through the
use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices or other strategies such as
visual supports. The curriculum outcomes will ensure that general education teachers are
35

educated in areas of difficulty for students with ASD so they may help those students succeed in
the classroom.
Description of curriculum assessments
Types of assessments included in the curriculum
Outcomes will be assessed by a variety of measures throughout the curriculum in order to
determine teacher learning. An assessment survey in the form of a quiz or self-reflection will be
given at the beginning of each section of the curriculum in order to determine prior knowledge of
the teachers. According to Mayer (2011), it is important to determine what the learners already
know about a topic you intend to teach them. Gee (2012) states that assessing such prior
knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs at the beginning of the session is also crucial because
knowledge students possess may either promote or hinder their learning. Donovan et al. (1999)
assert that new material and information is more easily learned when it is connected to learner
prior knowledge and is relevant to the learner. Based upon the learning theory of andragogy, in
order for professional learning to make a significant difference for the general education
teachers, the curriculum should include connectedness to the school and classroom settings
(Gregson & Sturko, 2007). Following each session, a quiz or self-reflection question will be
given to help measure the accomplishment of the learning objectives and to help participants
assess further needs (Dow & Mehring, 2001). The teachers will be asked to self-assess their own
behavior and learning by evaluating what they learned with their prior knowledge at the
beginning of the session.
Embedded in the various sessions will be performance assessments that integrate
evidence of teacher learning (Castle & Shaklee, 2006). Knowledge will be measured in a variety
of ways through problem-based scenarios. In these scenarios, teachers will be able to self-assess
36

their ability to propose specific behavioral strategies for a student as well as designing and
implementing specific modifications and/or accommodations. When applicable, teachers should
also ask for feedback from their student(s) related to implementation of these new strategies or
modifications. Malcolm Knowles (1968) used the term andragogy to describe a set of
assumptions or characteristics that guide adult learning. Adult learners are problem-centered and
interested in immediate application of knowledge (Knowles, 1984). These types of assessment
will give feedback to the participants by allowing them to demonstrate how they have applied
what they learned.
Quizzes also will be embedded throughout the sessions in order to assess learning.
According to Davis (2009), a well-designed quiz helps motivate learners by highlighting the
areas in which they are strong, while pointing out those in which they perhaps would benefit
from more knowledge or practice. These quizzes will be used to determine learner acquisition in
the areas of the characteristics of ASD, terms, concepts, and evidence-based practices.
Learners also will be asked to engage in self-assessment of their knowledge and skills by
keeping a journal throughout the course. In the journal, the learners will engage in reflection as
the careful consideration of their beliefs and knowledge (Dewey, 1933). Dewey (1933) goes on
to say that reflection is a holistic way of meeting and responding to problems in light of craft,
research, and ethical knowledge. When teachers confront their assumptions and beliefs about
students with autism, they may be uncomfortable discussing their thoughts and feelings with
others. The journal will provide them a way to think about their ideas and feelings that may
provide insight or further assessment of those thoughts.
Finally, there will be an exit survey at the end of the entire program where learners will
be able to provide insight into their experiences. They will be asked which topics that were most
37

helpful, experiences that were either helpful or detracted from their learning, and suggestions for
other topics they believe should be included. This will provide valuable information about
student learning and outcomes for this curriculum.
Description of Curriculum Activities
Types of Activities Included in the Curriculum
Curriculum topics included in this curriculum will be: how to identify and support
sensory processing difficulties; how to analyze behavioral issues through use of the Sensory,
Escape, Attention, or Tangible (SEAT) method; methods for addressing problem behaviors in the
classroom; differentiation of instruction for students with autism; communication difficulties and
ways to support language skills; use of evidence-based practices and how to choose those most
effective for individual students; methods for addressing emotional regulation difficulties; social
skill intervention strategies; the IEP process and goal setting; and collaborating with parents and
other staff members.
In order for professional learning to make a significant difference for the general
education teachers, the curriculum should include connectedness to the school and classroom
settings and should foster participation of teachers as planners. There will be provision of
differentiated learning opportunities through pacing of learning and the ability to choose one
module before another if a teacher deems it necessary for support in his or her classroom; use of
demonstration and practice, (Darling-Hammond, 1998; Dow & Mehring, 2001; Gregson &
Sturko, 2007); and engaging teachers in self-assessment of their knowledge and skills in order to
identify the next steps in the learning process (Rodgers, 2002; Trivette et al., 2009).
Social constructivism emphasizes the collaborative nature of learning (Bruner, 1960).
Therefore, learners will be asked to identify specific members of a student’s team as well as
38

ways in which they plan to collaborate effectively with them in order to meet the needs of a
student with ASD.
Learners will be given time for practice and feedback through the use of worked
examples in the various the modules. According to Wiggins (1998), feedback must be timely,
specific, and understandable to the learner. Thus, learners will be given scenarios in different
modules and asked to design strategies to help the student with ASD. Learners will then be able
to review a worked example and compare it to their own. Also, the learner must be given the
chance to act on the feedback and be able to modify, practice, and retry (McTighe & O'Connor,
2005). After comparing their work with the example, the learners will be able to revise their
revise their own work accordingly. Videotapes of classroom teaching or learning situations will
also be used as opportunities for teachers to examine narrative stories and teaching strategies.
Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987) found that teachers can take valuable information back to
their classrooms when presented with theory, a demonstration of the new strategy, and then
given time to practice. Teachers will be able to return to the modules as often as they would like
in order to be reminded of the various approaches and strategies they can use in their classroom
for students with ASD.
There needs to be ongoing collaboration with identified team members in order to
facilitate deeper understanding and application of the new knowledge (Donovan, et al., 1999). In
order to do this, learners will be encouraged to continue to collaborate with their special
education teacher or autism specialist on an on-going basis. Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987)
found that teachers are prone to keep and use new strategies if provided support while they are
trying new ideas in their classrooms.
39

