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The role of divisional principals in teacher retention in East African international schools

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The role of divisional principals in teacher retention in East African international schools

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Content Running head: DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 1

THE ROLE OF DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS IN TEACHER RETENTION IN EAST AFRICAN
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS

by
Nigel J. Winnard

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

July 2017

Copyright 2017 Nigel J. Winnard

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 2

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere appreciation and thanks to the thousands of
international educators who each day commit themselves to providing educational opportunities
for students attending the member schools of the Association of International Schools in Africa.
Their service, dedication, determination and selflessness, often in some of the most demanding of
environments, epitomizes the highest standards of service to which we aspire as international
educators. To all of you who participated in this study, you have inspired me to pursue this study
and for that you have my sincere thanks. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the support of
Dr. Peter Bateman, Executive Director of AISA, for his inspiration and leadership of
international education in the region.
This study would never have been possible were it not for the generous assistance of
Osama Daoud Abdellatif, Chairman of the DAL Group, and his wife Samia Omar. Their
visionary leadership and support for international education in Sudan, as well as their personal
support for me as an educational leader, inspired me to pursue research in the East African region
and I will be forever indebted to them.
I would also like to acknowledge the support, wisdom and kindness of my dissertation
supervisor, Professor Robert Filback, who not only gave me direction when needed but also the
much-needed room for me to find my own path. Sincere thanks also go to the other members of
my dissertation panel, Dr. Mark Power Robison and Dr. Helena Seli, not only for their rigor and
professionalism in helping me to develop my ideas, but for being role models of the highest
academic standards. To Dr. Ruth Chung, Dr. Larry Picus, Dr. Melora Sundt, Dr. Tracy
Tambascia, Dr. Adlai Wertman, Dr. Kathy Krop, Dr. Ken Yates, Dr. Monique Datta: you have
my thanks and deep appreciation for sharing your wisdom and scholarship. You each played a
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 3

role in helping me form a deeper and more holistic understanding of how I see education as a
force for global change.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the unconditional love and support of my wife
Natasha and son George. You have walked each step of the USC doctoral road with me and
willingly sacrificed time together to allow me to travel, to study and to write. I could not have
done it without you.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 4

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 2

List of Tables 7

Abstract 9

Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem 10
Background of the Problem 11
Importance of Addressing the Problem 14
Organizational Context and Mission 15
Organizational Goal 16
Description of Stakeholder Groups 17
Stakeholder Group for the Study 18
Purpose of the Project and Questions 20
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 20
Definitions 21
Organization of the Project 22

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 23
The Global Context of International Schools 23
International Educators in International Schools 24
Teacher Turnover in International Schools 25
The Impact of Teacher Turnover 26
Factors Impacting International Educator Turnover 27
The Impact of Leadership Style 27
Principals' Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences 28
Knowledge and Skills 29
Motivation 31
Organization 36
Summary and Conclusions 38

Chapter Three: Methodology 40
Purpose of the Study and Questions 40
Methodological Framework 40
Figure 1. GAP Analysis Model (Clark & Estes, 2008). 41
Assumed Performance Influences 42
Knowledge and Skills 43
Motivation 44
Organization 45
Participating Stakeholders 46
Data Collection 46
Surveys 46
Interviews 47
Validation of the Performance 47
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 5

Conceptual Framework for Addressing the Inquiry Questions 48
Trustworthiness of Data 48
Role of Investigator 49
Data Analysis 50
Limitations and Delimitations 51

Chapter Four: Results and Findings 52
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 53
Factual Knowledge of Teacher Decision-Making Variables 53
Conceptual Knowledge of Teacher Motivation to Remain in Post 56
Conceptual Understanding of the Impact of Leadership Style on Teacher Retention 57
Knowledge of the Culture of Mobility that Defines the International School World 60
Procedural Knowledge of the Decision-Making Sequence and Steps. 61
Metacognitive Knowledge of the Impact of Principal Behaviors on Teacher Retention 63
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 64
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 65
The Role of Choice and Autonomy in Teacher Motivation. 66
The Importance of Mission and Purpose in Teacher Motivation 67
The Impact of Leadership Style on Teacher Motivation 68
The Importance of Intrinsic Task Value in Teacher Motivation 69
The Importance of Self-efficacy in Teacher Motivation. 70
The Impact of Mastery Orientation in Teacher Motivation. 71
The Importance of Positive Affect in Teacher Motivation. 72
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 73
Results and Findings for Organization Causes 74
Principals create a culture of belonging amongst teachers 75
Principals Impact on Organizational Culture Through Professional Role Modeling 76
Principals Leverage Leadership Style to Enhance Organizational Culture 78
Principals Engage in Leadership Behaviors that Impact on Teacher Self-Efficacy 79
Principals Encourage Interpersonal Interactions that Enhance Professional Climate 80
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Causes 81
Summary 82

Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation 84
Implementation Plan 86
Leadership Education Implementation 86
Recruitment Training Implementation 87
Evaluation Plan 87
Leadership Education Evaluation 88
Recruitment Training Evaluation 90
Future Research 93
Conclusion 95

References 96

Appendices
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 6

Appendix A: Assumed Principal Needs for Knowledge, Motivation and Organization 114
Appendix B: Sources for the Identification of Assumed KMO Causes 115
Appendix C: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods 116
Appendix D: Summary of Assumed Motivational Causes and Validation Methods 117
Appendix E: Summary of Assumed Organizational Causes and Validation Methods 118
Appendix F: Knowledge Cause Validation Items by Instrument 119
Appendix G: Motivation Cause Validation Items by Instrument 122
Appendix H: Organization Cause Validation Items by Instrument 124
Appendix I: Divisional Principal Survey Instrument 125
Appendix J: Teacher Survey Instrument 127
Appendix K: Semi-Structured Divisional Principal Interview Protocol 128
Appendix L: Information Sheet for Divisional Principal and Teacher Surveys 129

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 7

List of Tables
Table 1: AISA Mission and Identity 18
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Principal Needs for Knowledge, Motivation and Organization 29

Table 3: Summary of Assumed Principal Needs for Motivation 33
Table 4: Summary of Assumed Principal Organizational Needs 36
Table 5: Validation of Assumed Principal Knowledge Causes 53
Table 6: Rank Order of Influential Teacher Re-signing Factors 55
Table 7: Teachers' Perception of Influential Principal Behaviors 59
Table 8: Principals' Awareness of Culture of Expatriate Mobility 60

Table 9: Principals' Knowledge of the Teacher Decision-making Process 62
Table 10: Principals' Knowledge of the Impact of Leadership Behaviors 63
Table 11: Validation of Assumed Motivation Causes 66
Table 12: Teacher Survey: Choice and Autonomy 67
Table 13: Principal Survey: Investment of Time and Effort in Teacher Retention 69
Table 14: Teacher Survey: Principals Encourage Self-Efficacy and Autonomy 70
Table 15: Teacher Survey: Principal Impact on Teacher Well-Being 72
Table 16: Principal Survey: Enhancing Teacher Morale 73
Table 17: Validation of Assumed Organization Causes 74
Table 18: Teacher Survey: Principal Impact on Belonging 75
Table 19: Teacher Survey: Principal Role Modeling 76
Table 20: Principal Survey: Leadership Styles 77
Table 21: Principal Survey: Leveraging Leadership Style 78
Table 22: Teacher Survey: Interpersonal Interactions and Professional Climate 78
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 8

Table 23: Teacher Survey: Leadership for Teacher Self-Efficacy 80
Table 24: Validated Assumed Causes 82
Table 25: Non-validated Assumed Causes 84
Table 26: Proposed Areas for Development 85
Table 27: Evaluation Plan for Leadership Education 88
Table 28: Evaluation Plan for Recruitment Training 91

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 9

Abstract
Recent years have seen large-scale growth in the international school sector, with schools
reporting increasing competition to recruit and retain expatriate teachers, particularly in hardship
locations. Using a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008), this study seeks to identify the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors necessary for principals to be successful in
their efforts to retain expatriate teachers in international schools in the sub-Saharan region of
East Africa. Assumed causes were generated from a review of the research literature in this area
and validated with data collected through interviews with principals, teacher surveys and
principal surveys. This study suggests that, although principals possess understanding of the
knowledge and motivation factors that contribute to teacher retention, they lack understanding of
the relative importance of these factors. Furthermore, though principals are motivated to invest
time and effort in the retention of teachers, this study suggests that organizational policy gaps
exist in how the principals approach teacher retention in a strategic manner. The study concludes
with a range of proposed solutions and a detailed implementation plan designed to assist schools
in addressing the challenges that they face in seeking to leverage the work of principals in
retaining expatriate teachers.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 10

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
Schools in the international sector face an ongoing challenge to recruit and retain teachers
as the number of international schools continues to increase to meet a growing demand for school
places. The international school market is a rapidly expanding educational sector comprising
over 8,000 schools, 4.26 million students and more than 200,000 international expatriate teachers
(International Schools Consultancy [ISC], 2015). It is estimated that this sector will almost
double in size by 2025 (ISC, 2015; Taylor, 2015; Ward, 2013), with the competition among
schools to attract and retain good teachers becoming an increasingly critical issue for principals
who face the annual challenge of staffing their schools. Each year, the turnover of international
teachers fuels a multi-million-dollar recruitment industry via a large-scale network of face-to-
face and online recruitment processes that helps upwards of 40,000 teachers change jobs
annually. This constant turnover poses challenges for principals looking to retain international
teachers to develop school programs, deepen institutional memory and sustain organizational
improvement (Brummitt & Keeling, 2013; Canterford, 2007; Cox, 2012; Mancuso, Roberts,
White, Yoshida & Weston, 2011). The challenge to retain teachers is all the more acute for
international schools located in parts of the world considered to be regions of hardship such as
Sub-Saharan East Africa.
This study examines the influence of divisional principals on expatriate teacher retention
in international schools located in East Africa. Specifically, the study focuses on the extent to
which the divisional principals have the knowledge and motivation to take the necessary steps to
inspire and support expatriate teachers to remain in post rather than seek new positions at the end
of contract.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 11

Background of the Problem
While the leadership of divisional principals, or any other school administrator, is far
from being the sole determining factor in teacher retention, it is widely recognized as a
significant contributory element (Chapa, 2012; Wahab, Fuad, Ismail & Majid, 2014; Weston,
2014). This study sought to better understand the influence and motivations of international
principals to lead in ways that impact positively on teacher retention.
It is widely documented that a key human resource dynamic in national and international
K-12 schools is the frequent movement of teachers from school to school (Anderson, 2010;
Bense, 2015; Beteille, Kalogrides, & Loeb, 2009). Some researchers have found evidence to
suggest such mobility is influenced by a multiplicity of factors (Karbownik, 2014), though the
majority of studies suggest that teacher mobility occurs most commonly for reasons of economic
imperative (Grissom, Viano, & Selin, 2015). In domestic contexts, it is the case that teachers’
career progression is more often than not sought through a change in schools rather than via
promotion within a single institution (Bayer, 2009).
In the case of international schools, such promotions or changes of job often require not
just a change of school within a district or educational authority but a change of country. Such
changes bring with them not only challenges for the institutions concerned but also significant
personal challenges in terms of relocation stress and acculturation into both a new professional
environment and a new domestic context (Joslin, 2002; Roskell, 2013; Sortland, 2014). Such
stresses take their toll on international teachers and contribute to the challenge of relocation,
resulting, for many, in a state of permanent impermanence where roots in each context are
shallow, investment limited, and the next transition always on the horizon (Halicioglu, 2015).
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 12

There is a growing body of literature suggesting that it is not only within the context of
the international school circuit that such teacher mobility exists. The education labor force is as
subject to the forces of globalization as any other sector, with teacher mobility from national
system to national system seen as a growing phenomenon that poses a threat to the teacher pool
in many national systems as teachers move to other countries in search of better pay and
conditions (Bense, 2015; Kearney, 2014).
Much of the literature on factors that have an impact on teacher retention and attrition in a
K-12 context is largely based on US, UK and Australian schools (Borman & Dowling, 2008;
Dove, 2004). However, significant recent work has been done on the same phenomenon in the
context of international schools (Chandler, 2010; Cox, 2012; Dajani, 2014; Mancuso et al., 2011;
Weston, 2014). These studies point to a range of factors that interact to inform teachers’
decision-making when it comes to contract renewal. Amongst the many factors at work in
international teacher retention, the role of the divisional principal and head of school, and the
impact of school leadership style, appears to play a significant, complex and pivotal role (Hui,
Jenatabadi, Ismail, Azina, Radzi, & Jasimah, 2013; Mancuso et al., 2011; Weston, 2014).
Mancuso et al. (2011) suggest that international teachers regard supportive leadership behaviors
as an important factor in their decision to remain at a school, with negative perceptions of school
leadership being a key contributor to teacher attrition (Mancuso et al, 2011). Weston’s 2014
follow-up study concludes that, for teachers categorized as high performing, transformational
leadership behaviors are an especially important retention factor (Weston, 2014). However, what
is unclear from these two studies is the precise nature of the transformational leadership
behaviors that inspire retention amongst higher performing teachers and the perception of such
behaviors by lower performing teachers. Several studies offer insights into the impact of
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 13

transformational leadership behaviors on teacher commitment (Brown & Wynn, 2009; Dumay &
Galand, 2012; Hui et al., 2013). However, there is little by way of specific research on the
divisional principals themselves and their motivation to lead in ways that inspire teacher
retention. There is work to be done to explore the extent to which international school divisional
principals have the knowledge and motivation to leverage leadership style as a tool for teacher
retention.
Research in both national and international school contexts confirms that a key driver in
teacher retention is teacher motivation. The research in this area in national contexts is
substantial (Bishay, 1996; Gultekin & Acar, 2014; Richardson, Karabenick, & Watt, 2014).
However, in the context of international schools, the research is less prolific. Whether the
motivational literature arising from research in national systems also holds for teachers in
international schools, or whether different motivational dynamics apply for expatriate teachers, is
open to question though there is nothing to suggest that the essential motivational factors would
change.
What is clear is that an understanding of motivation is required to explore the factors
involved in teacher retention and to better understand the role that divisional principals play
through their leadership. This study was confined to the context of international schools though
will inevitably draw upon research from national educational systems. It is clear that the
international school network will continue to expand (Morrison, 2016; Reeves & Wigford, 2008),
bringing with it a growing imperative for principals in international schools to develop strategies
that will retain good teachers in the context of a global and increasingly mobile labor market.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 14

Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of teacher retention is important to solve for a variety of reasons. Numerous
studies identify a relationship between teacher turnover and a negative impact on student
achievement (Boyd, Grossman, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2008; Ronfeldt, Loeb & Wyckoff,
2013). Likewise, the negative impact on school culture of teacher turnover can be substantial,
particularly with regard to loss of institutional memory and interruption to the momentum of
school improvement. Finally, the financial costs involved in teacher turnover are significant both
for the schools and for the teachers themselves, particularly for schools in hardship locations
where annual teacher attrition rates can exceed 30% (Norton, 1999; Peverelli, 2012). Attendance
at international recruitment fairs requires teachers and schools to spend money on flights, hotels
and, for the schools, attendance and teacher placement fees. It is very much in the interests of
schools and the students whom they serve to increase teacher retention and thereby militate
against the negative impacts of teacher turnover.
It is a priority for international schools to find ways to motivate teachers to remain in post
for longer rather than change posts so frequently, with divisional principals playing a key role.
While this seems counter-intuitive for a labor force largely defined by its international mobility
(Chandler, 2010; Hayden, 2006), the imperative for schools to achieve teacher stability rather
than fuel teacher mobility is one that cannot be ignored. The pool of available teachers is
dwindling relative to the number of international schools competing for their services (Broman,
2006; Brummitt & Keeling, 2013; Cox, 2012; Reeves & Wigford, 2008). Hence, this poses a
critical problem for international schools if they are to ensure the provision of a quality education
for the students they serve. However, Cox (2012) suggests that principals and heads of schools in
the international school sector lack a substantive research base to inform their decision-making
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 15

and so are unable to draw upon any shared paradigms or practices that have proven effectiveness
in either retention or recruitment in the rapidly evolving international school sector.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Association of International Schools in East Africa (AISA) has a membership of 74
internationally accredited international schools in 34 countries across the African continent.
These schools exist to serve the internationally minded communities in their respective locations.
Membership of AISA requires five qualifying criteria: commitment to the promotion of
internationalism in the school’s mission, an international student body, an international teaching
body, an international curriculum with a breadth of effective best practices, and accreditation or
authorization by an AISA recognized agency outside the host country (AISA, 2015).
This study focused on a problem of practice shared by K-12 AISA member schools
located in Sub-Saharan East Africa. These schools are each accredited by international quality
assurance agencies, offer at least one of the programs of the International Baccalaureate, and
prepare students for admission to universities primarily in North America and Europe. The
annual turnover of international teachers, and investment of considerable resources in the search
for replacement teachers, places an ongoing strain on these schools. The annual challenge of
recruiting and retaining international teachers is made all the more difficult by the challenging
geographical, political, and economic character of the region in which these schools operate.
This study gathered data from divisional principals and expatriate teachers working in
AISA schools in the Sub-Saharan East Africa region. These schools comprise a tight network of
international schools that share similar missions, guiding principles and curricula. Furthermore,
they each share environmental and geopolitical challenges that cause them to be labeled as so-
called hardship locations in the global context of the international school world. The divisional
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 16

principals in these schools are a close-knit group, each aware of the other schools in the AISA
organization and, at times, moving between them as they follow their individual career paths.
Organizational Goal
The AISA schools in this study are all college preparatory institutions and so have a
shared performance goal that relates to the extent to which they are successful in achieving
college acceptances for their students. The achievement of such a performance goal requires
consistent, quality instruction that supports these schools in their goal of achieving first-choice
college acceptances for their students. There is a shared awareness amongst AISA schools that
frequent teacher turnover has a negative impact on student learning, erodes institutional memory,
and impedes school development. Furthermore, the schools in this region are acutely aware that
they face significant challenges in annual recruitment of expatriate teachers, given the
competition from other regions that are considered more desirable places to live. The schools in
this study all face a compelling need to lessen the impact of this cycle of transition and improve
their rate of teacher retention by promoting stability rather than mobility as a core professional
value, thereby maximizing teacher capacity and maintaining momentum for student learning.
The divisional principals in the schools in this study are uniquely positioned in their to
impact on teacher retention in their respective schools via the development of strategies designed
to increase teacher retention as a key element of achieving consistency of instruction in their
organizations. For this to happen, it is critical for the divisional principals to leverage a deep
understanding of the motivations that inform teachers’ decisions as to whether to remain in post,
and to lead in ways that enhance the likelihood of teacher retention. Without such understanding
and leadership, the schools in this study runs the risk of continued high levels of teacher
turnover, which will undermine their efforts to ensure consistent, quality instruction.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 17

Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several key stakeholder groups across the AISA schools in this study. Each has
a vested interest in the achievement of increased teacher retention to further their shared goal of
maintaining consistent quality instruction. Chief amongst these stakeholders are the 27,000
students who study in AISA member schools, some 4,000 of whom attend the schools in this
specific study. They are the direct beneficiaries of increased teacher retention and the subsequent
institutional momentum that contributes to improved year-on-year student learning. While these
students are not the focus of this study, they are ultimately the stakeholder group whose needs
drive the actions of all other stakeholder groups in each of the schools in this study.
The school board members represent a second key stakeholder group in that it is the
board in each AISA member school that is charged with developing strategic direction and
mandating policies that empower and guide the head of school and divisional principals to
achieve each school’s stated mission.
A third stakeholder group comprises the expatriate teachers themselves. More than 3,000
teachers serve in AISA schools across the African continent with more than 70% being expatriate
hire. These teachers are employed to help achieve each school’s performance goal of effective
student learning, with each school in this study recognizing teacher retention as a key need.
However, it is a fourth stakeholder group, comprising divisional principals in the AISA
schools in sub-Saharan East Africa, that is the focus of this research study. As leaders in their
respective institutions, these divisional principals each share a responsibility to develop and
implement strategies that have a positive impact on teachers’ decisions to remain at their schools.
In short, it is through their leadership that the principals can exert influence on the factors that
contribute to teacher retention. It is the interplay between the needs of teachers and the capacity
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 18

of principals to understand and meet those needs through their leadership that lies at the heart of
this study.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
A complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups. However, for the purposes of
this study, the primary focus is on the role of the divisional principals. This stakeholder group
sits at the center of the strategy for achieving each school’s performance goal of expatriate
teacher retention. The AISA schools in this study share a need to ensure consistency of
instruction for the purpose of achieving college acceptances for their students. As such, this study
considers data from divisional principals and teachers from AISA schools in the region who all
share similar characteristics.
Although they work in different schools across the region, these principals share closely
related organizational contexts and challenges. All the divisional principals in this study operate
in schools that share the same international principles and the same organizational need to
increase teacher retention. Care was taken to ensure sufficient commonality of institutional
contexts between the schools and divisional principals involved in this study. However, there is a
possible limitation in that the influence of individual school-specific nuances may not be
captured. This study sought to identify shared retention-related themes common to divisional
principals in parallel contexts in order to better understand how schools in related contexts might
better understand the retention challenges that they face and the role of divisional principals in
meeting those challenges.
It is by understanding the knowledge, motivation and organizational needs of divisional
principals in these schools that they might develop greater insight into factors influencing their
efforts to effect increased teacher retention, thereby informing each school’s development of
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 19

strategy, policy and practice as they work towards the achievement of their performance goal.
This study also considers a secondary stakeholder group, comprising expatriate teachers working
in the same group of AISA schools in the East Africa region who have extended their contract at
least once in order to provide data from the perspective of teachers on the role of divisional
principals on teacher retention.
Each of the divisional principals in this study was based in an AISA member school. As
such, the performance goal for each principal in his or her respective school falls under the
broader mission and identity of the AISA organization:
Table 1
AISA Mission and Identity
Mission
AISA is dedicated to transforming student learning by leading and supporting strategic
thinking, professional growth and school effectiveness.

Identity
AISA is a collaborative learning community of accredited, internationally-minded schools in
Africa, which provides targeted services and relevant resources, facilitates innovative
programmes, and connects people.

In addition to these two statements, AISA has four organizational objectives that are
designed to support its mission and identity: to improve student learning; develop and implement
strategic thinking and planning; increase school effectiveness; and develop the capacity of all
school employees (AISA, 2015). Although each school in this study also has its own individual
mission and vision statements, they are all connected via their support of the collective mission,
identity and objectives of AISA as a regional association of international schools. They are
united by a shared set of educational values and goals central to which is the AISA organization
goal of school effectiveness. It is the achievement of this goal that forms the basis of this study in
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 20

that it examines the role of divisional principals in retaining teachers in order for schools to be
effective in their goal of maintaining consistent quality instruction.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The analysis focuses on knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to
the role of divisional principals in teacher retention. While a complete evaluation project would
focus on all stakeholder groups, for practical purposes, the stakeholders focused on in this
analysis are each school’s divisional principals. As such, the questions that guide this study are
the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational factors that influence the
achievement of the organizational goal of retaining teachers?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational barriers that hinder divisional
principals in their efforts to increase teacher retention?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis is a systematic, analytical method that helps to
clarify organizational goals and identify the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
that have an impact on an organization’s success in achieving its goals. This method was adapted
to an improvement model and implemented as the conceptual framework for this study. The
methodological framework is a qualitative case study with descriptive statistics. Assumed
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences on principals with regard to expatriate
teacher retention were generated based on personal knowledge and related literature. These
influences were assessed by using literature review, surveys, and interviews. Research-based
solutions were recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 21

Definitions
The following operational definitions were used throughout this study:
Accreditation: Accreditation is an ongoing process of external standards-based validation
and quality control conducted by an outside agency.
AISA: The Association of International Schools in Africa. This is a membership
association of private schools across the African continent that are connected by a set of
international principles and educational beliefs.
Board of governors: The board of governors is the school’s governing body with the
responsibility for strategic direction and oversight of the school’s well-being. It is variously
referred to in different international schools as a board of directors or board of trustees.
Divisional principals: Divisional principals are members of professional staff who have
specific responsibility for the supervision of the school’s educational programs, faculty and
associated resources in a designated division of the school, e.g. Elementary School principal,
Middle School principal, High School principal.
IB World School: An IB World School is a school authorized by the International
Baccalaureate to offer at least one of its four curriculum programs: the Primary Years Program
(PYP); the Middle Years Program (MYP); the Diploma Program (DP); or the Career-Related
Program (CP).
International educator: An international educator is a teacher working in an international
school. Such teachers may be locally hired though, for the purposes of this study, the term will be
used to refer only to international teachers hired on an expatriate contract and residing in the
nation under the sponsorship of the school.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 22

International school: The diversity of international schools around the world has given
rise to a wide range of definitions (Bates, 2011; Hayden, 2006). For the purposes of this study, an
international school is defined as a K-12 school offering an accredited international curriculum
independent of the national system offered in the host country.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters were used to organize this study. This chapter provides the key concepts
and terminology commonly found in a discussion about expatriate teacher turnover in
international schools. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders and the framework for
the project were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding the
scope of the study. Topics of teacher turnover, teacher motivation, divisional principal impact on
teacher retention, and international school policy with regard to recruitment are addressed.
Chapter Three details the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences to be examined as
well as methodology when it comes to choice of participants, data collection and analysis. In
Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions,
based on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as recommendations for an
implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 23

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This review explores the literature relevant to expatriate teacher turnover and retention in
the context of international schools. It begins with a discussion of the nature of international
schools in the context of an expanding global market. This is followed by an exploration of the
research on teacher mobility in the international school labor market. The review discusses the
literature on international educator attrition and retention, with particular attention paid to the
influence of leadership on teacher turnover as well as the impact of teacher turnover on
organizational effectiveness. The literature review concludes with a discussion of the literature
surrounding the assumed knowledge, motivation and organization gaps related to international
educator retention.
The Global Context of International Schools
There is no singular definition that encompasses all institutions that define themselves as
international schools, such is the diversity of institutions in this sector. However, there are
several characteristics that such schools share to varying degrees: (1) internationality of mission
and values, (2) an internationally oriented population, (3) the use of an internationally recognized
curriculum, (4) validation through international accreditation, and (5) reliance on expatriate labor
(Bates, 2011; Hayden, 2006; Hill, 2016; Reznik, 2017).
The international school sector experienced significant growth on a global scale for over a
decade, with all indicators suggesting the growth is not slowing down (Brummitt & Keeling,
2013; Bunnell, 2015; Clark, 2014; Cox, 2012; Dixon, 2012; ISC, 2015; Morrison, 2016). The last
decade has seen an increasing demand for international schools, particularly those offering an
English-language based education (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). The increasing labor demands
of this expanding international sector fuel teacher mobility and exacerbating the challenges
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 24

schools face in retaining expatriate teachers (Brummitt & Keeling, 2013; Cox, 2012; Holmyard,
2016). The increased number of schools and consequent increase in the demand of teachers is not
being met by a corresponding increase in the number of teachers to fill those positions
(Anderson, 2010; Clark, 2014; Reeves & Wigford, 2008; Wigford, 2007). It is widely recognized
that schools must be strategically active to both recruit and retain good teachers in order to be
successful in an increasingly competitive market place (Darling-Hammond, 2013; Garton, 2013;
MacDonald, 2006).
International Educators in International Schools
A common shared characteristic of many international schools is their reliance on
international educators (Canterford, 2007; ISC, 2015; Ward, 2013). Cox (2012) sees this labor
pool as a critical component of international school success, the recruitment of international
teachers being “a complex, high stakes process that is crucial to schools” (Cox, 2012, p. 1).
International educators are typically certified teachers in their home country who have
gone overseas to follow a globally mobile career path moving from school to school and country
to country in a series of short-term contracts (Garton, 2013; Langford, 2012; Savva, 2015). Such
teachers are motivated to join the international school sector by a wide range of factors
(Cambridge, 2002; Garton, 2000; Hardman, 2001). International educators are supported by a
network of loosely connected regional, professional and recruitment organizations that provide a
range of professional and career development support services (Hayden & Thompson, 2013).
These organizations and services provide a framework within which international teachers can
pursue a long-term career path on the international school circuit.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 25

Teacher Turnover in International Schools
There is a growing body of literature on teacher turnover in the international school sector
(Bense, 2015; Cox, 2012; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Weston, 2014). A substantial number of
studies concern themselves with attrition and the factors influencing teacher decisions to end
their tenure and seek new positions. While there are fewer studies on retention, it is a growing
area of research as schools seek to understand how to retain teachers for longer (Dimatteo, 2014;
Müller, Alliata, & Benninghoff, 2009; Schneider, 2014).
International teachers see mobility as the norm and, so, typically change schools and
countries on a regular basis (Brummitt & Keeling, 2013; Cox, 2012; Hacohen, 2012; Heyl &
Damron, 2014). Several studies examined the attraction and challenges of location (Caffyn,
2010; Chandler, 2010; Joslyn, 2002). Some studies also suggest that there is a relationship
between length of overseas experience and turnover, with more long serving teachers being more
likely to be retained or seek to remain in post (Cox, 2012; See Kellett, 2015).
The recruitment of international teachers occurs largely within a global network of
recruitment agencies whose business is premised on an annual cycle of teacher turnover. Since
their inception in the mid-1970s, an annual schedule of recruitment events has been the primary
form of recruitment for teachers seeking positions in international schools (Garton, 2011;
Rabbitt, 1992). However, recent years have seen a shift to the use of online recruitment tools and
away from face-to-face recruitment events. Major recruitment organizations such as Search
Associates have reported increased online business versus face-to-face recruitment. This is a
trend mirrored by the growth in teacher recruitment agencies specializing in the use of online
recruitment tools (Brummitt & Keeling, 2013).
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 26

The literature on teacher attrition in international schools is significant, though studies on
retention are less prolific. Most research in this area is situated in national contexts, though it is
so widespread across the globe as to suggest that the need to better understand how to retain
teachers is an internationally shared phenomenon. The past decade has seen studies focusing on
teacher retention in a wide range of countries: the United States of America (Balu, Beteille, &
Loeb, 2010; Brown & Wynn, 2009; Mertler, 2016; Mulvey & Cooper, 2009; Shaw & Newton,
2014), Canada (Clandinin, Long, Schaefer, Downey, Steeves, Pinnegar, & Wnuk, 2015),
Australia (Buchanan, Prescott, Schuck, Aubusson, Burke, & Louviere , 2013; Mason & Matas,
2015; Mayer, Dixon, Kline, Kostogriz, Moss, Rowan, & White, 2017), Israel (Donitsa-Schmidt
& Zuzovsky, 2016), Hong Kong (McInerney, Ganotice, King, Marsh, & Morin, 2015), Taiwan
(Wang & Fwu, 2014) and Switzerland (Müller et al., 2009). Though this is not an exhaustive list,
it does support the view that teacher retention is an important issue globally and not just within
one particular nation or sector. However, several studies suggest a similarly complex web of
personal and professional factors contribute to the decisions of international educators to remain
in post (Cox, 2012; Mancuso et al., 2011; Weston, 2014).
The Impact of Teacher Turnover
There is a compelling body of literature that suggests that annual turnover of teachers
impacts negatively on school improvement (Griffiths, 2004; Grissom et al., 2015; Ingersoll,
2001; Squire, 2001). Additionally, high teacher turnover impacts negatively on student learning
(Borman & Dowling, 2008; Boyd et al., 2008; Watlington, Guglielmino, & Felsher, 2010;
Ronfeldt et al., 2013). Kunter, Klusmann, Baumert, Richter, Voss and Hachfeld (2013) connect
consistent instructional quality to student development.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 27

Factors Impacting International Educator Turnover
There is a complex web of professional and personal factors that lead to frequent teacher
turnover in international schools. Desroches (2013) recognizes four aspects that influence
attrition: high quality support in living conditions, competitive salary and benefits, alignment
between teacher goals and school goals, and the type of leadership within the school. These are
factors that are supported by other researchers as being important contributors to teacher turnover
in international schools and which can be used to inform institutional understanding of teacher
decision-making (Chawla & Sondhi, 2011).
The issue of living conditions, the stresses of relocation and ability to acculturate are seen
by some researchers as a significant contributing factor to teacher turnover (Chandler, 2010;
Joslin, 2002). Similarly, the extent to which international educators can integrate into a new
culture is a significant factor in whether an international educator remains in post (Halicioglu,
2015; Roskell, 2013). Some studies connect successful educator tenure with concepts of cultural
intelligence and cultural adaptability (Sims, 2011), while others recognize quality of professional
mentoring and onboarding, or induction, programs as factors that impact job satisfaction and
retention (Dimatteo, 2014; Fong, 2015; Stirzaker, 2004). Other researchers see salary and
benefits as a key factor in whether international educators choose to take positions or remain in
post, though there is some debate as to the relative weight of salary and benefits as a factor in the
decision-making process (Chapa, 2012; Kelly, 2014).
The Impact of Leadership Style
Several studies identify leadership style as a key factor influencing teacher job
satisfaction and teacher turnover (Boyd, Grossman, Ing, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2011;
Kelly, 2014; Griffith, 2004). Recent years have seen the emergence of a growing body of
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 28

research literature focusing on the relationship between leadership style, teacher turnover and
teacher retention in the specific context of international schools (Areias, 2016; Dajani, 2013;
Dumay & Galand, 2012; Kelly, 2014; Mancuso, Roberts, & White, 2010; Odland & Ruzika,
2009; Raman, Mey, Don, Daud, & Khalid, 2015; Schneider, 2014; Wahab et al., 2014; Weston;
2014). These studies argue for specific attention to be paid to developing a nuanced
understanding how those in leadership roles in international schools are perceived by those
whom they lead and the impact that their leadership behaviors have on the motivation of teachers
to remain in post.
Principals’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
This study proposes that divisional principals in international schools in the sub-Saharan
AISA region need specific knowledge, motivational understanding and organizational awareness
in order to successfully retain expatriate teachers. Clark and Estes (2008) offer a gap analysis
framework for understanding the knowledge, motivation and organizational factors that influence
the extent to which people within an organization are successful in meeting their goals. In terms
of this study, the goal is to retain teachers following completion of their initial contract.
Having reviewed the literature relevant to this study, a set of stakeholder needs were
identified that derive directly from Clark and Estes (2008), Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), and
the related research literature discussed earlier in this chapter. Table 2 below summarizes the
perceived needs of divisional principals in order to be successful in their goal of retaining
teachers. These needs are expressed in Table 2 within the gap analysis framework of knowledge,
motivation and organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 29

Table 2
Summary of Assumed Principal Needs for Knowledge, Motivation and Organization
Type of Need
Knowledge Motivation Organizational
1. Principals need factual
knowledge of the variables
that contribute to teacher
decision-making (F, P).
1. Principals need to
understand the role of
choice and autonomy in
teacher motivation.
1. Principals need to create a
culture of belonging
(‘embeddedness’) amongst
teachers.
2. Principals need conceptual
knowledge of the
motivations of teachers as
they evaluate whether or
not to remain post (C).
2. Principals understand the
importance of mission and
purpose in teacher
motivation.
2. Principals impact on
organizational culture
through conscious
professional role modeling.
3. Principals need conceptual
understanding of the impact
of leadership style on
teacher retention (C, F).
3. Principals understand the
impact of leadership style
on teacher motivation.
3. Principals leverage
leadership style to enhance
organizational culture.
4. Principals need knowledge
of the culture of mobility
that defines the
international school world
(F, C, P).
4. Principals understand the
importance of intrinsic task
value in teacher motivation.
4. Principals engage in
leadership behaviors that
impact on teacher self-
efficacy.
5. Principals need knowledge
of the sequence and steps
for decision-making that
impact on teachers’
decision timelines (F, C, P).
5. Principals understand the
importance of self-efficacy
in teacher motivation.
5. Principals encourage
interpersonal interactions
that enhance professional
climate.
6. Principals need knowledge
of the impact of their own
behaviors on teacher
retention (M).
6. Principals understand the
impact of mastery
orientation in teacher
motivation.

7. Principals understand the
importance of positive
affect in teacher motivation.

Key - (F)actual, (C)onceptual, (P)rocedural, (M)etacognitive
Knowledge and Skills
Table 2 above details the ways in which the four categories of knowledge are needed by
divisional principals to achieve the goal of teacher retention. The six knowledge causes listed in
Table 2 draw upon Anderson and Krathwohl's (2001) taxonomy of knowledge types in order
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 30

identify the types of knowledge that divisional principals require to understand the factors
involved in teacher retention. Anderson and Krathwohl propose four categories of knowledge:
factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. Factual knowledge refers to terms, definitions
and essential facts. Conceptual knowledge refers to principles, classifications and theories.
Procedural knowledge refers to information and steps required to perform a task. Finally,
metacognitive knowledge is the reflective knowledge required to monitor and evaluate progress
towards goals.
Principals need to know the factors and processes impacting teacher retention.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) describe factual knowledge as the basic facts, information and
terminology related to a topic. In this case, it is the facts and information related to the job search
process and the mechanisms by which international schools recruit teachers. In addition, there is
a recognized body of research identifying factors that have an impact on the decisions of
international teachers whether to remain in post or move on to a new position (Mancuso et al.,
2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Weston, 2014). principals need to be aware of these factors if
they are to understand teacher retention priorities.
Principals need conceptual knowledge of factors impacting teacher motivation to
remain in post. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) describe conceptual knowledge as underlying
categories, principles, structure, or theory. In terms of this study, this refers to the concepts that
impact on teacher decisions to remain in post. Numerous studies identify a diverse range of
personal and professional conceptual factors that inform teacher decision-making (Chandler,
2010; Mancuso et al, 2011; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009; Weston, 2014). These include such areas
as the impact of leadership style, acculturation and belonging, the impact of location,
professional growth, financial needs and the balancing of domestic priorities.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 31

Procedural knowledge. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) define procedural knowledge
as the skills, techniques, steps and procedures required to complete a task. In terms of this study,
principals require procedural knowledge in two areas: knowledge of the steps that teachers go
through as they work towards a decision regarding re-signing or moving on (Garton, 2000); and
knowledge of the steps that principals need to take to convince teachers to remain in post.
Principals need metacognitive knowledge of how their own behaviors impact on
teacher retention. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) define metacognitive knowledge as the
ability to reflect on and adjust the skills and knowledge required to complete a task. In terms of
this study, principals need to be actively aware of the impact of their own actions on the teachers
with whom they work. They need to be able to reflect on the impact of their leadership actions
and put in place strategies to garner feedback in order to adjust their own understanding and
reframe their subsequent actions as needed. This is particularly crucial for principals, as
numerous studies of teacher turnover in international schools identify leadership behaviors as a
key element in a teacher’s personal and professional satisfaction and subsequently their decision
as to whether to remain at a school (Bogler, 2001; Chapa, 2012; Dajani, 2014; Welch, 2014).
Motivation
There is a large body of literature on the impact of motivation on teachers’ self-efficacy,
teacher performance and teacher attrition in K-12 school settings (Butler, 2007; Makhuzeni &
Barkhuizen, 2015; Richardson et al., 2014). This study considers two key dimensions with regard
to the specific role played by motivation in the retention of teachers. Firstly, the understanding of
divisional principals with regard to the role played by motivation in the decision-making by
teachers as to whether to remain in post. Secondly, there is the motivation of divisional principals
themselves to persist in their efforts to retain teachers. Underpinning both motivational dynamics
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 32

is the implicit understanding that divisional principals in international schools value the retention
of teachers as a critical factor in a successful school (Desroches, 2013; Odland & Ruzicka, 2009;
Ronfeldt et al., 2013; Weston, 2014). Some researchers suggest that the recruitment and retention
of teachers is almost exclusively an issue of motivation (Müller et al., 2009).
Motivation can be described as the ways by which goals are set and pursued (Schunk,
Meece, & Pintrich, 2012). Employees are motivated by purpose and find value in meaningful
achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pink, 2011; Sergiovanni, 2007). They find meaning in the
power of mission and in serving a higher cause (Pink, 2011). Teachers are motivated in their
work by a wide range of factors. Leithwood and McAdie (2005) synthesize these factors into the
following eight categories:
a) individual sense of professional efficacy;
b) collective sense of professional efficacy;
c) organizational commitment;
d) job satisfaction;
e) stress and burnout;
f) morale;
g) engagement with the school and profession;
h) pedagogical content knowledge.
These eight factors collectively underpin teacher motivation and the effective performance of
their complex role as educators. Table 3 identifies the ways in which factors related to motivation
inform the goal of divisional principals to achieve teacher retention.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 33

Table 3
Summary of Assumed Principal Needs for Motivation
Motivation Needs
1. Principals need to understand the role of choice and autonomy in teacher motivation.
2. Principals need to understand the importance of mission and purpose in teacher
motivation.
3. Principals need to understand the impact of leadership style on teacher motivation.
4. Principals need to understand the importance of intrinsic task value in teacher
motivation.
5. Principals need to understand the importance of self-efficacy in teacher motivation.
6. Principals need to understand the impact of mastery orientation in teacher motivation.
7. Principals need to understand the importance of positive affect in teacher motivation.

Perception of self-efficacy is a powerful motivational driver for teachers’ sense of
achievement (Klassen & Tze, 2014; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). The motivation of
principals to be successful in retaining teachers requires a positive sense of self-efficacy
(Weston, 2014). Pintrich (2003) identifies the importance of mastery orientation as a
motivational attitude in leadership style, which, in the context of this study, is seen as the goal of
principals to inspire teachers to self-improve, pursue goal achievement and remain in post.
However, the challenge international school principals face in attaining the goal of teacher
retention, particularly in the demanding geo-political context of AISA schools in Sub-Saharan
East Africa, is of a magnitude that may overwhelm a divisional principal’s belief in personal self-
efficacy to achieve the task.
The literature on international teacher retention identifies the role and leadership
behaviors of divisional principals as significant factors that impact teacher motivation (Bishay,
1996; Bogler, 2001; Dajani, 2013; Hui et al., 2013; Kelly, 2014; Wahab et al., 2014; Weston,
2014). Hence, the extent to which principals are both aware of and responsive to the dimensions
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 34

of motivation has a significant bearing on teacher retention (Chapa, 2012; Kellett, 2015;
Schneider, 2014). This section discusses the role of self-efficacy, task value theory and the
affective dimension of motivation.
Self-efficacy theory. This is described as enhanced motivation and performance due to
positive expectations of ability and role in achieving success (Bandura, 1994; Schunk & Pajares,
2009). Bong and Clark (1999) describe self-efficacy as the cognitive judgment of one’s ability to
achieve mastery. In terms of self-efficacy, principals need to feel confident that they have the
skills to motivate teachers to remain in post (Dumay & Galand, 2012; Sims, 2011; Tesfaw, 2014;
Welch, 2014). They need to feel empowered to act in accordance with what they know about
teacher motivation such that their attitudes and behaviors leverage the factors that inspire teacher
loyalty and high performance (Dajani, 2014; Mancuso et al., 2011; Weston, 2014). However, it is
frequently the case that divisional principal confidence, and the self-efficacy that comes from
empowerment to act, are lacking due to the dominant model of teacher mobility that
characterizes international teachers. In short, principals have found that their own capabilities
have been insufficient to outweigh the effect of factors beyond their control.
Task value theory. This holds that performance is enhanced if a person values the task.
In the context of divisional principals, this equates to valuing the retention to teachers. There are
four dimensions of task value: intrinsic value (interest); extrinsic value (utility); attainment value
(importance); and cost value (benefit) (Clark & Estes, 2008). Divisional principals need to
understand the relative impact and importance of all four dimensions. Intrinsic value is identified
as a key element in teacher motivation (Cox, 2012; Dajani, 2013; Desroches, 2013; Odland &
Ruzicka, 2009). However, the literature on the impact of extrinsic value (utility) is less
compelling, offering only short-term motivation and not exerting a sustained motivational impact
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 35

(Schunk et al., 2012). Bishay (1996) identifies attainment task value as a key characteristic in
teacher motivation, drawing a correlation between gratification of higher-order needs and job
satisfaction. The attainment value of teacher retention for school improvement is a powerful
motivator for divisional principals looking improve their school’s performance (Ronfeldt et al.,
2013). However, expectancy value may well be low as a motivating factor, particularly in the
context of AISA schools in the East African region, where the established norms for recruitment
and retention suggest that hiring international teachers is challenging and teacher tenure tends to
be short. In other words, there may be low expectancy amongst divisional principals that they
will be successful in retaining teachers given the challenges of the context of their schools and
the attractions of other locations.
Emotion and affect. The influence of emotion and affect on motivation is well
documented (Leithwood & McAdie, 2005; Pintrich, 2003). Motivation and performance are
enhanced when steps are taken to increase positive emotions and decrease negative emotions. It
is necessary for principals to understand that the decision-making process that teachers undergo
to choose to either remain in post or move on to another one is emotionally charged and heavily
laden with affective concerns (Heyl & Damron, 2014). Continual relocation from country to
country takes its toll, resulting for many teachers in a state of permanent impermanence where
roots in each context are shallow, investment limited and the next transition always on the
horizon (Bailey, 2015). Culture shock has a profound affective dimension which impacts on
teacher motivation in ways that must be understood by principals if they are to hope to guard
against its negative consequences (Roskell, 2013; Sims, 2011; Sunder, 2013). Finally, there is an
affective dimension to leadership style that has an impact on teacher motivation and the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 36

likelihood of principals being successful in their goal of retaining teachers (Ibrahim, 2013;
Schyns, 2015; Wahab, 2014; Weston, 2014).
Organization
The literature on organization recognizes numerous dimensions of what is referred to as
an organization’s culture, many of which are relevant to the goal of divisional principals to retain
teachers. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) distinguish between the concepts of cultural model
and cultural settings in order to examine the interplay between values, beliefs and attitudes, and
the concrete practices and behaviors in an organizational setting. Likewise, Schein (2010)
identifies a number of constituent factors of organizational culture that help delineate the
different facets of this concept, such as observable behaviors, rituals and celebrations, shared
meanings and norms and espoused values. Drawing on the literature relevant to this study, Table
4 identifies the ways in which organizational factors inform the understanding and work of
divisional principals to achieve teacher retention.
Table 4
Summary of Assumed Principal Organizational Needs
Organizational Needs
1. Principals need to create a culture of belonging (‘embeddedness’) amongst teachers.
2. Principals need to impact on organizational culture through conscious professional role
modeling.
3. Principals leverage leadership style to enhance organizational culture.
4. Principals engage in leadership behaviors that impact on teacher self-efficacy.
5. Principals encourage interpersonal interactions that enhance professional climate.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 37

Cultural model. This refers to the shared beliefs, attitudes, values and assumptions that
underpin the relationships and behaviors operating within an organization or community
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
The cultural model of international schools. In the organizational context of an
international school, the cultural model is characterised by student and teacher mobility, with
frequent turnover being the norm (Brummitt & Keeling, 2013; Ward, 2013). Given that
achievement motivation is heavily dependent on the nature of interpersonal interactions (Maehr,
2008), such turnover contributes to a cultural model of impermanence and insecurity, where
challenges exist to achievement motivation. It is widely documented that the culture model of an
international school is heavily impacted by leadership style as a powerful constituent of the
cultural model impacting teacher retention (Desroches, 2013; Dumay & Galand, 2012; Hui et al.,
2013; Mancuso et al., 2011; Raman et al., 2015; Weston, 2014). Likewise, divisional principal
leadership behaviors have a powerful impact on teacher morale, perceptions of self-efficacy and
sense of belonging (Schein, 2010), all of which go to make up the cultural model of an
international school. The cultural model of mobility that defines the lifestyle of international
teachers militates against forming deep attachments consistent with a sense of belonging (Alban,
2013; Chandler, 2010; Joslin, 2002). This potentially undermines motivation as it is impacted by
the nature of interpersonal interactions between individuals in a community (Maehr, 2008).
The cultural setting of international schools. The cultural setting of an international
school comprises the concrete practices, physical environment and observable behaviors of the
community within the organization. The impact of physical, geographic and cultural location on
international teacher recruitment and retention is well documented (Caffyn, 2010; Chandler
2011; Joslin, 2002; Roskell, 2013). These macro aspects of the cultural setting generate a climate
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 38

where relocation stress and acculturation practices characterize the cultural setting. International
schools typically put in place processes and procedures to manage the predominant model where
teacher mobility is the norm: annual induction programs, explicit written school policies and
procedures to compensate for a lack of organizational memory, and an investment of resources in
annual recruitment. International schools are increasingly competing for dwindling human
resources as part of a global picture of teacher shortage, with increasing numbers of international
schools exacerbating turnover as teachers seek out more lucrative salaries (Brummitt, 2013; Cox,
2012; ISC, 2015; Ward, 2013). Hence, a common feature of the cultural setting of international
schools is transparent concern for competitiveness in the salaries and benefits offered by the
school.
Summary and Conclusions
This chapter explored the challenges of international teacher retention in the context of an
increasing competitive global market. AISA schools located in Sub-Saharan East Africa operate
in a geopolitically challenging location that faces a challenge to be competitive in the global
recruitment market as worldwide demand for international educators grows and demand outstrips
supply. Hence, such schools must pay attention to the development of retention strategies
designed to maximize the possible tenure of teachers that they recruit.
The positionality of divisional principals in international schools is such that they have a
significant impact on the decisions of teachers as to whether to extend their tenure. It is,
therefore, of critical importance for those divisional principals to understand the factors that
motivate teachers in their work such that they can use that understanding to inform the work that
they do. It follows that the schools in question must ensure that divisional principals possess the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 39

knowledge, motivation and organizational resources to be successful in the pursuit of the critical
organizational goal of enhanced teacher retention.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 40

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Study and Questions
The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis to examine the role of divisional
principals in addressing the organizational problem of teacher retention in the context of East
African international schools. The analysis focused on the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational issues that inform the ability of a school’s divisional principals to retain teachers.
The questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational factors that influence the
achievement of the organizational goal of retaining teachers?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational barriers that hinder divisional
principals in their efforts to increase teacher retention?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
This chapter outlines the methodological approach used to frame the study as well as the
methodology for data collection. It describes why the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes,
2008) offers a suitable lens to guide the study as well as the rationale for the selection and
validation of data collection tools appropriate to the three guiding questions above.
Methodological Framework
The methodological approach for this study is a qualitative case study using the gap
analysis method (Clark & Estes, 2008). A number of assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences were generated based on literature review and the researcher’s
professional knowledge of the educational context in which AISA schools operate in the region.
These influences each focus on the needs of divisional principals as they work to increase teacher
retention in their schools. The assumed needs were assessed using literature review, surveys, and
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 41

interviews. Research-based solutions were recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive
manner.
The gap analysis model developed by Clark and Estes (2008) is a systematic process that
helps an organization to identify, understand and address gaps between current and desired levels
of performance. Central to this model is the disciplined application of three categories of
assumed causes or needs: knowledge, motivation and organization. These three lenses present a
means by which root causes can be identified, leading to the development of solutions that can be
implemented to close gaps between current and desired levels of organizational performance.

Figure 1. GAP Analysis Model (Clark & Estes, 2008).

In Figure 1 above, initial organizational goals are compared to current levels of
achievement in order to identify performance gaps. This is followed by an examination of the
causes of such gaps through three lenses: knowledge (is there is a lack of knowledge or
understanding?); motivation (do employees or stakeholders lack the motivation to achieve the
organizational goal?); and organizational barriers (are there systems or processes getting in the
way of achieving the goal?). This leads to an understanding of the root causes underpinning the
performances gaps and provides a basis for the development of solutions designed to address the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 42

performance gaps. The solutions are implemented, their success evaluated and new goals set for
the organization.
At the AISA schools included in this study, there is a gap between the shared
organizational goal of retaining all expatriate teachers following completion of their initial
contract, and average annual retention rates. None of the schools in which the divisional
principals in this study work report that they are successful in retaining 100% of their teachers
for a second contract. In examining the causes of this gap, this study explores the role that
knowledge plays in divisional principal and teacher thinking with regard to teacher retention.
Additionally, the development of a deep and nuanced understanding of teacher and divisional
principal motivations will provide insight into what inspires principals to invest effort into
actions designed to promote retention, as well as for teachers to elect to remain in post. Finally,
this study considered the organizational barriers at work to ascertain what may be getting in the
way of principals in their efforts to achieve the school’s goal of longer-term teacher retention.
The insights from these three lenses will then inform the development of proposed solutions to
improve the current performance gap.
Assumed Performance Influences
It is often the case that, when faced with organizational problems, individuals or groups
act to address symptoms or perceived causes, rather than taking time to determine root causes.
Such approaches may lead to attempted solutions that are inappropriate or insufficient to address
the problem at hand resulting in unsuccessful outcomes. The lack of a thorough examination of
performance gaps undermines the likelihood that the gap will be closed. Hence, it was proposed
that a comprehensive analysis of the causes of performance gaps should include three
components: scanning (informal) interviews with stakeholders; learning, motivation, and
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 43

organization/culture theory; and a review of the literature on teacher retention. Causes from
related literature were discussed in Chapter Two but are included in the tables in Appendices B,
C, and D. What follows is a discussion of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
assumed needs of divisional principals as they work towards their goal of increased teacher
retention.
Knowledge and Skills
Interview and survey data, as well as anecdotal evidence, suggest that divisional
principals in the schools in this study understand that teacher retention is a high priority for their
boards, parents and students. They have experienced the impact of frequent teacher turnover and
understand the processes and procedures that are necessitated by the annual cycle of new
teachers arriving at the start of the year and teachers leaving at the end of the year. They know
that frequent teacher turnover is a drain on school resources and impacts negatively on school
strategic development. There is a general shared perception amongst principals in the region that
their schools would benefit from greater longevity of teacher tenure.
Longer-term members of a school community, such as teachers who have renewed their
contracts at least twice, share a common knowledge of teachers who have come and gone over
the years and who have had varying levels of impact. This fact of regular turnover generates a
lack of faith in the community that newly arrived faculty will stay much longer than their initial
contract. The communities in the AISA schools in this study comprise both locally resident and
internationally mobile expatriate families. It may be that expatriates understand and perhaps
accept the cycle of expatriate turnover as a fact of life. However, members of the student and
parent community who are long-term local residents, and who are constant members of the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 44

school community, tend to be more acutely concerned by the ongoing cycle of international
educator turnover.
Motivation
The principals in the schools in this study express frustration at what they see as the
inevitability of teacher turnover. Over the years they have worked hard to inspire retention
amongst teachers but with limited success. They have engaged in an annual cycle of strategy,
action, and reflection in order to find what works. While they are motivated by the school’s
mission and history of achievement to do all that they can to retain good teachers, their
motivation is undermined by the negative impact of the school’s geopolitical location on both
recruitment and retention. Each year seems more difficult than the last in the likelihood of
success in their efforts to retain good teachers and secure the services of new teachers. No
amount of hard work or thoughtfulness by the divisional principals appears sufficient to
overcome the realities of life in a hardship location, where the demands of a harsh climate,
limited social opportunities and geographical remoteness militate against longevity of teacher
tenure.
The impact on community motivation, particularly on the local hire teachers and local
families, is felt in varying ways, all of which require management and engagement by the school
administration. On an annual basis, locally employed members of faculty are asked to help induct
the new expatriate teachers, to share the host culture with them and to support the new arrivals as
they find their feet in their new location. Such an investment of time and energy in teacher
induction requires considerable motivation on the part of the local teachers not least because their
efforts seem destined to fail as the cycle of teacher attrition continues. Additionally, the fact that
local and expatriate teachers are not equally rewarded in terms of total remuneration is not
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 45

conducive to motivating local teachers to invest in their higher paid counterparts amongst the
expatriate faculty.
Organization
A number of organizational factors contribute to the retention problem, not all of which
are within the scope of the school to control or influence. The growth of the international school
market resulted in an increased global increase for teachers, with demand outstripping supply.
This demand is serviced by recruitment organizations whose success and existence are premised
on an annual cycle of teacher turnover. Hence, this poses an organizational impediment for
international schools seeking to retain teachers. Within schools in the AISA region, considerable
organizational resources are expended due to teacher attrition as well as the schools’ efforts to
retain their teachers. The financial burdens of annual teacher recruitment, ever-increasing salary,
benefits packages, and quality of life enhancements, all take their toll on the schools’ finite
resources. The schools develop processes and procedures to accommodate the reality of teacher
turnover, thereby contributing to the perception that it is inevitable and arguably making it even
more difficult to create a climate of longevity. There has been a steadily increasing awareness by
divisional principals in the AISA region of the power of a school’s organizational climate to have
a positive impact on teacher retention. This has resulted in operational changes in some of the
schools in the region aimed reducing annual teacher turnover, particularly through the leveraging
of positive affect and teacher perceptions of self-efficacy and autonomy. However, this has not
always met with success, with the longer-term needs of the mission of these schools sometimes
conflicting with the shorter-term self-interest of the teachers involved in the decision-making
processes.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 46

Participating Stakeholders
The primary participating stakeholders for this study are current divisional principals at
AISA member schools in the Sub-Saharan East Africa region. Divisional principals are defined
as members of professional staff who have responsibility for the supervision of teachers in their
work at the school. This study focuses on survey and interview feedback from divisional
principals working in thirteen different AISA member schools in the region, each school sharing
similar characteristics and common recruitment and retention challenges. The divisional
principals were invited to participate in an anonymous survey, with the option to volunteer in a
follow-up interview. A secondary stakeholder group was also surveyed, comprising expatriate
faculty in the same AISA member schools, all of whom had extended their contract at least once.
The teacher survey was designed to provide additional data to help understand teacher
motivations for remaining at the school and to provide comparative data to inform the analysis of
the survey and interview data gathered from the divisional principals.
Data Collection
Permission from University of Southern California’s institutional review board was
obtained in June 2016. Online teacher and divisional principal surveys and in-person divisional
principal interviews were then conducted in order to generate data to validate knowledge,
motivation and organizational assumed causes. Each data collection method is discussed below.
Surveys
This study gathered survey data from 17 divisional principals and 135 expatriate teachers
using two different but conceptually linked tools. They were distributed through an online survey
tool in September 2016, following approval from the University of Southern California’s
institutional review board. Online survey tools facilitated the participation of divisional
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 47

principals and teachers working in a geographically large area in Sub-Saharan East Africa. The
two surveys were administered in English. The divisional principal survey consisted of six items
and the teacher survey seven items: both included a combination of Likert-type items and open-
ended questions. In each case, the survey items gathered data related to knowledge and
organization. Survey responses were collected anonymously and tabulated through software. A
digital back up of both the raw data and tabulated summaries was stored on an external hard
drive and maintained in an off-site location. Print copies were also made and stored in a secure
location. No identifiable demographic information was collected during the project and all results
were maintained on a password-protected laptop that was automatically backed up on a daily
basis. Upon completion of the data analysis, all copies of data and all recordings were destroyed.
The divisional principal and teacher surveys can be found in Appendices E and F respectively.
Interviews
A total of seven volunteer divisional principals were interviewed individually in person
via Skype. Each interview consisted of approximately 10 questions and lasted between 30 and 40
minutes. Interviews were conducted in English. Each interview began with a standard interview
protocol that included obtaining permission to record the interview for later transcription and
coding. The interview protocol can be found in Appendix G.
Validation of Assumed Principal Needs
The assumed needs of principals in their efforts to retain teachers were validated through
literature review, surveys and semi-structured interviews. The divisional principal survey tool
was designed to gather data on knowledge and organizational factors that informed the role and
understanding of divisional principals with regard to teacher retention. This was supported by in-
person semi-structured interviews designed to explore principal motivational factors as well as to
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 48

corroborate the knowledge and organization data. As with the divisional principal survey, the
teacher survey focused on gathering knowledge and organization data.
Conceptual Framework for Addressing the Inquiry Questions
The three tables in Appendices F, G and H relate the assumed knowledge, motivation and
organizational needs with the corresponding data collection tools. In these three tables, each
assumed cause or need has been assigned to one or more of the data collection instruments. The
majority of the factual causes or needs are most suitably explored via surveys. However, the
more conceptual or subjective causes or needs are more suitably explored via interviews, where
clarification can be sought of more complex views and opinions.
Trustworthiness of Data
The validity or trustworthiness of the data gathered in this study can be defined in terms
of its correctness or credibility (Maxwell, 2013). This study employed four methods to ensure
that all data gathered complied with this definition: data were triangulated among surveys,
interviews, and literature review; survey items have been developed from existing valid and
reliable research; survey and interview participants have been assured of anonymity and
confidentiality; and diligent participant member checks have been conducted.
Maxwell (2013) identifies two key threats to validity: researcher bias and reactivity. In
the case of researcher bias, the position of the researcher in this study offers challenges that must
be acknowledged. The researcher is head of the school where the study was conducted and is the
current or potential future supervisor of the divisional principals and teachers from whom the
data were gathered. Hence, the researcher must guard against the intrusion of personal bias,
particularly in the gathering and interpretation of interview data (Merriam, 2009). Miles (2014)
identifies a range of biases that might compromise the validity of data collection and analysis:
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 49

holistic bias, where patterns are imposed via forced interpretation of data; elite bias, where some
data are accorded greater weight and status; personal bias; and going native, where the
researcher’s perspective is lost due to the influence of participants in the study.
Reactivity is the impact of the researcher on the setting or individuals studied (Maxwell,
2013). In this particular study, this is a potential threat to the trustworthiness of the data due to
the power relationship between the interviewer and subjects. Such is the mobility of teachers and
principals around the international school world there is a possibility that the researcher might at
some point be in a position to recruit one of the interview subjects. Therefore, as a potential
future supervisor of the interview subjects, there is potential for this to have influenced the
interviewee’s responses. It was, therefore, critical that vigorous and explicit measures were taken
to reassure the subjects during the data collection process. In addition, steps were taken in the
analysis of the data to be aware of possible reactivity bias by the researcher to the responses of
the interview subjects.
Role of Investigator
The principal investigator for this study was the head of a school in the AISA region. As
principal investigator, his role was to conduct a gap analysis of the performance problem and
propose solutions to help AISA schools in sub-Saharan East Africa increase teacher retention.
The findings of this study will assist theses schools in their shared organizational goal of
maintaining high quality instruction through the successful retention of international educators.
For this study, all participants were made aware of the principal investigator’s identity
and position as head of an AISA school. Steps were taken to ensure the anonymity of the
respondents. All participants were assured of confidentiality in both survey protocols and in the
voluntary semi-structured divisional principal interviews. As part of the interview and survey
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 50

protocols, participants were informed that the primary purpose of the study was to gather
information for the purposes of improving the ability of divisional principals at AISA member
schools to retain teachers, and that any information obtained during this process would be
anonymous and utilized for that purpose only. All participants were informed that no identifiers
would be collected to ensure the highest level of participant confidentiality. It was made clear
that participation was voluntary and that there would be no consequences for electing not to
participate. It was explained to the participants that the researcher was conducting the study as a
doctoral candidate and that findings were to be presented to the AISA board and AISA executive
director for sharing amongst AISA member schools.
Data Analysis
The design of both the divisional principal and teacher surveys shares the common
conceptual frame of the Clark and Estes (2008) KMO model. The divisional principal and faculty
survey data were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis within this model. Likewise,
divisional principal interviews were transcribed and coded into themes congruent with the
categories of knowledge, motivation and organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge types
were subdivided into factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive. Motivational elements
were likewise broken down into a number of sub-categories: self-efficacy, attribution, goal
orientation, active choice, persistence and mental effort. Finally, factors related to organization
were examined through the lenses of cultural model and cultural setting (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Taken together, the analysis of survey data, interview data and literature
review offer a rich and detailed picture of the specific role of divisional principals in the retention
process, the factors involved in teacher retention and the interplay of knowledge, motivation and
organizational factors relevant to the focus of the study.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 51

Limitations and Delimitations
A key limitation to this study is the positionality of the researcher. As a serving head of
school, the researcher may be either a former or future employer for some of the respondents,
given the international mobile professional world in which both the researcher and the
participants work. This offers the limitation of researcher bias as well as possible reactivity on
the part of the interview subjects. Specific care was taken in order to guard against personal and
holistic bias in this study. The integrity of the divisional principals’ participation in the
interviews was carefully managed in order to avoid perceptions of coercion and ensure valid and
open responses. While the survey data were collected anonymously, this was not possible with
the semi-structured interviews as they were conducted in person by the researcher. The use of a
third-party interviewer was considered, but rejected as not being feasible, given the contextual
challenges of the environments in which the interviewees operate.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 52

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
This chapter presents the findings under the categories of knowledge, motivation and
organization and concludes with a summary of the overall findings with respect to the three
questions that guide this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational factors that influence the
achievement of the organizational goal of retaining teachers?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational barriers that hinder principals in
their efforts to increase teacher retention?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
Data from the principal survey, teacher survey, and principal interviews were analyzed and coded
against the six assumed knowledge causes following identification of validation items from the
survey and interview protocols. Instruments for each of the assumed causes can be found in
Appendix F (Knowledge), Appendix G (Motivation) and Appendix H (Organization).
The analysis that follows considers the extent to which the principals possess knowledge of the
factors that teachers consider when deciding whether or not to extend their tenure. In addition,
the analysis explores the principals’ awareness of the ways in which teachers are motivated to
remain in post. Finally, the analysis considers the organizational factors at work with regard to
the role of principals in the teacher retention dynamic. The analysis examines the data through
the lenses of assumed causes under each of the three categories of knowledge, motivation and
organization. An assumed cause is considered to be validated if it is found to be present and
instrumental in the data pertaining to the divisional principals. In such cases, validation confirms
that it is supported by the literature and suggests that the principals are performing well in this
aspect of their work. However, where there is insufficient data to substantiate the presence of the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 53

cause or need then it is considered to be not validated, and the principals are considered to be
lacking in this area of their work.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
The study assumed that six knowledge causes or needs underpin the success of divisional
principals in their efforts to retain expatriate teachers in the schools in this study. It is assumed
that principals need to possess a range of relevant knowledge in order to be successful in their
efforts to retain their teachers. Three of the six assumed knowledge needs were validated by the
data, as can be seen in Table 5 below.
Table 5
Validation of Assumed Principal Knowledge Causes / Needs
Assumed Knowledge Cause / Need Validated Not Validated
1. Factual knowledge of the variables that contribute to teacher decision-making
(F, P).
X
2. Conceptual knowledge of the motivations of teachers as they evaluate whether
or not to remain post (C).
X
3. Conceptual understanding of the impact of leadership style on teacher
retention (C, F).
X
4. Knowledge of the culture of mobility that defines the international school
world (F, C, P).
X
5. Procedural knowledge of the sequence and steps for decision-making that
impact on teachers’ decision timelines (F, C, P).
X
6. Metacognitive knowledge of the impact of their own behaviors on teacher
retention (M).
X
Key: F = Factual P = Procedural C = Conceptual M = Metacognitive
The principals interviewed and surveyed in the study possess, and recognize the importance of,
factual knowledge in their work to retain teachers, they understand the culture of mobility that
defines the life of expatriate teachers and the steps that they go through in deciding whether or
not to remain in post. However, the principals demonstrate only limited knowledge and
understanding of the complex motivations of teachers as they seek to make decisions about their
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 54

futures, and a limited understanding of the impact of their own leadership style and behaviors on
teacher retention
Factual Knowledge of Teacher Decision-Making Variables
The first assumed knowledge cause is that, in order to be effective in supporting teacher
retention, divisional principals need to possess certain kinds of factual knowledge. Each of the
seven principal interviews demonstrates some knowledge of the existence of these variables, with
each giving examples of the categories of factual variables that the literature identifies in this
area: quality of life, security, salary, access to professional development, and desire to travel.
However, security of knowledge and understanding is lacking where the relative importance of
these factual variables is concerned.
All seven principal interviews feature comments that see “happiness and quality of life
versus being secure financially” as the predominant paradigm against which teachers evaluate
lifestyle factors, safety and security, professional development and growth, and the extent to
which teachers are treated with professional respect. This is supported by data from the principal
survey, with 84% of respondents reporting high levels of confidence in their factual knowledge
of the practical procedures teachers go through when making re-signing decisions.
The teacher survey data further support the existence of factual knowledge amongst
divisional principals with respect to the priority ranking of factors teachers consider when
deciding whether to remain in post. Table 6 (below) shows the percentage rank order of
importance given by both principals and teachers to eight factors identified from the literature as
being instrumental in expatriate teachers’ decision as to whether or not to remain in post.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 55

Table 6
Rank Order of Influential Teacher Re-signing Factors
Rank Order by Principals Rank Order by Teachers
1. Geographical location 46.2% 1. Quality of life 45.9%
2. Role and expectations 38.5% 2. Personal safety 35.1%
T3. Personal safety 30.8% 3. Role and expectations 32.3%
T3. Quality of life 30.8% 4. Compensation and benefits 25.2%
T5. School leadership 15.4% 5. Geographical location 19.9%
T5. Professional autonomy 15.4% 6. School leadership 18.9%
T5. School mission 15.4% 7. School mission 12.6%
8. Compensation and benefits 7.7% 8. Professional autonomy 9.9%

Table 6 above indicates some alignment between teachers and principals in viewing role and
expectations, personal safety, and quality of life as highly ranked factors for teachers when
choosing whether or not to remain in post. In addition, principals and teachers agree on the
relatively low ranking they give to the school mission and school leadership as factors that have
an impact on their retention decisions when compared to factors such as location, quality of life
and safety. However, there is less alignment between the divisional principals and teachers on
other factors, suggesting that there is a need for principals to increase their factual knowledge of
the importance placed by teachers on these factors. Of these, the principals believe that teachers
rank geographical location (46.2%) as the most dominant influence, far more than the teachers
value this factor (19.9%, fifth on the teacher ranking).
In terms of factual knowledge of teacher decision-making variables, the principal survey
data, teacher survey data and principal interview data indicate that principals possess a range of
factual knowledge of the variables that contribute to teacher decision-making, and that, to a
considerable degree, they both possess and value that knowledge. Hence, this assumed cause is
considered to be validated.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 56

Conceptual Knowledge of Teacher Motivation to Remain in Post

The second assumed knowledge cause is that principals need conceptual knowledge of
teacher motivations to remain in post if they are to be successful in retaining those teachers. This
cause is not validated by data from the principal survey, teacher survey, and principal interviews.
Both sets of survey data show some evidence that principals demonstrate conceptual
understanding of the importance of both personal and professional motivations in the teachers’
decision-making process. However, there is only limited understanding of the relative importance
of each of the motivating factors that impact teachers’ decision-making. In the seven principal
interviews, each interviewee recognizes that teachers are motivated by a blend of both personal
and professional factors. The principals mention a wide range of often competing factors, with
the generally less attractive salaries of the region being offset by the attractions of living in East
Africa for those teachers looking for a more remote or geographically interesting location. The
principals interviewed speak of “love of the country” and “lifestyle”, as well as the crucial need
for the school to offer a supportive environment that takes responsibility for supporting personal
needs. The interviews feature a number of anecdotes of principals investing time and energy in
ensuring that teachers’ domestic needs are attended to, showing a conceptual understanding that,
in this particular region, teachers need to feel that they are cared for and that this is a key
motivation as to whether to remain in post.
The principal survey and teacher survey data demonstrate an understanding of the range
of motivational variables. However, there are nuanced differences in conceptual knowledge of
which variables are more influential than others in terms of impact on teacher decision-making.
There is an agreed perception in the survey data between teachers and principals that quality of
life and professional development are highly influential factors. However, there is disagreement
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 57

about the relative influence of salary and package and school mission as a motivating factor for
teachers in their decision-making, as can be seen in Table 6 and in the discussion under
“Assumed Knowledge Cause 1” above. The sense that principals do not see salary as being as
important a motivating factor as the teachers see it is also borne out in the interviews, with
principals going so far as to comment that “it is not the salary, it is the environment” that is the
motivator. Given that the principals appear to lack clarity regarding the relative importance of the
conceptual knowledge factors relating to teacher motivation to remain in post, this assumed
cause is not validated.
Conceptual Understanding of the Impact of Leadership Style on Teacher Retention

The third assumed knowledge cause is that principals need conceptual understanding of
the impact of leadership style on teachers’ desire to remain in post. The interview data are most
rich in this area. There is evidence amongst all seven interviewees that principals see an
influential role played by leadership behaviors with regard to teacher motivation, though there is
only limited consensus as to which kinds of leadership behaviors are more likely to impact
positively on teacher retention. The interview data suggest that principals recognize the need for
the following behaviors in their leadership practice: professional role modeling, positive
interpersonal interactions, empowerment of teachers through consultation and teacher autonomy,
and recognition of teacher effort. The principals cite several examples that show a general
understanding that a collaborative leadership style helps teachers to feel motivated. They talk of
“supporting teachers in their decisions,” of “not second guessing their professionalism,” and of
“giving teachers the opportunity to contribute to school development.” Similarly, one of the
interviewees talks of being “visible in classes in order to show that the teacher learning is the
most important thing,” with another giving an example of his taking on a role as a soccer coach
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 58

in order to model the kind of commitment to school life he holds as a professional value. In each
of the interviews, there is a sense that they see the nature of their leadership as playing a role in
whether teachers are motivated, though the principals are less clear on how such behaviors
impact on teachers’ decisions whether or not to remain in post.
There is somewhat contradictory evidence from the teacher and principal survey data
with respect to the importance placed on leadership behaviors as a factor influencing teacher
decision-making. As can be seen in Table 6 above, neither survey group rated school leadership
as a highly influential factor in terms of re-signing, with teachers rating it sixth of the eight
factors, and principals fifth equal. This seems slightly at odds with the conviction expressed in
the interview responses from the divisional principals, as well as with much of the research
literature in this area, that school leadership behaviors are a significant factor in teacher retention.
Though the teachers in the survey gave a low rating to the influence of school leadership on
retention decisions, certain specific leadership behaviors emerged as having more weight from
the point of view of teachers. This can be seen in Table 7 below, which presents a rank order of
the kinds of principal behaviors that are considered to be influential by teachers.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 59

Table 7
Teacher Perceptions of Influential Principal Behaviors
Rank Order %
Principals encourage teacher autonomy. 84.5%
Principals communicate a clear, shared vision of the school. 84.5%
Principals encourage interpersonal interactions that enhance professional climate. 81.4%
Principals model professional behaviors that have a positive impact on school culture. 79.6%
The leadership practices of principals contribute positively to my sense of professional self-
efficacy.
79.4%
Principals communicate clear expectations of teachers. 78.4%
Principals show understanding of my professional motivations as I evaluate whether or not to
remain post.
77.3%
Principals recognize the efforts that teachers make in their professional work. 76.3%
Principals show understanding of my personal motivations regarding contract extension. 75.3%
Principals enforce school policy in a consistent manner. 75.3%
The actions of principals contribute positively to a culture of belonging amongst teachers. 74.0%
Principals empathize with the challenges I face in deciding whether or not to remain in my
position.
72.9%
Principals show understanding of the impact of their leadership style on my professional
well-being
71.9%
Principals seek out my views and solicit my input on school matters. 69.1%
Principals show understanding of the impact of their leadership style on my personal well-
being.
67.0%

It would appear from the ranking in Table 7 that teachers are positively affected by specific
principal leadership behaviors that encourage teacher autonomy, communicate a clear, shared
vision of the school and that encourage interpersonal interactions that enhance professional
climate. This supports the emphasis placed on the same leadership behaviors by the principals in
the interviews as being factors that they consider to have a positive impact on teacher motivation.
However, it remains unclear, from either the surveys or the interviews, whether or not the
principals see a clear relationship between their behaviors and the decision of teachers whether or
not to remain post. Hence, this assumed knowledge cause is not considered to be validated.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 60

Knowledge of the Culture of Mobility that Defines the International School World

The fourth assumed knowledge cause is that principals do not understand the implications
of the culture of mobility that defines international education. This is not validated by the
interview data, or supported by the data from the principal survey. 100% of respondents
expressed some level of agreement that principals are indeed aware of the culture of mobility that
characterizes the career path of international teachers (see Table 8).
Table 8
Principals’ Awareness of Culture of Expatriate Mobility

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
I am aware of the culture of
mobility that defines the career
path of international teachers.
0% 0% 0% 8.3% 33.3% 58.3%

In the interview data, the principals recognize that there is a culture of mobility, citing a
range of factors that assume teachers will move on: the desire to work in a school that is more
technologically advanced, a wish to move on to “a top-tier school,” or “just to try something a
little bit different.” This assumption is underpinned by the annual round of contract conversations
that start in some schools as early as the end of year evaluation meetings at the end of the first
year of an initial 2-year contract. Of the seven principals interviewed, only one explicitly started
a target tenure (4 years), the others speaking in more general terms of prolonging tenure for those
teachers they wished to retain for as a long as possible. That being said, the principals appear less
clear on the implications of the culture of mobility for their schools. They recognize that the
concept of teacher retention is counter to the cultural norm amongst expatriate educators of
travel, change and mobility, but still strive for it.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 61

Procedural Knowledge of the Decision-Making Sequence and Steps
The fifth assumed knowledge cause is that principals need conceptual knowledge of the
ways in which teachers resolve competing factors at work when deciding whether to remain in
post. This cause is validated by the interview data. All seven principals show nuanced
understanding in their interview responses of the complexity of factors that teachers have to
reconcile as they decide whether to extend their tenure. They each recognize that teachers often
have to make trade-offs between the attractions of other locations, such as higher salaries and
more access to the latest technological resources or professional development opportunities, and
the personal happiness and sense of community that they enjoy in their current location. One
interviewee added that, with regard to technology, teachers at his school feel that they may be
“being left behind” with advancements due to the lack of technological infrastructure, though
seem prepared to tolerate this because of the balance offered by the attractions of the school’s
location. While the principal interview data demonstrate awareness of the competing factors
juggled by teachers, the data are less convincing with regard to conceptual understanding by
divisional principals of how those competing factors are resolved by teacher and how those
factors are ultimately reconciled.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 62

Table 9
Principals’ Knowledge of the Teacher Decision-making Process

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
I am confident in my
understanding of the timeline
of the annual recruitment
calendar.

0% 0% 0% 0% 25% 75%
I am confident in my
understanding of the practical
procedures teachers go through
in the process of deciding
whether or not to extend their
contract.
0% 0% 0% 16.6% 41.7% 41.7%

The interview data show that principals possess procedural knowledge of the timeline of
the annual hiring process. However, while there is some validation that principals have
procedural knowledge of the decision-making steps that teachers work through in keeping with
this timeline, it is not shared by all seven of the respondents except in the most general of terms.
Five of the seven talk in detail of the monthly actions that they take, such as personal meetings,
to support and work with teachers as they work towards their decision. However, for two of the
respondents, this is more of an ad hoc understanding, where they see their role as being more
passive or at best reactive to the decisions ultimately taken by teachers regarding the continued
tenure at the school. All seven of the interview subjects have knowledge that there are steps
through which teachers go to make decisions according to a broadly similar timeline, though
depth of procedural knowledge was shown by only five of the seven interview subjects. This
knowledge cause is considered to be validated as the principals demonstrated clear conceptual
knowledge of the ways teachers resolve competing factors at work when deciding whether to
remain in post.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 63

Metacognitive Knowledge of the Impact of Principal Behaviors on Teacher Retention

The sixth assumed knowledge cause is that principals need to be knowledgeable about the
impact of their own leadership behaviors with regard to teacher retention. In many respects this
builds upon the findings under Assumed Knowledge Cause 3 above. This form of knowledge not
only has a conceptual aspect but is also metacognitive in that is self-knowledge on the part of the
principals regarding the impact of their own behaviors. Data from the principal survey in Table
10 below show that the respondents express confidence that they understand that their leadership
style has an influence on teacher retention, both positively and negatively. They also express
confidence that they have the necessary knowledge to lead in ways that inspire teacher retention.
Table 10
Principals’ Knowledge of the Impact of Leadership Behaviors

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
I am confident in my
understanding of the positive
impacts of leadership style on
teacher retention

0% 0% 8.3% 8.3% 41.7% 41.7%
I am confident in my
understanding of the negative
impacts of leadership style on
teacher retention

0% 0% 8.3% 16.7% 25% 50%
I have the knowledge required to
lead in ways that inspire teacher
retention

0% 0% 0% 16.7% 66.6% 16.7%

This confidence is only partially supported by the data from the principal interviews. The
seven interviewees offer examples of the ways in which they leverage their leadership behaviors
to impact positively on teacher morale and positive affect. They talk about “making time” for
individual needs, the importance of “listening to people,” and making sure that teachers “feel that
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 64

they have a voice.” There is a strong thread of empathy running through the interview responses,
grounded in placing teacher well-being at the heart of leadership behaviors. However, what the
principals offer is an understanding that their behaviors have an impact on morale. They do not
connect their behaviors directly to teacher retention except by the inference that higher morale
leads to better retention. As such, this assumed cause is not validated as the principals do not
make a direct connection between their behaviors and the decisions of teachers to remain in post.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
In terms of the six assumed knowledge causes, it is clear that the principals understand
that factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge all have a fundamental role to
play in their efforts to retain teachers. The principals recognize that they need and value factual
knowledge of the variables that contribute to teacher decision-making. However, while the
principals in this study possess considerable factual knowledge of the variables involved, there is
a deficit in their understanding of the relative importance of those variables. The survey data
indicates a need for principals to have a deeper conceptual knowledge of the motivations of
teachers as they evaluate whether to remain post. The principals in this study show some
conceptual understanding of a range of teacher motivations and communicate a sense that this is
an important knowledge factor for them in their efforts to retain teachers. However, there is also
a sense that there is a need to develop a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between
specific leadership behaviors and their impact on teacher motivation to remain in post Related to
this is the need for principals to be metacognitively knowledgeable of the impact of their own
behaviors on teacher retention. In terms of knowledge of teacher motivation, there is a need for
principals to have conceptual understanding of which motivational factors are more influential
than others in terms of impact on teacher decision-making. In terms of the need for principals to
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 65

have conceptual understanding of the impact of leadership style on teachers’ attitudes to
retention, while there is clear recognition of its importance there is a sense that there is a need to
develop a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between specific leadership behaviors
and impact on teacher motivation. It is clear that principals both need and demonstrate
knowledge of the culture of mobility that defines the international school world, with a clear
understanding that short term expatriate tenure is the dominant paradigm for the schools in this
study. Related to this, principals demonstrate knowledge of the sequence and steps that teachers
go through as they work towards a decision as to whether to extend their tenure.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
The study assumed seven motivation causes that underpin the success of divisional
principals in their efforts to retain expatriate teachers (see Table 11 below). Data from the
principal survey, teacher survey and principal interviews were analyzed and coded against each
of the seven assumed motivation causes following identification of validation items from the
survey and interview protocols. Validation items for each of the assumed motivation causes can
be found in Appendix G. Of the seven assumed motivation causes, five were validated and two
were not validated as can be seen in Table 11.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 66

Table 11
Validation of Assumed Motivation Causes
Assumed Motivation Cause Validated Not Validated
1. Principals understand the role of choice and autonomy in teacher motivation. x
2. Principals understand the importance of mission and purpose in teacher
motivation.
x
3. Principals understand the impact of leadership style on teacher motivation. x
4. Principals understand the importance of intrinsic task value in teacher
motivation.
x
5. Principals understand the importance of self-efficacy in teacher motivation. x
6. Principals understand the impact of mastery orientation in teacher motivation. x
7. Principals understand the importance of positive affect in teacher motivation. x

The Role of Choice and Autonomy in Teacher Motivation
All seven principal interviewees demonstrate an understanding that teachers are more
motivated if they work in an environment where they have room to make choices and to exercise
a degree of professional autonomy. The interviewees talked of it being important that “people
feel that they have a voice” and that “they feel part of the decision-making process.” In all seven
interviews, there is recognition of the importance of collaboration and of creating opportunities
for teachers “to pursue their passions.” This spirit of teacher choice and autonomy is supported
by data from the teacher survey that suggests that 84.6% of teachers express some measure of
agreement that principals encourage teacher autonomy in their schools (Table 12).

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 67

Table 12
Teacher Survey: Choice and Autonomy

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Principals encourage
teacher autonomy
4.1% 6.1% 5.2% 32% 40.2% 12.4%

While it is the case that the principal interviewees value an environment that encourages
choice and autonomy, there are few instances in the data where how this is actually achieved is
made explicit. This might suggest that, while the inclination of leadership is to be led by an ethos
that encourages teacher choice and autonomy, organizational structures may not necessarily be in
place that embody this commitment. Further research would be valuable in this area in order to
identify any specific strategies that principals have implemented to ensure that teacher choice and
autonomy are protected and made integral to the way in which the schools operate. This may, in
some way, be related to the low ranking of teacher autonomy as a retention factor given by both
teachers and principals in their respective surveys (Table 6). Nonetheless, it is clear from the data
that principals do understand and value the role of choice and autonomy in teacher motivation
and so this assumed motivation factor is validated.
The Importance of Mission and Purpose in Teacher Motivation

It is clear from all seven principal interviews that there is a shared perception that school
mission, though important per se, has only a limited impact on teacher motivation to remain in
post, being “low down, if not the bottom” in terms of the factors considered to be influential on
teacher retention. One interviewee commented that mission “plays a role in the teacher
motivation to come initially” but that it is not a significant factor thereafter, except insofar as
retention being influenced by how the school’s mission is actualized in the day-to-day operations
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 68

of the school. The only caveat to this expressed by one interviewee is that, if the school’s mission
is in line with a teacher’s philosophical beliefs, then the mission is more important than for
“those teachers who are not philosophically aligned with the direction of the school is going.” In
other words, there appears to be a view that, where retention is concerned, the school’s mission is
more important for teachers for whom it was an initially significant factor than for those for
whom the mission was less of an influence on their decision to initially join the school. The
principal interviews align closely with the data from both the principal survey and teacher
survey. In both surveys, the principals and teachers ranked school mission as the second lowest
of eight re-signing factors (see Table 6).
The Impact of Leadership Style on Teacher Motivation
As stated above, there is clear validation amongst all seven interviewees that principals
see an influential role played by leadership behaviors with regard to teacher retention. The
interviewee data contain numerous examples where the principals express a strong sense that
they are aware that how they lead impacts on whether teachers feel motivated. They talk of the
importance of role modeling that shows “we are all in this together and we all need to pull our
weight,” of the importance of relationships, of “building trust and building community,” and of
an empathetic attitude that “encourages people to put family first, not the job.” These sentiments
are supported by anecdotes that demonstrate actual behaviors by principals that reinforce the
kinds of leadership they feel makes teachers feel valued. One speaks of trying “to be very visible
in classes in order again to show that the teacher learning is the most important thing.” Another
speaks of the importance of personalized performance feedback for each teacher, and another
sees a key leadership behavior being the creation of time for teachers to collaborate, “making
sure that teachers have that time to get together and work together on that professional level.”
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 69

Throughout the principal interview data runs a strong sense that retention is related to aspects of
servant leadership that puts the needs of the teacher first. The principal interview data in Table 13
below provide additional evidence to suggest that principals are motivated to take action in their
leadership to have a positive impact on teacher retention.
Table 13
Principal Survey: Investment of Time and Effort in Teacher Retention

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Teacher retention is a high
priority for me in my work
as an administrator.
0% 0% 0% 25% 16.7% 58.3%
I invest time and effort in
retaining excellent
teachers.
0% 0% 0% 0% 33.4% 66.6%
I invest time and effort in
retaining all teachers.
16.7% 8.3% 25% 33.3% 16.7% 0%

It is interesting, though perhaps not surprising, to note that principals invest significantly
more time and effort with more capable teachers. That being said, 100% of principals surveyed
recognize to some degree that teacher retention is a high priority for them in their work as
administrators. All principals interviewed and surveyed in this study recognize a connection
between their own leadership behaviors, teacher motivation and retention, thereby validating this
assumed knowledge cause.
The Importance of Intrinsic Task Value in Teacher Motivation

There is limited evidence from the principal interviews, the principal surveys, or the
teacher surveys that principals explicitly recognize the importance of intrinsic task value in
teacher motivation. Of the four dimensions of task value (intrinsic, extrinsic, attainment value
and cost value), the principals interviewed demonstrate an implicit rather than explicit sense of
the importance of intrinsic benefit for teacher motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008). Given that the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 70

literature in this area sees intrinsic task value as a key element in teacher motivation, it is perhaps
surprising that the importance of intrinsic task value is not more apparent from the interview
data. That said, there is evidence from the principal interview data that they believe teachers to
be are motivated by the two factors that might be described as having intrinsic benefit: quality of
life and professional growth. While the presence of this assumed motivation factor is not
validated by the data, this may be because of limitations of the interview and survey prompts.
Further research would be beneficial in order to reach a conclusive determination as to whether
or not the principals in this study understand the importance of intrinsic task value in teacher
motivation.
The Importance of Self-efficacy in Teacher Motivation
This assumed motivation factor is closely related to the discussion above of the role of
choice and autonomy in teacher motivation. Data from the teacher survey (Table 14) indicates
that 79.4% of respondents feel that principal leadership practices contribute positively to their
sense of professional self-efficacy.
Table 14
Teacher Survey: Principals Encourage Self-Efficacy and Autonomy

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Principal leadership
practices contribute
positively to my sense of
professional self-efficacy.
5.2% 8.2% 7.2% 24.7% 36.1% 18.6%
Principals encourage
teacher autonomy
4.1% 6.2% 5.2% 32% 40.2% 12.3%

The principal interviews feature numerous examples where value is placed on the
development of teacher self-efficacy. This assumed motivation factor is seen by each of the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 71

seven interviewees as an important motivator for teachers. The principals speak of creating
“opportunities for people.” One principal draws a connection between length of service in the
school and the extent to which a teacher is successful: “the second year, the third year, you are in
a job, the fourth year, you are in a job, you are better. You are much better. You don't get the
gravy until it’s at least your third year.” There is a sense that self-efficacy increases with length
of tenure, hence the desire of principals to invest time and effort in retaining teachers in order for
their schools to benefit from the increased self-efficacy that comes with longer tenure at the
school.
The Impact of Mastery Orientation in Teacher Motivation
There is little evidence from the principal interviews, the principal surveys or the teacher
surveys that principals understand the impact of mastery orientation on teacher motivation. While
this assumed motivation factor is not validated by the data, as with assumed motivation factor 4
above this may be because of the limitations of the interview and survey prompts. Further
research would therefore be required in order to offer an evidenced view as to whether or not the
principals in this study understand the importance of mastery orientation in teacher motivation.
However, it is worth recognizing on a related note that there is evidence from the data,
specifically the principal interviews, of mastery orientation as a motivational attitude in the
leadership style articulated by the principals themselves (Pintrich, 2003). As mentioned earlier in
Chapter Three, in the context of this study, this is seen as the goal of principals to inspire
teachers to self-improve and remain in post. One principal talks about “doing everything you can
to get the best people to stay.” Another comments that retaining teachers “motivates me because
I think it's going to be best for the school,” while another is motivated to “provide some of the
professional challenge or opportunity that would be enticing for the right people.” Although the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 72

data from this study does not validate the assumed motivation factor with regard to principals
understanding the impact of mastery orientation in teacher motivation, there is a sense that the
principals regard mastery orientation as a powerful motivating factor in their own efforts to retain
teachers.
The Importance of Positive Affect in Teacher Motivation
There is a strong sense across the three data sets that principals understand the importance
of positive affect in teacher motivation. As can be seen in Table 15, this is recognized by the
teachers, 83% of whom expressed agreement that principals show an understanding of the impact
of their leadership style on teachers’ personal well-being. The teacher survey also showed strong
agreement (76.3%) that principals take steps to recognise the efforts that teachers make in their
professional work.
Table 15
Teacher Survey: Principal Impact on Teacher Well-Being

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Principals show understanding
of the impact of their leadership
style on my personal well-being
1.3% 6.2% 9.1% 61% 12.1% 10.3%
Principals recognise the efforts
that teachers make in their
professional work
4.1% 7.2% 12.4% 18.6% 41.2% 16.5%

The principal survey data show a similar commitment to teachers’ affective well-being in
the form of principals consciously leveraging their leadership style to enhance teacher morale, as
can be seen in Table 16 below:

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 73

Table 16
Principal Survey: Enhancing Teacher Morale

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
I leverage my leadership style
to enhance teacher morale.
0% 0% 8.3% 16.7% 16.7% 58.3%

The survey data show 91.7% agreement that principals leverage their leadership style to
enhance teacher morale. This level of commitment to teacher affective well-being is supported
by the data from the seven principal interviews. The data features numerous anecdotes
referencing the importance of “paying close attention to teachers, their needs and wants”: how
teachers are treated “by not only the school community, but the community at large,” the
importance of “bonding people” through shared experiences, and the fundamental importance of
creating a climate where “teachers need to know that they are cared about.” It is clear from the
data that principals understand the importance of positive affect in teacher motivation and so this
assumed motivation cause is validated.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
It is clear from the data that principals understand, and act upon, the importance of choice
and autonomy, teacher self-efficacy, leadership style, and positive affect as factors influencing
teacher motivation. It is also clear that the principals and teachers are in agreement that school
mission is of limited influence as a motivating factor for teachers considering remaining in post.
There is limited evidence from the data that principals understand the importance of intrinsic task
value or mastery orientation with regard to teacher motivation although, as previously stated, this
may be a product of survey and interview design rather than a valid conclusion to be drawn
regarding the attitude of principals to intrinsic task value and mastery orientation. What is also
clear is the high level of motivation exhibited by the principals in this study to leading in ways
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 74

that they believe will have a positive impact on teacher retention. They not only understand the
factors that motivate teachers but are themselves motivated to invest time and effort in order to
inspire teachers to remain in post.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
This study assumed five organization causes that underpin the success of divisional
principals in their efforts to retain expatriate teachers. These causes can be seen in Table 17
below. Data from the principal survey, teacher survey and principal interviews were analyzed
and coded against the seven assumed organization causes following identification of validation
items from the teacher survey, principal survey and principal interviews. Validation items for the
seven assumed organization causes can be found in Appendix H. All seven of the assumed
organization causes, were validated as can be seen in Table 17 below.
Table 17
Validation of Assumed Organization Causes
Assumed Organization Cause Validated
Not
Validated
1. Principals create a culture of belonging (‘embeddedness’) amongst
teachers.
x
2. Principals impact on organizational culture through conscious
professional role modeling.
x
3. Principals leverage leadership style to enhance organizational culture. x
4. Principals engage in leadership behaviors that impact on teacher self-
efficacy.
x
5. Principals encourage interpersonal interactions that enhance
professional climate.
x

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 75

Principals Create a Culture of Belonging Amongst Teachers

The teachers survey data show that 73.2% of teachers expressed some measure of
agreement that principals contribute positively to a culture of belonging amongst teachers (Table
18 below).
Table 18
Teacher Survey: Principal Impact on Belonging

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
The actions of principals
contribute positively to a
culture of belonging amongst
teachers
5.2% 6.7% 14.9% 19.6% 25.8% 27.8%

This affirmation of principals’ commitment to creating an atmosphere where teachers feel
a sense of belonging is supported in the principal survey, where 91.7% of principals agree that
they leverage their leadership style to enhance teacher morale (Table 16). However, where this
commitment is made most evident is in the principal interviews. For one principal, it is about
trying “to make people aware that we are all in this together,” while, for another, it is about
making sure teachers “feel part of the decision-making process.” Another principal talked about
the importance of supporting the development of professional learning communities as a way of
creating belonging and investment in school development. Collectively, the principals talked of
the importance of making the effort to “let people know we appreciate them” and of making “a
big push to celebrate all of the things that we have done.” It is worthy of note that, for the most
part, the principals would seem to act out of personal leadership conviction rather than expressed
institutional policy or school-wide procedures. The interview responses with regard to leadership
philosophy and action are almost exclusively expressed in the first person. One principal speaks
of “what I am trying to do,” another about how “I have invested some time,” with yet another
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 76

concluding that “at the end of the day the buck stops with me.” The principals appear to view
their role from the point of view of individual opportunity and choice rather than adopted school
policy as to how leadership is framed and put into action in their schools. That being said, it is
clear from the data that the principals in this study value the concept of belonging and take
individual steps to lead in ways that enhance that feeling of belonging amongst teachers, and so
this assumed cause is validated.
Principals Impact on Organizational Culture Through Professional Role Modeling

The importance of professional role modeling has already been established above in the
context of principals’ conceptual understanding of the impact of leadership style. Data from the
teacher survey (Table 19) indicate that 80.5% of teachers believe that principals model the kinds
of professional behaviors that have a positive impact on school culture.
Table 19
Teacher Survey: Principal Role Modeling

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Principals model professional
behaviors that have a positive
impact on school culture
2.1% 9.2% 8.2% 15.5% 35.1% 29.9%

There are numerous examples from the principal interviews that show conscious
individual decisions to role model the kinds of behaviors they wish to encourage in the teachers
in their schools. These range from leading from the front as a soccer coach in order to encourage
teachers to become involved in the school’s extracurricular life, to making sure that the principal
spends time in the classroom in order to model the fundamental importance of what happens in
those teacher-student learning interactions. One principal expresses the importance of modeling
as not asking “my teachers to do something that I am not prepared to do.” Implicit in this
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 77

statement is a belief that the principal models the kinds of behaviors that he regards as being
desirable, or which demonstrate the values he wishes to validate through his own behaviors.
There is a thread throughout the principal interviews that speaks to shared recognition that
aspects of authentic and transformational leadership lie at the heart of how the principals see
themselves as leaders. This would appear to be borne out by data from the principal survey with
regard to the kinds of leadership styles that the principals see themselves as preferring in their
work with teachers, as can be seen in Table 20 below.
Table 20
Principal Survey: Leadership Styles (n=17)
Leadership Style Mean
Authentic leadership:
I am transparent, morally grounded and build my leadership on being responsive to people's
needs and values.
79.46
Transformational leadership:
I articulate clear vision, empower followers to meet higher standards, act in ways that make
others want to trust me and give meaning to organizational life.
78.00
Servant leadership:
I choose to serve first and put the good of followers over my own self-interest. I build
strong relationships and lead in ways that serve the greater good of followers, my
organization and society at large.
68.15
Adaptive leadership:
I help people change and adjust to new situations, and see my role as helping others to
become the problem solvers.
68.08

In terms of mean rank order, most principals surveyed see themselves as characterized by
responsiveness to people’s needs and values (authentic leadership), acting in ways that make
others want to trust them (transformational leadership). This would appear to validate the
assumed organization factor that principals see themselves as having an impact on organizational
culture through the ways in which they role model the values and behaviors that they wish to see
in their school and which give meaning to the life of their schools.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 78

Principals Leverage Leadership Style to Enhance Organizational Culture

This assumed organization factor is related to the discussion above under “Assumed
Motivation Factor 3” of the extent to which principals understand the impact of leadership style
on teacher motivation. As has already been established, the principals in this study recognized
that the way in which they lead has an impact on teacher motivation and, by extension, on
organizational culture and climate. Data from the principal survey show that 91.7% of principals
believe that they leverage their leadership style to enhance teacher morale (Table 21).
Table 21
Principal Survey: Leveraging Leadership Style (n=17)

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree

I leverage my leadership
style to enhance teacher
morale.
0% 0% 8.3% 16.7% 16.7% 58.3%

Data from the teacher survey (see Table 22 below) would appear to support this, with
81.5% of teachers expressing some measure of agreement that principals encourage interpersonal
interactions that enhance professional climate.
Table 22
Teacher Survey: Interpersonal Interactions and Professional Climate (n=135)

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Principals encourage
interpersonal interactions
that enhance professional
climate.
3.1% 4.1% 11.3% 22.7% 45.4% 13.4%

Although the teacher and principal survey data suggest that principals lead in ways that attempt
to enhance organizational culture, it is the principal interview data that are more convincing.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 79

Each of the seven interviewees expressed the importance of investing time and effort in their
personal leadership behaviors to create a positive organizational culture, climate and morale.
They spoke of the importance of maintaining a “collegial atmosphere,” a “team atmosphere,” or
a “family atmosphere.” They explicit stated that “morale in the school environment is important,”
that the school’s organizational culture is “all about relationships,” of the importance of
“building trust” and that “building community” is fundamental to the principal’s role. Yet as in
the case of “Assumed Organization Factor 1: Principals Create a Culture of Belonging Amongst
Teachers”, the actions taken by the principals appear to be largely the result of individual
leadership choices borne out of personal conviction, rather than institutional policy or adopted
school procedures.
Principals Engage in Leadership Behaviors that Impact on Teacher Self-Efficacy

The perceived impact of leadership behaviors on teacher self-efficacy has already been
discussed to some degree above under “Assumed Motivation Factor 5: The Importance of Self-
efficacy in Teacher Motivation.” The teacher survey showed that 79.4% of teachers felt that
principal leadership practices contribute positively to their sense of professional self-efficacy
(Table 14). Furthermore, as can be seen in Table 23, the teacher survey indicated positive
agreement that principals engaged in a range of leadership behaviors that contributed to teacher
self-efficacy.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 80

Table 23
Teacher Survey: Leadership for Teacher Self-Efficacy (n=135)

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Somewhat
Agree
Agree
Strongly
Agree

Principals seek out my
views and solicit input on
school matters
8.2% 12.9% 11.5% 24.9% 29.9% 12.6%
Principals encourage
teacher autonomy
4.1% 6.2% 5.2% 43.0% 30.2% 11.3%

As Table 23 shows, 67.4% of teachers expressed some degree of agreement that
principals seek out teacher views and opinions, with 84.5% agreeing that principals encourage
teacher autonomy. As has already been discussed, the principal interviews feature examples of
principals acting in a range of ways that show the importance they attached to developing teacher
self-efficacy. Taken collectively, the data from the surveys and interviews validate the assumed
organization need for principals to engage in leadership behaviors that impact on teacher self-
efficacy.
Principals Encourage Interpersonal Interactions that Enhance Professional Climate

It has already been established above under “Assumed Organization Factor 3” (and
specifically in Table 22) that principals chose to invest time and effort in encouraging
interpersonal interactions with the objective of enhancing professional climate. The teacher
survey showed that 81.5% of teachers expressed some measure of agreement that principals
engage in such behaviors. Likewise, the principal interview data contain examples of the kinds of
interactions that principals both encourage and model. One principal talked of the importance of
having “meaningful conversations about the work that teachers do,” while another stressed the
importance of “individual conversations with teachers,” with emphasis placed on the
personalization of such interaction. Perhaps one of the most compelling observations came from
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 81

one of the principals who commented on the importance of encouraging teachers “to
communicate with each other, particularly about how students are doing.” He described how the
teachers then “reserve time each week to discuss individual students as a group, which then
brings people together to talk about the business of why we are there, which is about the
student”. Clearly for this principal, and for the other principals whose sentiments echoed similar
perspectives, encouraging interpersonal interactions that enhance professional climate is an
important element of how they see themselves as leaders.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Causes
It is clear that the principals in this study invested the time and effort necessary to create a
culture of belonging amongst teachers. This was supported by the ways in which the principals
sought to exercise a positive impact on organizational culture through their professional role
modeling. Underpinning this work is a sense that the principals saw a key aspect of their role as
being to leverage their leadership style in ways that enhance organizational culture and impact
positively on the development of teacher self-efficacy. Furthermore, the principals saw
interpersonal interactions as a powerful mechanism for building professional climate. They were
prepared to do the work necessary to create a climate where such interactions form the
foundation for a trustful organizational culture. It is perhaps worth considering the five
organization causes in the context of the twin lenses of cultural model and cultural setting after
Gallimore & Goldenberg (2001). There would appear to be some alignment between the cultural
model of leadership, as conveyed by the principal and teacher survey data, and the cultural
setting in the form of the leadership behaviors themselves, as expressed through the principal
interviews. That is to say, there would appear to be alignment between the individual
perceptions, beliefs and values of leadership and the actual leadership behaviors of the principals.
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 82

It is arguable that the data does not support the existence of institutional procedures or policy in
keeping with the leadership values. However, the actions and behaviors of the principals are
themselves artifacts of the cultural setting in which the cultural model operates. It is, therefore,
not surprising that all five of the organization causes were validated as being present in the
attitudes, values and behaviors of the principals in this study.
Summary
Of the 18 assumed causes across the three categories of knowledge, motivation and
organization, developed from the relevant research literature in this area, 13 were validated and 5
were not validated. The validated causes can be seen in Table 24 below:
Table 24
Validated Assumed Causes
Knowledge Motivation Organization
Factual knowledge of the
variables that contribute to
teacher decision-making.
Principals understand the role of
choice and autonomy in teacher
motivation.
Principals create a culture of
belonging (‘embeddedness’)
amongst teachers.
Conceptual knowledge of the
culture of mobility that
defines the international
school world.
Principals understand the
importance of mission and
purpose in teacher motivation.
Principals impact on
organizational culture through
conscious professional role
modeling.
Procedural knowledge of the
sequence and steps for
decision-making that impact
on teachers’ decision
timelines.
Principals understand the impact
of leadership style on teacher
motivation.
Principals leverage leadership
style to enhance organizational
culture.
Principals understand the
importance of self-efficacy in
teacher motivation.
Principals engage in leadership
behaviors that impact on
teacher self-efficacy.
Principals understand the
importance of positive affect in
teacher motivation.
Principals encourage
interpersonal interactions that
enhance professional climate.

The validated causes suggest that principals possess to some extent the factual,
conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge relevant to teacher decision-making as to
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 83

whether or not to remain in post. However, what may be lacking is a more nuanced
understanding of the relative importance of each kind of knowledge.
In terms of motivation, the validated causes indicate that principals are aware of a range
of factors that influence teacher motivation. Furthermore, they are themselves motivated to invest
time and effort in leadership behaviors designed to leverage this awareness. However, it would
also appear that principals may lack depth of understanding of the relative importance of the
different typologies of motivation as they pertain specifically to teacher retention.
Finally, in terms of organizational factors the validated causes indicate an alignment
between the values and philosophical orientation of the principals interviewed with regard to
teacher retention (cultural model) and the individual actions of the principals in their leadership
of, and interactions with, the teachers whom they lead (cultural setting). However, there is some
evidence to suggest that this alignment is more a product of individual principal choice rather
than institutional policy and procedures. There is a risk that the success of a specific school in its
efforts to retain teachers is dependent upon the individual leadership beliefs and actions each
principal, rather than enshrined in school policy. The powerful factors that drive annual teacher
turnover are the very same factors that drive the rates of administrator turnover in international
schools. Therefore, it is suggested that embedding desirable principal leadership behaviors in
policy and procedures might safeguard schools against the variations that might occur in the vent
of principal turnover and so go some way to ensuring that schools encourage leadership that
seeks to inspire retention amongst expatriate teachers.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 84

CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
The analysis in Chapter 4 concluded with the identification of the thirteen assumed causes
that were validated in this study. These validated causes indicate where principals were
successful in their efforts to impact positively on teacher retention. Table 25 below presents the
five assumed knowledge and motivation causes that were not validated and which indicate where
principals appeared unsuccessful in their efforts to impact positively on teacher retention.
Table 25
Non-validated Assumed Causes
Knowledge Motivation
Conceptual knowledge of the motivations of
teachers as they evaluate whether or not to
remain post.
Principals understand the importance of intrinsic
task value in teacher motivation.
Conceptual understanding of the impact of
leadership style on teachers’ attitudes to
retention.
Principals understand the importance of positive
affect in teacher motivation.
Metacognitive knowledge of the impact of their
own behaviors on teacher retention.

NB All organization assumed causes were validated
Any proposed solution to enhance the efficacy of principals in terms of their impact on
teacher retention should target both the non-validated assumed KMO causes summarized in
Table 25, plus address those aspects of the validated KMO assumed causes that arose from the
analysis as being areas for further improvement discussed at the end of chapter four. This is
articulated in Table 26 below under three identified areas for development. Each is designed to
help principals to become more successful in their efforts to improve expatriate teacher retention
by improving relevant areas of knowledge, motivation and organizational effectiveness.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 85

Table 26
Proposed Areas for Development
1. Principals should develop a nuanced understanding of the relative importance of each kind of
knowledge relevant to teacher retention.
Knowledge Motivation Organization
Enhance conceptual knowledge of
teacher motivation to remain post.

Enhance conceptual understanding
of the impact of leadership style on
teacher retention.

Enhance metacognitive knowledge
of the impact of their own
behaviors on teacher retention.

2. Principals should develop a deep understanding of the relative importance of the different typologies of
motivation as they pertain specifically to teacher retention.
Knowledge Motivation Organization
Enhance understanding the
importance of intrinsic task
value in teacher motivation.

Enhance understanding of the
importance of positive affect in
teacher motivation.

3. International schools should take steps to develop policy and procedures that encourage desirable
principal leadership behaviors designed to inspire retention amongst expatriate teachers.
Knowledge Motivation Organization
Embed desirable principal
leadership behaviors in school
policy and procedures to
encourage leadership that
inspires expatiate teacher
retention.

It is proposed that the three areas for development identified above in Table 26 are
conceptualized as two areas of intervention designed to enhance the effectiveness of divisional
principals in retaining expatriate teachers. The two proposed areas of intervention are leadership
education and recruitment training. These areas of intervention are designed to address the
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 86

knowledge, motivation and organizational deficits identified in Chapter 4 by the generation of
institutional learning and policy that enhance principals’ knowledge of what motivates teacher to
remain in post and systematically develops leadership behaviors that leverage the literature on
teacher motivation.
Implementation Plan
Leadership Education Implementation
The enhancement of governance and leadership capacity via research-based leadership
education is central to addressing the three areas for development identified in Table 26. It is
proposed that an annual school-based program of professional development be implemented to
address the following:
1. Leadership and governance education on research-based leadership practices that enhance
teacher retention via an externally facilitated annual leadership retreat.
2. The codification, and annual review, of retention-friendly leadership practices in
published school policy.
3. The articulation, and annual review, of retention-friendly leadership practices in the
principals’ annual goal setting process.
4. The articulation, and annual review, of retention-friendly leadership styles in divisional
principals’ evaluation protocol
These four elements will each require the school’s investment of time and resources in order to
ensure that planned opportunities are set aside for appropriate personnel to receive training and
guidance throughout the school year.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 87

Recruitment Training Implementation
As with leadership education, recruitment training is critical to addressing the areas for
development identified in Table 26. The literature suggests that expatriate teacher job satisfaction
is related to the extent to which there is an alignment between teacher and school values and
expectations (Anderson, 2010; Chapa, 2012; Kellett, 2015; Kelly, 2014). It is therefore proposed
that the following actions be taken on annual basis to enhance the capacity of principals to align
recruitment with the likelihood of retention:
1. Create an institution-specific ‘educator profile’ to focus recruitment efforts on the values
of the school and the identified characteristics of longstanding teachers, drawing on input
from all stakeholders within the school community.
2. Develop a recruitment timeline of key actions to ensure a strategic approach to the
recruitment year in order to maximize opportunities to access the widest possible talent
pool in ways that optimize the chances of accessing candidates who align with the
school’s values.
3. Conduct interview training with principals, in line with retention-friendly leadership
practices, in order to develop a teacher interview protocol that leverages relevant research
on expatriate teacher retention as well as the school’s educator profile (above).
These three elements will require the school to adopt an intentional and strategic approach to
recruitment that aligns with what the literature says about teacher retention in international
schools.
Evaluation Plan
The proposed interventions in this chapter will be evaluated via the Kirkpatrick model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006), which presents a four-level sequential framework for program
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 88

evaluation: reaction, learning, transfer and impact. The first level, reaction, considers the extent
to which the participants were engaged by the activity or program. The second level, learning,
evaluates the extent to which the participants have acquired new knowledge and skills through
the program. The third level, transfer, considers the extent to which the participants have changed
their behavior as a result of the program. Finally, the fourth level examines the impact of the
program or interventions on the organization.
Leadership Education Evaluation.
The proposed interventions for leadership education can be seen in Table 24 below
against the four-level evaluation model proposed by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006).
Table 27
Evaluation Plan for Leadership Education
Proposed Intervention Reaction Learning Transfer Impact
1. Annual leadership
and governance
retreat to share
leadership practices
that enhance teacher
retention.
• Pre- and post-
retreat
surveys to
assess
engagement
in the retreat
experience.
• Discussion
log to assess
contributions
• Post-retreat
semi-
structured
interview.
• Pre- and post-
retreat test to
assess learning.
• Retreat exit
interview
assessing
confidence and
commitment to
adopting new
leadership
practices.
• Survey board
members and
principals 3
months post-
workshop.
• Follow up
semi-structured
interviews with
board members
and principals
to identify
examples of
changed
behaviors.
• Conduct exit
surveys and exit
interviews with
departing and
re-signing
teachers to
identify which
adopted
leadership
practices
influenced their
decision to stay
or leave the
school.

2. Codify retention-
friendly leadership
practices in school
policy.
• Written
teacher and
principal
feedback at
first and final
draft policy
writing
stages.
• Observational
assessment of
leadership
practices
defined in
school policy.
• Conduct
leadership
observations to
identify
codified
behaviors in
practice.
• As above

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 89

Table 27 continued
Proposed Intervention Reaction Learning Transfer Impact
3. Articulate
retention-friendly
leadership practices
in divisional
principals’ annual
goal setting.
• Principals
write own
SMART
goals to
specify
retention-
friendly
leadership
practices to
be adopted or
developed.
• Principals
demonstrate
knowledge of
retention-
friendly
practices in the
framing of their
goals.
• Conduct mid-
year check-ins
with principals
to discuss
progress
towards
achievement of
retention-
friendly
leadership
goals.
• End of year
principal
interviews to
discuss impact
of adopted
goals on
leadership
behaviors.

4. Articulate
retention-friendly
leadership styles in
divisional principals’
evaluation protocol.
• Include a
rubric of
retention-
friendly
leadership
practices in
the annual
evaluation
protocol, co-
designed by
the principals
and head of
school.
• Principals
demonstrate
behaviors that
correspond to
the leadership
style rubric in
the evaluation
protocol.
• Conduct annual
principal
evaluations to
identify extent
to which
retention-
friendly
leadership
behaviors have
been adopted.
• As above.

In Table 27 above, the four interventions are designed to enhance the capacity of the
divisional principals to understand the impact of leadership behaviors on teacher retention, to
frame that understanding in policy and in their own leadership behaviors, and to reflect upon the
effectiveness of their leadership style in enhancing teacher retention.
Reaction to each of the interventions, in terms of satisfaction and engagement, are
evaluated via mechanisms that place the divisional principals actively at the center of the process,
particularly with regard to the development of policy with regard to retention-friendly leadership
practices and the development of goal setting and evaluation tools to assess the effectiveness of
leadership behaviors with regard to teacher retention.
The extent to which learning occurred for each of the interventions in Table 24 is
evaluated via a combination of pre- and post-intervention knowledge tests, observational
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 90

assessment of post-training behaviors and evidence of knowledge gained in the completion of
goal setting tasks.
Behavior change, or transfer, is evaluated by a combination of surveys, semi-structured
interviews and observations, following a period of time during which the interventions have been
implemented. The extent to which the divisional principals embraced the leadership behaviors in
question is a critical success factor. The evaluation of the effectiveness of divisional principals
applying retention-friendly leadership behaviors and knowledge speaks directly to the
achievement of the goal of enhanced teacher retention.
Finally, the impact of the intervention detailed in Table 27 is evaluated via of end of year
exit surveys and interviews with departing teachers and those who have extended their contract,
plus end of year interviews with the divisional principals. In the case of the exit surveys and
interviews, it is anticipated that the impact of the intervention will be seen in the survey and
interview responses connecting adopted leadership practices with decisions to remain at the
school. The end of year interviews with divisional principals are designed to evaluate the impact
of the adopted leadership practices on their ability to achieve retention-related goals and
implement leadership policy and practices that are designed to inspire retention amongst the
teachers they lead.
Recruitment Training Evaluation
In Table 28 below, a series of interventions are proposed with the objective of enhancing
the effectiveness of divisional principals in the annual process of recruiting of expatriate teachers
via skill-building and policy development informed by the literature on teacher retention.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 91

Table 28
Evaluation Plan for Recruitment Training
Proposed
Intervention
Reaction Learning Transfer Impact
1. Create an
institution-specific
‘educator profile’ to
focus recruitment
efforts.
• Engage
stakeholders in
the drafting
process via
survey input.
• Engage teachers
and principals
via a workshop
designed to co-
author the final
educator profile
draft.
• Pre- and post-
intervention test
to assess change
in stakeholder
knowledge of
desirable teacher
traits and
behaviors from
future hires.
• Document
analysis to
identify extent
to which the
educator profile
is embedded in
recruitment
policy and
practices.
• Semi-structured
principal
interviews to
identify how
the apply the
educator profile
in recruitment
activity.
• One year on,
conduct an
alignment
exercise,
correlating
educator
profile traits
with traits
demonstrated
by new hire
teachers.
2. Develop a
recruitment
timeline of key
actions to ensure a
strategic approach
to the recruitment
year.
• Empower
principals to
develop the
school’s
timeline of
recruitment
actions.
• Monitor the
success of
principals in
keeping to the
timeline.
• Empower
principals to
review the
effectiveness of
the recruitment
timeline post-
implementation
in order to
design the
subsequent
year’s timeline.
• Pre- and post-
intervention test
to assess change
in stakeholder
knowledge of
timeline of
recruitment
actions.
• Monthly
observational
monitoring of
the recruitment
timeline to
evaluate the
extent to which
the timeline is
being adhered
to.
• Semi-structured
principals
interviews to
identify how
the timeline of
actions impacts
recruitment
activity.
• End of year
round table
discussion
with
stakeholders
to assess the
impact of the
adopted
recruitment
timeline on
the success of
the school’s
recruitment
efforts.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 92

Table 28, continued
3. Conduct
interview training
in line with
retention-friendly
leadership practices
in order to develop
a revised interview
protocol for
potential new hire
teachers.
• Survey
principals pre-
and post-
training to
assess
engagement and
satisfaction with
the training.
• Monitor
participation in
the training
sessions via
logging
discussion
contributions
and post-retreat
semi-structured
interview.
• Pre- and post-
intervention test
to assess change
in stakeholder
knowledge of
interview
procedures
aligned with
retention-
friendly
leadership.
• Survey
principals 3
months post-
training.
• Follow up semi-
structured
interviews with
principals to
identify
examples of
changed
interview
behaviors.
• Monitor
success rate of
hiring first
choice
candidates
who choose to
extend their
tenure beyond
initial contract,
who have been
initially hired
using the
revised
interview
protocol.

The interventions outlined in Table 28 are designed to ensure that the annual recruitment
process is approached in a knowledge-rich and strategically thoughtful way, based upon an
institutionally agreed profile of the kind of educator most likely to achieve success in the school.
Reaction, satisfaction and engagement are evaluated via a combination of surveys and
face-to-face feedback opportunities designed to ensure engagement throughout each of the three
processes as well as by evaluating post-intervention impact. The extent to which learning occurs
for each of the interventions described in Table 28 is evaluated via pre- and post-intervention
knowledge tests designed to measure how much knowledge has been gained from each of the
interventions. The extent to which behavior change, or transfer, has been achieved in the
interventions described in Table 28 is evaluated by a combination of surveys, interviews and
observations. Each of these measures is designed to identify the extent to which acquired
knowledge and new skills are visible over a period of time following the initial intervention.
Finally, the impact of each of the three interventions detailed in Table 28 is assessed via
three different methods. The impact of the educator profile will be evaluated after one year via an
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 93

alignment exercise designed to correlate the traits specified in the educator profile used to guide
hiring with traits demonstrated by new hire teachers in their first year in post. The impact of the
recruitment timeline will be evaluated via and end of year-round table discussion involving all
stakeholders, to assess the impact of the adopted recruitment timeline on the success of the
school’s recruitment efforts. Finally, the impact of the revised interview protocol will be
monitored via the year-on-year success rate of hiring first choice candidates using the revised
interview protocol, who then subsequently decide to extend their contract beyond their initial
tenure.
It is proposed that these interventions will support schools in their efforts to retain
expatriate teachers by enhancing principal knowledge and understanding of how they can lead in
ways that effectively leverage teacher motivation. It is anticipated that the adoption of a
systematic approach to principal leadership education, policy development and recruitment
training with regard to teacher retention, will enhance the likelihood of schools being able to
keep expatriate teachers for longer.
Future Research
The growth of the K-12 international school market shows no signs of slowing down and
the indicators suggest that the available pool of teachers is not keeping pace with demand
(Brummitt & Keeling, 2013; ISC, 2015; Taylor, 2015). Hence, it will become increasingly
important for international schools to extend the tenure of expatriate teachers if they are to be
successful in providing high quality educational services for their communities.
The international school sector would benefit from research specific to the motivations of
expatriate educators as they move around the world from school to school. The majority of the
research on teacher motivation has focused on teachers in national systems, hence there is a need
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 94

for deeper insight into what motivates expatriate educators to remain in post. More specifically, it
would be beneficial for the international school sector if such research were to be disaggregated
by factors such as nationality, gender and generational group.
This study has taken as its primary stakeholder group divisional principals working in
international schools in what is a perceived hardship location. As the international school market
continues to grow, with a corresponding increase in competition for labor, it would be beneficial
for more research to be carried out in schools in hardship locations around the world that are
managing to retain teachers despite the demands of their location and the attractions of schools in
more developed nations. Such schools perform a critical function in regions that are often in
desperate need of high quality educational opportunities. It is therefore of critical importance that
those schools develop the best possible understanding of how to retain the teachers that they
manage to recruit.
Finally, there is a need for more research into the relationship between expatriate teacher
recruitment and the extent to which recruited teachers are successful in their new positions. Such
research might shed more light on how international schools might recruit the most appropriate
teachers for their schools and thereby contribute positively to the likelihood of increased teacher
retention.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 95

Conclusion
This study set out to explore the role of divisional principals in teacher retention in East
African international schools. It sought to understand the knowledge, motivation and
organizational factors involved in the efforts of principals to retain teachers. In so doing, what
emerged was a picture of highly motivated educational professionals working in challenging
circumstances to do what they could to keep the expatriate teachers that they had worked so hard
to recruit. The principals in this study understand the culture of mobility that governs the life of
expatriate teachers and recognize that their role as a principal has responsibilities that include
employee welfare as much as professional leadership, particularly in the hardship locations in
which their schools operate. They recognize that they have a key role to play in terms of
establishing a climate and culture in which teachers want to live and work, and that how they
lead has resonance. However, what also emerged from this study was a sense that teacher
retention is not generally approached strategically by the principals in these schools but more by
the isolated efforts of individual principals. While the principals are motivated to do what they
can to enhance climate in the hope that teachers will stay at the school, this study indicates that
there is a need for the schools in which these principals work to adopt a much more strategic
school-wide approach to the achievement of teacher retention that leverages research on teacher
motivation and leadership behaviors.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 96

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Appendix A
Assumed Principal Needs for Knowledge, Motivation and Organization

Knowledge Motivation Organization
Factual knowledge of the
variables that contribute to
teacher decision-making (F, P).
Principals understand the role
of choice and autonomy in
teacher motivation.
Principals create a culture of
belonging (‘embeddedness’)
amongst teachers.
Conceptual knowledge of the
motivations of teachers as they
evaluate whether or not to
remain post (C).
Principals understand the
importance of mission and
purpose in teacher motivation.
Principals impact on
organizational culture through
conscious professional role
modeling.
Conceptual understanding of
the impact of leadership style
on teachers’ attitudes to
retention (C, F).
Principals understand the
impact of leadership style on
teacher motivation.
Principals leverage leadership
style to enhance organizational
culture.
Conceptual knowledge of the
culture of mobility that defines
the international school world
(F, C, P).
Principals understand the
importance of intrinsic task
value in teacher motivation.
Principals engage in leadership
behaviors that impact on
teacher self-efficacy.
Procedural knowledge of the
sequence and steps for
decision-making that impact on
teachers’ decision timelines (F,
C, P).
Principals understand the
importance of self-efficacy in
teacher motivation.
Principals encourage
interpersonal interactions that
enhance professional climate.
Metacognitive knowledge of
the impact of their own
behaviors on teacher retention
(M).
Principals understand the
impact of mastery orientation
in teacher motivation.

Principals understand the
importance of positive affect
in teacher motivation.

Key - (F)actual, (C)onceptual, (P)rocedural, (M)etacognitive

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 115

Appendix B
Sources for the Identification of Assumed KMO Causes
Knowledge Causes / Needs
Principal
Survey
Teacher
Survey
Principal
Interview
1. Factual knowledge of the variables that contribute to
teacher decision-making.
x
2. Conceptual knowledge of the motivations of teachers
as they evaluate whether or not to remain post.
x x x
3. Conceptual understanding of the impact of
leadership style on teacher retention.
x x x
4. Conceptual knowledge of the culture of mobility that
defines international education.
x
5. Procedural knowledge of the sequence and steps
for decision-making that impact on teachers’
decision timelines.
x x
6. Procedural knowledge of the timeline and steps for
decision-making that impact on teachers’ decision
timelines.
x x

Assumed Motivation Causes / Needs
Principal
Survey
Teacher
Survey
Principal
Interview
1. Principals understand the role of choice and
autonomy in teacher motivation.
x
2. Principals understand the importance of mission and
purpose in teacher motivation.
x
3. Principals understand the impact of leadership style
on teacher motivation.
x x
4. Principals understand the importance of intrinsic task
value in teacher motivation.
x
5. Principals understand the importance of self-efficacy
in teacher motivation.
x x
6. Principals understand the impact of mastery
orientation in teacher motivation.
x x
7. Principals understand the importance of positive
affect in teacher motivation.
x x

Assumed Organization Causes / Needs
Principal
Survey
Teacher
Survey
Principal
Interview
1. Principals create a culture of belonging
(‘embeddedness’) amongst teachers.
x x
2. Principals impact on organizational culture through
conscious professional role modelling.
x x
3. Principals leverage leadership style to enhance
organizational culture.
x x x
4. Principals engage in leadership behaviors that impact
on teacher self-efficacy.
x x
5. Principals encourage interpersonal interactions that
enhance professional climate.
x x

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 116

Appendix C
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods
Gap Analysis Case Validation - Knowledge
Assumed Needs Principal Survey Teacher Survey Principal Interview
Factual knowledge of the
variables that contribute to
teacher decision-making.
Survey to determine level
of factual knowledge of
the main factors impacting
teacher retention.
-- --
Conceptual knowledge of
the motivations of teachers
as they evaluate whether or
not to remain post.
Survey to determine level
of principals’ conceptual
understanding of teacher
motivations to remain post.
Survey to determine
conceptual knowledge
of teachers’ motivation
to remain post.
In-person interview to
determine depth of
divisional principal
understanding of
conceptual knowledge of
teacher motivation to
remain post.
Conceptual understanding
of the impact of leadership
style on teacher retention.
Survey to determine level
of conceptual
understanding of the
impact of leadership style
on teacher retention.
Survey to determine
teachers’ understanding
of the impact of
leadership style on
teachers’ motivation to
remain post.
In-person interview to
determine divisional
principal conceptual
understanding of the
impact of leadership
style on teachers’
attitudes to retention.
Conceptual understanding
of the culture of mobility
that defines the
international school world.
Survey to determine the
level of conceptual
understanding of the
culture of mobility that
defines the international
school world.
-- In-person interview
determine the depth of
conceptual understanding
of the culture of mobility
that defines the
international school
world.
Procedural knowledge of
the sequence and steps for
decision-making that
impact on teachers’
decision timelines.
Survey to determine the
level of procedural
knowledge of the steps of
the recruitment process.
-- In-person interview
determine the depth of
conceptual understanding
of the teacher decision-
making process.
Metacognitive knowledge
of the impact of their own
behaviors on teacher
retention.
-- -- In-person interview to
determine the level of
metacognitive
knowledge of the impact
of divisional principal
behaviors on teacher
retention.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 117

Appendix D
Summary of Assumed Motivational Causes and Validation Methods
Gap Analysis Case Validation - Motivation
Assumed Needs Principal Survey Teacher Survey Principal Interview
Principals understand the role
of choice and autonomy in
teacher motivation.
-- -- In-person interview to
determine the level of divisional
principal understanding of the
role of choice and autonomy in
the retention process
Principals understand the
importance of mission and
purpose in teacher motivation.
-- -- In-person interview to
determine the level of divisional
principal understanding of the
role of mission and purpose in
the retention process
Principals understand the
impact of leadership style on
teacher motivation.
-- -- In-person interview to
determine the level of divisional
principal understanding of the
role leadership style on teacher
motivation.
Principals understand the
importance of intrinsic task
value in teacher motivation.
-- -- In-person interview to
determine the level of divisional
principal understanding of
intrinsic task value in teacher
motivation.
Principals understand the
importance of self-efficacy in
teacher motivation.
-- -- In-person interview to
determine the level of divisional
principal understanding of
teacher self-efficacy and its
relationship to teacher
motivation.
Principals understand the
impact of mastery orientation
in teacher motivation.
-- -- In-person interview to explore
divisional principal awareness
and behaviors related to of the
role and impact of mastery
orientation on teacher
motivation.
Principals understand the
importance of positive affect
in teacher motivation.
-- -- In-person interview to
determine divisional principal
awareness of the role and
impact of affect on teacher
motivation.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 118

Appendix E
Summary of Assumed Organizational Causes and Validation Methods
Gap Analysis Case Validation - Organization
Assumed Causes / Needs Principal Survey Teacher Survey Principal Interview
Principals create a culture of
belonging amongst teachers.
-- Survey to determine the
ways in which the school
creates a culture of
belonging.
In-person interview to
determine how principals
create a culture of belonging
at the school through their
behaviors and practices.
Principals impact on
organizational culture
through conscious
professional role modeling.
-- Survey to determine
perceptions of principals
as professional role
models.
In-person interview to
determine how principals
model professional
behaviors as a strategy to
impact on organizational
culture.
Principals leverage
leadership style to enhance
organizational culture.
Survey to identify
how principals
leverage leadership
behaviors to enhance
organizational
culture.
Survey to identify the
impact of leadership
behaviors on
organizational culture.
In-person interview to
determine how principals
leverage leadership style as a
strategy to enhance
organizational culture.
Principals engage in
leadership behaviors that
impact on teacher self-
efficacy.
-- Survey to identify the
impact of leadership
behaviors on teacher
self-efficacy.
In-person interview to
determine how principals
engage in leadership
behaviors that impact on
teacher self-efficacy.
Principals encourage
interpersonal interactions
that enhance professional
climate.
-- Survey to identify the
impact of interpersonal
interactions on
organizational culture.
In-person interview to
determine how principals
encourage interpersonal
interactions that enhance
professional climate.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 119

Appendix F
Knowledge Cause Validation Items by Instrument
Principal Interviews: Knowledge Causes 1-6.
Assumed Knowledge Causes Interview / Validation Item(s)

1. Factual knowledge of the
variables that contribute to teacher
decision-making (F).

Factors teachers
juggle in the
renewal process

2. Conceptual knowledge of the
motivations of teachers as they
evaluate whether or not to remain
post (C).
Factors that
motivate
teachers to
remain in post.
.
3. Conceptual understanding of the
impact of leadership style on teacher
retention (C).
Leadership style
and
organizational
culture.
Interpersonal
interactions and
climate.
Success in
retention
Motivation to
lead in ways that
inspire retention.
4. Conceptual knowledge the
implications of the culture of
mobility that defines international
education (M).
Factors teachers
juggle in the
renewal process
Success in
retention

5. Procedural knowledge of the
sequence and steps for decision-
making that impact on teachers’
decision timelines.
Factors teachers
juggle in the
renewal process.

6. Metacognitive knowledge of the
impact of their own behaviors on
teacher retention.
Motivation to
lead in ways that
inspire retention.
Leadership style
and
organizational
culture.

Key - (F)actual, (C)onceptual, (P)rocedural, (M)etacognitive

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 120

Principal Survey: Knowledge Causes 1-5.
Assumed Knowledge Causes Divisional Principal Survey Item(s)

1. Factual knowledge of the
variables that contribute to
teacher decision-making (F).

Understanding of the practical decision-
making process

Ranking of factors teachers consider at
contract renewal time.
2. Conceptual knowledge of
the motivations of teachers as
they evaluate whether or not
to remain post (C).
Understanding of personal motivations
to renew
Understanding of professional
motivations to renew
3. Conceptual understanding
of the impact of leadership
style on teacher retention (C).
Understands positive impacts of
leadership style on retention
I have the knowledge / skills required to
lead in ways that inspire teacher
retention
4. Conceptual knowledge the
implications of the culture of
mobility that defines
international education (M).
Awareness of
culture of mobility

5. Procedural knowledge of
the timeline and steps for
decision-making that impact
on teachers’ decision
timelines (P).
Confident understanding of the
recruitment timeline

Key - (F)actual, (C)onceptual, (P)rocedural, (M)etacognitive

Teacher Survey: Knowledge Causes 1, 2, 5.
Assumed Knowledge Causes Teacher Survey Item(s)
1. Factual knowledge of the
variables that contribute to teacher
decision-making (F).
Ranking of factors teachers consider
at contract renewal time.

2. Conceptual knowledge of the
motivations of teachers as they
evaluate whether or not to remain
post (C).
Principals understand my personal
motivations
Principals understand my
professional motivations
3. Conceptual understanding of the
impact of leadership style on teacher
retention (C).
Principals show understanding of the
impact of their leadership style on
my personal well-being.
Principals show understanding of the
impact of their leadership style on
my professional well-being.
4. Conceptual knowledge the
implications of the culture of
mobility that defines international
education (M).
Principals empathize with the
challenges I face in deciding whether
or not to remain in my position.

5. Procedural knowledge of the
timeline and steps for decision-
making that impact on teachers’
decision timelines (P).
Principals empathize with the
challenges I face in deciding whether
or not to remain in my position at the
school

Key - (F)actual, (C)onceptual, (P)rocedural, (M)etacognitive
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 121

Teacher Survey: Knowledge Cause 3.
Conceptual understanding of the impact of leadership style on teachers’ desire to remain in post (C).
Principals model professional behaviors that have a positive impact on school culture
Principal leadership practices contribute positively to my sense of professional self-efficacy
Principals encourage interpersonal interactions that enhance climate.
Principals seek out my views and solicit my input on school matters.
Principals encourage teacher autonomy.
Principals communicate a clear, shared vision of the school.
Principals enforce school policy in a consistent manner
Principals communicate clear expectations of teachers.
Principals recognize the efforts that teachers make in their professional work.

Key - (F)actual, (C)onceptual, (P)rocedural, (M)etacognitive

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 122

Appendix G
Motivation Cause Validation Items by Instrument
Divisional Principal Interviews
Assumed Motivation Causes Interview Validation Item(s)
1. Principals understand the role of
choice and autonomy in teacher
motivation.
What factors do you think motivate
teachers to remain at the school?

2. Principals understand the importance
of mission and purpose in teacher
motivation.
Importance of school’s mission in teacher motivation
3. Principals understand the impact of
leadership style on teacher motivation.
Your leadership style and how do you
leverage it to enhance organizational
culture
What motivates you to lead in ways that
inspire retention?
4. Principals understand the importance
of intrinsic task value in teacher
motivation.
What factors do you think motivate
teachers to remain at the school?

5. Principals understand the importance
of self-efficacy in teacher motivation.
What factors do you think motivate
teachers to remain at the school?
How successful have you been in
inspiring retention? Why?
6. Principals understand the impact of
mastery orientation in teacher
motivation.
What factors do you think motivate
teachers to remain at the school?

7. Principals understand the importance
of positive affect in teacher motivation.
What makes teachers happy in your
school?
Interpersonal interactions and
professional climate

Divisional Principal Surveys
Assumed Motivation Causes Interview Validation Item(s)
1. Principals understand the role of
choice and autonomy in teacher
motivation.
What factors do you think motivate teachers to remain at the
school?

2. Principals understand the importance
of mission and purpose in teacher
motivation.
Importance of school’s mission in teacher motivation
3. Principals understand the impact of
leadership style on teacher motivation.
Your leadership style and how do you leverage it to enhance
organizational culture
What motivates
you to lead in
ways that inspire
retention?
4. Principals understand the importance
of intrinsic task value in teacher
motivation.
What factors do you think motivate teachers to remain at the
school?

5. Principals understand the importance
of self-efficacy in teacher motivation.
What factors do you think motivate teachers to remain at the
school?
How successful
have you been in
inspiring
retention? Why?
6. Principals understand the impact of
mastery orientation in teacher
motivation.
What factors do you think motivate teachers to remain at the
school?

7. Principals understand the importance
of positive affect in teacher motivation.
What makes teachers happy in your school? Interpersonal interactions and
professional climate

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 123

Teacher Surveys: Assumed Causes 1-3, 5, 7
Assumed Motivation Causes Interview Validation Item(s)
1. Principals understand the role of choice
and autonomy in teacher motivation.
Principals encourage teacher autonomy
2. Principals understand the importance of
mission and purpose in teacher motivation.
Principals communicate a clear, shared vision of the school
3. Principals understand the impact of
leadership style on teacher motivation.
Principals show understanding of the impact of their leadership style on my
personal / professional well-being

4. Principals understand the importance of
intrinsic task value in teacher motivation.
The leadership practices of principals contribute positively to my sense of
professional self-efficacy

5. Principals understand the importance of
self-efficacy in teacher motivation.
Principals recognize the efforts that teachers make in their professional work

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 124

Appendix H
Organization Cause Validation Items by Instrument
Principal Interview: Organization Causes 1-5
Assumed Organization Causes principal Interview Validation Item(s)
1. Principals create a culture of
belonging amongst teachers.
How would you describe your leadership style and how do you leverage your
leadership style to enhance organizational culture?

2. Principals impact on organizational
culture through conscious professional
role modeling.
What motivates you to lead in ways that encourage teachers to remain at the school?

3. Principals leverage leadership style to
enhance organizational culture.
What motivates you to lead in ways that encourage teachers to remain at the school?

4. Principals engage in leadership
behaviors that impact on teacher self-
efficacy.
How would you describe your leadership style and how do you leverage your
leadership style to enhance organizational culture?

5. Principals encourage interpersonal
interactions that enhance professional
climate.
How do you encourage interpersonal interactions that enhance professional climate?
Principal Survey: Organization Cause 3
Assumed Organization Causes Principal Survey Validation Item(s)
3. Principals leverage leadership style to
enhance organizational culture.
I am confident in my
understanding of the
positive impact of
leadership style on
teacher retention.
I am confident in my
understanding of the
negative impact of
leadership style on
teacher retention.

I leverage my
leadership style to
enhance teacher
morale.

Teacher Survey: Organization Validation Items
Assumed Organization Causes Teacher Survey Validation Item(s)
1. Principals create a culture of
belonging amongst teachers.
The actions of principals contribute
positively to a culture of belonging
amongst teachers.

2. Principals impact on organizational
culture through conscious professional
role modeling.
Principals model professional behaviors
that have a positive impact on school
culture

3. Principals leverage leadership style to
enhance organizational culture.
Principals show understanding of the
impact of their leadership style on my
personal / professional well-being

4. Principals engage in leadership
behaviors that impact on teacher self-
efficacy.
The leadership practices of principals
contribute positively to my sense of
professional self-efficacy
Principals encourage teacher autonomy
5. Principals encourage interpersonal
interactions that enhance professional
climate.
Principals encourage interpersonal
interactions that enhance professional
climate
Principals communicate a clear, shared
vision of the school.

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 125

Appendix I
Divisional Principal Survey Instrument
This anonymous administrator survey is part of a doctoral study examining the role and impact of
divisional principals on expatriate teacher retention in international schools in the East Africa
region. It will take no more than 5 minutes to complete. Participation is completely voluntary and
neither your identity nor the identity of your school will be recorded. At the end of this
survey you will be offered the opportunity to reach out to the researcher to participate in a
follow-up interview over Skype should you wish. The interview is entirely voluntary. Thank you
for supporting this study.
Nigel J. Winnard, Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California

Q1 This section of the survey asks you to rank factors that you think teachers consider at contract renewal
time when deciding whether or not to remain in post. Please click on the criteria and drag / drop them into
your preferred order of relative importance with 1 (most important) at the top and 8 (least important) at
the bottom.
Geographical location Personal safety Role and expectations
Compensation and benefits School leadership Professional autonomy
Quality of life School mission

Q2 General Understanding and Awareness

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Disagree

(2)
Somewhat
Disagree
(3)
Somewhat
Agree
(4)
Agree

(5)
Strongly
Agree
(6)
I am aware of the culture of mobility that defines the career
path of international teachers. (1)
m m m m m m
I am confident in my understanding of the timeline of the
annual recruitment calendar. (2)
m m m m m m
I am confident in my understanding of the practical
procedures teachers go through in the process of deciding
whether or not to extend their contract. (3)
m m m m m m
I am confident in my understanding of the personal
motivations of teachers as they decide whether or not to
extend their contract at the school. (5)
m m m m m m
I am confident in my understanding of the professional
motivations of teachers as they decide whether or not to
extend their contract at the school. (16)
m m m m m m
I am confident in my understanding of the positive impacts
of leadership style on teacher retention. (17)
m m m m m m
I am confident in my understanding of the negative impacts
of leadership style on teacher retention. (18)
m m m m m m

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 126

Q3 Time, Energy and Leadership

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Disagree

(2)
Somewhat
Disagree
(3)
Somewhat
Agree
(4)
Agree

(5)
Strongly
Agree
(6)
1. I invest time and effort in retaining excellent
teachers.
m m m m m m
2. I invest time and effort in retaining all teachers. m m m m m m
3. I think it is important for the school’s development
to retain teachers.
m m m m m m
4. I think it is useful (utility) for effective student
learning to retain teachers.
m m m m m m
5. I have the knowledge required to lead in ways that
inspire teacher retention.
m m m m m m
6. I have the skills required to lead in ways that
inspire teacher retention.
m m m m m m
7. I leverage my leadership style to enhance teacher
morale.
m m m m m m
8. Teacher retention is a high priority for me in my
work as a divisional principal.
m m m m m m

Q4 Leadership Style
This section asks you to indicate the extent to which you position your own leadership style under the
following categories: servant; transformational; adaptive; authentic. Move the sliders on each line below
to show the extent to which you feel you utilise each leadership style.
After Northouse, P. (2015). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers.

0 25 50 75
100
1. Servant leadership: I choose to serve first and put
the good of followers over my own self-interest. I
build strong relationships and lead in ways that serve
the greater good of followers, my organization and
society at large.

2. Transformational leadership: I articulate clear
vision, empower followers to meet higher standards,
act in ways that make others want to trust me and give
meaning to organizational life.

3. Adaptive leadership: I help people change and
adjust to new situations, and see my role as helping
others to become the problem solvers.

4. Authentic leadership: I am transparent, morally
grounded and build my leadership on being responsive
to people's needs and values.

Thank you for your participation in this survey.
Would you be interested in participating in an in-person or online audio-recorded interview at a future
date? The interview is voluntary, and anticipated to last approximately 30 minutes. You do not have to
answer any questions you don’t want to; if you don’t want to be taped, handwritten notes will be taken.
If so, please contact me at the following email address: winnard@usc.edu
DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 127

Appendix J
Teacher Survey Instrument
This anonymous teacher survey is part of a doctoral study examining the role of divisional principals on
expatriate teacher retention in international schools in the East Africa region. It should take no more than
5 minutes to complete. Participation is completely voluntary and neither your identity nor the identity of
your school will be recorded. Thank you for supporting this study.

Q1 This section of the survey asks you to rank factors that you consider at contract renewal time when deciding
whether or not to remain in post. Please click on the criteria and drag / drop them into your preferred order of
relative importance with 1 (most important) at the top and 8 (least important) at the bottom.
Geographical location Personal safety Role and expectations
Compensation and benefits School leadership Professional autonomy
Quality of life School mission

Q2 This section of the survey asks about your perceptions of divisional principal attitudes and behaviors from the
vantage point of your current role. 'Administrator' refers to divisional principal, deputy head of school and head of
school.

Strongly
Disagree
(1)
Disagree

(2)
Somewhat
Disagree
(3)
Somewhat
Agree
(4)
Agree

(5)
Strongly
Agree
(6)
1. Principals show understanding of my personal motivations regarding
contract extension.
m m m m m m
2. Principals show understanding of my professional motivations as I
evaluate whether or not to remain post.
m m m m m m
3. Principals show understanding of the impact of their leadership style on
my personal well-being.
m m m m m m
4. Principals show understanding of the impact of their leadership style on
my professional well-being.
m m m m m m
5. Principals empathize with the challenges I face in deciding whether or
not to remain in my position.
m m m m m m
6. The actions of principals contribute positively to a culture of belonging
amongst teachers.
m m m m m m
7. Principals model professional behaviors that have a positive impact on
school culture.
m m m m m m
8. The leadership practices of principals contribute positively to my sense
of professional self-efficacy (confidence that I can do my job successfully).
m m m m m m
9. Principals encourage interpersonal interactions that enhance professional
climate.
m m m m m m
10. Principals seek out my views and solicit my input on school matters. m m m m m m
11. Principals encourage teacher autonomy. m m m m m m
12. Principals communicate a clear, shared vision of the school. m m m m m m
13. Principals enforce school policy in a consistent manner. m m m m m m
14. Principals communicate clear expectations of teachers. m m m m m m
15. Principals recognize the efforts that teachers make in their professional
work.
m m m m m m

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 128

Appendix K
Semi-Structured Divisional Principal Interview Protocol
Focus Questions:

Currently in post: In what ways does your work as a divisional principal contribute to or
influence teacher retention?
Formerly in post: In what ways did your work as a divisional principal contribute to or
influence teacher retention?

FOCUS QUESTIONS POSSIBLE PROBES
Teacher motivation to remain in post:
1. What factors do you think motivate teachers to
remain at the school? Please consider both personal
and professional factors.
2. How important do you think the school’s mission
is a factor in teacher motivation?
3. In your opinion, what makes teachers feel happy at
the school?
• Could you elaborate on the relative importance
of these factors?
• The role of choice and autonomy.
• Importance of intrinsic task value.
• Importance of self-efficacy.
• Mastery versus goal orientation

Impact of leadership style on retention:
4. How would you describe your leadership style and
how do you leverage your leadership style to
enhance organizational culture?
5. How do you encourage interpersonal interactions
that enhance professional climate?
• What aspects of your leadership have an impact
on teacher self-efficacy?
• How do your actions create a culture of
belonging amongst teachers?
• How does your leadership model the things you
value?
Procedural knowledge and understanding:
6. Teachers have to juggle a wide range of factors
when deciding whether or not to remain in post.
Can you share with me your understanding of what
it is that they are juggling as they work towards a
decision?
• Knowledge of the annual recruitment timeline
(preparation of professional portfolios, fair
registration, what to do and by when etc)
• Sequence of mental steps for decision-making
Divisional principal motivation:
7. How successful do you think you have been in
inspiring retention in the teachers you work with?
Why?
8. What motivates you to lead in ways that encourage
teachers to remain at the school?

• Could you share with me some examples of
things you have done that you think have
contributed to teachers you have supervised
electing to remain at the school?

DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHER RETENTION 129

Appendix L
Information Sheet for Divisional Principal and Teacher Surveys
THE INFLUENCE OF DIVISIONAL PRINCIPALS ON TEACHER RETENTION IN AN
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL IN A DEVELOPING WORLD CONTEXT

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Nigel Winnard under the supervision of Dr. Robert
Filback at the University of Southern California. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to
take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is
unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand the influence that divisional principals have on the job decisions of expatriate
teachers working in an East African international school.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete an online survey that is expected to take 10 minutes. If you
are interested in participating in an audio-recorded 20 minute follow up interview over Skype, and are not an
employee at Khartoum International Community School, you will also be asked to reach out to the researcher after
completing the survey to set up an interview time. You don’t have to answer any question you don’t want to.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for your participation.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected whether you
participate or not in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name, address or other
identifiable information will not be collected. The data will be stored on a password-protected computer in the
researcher’s office for three years after the study has been completed and then destroyed.

The results of this research may be made public, shared with participating sites and quoted in professional journals
and meetings, but results from this study will only be reported as a group such that no individual respondents can be
identified. No identifiable information will be included.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program
(HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of
research subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact principal Investigator Nigel
Winnard via email at winnard@usc.edu or phone at +xxx xxxxxx or Faculty Advisor Professor Robert Filback at
filback@usc.edu or +xxxx xxxx.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the research in general
and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team,
please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Recent years have seen large-scale growth in the international school sector, with schools reporting increasing competition to recruit and retain expatriate teachers, particularly in hardship locations. Using a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008), this study seeks to identify the knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors necessary for principals to be successful in their efforts to retain expatriate teachers in international schools in the sub-Saharan region of East Africa. Assumed causes were generated from a review of the research literature in this area and validated with data collected through interviews with principals, teacher surveys and principal surveys. This study suggests that, although principals possess understanding of the knowledge and motivation factors that contribute to teacher retention, they lack understanding of the relative importance of these factors. Furthermore, though principals are motivated to invest time and effort in the retention of teachers, this study suggests that organizational policy gaps exist in how the principals approach teacher retention in a strategic manner. The study concludes with a range of proposed solutions and a detailed implementation plan designed to assist schools in addressing the challenges that they face in seeking to leverage the work of principals in retaining expatriate teachers.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Winnard, Nigel J. (author)

Core Title The role of divisional principals in teacher retention in East African international schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 08/01/2017

Defense Date 08/01/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag international schools,OAI-PMH Harvest,principals,teacher recruitment,teacher retention

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Filback, Robert (committee chair), Power Robison, Mark (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email nigelwinnard65@gmail.com,winnard@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-421856

Unique identifier UC11265623

Identifier etd-WinnardNig-5666.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-421856 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WinnardNig-5666.pdf

Dmrecord 421856

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Winnard, Nigel J.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA