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Cultural competency for academic counselors in the California community college systems to increase African-American male students' success: a gap analysis
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Cultural competency for academic counselors in the California community college systems to increase African-American male students' success: a gap analysis
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Content
Running head: AFRICAN AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 1
CULTURAL COMPETENCY FOR ACADEMIC COUNSELORS IN THE CALIFORNIA
COMMUNITY COLLEGE SYSTEMS TO INCREASE AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE
STUDENTS’ SUCCESS: A GAP ANALYSIS
by
Sheela Bernardez
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2018
Copyright 2018 Sheela Bernardez
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 2
DEDICATION
First and above all, I praise God, the almighty for providing me this opportunity
and also granting me the capability to successfully complete this dissertation.
This dissertation is dedicated to my family.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my family. Thank you for encouraging me in
all of my pursuits and inspiring me to follow my dreams. Earning my doctoral degree would not
have been possible without your unwavering support.
I would like to thank my parents, Roque and Dominga Bernardez who migrated from the villages
of Manali, Honduras to the United States to provide a better life and education for their five
children. You both have instilled in me the value of an education and I have witnessed how it has
changed the trajectory of our family. I love you!
Most importantly, I wish to thank my three wonderful children who provided me with unending
inspiration the entire 3 years of this program. Ryan, Rajan, and Samaiya, you were never too
busy to assist me in any way imaginable so that I was able to concentrate on homework and
writing this dissertation. Although it was a long and bumpy road, you constantly encouraged and
supported me every step of the way. From the first day of class until now, you stood by me
during all of my trials, walking side by side with me to ensure that I completed the task. I want
the three of you to know that I love you immensely and that I dedicate this dissertation to you.
You have been the wind beneath my wings and I thank God for choosing me to be your mom.
To my siblings,
Dr. J. Bernardez, you are such a great role model and have always inspired me to seek greatness.
Thanks for believing in me. Roque, thanks for being there whenever I needed you. Your
presence helped me more than you could ever imagine. Donaldo, thanks for your support and
prayers.
To my amazing sister Gloria,
Thanks for selflessly sharing your time, energy and expertise with me on countless nights. Your
careful attention to detail has been invaluable during all stages of the dissertation process. I will
never forget the amount of time that you spent proofreading and editing for me. None of this
would be possible without you. I love you and I owe a debt of gratitude to you.
To my special colleagues and dear friends, nieces and nephews nearby and afar, thank you for
your prayers, thoughts, well wishes, phone calls, e-mails, texts, visits, editing advice, travels, and
being there for me whenever I needed a friend to encourage and support me. Tia Nanda and
Joann, thank you for being so supportive of me while reminding me to persevere and to enjoy the
process.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to each of the members of my Dissertation Committee who provided me
with extensive personal and professional guidance and taught me a great deal about both research
and life in general. My most sincere thanks to my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Melora
Sundt for the tremendous support and guidance reading drafts, while also providing thought and
wisdom to perfect the dissertation. Thank you for the extended discussions and valuable
suggestions that contributed greatly to the quality of the dissertation.
My heartfelt thank you to my committee members. Dr. Jenifer Crawford, it was an honor
to work with you during this journey. Your suggestions and feedback helped me produce a richer
study. Dr. Chelena Fisher, thanks for being a tremendous advocate and support over the past
three years. I will never forget the multiple calls, and the typed notes you provided following my
proposal defense. I appreciate your continued support and willingness to guide me to ensure
success in this project.
Lastly, to my OCL cohort three members, thanks for your support and encouragement
during the virtual and in person writing workshops. The memories have made this experience
unforgettable and truly life altering.
This dissertation tells a story that needs to be shared across the nation. As I reflect on this
journey, I have written a piece of this story in each of these locations, leaving a seed of hope and
inspiration for the young men who often times appear to be voiceless. I have spoken for you in
Atlanta, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Oakland, San Francisco, San Diego, Seattle,
Dominican Republic, Hawaii, Las Vegas, New Orleans, New York, Tampa, and Texas.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Status of African-American Males in Community Colleges 10
Role of Community College Counselors 11
Cultural Competency 12
Background of the Problem 13
Related Literature 15
Equity and Access 16
Importance of the Evaluation Study 19
Organizational Context and Mission 21
Organizational Goal 22
Description of Stakeholder Groups 23
Stakeholder Group for the Study 23
Stakeholder Performance Goals 24
Purpose of the Project and Questions 25
Definitions 26
Organization of the Report 28
Chapter Two: Literature Review 29
Factors Impacting African-American Male Students’ Success 29
Cultural Competency 31
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences 32
Assumed Knowledge Influences 33
Assumed Motivational Influences 41
Organizational Influences 44
Summary 48
Conclusion 50
Chapter Three: Methodology 51
Conceptual Framework 52
Methodological Framework 53
Assessment of Performance Influences 55
Knowledge Assessment 55
Motivation Assessment 57
Organizational and Cultural Assessment 59
Participating Stakeholders 60
Survey and Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 60
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale 62
Survey Data Collection Strategy 63
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 63
Instrumentation 64
Document Analysis 66
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 5
Data Collection 66
Data Analysis 67
Survey 68
Interviews 68
Document Analysis 69
Validity and Reliability 69
Credibility and Trustworthiness 70
Ethics 71
The Role of the Researcher 72
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 75
Summary of Data Collection Strategies 76
Validation Criteria 77
Participating Stakeholders 78
Knowledge Results and Findings 78
Assumed Knowledge Influence 1 79
Assumed Knowledge Influence 2 81
Assumed Knowledge Influence 3 84
Assumed Knowledge Influence 4 89
Assumed Knowledge Influence 5 92
Motivation Results and Findings 96
Assumed Motivation Influence 1 97
Assumed Motivation Influence 2 102
Organization Results and Findings 104
Assumed Organization Influence 1 104
Assumed Organization Influence 2 107
Summary of Results and Findings 111
Chapter Five: Recommendations 115
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 116
Knowledge Recommendations 116
Motivation Recommendations 116
Organization Recommendations 117
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 120
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 120
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 121
Level 3: Behavior 123
Level 2: Learning 127
Level 1: Reaction 130
Evaluation Tools 131
Data Analysis and Reporting 133
Summary 133
Strength and Weaknesses of Approach 134
Limitations and Delimitations 134
Future Research 135
Conclusion 136
References 138
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 156
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 6
Appendix B: Informed Consent/Information Sheet 157
Appendix C: Email Invitation to Participate in Survey 159
Appendix D: Survey Demographic Questionnaire 160
Appendix E: Interview Questions 160
Appendix F: Post-Class Survey 162
Appendix G: Delayed Period Survey 163
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 25
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Influences on the Role of Counselors in Increasing Student
Completion Rates 48
Table 3: Assumed Knowledge Influences 56
Table 4: Assumed Motivation Influences 58
Table 5: Assumed Organizational Influences 59
Table 6: Demographic Summary of Interview Participants 78
Table 7: Validations of Knowledge Influences 96
Table 8: Validation of Motivation Influences 103
Table 9: Validation of Organization Influences 111
Table 10: Traceability Matrix 112
Table 11: Validated Knowledge Influence 116
Table 12: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 117
Table 13: Outcomes, Metrics & Methods 122
Table 14: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing 124
Table 15: Required Drivers to Support Counselor Critical Behaviors 125
Table 16: Components of Learning for the Program 129
Table 17: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 131
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Closing the employment gap (Male). 21
Figure 2: Conceptual framework. 53
Figure 3: Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis process. 54
Figure 4: Responses to survey question six. 79
Figure 5: Responses to survey question seven. 82
Figure 6: Responses to survey question 18. 85
Figure 7: Responses for survey question 9. 90
Figure 8: Responses for Survey question 23b. 93
Figure 9: Responses to Survey question 23c. 94
Figure 10: Responses to survey question 19. 98
Figure 11: Responses to survey question 21. 105
Figure 12: Responses to survey question 28. 108
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 9
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis of the assumed knowledge,
motivation and organizational (KMO) influences that affect community college counselors’
abilities to use culturally competent counseling to increase completion rates among African-
American males as they work towards closing the achievement gap at one community college.
The study used a mixed-methods design and incorporated surveys, interviews and document
analysis to evaluate counseling practices. Although significant counselor strengths in KMO
areas were identified, this study also pointed out needs relating to influences in these areas. Data
yielded findings related to the knowledge of relevant counseling strategies, innovative
techniques, and using a universal and shared method of cultural competency to deliver
counseling services along with some organizational gaps relating to the delivery of services.
Recommendations were addressed using the New World Kirkpatrick Model as an intervention to
address counselors’ knowledge and the organizational gaps pertaining to increasing African-
American male community college completion rates as well as to provide a comprehensive plan
to implement the recommendations. The evaluation plan and recommendations can serve as a
model for culturally competent counseling strategies and practices that demonstrate the critical
role of community college counselors as in closing the gap in completion rates.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Community colleges offer a variety of educational options for students seeking post-
secondary education and provide opportunities to gain self-awareness, personal development,
vocational and employment training, certificates, associate degrees, and preparation to transfer to
universities (California Community College Chancellor’s Office [CCCCO], 2017a). According
to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2016a), there are 114 California
community colleges (CCCs) that enroll and provide services to over 2.1 million diverse students
primarily from underrepresented and underserved groups.
Status of African-American Males in Community Colleges
The CCCs are comprised of 65% students of color, many of whom are first-generation
and/or from underrepresented backgrounds (Academic Senate for California Community
Colleges, 2017). Research indicates that CCCs fail to meet the needs of many underserved
students (Wood & Williams, 2013). The average completion rate of students’ attempted
certificate or degree program is 48% (American Association of Community Colleges, 2016).
The students with the lowest completion rate are African-American males, who represent 3.9%
of current community college enrollment and who have a completion rate of 17% compared to
White students’ 27%, Pacific Islander students’ 42.8%, Hispanic students’ 39.2 % and Native
American students’ 37.6% (CCCCO, 2017a; NCES, 2016a; California Community Colleges
Student Success Task Force, 2016). According to the data from NCES (2016a), the completion
rate among African-American males has remained the same over the past two decades. A
growing body of literature has contributed to this topic among researchers and institutions of
higher education (Bensimon & Chase 2012; CCCCO, 2016; Student Success Task Force (2016);
Harper, 2012, 2016; Wood, Harris, & White, 2015; Wood & Harris, 2015). Due to the stagnant
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 11
completion rate, community colleges created task force groups to address this issue. However,
this problem of practice of disproportionate completion rates for African-American males and
other underserved students continues as many community colleges experienced a decline in
enrollment and difficulties retaining students (California Community College Success Task
Force (2015).
Role of Community College Counselors
The primary points of contact for students on issues related to degree-completion are
academic counselors. Academic counselors are trained to advise students on certificate and
degree requirements from entry to completion and usually have completed a master’s degree in
counseling. Counselors play a pivotal role within any student’s life while at the community
college. Engagement surveys demonstrated the critical role of community college counselors as
validating institutional agents for men of color (Xiong, Allen, & Wood, 2016; Bauer, 2014).
Prior research provided a focus on the role of validation from college faculty and staff in
facilitating success for African-American male students and other men of color (Wood, Harris, &
White, 2015). A study of 289 African-American male college students reported higher levels of
engagement with faculty who communicated belief in students’ ability to complete college-level
courses, that they belonged in college, and that they were capable of success (Bauer, 2014).
Because advancing student success among men of color has been a growing concern for
scholars, researchers and practitioners, numerous studies also suggest strategies the CCC system
can implement to mitigate the number African-American males of students leaving college
before earning a degree or certificate (Bauer, 2014; Gibson, 2014; Wood & Palmer, 2014; Wood,
Urias, & Harris, 2016). While some research focused on the role of faculty validation, there has
been limited research on the role of counselors providing validation as a culturally competent
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 12
counseling technique for African-American men and men of color. Specifically, research
suggests that counselors who practice evidence-based culturally competent strategies will be
more successful than those who apply a one-size-fits-all model of counseling practices (Wood &
Palmer, 2014).
Cultural Competency
Cultural competency is a counseling approach from the context of the student’s personal
culture (Newman, Wood, & Harris, 2015; Wood, 2014; Wing Sue & Sue, 2008). According to
Pedersen (2002), the main features of cultural competency are “counselor self-awareness,
knowledge about culture and skills” (p. 19). By using these techniques, counselors can create a
student/counselor collaborative, thus, creating a connection making students feel as if the
counselor is credible, trustworthy and capable of meeting their needs. As Pedersen (2002)
stated,
Counselors are open to listening to and helping students with goals and objectives
without imposing their own cultural and values on the student; are respectful of client
uniqueness, and meet clients where they are on their journey…and do not engage in
negative stereotypes. (p. 22)
In other words, cultural competent intervention strategies require counselors to consistently
update their knowledge about effective counseling techniques and to be a true advocate for the
student (Pedersen, 2002). Therefore, instituting culturally competent counseling services in
colleges can support academic success for African-American males by intentionally promoting
high expectations for degree attainment and emphasizing that not earning a degree is not an
acceptable outcome (Frazier & Rhoden, 2011; Kuh, 2008a, Harper, 2009; Wood & Turner,
2010). Yet, not all counselors use this research-based strategy. However, literature states
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 13
community college academic counselors’ ability to assist African-American male students
develop a sense of self, belongingness, connectiveness and overall success to earn a degree
and/or certificate is paramount (California Community College Success Task Force, 2015;
Gibson, 2014; Wood & Turner, 2010; Wood, Palmer, & Harris, 2015; Strayhorn, 2012).
Background of the Problem
California was historically a national leader in higher education; however, today, there is
much room for improvement. For this reason, the CCCCO established accountability measures
and mandates through the new Student Success Initiative (SB1456) to combat low completion
rates (CCCCO, 2014). This initiative charged institutions with reviewing, assessing and
implementing programs and strategies to promote program- and degree-completion efforts since
African-American males 3.9% completion rates are the lowest of any ethnic and gender group
(NCES, 2016a). Many community college stakeholders, including counselors, were tasked with
connecting and engaging these students to offer them the support they need to stay enrolled and
graduate.
Research showed that, without effective counseling, navigating the college process can
be difficult, especially because college can be alien for students of color and those who are the
first in their families to attend college (Harper, Berhanu, Davis, & McGuire, 2014; Harris &
Wood, 2016; Lee, 1999). Many African-American male students experienced difficulties
adjusting to college life, learning how to navigate the college system, locating and understanding
how to use campus resources, and connecting to peers and professors (Wood & Harris, 2015;
Kuh, 2008b). Not earning a degree was the leading variable for economic, societal, and
community health. Furthermore, these disparities suggested that the implications of non-
completion of college for African-American males in community college transcends far beyond
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 14
the classroom. Research revealed that non-completion was a negative metric within the college
and university’s strategic planning efforts (Bensimon, 2004; Bensimon & Chase, 2012;
California Community College Success Task Force, 2012; NCES, 2015a, 2016a). However,
with effective culturally competent counseling and institutional support, these students may
develop greater commitment to degree-completion (Harper, 2009); Cuyjet, 2006; Davis, Coward
& Jackson; Lee, 1999; Wing Sue & Sue, 2008).
In addition, since student success outcomes are directly tied to institutional funding
(CCCCO, 2017; NCES, 2016b; SSSP, 2016), increasing African-American male completion
rates is a necessity, and access to resources and support staff is essential to providing the
environment needed for different populations to thrive. The limited literature on this
phenomenon has traditionally focused on this population’s deficits, as opposed to their strengths.
Furthermore, Harper (2012) conducted research which provided a paradigm shift in the way
practitioners viewed African-American male students, and the Anti-Deficit Model provided
insights on students’ strengths. This strength-based perspective provided a view of
unrepresented students and an opportunity for practitioners as institutional agents to understand
and learn from this population. Harper (2012) acknowledged that viewing the problem through
an anti-deficit lens allows institutions to evaluate the knowledge, skills, motivation and
organizational resources needed to facilitate institutional change that supports students’ academic
development.
The purpose of this study was to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that prevent academic counselors from achieving their goal of providing culturally
competent counseling to African-American males to increase community college completion
rates. Although this is the primary goal for SSSP, counselors have an additional role, which is to
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 15
increase the self-efficacy and agency and to serve as mentors for this underprivileged group
(Bauer, 2014; CCCCO, 2016a; Cuyjet, 2006; Dowd, Pak, & Bensimon, 2013; Quaye, Griffin &
Museus, 2015); Majer, 2009; Umoja Community, 2015; Wood & Palmer, 2014; Wood &
Williams, 2013).
Related Literature
The college completion rate for the African-American male is problematic, as the
research links these rates with negative societal outcomes (Witham & Bensimon 2012; Harper,
2009; Palmer, Davis, Moore, & Hilton, 2010; Strayhorn, 2012) The literature asserts that
African-American males’ educational outcomes lag far behind their White counterparts and
those of males from all ethnic groups (CCCCO, 2016a; Strayhorn, 2008).
Strayhorn (2012) discussed how graduation completion improves both the life of the
individual and the health of society, since college graduates earn approximately $1 million
dollars more over a 40-year life span than non-degreed individuals. In fact, according to NCES
(2016b) those who have a college degree were 88% more likely to find employment than those
who completed only high school. However, California is currently experiencing a decline in
college-educated workers, and, if this trend persists, California will have one million fewer
college graduates than it needs in 2025. Only 35% of working-age adults will have a college
degree in an economy that would otherwise require 41% of workers to have one (Ma, Pender, &
Welch, 2016; NCES, 2015a; United States Bureau of Labor Statistics [USBLS], 2016).
Further research explored and sought to improve African-American student retention and
completion rates. Harper (2009) focused on the effects of low completion rates for African-
American males, stating there is a direct link between this population’s college dropout rates and
unemployment, incarceration and the breakdown of families. Harper further argued that, to
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 16
improve completion rates, colleges and universities need to embrace culturally competent
approaches. Furthermore, the literature asserts that counselors who possess culturally competent
knowledge and skills when working with African-American male students can play a significant
role in improving that population’s success (Strayhorn, 2008; Sue & Sue, 2012). Consequently,
gaining knowledge into the relationship between counselors and African-American males at the
CCC can assist in understanding effective strategies to close this completion gap.
Considering that student success is at the forefront of CCCCO mandates and that
addressing inequities for groups with disproportionate outcomes has become mandatory, the
counselors’ role is even more important. Most notably, culturally competent counseling,
collaborative faculty, counselor relationships, and the intentional design of environments that
encourage a sense of belonging on campus were all recommendations to alleviate barriers to
student success (Strayhorn, 2015; Wood & Williams, 2013). Current literature revealed a
detailed historical context of the role of counselors in higher education and their knowledge,
skills, motivation, and organizational development of culturally competent methods.
Equity and Access
One of the constructs on the forefront of this issue is concerns equity and access of
support services for African-American male students. The current outcomes led to state funding
and institutional reforms. Addressing inequities among groups has been mandatory at CCCs
through Title V and its focus on disproportionate impact, considering that the completion rates
and academic achievement levels for African-American males remained the same for
approximately two decades (CCCCO, 2016a). Additionally, research has shown that low
completion rates are largely attributed to several factors, including access to equitable
educational opportunities. In fact, underrepresented students are overrepresented in
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 17
developmental courses. Additional factors include family and support issues, finances, effective
culturally competent counselor interactions, student engagement, institutional commitments and
accountability (Dowd & Bensimon 2015; Xiong et al., 2016; Harper, Patton, & Wooden, 2009;
Harris & Wood, 2014a; Strayhorn, 2015; Lee, 2014).
The continued growth of diverse individuals and families’ impacts counselors’ abilities to
meet the needs of existing student populations. In fact, research studies have revealed that
institutions that offer effective culturally competent counseling and social support services have
demonstrated positive correlations between these services and student success and completion of
college certificate programs and degrees (Harris & Wood, 2014a; Sue & Sue, 2012). Therefore,
culturally competent counseling can significantly impact counselors’ performance (Sue & Sue,
2012). In fact, studies have found institutional environments with culturally responsive,
competent counselors and faculty who promote engagement for African-American males are
associated with several positive outcomes (Harper, 2012; Palmer, Wood, Dancy, & Strayhorn,
2014; Sue & Sue, 2012).
Research suggests that an often-overlooked point is that African-American male students
do not receive the services and supports needed to address their complex challenges (Harper,
2009; Harris & Wood, 2013). In fact, some of the challenges these students face in community
colleges make the transition more difficult, which, in turn, makes the need for supportive
services even more important. Counselors and other institutional agents are uniquely positioned
by often being the first point of contact that community college students seek (Allen & Wood,
2015). Counselors conduct the new-student orientations and interact with students during
individual appointments and in walk-in sessions in the counseling department. Additionally,
with the increased use of online and virtual counseling as a means for students to meet with
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 18
counselors, the experience and messages coming from counselors, faculty, staff and the
institution should be consistent across the board if a student interacts with someone other than a
counselor first. Correspondingly, the student-counselor relationship can aid students in
successfully navigating college, successfully integrating into the campus community and
developing the skills to persist in academic endeavors to ultimately complete community college
(Wood, Urias, & Harris 2016; American Counseling Association, 2015; Sue & Sue, 2012; Tinto,
2017).
The benchmarks from the National Survey of Student Engagement (Krcatovich & Rivers,
2016) which colleges should use to determine educational effectiveness, identified student-
faculty interactions and a supportive campus environment as support systems for minority
student populations (Kuh, 2015; Sue & Sue, 2012; Tinto, 1997). Specifically, intentional
counselor-student interactions and engagement practices were introduced to help students feel
connected to college and to help remediate many of the problems African-American males
experience by providing college success tips and support services to lead to a greater
commitment to completion (Gibson, 2014; Kuh, Cruce, Shoup, Kinzie, & Gonyea, 2008; Lee,
1999; Strayhorn, 2015; Sue & Sue, 2012; Tinto, 1993; Wood & Palmer, 2014). Likewise,
inequities exist for African-American male students in developing some of the important on-
campus relationships and social networks available to other student populations (Tovar, 2015).
Even with the suggested interventions, getting accustomed to the college experience and
navigating the college process can be difficult for students from low socioeconomic status,
specifically for first-generation college students (Gibson, 2014; Lee, 1999; Palmer & Maramba,
2012; Wood, Palmer, & Harris 2015). Research suggested that students who connect socially
and academically early in their college experience have a greater commitment to complete
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 19
college (Museus, 2014). Consequently, students who were disengaged were less likely to remain
in college after their first year of enrollment (Tinto, 1997). Scholars have determined that the
role of a counselor may be beneficial in bridging the gap for students to develop institutional
relationships, considering that counselors are usually one of students’ first point of contact
(Bauer, 2014; Palmer et al., 2014).
Importance of the Evaluation Study
Student completion rates are an important marker of success in education and more so at
the CCC due to the large number of students who enroll to prepare to transfer, gain skills and
knowledge to earn a certificate, or prepare for career advancement. The importance of student
completion rates in higher education is also compounded by the need to have an educated
workforce to positively contribute to closing the workforce gap pertaining to unskilled workers
unprepared to assume many available jobs (United States Department of Labor, 2017). To fulfill
the community college mission of providing accessible and quality education for all students, the
CCCCO monitors and evaluates the completion rates for males of color, particularly Latino and
African-American males. The focus of this study was African-American male completion rates
because 20 years’ worth of data shows their non-completion rate trends as an increasing national
concern (Harper, 2012; Harris & Wood, 2016; Palmer & Maramba, 2012; NCES, 2015).
Research shows that effective counseling can lead to greater commitment to degree-
completion (Bauer, 2014; Cuyjet, 2006; Harris & Wood, 2014a; Lee, 1999; Sue & Sue, 2012;
Wood et al., 2015). Without efforts to address completion rates, African-American males will
continue to trail behind educationally, leading to negative consequences for themselves, their
families, communities and society at large (Kim & Hargrove, 2013). Improving the educational
attainment of California’s community college students can lead to a variety of positive outcomes.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 20
The knowledge and skills learned in college can contribute to essential preparation for success in
the growing workforce and benefit the state through increased tax revenues and the social and
economic benefits associated with higher levels of education. However, without the knowledge
and skills developed in college, African-American males may continue to struggle to acquire
gainful employment leading to career options that will economically sustain their families and
themselves (Gibson, 2014; Noguera, 2014; Vasquez Urias & Wood, 2014).
Individuals with bachelor’s degrees tend to have lower unemployment rates than those
with high school diplomas who, in turn, have a lower unemployment rate than high school
dropouts. Although research supports the notion that more education tends to lead to better
employment outcomes, educational attainment may not provide the same access and benefits to
everyone. According to new analysis of census data, young African-American men need two
more levels of education to achieve the same employment level as young White men (NCES,
2016a; U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). One can argue that there are greater benefits in income and
employment opportunities for African-American males with degrees in that professional degrees
give an African-American male a 146% higher chance of employment opportunities than his
White counterparts (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016).
Young African-American males are three steps behind the curve in terms of
employability. Consequently, they are likely to experience more frequent and longer bouts of
unemployment during their working years compared to other ethnic groups (Nichols & Simms,
2012). The information from the U.S. Census in 2016 showed that the average unemployment
rate was 5.3 %. However, the gap between the number of U.S. unemployed individuals
compared to African-Americans was 4.3%, and, statewide, California’s rate was 11% (USBLS,
2016). Furthermore, in the current economic climate, there is an increased demand for an
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 21
educated workforce to fill projected jobs. Despite current and projected growth in employment,
there is an imbalance in the number of African-American males working in the types of jobs that
can lead to career and financial mobility (USBLS, 2015). Therefore, African-American males
must prepare and gain the education required to propel them in to careers and success in the
workforce (Black, Kolesnikova, & Taylor, 2014). Figure 1 below illustrates predicted
employment based on educational status.
Figure 1. Closing the employment gap (Male).
Organizational Context and Mission
This study investigated gaps in counselors’ knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences that lead to low completion rates. The organizational context for this study was the
counseling department at Summer Community College (SCC; a pseudonym), a comprehensive
community college located in Los Angeles County, California. SCC offers certificate,
vocational, and university transfer preparation as well as an array of lifelong learning programs
to its 20,000 credit and non-credit students. The mission of SCC is to provide high-quality
instruction to a diverse student population of young and adult learners. The college is committed
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 22
to providing instructional programs and support services that offer clear pathways to achieve and
complete personal, educational, and career development.
Summer Community College’s enrollment as of spring 2015 was 16,052 students. The
number of certificates awarded in the 2015–2016 term was 2,029. Increasing overall degree and
certificate completion rates by May of 2019 is a priority. The goal was measured by data
reported beginning in 2017 on a quarterly and annual basis. Furthermore, the Equity Scorecard
is published accountability data used to track progress toward goal attainment (Bensimon, 2014).
The student success data revealed an area of concern for an increased number of students who
attend community colleges and exit without completing a program or earning a degree
(Bensimon, 2014; NCES, 2016b; CCCCO, 2014). The CCCCO established accountability
measures and mandates through the new Student Success Initiative (SB1456) to combat low
completion rates among African-American males and other underserved male students (SSSP,
2014). This initiative charged institutions with reviewing, assessing and implementing programs
and strategies to promote program- and degree-completion efforts.
Organizational Goal
The organizational goal analyzed in this study was that, by December 2019, SCC
counselors would ensure all students achieve their educational goals on time as outlined in their
education plans. The organizational goal aligns with the college’s mission and strategic plan.
The mission states a valuing of a diverse student population and mentions a commitment to
providing all students high-quality, comprehensive instructional programs and support services
that improve their success. To further this goal, in 2014, the CCCCO mandated all schools enact
the Students Support Success Initiative aimed to improve completion rates for men of color.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 23
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are many individual groups charged with executing the college’s mission and
implementing the strategic plan. SCC’s stakeholders contribute to the organization’s success by
fulfilling the mission, delivering results and delivering services and outcomes for the institution.
The three key stakeholder groups identified to contribute to and benefit from achievement of the
performance goal are the academic counselors who provide academic counseling and educational
planning, the students whose success is on the line, and the support staff within the counseling
department who have direct contact with students to initiate administrative processes required of
college students such as enrollment, scheduling appointments, coordinating orientation,
assessment and workshop logistics. When the organizational goals for student completion are
met, students benefit. When there is validation and efforts to develop rapport, gain trust, and
communicate interest, students can develop the confidence to do well academically. While
increasing student completion rates involves a joint effort from all stakeholders, the primary
stakeholders for this study are academic counselors at SCC.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The stakeholders for this study are the academic counselors in the counseling department
at SCC. Counselors were selected based on the importance of their role in the organizational
mission. The stakeholder’s goal supported by the institution is that counselors use culturally
competent counseling techniques to prepare educational plans with courses listed from entry to
completion to all African-American male students who completed 15 or fewer units. Counselors
will incorporate cultural competency in their sessions to connect and engage with this
population. Failure to accomplish this goal will lead to non-compliance of SSSP mandates,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 24
equating to a loss in funding, which can affect the institution’s ability to provide support and
interventions to its students and the organization’s overall goal of full compliance.
Stakeholder Performance Goals
To support the organizational performance goal, the counselors determined a
performance goal for their department. The goal is that, by December 2019, all of SCC’s
counselors will implement all of the culturally competent counseling strategies with all of
students all of the time (Table 1). A significant amount of the research on college student
attrition states that students who connect socially and academically early in their college
experience have a greater commitment to persistence and completion (Bean, 2005; Metzner &
Bean, 1987). Metzner and Bean (1987) proposed a student attrition model which accounted for
personal factors that affect non-traditional students’ persistence. Some of the factors involve
time, resources and a sense of wellbeing. The model emphasized how background
characteristics and interactions with an institution influence satisfaction, commitment to degree-
completion, and persistence. Simultaneously, external factors over which the institution has no
control, such as opportunity to transfer, family commitments, and financial constraints, directly
influence intentions to leave and drop out.
Despite some community colleges’ attempts to implement interventions to facilitate
faculty and student engagement opportunities, the literature asserts that community colleges can
do a better job of creating inclusive and engaging environments (Bauer, 2014; Bush & Bush,
2010; Cuyjet, 2006; Kuh, 2015; Lee, 1999; Tinto, 1997; Wood et al., 2015; Wood & Harris,
2015).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 25
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of Summer Community College is to provide instructional programs and support
services for students to achieve personal, educational, and career goals by facilitating the
transfer of knowledge and skills to prepare all students to complete certificates, degrees,
transfer, while preparing them to be productive participants in global communities.
Organizational Performance Goal
By December 2019, 100% of students will achieve their educational goals as outlined in their
education plans on time.
Stakeholder Goal
Counselors’ Performance
Goal
Staff Performance Goal Students’
Performance Goal
By December 2019, 100%
of SCC’s counselors
implement 100% of the
culturally competent
counseling strategies with
100% of students 100% of
the time.
By June 2019, 100% of the
staff provide culturally
competent service to faculty
and students 100% of time.
By December 2019, 100% of
African-American male students
engage in the strategies known to
lead to degree-completion 100%
of the time.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which SCC counselors
implement practices to decrease students’ departure from community college before earning a
certificate or degree as well as promote a culture of completion. The analysis focused on the
knowledge, motivation and organization factors that relate to achieving this goal. The
counselors are often among first contacts for students, and they are charged with preparing
educational plans and meeting the demands of the SSSP to increase completion rates for African-
American males. Due to their role, it is important to study the gaps associated with their
knowledge, motivation and organizational factors that contribute to the organizational goal. The
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 26
following questions guide this evaluation and addressed the knowledge and skills, motivation,
and organization influences for SCC:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors which promote SCC
counselors to implement 100% of the culturally competent counseling strategies with
100% of students 100% of the time to increase American-American male student
completion rates?
2. What are the recommended solutions in the areas of knowledge, motivation and
organizational factors for the counselors to provide culturally competent services to
100% of the African-American male students at SCC?
Definitions
Achievement gap: The consistent disparity in academic performance or educational attainment
between different groups of students.
Academic counselor/General counselor: Professional counselors who help the entire student
population discover academic goals, plan educational programs and develop abbreviated and
comprehensive educational plans for. They are not assigned to a specifically funded program.
Counselors can also assist with selecting a major, general education, and college and university
transfer requirements.
Black/African-American(s): According to the U.S. Office of Management and Budgets, “African-
American or African American refers to a person having origins in any of the African-American racial
groups of Africa” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). These terms are used interchangeably.
California Community College Chancellor’s Office: The governing body for the California
community college system (CCCCO, 2017a).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 27
Completion rates: Earning a certificate, a degree and/or completed the requirements to transfer to a 4-
year institution (CCCCO, 2017a).
Equity Scorecard: Diversity equity information about an institution’s demographics, equity and
access for students of color, which also serves as an accountability measure to balance
educational outcomes for students from racial and ethnic groups who are underrepresented in
higher education (Bensimon, 2004).
Retention: The number of students and the percentage of students who will matriculate from one
academic year to the next (Pennington, & Milliron, 2010).
Student Support and Success Program (3SP): A program designed to support the transition of
new students to college by providing core services that promote academic achievement and
successful completion of certificate programs and degrees (SSSP, 2014).
Student success: The completion of certificate and or degree (s) from an institution of higher
education.
Underserved student population: Students who do not receive equitable resources as other
students in educational institutions. They are typically students from low-income backgrounds,
underrepresented, racial and ethnic minorities and first-generation college students.
Underrepresented: Refers to racial and ethnic populations disproportionately represented in
higher education.
Validating agents: Academic counselors, faculty and staff who can shape students’ college
experiences and influence successful academic outcomes by being proactive in reaching out to
male students of color, invest time to develop relationships, and maintain contact with them
routinely (Bauer, 2014).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 28
Organization of the Report
This report consists of five chapters. Chapter One provides a description and background
of the study, an introduction to the research questions used to frame the study, a description of
and information on the stakeholders, and an introduction to key concepts and terminology
commonly found in a discussion about completion rates of African-American males who attend
CCCs. Chapter Two provides a summary of the current and relevant literature that informs the
study. Chapter Three describes the methodology of the study used to examine the knowledge,
organizational and motivational influences and the sampling criteria, as well as the methodology,
and the plan for data collection and analysis. Chapter Four contains information about the
validated and non-validated assumed influences based on the data collection methods used.
Chapter Five explores the validated gaps in assumed influences along with recommendations for
implementation of a training and evaluation plan from the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
framework which will help to address the validated gaps in counselors’ knowledge, motivation
and organizational influences.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 29
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a review of the literature on student completion rates, specifically
examining the knowledge, motivation and organizational factors that influence a counselor’s
ability to impact community college completion. Central to the counselor’s success is
knowledge of the context impacting African-American male students. Therefore, the chapter
also provides an overview of completion rates and student success from the perspective of
Harper’s (2012) Anti-Deficit Model. Included in the literature review is Rendon’s (1994) theory
of validation which explores various factors, including culturally competent counselor practices
of engagement and validation, as an appropriate framework for college counselors to foster
student success and influence African-American male community college completion rates.
Factors Impacting African-American Male Students’ Success
Historically, some noted disparities in the educational system that have impacted African-
American male students’ college completion rates continue to confront this population today
(Harper & Wood, 2015; Howard, 2010; Purgason, Avent, Cashwell, Jordan, & Reese, 2016). A
new trend in the African-American male completion gap is categorized by institutional factors
which can be identified as issues relating to student engagement and faculty interaction.
Scholars have documented reports of the impact of students feeling isolated on college campuses
and not feeling valued by institutional agents as contributing factors for them not to return to
college after the first or second semester of attendance (Harris & Wood, 2014b; Bean &
Metzner, 1985; Tinto, 1997). Despite growing evidence that student engagement and
institutional support are two key components for African-American male student success,
researchers have confirmed increased attention on the negative aspects of students as opposed to
the institutional factors that may impact student success (Harper, 2016; Harris & Wood, 2015;
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 30
Sue & Sue, 2012). Other researchers now believe that institutional factors that hinder or affect
academic success for African-American males should be investigated (Harris & Wood, 2015;
Wood &Turner, 2010). Consequently, Harper’s (2012) Anti-Deficit Model was a proposed
strategy which suggests that educators validate students and focus on students’ strengths.
Similarly, Rendon’s (1994) theory highlights the critical role of faculty validation. Rendon
confirmed that two forms of validation; academic and interpersonal helps to build confidence in
students’ ability to learn, and this support provided by counselors’, is a process that should begin
early in their community college experience.
Harper (2012) asserted that African-American males are ineffectively understood by
educators, policy makers and institutions. The lack of understanding creates a bias in which
educators tend to accentuate failures and low academic performance, as opposed to a more
balanced view of what constitutes higher education successes for this population (Harper, 2012,
2014). Based on the perspective of the counselor’s worldview, there is a possibility that
culturally relevant counseling efforts to assist African-American males in developing personal
strategies leading to college completion and achievement of prospective career goals may be
inconsistently applied by counselors charged with promoting their success (Lewis & Moore,
2014; Strayhorn, 2015). Awareness of student holistic issues are necessary for assisting students
and sharing knowledge about resources, financial aid and time management when a counselor
attempts to guide and direct students towards success. Although counselors are concerned with
students’ needs, if they have not been exposed to or do not share similar cultural, economic and
social backgrounds or experiences with their students, they may bring deficit assumptions to
their efforts to meet the unique needs of African-American male students, and any effort to
provide culturally relevant service may be a challenge (Harris & Wood, 2016; Howard, 2013).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 31
Research seemed to imply that it is common for African-American male college students to
experience negative perceptions in the classroom and embrace positive perceptions in an athletic
environment, and they are presumed to be involved in athletics even if they are not athletes
(Noble, 2011). These factors can contribute to how the counselor understands both the student
and where the student comes from holistically.
Cultural Competency
The literature defined cultural competency as an inclusive approach that counselors can
use to effectively work with students from diverse backgrounds (Arredondo, Tovar-Blank, &
Parham, 2008). Cultural competency broadens awareness and understanding of the roles that
dissimilarities of counselor/student culture, ethnicity, identity, gender, race, socio-economic
class, family history, spirituality and other forms of diversity play in the counseling session
(Kuh, 2008a; Lee, 2014; Sue & Sue, 2012; Wood & Williams, 2013). Although the
competencies were described as essential approaches when working with diverse populations,
researchers argued that one cannot assume that culturally competence approaches are being
practiced simply because a counselor and a student have similar backgrounds (Arredondo et al.,
2008; Wood, Palmer & Harris, 2015). In fact, one of the first steps when working with students
is to identify and acknowledge unconscious biases and differences between both individuals and
reflect on how these might affect the counseling session. Next, a counselor should ask students
what brings them into the counseling session to identify the presenting problem and provide
resources and support to help find solutions. Furthermore, the traditional counseling direct
approach model with a focus on counselor techniques; using appropriate body language, eye
contact, and open-ended questions, is not compatible with many cultures. Furthermore, it is
important to recognize that being sensitive to cultural differences is an important factor to help
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 32
build trust to conduct effective counseling sessions (Arredondo et al., 2008). According to
current research, a component of the trust-building process requires a counselor’s willingness to
respect the student, to learn more about their worldview and belief system(s) and to openly
acknowledge differences (Harris & Wood, 2016; Howard, 2002; Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
Lastly, learning about and addressing a student’s realities can contribute to counselors’ culturally
competent interventions.
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework examined the knowledge, motivation
and organizational factors influencing the ability to meet an organizational goal. This study
utilized the gap analysis framework to understand the essential causes of performance gaps. The
gaps were identified and analyzed to validate the influencers as assets or hindrances that may
contribute to or preclude from the organizational goal. The results of the analysis helped to
provide solutions to implement in the organization to close the performance gap.
The stakeholders for this analysis are SCC counselors. This section examines the
knowledge these counselors need to advance the goal of increasing completion rates for African-
American males. The literature described three knowledge types: declarative (factual and
conceptual), procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). Factual and conceptual
knowledge are usually discussed together as declarative knowledge. Declarative knowledge
refers to facts and concepts, primarily what an individual needs to know. Procedural knowledge
is an understanding of how to do something of how to accomplish a task. Krathwohl (2002)
included a metacognitive knowledge dimension, which is knowledge obtained from insight of
one’s own thoughts and thinking about thinking (Baker, 2008). Furthermore, metacognitive
knowledge is self-awareness and understanding the role that every counselor plays in the process
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 33
of increasing student completion rates for African-American males and other underserved male
students. Next, this section examines how each knowledge type relates to the stakeholder goal.
The stakeholders are the counselors, and there are numerous tools and procedures they need
knowledge of to help African-American males and other underserved male populations complete
community college. To determine if a gap in knowledge exists, it is important to understand
what type of knowledge an individual has or lacks. Krathwohl provided a map to assess what is
learned and determine if learning occurs through cognitive self-awareness or from the
declarative, procedural or metacognitive frameworks.
Assumed Knowledge Influences
This study focused on counselors’ knowledge through Krathwohl’s (2002) three
knowledge dimensions: declarative, procedural and metacognitive. For this study, declarative
knowledge includes factual and conceptual knowledge. Factual knowledge reflects the specific
knowledge and details a counselor must know to do the job. Conceptual knowledge represents
the relationships among categories, theories, mental models and schemas and uses them to make
information usable between components. Combined, the two knowledge types are known as
declarative knowledge, which represents the knowledge that answers what a person knows or
needs to know to solve a problem (He, & Hutson, 2016; Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural
knowledge focuses on the skills, techniques and abilities individual needs to have to complete a
task (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Krathwohl, 2002). The final knowledge type is metacognitive
knowledge, which represents a counselors’ awareness about their own knowledge and thinking.
Metacognition plays a critical role in learning and performance; it is how the learner knows to
use appropriate learning processes (Mayer, 2011). The process of reflection and metacognition
helps individuals to identify their own knowledge gaps, and to make any appropriate changes, if
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 34
necessary. Rosin (2015) studied the work of counselors and referred to reflection as a helpful
tool to enrich academic advisors’ actions to improve practice.
Declarative knowledge influences. To create cultures of completion and to meet the
organizational goal of increasing completion rates for African-American males, counselors must
know what the research says about the reasons students leave college without attaining a degree.
It is important that the counselors understand the facts about completion rates, and they must
have conceptual knowledge about research data that reveal a counselor’s actions and behaviors
have a direct influence on students’ academic and personal development (Bush & Bush, 2010;
Harper, 2016; Harris & Wood, 2013; Vasquez Urias & Wood, 2014; Wood et al., 2015; Wood &
Turner, 2010). Counselors must also have the necessary declarative knowledge to understand
the goals of the organization (SSSP, 2014). To successfully meet the goal and create an
environment where counselors have an impact on efforts to close the achievement gap, they need
conceptual knowledge to ensure their role is working in partnership with students and the
organization to promote the goal.
Counselors need to know the reasons African-American male students drop out before
completing college. Research suggests that counselors are exposed to factors that students’
reveal in daily counseling sessions that can potentially disrupt the student’s chances of
completing community college. Counselors also encounter African-American students facing
numerous challenges that impact their decision to complete their goals (ACA, 2016; Harris &
Wood, 2017). One of the challenges to remaining in school is the cost of attending college,
which can be a financial strain on students and their families. The literature revealed that the
costs to attend community colleges rose by 200% in the last 7 years and 7.3% since 2009
(CCCCO, 2017b). Sixty percent of community college students attended school part-time and
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 35
worked 20 hours per week, limiting their financial aid options. Of the community college pool
of students, 25% worked at least 35 or more hours per week to support themselves. In addition
to the rise in tuition, textbooks costs have significantly increased.
Some student development theories highlighted the benefits regarding the role of
supportive services as a key factor in promoting student completion (Astin, 1984; Bandura,
1986a; Kuh, 2008a; Tinto, 1993). In addition to providing support, counselors working in
community colleges are expected to accomplish a wide range of duties and deal with the
institutional challenges and accountability measures related to the exposure from the Bensimon
(2014) equity scorecard data and the Student Success and Support (3SP) mandates.
Several studies confirmed reasons African-American males’ completion rates are low
Astin & Astin, 2015; Harris & Wood, 2016; Xiong et al., 2016). Considering that several other
studies (Bush & Bush, 2010; Gardenhire-Crooks, Collado, Martin, & Castro, 2010; Harris &
Wood, 2014b) deemed the reasons to be preventable, counselors must have knowledge of the
factors that minimize or prevent low completion rates. Some of the most common factors
identified in the research for low completion rates for African-American males are the need to
work to help support family, not being able to balance school and work, inadequate finances,
family issues, faculty validation, a non-welcoming campus environment, no sense of belonging,
and academic unpreparedness that affects success in college. If the goal of counselors is to
utilize culturally competent practices that will result in increased completion rates, then they
must know the causes for premature departure from college that relate to counselors’ behavior,
such as being developing a rapport, establishing credibility, and demonstrating care for the
student as an individual.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 36
Counselors need a shared definition of cultural competency. Culturally competent
counseling has become a major topic in the counseling profession that affects theory and
practice, and it is characterized as counselors’ becoming cognizant of and respecting
multiculturalism and diversity (Casas, Suzuki, Alexander & Jackson, 2016; Lee, 2014). The
literature points out that a change in the nation’s demographics resulted in an increasingly
diverse society (California Community College Student Success Task Force, 2014; Dowd et al.,
2013; Harper & Wood, 2015; Wood & Williams, 2013; Wood et al., 2015). It is also important
to understand that diversity encompasses more than race and ethnicity.
Diversity can include other aspects of culture, such socioeconomic or disability status.
Therefore, recognizing and being sensitive to cultural differences is essential to establishing the
trust necessary to conduct effective counseling sessions (Lee, 2014). When counseling across
cultures, there is a need for counselors to engage in prevention, intervention and advocacy for
students regarding equity and access (Portman, 2009). The literature also states that helping
students navigate systems of oppression, acting as change agents within school settings and
incorporating levels of sensitivity and awareness are characteristics of cultural competency
(Parikh, Post, & Flowers, 2011, p. 59). A skilled culturally competent counselor also shows
knowledge of cultural skills and uses client-based interventions (Ahmed, Wilson, Henriksen, &
Jones, 2011; Chung & Bemak, 2002).
Furthermore, being culturally aware and recognizing how culture affects the counseling
process is a characteristic of cultural competency that provides the counselors opportunities to
develop empathy towards students (Pedersen, 1991). According to the research, having a clear
understanding and a shared definition of cultural competency, and the impact it has on the
student/counselor relationship, can help to form relationships valued by the student (Bauer, 2014;
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 37
Lee, 2014; Moore-Thomas & Day-Vines, 2010; Sue & Sue, 2012). In addition, a culturally
competent counselor is one who explores their personal beliefs, attitudes and knowledge about
working with diverse populations, addresses the impact of poverty and social class on academic
performance, ensures that all students’ rights are protected, and consults and collaborates with
institutional stakeholders to create a welcoming climate that appreciates the strengths and gifts of
culturally diverse students. Building up the students by using validation and other cultural
competencies can empower them and influence their productivity in college (Harris & Wood,
2016; Tovar, 2015).
Counselors need to know the institution’s primary goals. To meet the organizational
goals, counselors must know and understand the organization’s goals. Counselors are usually
the first to see students, and they play a pivotal role to student success (Wood, 2014). Learning
how to identify goals and use best practices to guide students appropriately towards degree
attainment or career technical certificates and transfer preparation is key. Therefore, counselors
who lack knowledge can run the risk of not implementing the services of orientation and
counseling and of not assisting students to properly develop educational plans (SSSP, 2014). If
the goal is for counselors to engage in culturally competent practices that are more likely to
increase completion, then they need to know the causes of low completion, specifically the direct
impact that their lack of knowledge has on student success. Consequently, students who attend
community college depend on counselors to guide and lead them towards their academic and
professional goals. The counselors who fail to grow by developing or enhancing cultural
competency skills will be less equipped to assist and address issues of culturally diverse students
(Hays, 2008). Subsequently, if counselors lack the knowledge, their shortcomings will
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 38
negatively affect students who typically do not have educational guidance at home to be
successful in college (Adams, 2012; Harris & Wood, 2014a).
Procedural knowledge influence. Procedural knowledge focuses on knowing how to do
something or how to complete a task (Krathwohl, 2002). Counselors must know how to use their
declarative knowledge to increase student completion by putting innovative procedures,
techniques and practices into action.
Counselors need to know the steps to guide students toward their academic goals from
entry to completion. Studies showed that students who meet with counselors prior to starting
school are more successful in their academic journey (Harris, 2016; Tinto, 1997; Wood, 2014).
Counselors as validating agents need to know the steps to guide students from the moment they
enter the college campus until they are ready to earn a certificate or degree or when they have
achieved their goals (Bauer, 2014; CCCCO, 2016; Dowd, Pak & Bensimon, 2013; Kuh, 2008a).
Considering a student may have had limited exposure to the college culture, the first step
requires a counselor display patience and attentiveness to make skillful observations, appropriate
inquiries, and to make a proper evaluation.
For assisting a student to determine a major, a counselor-initiated referral to the career
center is a viable resource. The career center’s role is to help students explore career options and
to take various career assessments, including the MBTI or Strong Inventory, to determine majors
and careers that may be a good fit for the student. Once the major has been determined, the next
step is to walk the student through the major requirements for their specific goal and to review
all options for public, private, in-state and out-of-state college choices. In most cases at the
community college level, the goal is to complete courses for personal gain, for a certificate
program, for an associate’s degree, or to prepare to transfer (CCCCO, 2016).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 39
The final step is to discuss and acknowledge concerns and communicate the options.
Once agreed upon by the student, the counselor develops a comprehensive educational plan,
which is a detailed list of all courses the student must complete to meet the educational goal.
The literature outlines the steps in the Student Support and Success Plan as strategies that lead to
completion and success in community college (SSSP, 2016). Ultimately, the completion of all
necessary steps is to assist the student achieve academic and/or personal goals. However, this
may not necessarily mean college completion, which is the institution’s goal.
Metacognitive knowledge influences. The counselors at SCC play a key role in helping
students make life-changing decisions, so it is important for counselors to be self-reflective and
have knowledge of their own strengths and challenges. Metacognitive knowledge is
characterized by knowledge and insight into one’s own thinking, and self-awareness, which
allows individuals to adapt their thinking and behavior for continued success (Baker, 2006;
Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive knowledge allows counselors to reflect on how well they
provide culturally competent services to students. Kuh (2015) discussed the importance of
counselors learning to reflect, integrate and to apply knowledge. Because the method of
counseling can be designed to increase the probability of student success, it is important for
counselors to make this a practice.
Counselors’ understanding and practices of reflection are limited. The counselors’ role
in increasing completion rates involves changing their thinking. Kuh (2015) stated that the
practice of reflection was identified to improve counseling techniques through self-awareness.
Baker (2006) believed that, to enhance effectiveness, individuals must reflect on, evaluate, and
improve their performance. Further, the power of observational learning and feedback is an
effective process of self-reflection that leads to self-regulation (Bandura, 2000; Howard, 2013).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 40
Research showed that acquiring new knowledge and reflecting on one’s own performance must
be an intentional and ongoing process. In fact, reflection on one’s personal beliefs and practices,
may influence student interactions and effective workplace changes (Harris, 2009; Mayer, 2011;
Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
Information about counselors’ ability to reflect on how they think about their own culture
yields information on how they perceive African-American male students and their
understanding about how individual cultural biases can impact a counseling session (Pedersen,
2002; Sue & Sue, 2012). The process of reflecting on self-knowledge may allow counselors to
recognize and address potential biases that may hinder their performance when attempting to
authentically connect with African-American male students (Harris & Wood, 2016). The
literature confirmed reflective practices as a method to encourage a culture that attempts to
establish high expectations and support for college students (Bauer, 2014; Orozco, Alvarez, &
Gutkin, 2010; Wood, 2014). Counselors who provide culturally responsive interactions with
African-American male students are encouraged to create specifically tailored educational plans
geared toward program- or degree-completion, transfer, and /or career preparation to put students
on the path to success (Gordon & Steele, 2015; Harris & Wood, 2016). This type of educational
plan can ensure that course selection improves chances for acceptance into 4-year colleges and
universities.
Counselors who framed counseling issues in culturally relevant ways, by being aware of
their own cultural biases, pre-conceived notions, personal limitations and ability to break through
the cultural barriers, tend to have a clear understanding of what is expected of them when
working with African-American males (Harper, 2012; Harris & Wood, 2015; Seidman, 2005).
Furthermore, reflecting on past inappropriate assumptions about students will limit inaccurate
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 41
assessments, a false sense of understanding and inappropriate interventions (Pedersen, 2002). In
a study conducted by Harris and Wood (2016), men of color reported being labeled and
categorized as athletes due to their height or stature and being mistreated at the front desk
because they were assumed to be athletes associated with a specific program. Likewise, the
ability to reflect on self-awareness by accurately analyzing feedback within the context of other
cultures is beneficial to understand changing viewpoints, which can increase the likelihood of
asking the right questions in a counseling session (Pedersen, 2002).
Assumed Motivational Influences
Motivation is defined through three indicators, active choice, persistence, and mental
effort, which may influence or contribute to an organization’s performance gaps (Clark & Estes,
2008). Motivation is an important factor that can determine the amount of attention and energy
exerted to solve a problem or reach a goal. According to the literature, motivation is also a key
component in an organization that keeps individuals functioning at high levels and the reason
they have the persistence, commitment, and drive to invest the mental effort to achieve
organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011). Motivation is what drives individuals
to complete a goal despite barriers, and when employees are self-motivated, their enhanced
efforts can increase organizational performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy refers to belief in one’s ability to complete a task
successfully. Self-efficacy is less about an individual’s knowledge and skills and more about
their ability to take actions to begin and complete a task (Bandura, 2000; Pajares, 2006).
Furthermore, an individual’s expectation of success or failure often predicts the amount of
mental effort, performance, and persistence they exert to achieve a goal. In counseling, self-
efficacy describes the counselor’s confidence to carry out strategies and actions, such as taking
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 42
the steps required to increase completion rates and the confidence to use culturally competent
counseling techniques to meet the goal. Counselors have direct contact with diverse students
daily; therefore, having confidence in their counseling techniques and being able to thrive is
important for the organization to meet its performance goals.
Self-efficacy influence: Counselors need to be confident in their ability to provide
culturally competent counseling services. Self-efficacy theory is the belief that an individual’s
actions influence outcomes (Bandura, 2000). Self-efficacy is judgment that determines if an
individual has the capabilities to perform a task (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2011). In a counseling
setting, self-efficacy describes the counselor’s belief that their actions will have an impact on
African-American male students’ completion rates. Counselors with low levels of self-efficacy
would believe their actions will not contribute to increasing completion rates, which would affect
their motivation to take actions to improve them. Counselors with high self-efficacy will use
strategies such as connecting and engaging with students of different cultures, supporting
students in their academic efforts, validating students and believing they can be successful.
Hence, counselors must experience high levels of self-efficacy to maintain motivation (Pajares,
2006). Counselors can apply the principles of self-efficacy to experience motivation in their
work settings, to provide culturally competent counseling to develop educational plans, and to
have an impact on African-American male students’ completion rates. The literature describes
self-efficacy as an important component to observe when discussing the motivation that
counselors need to have an impact on for African-American male students’ completion rates and
success (Harper, 2016; Hayes, Cunningham, & Courseault, 2006; Strayhorn, 2015; Wood, 2010).
A fact that is often unnoticed is that that many counselors enter the profession with the
motivation necessary to assist students earn certificates and degrees. However, over a period,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 43
low student completion rates can be discouraging and cause a lack of motivation (Bush & Bush,
2010).
Self-efficacy plays a significant role with counselor’s practices, as it impacts the way the
counseling is performed. Counselors who perceive themselves as able to provide culturally
competent counseling will be more confident in their practices. The goal of providing culturally
competent services to all African-American male students will require counselors to believe that
they can do so (Eccles, 2006). Pajares (2006) stated that, when a person’s belief increases, their
motivation to meet the goal also increases. Counselors who are confident in their abilities, will
believe they have the skills to develop a shared definition of a cultural competency framework
and provide counseling in a way that will promote student success (Bandura, 2000).
Expectancy value theory. Expectancy value theory (EVT) is present when an individual
believes their ability and beliefs will lead to success (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). EVT links
success to an individual’s expectations and values attached to a task (Eccles, 2006). For
individuals to be motivated, they must believe their actions will result in positive outcomes.
According to the literature, the value or importance of the action is determined by the
individual’s beliefs and the cultural norms that shape their identity, values and others’
perceptions about the action (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). When addressing EVT, evaluating an
individual’s ability to be successful when approaching a goal and the motivation to put forth
necessary effort to be successful is key (Eccles, 2009). When providing culturally competent
counseling, a counselor must apply EVT to analyze their expectation for success. This includes
evaluating the counselors’ desire to engage in the behaviors that promote completion and the
effort required to create the preferred outcomes. Additionally, Wigfield and Eccles (2000) found
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 44
that individuals who understand the connection between their behaviors and the impact on their
organizations will be more motivated to take the necessary actions
Counselors need to believe their effort makes a difference in student success and
completion rates. Establishing value in higher education can be a difficult task. Although the
literature speaks of personal rewards for completing tasks, there are also financial awards and
bonuses that are common practice in some corporate jobs and are non-existent in the educational
realm. In many cases, the rewards come from the feelings attached to each task (Hendijani,
Bishak, Arvai, & Dugar, 2016). Considering that counselors assist students with transitions to
the academic world and with valuing the learning process, counselors tend to be motivated when
students succeed (Wood, 2010). The challenge is to maintain motivation when scores are low or
when students are not completing college. According to Wigfield and Eccles (2000), individuals
who understand the connections between behaviors and the impact they have on other
individuals and the institution will be more motivated to complete the goal. In this case, the goal
is to provide culturally competent counseling to increase completion rates (Harris & Wood,
2016). Although research has supported the importance of providing effective culturally
competent counseling, the literature asserts that many counselors have not had ongoing training
in this area and may have the motivation while lacking the knowledge and resources required.
Organizational Influences
Organizational influences can have significant impact on stakeholders’ ability to achieve
the institutional goals (Burke, 2017; Clark & Estes, 2008). Some leaders seek solutions quickly,
without completing a full evaluation of the root of the problems, but understanding
organizational influences can help a leader identify gaps and implement the necessary changes to
build an effective organization (Agocs, 1997: Clark & Estes, 2008: Senge, 1990).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 45
Organizational challenges can be categorized as challenges in knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences. Therefore, organizational resources, policies, and procedures help to
solve problems and create sustained changes in organizations. Thus, properly accounting for
organizational influences and increased demands for organizational accountability allows for
successful understanding of the climate for sustainable change (Bensimon, 2004; Clark & Estes,
2008; Kezar, 2001; Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996). This literature review focused on the
organizational influences affecting the ability to increase completion rates at SCC.
Cultural models and cultural settings. An organization’s culture is a compilation of
shared assumptions developed based on underlying assumptions, beliefs, goals and values that
have become part of the norm (Schein, 2010). In many cases, existing employees teach new
employees these shared and often invisible assumptions. As counselors pass this information on
to others, the organizational culture perpetuates itself. Although an organizational culture can be
invisible, it can potentially have powerful effects on an organization’s performance (Rueda,
2011; Shahzad & Luqman, 2012). The assumptions about student completion can contribute to
the culture and climate of the institution. In fact, policies, procedures, and organizational
practices are a part of an organization’s culture.
Cultural models can be deeply rooted, unconscious practices that individuals often
assume that others share the same ideas, practices, and views (Schneider, Brief and Guzzo,
1996). To understand the culture of an organization, knowing what the individuals in the
organization value provides a better overall understanding of the culture.
There are various factors that contribute to cultural influences that can aid in creating
organizational changes. Research supports the idea that change in organizational cultures can
occur over time if the stakeholder's culture and behaviors change and when the leaders see the
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 46
need for change (Clark & Estes, 2008; Kezar, 2001). Cultural models are automatic, can occur
organically and go unnoticed by individuals immersed and living in the culture (Rueda, 2011).
Often, it is behaviors and practices through the lenses of the cultural settings that allow culture to
be visibly displayed. Furthermore, cultural models can provide a framework for what is valued
and avoided in an organization and help to understand the variables that shape the environment
(Schein, 2004). As a result, these maps provide information on how a member thinks and what
is good, bad, right or wrong, and it is important to consider cultural models and cultural settings
when assessing an organization’s culture (Clark & Estes, 2008). It is in the cultural settings
where culture becomes visible. This section examines both the cultural models and cultural
settings that influence SCC.
Assumed cultural models influence: Leaders model culturally competent practices
that contribute to student engagement and completion. One method of modeling is coaching,
which is one of the most effective forms of feedback that promotes long-term growth and
impacts the performance of individuals and groups (Musu-Gillette, Robinson, McFarland,
KewalRamani, Zhang, & Wilkinson-Flicker, 2016). Considering that modeling and coaching
enhance counselor effectiveness, it is important to assess opportunities within the institution to
use this method to raise performance. One model of cultural competency is the role of a
counselor in establishing a culture of community college completion. A synthesis of the
literature revealed the role of counselor in student completion (Bauer 2014; Harris & Wood,
2015). Due to educational inequities, African-American males tend to need more attention and
support than their White counterparts (Harper, 2012) primarily because African-American males
are often the first in their families to attend college. In many cases, they are unfamiliar with the
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 47
college culture and may find difficulty navigating the higher education system academically,
emotionally, financially, and socially (Xiang & Wood, 2015; Stinson, 2011).
This conflict has also created a culture in which the leaders must model the desired
behaviors, so counselors can provide this service within the existing parameters. If leaders do
not understand these influences, they will not understand the impact of their own beliefs about
how a counselor should provide services to students in shaping an organizational culture that
prioritizes counselor quality over quantity of services.
In some cases, the knowledge and motivation are present; however, there are
organizational factors that hinder performance. The cultural settings are the various places at
SCC where leadership behaviors can be observed. The settings were counseling offices,
classrooms during workshops, meeting offices, and conference rooms. The behaviors helped to
align leaders’ beliefs about the importance of student completion with their own behaviors that
model cultural competencies. An organizational gap occurred when leaders stated they value
student completion but did not model the behaviors to make counselors aware of which were
necessary to perform their job effectively
Assumed cultural settings influences. Cultural setting in an organization is developed
through a combination of culture and climate over time (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996).
Cultural settings influence how, and the degree to which, individuals embrace new practices and
understand how they can contribute to them.
Policies, procedures, and organizational resources need to be aligned with practices
known to provide effective solutions. There are many organizational policies and procedures
linked to increasing completion rates. It is important members of organizations know the factors
such as adequate time, resources, ongoing training, time to engage with students and validation,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 48
so they can align policies to ensure support of these factors (Bauer, 2014; Harper, 2016; Harris &
Wood, 2017). In a study of 13 community college counselors, Bauer (2014) specified policies
and procedures that can enhance efforts to improve organizational performance. Policies not
aligned with the desired behaviors or outcomes can become barriers to change, and resistive
policies should be replaced to facilitate movement toward the strategic goal, (Agocs, 1997;
Westbrook, 2006). The organization’s leaders must know the causes of low completion rates to
align the policies and procedures to have the desired outcomes. For counselors to be effective in
providing culturally competent counseling to impact completion rates, they need support through
organizational policies and resources, which could also include longer appointment times with
students. Clark and Estes (2008) provided a summary of the importance of the alignment of
organizational policies and resources with the organizational objectives.
Summary
Table 2 presents the factors, the assumed organizational influences, and the literature that
supports factors that may prevent SCC from meeting its performance goal.
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Influences on the Role of Counselors in Increasing Student Completion
Rates
Research Literature
Knowledge (Declarative)
Counselors need to know the
reasons African-American male
students enroll and drop out of
before completing college. (D)
A2Mend (2015); Harper (2014); Harris & Wood, (2017)
Moore (2009); Umoja (2015)
Counselors need to have a
shared definition of culturally
competent strategies. (D)
Arredondo et al., (2008); Bean & Metzner (2014); Sue &
Sue (2012)
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 49
Table 2, continued
Research Literature
Counselors need to know the
goals of the institution and what
is expected of them. (D)
Counselors need to know how
to effectively guide students
toward clear pathways to reach
their academic goals from entry
to completion. (P)
Counselors’ understanding and
practices of reflection are
limited. (M)
Bensimon (2007); Harper (2014); Harris & Wood (2016);
Lee (2014); Moore (2009); Strayhorn (2008); Sue & Sue
(2012); Wood (2010)
Harper (2014); Harris & Wood (2016); Lee (2014); Moore
(2009); Strayhorn (2008); Sue & Sue (2012); Wood (2010)
Harper (2014); Harris & Wood (2016); Lee (2014); Moore
(2009); Strayhorn (2008); Sue & Sue (2012); Wood (2010)
Motivation (Self-efficacy)
Counselors need to be confident
in their ability to provide
culturally competent counseling
services.
Ahmed et al. (2011); Bandura (1986b); Harris (2014);
Pajares (2006); Pintrich (2003); Wigfield & Eccles (2000);
Wood (2010); Wood (2015); Sue & Sue (2012)
Motivation (Expectancy Value)
Expectancy value theory
Counselors need to believe
that their effort makes a
difference in student success
and completion.
Bandura (2000); Harris (2014); Pajares (2006); Pintrich
(2003); Wood (2015); Sue & Sue (2012)
Ahmed et al. (2011); Wood (2010)
Bandura (1986a); Gosselin and Maddux (2003); Wigfield
and Eccles (2000)
Organizational Influences
Cultural Models:
Leaders of the organization
model culturally competent
practices that contribute to
student engagement and
completion.
Cultural Setting:
The policies, procedures, are
aligned with practices known to
provide effective solutions to
the goal.
Bauer (2014); Bensimon (2007); (2004); Harper (2012);
Counselor Engagement Survey, (2016); SSSP (2014)
Creswell (2014); Howard (2012);
McEwan and McEwan (2003)
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 50
Conclusion
This study addressed the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences at SCC
that impact the counselor’s ability to provide culturally competent counseling to increase
completion rates. This study included a review of the literature supporting the assumed
influences and confirmed these with related theories and empirical research. This study used a
mixed-methods approach to data collection. The data sources were surveys, interviews, and
document analysis and served to validate the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organization
influences in this study. The validation process is presented in more detail in Chapter Three.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 51
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study consisted a gap analysis regarding the knowledge, motivational and
organizational influences and assumed factors that influence SCC counselors’ ability to achieve
the goal of using culturally competent counseling to increase the completion rates of African-
American male students. This study examined what counselors should know and do about the
factors influencing low completion rates, what they need to believe and value about their role as
counselors who provide validation and support to students, and what resources they need to have
to promote organizational sustainability and to ultimately reduce the numbers of African-
American students leaving college without a degree. This chapter presented the study’s
methodology for validating the assumed causes identified in the previous chapter. The chapter
presents the research questions, a discussion of the conceptual framework, and the data
collection process including the sample selection, instrumentation, data sources, and data
analysis plan.
The following questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors which promote SCC
counselors to implement 100% of the culturally competent counseling strategies with
100% of students 100% of the time to increase African-American male student
completion rates?
2. What are the recommended solutions in the areas of knowledge, motivation and
organizational factors for the counselors to provide culturally competent services to
100% of the African-American male students at Summer Community College?
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 52
Conceptual Framework
This section will outline the conceptual framework for the research study of the
counselors’ role in providing culturally competent counseling resulting in more African-
American males receiving certificates and or degrees from community colleges.
Maxwell (2013) described the conceptual framework of a study as “concepts,
assumptions, expectations, beliefs and theories” (p. 39) that influence and guide a research study
and helps to ensure the integrity of the research design. Additionally, Merriam and Tisdell
(2016b) described conceptual framework as a guide for a research study. Considering that the
conceptual framework is developed from multiple sources; including revisable concepts, it is
derived from an individual’s experiences, culture, and documents etc. (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016b). Knowledge of previous research and theory can aid a researcher in focusing on the most
important concepts that will guide a study, along with the appropriate data collection and
analysis process to ensure the integrity of the research design (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016b).
The conceptual framework assists the researcher to assess and refine goals, develop
realistic and relevant research questions, select appropriate sampling methods and to identify
potential validity threats that can impact the trustworthiness of the study (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016b). Without these shared understandings and assumptions, there is a
possibility that the results of the study can be interpreted in various ways that may lead to
inaccuracy of the interpretation of the findings (Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual framework
(Figure 2) is the representation of the relationship between the organization, the counselors, and
their interconnectedness and it is displayed in the diagram.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 53
Figure 2. Conceptual framework.
Methodological Framework
This research study utilized Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis problem-solving
methodology to identify the gap between the current level of performance and SCC’s desired
level of performance necessary to meet the organizational goals. The gap analysis is a
framework that assisted in clarifying the organizational goals and identified possible causes of
the performance gaps. Clark and Estes (2008) described three root causes of performance
problems that can occur because of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational challenges.
Together, the three causes are referred to as the knowledge, motivation and organization (KMO)
analysis, and they provide a framework that organizations can use to determine the reasons for
Organizational Factors
Culture/Values
Counselor Skill/Knowledge
Counselor will have the right
knowledge and skills to
positively influence student
completion rates
Counselor Motivation/Will
Counselors will be willing to
have the motivation and the
belief that they can positively
influence student completion
rates.
Performance Goals
Implement 100% of culturally competent
strategies with 100% of students 100% of the
time by December 2019
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 54
organizational challenges. While each cause requires different interventions to solve, difficult
and complex organizational problems normally include more than one assumed cause. When a
problem is analyzed through the gap analysis framework, the causes of the organization’s
underperformance can be detected, accurately diagnosed and efficiently solved (Clark & Estes,
2008).
The researcher’s experience in the field of education and counseling, and extensive
review of the literature determined the assumed causes for the gap in performance in this study.
Then the assumed causes were tested through the surveys, interviews, document analysis, and the
literature. Proposed solutions were grounded from the research and resulted in an evaluation
process to validate the effectiveness of the solutions. Figure 3 represents Clark and Estes’ (2008)
gap analysis process.
Figure 3. Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis process.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis methodology involved several data sources to
analyze organizational performance gaps, and to identify and validate the root causes and
possible solutions to help the organization solve the problem. The data collection included
qualitative and quantitative methods. An initial survey was used to gather feedback from the
counselors, followed by, interviews which provided a deeper understanding of the counselors’
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 55
knowledge, motivation and organizational factors related to using cultural competency to
increase student completion rates. Specifically, document analysis helped to triangulate the data
findings from the other two data sources. The results were presented in Chapter Four (Results
and Findings) and performance recommendations were presented in Chapter Five.
Assessment of Performance Influences
Throughout the study, the researcher explored the knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences affect the way SCC counselors provided culturally competent
counseling to the African-American male students. In Chapter Two, the researcher identified the
assumed factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge causes. Further, the assumed
motivational factors including those related to self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986a; Pajares, 2006), and
expectancy value (Eccles, 2006, 2009), and assumed organizational causes were also identified
and appear in the tables below.
Knowledge Assessment
The literature was the foundation for the researcher to identify possible knowledge types
that may impact the way that the counselors at SCC provide culturally competent services to
students.
Table 3 illustrates the four assumed knowledge influences related to what counselors
need to know to provide culturally competent counseling to increase student completion rates.
The table includes the corresponding survey and the interview questions, which will be used to
assess these assumed influences.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 56
Table 3
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Influence Assessments
Counselors need to know the
reasons why African-American
males start and do not complete
college. (D)
Survey:
Which of the following are reasons why you think African-
American males start and do not complete college? Check
all that apply.
a) Lack of campus engagement
b) Not sure of major/degree requirements
c) Difficulty balancing work and school
d) Family commitments
e) All of the above
Interviews:
What do you think are the reasons that African-American
males drop out of college before earning a certificate or
degree?
Counselors need to know the
primary goals of the institution.
(D)
Survey:
Which of the following are the goals of the institution?
Check all that apply:
a) Increase equity and inclusion, meet 3Sp goals,
prepare educational plans, and increase student
completion rates
b) Increase institutional revenue, increase enrollment,
and limit staff reduction
c) Meet 3SP goals, hire more counselors, and provide
basic skills requirements;
d) All of the above
e) Not sure
Interviews:
Define what SCC’s goal is with respect to student
completion rates?
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 57
Table 3, continued
Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Influence Assessments
Counselors need to have a
shared definition of cultural
competency. (D)
Counselors’ understanding and
practices of reflection are
limited. (M)
Survey:
The survey question did not accurately measure this
influence.
Interviews:
How would you define your knowledge of cultural
competency and what is the counseling department’s
definition? Does your department have definition that is
shared among the counselors?
Survey:
Reflection is a process that allows counselors to:
a) Replay counseling sessions and learn from the
experiences
b) See things from a student’s perspective and help
them navigate intimidating complex systems of
higher education
c) Listen and respond to feelings
d) All of the above
e) Not sure
Survey:
When a student leaves your office do you take time to
reflect?
a) Never
b) Rarely
c) Sometimes
d) Most of the time
e) Always
Interview:
From your experience as a counselor, please share with me
your understanding of reflection and how often you use
reflection practices?
Note. Knowledge types for each assumed influence correspond to the following abbreviations:
(D)=Declarative Knowledge; (P)=Procedural Knowledge; (M)= Metacognitive Knowledge.
Motivation Assessment
The two motivational influences used in this study are self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986a) and
EVT, which described whether the counselors believed that they have the knowledge, confidence
and efforts to provide culturally competent counseling services to achieve the goal. The
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 58
motivational factors were assessed through surveys and interviews. Table 4 illustrates the two
motivational influences related to what counselors need to know to increase completion rates and
includes the corresponding survey and interview questions that were used to assess this
influence.
Table 4
Assumed Motivation Influences
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivation Influence Assessments
Counselors need to be confident
in their ability to provide
culturally competent counseling
services. (Self-efficacy)
Survey:
How confident are you in providing culturally competent
counseling services to African-American male and other
underserved students?
a) Not confident at all
b) Not very confident
c) Somewhat confident
d) Quite confident
e) Extremely confident
Interviews:
How confident are you in your ability to provide
culturally competent counseling services to prevent
African-American male and other underserved students
from dropping out of college? Describe how you would
do so in a counseling session?
What reasons do you have to be confident that you are
able to prevent African-American males and other
underserved students from dropping out of SCC?
Counselors need to believe that
their effort makes a difference in
student success and completion
rates. (EVT)
Survey: No Survey question was used to assess this
influence.
Interviews:
Describe how you think your efforts will bring about a
change with student completion rates?
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 59
Organizational and Cultural Assessment
The literature identified five organizational influences, which impact how the counselors
at SCC provide culturally competent services to African-American male students. The
organizational influences were assessed through surveys and interviews.
Table 5
Assumed Organizational Influences
Assumed Organization
Influences
Organization Influence Assessments
Cultural Models:
Leaders of the organization model
culturally competent practices that
contribute to student engagement
and completion.
Survey:
The leaders of the institution model culturally competent
counseling practices that contribute to student
engagement and completion?
(a) Strongly Disagree
(b) Disagree
(c) Neither Agree or Disagree
(d) Agree
(e) Strongly Agree
Interviews:
Describe the ways that your department leadership
models cultural competency to support the goal?
Cultural Setting:
The policies and procedures
need to be aligned with
practices known to support
students to remain in college.
Survey:
A thirty-minute counseling appointment is enough time for
me to engage with each student to create a comprehensive
educational plan.
(a) Strongly Disagree
(b) Disagree
(c) Neither Agree/Disagree
(d) Agree
(e) Strongly Agree
Interviews:
What resources do you need to effectively counsel
students?
Some example of resources can include and is not limited to
time, staff, finances, support etc.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 60
Table 5, continued
Assumed Organization
Influences
Organization Influence Assessments
The organization needs to have
a procedure for providing
frequent feedback and coaching
opportunities for counselors.
Survey:
To what degree does SCC provide a regular procedure for
providing frequent feedback and coaching?
a) All of the time
b) Often
c) Sometimes
d) Rarely
e) Never
Interview Question(s):
Please describe the organization’s procedure for providing
feedback to counselors.
Document Analysis:
Review the Employee Policy Handbook to determine if
SCC has a regular procedure for providing frequent
feedback and coaching opportunities for counselors.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study are the academic counselors at SCC. The academic
counselors provide direct services to students. For this study, it is essential that the researcher
understand the knowledge, skills and motivation of the counselors. The counselors provide
guidance, direction and information to assist students with achieving their academic and personal
goals. The counselors are required to have at minimum a master’s degree.
Survey and Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Due to the small sample size of the stakeholder group, this study used a purposeful
sampling strategy for the surveys. All academic counselors were sampled for participation in
this study. The goal of the surveys was to collect objective unbiased information from a group of
stakeholders to improve organizational processes. According to Creswell (2015), surveys are
helpful when attempting to gather data, however, the use surveys can have some disadvantages
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 61
based on the sample size. Small sample sizes can create bias because of the potential for low
response rates. Although self-reporting is the foundation of survey research, the accuracy of
surveys can also be questioned, because it depends on the respondents telling the truth (Maxwell,
2016).
Purposeful sampling is a non-probability sampling method where the researcher
deliberately attempts to obtain representative samples by including certain groups in a study
(Patton, 2002a). This form of sampling can be cost and time effective and used with small
sample sizes. In this study, the researcher wanted to select participants who were able to provide
insight of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors related to meeting the goal.
Therefore, using a purposeful sampling strategy, as opposed to randomly selecting participants,
was the most appropriate method for this study. Further, the research questions were specifically
constructed for counselors at SCC who were distinctively qualified to respond to the research
questions. Additionally, Maxwell (2013) found that individuals selected to respond were
classified as being purposely selected to participate in this study. Maxwell also discouraged
individuals from using random sampling for small sample sizes due to the possibility of the
variations among the samples (Maxwell, 2013). Convenience sampling was another strategy that
was identified in the literature as alternative to use when there are time constraints during a study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016a).
During the interview process, the smaller sample size was justified because of the amount
of rich amount of data that was discovered during the interview process. Qualitative interviews,
especially conducted after the surveys, can provide the researcher with in-depth information
about the phenomenon (Maxwell, 2013). For this study, the surveys were administered first, and
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 62
then the interviews followed, to further shape the questions, the current literature on the subject
and the information gathered from the surveys
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
The researcher elected to use surveys due to the sensitivity of the topic of cultural
competency among counselors. The researcher believed that an anonymous survey would yield
more transparency and honesty in the responses, which were further explored in the interviews.
Asking sensitive questions about race ethnicity, culture, first, could have potentially been
difficult for respondents, therefore, the surveys set the groundwork for the interviews.
Criterion 1. All academic counselors employed at SCC were sampled to participate in
an interview. Because the department is small and only consists of 20 individuals, sampling for
the interviews included all counselors to maximize the number of study participants.
Criterion 2. Participants who were sampled for participation in this survey were full and
part-time academic counselors currently employed a minimum of 15 hours per week in the
general counseling division, at SCC.
Survey Recruitment
An announcement was made at a faculty meeting introducing the study, and participants
were invited to participate in the study via e-mail. Surveys were sent to all 20 academic
counselors. Fink (2013) noted that a full representation of the team adds credibility and
confidence to the data. By inviting all academic counselors in the counseling division to
participate in the survey, the researcher limited potential bias. Additionally, using the census
approach was chosen to maximize the number of survey respondents to increase the study’s
confidence and lessen the biases through sampling errors (Johnson & Christensen, 2008).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 63
Survey Data Collection Strategy
The survey was written and distributed in English; the predominate language on campus.
However, the researcher is bilingual and was prepared to translate the survey in other languages
if there was a need to do so. The researcher sent an e-mail explaining the purpose of the study
with a link to the survey to each participant via e-mail. The survey was distributed online, and it
was available for three weeks before the deadline date. After one week, reminder e-mail was
sent to the counselors along with another link to the survey. Each survey was completed
counselors on their personal computer and the survey took approximately 10-15 minutes to
complete. Once the survey closed, respondents did not have access to the survey. A copy of the
survey protocol is attached in Appendix D.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
For this study, counselors were the stakeholder group of focus for the interviews. The
interviews were conducted via telephone because of the sensitive nature of the study and the
population. Many of the survey questions inquired about participant’s behaviors and cultural
competency, which is why the researcher chose to conduct interviews. Due to the sensitivity of
the topic, and, considering that participants might feel uncomfortable disclosing some
information in a group setting, one-on-one interviews were the best option for this study.
Interviewing is a valuable tool because it allows participants to share their experiences,
attitudes and beliefs in their own words. The researcher chose interviews as the methodology
and used semi-structured interviews. To gain a deeper understanding of the survey results and to
triangulate the data, the researcher conducted seven in-depth interviews and one open-ended
question which was included as a method used to address and elaborate on factors in the assumed
influences from the interviews. The researcher contacted participants through an additional
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 64
email, separate from the one that was sent regarding the surveys, to solicit volunteers to agree to
participate in the interview process. If more than seven participants volunteered for the study,
the researcher looked for a cross section of race, gender, age, and years of experience to select a
purposeful group for greatest diversity. The researcher wanted to get to the heart of the
participants who would have the most exposure to this population; which were the academic
counselors at SCC. By allowing participants to address questions in their own words and
perspectives, the researcher was able to explore knowledge, skills, motivations, values and
beliefs and ask for examples to support the participant’s responses (Patton, 2002b). Therefore,
the information from a small sample of seven counselors provided in-depth information with a
smaller sample and helped to triangulate the data, while creating rich qualitative data.
Criterion 1. All academic counselors employed at SCC were sampled to participate in
an interview. Because the department is small and only consists of 20 individuals, sampling for
the interviews included all counselors to maximize the number of study participants.
Criterion 2. All full or part-time academic counselors who worked at least 15 hours per
week and currently employed in the general counseling division, at SCC were sampled for
participation in an interview.
Instrumentation
Survey. The researcher sent the counselors a link to an anonymous web-based survey
tool. The 30-item survey assessed the degree to which counselors had the knowledge, skills,
motivation, (including self-efficacy and expectancy value), and organizational support, according
to the research, to create culturally competent counseling services to impact the completion rates
of African-American male students. The survey questions were derived from the assumed
caused that were identified in Chapter Two also in Table 5 (Appendix A).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 65
Interview. The researcher used purposeful sampling and the participants were
approached and agreed to be interviewed (Creswell & Miller, 2000). To allow the researcher to
gain more insights in to the influencers, the researcher utilized a list of detailed questions to
guide the interview process (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The interview also
helped the researcher understand the opinions and beliefs that were expressed in the survey. All
survey participants were eligible selected to participate in the interviews. This study used one-
on-one interviews of the participants to expand on the survey responses, and to collect data to
help to triangulate counselors’ knowledge, skills and motivation pertaining to the reasons why
African-American male students at SCC have low completion rates. The interview questions
were semi-structured, clear and concise so participants were able to easily understand them
(Krueger & Casey, 2009). The interview questions were designed to assess counselor
knowledge, motivation and the awareness of organizational influencers that may prevent SCC
from goal reaching its goal. Also, the participants were informed that there was a possibility that
they may be asked follow-up questions to clarify any answers. The corresponding follow-up
questions were derived from the assumed causes in Table 5.
The researcher asked each participant at the beginning of the interview for permission to
record the interview. The interviews were 45-60-minutes long, conducted on the telephone, and
the interviewer used a web-based password protected software application to record and
transcribe the interviews. Pseudonyms were also used during the interview process to maintain
participant confidentiality. The interviewer also took detailed notes relating to specifics that
were not picked up by the recording. Additionally, this study used qualitative narrative
interviews to gather data to answer the research questions (see Appendix B).
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 66
Document Analysis
This study used document analysis as a third source of data analysis in search of key
documents and or artifacts that can potentially aid in providing additional information in the
phenomenon (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016a). The analysis of the documents consisted of any of
the following: the online and/or print versions of the institution’s strategic plan, Equity
Scorecard, the new-employee handbook, counseling staff meeting notes. These documents were
used to verify organizational information that may affect the completion rates at SCC. The
documents were analyzed with a matrix of assumed influences as illustrated in Table 10.
Data Collection
Three data collection methods were used for this study. First, the researcher administered
surveys to all academic counselors at SCC. Next, seven counselors were interviewed to expand
on the survey questions, and lastly, document analysis of relevant documents related to the
African-American male completion rates.
Phase I: Survey. It is important to consider timing when administering surveys.
Pazzaglia Stafford and Rodriguez, (2016) mentioned that a researcher should consider the timing
of a survey and be aware of any competing factors that may prevent a respondent from
completing a survey. In educational settings, there are certain peak student contact times that are
not conducive to a respondent submitting a survey. Considering those factors, the surveys were
sent electronically in a link to the password protected survey tool on the staff meeting date
approximately around the same time that the staff meeting agenda is e-mailed to the counselors.
The survey was available for three weeks before the deadline date. A reminder e-mail was sent
after a week to those participants who had not completed the survey. Creswell (2014) noted that
part of the qualitative research process includes surveys to inform the interview questions that
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 67
will follow the surveys were conducted prior to the interviews so that the survey responses could
inform the interview questions that were administered to the academic counselors. The
researcher sent an e-mail explaining the study in the recruitment letter. The recruitment letter is
available in Appendix A.
Phase II: Interviews. Seven academic counselors who are employed by SCC were
invited to participate in an interview. The interviews were approximately 45-60 minutes and
were conducted by telephone and professionally transcribed. The interviews were conducted in
English. The primary language spoken at SCC is English. However, the researcher was
prepared to translate the interview questions to another language if needed.
Phase III: Document analysis. The researcher analyzed SCC’s Strategic plan (online
and print), Equity Scorecard, the staff meeting notes, and the new-employee handbook to review
policies and procedures and the role that counselors play in increasing student completion rates.
The information also helped to assess to what extent SCC is meeting its goal. The research
suggested the use of document analysis as additional data source to provide supporting data into
the study to evaluate the research questions. Merriam and Tisdell (2016a) referred to document
analysis as a quick way to obtain additional information to support data collection in a qualitative
study. Using multiple sources helped to ensure credibility of the data and provide a rich picture
of the phenomenon through surveys, interviews and document analysis.
Data Analysis
To answer the research questions, qualitative and quantitative data were collected through
surveys, interviews and document analysis and the researcher analyzed the data using
frequencies. The study began with the collection of quantitative data using an electronic survey
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 68
tool. Due to the small sample size, pseudonyms were used to maximize the participant’s
confidentiality.
Survey
The survey questions were developed by the researcher to evaluate the participants’ gaps
in their knowledge, motivation and organizational influences and were based on the assumed
influences. The researcher chose to include five general or demographic questions on the survey.
The participants consisted of 20 counselors, and 19 employees completed the survey, once all
surveys were collected, that data was cleaned, and the researcher prepared the data for the
analysis phase. Because most of the data collected were derived from Likert scale items in the
surveys, the frequencies and counts were used for the survey data.
Interviews
In addition to the survey data, more in-depth information was collected from the
interviews. Once all interviews were completed, they were professionally transcribed. The
interview questions and responses were arranged, sorted, and coded according to the relevant
assumed influence. Using the interview transcript, the patterns and themes were described
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016a). In Chapter Four, the researcher outlines the themes from the
responses from the interviews and from the participant responses. In addition, direct quotes from
the participants supported the validated or non-validated gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organizational hindrances for each of the assumed influences. During this process a relevant
theme emerged that was coded related to the counselor challenges to impact student completion
rates due to organizational processes and procedures related to timing and resources.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 69
Document Analysis
The college’s strategic plan, Equity Scorecard, new-employee handbook, and the staff
meeting notes were reviewed, analyzed, coded in accordance with the assumed causes.
Validity and Reliability
Researchers should produce reliable and valid studies with the highest level of ethical
standards each time when conducting a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016a). When conducting
quantitative research, reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the data and results over
time, while validity measures the accuracy of a study according to what the study intends to
measure (Creswell, 2015). Further, in a study, internal and external threats to validity can “lead
to invalid conclusions” (Maxwell, 2016). The goal of this researcher was to lead to valid
conclusions, so it was important to address both external and internal validity. Additionally,
threats to internal validity can compromise the study results and the researchers’ ability to verify
connections based on the results (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016a). Threats to external validity can
create biases and compromise being able to apply the results with other groups or situations
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2014). Considering the importance of minimizing the threats to external
and internal validity, the researcher took many steps to reduce the opportunities for these threats.
The use of multiple methodologies was an essential practice used to triangulate the data.
Both survey and interview questions were developed according to the research questions and
designed to measure the specific components of a counselor knowledge and motivation. Peer
review was used to ensure that the research is valid and credible. Utilizing colleague’s feedback
and review of the research process to point out inconsistencies in the design or protocol was part
of the process to reduce threats to the validity of this study. Applying these approaches assisted
in reducing researcher bias, primarily due to the confirmation of multiple data sources prior to
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 70
influences being validated (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). These strategies increased the
validity and reliability of the data collected in this study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility, trustworthiness and rigor are essential components in a qualitative study that
aim to establish confidence, trust, and validity in a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016b). Every
step was taken to ensure the credibility in this study’s findings. Bias in a study in inevitable,
however the researcher used practices to lessen biases. Being aware of some potential biases that
may have occurred because the researcher is also an employee where the study took place,
allowed the researcher to put certain practices in place. The researcher chose to use a journal to
log the details of how he or she may have influenced the results of each interview, which is also
a part of the qualitative research design (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016a). The journal acknowledges
the researcher’s biases and informs the researcher on the impact of the influences on the
credibility of the research outcomes (Maxwell, 2016).
The researcher followed the practice of triangulation and various strategies were used to
collect rich data and to maintain credibility and trustworthiness throughout the entire process of
this study through the method, sampling, approaches to analysis, member checking, peer review,
journaling and transcription (Maxwell, 2016, Merriam & Tisdell, 2016a). The researcher also
expanded on a previous topic from a recognized and respected study as another measure to
ensure credibility. Since this study is on the counselor’s use of culturally competent counseling
on African-American male community college completion rates, the researcher used a study
conducted by Harper (2012) as a solid framework to continue to build on. In his study, “Black
Male Student Success in Higher Education: A Report from the National Black Male College
Achievement Study,” Harper’s (2012) qualitative study on African-American male college
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 71
students addressed the deficit orientation portrayed and reinforced in the media, academic
journals, and education. He proposed that the one-sided emphasis on low attainment be
counterbalanced with the positive news about those who manage to attend college despite
various obstacles. This information will be helpful and some of the techniques and strategies
were incorporated in to my study. In addition, it was critical for the overall success of the SCC
African-American male success completion rate study, that the qualitative research, study
approach, design, data collection and the analysis process complied with USC protocols and a
high level of integrity was used to ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of this project.
Ethics
Within the context of a research study, ethical principles are essential and tied to the
credibility and trustworthiness of a study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2009). One of the researcher’s
primary considerations was to adhere to high ethical standards and procedures with human
subject: doing no harm, avoiding pressuring participants, ensuring participants’ privacy and
confidentiality (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). The use of pseudonyms throughout the study was
explained. The methodology for this mixed-methods design included a quantitative survey,
qualitative interviews, and document analysis. To ensure the safety of the human subjects in this
research project, first, the researcher submitted the study and was approved by the University of
Southern California Institutional Review Board. The researcher complied with the IRB rules and
guidelines regarding the protection of the rights and welfare of the participants in this study
before the data collection phase and during the entire process of the study.
Next, the researcher obtained approval from SCC to distribute the surveys to the
participants through a secured password protected link to a web-based survey tool. Furthermore,
all subjects were given an informed consent form to sign at the onset of the study. The consent
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 72
form ensured participant safety by providing information about the research project that is
understandable and asked participants to make informed and voluntary decisions at any time
regarding their decision to participate or not, in the study without penalty. The researcher
informed the participants that their involvement in this study was solely voluntarily and that no
financial compensation would be granted to participate in this study.
After the participants completed the surveys, the researcher sent out a separate e-mail to
the SCC counselors who completed the surveys to invite them to participate in interviews. Prior
to the interviews the researcher provided participants with information about the purpose of the
study, the approximate time frame for each interview, information on confidentiality and
protection, informed consent forms (included in Appendix B) and explained their rights to
choose to participate in the interview (Glesne, 2011).
The researcher also asked for permission to record the participant interviews and
provided transcripts for validity of their statements to ensure that subjects are aware that their
participation, all data, authorization to record sessions, and any other data is confidential and
secured in a password protected software. The participants were notified that after transcription
was completed and this dissertation is defended, all recordings were destroyed.
The Role of the Researcher
A researcher must be aware of the impact of their role and relationship to the participant
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016b). Therefore, it is important to consider the researcher’s awareness
positionality related to the relationship with the study participants. To address this issue and to
ensure that the researcher was aware of his or her positionality in this study, the researcher was
mindful of cultural norms, sexual orientation, ethnicities, and any other biases that may have
surfaced during the study. To mitigate biases, the researcher made sure to acknowledge his or
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 73
her cultural backgrounds, religious affiliations, and to reflect on any biases as they surfaced.
Since the stakeholders in this study were colleagues, another form of acknowledging biases, was
to understand how the researcher’s relationship with colleagues impacted the study. This was
addressed by explaining to the participants the role of the researcher in this study; which was
strictly as a researcher, and not a coworker. This researcher had no authority or administrative
position that could impact participants’ decisions to not feel comfortable responding to certain
questions due to potential backlash. In addition, they were informed of researcher’s ethical
responsibility to represent participants and to protect their confidentiality always. Another
source of potential bias is that the researcher has extensive counseling experience and is
passionate about this topic because it closely impacts a group of individuals that seem to have
been forgotten. To ensure reflexivity and an ongoing monitoring of biases, this researcher
disclosed personal experiences related to this topic including the college successes of two sons
who are African-American/Garifuna college degreed males and one daughter who is also a
college graduate. Additionally, the researcher was able to manage the biases by first
acknowledging them through peer review and member checking and ongoing checks. Merriam
& Tisdell (2016a) reported that all studies have a potential for bias and they are indicated in the
findings because it is impossible to remove all biases.
This chapter has presented the methodological framework for examining the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impede or hinder counselors from
effective practice of using cultural competent counseling techniques to students. The outlined
procedures and methodology used for this study and includes surveys, interviews, and document
analysis to provide a thorough investigation of the problem of low completion rates of
underserved populations, specifically, the African-American male population.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 74
Chapter Four presented the data findings discussed in the validation process. Chapter
Four also reviewed the findings and results of this study and provides evidence for the validation
of gaps in counselors’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences, which prevented
SCC from meeting the performance goals.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 75
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to understand the knowledge, motivation and
organizational factors that contribute to SCC reaching its goal of closing the completion rate gap
for African-American male students.
This chapter presented the study’s results and findings by categories of assumed causes
according to Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO framework outlined in Chapter Three. The data were
collected using a mixed-methods approach, including surveys, interviews, and document analysis
to produce quantitative results and qualitative findings. Combinations of three data sources were
collected to determine which assumed causes were validated as contributing factors to SCC’s
organizational performance gaps. Specifically, the method of using multiple sources of data
(triangulation) contributed to the development of the overarching themes. To answer the
research questions, quantitative and qualitative data were collected to validate the assumed
causes (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016a).
The following were the research questions that guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors which prevent SCC
counselors from implementing 100% of the culturally competent counseling strategies
with 100% of students 100% of the time to increase African-American male student
completion rates?
2. What are the recommended solutions in the areas of knowledge, motivation and
organizational factors for the counselors to provide culturally competent services to
100% of the African-American male students at SCC?
This chapter focused on answering Research Question One. Next, Chapter Five
addresses the second research question to present recommendations for closing the completion
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 76
gap in counselors’ knowledge, skills, motivation and organizational influences identified from
the results and findings presented in Chapter Four.
Summary of Data Collection Strategies
Surveys were completed first to inform the interview questions, which may have required
some modifications based on the survey participants’ responses. To maintain confidentiality, the
surveys were anonymous and administered to a small number of respondents. In addition, the
researcher used pseudonyms to protect the participants and the organization. Following the
survey, the researcher conducted interviews and then analyzed key documents.
As described in Chapter Three, the survey was developed based on the assumed
influences identified in Chapter Two. The survey was conducted electronically using a web-
based, password-protected survey tool. The 30 survey questions used a Likert scale, and, due to
the small sample, the researcher included open-ended options to allow participants opportunities
to further explore the problem of practice. Of the 20 potential participants, 19 (95%) provided
consent to participate and completed the survey.
Following the surveys, qualitative data were collected through individual interviews to
provide a deeper understanding of the assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational factors
related to preventing low completion rates of African-American male students at SCC. The
researcher interviewed all seven participants who were approached and agreed to participate.
The interviews consisted of 21 semi-structured questions based on the assumed influences along
with a final open-ended question, which provided opportunities for participants to share final
thoughts or information not covered during the interview. The interviews each lasted
approximately one hour and were conducted over the telephone. All interviews were recorded
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 77
with participant consent and later professionally transcribed. The researcher also took detailed
notes during each interview.
According to Maxwell (2013), the use of multiple methods may aid in the triangulation of
findings and reduce researcher bias. After the surveys and the interviews, the researcher
analyzed three documents to triangulate the findings from the two other data sources. The
documents were the strategic plan, SCC’s counseling department’s new-employee handbook,
and counseling departmental meeting records. The documents were analyzed based on the
assumed influences for this study.
Validation Criteria
In the analysis of results and findings, assumed causes of the organizational performance
gap were considered validated if evidence was presented from the surveys, interviews and/or
document analysis that determined that counselors lacked knowledge, motivation, or
organizational influences required to close the gap. Further, an assumed influence was
considered validated if 50% or more of the data confirmed the presence of the influence. Each of
the influences was categorized as (a) validated, (b) not validated, or (c) unable to validate. A
validated influence indicates that SCC’s counselors did not possess the necessary knowledge,
motivation, or organizational support needed and the influence should be addressed to enable
SCC to move towards its goal of increasing student completion rates. “Not Validated” is an
indication that the organization is running efficiently, and no changes are necessary. Finally,
“unable to validate” indicates a need for further study. In this study, the surveys and interviews
weighed more heavily than the documents; evidence found solely in document analysis was not
sufficient to consider an assumed influence validated.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 78
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study consisted of all 20 SCC counselors who have been
employed in the counseling department for at least six months. The stakeholders were
purposefully selected since they work directly with students, and their interactions can impact
student success. Nineteen of the counselors were approached and agreed to complete the
surveys, and seven were approached and agreed to participate in the interviews. Of the seven
interviewees, four identified as female and three identified as male. Two identified as African-
American/Black, one as Asian or Pacific Islander, three as Hispanic/Latino, and one as
White/Caucasian. The stakeholder experience in counseling and amount of time spent
specifically working as a counselor at SCC are included below. Table 6 is a demographic
summary of participants that illustrates the ethnicity and the average years of service for each.
Table 6
Demographic Summary of Interview Participants
Ethnicity
Number Participating in
Interviews
Avg. Years Counseling
White/Caucasian 1 3.5
African-American/Black 2 6.0
Asian or Pacific Islander 1 20
Hispanic/Latino(a) 3 07
Knowledge Results and Findings
According to Krathwohl (2002), knowledge influences are factual, declarative,
procedural, and metacognitive. This study used Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO framework to
validate assumed knowledge influences to explore SCC’s performance gap in preventing low
student completion rates. The section below presents each assumed influence, relevant data, and
conclusion regarding its validation status.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 79
Assumed Knowledge Influence 1
The first assumed influence pertaining to counselors’ knowledge was that they needed to
know the reasons students enroll and drop out of college before completion, which presents an
example of declarative knowledge. A combination of data from the surveys, interviews, and
document analysis was used in seeking to validate this assumed influence.
Findings from the surveys. The survey question used to assess this assumed influence
was Q6, which asked, “What do you believe are the reasons that African-American male students
enroll and drop out before complete college?” Response options were (a) Balancing work and
school is too difficult, (b) Tuition is too expensive, (c) Academic unpreparedness, (d) Not sure of
major, (e) College atmosphere wasn’t the right fit, and (f) All of the above.
Answers to Q6 did not provide sufficient evidence to validate this assumed influence
because all respondents correctly identified “Balancing work and school is too difficult, Tuition
is too expensive, Academic unpreparedness, Not sure of their major, and College atmosphere
was not the right fit” as reasons students enroll and drop out before completing college. Figure 4
illustrates the responses to Q6.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Balancing work and
school is too
difficult
Tui?on is too
expensive
Academic
unpreparedness
Not sure of major College atmosphere
was not the right fit
All of the above
What do you believe are the reasons that students enroll and drop
out before comple?ng college?
Figure 4. Responses to survey question six.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 80
Findings from the interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed
influence was Q11, which asked, “What do you believe are the causes of low completion rates
among African-American male community college students?” This influence was not validated
due to the counselors’ ability to correctly identify the reasons students drop out of before
completing college, as supported by the literature. Most participants correctly identified causes
of low completion rates. Participant One discussed the factors and the importance of addressing
them as a supportive measure for students to complete college. Participant One said,
I think that there are many factors that contribute to African-American males’ dropping
out of college. Included in the factors, I would say that some students may not feel
engaged on campus, some may have personal reasons for dropping out, others may be
responsible to assist with family commitments like helping with child care of younger
siblings, and many have to work to support themselves and their family and it must be
difficult to manage all of those variables.
Each of these reasons was supported by the literature discussed in Chapter Two. Participant Two
said, “Sometimes students mention that they do not feel socially and academically connected to
the campus.” In addition, Participant Two added,
We have an obligation to make sure that students do not feel that way, and another reason
is that many students are struggling financially, and cannot afford to purchase books and
materials, and in lieu of failing classes, they end up dropping classes.
Participant Three referred to factors similar to those mentioned by Participants One and Two and
added other factors. The factors involved the issue of students having to enroll in many
developmental courses “before enrolling in real classes that count towards graduation.”
Participant Three added,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 81
Students can get discouraged when they come to see a counselor and are told that they
may have four semesters of basic skill courses to take before reaching the course required
to transfer. Some individuals choose to drop out of college to work and support their
families, pay tuition and be in a better financial position to be able to purchase their
books when they decide to re-enroll in college.
Participant Seven concurred with the counselors addressing the reasons and being proactive to
provide additional student supportive services. Participant Seven stated,
The economy is not the best and living in California is pretty expensive and some of our
students are required to work just to help with family household living expenses,
transportation, books, and other responsibilities.
Participant Seven also stated “in addition, school costs too much and student have to find full-
time jobs.”
Findings from document analysis. Evidence of this assumed influence was found in the
strategic plan; therefore, this assumed knowledge-related influence was not validated by
document analysis.
Summary of findings for this knowledge influence. Evidence from the survey results,
interview responses and document analysis were used to the assumed knowledge influence of
counselors needing to know the reasons students enroll and drop out of college before
completion. Survey results, interview responses and documents did not demonstrate a gap in
knowledge. Therefore, the assumed influence was not validated.
Assumed Knowledge Influence 2
The second assumed influence on the performance gap related to knowledge was that
counselors needed to know the primary goals of the institution, which is a form of declarative
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 82
knowledge. A combination of data from the survey questions, interviews, and document analysis
was used to seek validation of this knowledge influence.
Findings from the surveys. The survey question used to assess this assumed knowledge
influence was Q7, which asked, “Which of the following are the primary goals of the
institution?” The choices were (1) Increase equity and inclusion, meet 3SP goals, prepare
educational goals and increase student completion rates; (2) Increase institutional revenue,
increase enrollment, limit staff reduction; (3) Meet 3SP goals, hire more counselors, provide
more basic skills courses; (4) All of the above; (5) Not sure.
Answers to Q7 did not provide sufficient evidence to validate a declarative knowledge
gap because more than 50% of the respondents correctly identified the primary goals of the
institution. The data confirmed that the counselors already possessed sufficient knowledge of the
primary goals. Figure 5 illustrates the responses to Q7.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Increase equity and
inclusion, meet 3SP
goals, prepare
educaBonal plans, and
increase student
compleBon rates
Increase insBtuBonal
revenue, increase
enrollment, and limit
staff reducBon
Meet 3SP goals, hire
more counselors, and
provide basic skills
All of the above Not sure
Q7: Which of the following are the primary goals of the
insBtuBon?
Figure 5. Responses to survey question seven.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 83
Findings from the interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed
influence was Q12, which asked, “Please share with me what you think SCC’s primary goal is
with respect to student completion rates?” A gap in this influence was not validated due to the
counselors’ ability to correctly identify the primary goals of the institution, as supported by the
literature. Several participants discussed the SSSP mandates and the accountability issues
relating to educational plans. Participant Four stated,
We have many goals, but because of accountability I think the primary one is to make
sure that counselors are producing all of the educational plans for students with up to 30
units and complying with all of the SSSP requirements and equity and access standards,
which includes hiring more counselors to be able to complete this tremendous task so that
students can finish community college and transfer to a university.
Participant Five stated,
Well, our campus seems to be conscious of the fact that some students are taking a little
bit longer than they should to complete their degrees, and so I think it is paramount that
we are making a concerted effort to make sure that students understand the importance of
taking the appropriate classes and, more efficiently, to prevent them from remaining a
community college student forever without meeting their goals. You know, some
students have been taking classes here for many years and have yet to earn a degree.
Participant Five also noted some accountability factors and stated.
The college is under a microscope and must improve practices to make sure that students
have the tools that they need to succeed in community college, and we have to make sure
to follow the statewide 3SP mandates and initiatives, which includes having enough
counselors to meet the student demands, increasing the amount of institutional funds by
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 84
completing the educational plans, supporting students who are required to enroll in
multiple layers of basic skill courses and increase student enrollment, which has been
declining.
Participant Six supported the importance of the primary goals, adding,
Of the many important goals that we have to accomplish, the primary ones, involve
complying with the state student support services requirements and employing adequate
counseling faculty to develop comprehensive educational plans for all students with less
than 15 units. I think the main goal right now is to make sure that we produce
educational plans and inform students about the requirements to complete programs and
to earn degrees. To meet these goals, the college is looking to maximize student contacts,
and to make sure each student knows exactly all of the courses that are required to
complete community college.
In every interview, participants were able to identify the primary goals of the institution.
Findings from the document analysis. Evidence of this assumed influence was found
in SCC’s strategic plan; therefore, this gap in assumed knowledge was not validated through
document analysis.
Summary of findings for this assumed knowledge influence. This assumed
knowledge influence was not validated. Neither the survey results nor the interview responses
demonstrated a gap in knowledge regarding the institution’s goals. A gap was not found in
document analysis either; therefore, this assumed knowledge-related influence was not validated.
Assumed Knowledge Influence 3
The third assumed influence on the performance gap related to knowledge was that
counselors needed to have knowledge of and a shared definition of culturally competent
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 85
strategies, which falls into the declarative knowledge category. A combination of data from the
survey questions, interviews, and document analysis was used to attempt to validate the
declarative knowledge influence.
Findings from the surveys. Although Q18 asked, based on participants’ knowledge of
cultural competency, how often they incorporate culturally competent techniques in their
counseling sessions, Q18 did not actually test whether participants had knowledge of cultural
competence strategies. Therefore, the interview was used to follow up on this influence. Figure
6 illustrates the responses to survey question 18.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Never Rarely Some8mes Most of the 8me Always
Q18: Based on your knowledge of cultural competency, how oKen
do you incorporate culturally competent techniques in your
counseling sessions?
Figure 6. Responses to survey question 18.
Findings from the interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed
influence was Q7, which asked, “How would you define cultural competency and what is your
department’s shared definition of cultural competency?” This influence was validated due to the
responses during the interviews, which described no collective definition of cultural competency
in the counseling department. According to the literature, having a shared definition of cultural
competency indicates the counselors have talked about cultural competency collectively, and, as
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 86
good practice, they have also determined a departmental vision of cultural competency
counseling techniques to use with students (Sue & Sue, 2012).
The interview responses indicated that each counselor had their own understanding of
cultural competency, and they all, coincidentally, described it similarly, but no formal
departmental definition had been established. Participant One talked about the few discussions
on the topic of cultural competency and stressed the need to have a shared definition and current
information on cultural competency. In addition, Participant One stated,
My definition of cultural competency is a counselor who has knowledge of their own
cultural background and can relate to and acknowledge the similarities and or differences
between themselves and the students and provide support and help to bridge the way for
students. In terms of my department, we have not had many discussions surrounding this
topic. I don’t think anyone has ever thought about coming to a consensus on what that
would look like. I would have to say, no, there is not a shared definition of cultural
competency among the counselors, but we need one. I think we need current information
and training on the subject and ways that we can best use these skills with all students.
Participant Two shared common reasons they believed a shared definition did not exist among
the counselors and emphasized it was much needed. Participant Two stated,
I think that, sometimes, the topic of cultural competency is an afterthought. I mean
everyone has his or her own definition, I guess. I also think that cultural competency is
important, and relevant in a counselor’s or instructor’s day-to-day work duties. I define
cultural competency as being aware of relevant societal issues, identifying and
acknowledge cultural issues from my culture and the students’ culture, whether it is being
immersed in to someone’s culture by living in it, or participating in activities within the
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 87
community of the population that you are serving, or simply reading about their culture.
To be successful, it is important for counselors to be able to understand student cultures,
experiences, circumstances in their lives, and how this information translates in to
supportive resources that can ultimately provide positive academic outcomes.
Participant Three indicated,
That is a great question. We have not discussed having a shared definition. For me, I
believe that cultural competency involves an understanding of cultures and limiting
biases about students or individuals who are not like me. Embracing and respecting a
student regardless of their country of origin, sexual orientation, and financial status
impacts a student’s level of engagement, but I rarely have enough time in a session to do
all that is required. The students that come in to our offices face many challenges and
barriers and to address them all, especially with limited training in this area, the task is
difficult. I have been a counselor for a short time, so I can say…I am still learning.
Participant Four concurred that there was not a shared definition in the department and referred
to cultural competency as a practice that should be ongoing. Participant Four stated,
cultural competency is like a muscle that you have to constantly flex and train, and, if
counselors do not use the skill, it will become stagnant or it starts atrophying, and you
will never be up to par, especially if you are not practicing or actively seeking training.
Participant Four also revealed,
Although the counseling department does not offer much professional development for
counselors to develop and enhance cultural competent skills, I seek out training on my
own on a weekly basis. The best advice that I can give to other counselors is to seek
ongoing training.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 88
Apart from constructing their own definitions of cultural competency, counselors did not
feel as though the counseling department had discussed having a shared definition. Participant
Five responded,
To my knowledge, we do not have a shared definition of cultural competency, but my
definition is tied to culture. Culture is very much a part of a student’s identity, and, if
counselors do not acknowledge this fact, they are taking a huge step back from really
getting to know the student.
Additionally, Participant Five stated,
Gaining trust is important in a counseling session, and I make sure to create an inviting
atmosphere where the student feels like they can open up because they trust me. This
normally takes a few sessions to occur. I think that culture and competence complement
each other by being able to provide students the information and the space to be who they
are and to grow.
Participant Seven replied in a similar manner, stating,
We have not discussed having a shared definition in my department. There are so many
ways to define cultural competency. I am going to focus on how I deal with students. I
encourage and motivate students to determine goals and give them a step-by-step
educational plan as a guide map to achieve their goals. I also make sure to acknowledge
that each student is different, comes from different backgrounds and academic levels.
Many of the students require support and resources to continue each semester. My
definition includes attempts to limit my personal assumptions and biases and engage,
communicate and encourage students and the department to outreach to African-
American and other underserved students to make them feel a part of the campus.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 89
Findings from document analysis. Evidence that counselors have a shared definition
of cultural competency would include staff meeting minutes or evidence of leadership stating a
shared definition of cultural competency. This evidence was not found in the documents;
therefore, this assumed knowledge influence was validated in the document analysis.
Summary of findings for this knowledge influence. The results of the data analysis
regarding the assumed knowledge influences indicated no evidence via the survey because the
question did not address the knowledge. Evidence for a gap was found in the interviews, and
evidence of a gap was found in document analysis. So, while the counselors know what cultural
competence is generally, they do not have a shared departmental vision for it.
Assumed Knowledge Influence 4
The fourth assumed knowledge-related influence on the performance gap was that
counselors needed to know how to effectively guide students toward clear pathways to reach
their academic goals from entry to completion, which is an example of procedural knowledge.
A combination of data from the survey questions, interviews, and document analysis, was used
to assess this assumed influence.
Findings from the surveys. The survey question used to assess this assumed knowledge
influence was Q9, which asked, “Which steps should a counselor take to develop clear
educational plans for students to complete community college? Response options were (a)
Choose a major for students, (b) Refer students to the career center to identify interests, (c)
Provide the student with major requirements for their field of interest, and (d) Review and assess
the student’s academic level.”
Answers to Q9 did not provide evidence of a knowledge gap; therefore, this assumed
influence was not validated. From the survey, 83.3% of the responses indicated an
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 90
understanding of the steps a counselor should implement to develop a clear educational plan for
students to complete community college. Figure 7 illustrates the responses to survey question
nine.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Choose a major
for students
Refer the
student to the
Career Center to
iden=fy interests
Provide the
student with
major
requirements for
field of interest
Review and
assess the
student's
academic level
B,C,and D A,B,C Other
Q9: Which steps should a counselor implement to develop clear
educa=onal plans for students to complete community college?
Figure 7. Responses for survey question 9.
Findings from the interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed
influence was Q2, which asked, “Please clearly describe the steps that you take when a student
comes in to the counseling office requesting an educational plan for a specific program,
certificate or degree?” This influence was not validated due to the counselor’s ability to
correctly identify the steps to developing clear educational plans for students to complete
community college.
There were similarities in the participants’ responses relating to factors that counselors
should be aware of when preparing educational plans. Participant Three clearly articulated the
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 91
steps taken to create educational plans and expressed other factors to consider during the process.
Participant Three stated,
First, I normally identify the student’s educational goal and review all the student’s
transcripts, and their academic history to determine where they should begin in the
process. Then, depending on the educational goal, I would show a student various ways
to research majors, programs, offered at the community colleges and search for major
options if the student is interested in transferring to a university. So, whether it is using
Assist.org or other sites, I help students figure out what they need to do as far as their
educational trajectory is concerned. I also ask about extracurricular activities, work
schedules or any other conflicting variables that may impact their school schedule, so that
they can determine how many units they plan to take each semester. Then, I would
outline specific course that the student is required to take each semester to pursue that
particular major goal. I also invite the student back to meet with me and to follow up on
their progress.
When asked to describe the steps that one takes when a student comes in to the
counseling office asking for an educational plan of all courses they need for a specific program,
certificate or degree, Participant Six stated,
I take many steps, depending on the student. Some individuals come in to the office and
are aware of their career goals and which major they intend to pursue, and others do not.
So, once the intended goal has been established, we move on from there. Next, I would
review their grades an academic history and the requirements for their major of choice
and begin to prepare a list of courses required to fulfill the program requirements. Of
course, these steps pretty much provide you a snapshot of my sessions.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 92
Participant Six also mentioned, “Prior to ending a counseling session, I usually always ask the
student to follow up with me so that we can use future sessions to process the information and to
plan for further semesters and goals.” Participant Seven concurred with the other participant
responses and was able to identify the step-by-step process leading to preparing an educational
plan for a student that meets the goal of completion.
Findings from the document analysis. Evidence of this assumed influence was found
in the new counselor orientation handbook. Sample educational plans and major general
education sheets were available for in the handbook for counselors, and there was an indication
of a step-by-step process to create educational plans; therefore, this gap in assumed knowledge
was not validated in document analysis.
Summary of findings for this knowledge influence. The surveys, interviews, and
document analysis yielded valuable insights, and evidence that there is no gap in knowledge
related to this assumed influence due to the respondents’ ability to correctly identify and
understand the steps they should take during the preparation of educational plans.
Assumed Knowledge Influence 5
The fifth assumed knowledge-related influence on the performance gap at SCC was that
counselors’ understanding of practices of reflection was limited, which pertains to metacognitive
knowledge. The data used to determine the validation of this knowledge gap came from surveys,
interviews, and document analysis.
Findings from the surveys. The survey questions used to assess this assumed influence
were Q23b and Q23c. Question 23b asked, “When a student leaves my office, do I take time to
reflect?” The response options were (1) Never, (2) Rarely, (3) Sometimes, (4) Most of the time,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 93
and (5) Always. The responses were 55% for “Always” and 44.5% for “Most of the time.”
Figure 8 illustrates the responses to survey question 23 (b).
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Never Rarely Some8mes Most of the 8me Always
Q23b: When a student leaves my office, do I take 8me to reflect?
Figure 8. Responses for Survey question 23b.
Q23c asked, “Reflection is a process that allows counselors to?” The response options
were (a) Replay counseling sessions and learn from the experiences, (b) See things from a
student’s perspective and help them navigate intimidating complex systems of higher education,
(c) Listen and respond to feelings, (d) All of the above, and (e) Not sure. The responses
indicated that 72.1% of the counselors at SCC responded correctly “All of the above” which
confirms that SCC counselors had knowledge of the process of reflection. Figure 6 illustrates the
responses to survey question 23c.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 94
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Replay counseling
sessions and learn from
the experiences.
See things from a
student's perspecDve
and help them navigate
inDmidaDng complex
systems of higher
educaDon.
Listen and respond to
feelings.
All of the above Not sure
Q23c: ReflecDon is a process that allows Counselors to?
Figure 9. Responses to Survey question 23c.
A gap in this assumed influence was not validated. Based on the participants’ responses
to the two survey questions, there was not sufficient evidence to determine a metacognitive
knowledge gap.
Findings from the interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed
influence was Q16, which asked, “From your experience as a counselor, please share with me
your understanding of reflection and how often use reflective practices.” Participant One
expressed an understanding of reflection and ways that reflection is beneficial for improvement
of practice. Participant One answered,
There is value in reflecting on my role as a counselor, and some of the things that I have
learned on my personal and professional journey. Reflection is a way for me to see my
successes as a counselor, and areas that I can continue to improve on.
Participant Two also expressed a significant understanding of how reflection impacts
professional practice, and stated, “Reflection allows me to see how my misconceptions hindered
the process of me getting to know my students better” Participant Two also noted,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 95
With every semester that passes, I gain a better appreciation for counseling as a
profession. I enjoy leaving work knowing that I have positively impacted a students’ life
and through the process of reflection I can grow and learn from the mistakes that I have
made over the years.
Participant Six also demonstrated an understanding and use of reflection, by stating, “I think that
reflection works for me to gauge how effective I am as a counselor with my students. It also
helps me gauge my experience as a newer counselor.”
Participant Seven provided examples of ways in which counselors reflect on resources
used with students. Participant Seven responded,
I seek out information on career paths, and campus and community-based resources, and
introduce some majors and careers to students’ who were not aware of the information
prior to our interaction. I have watched their faces shine with excitement. However,
when the session is over, I reflect on things that may have helped me to help the student
better. In the process of my reflection, I have realized that I need to present information
and resources without disclosing my preferences.
Findings from document analysis. In reviewing the documents, the new-employee
handbook provided evidence of a metacognitive knowledge gap in that there was no guidance
regarding the importance of reflection, nor were there suggestions for how to engage in
reflection to improve one’s ability as a counselor. However, for document analysis, an assumed
influence cannot be considered validated with document analysis as the only source of validation
Summary of findings for this influence. The culmination of data from the surveys,
interviews and document analysis did not represent a gap in metacognitive knowledge for this
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 96
influence. Evidence was not found to determine a gap from either the surveys or interview
responses.
Summary of results and findings for all knowledge influences. The results from the
surveys, interviews, and document analysis provided evidence that SCC counselors had a
declarative gap in one of the knowledge influences. In other words, counselors, overall, have
knowledge and understanding of reflection and utilize this technique fairly often. Table 7
illustrates a summary of all assumed knowledge influences and indicates the validation status
from the data analysis from the surveys, interviews, and document analysis.
Table 7
Validations of Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Validated
or
Not
Validated
(V or N)
Declarative:
Counselors need to know the reasons why African-American male students
enroll and drop out before completing community college.
N
Declarative:
Counselors need to have a shared definition of culturally competent strategies.
V
Declarative:
Counselors need to know the primary goals of the institution (Declarative).
N
Procedural:
Counselors need to know how to effectively guide students toward clear
pathways to reach their academic goals from entry to completion.
N
Metacognitive:
Counselors’ understanding and practices of reflection are limited.
N
N= not validated; V=validated; U= Unable to Validate
Motivation Results and Findings
The second area of results and findings pertained to motivation. As detailed in Chapter
Two, this study explored two types of motivation: self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977) and EVT
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 97
(Eccles, 2009). Motivation type depicts how a counselor’s motivation is influenced by
organizational resources and possible barriers, all of which are important factors for an
organization to consider when advancing the performance goal. Furthermore, research suggests
that motivation is an important factor that can determine how well individuals solve problems
and the results may provide enhanced organizational performances (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Assumed motivation influences were considered validated if there was sufficient
evidence to confirm the assumed influence from the surveys, interviews and document analysis.
To consider an influence validated, 50% or more of the respondents had to have given similar
responses reflecting the results of the literature review. Results and key findings are presented
for both motivation areas and then followed by a summary of results and findings for
motivational influences.
Assumed Motivation Influence 1
The first assumed influence related to motivation connects to self-efficacy (Bandura,
1977) and was that counselors needed to be confident in their ability to provide culturally
competent counseling services. The data used to determine the validation of this assumed
influence were obtained through surveys, interviews and document analysis.
Findings from surveys. The survey question used to assess this assumed influence was
Q19, which asked, “How confident are you in providing culturally competent counseling
services to African-American males and other underserved students?” The response options
were (a) Not confident at all, (b) Not very confident, (c) Somewhat confident, (d) Quite
confident, and (e) Extremely confident.
Based on the survey responses to this question, there was not sufficient evidence to
validate a gap in motivation; 63% of the participants agreed that they were extremely confident,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 98
and 24% reported that they were quite confident in their ability to provide culturally confident
counseling services to African-American males and other underserved students. Therefore, there
was not sufficient evidence to validate a motivation gap. Figure 10 illustrates the responses to
survey question 19.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Not confident at all Not very confident Somewhat confident Quite confident Extremely confident
Q19: How confident are you in your ability to provide culturally
competent services to students?
Figure 10. Responses to survey question 19.
Findings from the interviews. Two interview questions were used to assess this
assumed influence. Q10a which asked, “How confident are you in your ability to provide
culturally competent counseling services to prevent an African-American male and other
underserved students from dropping out of college?” A follow-up question asked, “What reasons
do you have to be confident that you are able to prevent African-American male and other
underserved students from dropping out of college?” A gap in this motivation was not validated
because five out of the seven counselors interviewed stated they were confident in their ability to
use culturally competent counseling to prevent African-American male students from leaving
college pre-maturely.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 99
Participant One responded,
I feel quite confident and would be extremely confident if I had extra time in my
counseling sessions to delve deeper without time limitations, but I make sure to always
use techniques that will benefit students and provide them with viable resources to
remain in school during the thirty-minute allotted time that they are in my office.
Participant One continued to say,
I have been working here a long time, and students return to visit me after they have
transitioned and earned degrees to thank me for having confidence in them. I am
confident that my message that I send to students about perseverance and the benefits of
delayed gratification helps them to continue on.
Participant One also mentioned, “One of the reasons that I am confident is to fulfill the mission
of the college, and to do a great job helping students with the college process to ultimately
graduate.”
Participant Two referred to the increase in confidence over time. Participant Two stated,
“I am much more confident now” and revealed that the confidence level has increased overtime
by stating, “I am almost very confident, incredibly more often than when I started this job. My
confidence level has increased with experience and trials.” Participant Two said, “The student
can feel it when a counselor is not confident working with students.” Participant Three stated that
cultural competency is like a muscle that you have to constantly flex and train and if you
don’t, do so, it becomes stagnant or it starts atrophying, and you will never be up to par if
you are not practicing or actively seeking training.
Participant Three proceeded to address some departmental issues on the availability of training
and professional development. Participant Three stated,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 100
Although the department does not offer much training and professional development for
counselors to develop and enhance cultural competent skills, I seek out training on my
own on a weekly basis, so I am confident in my abilities to provide assistance to students
using cultural competency.
Participant Four was also confident, adding,
I am extremely confident, but do not see African-American students often in
appointments, maybe it is because there are not very many African-American students on
this campus, or perhaps because we are not doing a good enough job outreaching to them.
Participant Four also disclosed some feedback from students. Participant Four said,
I have heard from the few African-American males come in to the office, that they don't
feel like the counselors have confidence in them, or that SCC is a place where they can
grow, and they feel a lack of support from some of the counselors. Several of them
expressed that they feel invisible and not asked about their dreams and goals.
Therefore, Participant Four provided feedback on ways to improve the counselor-student
interactions and confidence by stating, “Our counselor-student interaction should allow the
student to tell me about who they are, their background, academic and career desires, fears.”
Participant Four also added some phrases that counselors can use with students to be empathetic,
“I can see that” and that’s okay; let's see what we can find out so that you are aware of various
majors to pursue.” Participant Four ended by stating,
One of the reasons why I have to be confident in my skills and abilities is to help retain
students here. Needless to say, I am always confident that I can connect and prevent
students from dropping out of college.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 101
Regardless of years of service for each participant, the stakeholders had confidence in
their ability to use cultural competency techniques to prevent African-American males from
dropping out of college. Participant Five also expressed being “quite confident in my abilities.”
Participant Five explained the reasons for working in this profession and the experiences of
having been an underserved student with a language barrier, and still being able to earn multiple
degrees, as a reason why it is important to believe that other students can succeed.
Participant Seven also indicated a high level of confidence by stating, “I am extremely
confident in my abilities.” Participant Seven continued,
We are working for the students in the front line, they are essentially our customers and I
do not know of any industry where an individual can work, and not talk to, or get to know
their customers, wants, needs, desires, and goals.
Participant Seven completed the interview by stating reasons why confidence in using cultural
competency is an essential part of counseling: “It is part of our jobs as counselors to build and
nurture relationships, which is a part of cultural competency techniques, so that the students can
trust us. And trust the process of higher education.”
Findings from the document analysis. There was evidence of this assumed influence
found in the Equity Scorecard and strategic plan documents reviewed. Therefore, there was no
motivation gap found in the document analysis.
Summary of finding from this motivation influence. The evidence from the survey
results, interviews and document analysis indicated no validated gaps in counselors’ confidence
to use culturally competent counseling to prevent African-American male students from
dropping out of college.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 102
Assumed Motivation Influence 2
The second assumed motivation-related influence on the performance gap was that
counselors needed to believe that the efforts they put forth can impact change in student success
and completion rates, which pertains to EVT (Eccles, 2009). Because it can be difficult to assess
motivation through a survey, solely interviews were used to assess this assumed influence.
Findings from the survey. No survey question was used to assess this assumed
influence.
Findings from interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed influence
was question 14, which asked, “Do you believe that your efforts can put forth change to impact
student success and completion rates?” This influence was not validated because 87.5% (6 out
of 7) interviewees expressed certainty about the probability that their effort will bring about a
change.
Participant One, responded with, “Yes, I believe that my efforts has an impact on student
success and completion rates.” Participant One continued to express how much effort is required
to impact change: “The reality is that I try really hard to go beyond the call of duty with each
student in each session, as I would do for a family member. If we all feel this way, change is
inevitable.” Participants Two and Three expressed the same sentiments as Participant One and
said that their efforts made a difference.
Participant Five mentioned the importance of investing the time and effort required in
this generation and stated,
I think that we have to remember that these students are our future and we must invest as
much energy to solve this problem of educational disparities with the low completion
rates for this population. I can say 100% that my efforts are making a difference and
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 103
even if it is difficult to see the results, I am planting a seed which each student that I
counsel.
Participant Six also agreed with the consensus about the counselors’ efforts making a positive
difference for students:
Students come to my office frequently to share experiences about how my service to
them is making a difference and that reveals a high level of effort that I put forth for
students. I do believe that I am making a difference, if I did not believe so, I would find
another profession.
Findings from the document analysis. Evidence of this assumed influence was found
in the counseling meeting notes. Therefore, the assumed motivation-related influence was not
validated in the document analysis.
Summary of results and findings for all motivation influences. The results on
assumed motivational influences indicated respondents had no gaps in motivation pertaining to
self-efficacy or EVT. Participants had confidence in their ability to meet their goals and
effectively perform their jobs. Table 8 provides a summary of all motivation influences and
indicates the influences validated and not validated.
Table 8
Validation of Motivation Influences
Assumed Motivation Influences
Validated or
Not Validated
(V or N)
Self-efficacy:
Counselors need to be confident in their ability to provide culturally
competent counseling services.
N
Expectancy value theory (EVT):
Counselors need to believe their effort makes a difference in student success
and competition.
N
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 104
Organization Results and Findings
Rueda, (2011) stated that cultural models and cultural settings observable practices in
organizations are often deeply rooted aspects of an organization. In this study, assumed
influences considered both cultural models, and settings as contributors to SCC’s organizational
performance gap.
Assumed Organization Influence 1
The first organization-related assumed influence on the SCC’s performance gap was that
leaders of the organization model culturally competent practices that contribute to student
engagement and completion, which depicts a cultural model. The data used to determine the
validation of this organization gap were obtained from surveys, interviews and document
analysis.
Findings from the surveys. The survey question used to assess this assumed influence
was Question 21, which asked, “The leaders of the institution model culturally competent
counseling practices that contribute to student engagement and completion?” Response options
were (a) Strongly disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Neither agree or disagree, (d) Agree, (e) Strongly
agree. The most frequent response (55%) was “Strongly disagree.” The next highest response
was from 33% of the respondents who stated they “Disagree” that leaders of the institution
model culturally competent counseling practices. Since more than 50% of counselors responded
that they disagreed with the statement, there is sufficient evidence to validate the influence.
Figure 11 illustrates the responses to survey question 21.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 105
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral/ Neither agree
nor disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
The leaders in my insBtuBon model culturally competent
counseling pracBces that contribute to student engagement and
compleBon.
Figure 11. Responses to survey question 21.
Findings from the interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed
influence was Q 20, which asked, “Describe the ways that your department leads model
culturally competency to support the goal?” Participant One responded to the question by
stating, “I am unable to describe any ways because modeling is not a practice in my department.”
Participant Two added,
I have never experienced any modeling of cultural competency. In fact, it is definitely an
area of concern. Sometimes, a student comes in to my office and presents certain issues
require consultations with my colleagues. However, due to timing and scheduling, we fail
to have enough time to process the information.
When asked about leaders modeling cultural competency, several respondents addressed
a theme noted by the researcher about insufficient time to complete tasks. Participant Four
stated,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 106
I wish that the leadership can provide training and modeling on an ongoing basis. I
would love to see the department invest time in more meaningful training. My new-
employee training was equivalent to shadowing. Although we experienced 3 days of
training, they rushed through the material and information so rapidly and it was easy to
forget what was presented during the training. I mean after the training I felt like a lot of
my learning was on the job training and I was kind of flying by the seat of my pants.
Participant Five stated a desire for the leaders to model cultural competency:
I really wish that leads took the time to model ways to service students using cultural
competent counseling methods. I would like a more in-depth training and modeling ways
to handle diverse issues that arise daily in the office. It would be helpful if the training
was offered maybe for about a week and not from 8:00 a.m. In the morning until 5:00
p.m. over a couple of days. Because when trainings are so condensed, I try to make sure
that I remember everything, and end up forgetting most of what I learned.
Findings from the document analysis. Evidence of the assumed influence was found in
the counselor new-employee handbook, which included a small paragraph about how to deal
with diverse students. The information covers the intricate details and the administrative side of
counseling and did not focus on student contact or how to counsel difficult students on specific
religious issues, even African-American students who are not considered athletes. The current
employee training handbook does not include items other than the daily counseling-related forms
and existing counseling processes. There was no evidence that reflected a culturally competent
approach expected by the leadership team.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 107
Summary of this organizational influence. There was sufficient evidence of gaps in
modeling culturally competent practices found in the surveys and interviews for this assumed
organizational influences. Therefore, this assumed influence was validated.
Assumed Organization Influence 2
The second assumed organization-related influence was that policies, procedures, and
organizational resources needed to be aligned with practices known to provide effective
solutions, which corresponds with the cultural setting. Based on the analysis from the three
sources of evidence, this assumed organizational influence was validated.
Findings from the surveys. The survey question used to assess this assumed influence
was item Q28. Survey item Q28, asked, “A thirty-minute counseling appointment is enough
time for me to engage with each student to create a comprehensive educational plan?” Response
options were (1) Strongly disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Neutral/Neither agree nor disagree, (4)
Agree, and (5) Strongly Agree. “Strongly Disagree” was the response most frequently selected,
with 55.5 % of participants disagreeing that a 30-minute designated time slot to engage with a
student and prepare an educational plan is sufficient to meet the organizational performance goal.
Of the remainder of the respondents, 33.3 % selected “Disagree” as a response. Figure 12
illustrates a summary of responses to question 28.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 108
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral/ Neither agree
nor disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
A thirty-minute counseling appointment Dme slot is enough for
me to engage with each student to create a comprehensive
educaDonal plan.
Figure 12. Responses to survey question 28.
Findings from the interviews. The interview question used to assess this assumed
influence was Q15b, “What resources do you need to effectively counsel students?” Some
examples of resources can include time, staff, finances, and support. Participant Three
mentioned feeling rushed when serving students and stated,
It would help if the department allowed counselors more time to spend in sessions with
students during appointments. The additional time will really allow me to help students
determine their major especially when they have no idea what they plan to study.
Participant Three also stated,
The process of counseling seems a lot easier than it is. Many students come in with no
idea of their intended academic plans, and then I have to go through multiple majors, and
explain the differences and provide them with a list of classes, prepare an educational
plan and also answer any other short or detailed questions that they may have for me.
That is plenty to do effectively in 30 minutes and with limited staffing, sometimes it feels
impossible.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 109
Participant Five added a different perspective by agreeing with the need for more time
and wanted the option to extend counseling session on an occasional basis. Participant Five
stated,
Well, I work with a program that requires me to provide intensive counseling, so I have
to see every student three times a semester. These are half hour appointments, sometimes
45 minutes if I am lucky. I must create educational plans, deal with career issues,
concerns and personal problems.
Participant Five also stated,
As an instructor, I must prepare to teach, I must grade papers. I have to attend meetings,
and trainings and conferences so I have to keep myself balanced because I can only
accomplish so much, and there is only 24 hours per day. I would like to also mention that
we need intentional training for our department.
Participant Six also addressed the issue of time needed to see students, and stated,
I feel like the lack of time impedes the organizational progress because we're not able to
give students the time that they need sometimes. Sometimes students don't need as much
time, which is understandable. But there are some students who come in who have tons
of questions, are nervous, and they are afraid. Even if they've been here for a while,
some are still afraid. We really need to have more time in our sessions because 30
minutes is just not enough time.”
Another counselor mentioned time and added information about how to manage time
during a session. Participant Seven stated,
I squeeze all of the information into the appointment time, but I notice how the student
appears overwhelmed and some will even mention that they feel that they are being
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 110
rushed out of my office. So, personally, having more time in appointments, even an extra
half hour for some students, would be helpful.
Participant Seven also mentioned,
I have noticed when I have an extra half hour with a student, I can really delve into things
and not have to worry about rushing students, and that really helps me set up the
framework for the rest of the appointment and it prevents me from running late for my
next appointment. When I have an hour for an appointment, I can really get in to the
meat and potatoes, and it is apparent that the student feels a lot better because they really
have garnered not only the academics, but also maybe the psychological/emotional part
that I was able to discuss as well.
Findings from document analysis. There was no evidence of this assumed influence in
the documents. The assumed organizational influence was not validated.
Summary of results and findings for all organizational influences. The results of the
data analysis regarding assumed organizational influences indicated that SCC leaders had gaps in
two areas of the assumed organizational influences. One gap was evidenced in modeling and the
other in policies and procedures that were not aligned with practices known to provide effective
solutions. The data regarding the assumed influences indicated a disconnection between the role
that counselors are responsible for and the organizational resources to help them meet the
organizational performance goal. Table 9 illustrates a summary of the two organizational
influences that were validated through the analysis of the survey, interview, document analysis.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 111
Table 9
Validation of Organization Influences
Assumed Organization Influences
Validated or
Not Validate
(V or N)
Cultural Model:
Leaders of the organization model culturally competent practices that
contribute to student engagement and completion.
V
Cultural Setting:
Policies, procedures, and organizational resources need to be aligned with
practices known to provide effective solutions to reach the performance
goal.
V
Summary of Results and Findings
Table 10 is a matrix that illustrates the validated knowledge, motivation, and
organizational assumed influences and the validation of each influence. Gaps were found
pertaining to two of the organizational influences, which addressed the cultural models and
cultural settings. Each of the validated organizational influences are explored and addressed in
Chapter Five. The responses to the final open-ended question were also coded, and several
respondents agreed with themes “the importance of training, modeling, time to effectively meet
complete the job” that were generated from the data. Recommendations to address the gaps are
presented in Chapter Five.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 112
Table 10
Traceability Matrix
Assumed
Influences
Overall
Validated
Survey Validated Interview Validated Document
Analysis
Validated
Knowledge
Counselors
need to know
the reasons
why African-
American male
students enroll
and drop out
before
completing
college. (D)
N Q6
N Q11
N Score Card
data
Strategic
Plan
N
Counselors
need to know
the primary
goals of the
institution. (D)
N Q7
N Q12
N Strategic
Plan
N
Counselors
need to know
how to have a
shared
definition of
culturally
competent
strategies (D)
V Q18
N Q7 Validated Not Found
in
Counseling
Staff
Meeting
Notes
V
Counselors
need to know
how to
effectively
guide students
toward clear
pathways to
reach their
academic goals
from entry to
completion. (P)
N Q9
N Q2 N New-
Employee
Handbook
N
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 113
Table 10, continued
Assumed
Influences
Overall
Validated
Survey Validated Interview Validated Document
Analysis
Validated
Knowledge
Counselors
understanding
and practices
of reflection
are limited.
(M)
N Q23b N Q16 N Department
al Notes for
evaluation
V
Motivation
Counselors
need to be
confident in
their ability to
provide
culturally
competent
counseling
services. (Self-
efficacy)
N Q11a N Q10 N Equity
Scorecard
N
Counselors
need to
believe that
their effort
makes a
difference in
student
success and
completion
rates. (EVT)
N Q19 N Q5 N Strategic
Plan
N
Organization
Leaders of the
organization
model
culturally
competent
practices that
contribute to
student
engagement
and
completion
V Q21
V Q20 V Department
Meeting
Notes
V
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 114
Table 10, continued
Assumed
Influences
Overall
Validated
Survey Validated Interview Validated Document
Analysis
Validated
Organization
The policies,
procedures,
and
organizational
resources are
well aligned
with practices
known to
provide
effective
solutions to
the goal
V Q28 V Q15b V Not Found
N
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 115
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
This study evaluated the assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
that hindered SCC counselors from increasing completion rates of African-American male
students and creating a culture of completion. Chapter Four consisted of the results and findings
from data collected through surveys, interview, and document analysis. The survey and
interview data were focused to answer Research Question One, “What are the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences which prevent SCC counselors from implementing
100% of the culturally competent counseling strategies with 100% of students, 100% of the time,
to increase African-American male student completion rates?” Furthermore, in Chapter Four,
assumed influences were analyzed using the data. Next, the influences were designated as
validated, partially validated or unable to be validated. Through this process, a summary was
developed regarding the counselor’s knowledge motivation, and organizational influences and
included the emergent themes.
From the analysis of the data, three influences were identified as a having a validated
gap. Results pertaining to the three assumed influences identified gaps that prevented counselors
within SCC from using cultural competency counseling to increase African-American male
student success.
Chapter Five answers this study’s second research question: “What are the recommended
solutions in knowledge and skills, motivation and organizational factors for the counselors to
provide culturally competent services to 100% of the African-American male students at SCC?”
This chapter also provides recommendations on how SCC leaders can create or modify existing
training, policies, procedures and practices to close the performance gaps identified in this study.
The recommendations are based on the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 116
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The implementation and the evaluation of the recommended solutions are
designed to increase counselors’ confidence in their ability to retain African-American male
students at SCC and create a culture of completion. The recommendations include using
resources, instruction through trainings and professional development, mentoring, modeling and
job aids. This information is organized in categories according to the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). The final section of this chapter discusses
the studies limitations, delimitations and recommendations for future research.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Because one of the assumed knowledge influences was validated, there is a
recommendation to improve counselors’ knowledge. The data confirms the counselors need a
shared understanding of cultural competency and how to apply the knowledge to retain students
until they complete certificate and degree programs.
Table 11
Validated Knowledge Influence
Validated Knowledge Influence Validated
Declarative:
Counselors need to have a shared definition of culturally competent strategies.
V
Motivation Recommendations
There were no validated motivation gaps for the assumed motivation influences.
Therefore, there are no recommendations to improve counselors’ motivation.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 117
Organization Recommendations
The organizational influence presented in Table 12 includes the validated organizational
influences. Clark and Estes (2008) suggested that organization and stakeholder goals are often
not achieved due to performance gaps related to lack of resources, mainly time and money, and
because the organization does not prioritize the goal. For this study, campus leaders did not give
counselors adequate time and resources to do their job effectively and did not model the desired
behavior. The organizational influences identified in the literature review and validated through
research revealed gaps in departmental policies and procedures and the issue of leadership and
modeling. According to what the counselors expressed, leadership can improve in modeling.
The organization needs to have a procedure for providing frequent modeling and coaching
opportunities. Table 12 illustrates the validated assumed organizational influences with
suggested context-specific recommendations to address the assumed organizational influences
and barriers.
Table 12
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Validated Organization
Influence
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific Recommendation
Policies, procedures, and
organizational resources
need to be aligned with
practices known to provide
effective solutions to reach
the performance goal.
Organizational performance
increases when processes and
resources are aligned with
goals established
collaboratively (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Conduct team meetings with all
counselors and with leadership to
establish goals and time frames to
increase time allotments for individual
counseling sessions to support the
performance goals.
Leaders model culturally
competent practices that
contribute to student
engagement and
completion.
Accountability is increased
when expectations are aligned
with the organizational goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Schedule consistent time for individual
and team meetings to develop a shared
definition of cultural competency and to
provide modeling for counselor training
and oversight.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 118
Cultural models. According to the initial analysis of the data, due to leadership
prioritizing volume over quality interaction, counselors do not have enough time to do their jobs
and participate and engage with students outside of the counseling office. If leadership valued
the quality of interaction, they would allow for longer appointments. However, the challenge for
the team is to figure out how to allow enough time to address students’ needs and still see all
students. Clark and Estes (2008) found that organizational performance improves when
resources and processes are aligned with the stated goals and mission. SCC’s mission is to
provide students with high-quality, comprehensive instructional programs and support services
to improve student success and offer clear pathways for students to achieve their goals. To
improve student performance, the organization should provide opportunities for counselors to
explore the campus and engage with students and equip counselors with the cultural competency
tools to address some of the problems that African-American male students face on campus.
According to the literature, ongoing training is essential to maintain culturally competent
counseling skills (Bauer, 2014). Because the department does not have a shared definition,
counselors need opportunities to discuss cultural competency. This discussion can be integrated
into the counselor trainings and ongoing professional development workshops to discuss, as a
team, what culturally competent counseling means for them. Having a department-wide
definition would be helpful for counselors to collectively contribute to the development of the
new practices, to determine how to measure success, and to know how they will be held
accountable. Studies have shown that cultural competency integration can bring significant
benefits to both counselors and students (Bauer, 2014; Harris & Wood, 2016).
Cultural settings. After initial data analysis, it is apparent that the counselors feel that
the policies, procedures, and organizational resources are not aligned with practices known to
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 119
provide effective solutions to the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). The most notable resource
indicated is a need for counselors to discuss cultural competency as a team and to determine how
to best utilize these skills with African-American males and other underserved populations. By
modifying SCC’s policies and practices to increase the appointment times to 30 minutes for each
counseling session, counselors will now have additional time in sessions to adequately complete
their job and meet the organization performance goal. The counselors can increase their
performance if given the ample resources and time to effectively counsel students. Currently,
there is no written policy to describe the approach that best suits meeting the goal using cultural
competency counseling to empower African-American male students to meet the institutional
goal of improving degree-completion.
The recommended solutions suggest that SCC’s leadership commits to understanding the
campus climate before implementing suggested ideas. Creating culturally competent climates
across disciplines would be beneficial for the entire campus community. Furthermore, it is
recommended that leadership prioritize services and the time required to invest in counseling
faculty. In addition, team meetings with new and experienced counselors and with leadership are
necessary to establish goals and time frames to implement relevant culturally competent
practices for underserved student populations. The meetings can provide individuals the
opportunity to collaborate ideas and create a list of shared organizational processes. Therefore,
the recommended solution is to schedule consistent time for individual and team meetings for
counselor training and oversight. By allocating time for training for frequent modeling and
feedback, the leaders could show that they value the mission and have a vested interest towards
achieving the stakeholder goals. This recommendation will ensure that the leaders are interested
in a process for counselors to improve performance. Therefore, being intentional about
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 120
modeling culturally competent practices, providing feedback and opportunities to coach the
counselors, is an effective strategy toward goal achievement.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
The implementation and evaluation informed by the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) builds on the original Kirkpatrick Four-Level Model
(Kirkpatrick, 2006) of training evaluation with four levels of professional training evaluation in
the following order: reaction, learning, transfer, and results. The revised model promotes the
reversal of the order to ensure that the recommended organizational solutions are closely aligned
with the goals of the organization. The reverse order begins with the organizational goal to
create an evaluation plan and identify the leading indicators that align the organization’s work
with the desired outcomes. Furthermore, this reverse order of the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) helps to develop solution outcomes that focus on assessing
work behaviors in Level 3, identification of indicators of learning during the implementation
phase in Level 2, and the indicators that the stakeholders are satisfied with in the implementation
strategies in Level 1. The order of the evaluation plan assists in connecting the broader
organizational goal with more of the immediate short-term solutions. This connection provides
opportunities between the immediate solutions and the larger goal to promote goal attainment
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The goal of SCC is to improve the educational state and completion rates of underserved
populations by ensuring that the educational institution provides basic skills, certificate, degree,
transfer opportunities, vocational programs, and support to community college students.
Therefore, using culturally competent practices is critical to advancing SCC’s goals and mission.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 121
This study examined the knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational barriers that
contribute to the organizational performance gap in reducing the number of African-American
males who enroll and do not complete community college.
The four levels of the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)
and the plan for implementation follow. The first step begins with Level 4: Results and
Indicators; then Level 3: Behaviors; Level 2: Learning; and, lastly, Level 1: Reaction. This
model proposes that leaders begin with the organizational goals in mind and then identify the
leading indicators that will assist towards goal achievement.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 13 shows the proposed Level 4 results of having SCC using the results and leading
indicators in the form of outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes.
If the internal outcomes are achieved at SCC because of the change in policies, procedures and
organizational support, the external outcomes should also be achieved.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 122
Table 13
Outcomes, Metrics & Methods
Desired Outcomes Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increased number
of completed
certificate and
degree programs.
A favorable impact on
the community, an
increase in the job
market prospects.
Review compile data, with estimated time
to completion, from the office of
Institutional Research office
Use Score Card and CCCCO Data to track
frequency of student departure and dis-
enrollment that may be tied to relationship
with counselors and trust in faculty and
staff. The data will be crossed checked.
Collect a survey.
2. Decrease rates of
student departure
without earning
certificate or
degrees.
The number of
students who are
identified by the
California Community
College Chancellor’s
Office as enrolled
previously enrolled in
community college but
not completed.
Aggregate data from the office of
Institutional research. Track the Score Card
data from the previous year. Solicit
Institutional and Chancellor’s Office Data.
3. Increased
awareness of
cultural competency
and a shared
definition to as a
framework to
operate from.
Increase in student
enrollment and
completion.
Track meeting minutes and other
communication for mentions of cultural
competency.
Internal Outcomes
4. Leadership have
increased
organizational
performance and
accountability.
Number of completed
comprehensive
educational plans.
SARS Data Report will
report the number of
completed educational
plans.
Track the SARS data monthly.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 123
Table 13, continued
Desired Outcomes Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
5. Leadership have
aligned policies and
practices to support
increased student
engagement by
increasing the time
allotments for
student
appointments
The number of ongoing
trainings spent on
cultural competent
techniques and an
increase in
comprehensive
educational plans
equating to happier
students and staff who
are less stressed to
provide comprehensive
services in a limited
time frame.
Enhanced ongoing trainings in the new-
employee handbook, and the counseling
policy and procedure manuals.
6 Leadership will
increase counselor
and student
engagement
opportunities.
Heightened sense of
student connectedness
and a belonging.
Create opportunities and events “Coffee
with a counselor” to allow time to get to
know the students in a casual setting.
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The required critical behaviors for the counselors at SCC to meet
their performance goal include leadership prioritizing the time and resources necessary to
promote a culture of college completion. The third level of the New World Kirkpatrick Model
focuses on critical behaviors or behaviors that may be observed from the stakeholders if they
have developed an increase level of learning from the Kirkpatrick model and applied the learned
concepts (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The stakeholders of focus are SCC’s counselors
who provide direct counseling services to prospective, new and continuing students. The first
critical behavior is that leadership must define the behaviors that directly correlate with the goals
of developing and implementing a shared definition of counseling from a culturally competent
framework. The second critical behavior is they must commit to prioritizing counseling services
to maximize counselor efficiency and effectiveness by increasing time for added support and
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 124
retention strategies. Table 14 illustrates the specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of
these outcome behaviors.
Table 14
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Leaders prioritize and
dedicate the time and
resources to create
opportunities for the team to
develop a shared definition of
culturally competent
counseling to promote a
culture of community college
completion.
The number of
counseling faculty
reporting that they
have a shared
definition.
Regular and ongoing
communication.
Leaders shall integrate
this topic in to the
counseling meeting
discussions and create a
safe space for ongoing
departmental discussions.
During
new-
employee
orientation
2. Leaders support the 3SP
initiative by prioritize
resources to allow for
increased time commitment
allotted for counseling
appointments and increase the
amount of days and times for
new-hire training to prevent
sensory overload.
Number of daily
student
appointments.
Number of days and
time for duration of
new-hire training.
Document number of
student contacts from the
aggregate data from the
Electronic Records
system (SARS).
Survey counselors about
satisfaction with the new
increased times to see
students in appointments.
Quarterly
3. Leaders model how to
develop opportunities for
counselors to interact and
engage with African-
American Male students
outside of a counseling
setting.
The number of
student centered
events.
The lead will incorporate
opportunities outside of
departmental events to
allow counselors time to
engage with students and
provide feedback to
department leader.
Quarterly
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 125
Table 14, continued
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
3a. Leaders model behaviors
that utilizes cultural
competency techniques to
promote a culture of
community college
completion.
Employee
assessments; Self-
assessment and leader
assessment of the
level of alignment to
behaviors that
promote community
college completion.
Assessment of the
leadership and their
commitment to using
cultural competency
techniques as
evidenced by their
behavior and their
modeling.
Bi-annually
during the
performance
evaluation.
Required drivers. Required drivers are additional dimensions in the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) and can provide support and accountability
to aid in the implementation process through re-enforcing, monitoring, and encouraging
participants. The counselors have primary responsibility to lead the desired changes at SCC,
which is to reduce the number of students who do not complete community college. To achieve
the organization’s performance goal, SCC needs specific expectations for and measurements of
the required drivers. Table 15 shows the recommended drivers to support the critical behaviors
of SCC counselors.
Table 15
Required Drivers to Support Counselor Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Extend counseling team meetings beyond the mandatory
required hours to review cultural competencies to ensure that the
practice reflects a team commitment.
Monthly 1,2,3
Regular and ongoing communication by leadership. Weekly 1,2,3
Reflection on cultural competency counseling techniques and
applications.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Review internal assessment scores and external feedback from
students through the portal.
Monthly 1,2,3
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 126
Table 15, continued
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Encouraging
Present information on the importance of using culturally
competent counseling techniques, to reduce the number of
African-American students who enroll and do not complete
community college.
Monthly 1,2,3
Modeling and feedback during team meetings as examples of
desired behaviors
Weekly 1,2,3
Rewarding
Develop a reward performance incentive system Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Create team performance incentives, offsite events and
activities, team parties when goals are reached.
Quarterly 1,2,3
Public acknowledgement, such as a mention at All-Hands
meetings, when team performance reaches a benchmark
Quarterly 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Leadership can create opportunities at staff meetings for
counselors to share student assessments and evaluations.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Leadership can ask counselors to self-report and discuss their
confidence in modeling behaviors that reduce student departures
without completion of certificate or degrees.
Two months after
training and
quarterly
thereafter
1, 2, 3
Organizational support. SCC counselors must have the organizational resources,
including the cultural models and cultural settings that support their ability to utilize culturally
competent counseling practices to reduce the number of African-American male students who
enroll but do not complete community college. Without specific organizational and cultural
support, counselors are at risk of not meeting their performance goals, even if they have the
knowledge and skills and the motivation to achieve them (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Specifically, the organizational supports required to meet the performance goals involve a shift
from the current leadership structure. The new organizational structure will focus on a
commitment to practices, policies and procedures aligned with quality of student interaction
instead of volume. Furthermore, the practices will hold counselors accountable for providing
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 127
effective counseling and support needed to retain African-American males until completion,
providing the required organizational resources such as adequate time to do their job effectively,
and modeling from leadership to determine the best culturally competent practices that contribute
to student completion.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions the counselors
will be able to:
1. Know the reasons why African-American males enroll and drop out before completing,
(D)
2. Know the primary goals of the institution, (D)
3. Have a shared definition of culturally competent counseling strategies, (D)
4. Recognize and model cultural competent practices consistent with retaining African-
American males in college, (P)
5. Know how to effectively guide students toward clear pathways to reach their academic
goals from entry to completion, (P)
6. Understand practices of modeling and reflection, (M)
7. Demonstrate a belief and confidence in their ability to use cultural competencies to
prevent early departures from college without earning degrees, (SE) and
8. Believe that their effort makes a difference in student success and completion rates.
(EVT).
Program. The learning goals above will be achieved with a blended combination of
ongoing training programs and departmental activities during extended counseling meetings and
other designated times. In addition, the mandatory new-hire orientation, which traditionally
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 128
covered the organizational structure, college policies, rules, regulations and procedures, general
education and major requirements, will now include some role-playing and modeling from
leadership. To ensure the counselors can absorb and retain the information, the new-hire training
will be a three-day training, for approximately four hours each day, to make sure the information
can be absorbed and retained and not lost due to sensory overload. The training program will use
a blended method approach consisting of e-learning modules, face-to-face training, peer
consultation and modeling.
The first two trainings must be completed before the end of 30 days of hire date, and the
third training must be completed within six months of being hired with the organization.
Additionally, ongoing professional development trainings on quarterly and bi-annual basis will
be mandatory for all counselors. It is important for new and seasoned counselors to continue
their trainings, making them culturally relevant to their current student populations. The training
material will be presented in short increments to manage intrinsic load and maximize learning
and retention (Kirshner et. al., 2006). The counselors will study a broad range of topics
pertaining to counselor roles and responsibilities, student development, an overview of culturally
competent counseling techniques to use with diverse student populations, educational planning
and how it ties into accountability expectations, support mechanisms and helpful success tips to
increase student completion rates. These topics were identified based on the previously
identified learning goals and a desire to ensure the success of counselors and students.
Training will also assist counselors understand why a shared definition benefits the
counselor, student and the organization to meet the performance goals. Counselors will be
provided a job aid handout with quick references to culturally competent helpful tips and
strategies. Trainings will engage counselors by using current and past examples from SCC to
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 129
practice newly learned mental models, and shared behaviors that that they can engage in to
increase student completion rates. The trainer will pause occasionally to allow for knowledge
checks and understanding. Following the trainings, the counselors will be given the opportunity
to practice using modeling and provide and receive feedback from leadership. The
demonstrations, practice, and feedback approach will provide the leadership with opportunities
to learn from others and receive valuable feedback for future trainings.
Components of learning. Counselors at SCC must demonstrate their declarative
knowledge to ensure they are aware of the reasons some African-American community college
males enroll and do not complete college and of the resources available to them to prevent them
from leaving. Therefore, an important component of the training is to ensure that they have
knowledge of a shared definition of cultural competency and “know it, know what to do with the
practices, and how to do it” (Arredondo, Tovar-Blank, & Parham, 2008; Strayhorn, 2015).
Additionally, the counselors must have the attitude and belief to succeed in applying their
knowledge and skills, and the committed to using them on the job. Table 16 lists the evaluation
methods and timing for these components of learning.
Table 16
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through pre- and post-tests
before and after the trainings.
At the beginning and end of each in-
person training session.
Knowledge checks using discussions from small
groups and case scenarios.
Periodically during the in-person
trainings and workshops and
documented with observation notes.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 130
Table 16, continued
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration in hands on role-play in groups and
individually, conducted as part of the training.
During the in-person workshop and
during the trainings.
Individual application of culturally competent the
skills with the planning implementation for
department.
By end of the training.
Quality of the feedback from colleagues during
group sharing.
During peer consultation.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructors and leadership observations of
statements and actions that reveal that counselors
see the benefit of using culturally competent
practices to positively impact completion rates.
During the in-person training and
modeling sessions.
Instructor’s observation of participant statements
mentioning that they attribute their actions as
supporting retention of African-American male
students.
Group discussions on the impact that counselors
can make of the larger problem of practice of the
completion rate gap in California community
colleges.
During the in-person training sessions.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Demonstration of confidence after individual and
group discussions following the practice and
feedback sessions.
During the in-person training.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions among counselors and colleagues
following the inclusion of culturally competent
modeling, practice and feedback.
During and after the training, follow up
during feedback and modeling sessions.
Creation of an individualized action plan to support
team members commitment to impact completion.
After the training.
Pre- and post-assessment. Pre- and Post-initial training, and after
the modeling, practice and feedback is
completed.
Level 1: Reaction
The main purpose of Level 1 is to obtain information required to confirm the participant’s
reaction to the training. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), Level 1 is primarily
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 131
measured at the end of a training to evaluate the participants’ perceptions on engagement,
relevancy and usefulness to their job. The training reactions can be gauged by pulse checks,
observations by the leader or a specific observer or also using surveys as an evaluation tool.
Table 17 illustrates counselors’ reaction to the training, modeling and peer review. The table
measures their perceptions on engagement, relevance and satisfaction to the methods of learning.
Table 17
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Participate in role-play During the training and modeling session.
Attendance for the entire training Ongoing per schedule.
Completion of all training and e-learning online
modules
During and after the training.
Course evaluation At the end of the training and one week
after the training.
Relevance
Brief check-ins with participants via discussions
to determine the relatability to their work
After each session during the training.
Course evaluations At the end of training and six weeks after.
Customer Satisfaction
Brief verbal group check-ins with all participants
asking” how the training is going” and
documenting responses
Periodically during the training.
Course evaluation One week after the training.
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. As component of the trainings,
pre-and post-surveys will be disseminated and collected. The collected data will be used as a
brief pulse check to assess the participants’ declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge will
be assessed during peer review through the process of role-playing to gauge individual skills and
abilities and their attitudes about the scenarios and topics that were discussed in the role-play.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 132
The pre-and post-surveys will also ask questions to determine if the participants deem the
information relevant to their job, useful, and applicable to their working environment and to
learn about their overall satisfaction with the content and delivery of the course material.
To measure engagement, relevance and satisfaction for the trainings, the instructor will
conduct periodic brief check-ins to evaluate the level of participation and verbal check-ins to
determine the relevance of the course training material. Level 2 outcomes pertaining to
knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment will be assessed through brief surveys at
the end of each module to gauge the participants’ understanding of the course material. In
addition, the Level 2, checks of understanding will include scenarios from the training and will
be assessed through discussions and observations, role-playing, peer modeling, and feedback
from the counselor. The instructor’s feedback from participants will ensure they are learning the
knowledge and skills necessary to successfully move towards achieving the performance goal
and to also modify and improve training course material for future trainings. The evaluation tool
used in this study is presented in Appendix F.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Surveys will be sent to all
training participants at the end of the training and again approximately six weeks later. SCC
leadership will administer a survey containing open and scaled items using the Blended
Evaluation approach to assess data regarding participants’ self-reported levels of satisfaction,
engagement, and relevance of the training (Level 1 in the model) and knowledge, skills and
attitude, confidence and commitment (Level 2 in the model). In addition, Level 3 learning will
be assessed through the participants’ ability to apply the knowledge from the training on their
jobs, and Level 4 learning will be assessed through student completion statistics. The evaluation
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 133
instrument consisting of one or two items per category for Levels 1, 2, 3 and 4 is in presented in
Appendix G.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of this implementation plan is to provide SCC’s counselors the
knowledge, motivation and organizational tools to effectively use culturally competent
counseling techniques to move towards closing the completion rate gap that exists with African-
American males and other underserved male populations at SCC. There will be measurable
increases in counselor perceived confidence to complete college. The goal will be assessed
immediately following the training and six weeks later. The metrics that include the number of
completed educational plans as well as the number of students completing their courses each
semester will be tracked and displayed on the counseling dashboard as a visual representation of
SCC’s improvements with increased completion rates. Each month, the leadership will track the
number of comprehensive and abbreviated educational plans and produce accurate dashboards
for Levels 1-3. Monthly and quarterly reports will be shared with SCC’s Dean and V.P., so they
can monitor counselor learning and progress.
Summary
The evaluation plan for this study utilizes a combination of the Clark and Estes’ (2008)
gap analysis framework along with the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The four levels of training help leadership plan, design, implement and
evaluate recommendations for SCC to work towards advancing their stakeholder goal of closing
the completion rate gap within the institution. One of the advantages of using this model is that
the training is expected to give counselors the knowledge and skills necessary to change their
critical behaviors to achieve SCC’s organizational goals. The use of the New World Kirkpatrick
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 134
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) four levels of evaluation used as a simultaneous assessments
model, will add value to the existing orientation and training provided to counselors by
improving performance in the organization and with the student populations. If implemented,
counselors can receive consistent and continuous feedback for improvement, thus giving them a
better chance of achieving organizational results.
Strength and Weaknesses of Approach
A combination of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model and the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) provided a strong framework for this
evaluation study. The framework provides a comprehensive analysis of influences contributing
to organizational performance gaps and recommended solutions for performance improvement to
support stakeholders in meeting identified needs. However, a weakness in utilizing the
combined framework is that it does not provide room to expand beyond the prescriptive
approach and may complicate identification of stakeholder needs and gaps.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are many expected and unexpected limitations that may interfere with a study. A
primary limitation for this study consists of the small sample. Considering that the institution
where the research was conducted is a small district, the researcher elected to use the entire
population for the surveys. In addition, the small sample could have been a limitation for this
study by presenting difficulties and challenges to anonymity. Another limitation is that the site
selected for this study included participants who were colleagues, many for quite some time.
Due to the nature of the relationship with most of the counselors interviewed, a level of bias
naturally exists (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016b). However, to limit biases, the
researcher stressed the importance of the researcher’s role in this study, primarily as a researcher,
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 135
and not as a colleague. Furthermore, since the data were collected by the researcher, this may
have influenced the way that colleagues responded to the questions. In fact, it may have
prevented respondents from being authentic while answering the questions truthfully about
cultural biases during the surveys and interview for fear that identifiable information may have
linked the information back to them. Another possible limitation is that the counselors who
completed the survey may not be the same counselors who participated in the interviews.
Nineteen of the 20 counselors agreed to and were selected to take the survey, and only seven
agreed and were selected to participate in the interviews. While reviewing documents, some of
the online data sources were not totally accurate, which prompted the researcher to review
printed versions of similar documents in addition to the online version documents to ensure the
reliability and credibility of the sources. Another limitation was time and resources for this
study. Due to the limited time to conduct this study, not all knowledge, motivational and
organizational influences were addressed.
Delimitations may occur as a result this study. A primary delimitation is that this study is
specific to SCC and should not serve as a generalization of the understanding of all community
college counselors. Furthermore, the study findings will be interpreted for SCC’s organizational
practice. This study will also allow the researcher to evaluate this stakeholder group thoroughly
and view potential service gaps at the college. The researcher gained knowledge of both the
strengths and weaknesses in how the counselors provide services to students.
Future Research
Advancing student success for men of color is a growing concern in higher education.
Several studies exist about faculty member’s potential roles to engage and connect with students
on campus (Bauer, 2014; Bush & Bush, 2010; Harris & Wood, 2013; Wood, 2015), and few
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 136
studies promote the use of cultural competency among counselors to engage, support and affirm
African-American males at community colleges (Bauer, 2014; Rendon, 1994). While
conducting research for this study, the researcher explored and uncovered literature on the role of
validating agents on men of color student success (Xiong et al., 2016). For future studies, the
researcher proposed incorporating the student’s voice in the discussions and identifying current
strategies available from other successful campuses, or still needed, to increase the success of
African-American males in college and in society. Another suggested topic for future study is
unconscious bias in education and the role that it plays with African-American male students. It
would be interesting to include a study on community college counseling departments that have
been successful in providing culturally competent services department-wide and data on how the
shift occurred. Because of this information, other counselors may benefit from learning about
factors that influence successful outcomes for men of color in community colleges. Lastly,
hiring a diverse staff was noted as a topic that can use further exploration.
Conclusion
For this study, the researcher selected a problem of practice: counselors bridging the
student completion rate gap at a community college. The problem was evaluated through the
lenses of counselors at SCC, and Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model was used to explore
the problem. The knowledge, motivation and organizational influences affecting African-
American male completion rates were evaluated through recent and relevant literature, surveys,
interviews and document analysis. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) guided the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influence solutions to address the performance gap. An interesting fact about this project is that
the problem of African-American males’ completion rates is not simple to combat. The
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 137
completion rate problem is larger, complex and requires intentional commitment and
accountability, even beyond exposure from the Equity Scorecard.
The problem needs to be addressed on multiple levels, including nationally. Hopefully,
President Obama’s My Brother’s Keeper initiative (The American Presidency Project, 2009) will
continue to plant seeds that will grow in the direction of changes to improve the status of
African-American males in college to close the completion rate gap. It is incumbent upon
educational leaders to also make strides towards minimizing this gap. The recommendations
from this study can be used as a model for other community colleges and institutions of higher
education to plan, design, and implement programs to address the problem that community
colleges experience with student completion.
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 138
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APPENDIX A
Recruitment Letter
Dear Summer Community College (SCC) Counselors,
In fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Education, Organizational
Change and Leadership, I am conducting a study with the counselors at SCC. The goal of the
research is to learn more about the knowledge and beliefs of the counselors, and the
organizational culture and structure of SCC as they relate to providing culturally competent
services to the African-American male students.
Please note that all information collected from participants will be completely
confidential. Also, since I am an employee, I may engage another researcher to conduct some of
the interviews for this study. This study is confidential, and every effort will be made to protect
the identity of participants and the organization.
If you are interested in participating in this study, or have any questions, please contact
me at sheelaho@usc.edu or you can call me on my cell at 562-646-7130.
Thank you,
Sheela Hoyle
Ed.D. Candidate, University of Southern California
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APPENDIX B
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Organizational Leadership and Change
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90069
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL
RESEARCH
Cultural Competency for Academic Counselors in the California Community College
Systems to Increase the Success of African-American Male Students
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study is trying to understand how counselors can provide culturally competent
services to African-American male students to increase community college completion rates.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to be a part of this study, you will be asked to complete a demographic survey
lasting approximately 10-15 minutes. In addition, participants will be asked to participate in an
individual in person or telephone interview with the researcher lasting approximately an hour.
To aid in capturing the information shared, these interviews will be recorded and hand-written
notes will be taken, with the interviewee’s permission. Your participation is voluntary, and you
will have the ability to answer only the questions you desire to answer for any reason you can
choose not to respond. You may also choose to end the survey or the interview at any time with
no further explanation.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Your participation in this survey is voluntary and no compensation will be provided for your
compensation.
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ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship
with your employer will not be affected whether you participate or not in this study, and your
employer will not be notified of who chooses to participate in the study or not.
CONFIDENTIALITY
This is a confidential study and no identifiable information will be obtained in connection with
this study, including your name or address. Additionally, your responses will be coded with a
false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. You have the right to see or listen to all
interview notes, transcripts, and recordings upon request. After the recordings are transcribed,
they will be destroyed and not kept as records.
The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects and ensure that this study involves
minimal harm to the participants.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
You may contact the Principal Investigator, Sheela Hoyle at sheelaho@usc.edu or phone at (562)
646-7130 or Faculty Advisor Dr. Melora Sundt Sundt@rossier.usc.edu or (310) 403-6671 for
any questions or concerns.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or sheelaho@usc.edu
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 159
APPENDIX C
Email Invitation to Participate in Survey
Email: Hi ______ (Counselor at Summer Community College),
I am a student working on my Doctorate in Organizational Change at the University of
Southern California and for my dissertation I am conducting a confidential academic study on
the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that affect counselors to provide
culturally competent services to impact African-American male completion rates in community
college.
I am reaching out to you because I believe you have a unique background that could help
to contribute to the current body of knowledge around this important issue. I am focusing this
study African-American male student completion rates in community college. As I mentioned
this is a totally confidential academic study. I would greatly appreciate your participation in this
study. If you choose to participate, please respond to this e-mail by clicking on the study link
below, and further directions will be forwarded to you.
Study link: www.XXXXXXXXXXX
Thank you for your participation.
Sheela Hoyle
Researcher
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APPENDIX D
Survey Demographic Questionnaire
The following information is confidential and will not be linked to you. The data gathered here
will be used to compile a general picture of the participants in this study.
ABOUT YOU
1. Age:
2. Gender: □ male □ female □ decline to state
3. Race/Ethnicity (mark all that apply): □ African-American □ White □ Hispanic
□ Asian/Pacific Islander □ Native American/Indian □ Other □ decline
4. Were you the first in your family to pursue college? □ Yes □ No
5. How long have you worked in higher education?
6. How long have you worked at SCC?
7. Primary language spoken at home:
8. Mothers’ highest level of education:
□ some high school □ high school
□ some college □ college degree
□ graduate degree □ professional
□ unknown □ decline to state
9. Fathers’ highest level of education:
□ some high school □ high school
□ some college □ college degree
□ graduate degree □ professional
degree □ unknown □ decline to state
AFRICAN AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 160
APPENDIX E
Interview Questions
1. How would you define “student success”?
2. Please give me an example of ways in which you provide students with clear educational
pathways in a counseling session?
3. Please describe the steps you take to create clear educational plans for students?
4. Do you believe that your efforts are making an impact on the African-American male
student population?
a. If so, How?
b. If not, Why?
5. How confident are you in your ability to prevent a student from dropping out of college?
a. Describe how you would do so in a counseling session?
6. Do you think that your culture plays a role in how you counsel students?
a. How does your culture positively or negatively impact your counseling sessions?
7. How would you define your definition and departments shared definition of cultural?
8. Can you describe how counselors would exhibits cultural competency during counseling
sessions and/or on campus in general?
9. Can you describe ways for a counselor to incorporate cultural competencies in counseling
sessions?
10. Provide an example of how you would incorporate cultural competency when counseling
with African-American male students?
11. What do you believe are the causes of low completion rates among African-American
male students?
12. Tell me what you believe are SCC’s primary goals?
13. Please describe the reasons why you chose to enter the counseling profession?
14. How confident are you in knowing that your efforts are in helping students complete their
programs?
a. What are some of your strategies that you use?
b. What resources do you need to effectively counsel students?
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 161
15. How effective do you believe do your efforts are to impact change when helping AA
males complete their programs?
16. If you could share some advice with new counselors, what would you say?
17. What skills, abilities and resources will assist you in your future educational endeavor?
18. Please describe specific policies and procedures that either contribute or impede with
closing the completion gap.
a. What resources does your organization provide to support the academic, social
and cultural needs of African-American male students?
19. How well does this institution support you in your efforts to provide culturally relevant
assistance to African-American male students?
a. Describe the methods that the organization uses to engage with African-American
male students.
b. Give examples of methods of support that your organization provides for you to
achieve your performance goals.
20. Please describe the organization’s procedure for providing feedback to employees.
a. Describe ways that the leaders model behaviors to support the goal.
21. Do you have any final statements, thoughts, concerns, questions?
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 162
APPENDIX F
Post-Class Survey
Thank you for participating in the recent training about roles and responsibilities of counselors
at SCC. Please take a moment to fill out this brief survey and tell us about your over-all
experience in the training. Your responses will be used to improve the quality of instruction.
1. I found the training course to be engaging and interesting.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
2. The information presented during the training course to is useful.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
3. I enjoyed the training course.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
4. I can clearly identify and articulate my roles and responsibilities as a counselor.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
5. I learned skills during the training that I can apply to planning and monitoring my
work to meet the SCC accountability expectations.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
6. I view change in the context of my role as a counselor to be acceptable.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
7. I am confident that I can meet accountability expectations while providing quality
culturally competent counseling services to students.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
8. I am committed to doing my part to ensure that organizational educational
planning initiatives are successful.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS’ SUCCESS 163
APPENDIX G
Delayed Period Survey
Thank you for participating in the recent training about roles and responsibilities of counselors
at SCC. Please take a moment to fill out this brief survey and tell us about your over-all
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Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Bernardez, Sheela
(author)
Core Title
Cultural competency for academic counselors in the California community college systems to increase African-American male students' success: a gap analysis
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
03/14/2018
Defense Date
01/12/2018
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
African-American male community college completion rates,African-American males in California community colleges,Black male success in college,counseling Black/African-American males,cultural competency for academic counselors,equity,OAI-PMH Harvest,underserved
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Sundt, Melora (
committee chair
), Crawford, Jenifer (
committee member
), Fisher, Chelena (
committee member
)
Creator Email
sheelaho@usc.edu,Star12246@yahoo.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-487565
Unique identifier
UC11265815
Identifier
etd-BernardezS-6117.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-487565 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-BernardezS-6117.pdf
Dmrecord
487565
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Bernardez, Sheela
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
African-American male community college completion rates
African-American males in California community colleges
Black male success in college
counseling Black/African-American males
cultural competency for academic counselors
equity
underserved