Engaging teachers in self-assessment of their knowledge and skills is important to
identify the next steps in the learning process (Rodgers, 2002; Trivette et al., 2009). In order to
engage learners in self-assessment, they will be asked to keep a journal for the course. The
learners will be given a prompt related to the focus of the lesson to which they will respond.
They might be asked to respond to questions such as, “What was the most important thing you
learned today?”, “What was the most confusing topic today?”, or “What important question
remains unanswered?”. Baker (1989) stated that metacognition plays an important role in
promoting transfer of learning. Students can more readily apply knowledge acquired in one
context to another one if they have awareness of themselves as learners and monitor their
strategies and resources.
Resources
Included in the curriculum will be handouts and resources that the teachers will be able to
take back to their classrooms for use with their students with ASD. These will include such
things as lists of modifications and accommodations, data collection sheets, lists of books to help
peers understand ASD, visual supports, behavioral supports, parent input forms, and activities to
support social-emotional regulation.
Design Justifications and Acknowledgement of Designer Bias
How the Curriculum Addresses the Problem of Practice
The organizational problem of practice being addressed in this curriculum is the lack of
training for general education teachers in methods for teaching students with autism. Multiple
studies have found that a major factor influencing the inclusion of special needs students in a
general education classroom is the positive or negative perceptions of the general education
teachers (Buell, Hallam, Gamel-McCormick, & Scheer, 1999; Freeman & Alkin 2000;
40

Robertson, Chamberlain, & Kasari, 2003; Ryndak, Jackson, & Billingsley, 2000; Vakil, Welton,
O'Connor, & Kline, 2009). Those perceptions are influenced by factors such as feelings of
inadequacy due to lack of training in how to teach children with moderate to severe disabilities
(Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Yang & Rusli, 2012). As inclusion of students with disabilities
into mainstream classrooms increases, specialized supports and specialized classroom
management are required of general education teachers in order to meet the needs of these
students (Cook, 2001). The National Research Council (2001) found that teachers must be
familiar with theory and research concerning best practices for children with autism spectrum
disorders. This would include such things as methods of behavior analysis, incidental teaching,
assistive technology, socialization, communication, and the effective use of data collection
systems. Specific problems in generalization and maintenance of behaviors also affect the need
for training in methods of teaching children with ASD. Able, Sreckovic, Schultz, Garwood, and
Sherman (2015) reported that teachers need training on understanding the autism spectrum
disorder (ASD), how to differentiate instruction, and how to provide social support strategies. A
need has also been found for enhancing adaptations to curriculum and pedagogy. As inclusion of
students with disabilities into mainstream classes increases with the rise in special education
students, specialized supports and specialized classroom management are required of general
education teachers (Ferraioli & Harris, 2011).
This curriculum addresses the needs of general education teachers in use of evidence-
based strategies for children on the autism spectrum. This curriculum is intended to help
classroom teachers understand ASD, learn how to differentiate instruction, and how to deal with
behaviors that may interfere with learning in inclusive classrooms. The curriculum will help
teachers develop the knowledge and skills to include successfully students with autism in their
41

classrooms. Thus, the general education teachers’ self-efficacy or confidence in the ability to
exert control over their own motivation, behavior, and environment will increase. In turn, this
should lead to greater willingness to include students with autism in their classroom.
Why This Curriculum is Appropriate for the Intended Audience
This curriculum is appropriate for general education teachers because it directly
addresses their lack of training in how to teach children with autism. This curriculum is planned
based on the evidence-based practices, approaches, and research about how students with ASD
learn best. The curriculum will give attention to individual teacher’s needs and interests in
relation to their classrooms. This will directly impact how teachers work with these students in
their classrooms. The curriculum will incorporate a wide variety of learning experiences,
materials, and instructional strategies to help equip general education teachers in inclusion of
students with autism. The curriculum will build upon what the teachers already know and are
able to do by activating their prior knowledge in the areas of learning and pedagogy, which will
help with acquisition of the content. The teachers will be able to work in cooperatively with
other staff members at their school which has been shown to help them grow in their learning by
practicing their newly acquired skills.
Biases I Acknowledge as Part of My Approach to This Curriculum
As a former general education teacher, I can appreciate the concern of general education
teachers regarding inclusion of students with autism in their classrooms. I have been in that
situation and understand the frustration and negative perception they have of these students in
their classrooms. That negative perception is mostly due to their lack of training in autism.
After reflecting on my biases, I can see that I am positioned as an insider and that I undertook
writing this curriculum because of my bias toward helping the teachers in my school and district.
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However, I am also a special education teacher and I have been disturbed by the
treatment of some of the students with autism by general education teachers. My personal stance
is one of equity for students with autism due to the fact that these children are being seen through
the lens of disability rather than ability. The consequence of their minority status is that they are
being denied full participation in society. My bias is that these children deserve to be with
typical peers so they can be seen as different learners, not deficient learners. Therefore, I
decided to develop a curriculum that would help general education teachers understand students
with autism and the way in which these students learn in order to lessen the teachers’ frustration
and the negative perceptions they might hold.
Assessment and Evaluation Plan
This curriculum has not yet been implemented but was sent to six elementary general
education teachers to review and critique. They were asked questions such as: Did the content
make sense? Was the material difficult to understand? Will the information be useful to you?
Will you be able to apply what you learned? (Guskey, 2000). Their feedback was added to the
curriculum in order to clarify terminology and strategies proposed to help students with autism.
On the whole, the teachers found the curriculum helpful and useful for working with students
with autism in their classrooms. Four of the teachers will be implementing strategies from the
curriculum in their classrooms for their students with autism. The other teachers do not currently
have students with ASD in their rooms. The teachers will give feedback on the implementation
of the strategies used over the course of the last trimester. The students with ASD in those
classrooms will also be asked informally about use of behavioral strategies and if they found
them helpful. Also included in the assessment and evaluation will be feedback from special
education teachers. The curriculum has been sent to three special education teachers who have
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autism specific classrooms. One of these teachers has been teaching in the field of autism over
fifteen years. The other two teacher have been teaching for less than four years. A
mild/moderate resource teacher who has students with autism fully-included in K-6 general
education classrooms will also be included in this evaluation. These teachers will be asked to
give feedback on the curriculum pertaining to how they might implement the strategies in their
classrooms.
Included in the last module of the curriculum is an “exit ticket” which is a form of
assessment of learning. The information gathered will help in adjusting the curriculum where
needed to meet the needs of the general education teachers.
CHAPTER THREE: CURRICULUM
Module 1 - Characteristics of Students with Autism
In this module, teachers will learn about the characteristics of autism and how it is
“diagnosed” as well as a teacher’s role in identifying students who might be on the spectrum.
They will learn why autism is considered a spectrum disorder, what the three levels of severity
are, and how that affects programing for a student. Teachers will learn about the four core areas
of impairment as well as three additional areas of deficit which impact a student’s performance
in the classroom. These are theory of mind, weak central coherence, and executive dysfunction.
Teachers will be able to hear from Temple Grandin about how autism impacted her growing up
and how she overcame many obstacles to go on to succeed in college.
Learning Outcomes
As a result of successfully completing this unit, students will be able to:
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1. Describe how ASD is defined and explain why it is considered a spectrum disorder (1)
(2)
2. Understand how autism is diagnosed (1) (2)
3. Identify pre-conceived ideas and common misconceptions about autism (7)
4. Explain the core areas of impairment for children with autism (i.e. behavior, social,
communication, and academic) (1) (2)
Activities
There will be two short film clips in the module. The first is on how autism is diagnosed
and the other one features Temple Grandin, a well-known person with autism. The teachers will
be asked to write in a journal their reactions, questions, and possible misconceptions about
autism following both clips.
Assessment
1. “Kahoot” Quiz– Teachers will be given a Kahoot quiz at the beginning of this module
in order to assess their prior knowledge of autism regarding how ASD is defined, who diagnoses
a child as having autism, why it is a spectrum disorder, and core areas of impairment for these
students.
2. End Quiz – Teachers will be asked to complete a short-answer quiz regarding what
they have learned about autism as well as identifying any misconceptions they may have had
before beginning this module.

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Module One PowerPoint
Module One
Strategies for Inclusion of Students
With Autism: A Professional
Learning Curriculum for General
Education Teachers

Module 2 - Challenges of Autism in the General Education Classroom
The purpose of this module is to help teachers identify and understand how autism
impacts their classroom and curriculum. The module will include videos from teachers with
have students with autism in their classrooms who will discuss the challenges they face. The
module will also include a video from a teenage girl with autism who will discuss the
communication challenges she faces and how it impacts how she communicates with her teacher.
Learning Outcomes
As a result of successfully completing this unit, students will be able to:
1. Understand how autism impacts the physical classroom environment, social
environment, and curriculum. (1) (2)
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2. Understand the impact on teacher time, energy, and resources due to these issues. (1)
(2)
3. Identify possible rewards of having students with autism in the general education
classroom (2)
4. Identify their own self-efficacy in teaching students with autism. (7)
Activities
Teacher will be asked to take part in a sensory activity which will help them to
understand the challenges faced by students who may sensory integration issues. These issues
can often lead to challenging behaviors in the classroom.
Assessment
1. Journal – teachers will be asked to start a journal and reflect on their self-efficacy in
teaching students with autism that they may previously have had in their classrooms or from
what they have learned in Module 1 & 2 concerning the characteristics of these students.
Teachers will also be asked to reflect on the possible rewards of having these students in their
classrooms – both personally and for other students.

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Module Two PowerPoint
Module Two
Challenges of Autism in the
General Education Classroom

Module 3 - The IEP Process and Goal Setting
In this module, teachers will learn about the IEP process as it pertains to a general
education teacher. They will learn key terminology such as IEP, IDEA, FAPE, and LRE.
Teachers will be able to understand the special education cycle, how a student is referred for
evaluation, and what their role is in the IEP process. The teachers will be given a sample IEP so
that they can recognize the various components and what is addressed in each one. SMART
goals will be presented and teachers will be given the opportunity to learn how to write them.
Learning Outcomes
As a result of successfully completing this unit, students will be able to:
1. Identify who is involved in the IEP process (1)
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2. Discuss what is FAPE and how it applies to the IEP process (1) (2)
3. Name the components of an IEP (1)
4. Explain how an IEP differs from a 504 plan (1) (2)
5. Determine the individual needs of a student (2) (3)
6. Explain how specific goals and objectives meet the needs of a student (2) (3)
7. Explain how to write SMART goals for a student (2) (3) (4) (5)
8. Reflect on self-efficacy and understanding of SMART goals (6) (7)
Activities
In this module, teachers will be shown examples of SMART goals and then given the
opportunity to practice writing SMART goals for different students. They will be able to see a
worked example as well as an explanation of how and why that goal was written for a particular
student. The teachers also will be guided through writing benchmark objectives for each goal.
Then, they will be given time to practice writing two more goals with corresponding objectives.
Assessment
1. Self-Assessment - While writing goals as part of the curriculum, teachers will be able
self-assess their ability to write SMART goals by seeing examples of good goals and objectives
and comparing them to their own,
2. Journal -Teachers will be asked to reflect on what they have learned, if they had an “a-
ha” moment, what was confusing, and what questions they might still have. They will be asked
to reflect on and assess their self-efficacy in writing goals and objectives which address various
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student needs. They will also be asked to reflect on how confident they feel about being able to
help determine FAPE and LRE for a student.
Module Three PowerPoint
Module Three
The IEP Process and Goal Setting

Module 4 – Behavioral Issues in the Classroom
This module will cover the use of the antecedent – behavior –consequence (ABC) model
for collecting information about a student’s problem behavior(s) in the classroom. Teachers will
learn how to identify the possible functions of a student’s behavior using the SEAT model
(sensory, escape, attention, tangible item acquisition). Using this information, the teachers will
also be able to identify the function of behavior and positive behavioral supports which can be
used in the classroom for students with ASD.

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Unit Outcomes
As a result of successfully completing this unit, students will be able to:
1. Describe the four functions of behavior (sensory, escape, attention, or tangible items
acquisition) (2)
2. Identify the possible function of behaviors using the SEAT model (2)
3. Analyze possible causes of behaviors in the classroom (2)
4. Use the ABC model to collect information about behaviors (2)
5. Explore possible reinforcers for the behaviors (2)
5. Develop proactive strategies for behavior (4)
6. Design positive behavioral supports for students (5) (6) (7)
7. Propose possible replacement behaviors (5) (6) (7)
Activities
In this module, teachers will be shown examples of behavior in a student with ASD.
They will then be given the opportunity to practice describing behavior, and identifying possible
functions of behavior. Teacher will be shown how to identify the antecedent to a behavior and
how behaviors are positively and negatively reinforced or punished. They will be able to see a
worked example and explanation of how to fill out an ABC chart regarding a student’s behavior.
They will then be asked to fill out an ABC chart on a student from their classroom. At the end of
the module, teachers will be asked to design an informal behavioral plan with supports strategies.

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Assessment
1. Self-Assessment - While identifying function of behavior and selecting replacement
behaviors, teachers will be able self-assess their ability to do these tasks by seeing written
examples of and comparing them to their own.
2. Quizzes – Teachers will be asked to identify function of behavior for three students.
They will also be asked to identify examples of positive and negative reinforcement and
punishment.
3. Journal -Teachers will be asked to reflect on what they have learned. They will be
asked to reflect on their ability to behaviorally support a student with ASD in their classroom.
They will be asked to reflect on and assess their self-efficacy in identifying the functions of
behavior as well as being able to design supports for that student.

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Module Four PowerPoint
Module Four
Behavioral Issues in the
Classroom

Module 5- Curriculum Accommodations and Modifications
This unit will address accommodations and modifications to the curriculum which may
be used to support students with ASD in the general education classroom. Teachers will learn
how to distinguish between an accommodation and a modification based upon whether or not a
strategy alters or lowers the course or standard for a student. They will learn when
accommodations can be used and when modifications would be needed depending upon the
student’s IEP or 504 plan.
Learning Outcomes
As a result of successfully completing this unit, students will be able to:
1. Understand the difference between accommodations and modifications (1) (2)(3)
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2. Understand how these changes to the curriculum are chosen (3)
3. Select accommodations and/or modifications in areas such as: curriculum, classroom
environment, behavior, and testing (5) (6)
4. Reflect on their self-efficacy and understanding of curricular accommodations and
modification (6) (7)
Activities
In this module, teachers will be given examples of curricular accommodation and
modification that can be used for students with ASD. They will be asked to identify whether a
strategy is an accommodation or modification. They will then be given the opportunity to
practice selecting either accommodations or modifications based upon a student’s profile.
Assessment
1. “Kahoot” Quiz– Teachers will be given a Kahoot quiz at the beginning of this module
in order to assess their prior knowledge of accommodations and modifications.
2. Self-assessment – Teachers will be given scenarios of students with ASD and will be
asked whether a certain curricular adaptation is either an accommodation or modification. They
will be able to check their answer with the correct strategy. They will be asked to design
possible behavior accommodations for a student with ASD and compare their strategies to those
suggested by the student’s classroom teacher.
3. End Quiz – Teachers will be asked to complete a short-answer quiz regarding what
they have learned about accommodations and modifications as well as UDL strategies.
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4. Journal – Teachers will begin the module by reflecting on what strategies they are
currently using in their classrooms (informal supports, accommodations, and/or modifications).
At the end of the module the teachers will be asked to reflect on any new knowledge or skill they
might have gained from this module that they will be able to use in their classroom. They will
also be asked to reflect on and assess their self-efficacy in identifying specific accommodations
or modifications for use with their students with ASD.
Module Five PowerPoint
Module Five
Curriculum Accommodations
and Modifications

Module 6 – Putting It All Together
In this module, teachers will use the information they have learned in the first five
modules to identify behavioral and academic supports needed by students with ASD. Teachers
will be given profiles for several students. They will need to identify: if the student needs
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accommodations and/or modifications of curriculum; propose goals for a student if necessary;
and select behavioral supports in order to help the student be successful in the classroom.
Learning Outcomes
As a result of successfully completing this unit, students will be able to:
1. Identify areas of impairment for children with autism (i.e. behavior, social,
communication, and academic) (1) (2)
2. Recommend possible IEP goals if necessary to address academic deficits (2)
3. Propose behavioral strategies to address student behavior and create behavioral supports
for individual students (4) (5)
4. Select modifications and/or accommodations to meet the academic needs of a student so
they can successfully participate in the general education classroom (3) (5)
5. Reflect on their own self-efficacy and understanding of designing SMART goals,
behavioral supports, and accommodations/modifications for students with ASD. (6) (7)
Activities
There will be six case studies involving students with ASD with varying degrees of
impairment, unique learning characteristics, behaviors, and academic needs. The teachers will
be asked to identify the unique needs of each student and develop strategies to help them access
the curriculum as well as modify their behavior in order to be successful in the classroom.

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Assessment
1. Self-assessment – Teachers will be given scenarios of students with ASD and will be
asked to propose any goals, accommodations, modifications, and/or behavioral supports which
would be necessary to support a particular student with ASD in the classroom. They will be able
to compare their strategies and supports to those suggested by the student’s classroom teacher.
2. Journal – Teachers will be asked to reflect on any new knowledge or skills they might
have gained from this professional learning curriculum that they will be able to use in their
classrooms. They will also be asked to reflect on and assess their self-efficacy in identifying
specific accommodations, modifications, behavioral supports, and/or IEP goals that would
support their students with ASD.
Module Six PowerPoint
Module Six
Putting It All Together

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Module 7 – It Takes a Team
In this module, teachers will learn the value of collaboration with other professionals in
order to support a student with ASD. They will learn about different support staff that are
available to them at the school or district level who can support behavioral, academic, physical,
and social needs of their students. Teachers will also learn ways to include family members,
paraprofessionals, the student’s peers, and outside agencies in order to help the student with ASD
succeed in school.
Learning Outcomes
As a result of successfully completing this unit, students will be able to:
1. Identify team members for a student with autism (1)
2. Understand the role each member plays on the team (1)
3. Effectively engage in for open communication with stakeholders (6)
4. Reflect on their own self-efficacy in collaborating with various members of the team (6)
(7)
Activities
1. Teachers will be asked to list the people who they would consider part of the team for
one of their student(s) with ASD. They will then be asked to reflect on how they interact
with those team members. What support do they give the teacher? What support does
the give them? What other people they would want on their team? How could they
improve the dynamics of the team?
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2. Teachers will be given ideas for questions they may want to know about a student with
ASD that can be sent to parents before the beginning of school. They will be asked to
create their own questionnaire or information sheet of questions that they feel would be
most helpful to them.
3. Teachers will also be asked to come up with ideas for enrolling their general education
students in interacting and helping students with ASD.
Assessment
1. Journal – Teachers will be asked to reflect on their self-efficacy in working with team
members. They will be asked to reflect on how comfortable they feel working with these
people, how effective the team is in identifying and addressing their student’s needs, and
think about who else they could ask for help. They will reflect on how comfortable they are
working with a paraprofessional in their classroom, if there is an area in which they could
improve, and what might they do differently?
2. At the end of the curriculum, teachers will be asked to answer five “Exit Ticket”
questions regarding what was the most useful thing they learned; what, if anything they have
already implemented; which concept was the most difficult or confusing; what they would like to
know more about; and what they are excited to try.

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Module Seven PowerPoint
Module Seven
It Takes a Team

CHAPTER 4: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
This curriculum was designed to provide instruction to K-6 general education teachers on
how to work successfully with students in their classrooms who have ASD. However, the
curriculum also can be beneficial for general education teachers who currently do not have
students with ASD. For example, the module on behavior can provide behavioral strategies that
can be used for all students in a classroom, not just the ones with ASD. Students of all ages and
abilities often have behavioral difficulties in the classroom. By utilizing the module on behavior,
teachers can learn how to identify the function of behaviors in order to design supports to help all
children be successful in school. Also, in some states, general education teachers are required to
attend IEP meetings for students with disabilities who are not in their classrooms. The teachers
are expected to give input on the different opportunities for mainstreaming those students may
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have throughout the school day. Often, teachers are concerned and upset about attending these
IEP meetings because they do not know what those meetings look like or what to expect.
Module 2 gives an overview of an IEP meeting which could help the general education teachers
understand what is expected of them during these meetings.
This curriculum would also be helpful to special education teachers – specifically
mild/moderate teachers or new moderate/severe teachers - who may not have had much training
on how to work with students with ASD. The teachers would be able to choose the modules that
would be of help to them for different students and situations such as behavioral issues or
working with the general education teachers as part of a team. School districts or specific
schools would also be able to use the curriculum during professional learning days or staff
meetings. They would be able to choose specific modules that are most pertinent or helpful to
their specific school or district.
Teachers also will be able to access the online modules in their leisure time and can
choose to begin with the module that is most pertinent to what is happening in their classrooms.
The online modules give the teachers the flexibility to go back at any time and review a module
as a refresher when needed. Therefore, they will be able to link professional learning to their
actual classrooms. Also, for teachers in districts that may not be able to afford bringing in
outside experts on ASD, this curriculum gives them the opportunity to have professional
development to help them support their students in their classrooms.
As a suggestion, follow–up to the trainings could be provided by teachers on special
assignment (TOSAs) or other special education personnel who would observe in the classrooms
and give the teachers personalized feedback and training. Together, they could review a specific
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module, help the teacher develop strategies to put in place in the classroom, and then assess how
the strategies may or may not be working for particular students.
CONCLUSION
It has been found that general education teachers are not being prepared to adequately
meet the needs of students with ASD who are fully-included in their classrooms. Therefore,
there is a pressing need for professional development for K-12 general education teachers
regarding students with ASD. This curriculum addresses that need and offers specific strategies
which can be used with these students. Teachers will be able to work through seven modules
that address areas such as the characteristics of autism, behavioral strategies, and the use of
accommodations and/or modifications in the classroom. Thus, K-12 teachers, as well as special
education teachers who may choose to access this curriculum, will be better equipped to provide
support both behaviorally and academically to these students with ASD who are in their
classrooms.

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Appendix A (Terminology and Strategies)
Terminology

Accommodations. Changes that allow a person with a disability to participate fully in an
activity (Yanoff, 2006). Examples include extended time, different test format, and alterations to
a classroom
Assistive technology. Any item, piece of equipment, product, or system, whether
acquired commercially, modified, or customized, used to increase, maintain, or improve the
functional capabilities of persons with disabilities (California Legislature Senate Select
Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). Non-speech methods of
communication, including specialized gestures and sign language, charts, and electronic devices
that can speak in response to keyboard entry (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on
Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The DSM-5 criteria for ASD is defined as having
deficits in at least three of four categories: a) Persistent deficits in social communication and
social interaction not accounted for by general developmental delays; b) Restrictive, repetitive
patterns of behavior, interests, or activities; c) symptoms must be present in early childhood.; and
d) symptoms together limit and impair everyday functioning. There are three levels of severity
of ASD:
Level 1 – “Requiring support ”. Without supports in place, deficits in social
communication cause noticeable impairments
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Level 2 – “Requiring substantial support”. Marked deficits in verbal and nonverbal
social communication skills. Social impairments are apparent even with supports in place
Level 3 – “Requiring very substantial support”. Severe deficits in verbal and nonverbal
social communication skills cause severe impairments in functioning.
Behavior intervention. Acceptable interventions that include positive behavioral
support strategies that do not cause pain or trauma, and which respect the person’s individual
needs and dignity (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism & Related
Disorders, 2012).
Behavior intervention plan (BIP). McGraw (2013) defines a BIP as a written
intervention for individual students used to address problem behavior and skills for
improvement. A BIP results from a process called a functional assessment which helps
determine the factors that reliably predict and maintain behavior over time. The BIP includes
positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and support and may include program modifications
as well as supplementary aids and services.
Evidence-based practice. An evidence-based practice can be defined as an instructional
strategy, intervention, or teaching program that has resulted in consistent positive results when
experimentally tested (Mesibov & Shea, 2011). According to Odom, Collet-Klingenberg,
Rogers, and Hatton (2010), the implementation of high quality research is needed in order for
intervention strategies to be considered an evidence-based practice. Boutot and Myles (2011)
further define “quality” as research that incorporates experimental, quasi-experimental, or single-
subject research designs; is replicated multiple times; and is published in peer-reviewed
professional journals.
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Emotional regulation. Emotional regulation is a child's ability to notice and respond to
internal and external sensory input, and then adjust his emotions and behavior to the demands of
his surroundings. Emotional Regulation encompasses the dynamic and complex processes
involved in modifying emotional reactions to meet situational demands (Gross & Thompson
2007). Many children with ASD have difficulties with emotional regulation and often have
abnormal or inappropriate responses to the ordinary demands of their surroundings. They may
also have problems adjusting to change, and transitioning from one activity to another,
responding with strong negative emotions, tantrums, stereotyped, or even self-injurious
behaviors. Emotional regulation involves the development of the ability to maintain a well-
regulated emotional state to cope with everyday stress, and to be most available for learning and
interacting (Prizant, Wetherby, Rubin, & Laurent, 2003).
Executive function. The ability to coordinate and apply one’s own mental capacity;
what permits us to initiate goal-directed action, decide not to take inappropriate action, screen
out unwanted sensory stimuli, think abstractly, and choose alternate action as roadblocks arise.
It is not intelligence, per se, but “mission control”. (California Legislature Senate Select
Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Free appropriate public education (FAPE). According to the Section 504 of
the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an appropriate education will include: (a) education services
designed to meet the individual education needs of students with disabilities as adequately as the
needs of nondisabled students are met; (b) the education of each student with a disability with
nondisabled students, to the maximum extent appropriate to the needs of the student with a
disability; (c) evaluation and placement procedures established to guard against misclassification
or inappropriate placement of students, and a periodic reevaluation of students who have been
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provided special education or related services; and (d) establishment of due process procedures
that enable parents and guardians to receive required notices; review their child’s records; and
challenge identification, evaluation and placement decisions.
Inclusion. Inclusive education is a process by which students with and without
disabilities receive their primary delivery of service in the general education environment. All
necessary supports, including accommodations, differentiation of instruction, and curriculum
modification will be delivered in the general education classroom (Shyman, 2015).
Individualized education plan (IEP). A written statement that outlines the specific
special educational and related services the child is to receive. This is an acronym for the
individualized educational plan that must be written for each identified child with a disability
prior to his or her placement in a special education program (Hickman, 2013).
Intellectual disability. According to the DSM-5, intellectual disability is a disorder with
onset during the developmental period that includes both intellectual and adaptive functioning
deficits in conceptual, social, and practical domains. The severity levels range from mild to
profound. According to the DSM-5, characteristics of each category are:
Mild intellectual disability. Defined as individuals with an IQ of 50 to 70, slower than
typical in all developmental areas, no unusual physical characteristics, able to learn practical life
skills, attains reading and math skills up to grade levels 3 to 6. These individuals are able to
blend in socially, and are able to functions successfully in daily life.
Moderate intellectual disability. Defined as individuals with an IQ of 35 to 49, and
noticeable developmental delays (i.e. speech, motor skills). They may have physical signs of
impairment, are able to communicate in basic, simple ways, and are able to learn basic health
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and safety skills. These individuals are able to complete self-care activities, and can travel alone
to nearby, familiar places.
Severe intellectual disability. Defined as individuals with an IQ of 20 to 34, who have
considerable delays in development, understand speech, but have little ability to communicate.
They are able to learn daily routines, may learn very simple self-care, and need direct
supervision in social situations.
Profound intellectual disability. Defined as individuals with an IQ of less than 20, who
have significant developmental delays in all areas. They have obvious physical and congenital
abnormalities, require close supervision, and require an attendant to help in self-care activities.
These individuals may respond to physical and social activities, but are not capable of
independent living.
Joint attention. This is a desire to share attention on objects builds to sharing enjoyment
by looking at others while smiling when enjoying an activity. Research has shown that social
attention, specifically, joint attention, is important for the acquisition of communicative
competence Impairment in joint attention is a core deficit of ASD (Dawson, et al., 2004).
Least restrictive environment (LRE). The placement of a special needs student in a
manner promoting the maximum possible interaction with the general education population.
Placement options are offered on a continuum including regular classroom with no support
services, regular classroom with support services, designated instruction services, special day
classes, and private special education programs. The placement that is the least restrictive
environment is unique to each child, maximizing to the appropriate extent an education in a
setting with students who do not have disabilities. The overriding principle in determining the
least restrictive placement is that placements other than general education should be considered
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only when it is concluded that educational benefit, even with appropriate aids and services,
cannot be achieved in that setting (White, 2013).
Mainstreaming. The integration of children with special needs into regular classrooms
for part of the school day. Mainstreaming and least restrictive environment share historical
antecedents, but they are not equivalent (Ketzenberger, 2013).
Meltdown. A term for the loss of control experienced by a person who is overwhelmed
by social, emotional, sensory, or other stressful stimuli. May include screaming, kicking, hitting,
throwing objects, biting, banging head into the wall or floor, collapsing to the floor; a tantrum
(California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Mind-blindness. A condition in which a person is unable to intuit others' plans,
thoughts, and points of view; to have difficulty understanding other people's beliefs, attitudes,
perspectives, and emotions (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism &
Related Disorders, 2012).
Perseveration. The uncontrollable repetition of a particular response, such as a word,
phrase, or gesture, despite the absence or cessation of a stimulus. Examples in children with
ASD include stacking or lining objects up for hours, or becoming fixated on a certain topic, such
as trains or baseball statistics (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism &
Related Disorders, 2012).
Pragmatic language. Refers to the "art of conversation", taking turns speaking, staying
on a topic for a polite number of turns (even if it's not your favorite topic) and showing interest
in someone else's comments. Individuals with ASD and particularly those with Asperger's
Syndrome, are known to have difficulty with pragmatic language. Helping them to learn
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pragmatic language skills is often a part of speech therapy (California Legislature Senate Select
Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Ritual and repetitive behaviors (RRB). Actions that one carries out over and over
again, such as repeatedly spinning the wheel of a toy car, hand-flapping, or rhythmic body
rocking (Caruthers, 2013).
Self-injurious behavior. Refers to any behavior that can cause self-inflicted physical
damage, such as bruises, redness, and open wounds. Some common forms of these behaviors are
head-banging, hand-biting, and excessive scratching or rubbing (Hilton, 2013).
Social reciprocity. Social reciprocity is the back-and-forth flow of social interaction. A
child who displays social reciprocity is aware of the emotional and interpersonal cues of others,
appropriately interprets those cues, responds appropriately to what he or she interprets, and is
motivated to engage in social interactions with others. On the other hand, deficits in social
reciprocity can have a lifelong negative effect on the social communication and cognitive
development of children with autism (Leach & LaRocque, 2011).
Stimming. A slang term for "self-stimulation", behaviors which stimulate one's own
senses, such as rocking, spinning, or hand-flapping (California Legislature Senate Select
Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Theory of mind. Theory of Mind is a child’s ability to ascribe thoughts, feelings, ideas,
and intentions to others then use this ability to anticipate the behavior of others. It is the ability
to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one’s own
(Gupta, 2015).
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Typical peers. Refers to "typically developing peers," a term more meaningful than
"normal peers” (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism & Related Disorders,
2012).
Strategies for Helping Students with Autism
Antecedent behavioral consequences chart (ABC). A tool used to create a record of
disruptive behaviors that is utilized as part of functional behavioral assessment (FBA) to help to
determine the triggers of and motivations behind these behaviors. ABCs are used to record what
happened just before a behavior, a description of the behavior itself and the consequence of the
behavior (Alberto, & Troutman, 1999).
Behavior intervention plan (BIP). McGraw (2013) defines a BIP as a written
intervention for individual students used to address problem behavior and skills for
improvement. A BIP results from a process called a functional assessment which helps
determine the factors that reliably predict and maintain behavior over time. The BIP includes
positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and support and may include program modifications
as well as supplementary aids and services.
Negative reinforcement. Strengthening a behavior by reducing or removing something
that is undesirable. For example, if a student is rewarded for good behavior by having the
amount of homework reduced, he is more likely to repeat the good behavior in the future
(California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Non-contingent reinforcement. A procedure which decreases the frequency of an
undesired behavior by both reinforcing alternative behaviors and extinguishing the behavior.
Since the alternative behaviors are reinforced, they increase in frequency and therefore compete
70

for time with the undesired behavior (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism
& Related Disorders, 2012).
Peer modeling. A technique in which children with ASD are grouped together with
"typical" children in the hope that they will learn to imitate their peers' behaviors and social skills
(California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Positive behavior supports. Positive behavior support is an individualized, problem-
solving process grounded in ABA principles. The process includes (1) identification of broad
goals and behaviors of concern, (2) gathering and analyzing of information to identify probable
patterns affecting behavior, (3) selecting and delineating strategies based on the patterns and
integrating them into a comprehensive plan, (4) implementing the plan across settings and
caregivers, and (5) monitoring outcomes (Johnston, Foxx, Jacobson, Green & Mulick, 2006).
Positive reinforcement. The strengthening of a behavior by presenting a consequence
that is desirable, such as a prize or praise (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on
Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Social scripts. A technique in which individuals with ASDs are taught "scripts" for
common social situations. The individual initially uses a support, such as a reminder card with
the script available to read, and then gradually lessens reliance on the support until he or she can
use the scripted question or phrase spontaneously (California Legislature Senate Select
Committee on Autism & Related Disorders, 2012).
Social stories. A social skills training tool for children with autism spectrum disorders;
social stories break a social situation down into understandable parts and make clear social cues
and expectations that children with ASDs cannot pick up naturally due to the nature of their
71

disability (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism & Related Disorders,
2012).
Video modeling. A technique in which videos of real people and situations are used to
model behavior sequences, interpersonal relationships, friendship behaviors, and perspective-
taking to children with autism (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism &
Related Disorders, 2012).
Visual schedule. A tool used to help organize individuals by presenting the abstract
concept of time in a concrete form according to age and understanding. Pictures or photos
showing a toothbrush (for brushing teeth), clothes (for getting dressed), and a backpack (for
getting ready to go to school) are examples of items that would appear on a schedule helping to
organize morning routine for a child not yet able to read. For older children, the schedule may
appear in written form (California Legislature Senate Select Committee on Autism & Related
Disorders, 2012).

72

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract A professional learning curriculum to help general education teachers learn how to successfully address the needs of students with autism in their classrooms.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wilson, Nancy Rule (author)

Core Title Strategies for inclusion of students with autism: an online professional learning curriculum for general education teachers

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/05/2017

Defense Date 09/05/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag autism,education,general education teachers,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional learning curriculum

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Hawkes, Erica (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email nancywil@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-426146

Unique identifier UC11265820

Identifier etd-WilsonNanc-5708.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-426146 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WilsonNanc-5708.pdf

Dmrecord 426146

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Wilson, Nancy Rule

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA