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The Voice of America program advertising campaign as measured by commercial standards

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The Voice of America program advertising campaign as measured by commercial standards

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Content THE VOICE OP AMERICA PROGRAM ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN AS MEASURED BY COMMERCIAL STANDARDS A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Economics The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts by James Robert Badeon August 1951 UMI Number: EP44711 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI EP44711 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Dissertation Publishing Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ’ Si. 8J2>> This thesis, w ritte n by james. . rqrer. t_ . . bid. g. q e........... under the guidance of hls....F a cu lty Comm ittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by the C ouncil on Graduate Study and Research in p a rtia l f u lf ill ment of the requirements fo r the degree of .......MSTSR.OF_ARTS.............. ......................... Date...AU-mM$.i...l95.k______ Faculty Committee Chairman ___ o . . — TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE! I. INTRODUCTION............................... . . . 1 The problem.................................... 1 Statement of the problem.................... 1 Significance of the study .................. 2 Historical development .................... 3 Definitions of terms used .................... 5 Organization of the thesis.................... 6 Method of approach ......................... 6 Sources of d a t a ............................. 7 II. HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF THE VOICE OF AMERICA ........................................ 9 Background ...................................... 9 Predecessors ................................. 9 The Creel Committee ...................... 9 The Foreign Information Service ......... 10 The Office of War Information........... 10 The Interim International Information Service................................. 12 Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs ......................... 12 Congressional Controversy .................. 13 Debating the problem...................... 15 Scope and types of programs.................. 16 iv CHAPTER PAGE Table of organization...................... 16 Program content ............................. 17 Physical facilities ..... ......... . . . 19 Transmitters and relay stations .......... ♦ 19 United States transmitters ................ 20 Relay b a s e s ............................... 20 Financial background ........................... 24 Fiscal appropriations ...................... 24 Authority for the Voice of Ameriea......... 25 Campaign of Truth . ...................... 26 III. PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ADVERTISING ........... 28 Objectives of the program.................. 28 Planning the campaign ...................... 30 The psychological factors .................. 31 Basie advertising functions ............. 32 Other sources of inquiry.................... 35 The competitive factor .................... 37 Summary conclusion ..... 39 IV. AN EVALUATION: PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING APPLIED........................................ 42 Functional operations of the International Broadcasting Division ...................... 43 Program. Operations B r a n c h .................. 43 The Production Section .................... 43 V CHAPTER PAGE The Language Section ...................... 44 The Overseas Distribution U nit........... 45 Program Evaluation Branch .................. 46 Analysis Section ........................... 46 Overseas s u r v e y ........................... 48; The general business committee ............. 49; The competitive factors Radio Moscow .... 51 U.S.S.R. propaganda ........................ 51 Postwar poliey ............................. 52 The "Voice of Russia" ......... 52 Samples of Soviet propaganda ............. 54 Counter propagandas telling the truth . . . 55; Expanding the campaign of truth ..... 57 Interim summary ........................... 58 The campaign in action........................ 61; Script material from the Voice of America . 62 Economic Highlights ........................ 63 Psychological factors ...................... 64 Arousing interest ...................... .. 67; Arousing the d e s i r e ...................... 69; Impelling action........................... 72 Variety of programs........................ 75 Promotional efforts ...................... 77 Conclusions................................. 77 I Vi CHAPTER PAGE V. ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE PROGRAM............... 81 Natural obstacles ............................. 81 Physical handicaps ........................... 81 Man-made obstacles ............................. 85 Jamming operations ........................... 85 Campaigns of t e r r o r ..................... 86 Efficacy of Voice of America programs .... 88 Programs reach wide a r e a s ............... 88 Harvard University survey .................. 89 Dramatic incidents ........................... 91! I Publicizing the Economic Cooperation Admin istration ................................. 92 Positive and negative results............. 95: Audience mail .................... ..... 94 Official opinion ............................. 95 The May report.......................... 95 Special problems.......................... 97 Postwar career ............................. 97 Summary conclusion ........................... 99 VI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE PROGRAM . . . 101 Official recommendations ...................... 101 Report of the Commission on Information . . 101 Recommendations to the Secretary of State 103 Need for study indicated.................. 104 vii CHAPTER PAGE Opinions of the press: vox populi......... 105 Content of the programs .. . .. . . . . 105 Expanded facilities . . . . . . . . . . . 108 An independent agency ............. 108 Miscellaneous projects .................... 109 Summary conclusion ........................ 110 VII. CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY...................... 113 Measurable and imponderable factors . . . 113 Facts versus opinions.................. 114: Commercial applications ................ 1151 Psychological aspects............... . 120 The present and future: a synthesis . . • 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................. 125 ; LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I I. Location and Number of Domestic and Overseas Transmitters.................................... 21 II. International Distribution of Radio Receiving Sets................. 83 III. Distribution of Radio Receiver Setss Europe . . 84 LIST OP FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. World-wide Distribution of Radio Receiver Sets • 23 2* Comparative Chart: Weekly Hours of Short Wave Broadcast by England, U.S.S.R., and U.S.A. . * 47 3. World Population Distribution ................. 106 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Probably no single program undertaken by the United States Government for purely propaganda purposes has caused as much comment, both domestic and world-wide, as the Voice of America Program. Since its inception, differences of opinion have existed regarding its relative effectiveness. Criticism and praise have emanated from all directions, based on personal observation, opinions, and authoritative governmental sources. The concept of a government sponsored campaign to foster economic and political objectives is a relatively new development. Benjamin Kidd, English philosopher who died in 1916, epitomized the formula of modern propaganda when he wrote that "It is clearly in evidence that the science of creating and transmitting public opinion under the influence; of collective emotion is about to become the principal science of civilization to the ma’ stery of which all govern ments and all powerful interests will in the future address themselves with every resource at their command.” I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem It was the purpose of this study to approach the subject as a case study in publicity or propaganda (government sponsored) using as a criteria of its effective-^ ness principles developed by private business in advertising, publicity, and propaganda campaigns. Significance of the Study Although a considerable volume of literature exists as to the merits and weaknesses of "The Voice," so far as known there has been no attempt to evaluate the techniques employed in terms of commercial standards. This study of the Voice of America project is an appraisal of its methods | in the light of principles of effective campaigns as developed from research and experimentation conducted by students and practitioners in the field of marketing research# The inquiry parallels a vital period in the inter national affairs of America. Growing awareness of the importance of ideological concepts as an effective weapon in achieving totalitarian aims has underscored the prevalent conviction of our industrial, civic, and political leaders that counter-measures are imperative to combat the menace of; communistic propaganda# The situation is manifest in such organizations as "The Crusade for Freedom," a publicly- sponsored program to supplement The Voice of America through its broadcasts over "Radio Free Europe." On April 4, 1951, a House appropriations subcom mittee drastically reduced an expansion program of The Voice of America by cutting approximately 90 per cent of the $97,500,000 requested by President Truman. Congres sional displeasure with administration of the program was indicated as a contributory cause. In view of these circumstances, an investigation into the methods, pro cedures, and results of the V0A advertising campaign appears to be of timely significance. George V. Allen, Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs, Department of State, makes the following obser vation: For better or worse, propaganda as a conscious weapon of diplomacy has increased tremendously during recent years. The technical development of mass communications, by which the greater part of mankind can be reached almost simultaneously by press or radio and the increased numbers of people who can read or understand may prove to have made this new tool as important to diplomacy as the invention of gunpowder was to military science. Historical development. — The importance of radio as a means of propaganda evolved shortly before World War I when Germany alone among the great countries of the world developed systematic propaganda. As the war progressed, the Allies originated a counter-propaganda campaign of their George V. Allen, ’ ’Propaganda: A Conscious Weapon of Diplomacy," The Department of State Bulletin, 21:941, No. 546, December 19, 1949. own. The "war of words" did not terminate with the Armistice in 1918, however. The Bolsheviks, from the beginning of their regime, were influenced by the advice of; Marx that "physical force must be overthrown by physical force; but theory, too, becomes a physical force as soon as it takes possession of the masses." Radio Moscow, incidentally, was first to broadcast in the principal languages of the world as a means of winning support in other countries for the foreign policy of Soviet Russia. Germany, during World War II, developed its "Lord Haw-Haw" program, and it has been estimated that at the peak of its propaganda campaign more than half a billion dollars annually were expended in this direction. Japan also adopted propaganda methods of an Occidental flavor, in an effort to establish leadership in what they termed the "Co-Prosperity Sphere." Subsequent to the United States* entry into World War II, Japan beamed its infamous "Tokyo Rose" program to American and allied troops. Prance | and Great Britain instigated broadcasts to their colonies and dominions in 1931 and 1932. With the exception of activities undertaken during the two World Wars, the United States itself has never indulged in propagating information and ideas through a ^ "A Brief Story of Modem Propaganda," The Congres sional Digest, 27:43, February, 1948. permanent agency. The VOA by disseminating information in peacetime, approaches this method, which certain elements of Congress consider contrary to American ideals. This has been one of the principal sources of contention prevalent throughout the entire history of "The Voice.” II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED The Voice of America refers to programs or broad casts prepared by the International Broadcasting Division of the Department of State. Occasionally, the broadcasts are referred to as the "Voice,” or the VOA. The Division itself is customarily referred to as the IBD. Similarly, during the early history of the Voice of America, such agencies as the Foreign Information Service and the Office of War Information were designated as the FIS and the OWI, respectively* Actually, programs were not officially pronounced the Voice of America until the end of World War II; propaganda activities at that time came under the super vision of William Benton, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. Prior to that time, the designation, Voice of America, was used to distinguish United States sponsored programs broadcast overseas from propaganda efforts of other countries. III. ORGANIZATION OP THE THESIS 6 Method of Approach For purposes of Introduction and proper perspective,I a brief resume^ of the development and present status of the VOA is presented, including historical references, scope and type of programs offered, physical facilities, and appropriate financial data. In successive order, principles of effective advertising are outlined in the study as a basis for com parison with the methods of the United States State Depart- ment which have been adopted to distribute information through its International Broadcasting Division. Source material consists of textbooks and university curricula dealing with marketing principles, publicity, and adver tising theory and practice. The advertising campaign both in its broad, general aspect as well as the more specialized broadcasting medium is reviewed for purposes of analysis. Evaluation of the Program and its effectiveness, incorporating results of the analysis are subsequently ♦ integrated in the study for comparative purposes, followed by a critical analysis of the accomplishments of the project. Recommendations for improving its methods and efficacy based on official government reports together with other sources of observation are developed, followed by a summary of the investigation with appropriate conclusions. 7 Source3 of Data Current literature on the Voice of America was ex tensively explored to obtain a catholic body of material on 3 4 5 the subject. Periodicals, newspapers, and pamphlets, 6 government publications and reports formed the nucleus of the various sources of data. Script material of a repre sentative type was furnished by the International Broad casting Division of the State Department, Mark Wiseman’s The Anatomy of Advertising, and Melvin Copeland’s Marketing Problems were utilized for basic reference material to formulate principles of the advertising campaign. Henry Poster Adams 1 Advertising and Its Mental Laws furnished material on developing the 3 Data in this category were derived chiefly from The Congressional Digest, Coronet, Harper’s, Life, Newsweek The Saturday Review of Literature, Time, TJ.S. News and World Report, Vital Speeches, ^ Includes Christian Science Monitor, Citizen News (Hollywood), Los Angeles Times, New York Times. 5 Pamphlets on ’ ’Crusade for Freedom, ” National Com mittee for a Free Europe, Inc., furnished by John Marschalk Southern California Public Relations Office, Los Angeles. The Committee, headed by General Lucius D. Clay, Chairman, was established in June, 1949, to give aid and asylum to exiled leaders from the. prisoner countries of Central Europe. ® Literature published by the United States Depart ment of State, Washington, D» C.: The World Audience for America’s Story, Telling America's Story Abroad, The Department of State Bulletins. 7 psychological approach. Outline material on organizing and coordinating a systematic advertising program was furnished by the Marketing Department of the School of Commerce, University of Southern California. Data from the same source were also supplied on the Psychological Factors in Advertising, developed by the Marketing and Foreign Commerce Department, University of Pennsylvania. Recommendations for improving the Program were based in part on the semi-annual report on international infor mation activities furnished to the United States Congress on March 30, 1949, by the United States Advisory Commission Q on Information. 7 Further reference to, and identification of, texts , is contained in subsequent chapters of the thesis. 8 See "The World Audience for America's Story,” International Information and Cultural Series 5, Department of State, Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, released April, 1949, pp. 58-59. Reference to this source hereinafter will be designated as "The World Audience.” CHAPTER II HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OP THE VOICE OF AMERICA The worst folly in the world is to assume that everywhere in the world the superiority of our system of government and our way of life are recog nized. 1 The Voice of America Program in its present status is a synthesis of private and public enterprise. Its roots lie in the awakening of America as a world power and the consciousness of the urgency for the United States to propagandize the spirit of democracy in times of relative peace as well as through the periods of hot or cold warfare. It is interesting to observe, however, that a perma nent body to systematically propagate information and ideas, either domestically or world-wide, has never actually been created by the Federal Government. There have been two exceptions of a temporary character to this American tradition, both originating in time of war. I. BACKGROUND Predecessors The Creel Committee. — Shortly after the entrance Dr. George Gallup, , f We Have Been Outsold,” Vital Speeches of the Day, 17rl41, No. 5, December 15, 1950. 10 of the United States into World War I, the Committee on Public Information, headed by George Creel, was created by Executive Order of President Wilson. The Committee was given rather wide powers, although censorship of the T American press by and large was a voluntary matter. Daily accounts of the war's progress were provided, together with feature articles and selected services. Cable services were established abroad, furnishing "spot" news to all parts of the world. The Foreign Information Service. — Again, a few months prior to the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, the Foreign Information Service, headed by William Donovan, was organized under the Office of Coordinator of Information. Initially, the Foreign Information Service limited the :scope of its operations to coordinating programs of several private American radio companies engaged in International broadcasting. Short-wave transmitters which these companies operated were the only ones functioning in the United States. They belonged to the National Broadcasting Company, Columbia Broadcasting System, General Electric, Westinghouse, Crosley Radio Corporation and Worldwide Broadcasting Foundation (New England). The Office of War Information. — By Executive Order of June, 1942, the Office of War Information was estab lished, merging the Office of Government Reports, the Office 11 * of Facts and Figures and other agencies. The Foreign Information Service was also taken over by the newly created Office, and its operations were greatly expanded? It developed world-wide information services, cooperated with the Allied armies in psychological warfare, and encouraged resistance movements in those areas under enemy occupation. OWI was eventually able to establish some 40 outposts in foreign countries, the staffs of which acted as public relations men for this country in supplying American news and background material to the local press, feature stories on American subjects, documentary films, libraries and reading rooms, etc.2 In the early phases of World War II, the short-wave facilities of the private American companies were contrac ted for by the Office of War Information and the Office of Inter-American Affairs--the U. S. Government’s wartime information agencies. Still another organization, the Associated Broadcasters (operating on the Pacific Coast during the war) also contracted for the use of its facilities. During the war’s progress the Federal Government built additional short-wave transmitters bringing the total number in use to thirty-six. All short-wave facilities were at the disposal of these two agencies, the OWI headed by Columbia Broadcasting System’s news chief, Elmer Davis, 2 "Controversy In Congress Over Establishing ’Voice of America’ Project,” The Congressional Digest, 27:45, ho. 2, February, 1948. Reference to this source herein after will be designated as "Controversy In Congress.” 12 and the OIAA directed by Nelson Rockefeller. Both were independent Government groups directly under the President.; The Interim International Information Service. — At the cessation of hostilities, there was no longer a need for wartime propaganda and psychological warfare. By Executive Order of August 31, 1945, the Offiee of War Information and the Office of Inter-Ameriean Affairs were abolished. In their place, a temporary agency was estab lished, the Interim International Information Service. Its duties were to continue the curtailed activities of the abolished propaganda offices until recommendations for a more permanent arrangement were forthcoming from Secretary : of State James F. Byrnes. Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs. — The Interim Service agency, which expired on January 1, 1946, was in turn succeeded by the Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs headed by William Benton, Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. This Office was designated to integrate all cultural and informational activities of the Government abroad. Its facilities included control of the nation’s thirty-six short-wave broadcast transmitters. Postwar radio programs originated by the agency (OIC). which were beamed to foreign nations became known as ”the Voice of America.” 13 j Congressional Controversy After the wartime boom, the budget for the Voice of. : America was drastically cut and its programs were farmed out to private commercial channels, viz., the National Broadcasting Company and the Columbia Broadcasting System. Congressional members of the Smith-Mundt Committee, however, following a tour of Europe in 1947, reported a deplorable ignorance of the American case for Democracy. As a result, appropriations for the State Department's informational activities were increased for fiscal years 1948 and 1949. Possibly sensitive to the cutting criticisms which its ’ ’cultural” activities were subjected to the OIC changed its name to the Office of International Information and Educational Exchange. Beginning in 1947, the Voice of America (frequently referred to as VOA, or ’ ’The Voice”) has been supervised by the staff members of the State Depart ment’s International Broadcasting Division which is sub ordinate to the Office of International Information (Oil). In 1947 and particularly in 1948, programs prepared by the private broadcasting companies had aroused the ire of Congress in a number of instances. Subsequently, all programming and broadcasting activities reverted to the State Department, where they now (1951) remain. Briefly, they are described as follows: 14 The United States Government today is presenting to the people of other countries a picture of the American people, their ideals and their ways of life through an information and educational exchange program employing press, radio, motion pictures, exchange of persons and overseas libraries. Congress authorized the program on January 27, 1948, under the so-called Smith-Mundt Act, "to promote a better understanding of the United States in other countries, and to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries."3 Congressional opposition to the Voice of America originated from several sources. Primarily a prevalent feeling existed among certain representatives that it was simply a tool of Government propaganda and therefore ex pendable, being morally indefensible in the peacetime American scheme of things. Another cause related to the lack of Congressional authority for the existence of the Program, an objection which the Smith-Mundt Act of 1948 eliminated. There have also been charges that the State Department's handling of the project was inefficient and wasteful. Still another source of controversy resulted from a belief that some of the personnel employed by "The Voice" were of doubtful loyalty, a condition which arose from absorption of the Office of War Information by the State Department at the end of hostilities. OWI’s personnel 3 "Telling America's Story Abroad," Office of Public Affairs, Department of State, Washington, D. C.s United States Government Printing Office, November, 1948, p. 1. 15 problems had on previous occasions caused considerable con troversy. Finally, there was Congressional disagreement over the policies of one-time Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs, Mr. William Benton, advertising executive, whose offices controlled the Voice of America. Debating the problem. — During the House debate of | June 6, 1947, on the VOA Project, U. S. Representative George H. Bender declared that: Any realistic appraisal of the world situation today makes it obvious that spending money to propagandize our way of life through such devices as the Voice of America is a flagrant waste of taxpayer's funds . . . we shall not win converts to our economic system unless we demonstrate at home that we can solve our problems more effec tively under liberty than they are solved overseas under totalitarian regimentation.4 United States Representative Parke M. Banta remarked that: We are the only country in the world that is giving away anything. If these gifts do not sound a louder Voice of America than endless radio broad casts, then we would better spend the extra money properly training the personnel of the Foreign Service and the administrators of our relief programs.® Among adherents of the program, Senator Ralph E. Flanders voiced the following remarks in an address before the American Public Relations Association in Washington, June 30, 1947: 4 "Controversy in Congress," op. cit., p. 53. ® Ibid., p. 57. 16 The hostility in Congress to the continuance of this undertaking can be based only on thoughtless ness and ignorance. . . . A serious prospect of a major war in the world exists only as between our country and Russia. . . . The only means we have of reaching the people of Russia on any large scale is by piercing the iron curtain through the channels of the air. . . . The broadcasts themselves cannot be mere propaganda. If we attempt this, they will fail of their purpose. They must be based on the broader undertaking of getting the Russian people acquainted with the American people.® In the final analysis, financial support for the Voice of America Project appears to have stemmed from the genuine concern which members of Congress felt for the flood of anti-American propaganda with which the Soviet Union has flooded Europe and other parts of the world. II. SCOPE AND TYPES OP PROGRAMS Table of Organization The International Broadcasting Division has the responsibility for planning, executing, and transcribing programs of the Voice of America. Programs are written, produced, and broadcast from studios located in New York City. Washington Offices are concerned, generally, with matters of policy. The International Broadcasting Division (IBD) is a division of the Office of International Information of the Department of State, and is under the jurisdiction of the Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs. 6 Ibid., p. 52. 17 For administrative and technical purposes, IBD is composed of three branches; the Program Operations Branch, Facilities Branch, and the Program Evaluation Branch. Program Content • . International short-wave programs beamed from the United States are grouped into three main categories; news: reporting, editorial and information, music and entertain ment. A basie daily news file is gathered from the news services at the disposal of the International Broadcasting i Division for translation and adaptation according to the geographic area. News files are supplemented with analyses and inter-j pretations of the news, talks, editorial comments from the press of the nation, and features on a variety of subjects. j Mr. Foy D. Kohler, Chief of the Department of State International Broadcasting Division has summarized the Program in the following manner; More specifically, our programs to countries behind the iron curtain contain almost entirely news, political, economic and social commentary, and features about American life. They are fairly hard-hitting, calculated not only to inform these suppressed and isolated peoples but also to main tain their awareness of the falsehoods being con veyed to them by their present masters and to sustain their hopes for a better tomorrow. Outside the iron curtain, the Voice seeks to give our friends a better understanding of American policies and viewpoints of the American way of life. These programs contain much less news since the 18 listeners are abundantly provided with news by their own free information facilities; but they do give the American view on the news and contain many more "Americana'1 features. . . .^ IBD currently broadcasts a total of twenty-four hours daily, consisting of programs in English, and other languages, including German, Bulgarian, Chinese, Czech/ Slovak, French, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Polish, Portu- ! gese, Rumanian, Russian, Servo-Croat, Slovene, and Spanish. The Overseas Distribution Unit supplements the actual broad casting prepared by the Programs Operation Branch by pro viding recordings together with scripts and program notes for rebroadcast on medium wave by foreign stations. Time magazine comments as follows on broadcasts of the "Voice"t The Voice listener will learn a lot about scien tific progress in the U.S. Voice officials have found that audiences are insatiably curious about U.S. technology and U.S. medicine. The Voice listeners will also learn a lot about how U.S. workers really live, will know that in vast parts of U.S. industry, labor and management are harmonious.® Examples of recorded programs sent to Rome, Italy, include "Ai Vostri Ordini," a half-hour "Question and Answer Program"; "Radio University," a fifteen minute talk program dealing with scientific, economic, and cultural 7 Foy D. Kohler, "What the Voice of America Does," The Department of State Bulletin, 23r896, No. 596, December 4, 1950. ® "The Voice of America: What It Tells the World," Time, 55s22, May 1, 1950. 19 topiGs; eight programs at one fourth hour each sent regu larly each month and used in toto; "Panorama D ‘America," a fifteen minute program rebroadcast weekly, totaling one hour a month; a half-hour musical program broadcast every other week. In addition, programs are supplemented with special features such as the Boys 1 Town Choir, a half-hour dramatized show, interviews, etc. Economic Highlights is the caption for a weekly digest of economic events transpiring in the United States and prepared in script form for overseas broadcasting. Although primarily a news feature, editorial comments are liberally sprinkled throughout, primarily aimed at exposing the hypocrisy and deceit contained in Russian propaganda. \ ; Analyses of these seripts are made in a later part of the thesis. III. PHYSICAL FACILITIES Transmitters and Relay Stations In addition to the thirty-nine short-wave trans- 9 mitters located in the United States, the Government owns and controls short-wave relay stations in Honolulu, Manila and Munich. Other relays are transmitted through arrange ment with domestic broadcasters of various countries 9 Increased from thirty-six at end of hostilities, “The World Audience," 0£, cit., p. 38; ef. ante, p. 11. 20 including Great Britain, Prance, Italy, and China. United States transmitters. — The Department of State contracts with seven international broadcasters for the operation of domestic transmitters, ranging in capacity from 10 kw to 200 kw. Their purpose and function is to transmit, directly as well as by way of overseas relay stations, English and foreign-language broadcasts to Australia, Hawiian Islands, Philippine Islands, Netherlands,. East Indies, Asia, and Alaska. (East and West Coast plants; cover broadcast to Latin America.) Location of trans mitters by State and the number of transmitters operated byj each contracting company is shown on Table I. Relay bases. — Location of relay transmitters in foreign areas is also indicated on Table I. Functional operations of the relay bases have a dual purpose: (1) to strengthen the signal into a specific area, and (2) to con vert the signal into frequencies capable of being received.; In the Par East, programs are relayed or rebroadcast by Honolulu and Manila, a number of stations of the Chinese 10 Network in China and the U. S. Military Government Network in Korea^; in Latin America by the Buenos Aires Radio Network and approximately twelve independent stations ^ 10 World Audience,” o£. cit., p. 64; information furnished as of April, 1949. Relay stations have been augmented by transmitters at Salonika and Tangier. Loc. cit. 21 TABLE I LOCATION AND NUMBER OF DOMESTIC AND OVERSEAS TRANSMITTERS Number of transmitters U.S. Transmitters State New York New Jersey Massachusetts Ohio California Total Broadcasters Associated Broadcasters Crosley Corporation Columbia Broadcasting System General Electric National Broadcasting Company Westinghouse World Wide Total Relay Transmitters Base Munich BBC Wooferton Manila Honolulu 7 8 6 8 10 ”39“ 2 8 9 5 9 1 5 39 In operation 4 short-wave transmitters, 100 kw. 5 short-wave transmitters of 50 kw. supplemented by 2 BBC medium-wave transmitters of 50 kw. plus 400 kw. respectively 1 short-wave transmitter, 50 kw. 1 medium wave, 50 kw. 1 short-wave transmitter, 100 kw. Source: Adapted from information furnished in "The World Audience for America’s Story," April, 1949, op. cit., p. 68. 22 In various Latin American countries* The State Department has indicated a desire and intent to reach as large an audience as possible and to increase the number of listeners. (See Figure 1.) However^ in order to establish sufficient signal strength on programs originating in the United States, it is necessary ' to use a frequency higher than the average radio set is capable of receiving. Solution to the problem lies in converting the signal to a lower frequency ratio* Conversion by relay transmitter has the effect of putting a program into a given area on several strong signals which are capable of being received by the average short-wave receiver* The combination of additional signal j strength and number of channels helps considerably In ^educing the effectiveness of possible jamming of programs. It is also the stated intention of the Department to establish medium-wave transmitters where feasible, in order ; to reach a potential audience whose sets are not equipped to receive short-wave. The fact that medium-wave is limited by distance can be overcome to some extent by an increase in transmitting power and the use of directional antennae. Use of medium-wave relay it is felt will not only facilitate a more flexible operation but also increase the effective ness of program coverage. 23 EUROPE (West) Tot. No. Radios Short-wave ” Potential audience** Iron Curtain Areas Tot. No. Radios Short-wave " Potential audience 50 100 150 (millions) 200 MIDDLE EAST AND AFRICA Tot. No. Radios Short-wave " Potential audience L FAR EAST Tot. No. Radios Short-wave " Potential audience AMERICAN REPUBLICS Tot. No. Radios Short-wave " Potential audience E Based upon total radio receiver sets and average of listeners per set. This report excludes the United States and Canada. **Estimated. FIGURE 1 WORLD-WIDE DISTRIBUTION OF RADIO RECEIVER SETS Source: From data prepared by the International Broad casting Division, the Department of State, March, 1949. IV. FINANCIAL BACKGROUND 24 Fiscal Appropriations Monetary costs of the Voice of America are more easily ascertained than gauging the effectiveness of its programs. In the fiscal year 1946-1947, under the Office of International Information and Cultural Affairs, total funds earmarked for informational purposes approximated $20,000,000. Of this amount, about $7,500,000 was channelled into the VOA. For the fiscal year 1947-1948, the Office of Information and Educational Exchange operated on a budget of $12,400,000; of this sum, $6,107,250 was made available to the International Broadcasting Division, which presently supervises the Voice of America. Congressional appropri ation for that year represented a sharp cut in the budget, especially in comparison with funds requested by the Department: $25,000,000 had been outlined for operating expenses and $6,000,000 for capital outlay, making a total of $31,000,000. Congress subsequently cut the operating expenses in half and completely eliminated the $6,000,000 request, which was to have been used for the construction of two radio relay stations abroad, one in Liberia and the other in Tangiers. Authority for VOA Meantime, Senator Smith of New Jersey introduced Senate Resolution 161 providing for a fuller study of the State Department's information program, which was passed on’ July 16, 1947. The entire Voice of America question was accordingly reviewed during the summer months by members of a special joint committee, who included among their investi gations an on-the-spot examination of the need for such a program in Europe. As a result of the investigation, the so-called "Smith-Mundt Bill” was acted on favorably by Congress* The bill was designed to provide basic legis- 12 lative authority for the VOA. Paralleling passage of the Smith-Mundt Bill, appro- ! priation for information activities of the State Department; for the subsequent fiscal year (1949) was increased to $29,000,000. In 1950, the U. S. State Department's propaganda budget was increased to $34,000,000, approxi mately one third of which is spent for broadcasting purposes. (Great Britain, in 1946, invested $20,000,000 on its BBC short-wave broadcasts, three times the amount allotted for IBD activities.) 12 public law 402, 80th Cong., 2d session, an Act to promote the better understanding of the United States among the peoples of the world and to strengthen cooperative international relations (United States Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948, approved January 27, 1948.) Campaign of Truth. Currently, the Department is engaged in expanding VOA’s radio program as a means of offsetting Russia’s propaganda efforts. President Truman, early in 1950, called on the American people to support the Campaign of Truth, Sponsored by the Department of State, it was interpreted a3 a task to show that freedom is the way to economic and social advancement, to political independence, and to 13 strength, happiness, and peaee. Expenditures, if approved, would exceed the 1951 budget by approximately 100 million dollars. In an effort to graphically portray its activities and secure necessary financial backing for the proposed program, the request was placed before congressional leaders: in an illustrated presentation including charts and pictures showing how and why the Department intended to expend the money. The largest sum ($>41 million) was earmarked for construction of additional radio facilities for the Voice of America, with the balanee to be expended for non-radio propaganda such as books, films, pamphlets, and posters for exhibition in countries where the issue of Communism is con-; sidered critical. Financial outlay for the expanded program would approximate the cost of constructing a modern William C. Johnstone, Jr., M0ur Answer to the Big Lie,*1 The Department of State Bulletin, 24:371, March 5, '1951. .. ......................... battleships To counter lies with truth. . . . for all these tasks . . . to reach all these people . . . will cost approximately 100 million dollars over and above the 1951 budget. 100 million dollars buys one battleship .... Powerful as it is, it is just one of many necessary wartime expendables required during an uncertain peace to say ”No” to avert aggression in a language Soviet leaders understand. 100 million dollars may also buy the manpower and facilities to win the friendship and understanding of a billion people. If we succeed in winning their hearts and minds, the battleships may never have to be expended. 14 Hstate Department Seeks Louder Voice,” Life, 29:67, September 18, 1950. CHAPTER III PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ADVERTISING The advertising man has managed to get along for several thousand years without the help of psychology. He undoubtedly could exist for as many more years without the assistance of that science, but the result would be the waste of his materials, in this case money, which would make him inefficient• • * - In attempting to evaluate the effectiveness of programs originating with the International Broadcasting Division, two approaches suggest themselves in dealing with ' the problem, each being of a complementary character. Initially, the question is quite properly raised, what is the objective of the Voice of America program, and how is it being accomplished? In endeavoring to reach a conclusive answer, principles of effective advertising must of neces sity be incorporated in the consideration to establish criteria for the evaluation. Objectives of the Program Broadly speaking, programs are designed for a twofold purposes (1) presenting broadcasts which are intended to convey a better understanding of American policies and view points and the American way of life; (2) exposing fallacies in communistic propaganda which are fabricated for the 1 Henry Foster Adams, Advertising and Its Mental Laws (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1916)7 P» 19» political and economic ends of the Soviet Union. Programs vary a great deal, according to an authoritative source, since each is specially tailored for the audience to which | it is directed. Generally speaking, they are centered around a news file and features intended to provide a full and fair picture of what goes on in the world and how the 2 American Government and the American people see it. Programs beamed to the iron curtain countries are intended to maintain their awareness of the falsehoods being con veyed to them by their present masters and to sustain their1 3 hopes for a better tomorrow. The so-called Smith-Mundti Act, Public Law 402 of the Eightieth Congress, which legally sanctioned operations of the International Broadcasting Division, has been described as "An Act to promote the better understanding of the United States among the peoples of the world and to strengthen 4 cooperative international relations." Section 2 of the Act; states that-- The Congress hereby declares that the objectives of this Act are to enable the Government of the United States to promote a better understanding of the United States in other countries, and to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries. Among the means 2 Kohler, 0£. cit., p. 897. 3 Loc. cit. 4 "The World Audience," o£. cit., p. 117. 30 to be used in achieving these objectives are (1) an information service to disseminate abroad information about the United States, its people, and policies promulgated by the Congress, the President, the Secretary of State and other responsi ble officials of Government having to do with matters affecting foreign affairs.5 Planning the Campaign Formulating the basic elements to achieve desired results in the advertising campaign includes a consider ation of the following factorst (1) Knowing what you have to sell, (2) Utilizing best appeals to channel this service, (3) Planning the approach, (4) Employing the best media, (5) Evaluating results. The "firm" or "company” sponsor ing this service is the United States of America and its product, generally speaking, may be identified as the ;American concept of free institutions• Consumers in this instance represent a potential audience of some 300,000,000 people* It has been estimated, however, that probably not more than one third of this number actually do or are able to tune in on the broad- 7 casts. Programs are transmitted from the New York offices twenty-four hours a day in English and in twenty-four for eign languages. Seventy separate programs containing some : 5 "The World Audience," loc. cit. 6 As suggested by conversations with Professor Richard P. Mead, Marketing Department, School of Commerce, The University of Southern California. 7 Kohler, o£• cit., p. 898. 31 200,000 words are prepared dally for overseas listeners. The Psychological Factors The magnitude of the task at once suggests itself. Differences of background including cultural and economic factors are important considerations in analyzing the programs and their over-all objectives, in relation to the ; audience. Actually, the study of advertising itself may be 8 approached from several different angles. As a part of economics, it may be interpreted through the functions of marketing and merchandising in relation to theory, practice^ and procedure. Another source of inquiry into the ramifications of advertising problems is available in the principles of psychology. Since psychology is the science of human behavior, analysis of human motivation aids considerably in the interpretations of various phases of advertising. The psychological attitude toward advertising involves a con sideration of such factors as the laws of mental life, individual and group differences and measurements of human I reactions. It should be remembered, however, that psychology, though a science, is exact only to a limited degree. The ® "Psychological Factors in Advertising," Marketing and Foreign Commerce Department, University of Pennsylvania, p. 1. 32 I element of unpredictability in human nature renders absolute determination of human behavior completely impossible. It follows in a corollary sense, therefore, that no single appeal will reach all of the public. Some of the people, or in this particular instance, part of the audience will remain unmoved. Different groups within the community will 9 react differently to various appeals. It is important, therefore, that the advertiser concern himself with the peculiarities of individual or group behavior so that he may become familiar with reactions common to mankind universally. Of prime consideration is the ultimate aim of advertising. It is to induce the purchase of goods on the part of the buying public. Selection of proper appeals and their presentation in an effective manner become part of the task. Choosing the media best adapted for the advertising campaign is another important consideration. Obviously, the radio with its potential ability to reach millions of people irrespective of geographical boundaries, merits immediate attention as a means of projecting the sponsor’s advertising message, i.e., the Voice of America. Basie advertising functions. — There are four basic functions which advertising should perform; (1) It must attract attention; (2) It must arouse interest; (3) It must Loc. cit. 33 stimulate desire; and (4) It must impel action. Various psychological factors come into play at each of these . ^ 10 stops• The first and most basic function of an advertise ment is to attract attention. In radio broadcasting, attention must be attracted not only to the program but the; advertising message as well. Though-concentration upon the' program may aid in compelling concentration on the adver tising message this still remains as a problem. The type of musical introduction, if any, of the advertising message, the voice of the announcer, the kind of words used, the rate and manner in which they are delivered, and similar factors all must be used with a view to making the process of attending the message as simple and inescapable as possible. Once an advertisement has been noticed, it must convey a definite meaning or story to the reader; otherwise i it will be incapable of impelling the purchase of the article or service advertised. Arousing the interest is generally a more complicated process than that of attracting attention. In order to be effective, the advertisement must present the reader or listener with a situation which he recognizes, which he will take as applying at least 10 IbidT, p. 2. i 11 Ibid., p. 3. 34; potentially to himself, and which will therefore make the purchase of some good desirable if not necessary. This involves perception, including both sensing the stimulus and imagining it. This perception should be related to the past experience of the individual through association with familiar images, so that he will be able to incorporate the message of the advertisement into his thinking, and to understand what it means. It is also important that he :see the application of this message to his own situation in | life. Unless this is accomplished there will be no basis for indicating to the listener how the possession of the product advertised will benefit him and thus awaken his desire. In arousing desire, the advertisement must be capable of appealing to some instinctive tendency within the indi vidual which will act as the source of motivation for the purchase. Once that desire to buy has been aroused, it remains for the advertiser to achieve the final purpose of 12 the advertisement--that of impelling action. At this juncture in the process it is no longer sufficient to arouse a basic desire. The desire must be aroused to the point where the individual will wish to do something to fulfill it. By achieving this circumstance in 12 Ibid., p. 6. 35 a positive way, associated with a feeling of pleasantness, it follows that the product advertised will be indisputably associated with the satisfaction of the desire aroused. Any doubts as to the advisability of making this purchase must be dispelled. Inhibitions and inertia on the part of the reader (or listener) must be dispelled. It is important to inform the reader where the article advertised may be obtained. Every possible barrier should be removed from the individual’s path in assisting him to make the desired ; purchase, thus removing his fear of entering upon an un tried venture. Other Sources of Inquiry Activities of our primitive ancestors were, of course, largely if not entirely practical. The only reason; for acting at all was to satisfy some need. Gradually the method of announcing different goods to satisfy the different needs of the people arose, becoming a part of their environment. Soon a condition arose, however, in which the advertiser went ahead of the group. He developed ways of satisfying needs which up to that time had not existed. His problem, then, was to implant the feeling of need in the consciousness of the group. This could . only 13 be done through education. 15 Adams, op. cit., p. 22. I 36 Oftentimes the education was successful, sometimes it was a failure. Be that as it may, the standards of sanitation and health, for instance, have been advanced generations before their time by the educational campaigns 14 which have been carried on by the national advertisers. Radio as an instrument in these campaigns represents a very essential and potentially powerful agent in conducting such campaigns. It is a means of inducing people to think according to the wishes of the sponsor. In addition to the psychological factors, other essential elements enter into conduct of the radio campaign; Primarily, of course, the advertiser should consider whether or not the product is beneficial to the consumer. On occasion, of course, there is an attempt to persuade the; 15 customer that the product is good for him. Examples of this technique are to be found in advertising strategy used by General Motors Corporation, or consumers co-operatives. Conversely, adapting the merchandise to the consumer represents another avenue of inquiry. Wiseman has indicated that unreliable conclusions may result from in sufficient data; ' ’conditioned ideas" often are at variance 14 Ibid., p. 24. 15 As suggested by conversation with Professor Mead. Mark Wiseman, The Anatomy of Advertising (New York and Londons Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1942)7 P« 137. with actual market demands. Essentially the problem is one of dealing with pre conceived ideas* Often, established ideas must be attacked; or broken down to achieve effective results; national, religious, and racial prejudices sometimes enter into the picture. Of constant consideration should be the listen er’s background, as well as his native customs and 17 practices. Wells believes that such factors are determi nant elements in achieving desirable goals in the operation; of the Voice of America, He feels that the basic question resolves itself into considering what kind of a political, economic, and social system a country needs to make its development possible. The United States, in his opinion, has not been ; able to make up its mind whether it is fighting for the preservation of capitalism or of democracy; that the United; States cannot back any adequate reform program as long as we insist that the people must be benefitted through the local processes of capitalism or not at all. The competitive factor. — It has been stated that the most Important struggle during the next fifty years— perhaps in the next hundred years— will be the struggle to 18 win the minds of men throughout the world. In essence, 17 William H. Wells, ’ ’The Mumble in the Voice of America,” Harper*s Magazine, 202:23, January, 1951. 1 8 Gallup, o£. cit., p. 141, ....... ...... 38 this represents the competitive element in the Voice of America program: the fundamental conflict of ideas characterized by the capitalistic, democratic, free enter prise system as we know it in the United States versus the j communism of Russia. Technically, of course, the competi tive sphere extends not only to the U.S.S*R., but its satellites as well; in addition, the British Broadcasting Corporation represents another major competitive force, although its objectives are in sympathy with those of the VOA. The BBC has also cooperated with the United States in attempting to break through the ■ ” jamming” operations of Soviet Russia. A minor form of competition exists in foreign stations.located in Luxembourg and Switzerland, and in Latin America. While offering cultural and informational programs, the majority of them are concerned with further ing their own political aspirations. The altruistic objective of motivating people to change their beliefs— that is, influencing people to live in peace and harmony-- :appears to be confined to the United States and Great 19 Britain. Gallup has noted that many people in nations friendly to us in Western Europe see no great advantage in i democracy as opposed to Communism, at least not sufficient to warrant a fight against Communist domination. Loc. cit,. .......„....................... 39 Gallup contends that we must not only equal but excel the efforts of the Communists in the field of propaganda. We must reach more people, more often, and more persuasively than our enemies, and in his opinion no successful business man in this country would undertake to carry out sueh a program as is needed to offset Russian efforts, with an appropriation of less than five billion dollars. He suggests that such a sum be derived from the present U. S. economic aid program and from the defense budget. His formula for achieving success °is stated as follows: How do we win in this competition? Certainly we won't get very far by telling these poverty stricken people, and the hundreds of millions like them, that life in America is wonderful— that workers here own cars, homes, refrigerators, television sets and everything else. Their answer to that is likely to bet ’ ’So what? How do we get to America and what do we do.when we get there?" No, our problem is to show how democracy and our form of economy actually will raise the standard of living in their own country. And how, along with a higher standard of living, they can have basic freedoms which they would have to forego under Communism. The art of persuasion has never changed. Success grows out of a complete understanding of the hopes and aspirations of the people you are trying to influence and the sympathetic desire to aid these people in reaching these goals.20 Summary Conclusion While actual accomplishments and evaluation of programs of the International Broadcasting Division are 20 Ibid., p. 143 40 treated in subsequent chapters, principles of advertising must necessarily be reviewed in order to establish criteria for guidance. Objectives of the Program, to promote the better understanding of the United States among the peoples of the world and to strengthen cooperative international relations, resolves itself into a struggle to influence or change the minds of men. In terms of advertising, this may be expressed as an attempt to market or sell an idea (i.e., social philoso phies, economic concepts, democratic principles) to people, or the potential ' ’customers." In planning the campaign, basic considerations include familiarity with the product, using the best appeals, planning the approach, employing the best media, and evaluating results. Psychology is of considerable aid in interpreting the various laws of mental processes: how to obtain and hold the attention of the prospect; using the argument whieh is most likely to appeal; desirable emotions to arouse and how i to arouse them; and finally, most important of all, how to bring about the desired action on the part of the listener. The objective of motivating people to change their beliefs, e.g., influencing them to live in peace and harmony, involves consideration of various native backgrounds as well i as the different techniques available for achieving objec- 1 tives. Forceful methods such as wars or totalitarian 4 1 1 measures of threats, discipline, and secrecy have been used by nations to achieve this goal* There is also the possibility of permitting people to do and think as they please* Another approach is the utilization of an advertising medium to carry the message. This might involve distributing leaflets throughout the target area, sending missionaries to the country, or adapting radio. The use of radio permits a logical solution to the problem, permitting world-wide dissemination of information irrespective of geographical barriers or man- made "iron-eurtains.” It also offers considerable latent power in molding people's thoughts. Adapting the "product” or program to the needs of the people represents another important factor. It is felt | that the political, economic, and social system of a country should be integrated into any efforts to achieve democratic goals. Finally, the competitive factor is analyzed in order ! to formulate the successful campaign. In this instance, competition is interpreted as a conflict of ideas. The problem is to show how democracy and its particular form of economy is superior to Communism in terms of the individual ; which he will understand. CHAPTER IV AH EVALUATIONS PRINCIPLES OP ADVERTISING APPLIED Tlie time has come, in my opinion, to face up to our responsibilities and to determine once and for all whether we are still the voice of America, strait-jacket our hands and feet, and blind our eyes and ears to what is taking place all around us, or whether we are to authorize an intelligent and effective effort to marshal public opinion to the causes and the country which we espouse. Having considered principles of the effective adver tising campaign as developed by students and practitioners : in the field of marketing research, evaluation of the techniques employed by the International Broadcasting Division, in terms of commercial standards, is next under taken. Objectives of the Voice of America have already been discussed (supra pp. 28-30). Logically, the question arises as to what techniques have been developed ”to pro mote the.better understanding of the United States among the peoples of the world and to strengthen cooperative inter national relations.” Such techniques, if they exist, may be correlated to elements of the advertising campaign. To. determine the extent of this relation, operational structure 1 Partial testimony offered by Congressman Karl Mundt, July 2, 1947, before a Senate Foreign Relations subcommittee in support of. H.R. 3342, a bill to provide basic legislative authority for the U. S. Government’s information program. 43 of the International Broadcasting Division might appropri ately be examined as an opening phase of the inquiry. I. FUNCTIONAL OPERATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL BROADCASTING DIVISION Organization of the International Broadcasting Division has previously been indicated. The major operations are administered by (1) The Program Operations Branch; (2) The Facilities Branch; and (3) The Program 2 Evaluation Branch. Program Operations Branch The Program Operations Branch comprises three basic services. These consist of the Production Section, the Language Section, and the News Section. The Production Section. — The Production Section supplies the directors, narrators, announcers, actors, and music for the actual broadcasts. In performing its function, the Production Section is responsible for the application of the most effective radio production tech niques in broadcasting the scripts prepared by the language de sks• Selection of radio as an effective medium to carry the message of the VGA has been discussed in previous 2 Information derived from Appendixes Section of "The World Audience,” o£. cit. , pp. 63-72. 44 chapters (cf. pp. 32, 36). Obviously, from the above information, it appears that adequate techniques exist for utilizing radio in the most advantageous manner. Results of these efforts are considered in future chapters of the thesis. The Language Section. — The language desks are organized according to regional divisions, namely, Slavic and Balkan, Western and Northern Europe, Eastern and Pacific, and Latin American. Radio scripts consisting of news, commentaries, and features are prepared for daily broadcasts. Each desk translates and adapts material from the basic news file, commentaries, and features prepared by ; the News Section. In addition, each language desk origi- nates commentary and feature material of a highly special ized and regional nature. Besides these language desks, an English desk prepares radio scripts in English consisting of news, commentary, and features for broadcasts to the world in English, Seript material "of a highly specialized and regional nature" appears to indicate that such factors as effective appeals and talking in terms of the individual’s experience and background are incorporated in VOA broadcasts. It Is the practice of the Department of State to utilize the services of native commentators in broadcasting to their respective countries. "The Voice" originating in New York 45 and broadcast to Communist China may be that of Yun-I T'an or Shih Pao Hu; speaking to Rumania might be the voices of Mira Zeider or Bernard Cehan, and from New York to Korea, He Deuk Kim speaks. Integrity of the broadcasts have been ; indicated in several instances, such as the following. If there were any Iron Curtain listeners who questioned the veracity of the Voice, the last vestiges of doubt were dispelled by the Voice’s coverage of the Korean War as it progressed. America reported United Nations reverses as faith fully as it did their successes; whereas all Communist news gave heavy predominance to the Korean War only as long as it was going well for the Reds.3 Programming to the various areas differs as to content according to local economic and political conditions and interests, and in deference to the amount of information available to the listeners. The Overseas Distribution Unit. -- Purpose of this unit is to record both IBD original broadcasts and domestic commercial broadcasts prepared specifically for distribution overseas. This service extends the scope of the program by i making it possible to reach a wider audience than may be reached through direct broadcasts. This particular phase of the operations would appear to emphasize suitability or adaptability of the type of media chosen for delivering the message to the audience. 3 Harriet Rasooli-Sa ’ eed, ’ ’The Iron Curtain Is Not Soundproof,1 1 Presbyterian Life, 4:8, April 14, 1951. 46 Program Evaluation Branch The Program Evaluation Branch consists of three basic services: the Analysis Section, the Audience Mail Section, and the Program Information Section# Analysis Section. — This section has arranged for audience surveys in the "friendly” countries, such as Finland, France, and Sweden to determine audience opinion of Voice of America output; purpose of the surveys has been to determine, also, the popularity of the British Broad casting Corporation, Radio Moscow, and other foreign broadcasts compared with the Voice of America. (See Figure 2.) It has also conducted a survey and compiled a report on the percentage of short-wave receivers and average number of listeners per set# Audience listening habits have been analyzed regarding the extent of short-wave and medium-wave listening to local and foreign broadcasts and preferred listening times; data compiled are used by IBD in program planning. Intelligence material on the so-called "Iron Curtain” countries is coordinated with information gathered from research channels# Purpose of this operation is to aid in scheduling VOA broadcasts to reach a maximum audience with the greatest impact and effectiveness# Naturally, with a global audience, it is not possible to know with any real accuracy exactly how many people are December 1946 England 552 tire 30 min. U.S.S.R. Satel'a. U.S.A. 246 hra 175 bra. 395 bra. 55 min. 15 min. May 1947 England U.S.S.R. Satel'a. U.S.A. 570 hra 305 hra. 201 hra. 353 bra. 40 min. 30 min. 15 min. January 1948 England 585 bra. 40 min. England 541 hra. 15 min. U.S.S.R. Satel 343 hra. 212 hra. .A. 229 hra. 15 min. December 1948 U.S.S.R. Satel's. U.S.A. 321 hra. 234 bra. 164 hra. 10 min. 15 "mln. 15 min. FIGURE 2 COMPARATIVE CHART Weekly Hours of Short Wave Broadcast by England, USSR (and Satellites) and USA to competitive areas, Source: Adapted from chart published in the Department of State publication, "The World Audience for America’s Story," April, 1949. 48 reached and what the Impact of the programs is on them. The science of international audience surveys and program evalu ation has not reached the same stage of tested efficiency internationally that it has domestically. Measurement of radio efficacy, in the United States, for example, is incorporated in the program popularity ratings. Audience ratings obtained by C. E. Hooper, Inc., originators of the "Hooperatings," and the A. C. Nielsen Company, sponsors of the "Nielsen Radio Index Service," give a fairly good idea of the relative popularity of programs and suggest how large an audience the program is attracting. Personal interviews offer a technique of determining whether the listener 4 remembers and purchases the sponsor's product. Overseas survey. — In 1950 a poll was conducted in Germany by the Reactions Analysis staff of the Office of Public Affairs, United States High Commissioner, in which trained German interviewers made a representative sampling of opinions of listeners in the American Zone, in Berlin, and at Bremen. Results disclosed that the audience in West Berlin had increased by 17 per eent since June, 1949, when a similar study was made. Asked to give an opinion on the quality of the programs, the majority described them as "good." For those who considered the broadcasts as "fair" 4 Information obtained from "Radio Audience Research — and How to Use It," published by the A. C. Nielsen Company, Chicago, December, 1948. 49 or "poor,M the reasons included lack of interest, ignoring of German interests, overemphasis on politics, and poor reception* About half of the people who found the programs ’ ’good” declared their most valuable feature was information about the American way of life. The second most frequently mentioned reason was their clarity and instructive value. Other reasons included objective reporting, interesting lectures and talks, and assurances of the United States ' desire to aid Germany. In concluding, the survey indicated that broadcasts gave East Zone Germans a favorable impression of the United States, that they were informative and that they awakened longing of the people for Western ways, Western standards, and union with West Germany. The programs also were said to give the people support, hope, and encouragement, and pointed up the difference between Russian and American conditions• The General Business Committee Business executives of U. S. industry have been integrated into the State Department's world-wide information program, including the Voice of America as well as other projects. On March 7, 1951, a panel of eleven 5 Kohler, o£. cit.. p. 896. 50 industrial leaders were named to constitute a General I Business Committee of the United States Advisory Commission on Information. Philip D. Reed, chairman of the group, has stated that functions of the committee will consist of eon-; sidering "ways and means whereby American private business, as distinguished from Government, can complement and augment the Government’s program in this great and vital under taking to win the confidence and understanding of people in 6 other lands." The State Department also indicated that similar panels were in preparation for the fields of labor, radio, motion pictures, and press and publications. Identification of members of the panel included Philip Reed, chairman of the board of General Electric Company, James A. Parley, chairman of the board, Coca-Cola Export Corporation; Ralph T. Reed, president, American Express Company; W. Randolph Burgess, chairman of the executive committee, National City Bank of New York; Meyer Kestnbaum, president, Hart, Schaffner and Marx; Sigurd S. .Larson, president, Young and Rubicam, Inc.; William M. Robbins, vice president for overseas operations, General Food Corporation; David A. Shepard, executive assistant, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey; J. P. Spang Jr., president, Opinion Research Corporation, and Warren Lee 6 News item in the New York Times t March 8, 1951 51 Pierson, chairman of the board, Trans-continental and Western Air, Inc. It has been indicated that the group would meet frequently to discuss a specific list of issues and problems* The United States Advisory Commission on Information, itself, was established by Congress in 1948 as part of the Government’s international information program. Primary responsibilities consist of transmitting to the Secretary of State and the Congress reports on all programs and activities carried on under authority of the so-called Smith-Mundt Act of 1948. Reports necessarily include appraisals, where feasible, as to the effectiveness of the several programs. Interpreting this phase of the State Department’s machinery in terms of advertising techniques might definitely consist of planning the approach and evaluating the results* In determining whether the competitive factor is adequately challenged or met, propaganda representative of the Soviet Government is next presented as a means of complementing the inquiry. II. THE COMPETITIVE FACTOR: RADIO MOSCOW U.S.S.R.' Propaganda Needless to say, radio in Russia is completely con trolled by the State. The transmissions are formulated in 52 policy and conducted by the All-Union Commission on Radiofi- cation and Broadcasting, which is directly connected with 7 the Council of People's Commissars, Postwar policy. — Soviet postwar policy, according ! 8 to an official source, has been based largely on three fundamental assumptions, They were (1) the withdrawal of American troops from Europe meant United States return to isolationism; (2) the United States could not shift from war to peace economy without economic collapse; (3) there would be rivalry instead of alliance between Great Britain : and the United States, Obviously, these miscalculations help to explain the character of Soviet propaganda which appears less unscrupulous than crude, stiff, and unimagi native. The "Voice of Russia". -- Russian broadcasts, never theless, have been described as the most skillful distor tion of facts ever presented on so large a scale. Single incidents are selected and presented as universal practice in the United States, The theme most often repeated during the last year's broadcasts was that the U.S. is rushing into the worst depression in its history. The Russian theory is that a few American businessmen are so ♦ 7 Thomas Grandin, "The Political Use of Radio," The Geneva Studies, 10:10, No. 3, August, 1939. 8 Edward W. Barrett, "USIE Capitalizes on Soviet Propaganda Blunders," The Department of State Bulletin, 23:414, September 11, 1950. 53 powerful and so selfish, that they are ruining the U.S. just to make money. The broadcasters claim that after the depression hits, these few powerful men who run the Government as well as business will cause the Government to declare war on the Soviet Union so that they can make still more money. The fact that Russian propagandists dwell so much on such incredible fabrications to keep their people afraid of the U.S. is interpreted by many observers as reason for believing that the economic situation is not good within Russia itself. Con ditions elsewhere must be represented as worse than their own and the people must be threatened with the immediacy of danger from a powerful foe to keep them submissive. Much was made during the past year’s broadcasts of the wide gulf between the very rich and the poor in the U.S. Perhaps one reason for the virulence of these broadcasts was explained in the oft-repeated assertion that the "Voice of America" was lying when it said that the American worker had a high standard of living. The "VQA" programs are apparently getting through the Iron Curtain well enough to cause discontent.® According to the same source, every month that our democratic form of government continues to function, it becomes more difficult for the Russian propagandist to explain why his predictions of economic collapse in the United States fail to come true. The continued successful working of our democratic government, it is felt, may increase Russian skepticism of its own leaders by the very fact of its continuance.^ ® E. G. Lewis, "Voice of Russia," The Christian Science Monitor, August 13, 1949, p. 2. 10 Loc. cit. Samples of Soviet propaganda. -- Most of the Soviet propaganda Is directed against the United States, as might be anticipated. In Shanghai, attacks on the Voice of America have coincided with a bitter anti-American propa ganda campaign. The government controlled press, Ta Rung Pao, has contended that "The Voice" caused rumors to circulate relating to the beginning of another world war and the return of the Kuomintang (the People’s Party) to the mainland. Such rumors, it related, had gained ground among "backward elements," stimulated speculation and profiteering, and reduced the faith of some capitalists in ! their enterprises. One landlord was reputed to have in duced his former peasants to return their land to him by 11 telling them that another World War was coming* Incorporating elements of the Soviet theme in its declarations, the Chinese press has been quoted as follows: Armies of factory workers are jobless and factory layoffs are on the rise in the United States. Such economic chaos is the child of Imperialism. When the workers are driven to despair they will strike and revolution will follow. The capitalists are certain to be overthrown.12 Here is a sampling of propaganda from Vladivostok Radio: . . . the capitalist pays the worker just enough to prevent his death by starvation. 11 News item in the New York Times, November 14, 1950. 12 Loc. cit. 55 From Pravda comes this attack: Three-fourths of the population of the most powerful capitalist country (the United States) is deprived of medical care. The educational system of the United States is the target of an attack by Azerbaizhan Radio: Schools in America are very few in number and education is very expensive, because the capitalists consider it harmful to educate the masses. Here is an extract from a Slovak broadcast depicting a United States Cabinet meeting: When the U.S. Minister of Education was called upon to furnish the text of a proposed article (by President Truman), it was found that he had stopped attending Cabinet meetings, beeause his salary had not been paid for several years. The Secretary of the Treasury explained that there were no funds for such purposes, for they had to be used for armaments. The proposal to reduce the quantity of hydrogen in the hydrogen bomb in order to get money for the Ministry of Education was rejected because the bomb industry might complain and a crisis on the Wall Street market might result.13 What has been the official United States reaction to such perversion of facts, and in particular what steps have been taken by the International Broadcasting Division to meet this challenge? Counter Propaganda: Telling the Truth When the menace of communism became increasingly apparent following World War II, it became obvious that the 13 W. C. Johnstone, HOur Answer to the Big Lie," The Department of State Bulletin. 24:571, March 5, 1951. . 56 American way of life, its purposes and ideals, should be made known on a larger scale. With the aid of the Smith- Mundt Act of 1948, the United States Government embarked on a world-wide program aimed at increasing mutual under standing and good will. However, with passage of time the ' ’hate” campaign of the Communists grew and it became evident that a mueh more vigorous, hard-hitting program was needed. President Truman, early in 1950, epitomized the situation by urging the American people to support a Campaign of Truth. Our task is to present the truth to the millions of people who are -uninformed or misinformed or un convinced. . . . Our task is to show them that freedom is the way to economic and social advance ment, the way to political independence, the way to strength, happiness, and peace. . . . We must pool our efforts with those of the other free peoples in a sustained, intensified program to promote the cause of freedom against the propaganda of slavery. We must make ourselves heard round the world in a great campaign of truth.14 Mr. William C. Johnstone, Director, Office of Educational Exchange, State Department, has outlined objectives of the campaign as follows: 1. To strengthen the unity of those nations devoted to the cause of freedom and to show that their interests and those of the United States coincide; 14 Ibid., p. 372 57 2. to spread the conviction that the United States is an enlightened, strong, and determined power deserving the full•support of other free nations; 3. to stimulate among free nations the building of the unified strength necessary to deter aggression and secure peace; 4. to develop and maintain psychological resis tance to Soviet tyranny and imperialism# In speculating on results of the campaign, Mr. Johnstone declared that: . . . Whether or not we are successful in halting the Communist drive for the control of men's minds throughout the world will depend largely on our ability to identify those population elements whose attitudes and opinions will be decisive in shaping world events.IS Expanding the campaign of truth. — In the summer of 1950, when the Congress appropriated additional funds, the Department of State began to intensify its program. To accomplish this, a variety of communication systems were and are being employed for the purpose, including not only the medium of radio but motion pictures, publications, information centers, and the exchange of persons. One of ;the most important factors in the intensified Campaign of Truth, it is felt, is the increased attention given to "targeting.n Thirty-one countries are now considered by the Department of State to be areas of critical concern. The two-way exchange of persons is one method 15 Johnstone, loc. cit. employed to pin-point its objectives. If Communists endeavor to tell the people of Prance or Italy or Belgium, for instance, that labor is not free in the United States— ; that the workers are only tools of the "greedy capitalist" — it is possible to invite a labor leader to come to the United States and see for himself. It is claimed that this has proved successful in many instances. Targets vary from country to country but communi cations of all descriptions are said to be tailored for specific key target groups. In Indochina, for example, a campaign of economic significance is presumably under ways to tell the Vietnamese the true story of Communist Ho Chi- minh, who has represented himself as a friendly land 16 reformer. Another element introduced into the expanded campaign has been the use of comic books distributed in the Par East to criticize Communist land reforms in China. The campaign inside China currently being waged by the VGA is directly related to the situation in Korea: objective is to wake up the people of China to the fact that their sons are being sacrificed in a war directed by Soviet Russia. Interim Summary So far in the inquiry, organizational and physical 16 Ibid., p. 373. 59 facilities of the VGA have been examined together with the aims and objectives of the current campaign. The purpose has been to ascertain whether commercial standards of instituting an advertising campaign may be correlated with [ efforts of the International Broadcasting Division. Briefly, the significant observations are summarized below : before proceeding with the study. 1. Familiarity with the product or service (i.e., "knowing what you have to sell") is rooted to the pro visions incorporated in the Smith-Mundt Act of 1948 whieh legally authorized and defined activities of the State Department's information offices. Interpretations of the Act have varied widely, in accordance with our democratic processes, and have depended on the moods and convictions of the Congress, the Department of State, and the public- at-large. It remains a peculiar characteristic and problem; of the Government’s propaganda efforts. 2. Utilizing effective appeals is of primary con cern to the VOA’s Program Operations Braneh. The Language Section prepares script material which has been described as highly specialized and regional. "Targeting" methods, i.e., aiming at specific critical areas with tailor-made programs, incorporate features of this element of the advertising campaign. Efficacy of these methods and appeals Is analyzed in a later chapter (cf. Chapter V, part 3). 60 3. Planning the approach, the third element con sidered, appears to be adequately correlated in the objec tives outlined by various public officials Including President Truman, Assistant Secretary of State Edward W. Barrett, and Mr* William C. Johnstone, Director, Office of Educational Exchange. Instituting the Campaign of Truth and appointment of a General Business Committee of the U.S. Advisory Commission on Information are specific instances of this element. 4. Employing the best media to achieve its objec tives has been demonstrated by the use of radio, which is excellently suited for world-wide dissemination of infor mation. Radio is the one medium which makes it possible to speak directly to the people of other countries, to surmount barriers of distance, censorship, illiteracy, foreign exchange, paper shortages, and tariffs. Of course, other methods of communication are also employed by the State Department, but none seem to have the potency of broadcasts• 5. Evaluating results is systematically integrated in the International Broadcasting Division’s operations through the Analysis Section of the Program Evaluation Branch. Functions include compiling of data on audience listening habits through various intelligence material and overseas surveys, and determining the effectiveness of 61 foreign broadcasts originating with Radio Moscow, the British Broadcasting Corporation, etc. 6. The competitive factor has been discussed at length. In addition to organizational machinery such as the Analysis Section which compares the popularity of VOA programs with those of foreign nations, other methods include expansion of the Campaign of Truth, adapting programs for specific ’ ’target" countries, exchange of persons, mobile motion picture -units, distributing publi cations, and establishment of information centers. However, it should be borne In mind that many of these activities are outside the scope of the International Broadcasting Division. They are cited to illustrate the fact that the Voice of America is simply a single, inte grated unit of the Government’s information services. Next, the psychological factors in advertising (cf. ante, pp. 31-36) are considered In the application of advertising principles. III. THE CAMPAIGN IN ACTION In Chapter III of the study, it was noted that every advertisement has four functions to perform: (1) it must attract attention; (2) it must arouse interest; (3) it must stimulate desire; and (4) it must impel action. During each of these steps, various psychological factors are 62 brought into play. Attracting attention, it will be re called, is considered the first and most basic function which an advertisement must perform. The type of musical i introduction, if any, of^the advertising message, the voice; of the announcer, the kind of words used, the rate and manner in which they are delivered, and similar factors enter into the process of rendering the message as simple 17 and inescapable as possible. As a direct method correlation, it would appear feasible to examine samples of script material prepared by j the International Broadcasting Division to determine whether such psychological factors are incorporated in the ; programs. Script Material from the VOA In pursuing this particular phase of the study, the analysis is necessarily restricted to primary factors such ; as the advertising message itself, the kind of words used, etc. The voice of the announcer, speed of delivery, and similar physical factors are techniques which have been indicated to be the responsibility of the Production Section of IBD. Doubtless, how effective these techniques are l employed may be measured to some extent in the accomplish-, ments of the program, audience mall, and recommendations for 17 ’ ’Psychological Factors in Advertising," o£. eft., j p.. 2*........ . J 63 improving the broadcasts which are considered in a later chapter of the study. Economic Highlights. — Of the various types of programs prepared by the News Section for the Voice of America, a weekly script titled Economic Highlights is selected for the first sampling* The particular program under examination was prepared for the week ending September 15, 1950. Subjects discussed include "Economic Mobilization," "News of Business and Industry," "Part-Time Employment," and "Point IV Program Starts." The program begins in the following vein: Last Saturday President Truman told the American people what the communist breach of the world’s peace would cost them in economic terms. He empha sized that all Americans--whether farmers, wage- earners, or businessmen— would be called upon to make sacrifices to build up the strength which the free world needs to deter communist aggression. Specifically, the report continues, this means there will be less steel for the civilian production, a decrease in automobile production, and acute shortages of manpower in some areas. In essence, the "message" is revealed a few ; lines further: Thus it can be seen that contrary to the communist propaganda line, the American economy neither wants, nor needs, increased military expenditures. With regard to financing defense expenditures, the program continues that the source must be higher taxes, indicating that Mr. Truman believed this to be "the only one 64 sensible way to raise the needed money.” In addition to increasing individual and corporate taxes, "Still more taxes will be necessary," he said, "including a.just and fair excess profits tax." It is at this point that we find the "commercial" or "advertising message" introduced:: This once again conclusively disproves the fantas tic Communist propaganda line that the communist invasion of the Republic of Korea was engineered by American "monopolists" in the hope of greater profits. Laborers are urged to join in the fight against inflation, which is accelerated by the increased cost of living with accompanying demands for wage boosts: For their part, wage earners were asked not to seek unjustified wage increases just because labor is scarce. In the President's words: Do not ask for wage increases beyond what is needed to meet the rise in the cost of living.!® Perhaps at this point in the analysis, it might be opportune to examine the introductory phase of the script material in order to establish the presence or absence of advertising essentials. Psychological factors. — Primarily, of course, the advertisement must attract attention. Unless it performs this function, it is of no use at all. In the particular script under consideration, the major portion of the material is handled in straight reporting fashion. The Economic Highlights, program prepared by the News Section, Talks Unit, of the International Broadcasting Division, September 15, 1950, p . 5. 65 voice of the commentator is occasionally relieved by another "voice" to simulate a particular personality being discussed, or simply to provide an element of contrast. There is no attempt to incite the listener's attention to the program or the "message" through the use of musical adjuncts, sound effects, or dramatic delivery. What is the justification for this matter-of-fact approach? At least one answer is available in the following comment: Some critics believe it (VOA reporting) is too straight, but the Voice believes that people con stantly exposed to Communist polemics welcome factual reporting. The heavy-duty fighting against Red propaganda is done in political talks, dramatic features, and in what Voice men call "shirt-tails," i.e., short comments tacked on the end of news broadcasts. When the Voice rushes in, shirttails flying, to nail a Russia lie with clear facts and figures, it is often at its best, speaking with firmness, dignity and common sense. There are also available substantially large quantities of correspondence from listeners which sub stantiate the efficacy of the program: . . . Please accept the most sincere greetings from your friends in Czechoslovakia. . . . I noted that your news coverage is now very complete, better than during the war, and I much prefer your broadcasts to those from London or Paris.20 However, it should not be deducted that such results are conclusive. A broader application of psychological 19 voice of America: What It Tells the World," Time, 55:22, May 1, 1950. 20 World Audience," o£. ci_fc., p. 13. 66 elements as Incorporated in advertising principles might conceivably enhance the programs to a very measurable degree. An essential element is the language in which.the broadcast is couched. Concentration on the program as well as the advertising message depends considerably on the kind of words used. One critic has noted thatt Interest in high-level world politics and economic matters and statistics may be very intense at the Department of State . . . but it isn’t the kind of material which attracts the average man. The Voice of America reads like a press-association report of 30 years ago— stodgy, wordy and without terseness or snap. The language is too dignified and the vocabu lary is that of officialdom with a little journa listic flavor here and there.21 Programs, of course, vary widely in content and makeup. Some of the different series incorporate musical introductions, "chatty" dialogue, and the so-called "homey" flavor in their discussions, but these will be examined later. The remainder of Economic Highlights for September 15, 1950, is devoted to a discussion of "News of Business and Industry," and information concerning the Point IV Program. Achieving maximum attention power therefore remains, at best, a dubious accomplishment in this instance* .Listeners who might conceivably be engrossed by accounts of economic conditions in the United States could scarcely 21 David Lawrence, "U. S. Inept at War of Ideas," Citizen News, Hollywood, July 7, 1950. 67 represent more than a fraction of the audience. Subjects such as individual incomes, consumer buying power, petroleum and automobile production, agriculture, U. S. imports, and employment conditions are of vital interest to the economist and the student. Sacrifices of the American people to make the defense program possible may not reasonably be classi fied as an ’ ’attention-compelling" factor. Arousing interest. — This suggests a consideration of the "interest” factor in advertising psychology. Unless the advertisement conveys a definite story to the reader it has little power to ultimately impel the purchase of the 22 article or service advertised. This is accomplished by presenting the reader with a situation which he recognizes,: which the listener will take as applying at least poten tially to himself. Here, again, the related factor appears missing in the script. Economic conditions in the U. S., justifi cation for the defense program, or advice to the wage earner are not topics which the overseas listener may easily integrate into his own background or fund of knowledge. A more positive identification of this element is to be found in the Economic Highlights program for the week ending October 27, 1950. Subjects discussed include "Arms 22 ’ ’Psychological Factors in Advertising," o£. cit.. 68 and Peace,” "Vishinsky’s Comments,” "Point Pour in Iran," and the recurrent "Economic Roundup.” Aggressively launch-: ing into a discussion of comments made by Mr, Vishinsky, Foreign Minister of the Soviet Union, the "Voice" engages in a verbal battle with Russian propaganda forces: Mr. Vishinsky does not like our defense effort and he had a great many harsh things to say about it in a speech before the. . . . United Nation’s General Assembly. He denounced the "aggressive trend of the ruling circles;” he spoke of the adoption by the United States of the Hitlerite formula of guns for butter; the United States, he said, aimed at world mastery. . . *25 The message is then applied to the listener’s own situation in life; in this instance, it is possible for him to incorporate the "message" into his thinking, and to understand what it means: As for guns instead of butter, it is the Soviet Union which cheats her people by imposing low living standards on her workers, while directing rising industrial potential into war uses. In spite of building programs of which Mr. Vishinsky boasted in his speech, residents of Soviet cities continue to live in grossly overcrowded quarters averaging a whole family to a room. The cost to Soviet workers of many objeets of common consumption is more than ten times their cost to American workers. . • • In concluding this phase of the report, there is discernible a somewhat weak but elemental appeal to the motive of self-preservation which is highly essential in arousing desire: 23 Economic Highlights, program prepared by the News Section, Talks Unit, of the International Broadcasting Division, October 27, 1950, p. 6. 69 Of course, Mr. Vishinsky really knows the objec tive of the build-up of the strength by the Western powers is neither aggression nor imperialist expan sion. It Is the preservation of peace and security in the world which is threatened by power-hunger communists. Problems of economic mobilization, and remarks by Leon Keyserling, Chairman of the President's Council of Economic Advisers, however, are not subjects per se which can be relied upon to produce desirable psychological reactions. The listener will justifiably answer "But how does this affect us?" It has been stated that the problem I is one of demonstrating how democracy and the U. S. form of economy actually will raise the standard of living of other countries; how these citizens may have basic freedoms which they are forced to forego under Communism. This leads us into the third aim of advertising, arousing the desire. Arousing the desire. — This psychological factor is predicated upon the use of basic appeals, which stir human motivations more or less common to mankind. The advertise ment must appeal to some instinctive tendency within the individual which will act as the source of motivation for the "purchase.1 1 It is a striving for an end "which some innate predisposition compels the individual to strive for, 24 and whose attainment gives pleasure." Examples of these instincts include self preservation and self expression. 24 ibid., p. 6. 70 It is difficult to isolate this factor in much of the script material prepared by IBP. Generalities and- formalistic language tend to obscure messages in terms of the individual. In some instances there is a proximation of this element, although the motivation of self-expression and "striving for attainment1 1 faetors are considerably muted. An example of this situation is to be found -in another Economic Highlights series prepared under date of October 6, 1950. The subject centers around remarks made by Mr. Paul Hoffman, former Administrator of the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA). The broadcast is pre pared with the obvious intention of creating dissatisfaction among the Russian people with their Soviet rulers; Mr. Paul Hoffman . . • visited Berlin a few days ago and during his visit commented on the striking difference between the economic progress made under a free democratic regime and the economic paralysis under communist totalitarianism. Here is what Mr. Hoffman had to say; "No more impressive demonstration of the contrast between the live and helpful hands of democracy and the dead hand of Kremlin communism can be found anywhere than in Berlin. "In the Soviet sector of the city my prime and almost only impression was that of desolation heaped upon desolation^ Rubble and the ghosts of once stately buildings were everywhere. . . . Here and there a dim little shop had been built at a corner, or windows had been boarded up on a house, but of building in the ordinary sense there was none."^5 25 Economic Highlights, News Section, Talks Unit, program of the International Broadcasting Division, October 6, 1950, p. 8....... . . . . . ~ - - 73. How would the attainment of a ’ ’free democratic regime” manifest itself by the feeling of pleasure or the instinct of self expression? Possibly by tangible things, ! such as adequate housing or the privilege of choosing one’s I daily activities: Mr, Hoffman contrasted this (situation) with the rebuilding in West Berlin. He referred to workmen’s housing being done so efficiently that it was costing only $250 an apartment. It is also noted in the program that Mr. Hoffman found the people in West Berlin definitely better off than their neighbors in East Berlin. The former had the oppor- tunity of looking at ’ ’brightly lighted shop windows, seemed to have some place to go, seemed brisker, happier, while the people of East Berlin he saw ’were few and far between, j 26 seemed to have nothing to do and nowhere to go.’” In still another broadcast prepared under date of November 3, 1950, captioned "A Program for Economic Progress,” examples of basic appeals associated with the ,aim of arousing desire may be cited. It will be observed, however, that the appeals are couched in factual terminology rather than being individualistic or emotional in character. Regarding American financial aid to war-ravaged countries, the broadcast states that: Americans have made a particular point of not attaching any political strings to this aid. But 26 ibid., p. 9. 72 j naturally there has been a purpose behind it— the creation of a prosperous world, one in which people can develop their fullest potentialities in freedom and in peace* The American people are the ones who are con tributing to our international aid programs. . . . They want to be sure that their sacrifice is worth while . . . that the aid is going to those who need it. Americans are not interested in enriching the few but in improving life for the many* Impelling action. — Once having aroused the desire,; it remains for the advertiser to achieve the final purpose of the advertisement: that of impelling action. If the desire is aroused sufficiently, the individual will wish to do something to fulfill it. If this is accomplished in a positive way, associated with pleasantness, the product advertised will be associated with the satisfaction of the ; desire aroused. Inhibitions or inertia must also be overcome which might prevent the individual from entering upon an untried I venture. Now, once having identified this psychological factor, it remains to locate the particular application of | the element to operations of VOA. Obviously, this process involves many difficulties merging into imponderables. First of all, consider the objectives of the International Broadcasting Division: to promote a better understanding of the United States and to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries. 73 Basically, the kind of action desirable, if any, must be described or understood in order to establish ■criteria for the analysis. To foment heresy within the Communist party might be considered one approach to the problem. However, this constitutes a liberal "interpre tation" of the objectives, exceeding the scope of legis lation providing for propaganda efforts of the State Department. Oddly enough, some critics believe that the neces sary action to accomplish desirable results must originate in the United States. It has been suggested that what the captive peoples need is not to hear how miserable is their condition but to know what the United States intends to do 27 about it. It is held that the strongest propaganda card in the non-communistfs hand is the reminder that ", . .we will never be satisfied until they (the captive peoples) ■ p • < 28 are free." In another Instance, American broadcasts are described as inferior to U.S.S.H. efforts. The "commercials" are not doing an effective "selling" job; it is the fact that we stand for the right of a people to choose for them selves what they shall do and have, rather than to be in the 27 Edgar Mowrer, "Why Advertise God’s Country?" Saturday Review of Literature, 33r39, October 21, 1950. Loc. cit. 74 j grip of a tyrannical minority which chooses for them, that 29 is our strongest asset in the battle of words. Probably the most encouraging approach to the .problem has been revealed in the character of broadcasts prepared for recent psychologieal-warfare launched inside of China. Keynote of the message is provided in the announcement of Dean Rusk, Assistant Secretary of State for; Par Eastern affairs: We cannot provide a formula to engage the unity of effort among all Chinese who love their country. But one thing we can say--as the Chinese people move to assert their freedom and to work out their destiny in accordance with their own historical purposes, they can count upon tremendous support from free peoples in other parts of the world.30 In commenting on this particular type of campaign 31 strategy, David Lawrence has stated it to be the kind of pronouncement which, if made also to the people of the. satellite countries in Europe, would in time bring a profound change in the "cold war.” As a psychological consideration, it appears to merit attention from the standpoint of.impelling action whieh we have described as the final purpose of the advertisement. There have been, of course, many suggestions relevant to 29 Wells, ££. cit., p. 25. 30 David Lawrence, "China Hears Voice of America,1 1 Citizen Hews, Hollywood, May 23, 1951. Loc. cit. 75; achieving this objective, including methods aimed to incite a modern Russian revolution. *zp Fellers has advocated the use of a "balloon barrage" to disseminate literature behind the Iron Curtain, organizing refugees for various propaganda efforts, creation of a non-profit, patriotic organization to conduct a vigorous campaign; objective would be to make the Russians revolt. These, as well as countless other proposals, have doubtless been weighed on the basis of their merits by State Department information specialists. Some suggestions; have actually been adopted by the government; in other cases, public and private organizations have been created with various propaganda objectives in mind, e.g., the "Crusade for Freedom," Revolutionary objectives, however, remain an oblique approach to the problem, insofar as official Government propaganda efforts are concerned. It is not legally defined in purposes of the IT. S. Information I and Educational Exchange Act of 1948. Variety of Programs A large variety of programs are prepared by IBD, of which Economic Highlights represents one series of the entire broadcasts. Another series which are primarily intended to promote a better understanding of the United 32 Bonner Fellers (Brigadier General), "How to Make the Russians Revolt," Coronet, 29t24-29, November, 1950. 76 States in other countries are eaptioned simply Cross Country with the sequence number of the series following. They do not contain "commercials'’ or "advertising messages" which are readily identifiable, "Theme" music is employed throughout the broadcasts; various other techniques are employed to suitably dramatize the presentations. The con versation and dialogue have a personal or "chatty" character chief value of these broadcasts appears to be informational. Presumably, they also have an entertainment value. Psycho logical factors appear to be largely negative, since there is no identifiable objective to "impel action." Use of radio techniques is employed primarily for attracting attention and arousing interest. Cross Country No. 24, under date of December 21, 1949, uses the Christmas theme as a background for its broadcast: ANNCR: (After appropriate introduction and musical theme) Today, CROSS COUNTRY invites you to a swift tour of the nation, a tour of contrasts, from the clear, crisp air of Minnesota to the smog of Pitts burgh, Pennsylvania— then on to Nebraska, land of blizzards, and to get the chill out of our bones, we will stop next in the warm sunshine of sleepy Louisiana. . . . (etc., etc.) NARRs . . . The machine hasn’t been created that can suppress man's spirit when Ghristmas is drawing near. Out of the steel mills of Pittsburgh, from men stripped and sweating by the molds, from the shipping docks, from the staccato clatter of offiees— above the din of it all can be heard male voices celebrating the glory of the season. Here is a chorus of workers’ voices from the Homestead Plant in Pittsburgh. . . Promotional efforts. -- The Program Information Section of IBD prints and distributes brochures, identifying future broadcasts, in six foreign languages and English. Transcription promotion consisting of feature stories and photos is also undertaken. Feature stories, personality sketches, etc., on short-wave broadcasts are distributed together with photos, ads, mats, posters, and leaflets to promote specific Voice of America programs. Foreign radio magazines and newspapers are supplied with promotion stories and photos on request. The American radio industry cooperates also in offering their programs for use.overseas. Some of.these productions— such as "The Telephone Hour," "The Hit Parade," "University Theater," "Adventures in Science,"--are becoming as well known abroad as they are in the States, according to an official source.^ Conclusions Application of principles of advertising to the Voice of America program, for convenience of study, was approached in a twofold manner, i.e., through organizational analysis of the International Broadcasting Division, and secondly, by 33 Cross Country No. 24, program prepared by the International Broadcasting Division, December 21, 1949, p. 7. 34 •»'phe World Audience," op. cit., p. 64. 78 j script material analysis to determine performance on the basis of psychological functions. In the first category, (1) familiarity with the product or service— "knowing what you have to sell"— was indicated as a correlated factor of the Smith-Mundt Act of 1948 which defined informational activities of the State Department; (2) utilizing effective appeals appears to be the responsibility of the Program Operations Branch of IBD; (3) planning the approach was felt to be incorporated in such entities as the Campaign of Truth, and creation of the General Business Committee of the U. S. Advisory Commission on Information; (4) employing the best media appeared to be demonstrated in the adaptation of radio facilities; (5) evaluating results appeared to be adequately provided for in the duties of the Analysis Section of the Program Evaluation Branch. The competitive factor represents a continuous challenge to the VGA; propaganda efforts from Moscow are particularly malignant since they are predicated on fabri cated data and distortions. Efforts such as expansion of the Campaign of Truth, "targeting" methods, and integration of VOA with other information activities of the State Department were discussed as indicative of the counter propaganda measures currently undertaken. Future activities are indeterminate due to lack of Congressional 79 appropriations• Analyzing script material, as the second approach to the problem, involved a consideration of the following psychological elements: (1) attracting attention; (2) arousing interest; (3) stimulating desire; (4) impelling action. Some of these factors were identifiable in a few of the programs analyzed; none of the material examined contained all four elements in a single broadcast. Presen tation of news and feature material such as Economic High lights is made in straight reporting fashion. Other material such as the Cross Country series employed more elemental language than that incorporated in the programs dealing with economic conditions. "Humanizing" the news, interpreting events in terms of the listener's background and experience, and use of radio techniques (sound effects, dramatic emphasis) have been suggested as possible fields for further study; broadcasts on occasion have been labeled dull, ineffectual and stodgy by critics. The most important factor, impelling action, remains an enigma in the psychological approach to the study. Desirable action has not been clearly defined; how to achieve the ultimate goal remains obscure and immeasur able. Criteria standards can not be effectively established to permit satisfactory exploration of the problem. Ideas, themselves, must initially be formulated and "sold" to the 80 global audience in order to create a responsive background for potential action. This represents another area for study as a means of strengthening present campaign procedures. CHAPTER V ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE PROGRAM If world experience means anything, it has shown that the stifling of the free exchange of ideas and opinions by censorship and propaganda almost in variably leads to catastrophe in the form of war or insurrection* ^ Having explored the field of commercial advertising principles and their application to operations of the International Broadcasting Division, accomplishments of the Voice of America programs are next considered* I. NATURAL OBSTACLES Physical Handicaps Any attempts to present a reasonably authoritative estimate of the results obtained by the project inevitably must be reconciled with natural obstacles which confront the sponsors. Irrespective of the potential impact of broad casts— psychologically, economically, or politically— barriers which prevent their being heard virtually nullify a consideration of their efficacy. Accomplishments, therefore, depend on the degree to which these obstacles are overcome or at least mitigated by engineering and other technical skills. In friendly countries throughout the world it is possible to determine with some degree of 1 Grandin, oj>* cit*, p. 86. 82 ; accuracy the quantity and quality of reception. Behind the Iron Curtain, however, the problem becomes much more diffi cult. To begin with the United States is in an awkward geographical position for beaming radio broadcasts to Europe and Asia# Short-wave beams must cross 3,000 miles of water on one side and 5,000 miles on the other before they encounter land. Experience has also shown that in their natural course to the countries which it has been most desirable to reach— Russia and her satellite states, the Near East and China— these broadcasts are hopelessly ’ ’scrambled” by auroral disturbances. Such electronic disturbances have necessitated the use of relay or ’ ’booster” stations at Manila, Honolulu, and Munich. The second difficulty in estimating the effectiveness of the Voice of America is the lack of precise information on the number of short-wave radio sets. The State Depart- 2 ment believes there are approximately 43,000,000 sets throughout the world capable of receiving the ’ ’Voice.” In the U.S.S.R. (population 195,000,000) it is believed there are about 5,000,000 sets equipped for short-wave reception; in Yugoslavia (population 17,000,000) there are about 238,000 such sets. (See Tables II and III.) The preponder ance of sets appears to be in Latin and South America, with ■ 2 »The World Audience,” op. cit., p. 108. 83 TABLE II INTERNATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OP RADIO RECEIVING SETS Area Total radio receivers Total short wave radios Estimated potential audience EUROPE West 43,657,000 28,029,000 151,400,000 Iron Curtain 9,534,000 8,263,000 42,400,000 MIDDLE EAST and AFRICA 1,785,240 1,626,015 9,300,000 FAR EAST 11,808,000 1,478,650 61,800,000 AMERICAN REPUBLICS 6.495.500 3.677,200 30,700,000 Total 73,279,740 43,073,865 295,600,000 Sources Prom data prepared by the International Broadcast ing Division, United States Department of State, March, 1949. Figures exclude the United States and Canada. 84 DISTRIBUTION TABLE III OP RADIO RECEIVER SETS: EUROPE Country Total radio receivers Equipped for short wave Austria 1,049,000 350,000 Belgium 1,236,000 1,236,000 Denmark 1,240,000 1,200,000 Finland 679,000 611,000 Prance 8,000,000 5,000,000 Germany 9,812,000 2,944,000 Great Britain 11,888,000 8,916,000 Greece 100,000 90,000 Ireland 312,000 312,000 Iceland 41,000 36,000 Italy 2,500,000 1,500,000 Luxembourg 49,000 49,000 Netherlands 1,054,000 735,000 ’ Norway 610,000 580,000 Portugal 392,000 340,000 Spain 1,500,000 1,500,000 Sweden 2,150,000 2,070,000 Switzerland 1,045,000 560,000 Total 43,657,000 28,029,000 Iron Curtain Albania 3,000 1,000 Bulgaria 200,000 200,000 Czechoslovakia 2,030,000 1,624,000 Hungary 443,000 250,000 Poland 874,000 750,000 Rumania 220,000 200,000 Russia 5,500,000 5,000,000 Yugoslavia 264,000 238,000 Total 9,534,000 8,263,000 Source: Prom a report prepared by the International Broad casting Division, March, 1949, published in r l The World Audience for America's Story,” pp. 109-10. 85 Argentina and Brazil having the greatest concentration* Germany, a highly mechanized nation, doubtless has an equally high proportion in spite of wartime damage* The number in the Par East, however, is known to be very small.; The third difficulty is that even if the number of short-wave sets abroad could be accurately determined, the ; number of listeners would still be another unknown quantity. While several surveys have been conducted on the listening habits of overseas audiences, they are for the most part * inconclusive and are not comparable to the "Hooper Ratings"; and other measurements devised for U. S. audiences. Surveys, furthermore, are not possible in the "Iron Curtainf’ countries although this factor is attributed to man-made, ideological resistance rather than to any physical or natural barrier. II. MAN-MADE OBSTACLES Jamming Operations One of, the handicaps with which the Voice of America has been forced to adapt itself is the "jamming" of programs within the iron curtain countries* These man-made ether disturbances represent VOA’s biggest technical problem. Mr. Barrett, State Department official, has stated that over 250 Russian stations have been triangulated which were devoting their full time to jamming the programs of 86 the United States and the British Government. It has also been felt that the Russians were spending more money on jamming than the United States was spending on its entire radio output* Several eounter-measures have been employed to solve this problem, including integration of U. S. programs with the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC); this has meant that about seventy British and American transmitters have broadcast to the Russians in their own language at the same time every day. VOA broadcasts are also carried by domes tic stations in more than fifty countries, including the French government network. Several more transmitters are believed to already have been added to VGA's global facili- 3 ties, whose locations are seeret. Both in Russia itself, as well as the satellite countries, various attempts are constantly made to prevent listeners from channeling in on Western broadcasting programs* Most of these efforts indicate an intention on the part of the Communist regimes to make such a practice dangerous or impossible by one means or another* Campaigns of Terror The VOA presumably has its greatest impact in the Iron Curtain countries, where, along with the BBC, it is 3 "The Voice of America: What It Tells the World," ■ op. cit., p.. 23.......................... .... . ... .. virtually the only source of truthful news. Listening to the "Voice” is not technically illegal, but listeners are often fined or jailed under some pretext. In Hungary, newspapers have constantly reported cases of people who have been imprisoned for spreading "Voice” information. Reports from Budapest also indicate that a huge station designed for jamming purposes, presumably under con struction at Diosd, Hungary, will render hearing of foreign 4 broadcasts impossible for that area. Early in January, 1951, the political police in a number of Czechoslovak cities are reported to have made a sudden descent on the homes of citizens known to possess radios; attempts were made to determine what stations were i tuned in. Although it is believed there is as yet no law that formally forbids listening to foreign broadcasts, all "people's democracies” have laws against repeating the 5 "false or terrorist agitation” they furnish. Under pressure from Josef Revai, the Hungarian Information Minister, production plans of Hungarian radio manufacturers reportedly have been greatly altered; the number of long and middle range radios will be reduced to a minimum, with the substitution of loudspeakers designed to be connected with central broadcast relay stations. This is 4 News item in the New York Times, March 4, 1951. 5 Loc. cit. 88 ; also the situation in Rumania, where "radiofication" centers distribute programs piped from government controls to radio receiving sets equipped with loudspeakers but lacking dials. In Shanghai, the Chinese press revealed what presum- j ably Is the initial phase of a campaign to prevent Chinese listening to American broadcasts. A resident of Shanghai (Chou Tsowei) was reported to have been arrested as an alleged "special agent” for the Voice of America. The news paper account asserted that "People of various walks of life" in Shanghai were demanding that the Government take steps to ban listening to VOA broadcasts. III. EFFICACY OF VOICE OF AMERICA PROGRAMS Evidence that IBD broadcasts are penetrating the U.S.S.R. and its satellites is indicated, ironically enough, in the almost fanatical efforts of the Russians to jam the Western programs, together with the constant press attacks and campaigns of terror. Actually, jamming of these broadcasts is a violation of the international agree ments which the Russians signed as members of the Inter national Telecommunication Union. Programs Reach Wide Areas Authenticated reports from the Soviet Union reveal that in spite of communist efforts, jamming of Voice of America broadcasts is relatively ineffective in many areasj * 89 j that over half the programs can be heard clearly in many regions. It Is known that standard Soviet radios at widely ; separated points are eapable of receiving most of the 6 programs without serious distortion. Before receipt of these reports, information derived from Moscow and Leningrad had indicated that only about 20 per cent of the VOA broadcasts could penetrate the barrier set up by Soviet jamming stations. The new information, from a number of provincial centers, indicates that the effectiveness of jamming operations is at a peak near Moscow and Leningrad where the interfering stAtIons appar ently have their greatest concentration. Elsewhere over the wide expanse of the Soviet Union, j the evidence indicates, jamming stations are spread more thinly and are correspondingly less effective. Effective ness of the interference efforts, furthermore, varies greatly from time to time, depending upon climatic condi tions and the season of the year. Harvard University Survey Additional evidence that IBD transmissions are reaching a significant part of Russia is indicated in a study of Soviet press and radio reaction to the Voice of America conducted at Harvard University under the 6 News item in the New York Times, February 16, 1951. 90 7 supervision of Professor Alex Inkeles. This study, covering the period from March 1, 1947, to September 30, 1950, found a sharply upward trend during the last two years in the number of press and radio references to and attacks upon the "Voice." From March 1, 1947, to July 31, 1949, such references averaged thirty during each three-month period. From July 1, 1950, to September 30, 1950, however, there were ninety-nine such references of which twenty-nine were concerned with the Soviet anti-American play, "Voice of America." If repeat broadcasts are ineluded, the number of references rises to one hundred seventy-eight. During July to September of last year, the VOA was the primary or major focus of attack sixteen times in eight mass-circulation Soviet newspapers and magazines, according to the study. Soviet radio broadcasts attacked the Voice of America 102 times during these same three months. Most of these efforts were aimed at audiences I outside the Soviet Union, particularly those in Eastern and Western Europe. Professor Inkeles f study found that much of the anti- American propaganda assumed that the Soviet audience knew what the VOA was, and even hinted at times that large 7 Harry Schwartz, "More ’Voice' News Reaching Russians," the New York Times. February 16, 1951. numbers listened to the broadcasts* One article attacking a "Voice” description of conditions in the Donets coal basin declared: "One, can imagine how our Soviet miners laughed when they heard the wild announcement by the 'VOA. 1,1 There is supporting evidence that Soviet authorities believe part of their population listens to the programs, the study noted. This is revealed in the fact that from time to time they go to great lengths in articles and radio broadcasts to refute particular material carried in VOA transmissions• Dramatic Incidents Proof that programs are penetrating the Iron Curtain ; countries has sometimes revealed itself in dramatic inci dents. In 1949, two Soviet aviators, Lts. Piotr Pirogov and Anatole Barsov, landed at an American airport near Linz, Austria, and declared themselves political refugees. Upon interrogation by American intelligence officers, it was revealed that they had been impressed with Voice of America 8 programs on life in the United States. When, in another instance, Mrs. Oksana Kasenkina jumped from a window of the Soviet Consulate in New York, the facts were broadcast by the State Department. Literally as well as figuratively, it was a leap for freedom. A few 8 Irwin Ross, "Iron Curtain Penetrated by Radio," Christian Science Monitor. April 30, 1949, p. 2. 92 hours later the news, according to an official source, was spread throughout Moscow, long before any disclosure of the 9 incident was revealed by the Russian press. Publicizing the Economic Cooperation Adminis trat ion With passage of the European Recovery Act in March, 1948, it was considered highly important by administration ; officials that all people in the Marshall Plan countries understood the plan of economic recoveryt how it affected or would affect their daily lives, and what progress was being made in carrying out the plan.'*'® The Voice of America, it is stated, treated the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) program as an informational effort of prime importance. During the year of its inception, the ECA reputedly received more air-time in American international broadcasting to Europe than any other single topic. The approach necessarily varied from one broadcast area to another. Programs to Western Europe emphasized day-to-day grants and shipments to participating countries; opportunities were used to remind Europeans of their responsibility in furthering the program and of the need for i 9 Edward W. Barrett, ”Informational Aims in the Cold War,” The Department of State Bulletin, 22s994, No. 572, June 19, 1950. 10 ’ 'The World Audience,” o£. cit., p. 54. 93 European countries to increase mutual economic cooperation. Broadcasts to Eastern Europe and the U.S.S.K. stressed factual reports of economic progress achieved in Western Europe under the impetus of EGA* The ECA received less attention in the broadcasts to Latin America, although benefits which the Latin American countries would derive from ECA were brought to their attention* Coverage to the Far East was devoted mainly to important ECA developments in the news and to details of the ECA assistance which the United States provided -under the program to China, Korea, and Indonesia. Positive and Negative Results In pointing to the accomplishments of the Voice of America, the State Department Includes political victories of a democratic character as prime examples of measurable results. Italy, in particular, is singled out as represen tative of such gratifying achievements. Incorporated in an illustrated presentation for the "Campaign of Truth" is the following statement; One more questions Will it work? Will it produce practical, measurable results? The answer is sugges ted by the record. In Italy, for example, where it did work. Where it wrenched a pivotal area from the very grip of Communism. Where democracy won a blood less battle of ideas. Here the Communists were strong. . . and appealed to by a conscienceless demagog. But democracy won this battle of ideas. . . . In Italy, where America really poured it on, the truth prevailed. The wide world over, wherever 94 freedom is threatened, it can win— provided we have the wisdom to do the same.H Somewhat deflating, however, is a more recent announcement from Munich, Germany* In a little-publicized ; news report, it is announced that "Officials of Radio Munich said today the 30-minute daily broadcasts of the Voice of America in the United States zone of Germany will be halved July 1 (1951) to bobtail propaganda that has 12 caused some resentment." Audience Mail Perhaps the clearest and occasionally the most moving evidence that the ’ ’Voice" has measurable influence on a world-wide scale is furnished by the letters which are: handled and processed by the Audience Mail Section of IBP. Various estimates have been made on the volume of this correspondence, the most recent indicating that some two hundred thousand letters were received from listeners for 1950. The Mail Section acknowledges all audience mail in the language of the original letter, supplying as far as possible all information requested therein. Short-wave radio program brochures constitute one of the most-requested items. 11 "State Dept. Seeks Louder Voice," op. cit., p. 74. 12 News item in the Los Angeles Times, M a y 1, 1951. 95 The character of the letters vary according to the nationality and background of the writer, A resident of Munich, for example, asks ". . . why are we Germans never as free as other people? Are we so different from everyone! else in the world . • • that again and again we must blindly run into the same abyss?'1 A letter from an Italian family in Cremona professes amazement at the .standard of living in the United States: 11. . ' • how in the world can an American family man^ with three or four children depend ent on him, even if he is in good circumstances, afford the! 13 luxury of an automobile?" Official Opinion The United States Advisory Commission on Information, in its semi-annual report on VOA activities, reported that the State Department had done a laudable job with the Voice of America, Established in 1948 by Congress to recommend information policies and programs for the Secretary of State, the Commission noted in its most recent report that its proposals had been "largely carried out" by the State Department, Additional funds were held necessary to improve and expand the effectiveness of its programs. The May report. — One of the Commission’s members, Mr. Mark A. May, completed an overseas survey of the VOA in 13 Prom files of the Audience Mail Section, Inter national Broadcasting Division, Department of State. February of 1949. His appraisal of the program, made inde pendently of the State Department, was based on firsthand information gathered from interviews with more than two hundred people. Contacts made by Mr. May included repre sentatives of foreign governments, radio, press, and motion picture personalities, newspaper correspondents, editors, writers, labor leaders, church officials, and business men. The survey indicated that VOA broadcasts were penetrating the Iron Curtain countries where people had access to radio sets, and to many more by word of mouth. Informational activities, however, were gradually being hampered by Soviet interference in the satellite countries. In the free countries of Europe, the program was believed to have a relatively small audience when compared with audiences of national networks and broadcasts from neighboring countries. People from the upper and middle classes appeared to benefit mostly from the broadcasts and informational activities. Information about the United States was not yet effectively reaching farmers, industrial workers, owners of small businesses, restaurants, and other enterprises. In countries that have a high percentage of illiteracy, as for example, Italy, Greece, and Spain, it was definitely concluded that information was not reaching those unable to read, who did not have radios, and who were 97 14 inaccessible for exhibition of motion pictures. Special Problems As with any government-sponsored project, motives and operations become enmeshed in political and economic con siderations* Perennially, the International Broadcasting Division has been plagued with financial problems. Currently, as has been noted elsewhere, a Senate sub committee has drastically curtailed appropriations for the proposed intensification of the Truth Campaign. The entire ; career of the Voice of America has been checkered and un predictable. Postwar career. — With the end of World War II, the j budget for broadcasting operations was reduced to $6,000,000 and operation of the programs was turned over to private agencies, including the National Broadcasting Corporation and the Columbia Broadcasting System. However, the tone and character of several of the broadcasts were felt to be depracating and Inimical to the interests of the United States Government. This has been a contributing factor among many in creating Congressional dissatisfaction with the VOA program. Actually, the revival of post-war propaganda did not 14 prom the first semi-annual report submitted by the U. S. Advisory Commission on Information to the Congress on March 30, 1949. 98 begin until the American people reluctantly acknowledged that the U.S.S.R. had revealed itself as the enemy of 15 freedom. Mowrer has noted that American propaganda has been handicapped not only by lack of organization, equip ment, and money; it has also had to struggle against an entrenched adversary, better equipped, more unscrupulous, and, so far at least, more skilled. The lack of positive American foreign policy has further handicapped its propaganda efforts. The United States is associated with capitalism, freedom, and democracy, but a century of disparagement and criticism of private initiative by generations of Socialists has spread doubt both of its justice and of its soundness as an economic system. The Kremlin, in addition, wishes the world to believe that investment, profits, Wall Street, , bourgeois, are tantamount to imperialism, colonialism, 1 A exploitation, war. Natural envy, furthermore, works against the United States. It is human nature to dislike or envy the rich and powerful. Our brusque cancellation of lend-lease in 1945 and the ending of war-time economic aid to Latin America were misunderstood. Finally, no amount of publicity can quite allay the wrath of the world’s hungry when they hear Mowrer, o£. cit., p. 36. 16 Loc. cit. 99 of the U. S. Administration's buying up and destroying 17 foodstuffs in order to support home prices. In view of the various factors which have been presented, it becomes apparent that special problems will continue to harass operations of IBD. Obviously, no single program is destined to please everyone simultaneously. It becomes apparent that not only psychological factors but economic and political considerations as well must be dealt with. Summary Conclusion Both physical and man-made obstacles have impeded VOA broadcasts. Accomplishments of the program have necessarily depended on how effectively the programs have surmounted geographical handicaps, jamming operations, and terroristic ; methods to intimidate potential listeners in the Iron Curtain countries. Gauging the number of listeners and short-wave radio sets overseas remains a difficult if not imponderable problem. Evidence appears to indicate that the programs are reaching a significant part of Russia, as revealed by the Inkeles study, intelligence information, and various other sources. Measurable results remain somewhat elusive, however, although efficacy of the program has been demon 1 17 Ibid., p. 39. strated in publicizing the ECA, stemming the Communist tide in Italy, and by the large volume of audience mail. The U. S. Advisory Commission on Information, composed of private citizens, has indicated its approval of State Department operational efficiency. Additional funds have been held a necessary requisite for increasing the program's effectiveness. Many problems remain to be solved; illiterate peoples and those lacking radio facilities represent a challenge to future operations of the International Broadcasting Division. Economic, political, and psychological consider ations constitute the ever-changing background. CHAPTER VI RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE PROGRAM Strange as it may seem, the Americans who created modern advertising and commercial salesmanship have steadily lagged in international political sales manship . Having examined the operational procedures and accomplishments of the International Broadcasting Division, suggestions for improving efficacy of the Voice of America program are considered* These recommendations are presented, for matters of convenience, in two categories, (1) official pronouncements, and (2) private sentiments* I. OFFICIAL RECOMMENDATIONS Inasmuch as the United States Advisory Commission on Information was created for the manifest purpose of reporting to the Congress regarding the efficacy of VOA activities, its recommendations will be considered first. Report of the Commission on Information Mr. Mark May, one of the Commission’s members, made ^several concrete suggestions as the result of his overseas survey in 1948 and 1949. Prior to his recommendations, reports from abroad had indicated a desire among listeners 1 Mowrer, op. cit., p. 36. 102 for a much greater variety of information on all aspects of American life than was presently being supplied. Improvements in the effectiveness of communication of information by radio, as outlined by Mr. May, could be made in several ways: 1. Physical facilities, if increased, would strengthen signals and provide for more medium-wave relay bases. In order to attract a substantial audience, listeners must always be assured of hearing the Voice regularly and clearly on well-known frequencies. 2. Increasing the number of broadcasts would reach a much larger audience. Broadcasts at that time (1949) to most Iron Curtain countries were on a continuous thirty minute basis. By establishment of fifteen minute-periods, or preferably, several different periods, a choice of times would be available to the listener. In the free countries of Western Europe, where the VOA is required to compete with high-quality local programs, the chances of gaining i and holding an audience would be improved if there were continuous one- or two hours of diversified programs. There is another advantage of increasing the air-time (according to the recommendation)• It would provide for greater diversification of programs; these could be tailored to the interests of various segments of the population as, for example, labor, youth, women, etc. 103 3. In order to compete for listeners with other medium-wave broadcasts (particularly in the free countries of Europe) it was suggested that attractiveness of American programs be improved* Although many listeners are interested in the newscasts of the Voice, yet the great masses of them like a diversified radio diet. It should be kept in mind, however, that the main purpose of broad casting in foreign countries is to communicate information about the United States and its foreign policy. To do this in an attractive way the broad casts must not only be geared to local interests and conditions but also must be carefully prepared, rehearsed, and criticized. This requires special skills of producers, actors, narrators, musicians, and engineers. It may also require an increase, in countries that have large national networks, in the number of radio officers who can work closely with local program directors.2 Recommendations to the Secretary of State. -- The Commission, in its first report to the Secretary of State, dated December 23, 1948, made the following observations and recommendationst . • . the Commission is of the opinion that there is not yet a full realization in the Depart ment of State of the potential value and effective ness of the instruments by which a full and fair picture of the United States and its policies can be given to the world. The Commission thinks of the use of information media as entering into, rather than being apart from, the formulation and projection of policy. . . • . . . it is conceivable that good effect can be lost if there is undue delay within the policy making branch of the Department in giving guidance to the Voice of America, and to other media of 2 "The World Audience," op. cit., p. 12. information in all government departments. . . . The Voice of America broadcasts almost 24 hours a day and listeners all over the world await American reaction to world events* There is growing aware ness of that fact within the Department, but we think it can be sharpened up.^ Heed for study indicated. — In April of 1951 the 4 Commission noted in its semi-annual report that its principle recommendations made over the preceding two and one half years had been substantially carried out. Since considerable consideration was given to Mr. May's obser vations on the status of information services in Europe, his concluding remarks are presented before discussing private sources of recommendations: Our ultimate purpose is to create public opinion that is based on accurate information. The time is ripe for this because of the tremendous appetite for knowledge from America. We must begin with the existing curiosities and desires for specific kinds of knowledge by asking: 'Who wants to know [Italics in the original] what about us?' The answer to this question is that doctors, nurses, health officers, dentists, etc., want to know about American medicine and health measures; manufacturers want to know about our production methods; road builders want to know how we build roads; labor leaders want to know how American labor is organized. . . . It is only by giving people the kinds of information that they want that we can persuade them to listen to some other things they need [italics in the original] to know about us. The State Department will be advised by the Commission to consider making studies of the popu- • lations of the world for the purpose of defining 3 Ibid., p. 58. 105 the groups to which information may be most effec tively conveyed. The interest and needs of each group should' be specified. The most effective channels for reaching each group with information may then be determined. . . . It seems highly probable that certain modest increases in budget might very well result in proportionately greater increases in the scope and effectiveness of the work.^ See Figure 3. II. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS: VOX POPULI Majority of the suggestions relating to increased efficacy of the programs may be divided into the following groups: (1) revisions in the content and character of script material} (2) enlarging facilities of the Inter national Broadcasting Division; (3) creation of an inde pendent information agency; (4) miscellaneous ’ ’projects.” Content of the Programs Dissatisfaction with material incorporated in the programs has been voiced on several occasions. David 6 Lawrence has protested that information conveyed is not suitable to the knowledge or background of the average man 7 in Russia, Callender has expressed the opinion that there is a vital need to distinguish between the American and 5 tt^he World Audience,” op. cit., p. 107. 6 David Lawrence, ”U. S. Inept at War of Ideas,” Citizen News, Hollywood, July 7, 1950. 7 Harold Callender, ’ ’Selling U. S.-Type Capitalism to Europe Called Vital Need,” the New York Times, March 28, 1951. _ 106 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 ;»<r» WJ'J. 1 EUROPE (West) IRON CURTAIN* ASIA** AFRICA Baa^ca SO. AMERICA V" Pi * i ' < $ & !3S:!a s?nv.s. a * U.S.S.R. and Satellites ** Including Republic of China FIGURE 3 WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION (in millions) Source: The Statesman1s Year Book. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950. 107 European type of capitalism. To most European workers, capitalism means a rigid low wage economy whose leaders have never heard of the doctrine that wealth distributed as wages expands domestic consumption and production to the advantage of capitalists and workers alike. Marxist propaganda, it is pointed out, has long taught that capitalism must produce this low-wage economy. ; Communists profit by this indoctrination, which cannot be controverted by reference to the current price and wage indexes in Europe. In offering to the world a superior alternative to Communism, it must not be identified with the slow-motion capitalism of Western Europe. Somehow, it must be identified with the more fulsome American economy, which sets an example not only for the backward Communist Q areas but for the backward capitalist areas. The suggestion has also been advanced that ’ ’ Actually, o what the Voice needs above all is not more money or more memoranda from Washington, but simply better writing, sharper thinking, and plenty of blue pencils to cut the dull Q stretches which still pervade too many of its programs.” 8 Callender, loc. cit. The fact that the United States 1 brand of democratic capitalism might be subject to ! variegated interpretations was originally suggested in discussions with Professor E. Bryant Phillips, Department 1 of Economics, University of Southern California. 9 nThe'Voice of America: What It Tells the World,1 1 op. cit., p. 23. Expanded Facilities One of the most frequent suggestions for improving efficacy of the programs relates to increasing facilities of the VOA global network. This suggestion has originated, with private as well as governmental sources. The United States Advisory Commission, in its 1951 report, strongly recommended necessary funds for conducting the total "war of ideas," including expansion of present facilities. Gallup has stated that "We should encircle the globe with a radio network which will give everyone who chooses to listen--even the people inside Russia and the satellite nations— an opportunity to hear our side of the oase,"^ Mowrer has suggested that an extended effort on the part of the United States would compel the Russians to jam their own programs or peimit foreign broadcasts to pierce the ether waves unhampered. More and larger transmitters, larger administrative staffs, and more programs could turn out to be, in the long run, not only the least costly but the most effective weapon for propaganda purposes An Independent Agency A suggestion which is periodically debated in the halls of Congress and in the public forums concerns the 1° Gallup, og. cit., p. 143. 11 Mowrer, op. cit., p. 39. 109 establishment of an information bureau independent of the State Department and subject only to directives of the President of the United States. Senator William Benton, one-time Assistant Secretary of State, has been credited with the proposal* In March, 1947, Mr. Benton completed a study on proposed long range policies of government overseas broadcasting. This included a plan for removing VOA activities and incorporating them in an -independent Govern ment corporation— the International Broadcasting Foundation of the United States. Variations of the proposal have been: echoed from time to time by public and private spokesmen. Senator Benton proposed that the Foundation should be supported by Federal appropriations unless and until it : should be able to interest private business in buying time t on overseas broadcasts. The avowed purpose of the Foun dation would be to "disseminate information pertaining to American life, policy, industry techniques, and customs," and to encourage development of international broadcasting 12 by private groups. All such proposals, so far at least, have failed to impress either the House or Senate committees on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Miscellaneous Projects Creativeness, boldness, and imagination have been 12 "controversy in Congress," o£. cit., p. 64 110 declared necessary on various occasions to insure an adequate information program. Mr. Paul Hoffman, former administrator of the ECA, thinks propaganda should en- 'compass deeds as well as words. Establishment of a single,; independent overseas information agency with cabinet status would flchallenge the Kremlin's new method of conquest on 13 the economic, political, and psychological fronts.” ’ ’Bold new ideas of propaganda," as suggested by Mr. Hoffman, would include releasing balloons from Norway and the allied zone of Germany. These balloons, with "freedom" messages attached, would presumably penetrate Iron Curtain countries as a means of ridiculing Soviet propaganda. Distribution of radios equipped with short-wave receiving facilities to Communist-dominated areas has been j advocated by Senator Capehart. These and many other suggestions have received serious consideration in the State Department and by various Congressional committees. The responsibility of separating the fantastic from the practical remains with them. Summary Conclusion Recommendations for improving broadcasts and general activities of the International Broadcasting Division have, Data gathered from Town Meeting of the Air, broadcast over station KECA, April 17, 1951; Mr. Hoffman was a participant. Ill in the majority of instances, originated with the United I States Advisory Commission, Proposals suggested by the Commission for the past two to three years have been adopted by the State Department; the Commission has also felt that the program is being efficiently administered. Expanding facilities of the VOA in connection with the "Campaign of Truth*1 has been recommended by the Commission; the Administration’s request for necessary funds, however, has been denied by the House and Senate Appropriation's Committees• Mr. May, member of the Advisory Commission, has recommended that programs be made more attractive; broad casts should be geared to local interests and conditions. It has been suggested that a study of the world’s popu lations be made by the State Department. Purpose of the survey would be to determine Interests and needs of each group, and to ascertain the most effective channels for disseminating the information. Suggestions from other sources relate to improving* the character of broadcasts through revision of script material; emphasis has been placed on eliminating uninter esting information, careful preparation, and a more critical approach to world events. Creation of a separate agency to handle propaganda activities independent of the State Department has not captured the interest of Congress 112 as a practical consideration. Expressions of dissatisfaction with existing broad casts and persistent exhortations to implement VOA strategy: and procedural planning with imagination and "bold new ideas" indicate a void of some magnitude in the program. The importance of ideas as a means of influencing the world’s populations cannot be over-emphasized. It would seem justified, therefore, to concentrate a maximum of time and effort to explore all avenues of approach as a means of rectifying this deficiency. CHAPTER ¥11 CONCLUSIONS OP THE STUDY Measurable and Imponderable Factors The present study of the Voice of America program advertising campaign as measured by commercial standards has necessarily been handicapped by the inevitable conflict ; between the philosophical and philanthropic motives of a democratic government versus the profit motives of the entrepreneur. While criteria of effective commercial advertising may be established with little difficulty, their application and interpretation to a government-sponsored project for the most part requires constant qualification. The typical advertising firm, assuming it is operating with ■ reasonably effective techniques, is relatively unburdened in conducting a campaign from overriding objections on the part of the sponsor. Government agencies, on the other hand, are subject to a great many pressures which tend to distort operational procedures. Congressional approval at all times must be sought; otherwise financial discipline may be anticipated. Beyond this, there is the omnipotent consideration of public opinion. Interest or apathy of the public very often have far-reaching consequences. In this situation, the State Department is not an exception. Pressure factors at times 114 make it difficult to distinguish, the political from the economic, the factual from the problematical. Facts versus opinions. — An illustration of this circumstance is to be found in the prevailing opinion of the U. S. Advisory Commission regarding efficacy of the VOA program as opposed to recent Congressional action in sharply reducing the State Department's request for supple-; mental funds to expand existing facilities. The Advisory Commission, in its semi-annual report for 1951, expressed satisfaction with the State Department's administration of ; the program, labelling it "efficient." Personnel was described as "greatly improved,” and expansion activities authorized by the Eighty-first Congress was declared to have been "effectively carried forward.” Additional funds for expanding the "Campaign of.Truth" were strongly urged by the Commission in its report to Congress, Seemingly unaware of, or impervious to, these recommendations, the House Appropriations Committee adminis-i- tered a 90 per cent reduction in the original request of ^97,500,000 sought by the State Department for its infor mation services. Members of the Committee, while manifestly motivated by reasons of economy, were reported to have expressed dissatisfaction with administration of the program in private discussions. The Senate Appropriations Committee, at a later date, concurred with the House 115 Committee by substantiating the deep cut in requested funds. The Advisory Commission, its membership consisting of private citizens unaffiliated with the State Department in any capacity, is duly appointed to represent the public as a checkmate against bureaucratic machinations* The members of Congress, manifestly, are elected to represent the public. Here, however, we have two diametrically opposed viewpoints presumably based on factual data. Obviously, the clue to solution of the dilemma lies in consideration of the political element. In addition to this complex problem must also be included the motivations of a democratic government; the '•profit" angle is inclined to be dismissed as irrelevant, especially in the "welfare" state or a reasonable facsimile While this factor militates against applying commercial yardsticks to results of any government program, it must be dealt with in a study of this character. Actually, aside from an instance in the post-war development of the VOA, when operations were privately conducted by broadcast corporations, there has been little criticism of financial waste or irresponsibility. Commercial applications. — Initially in the study, elements of the advertising campaign as established by private business and marketing research were formulated for comparative purposes in the appraisal of the International lie; Broadcasting Division’s practices. It was established that mechanisms exist within the framework of the State Depart- ; ment which are sufficiently adequate to conduct an adver tising campaign in approved commercial fashion. It was Indicated that (1) familiarity with the product as applied to the Voice of America program is peculiarly restricted to the provisions of the Smith-Mundt Act of 1948, which legally authorized activities of IBD. Despite the somewhat nebulous and intangible definitions of the Act (i.e., to promote better understanding and strengthen international relations), it is felt that con siderable areas of exploration remain to be developed in the battle of ideas. (2) The Program Operations Braneh, particularly the * Language Section, is capable of utilizing effective appeals which is an essential element in the advertising campaign. Here, again, however, potential improvement is indicated by suggestions of the U. S. Advisory Commission. Specifically, Mr. May has recommended that peoples of all countries be given the kinds of information they want; in this way can they be persuaded to listen to information which they need to know about us. Studies of the populations of the world for the purpose of defining the groups to which information' * may be most effectively conveyed promises considerable hope of gratifying results. 117 (3) Planning the approach, the third element of the campaign, is integrated satisfactorily in IBD’s methods as exemplified by the appointment of a General Business Committee to supplement activities of the Advisory Commis- j sion. Other efforts, particularly the proposed expansion of the Campaign of Truth, are somewhat dubious in the light of Congressional disapproval for necessary appropriations. Solution to the apparent dilemma would appear to be found in improving existing techniques, applying methods such as the “targeting" principle more intensively (i.e., adapting j the product to the market), and an intensified search for new ideas. (4) Employing the best media to achieve objectives has been demonstrated by the use of radio which surmounts most physical barriers and is usually effective among illiterates. Some imponderables exist in this connection, however. Information on the number of short-wave radio sets in the various countries of the world as well as the number of listeners is frequently predicated on estimates and intelligence information rather than actual knowledge; this is particularly true in the Iron Curtain countries. Furthermore, according to a United Nations1 survey,'*' less than 1 per cent of the 211 million people in the Soviet 1 "The Price of Our Message," New Republic, 24r6, July 31, 1950. us: Union are even potential listeners to the combined VOA and BBC programs. The survey indicates that only 1.3 million regular radio sets exist in the entire U.S.S.R.J that there are six and one half million ’ ’ wired receivers” in Russia over .which government monitored programs are distributed through a loudspeaker into the listeners’ homes. The problem of reaching illiterate people in the friendly countries who do not possess radio sets also remains a problem. Part of this responsibility, of course, is shared by other informational units of the State Depart-; ment, including the International Motion Picture Division which emphasizes the visual approach. (5) The Analysis Section of the Program Evaluation Branch permits evaluation of results which is the fifth element of the campaign. Overseas surveys to determine audience listening habits have been conducted in the European area, particularly in France and Germany. The effectiveness of foreign broadcasts originating with Radio ; ^Moscow and the British Broadcasting Corporation are also determined by the Analysis Section. The question of how to determine listening habits in Russia and the satellite countries has not been resolved. Dependence on intelligence reports, interrogation of refugees, and reliance on the U. S. Missions' reports are essentially stop-gap methods. This situation actually represents an extremely serious situation to the entire informational activities of the State Department. Jamming operations, campaigns of terror, and the relentless closing of U. S. libraries, exhibition stations, and information offices throughout the Soviet empire con tinues unabated. It presents a problem which challenges the best efforts of the State Department information offi cers. Barring peaceful settlement of the world's differ ences, the outlook for both the short-term and long run is definitely discouraging. (6) The competitive factor represents a combination of many elements. Machinery for comparing popularity of VGA programs with those of foreign nations exists, as has been indicated, with the Analysis Section of IBD. Broad casts from Moscow are malicious but obviously effective in capturing the interest of underprivileged peoples to whom the promise of a share of anything at all represents an improvement in their present status. Expanding the Campaign of Truth, adapting programs for specific "target" countries, exchange of persons, and mobile picture units appear to be only a partial answer to the problem. Straight news reporting, which the State Department has relied upon to establish confidence in VOA's5 integrity, is an effective counter measure to Moscow's distorted broadcasts. However, it is the "message" which 120| must be relied upon to accomplish results. What, for instance, is the United States ’ intention with respect to carrying out the provisions of the Four Freedoms for the millions of subjugated people? The individual listener is interested in ascertaining how the turn of world events, suggested reforms, or applications of the principles of democracy and capitalism will benefit him directly... This leads us into the psychological factors of the campaign. Psychological aspects. -- Examination of script material prepared by IBD revealed intermittent application i of psychological principles. The function of (1) attracting attention was given scant consideration in most of the programs surveyed. Probably with some justification, news reporting is delivered in a straight manner. However, no evidence exists that application of psychological techniques such as sound effects (e.g., code signals, dramatic delivery, ringing of "freedom" bells) would not contribute to attracting a larger audience. Attempts to "humanize" the news offers another approach to the problem of increasing the program’s appeal. Economic reports offer potentialities of increasing listener rating. Elimination of dull stretches, minimizing ; U. S. accomplishments, and accenting advantages to be gained (in terms of the individual) by democratic processes have been suggested in this respect. 1211 (2) Arousing interest in the programs can be attained only by presenting the listener with a situation which he recognizes. Subjects selected by VOA emphasize conditions I in the United States, presumably to foster "understanding” > and "cooperation" among other countries. It is felt that topics selected for discussion should have identifying factors which the listener might take as applying at least : potentially to himself. (3) Arousing the desire supplies the motivation for the end results impelling action. Attainment of the desire should be associated with pleasure. Self-preser vation and self-expression are basic instincts in arousing the desire, but this factor has been difficult to isolate in IBD script material. Again, there is over-emphasis on generalities and scant attention to the individual’s in stinctive tendencies. There is some evidence that the psychological use of words or language in terms of the listener's background should warrant investigation. Sacrifices which the American people are making for international aid programs doubtless deserve to be included in programs bearing on this subject; how such aid will benefit the individual in the war-ravaged countries merits equal emphasis. (4) Impelling action remains as the final justifi cation for the advertisement. This represents a difficult 122 area of exploration in terms of the Voice of America adver tising campaign. Precisely what action may be anticipated by promoting a better understanding of the United States in other countries; or by increasing mutual understanding? Operations of the programming and broadcasting activities of the State Department have been officially described. It consists of presenting to the people of other countries, a picture of the American people, their ideals and their ways of life. Countering Communist propaganda is also one of the purposes of the Government’s information services. This does not imply that heresy may be fomented in the Communist party by fighting “The Big Lie” with ”The Big Truth.” Actually, this would represent an application of the .familiar strategy of ' ’fighting fire with fire." Such principles were roundly condemned by the members of Congress during the debate over the establishment of a post-war Voice of America. Possibly the least controversial formula is obtained in the broadcasts to China. Efforts of the Chinese people to assert their freedom, the State Department proclaims, ; will evince tremendous support from free peoples in other parts of the world. The Present and Future; A Synthesis Briefly, any improvements in the quality and 123; quantitative aspects of VOA broadcasts must be anticipated from more effective utilization and application of existing; facilities. Potentialities exist for seizing the initiative from Moscow propagandists by,a more intensive exploitation ! of altruistic objectives of the United States as contrasted with the ruthless aims of the Kremlin. Individualistic appeals, interpretations, and applications in the character! of broadcasts should be encouraged rather than straight presentation of facts which are not associated with the listener's background. Imaginative ideas coupled to reali ties of the world situation should help to compensate for the lack of Congressional appropriations. The political background with respect to financial aid for future VOA programs doubtless will remain confused ; and generally unfavorable, at least for the short term period. Maneuvers among certain elements of Congress to disallow any appropriations for the State Department, which; would impair not only planned projects but salaries of the ; employees themselves, furnishes a fair barometer of future :developments. Whether a successor to the present (1951) Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, might create a more favorable atmosphere in Congressional relations remains to be seen. Studies such as the Harvard University survey, under the direction of Professor Alex Inkeles, indicate that VOA 124 programs are reaching a significant part of Russia’s listeners despite jamming operations. This is an encour- - aging factor for prognostic purposes, for intensification of the ether disturbances must be at the peril of jamming the Soviet’s own programs as well. Efficacy of the broadcasts will depend on several factors. Psychological principles and attitudes underscore the task of presenting programs with greater impact and ideological decisiveness. Guidance offered by the U. S. Advisory Commission, implemented by actual surveys as con ducted by Mr. May, appears particularly beneficial. Lastly the shape of world events will inevitably dictate the role which the Voice of America will assume. Ironically, the VOA was created as an instrument to influence the trend of global activities. Should peace and understanding be established among all the countries of the world, its very existence may be threatened. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Arnold, Frank A., Broadcast Advertising. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1931. 275 pp. Copeland, Melvin Thomas, Marketing Problems. New York: A* W. Shaw Company, 1922. 363 pp. Hotchkiss, George B., An Outline of Advertising. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950. 605 pp. Kleppner, Otto, Advertising Procedure. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1946. 641 pp. Poffenberger, Albert T., Psychology in Advertising. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1932. 634 pp. The Geneva Studies, Vol. X. Geneva, Switzerland: The Geneva Research Centre, August, 1939. 116 pp. Warburg, James P., Unwritten Treaty. New York: Hareourt, Brace and Company, 1946. 186 pp. Wiseman, Mark, The Anatomy of Advertising. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1942. Vol. I: 226 pp. Vol. II: 178 pp. Wolfe, Charles Hull, Modern Radio Advertising. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1949. 738 pp. B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES "American Twang: OIC's Voice of America,1 1 Time, 49:26, May, 1947. "Clear the Decks: Voice of America," Time, 51:22, June, 1948. "Controversy in Congress Over Establishing VOA Project," The Congressional Digest, 27:41-64, February, 1948. Dallin, David J., "Russia's New Empire," The Yale Review, 40:6-26, September, 1950. 12?; Ehrenburg, I., "Russian Editor's Criticism and a Reply: The Voice of America," United Nations News, 22:26-27, April, 1947. Fellers, Bonner (Brigadier General), "How to Make the Russians Revolt," Coronet Magazine, 29:24-29, November,! 1950. Foulkrod, M., "Short Wave of the Futures Should the Voice of America.be Silenced?" Current History, 13:12-16, July, 1947. Gallup, Dr. George, "We Have Been Outsold," Vital Speeches,! 17:141-45, December 15, 1950. "Is VOA Broadcast Needed to Combat Communism?" U.S. News, 22:22, May, 1947. Kuhn, Ferdinand, Jr., "Letting the Whole World Know," Survey Graphic, 35:492-97, December, 1946. Lehman, M., "We Must Sell America Abroad," Saturday Evening Post, 220:26-94, November, 1947. "Listeners: Voice of America," New Yorker, 24:25-26, October, 1948. Meyer, S. J., "World Hears an American Story Over the Voice; of America," Coronet Magazine, 26:160-61, June, 1949.. Mowrer, Edgar, "Why Advertise God's Country?" Saturday Review of Literature, 33:39-45, October 21, 1950. "Propaganda: For the Voice of America," Newsweek, 29:31-32, May, 1947. Ross, Irwin, "Iron Curtain Penetrated by Radio, and Millions of Europeans Are Listening," Christian Science Monitor, Magazine Section, 2, April 30, 1949. "Short Wave Troubles: U. S. Government Programs for the Soviet Union," Newsweek, 29:54, April, 1947. Thayer, Charles W., "Radio As an Instrument of Foreign Policy," Vital Speeches, 14:309-12, March, 1948. "The Price of Our Message," New Republic, 24:6, July 31, 1950.--------------------------- ------ 128 "The Voice of America: What It Tells the World,” Time, 55:22-23, May 1, 1950. "Voice of Confusion,” Newsweek, 31:23-24, June, 1948. "Voice's Scoop: Buying Panic in Russia," Newsweek, 30:23- j 24, December, 1947. "U. S. to the World: Voice of America,” Newsweek, 29:31-32, May, 1947. Wells, William H., "The Mumble in the Voice of America,” Harper's Magazine, 202:23-27, January, 1951. C. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS Allen, George V., "Propaganda, a Conscious Weapon of Diplomacy," Department of State Bulletin, 21:941-45, December 19, 1949. s ________, "The Voice of America," Department of State Bulletin, 19:567-69, November 7, 1948. Kohler, Foy D., "What the Voice of America Does," Department of State Bulletin, 23:896-98, December 4, 1950. Parson, Ruby A., "Radio in U. S. Zone of Germany," Depart ment of State Bulletin, 21:83-84, July 25, 1949. Script Material from the Voice of America, International Broadcasting Division, Department of State: News Section— Agricultural Roundup No. 26, Week Ending December 19, 1949. Cross Country No. 24— December 21, 1949. Economic Highlights--Week Ending September 15, 1950. Week Ending October 6, 1950. Week Ending October 27, 1950. A Program for Economic Progress— November 3, 1950. "Telling America's Story Abroad," Office of Public Affairs, Department of State, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., November, 1948. "The Truth About America," The U. S. Cultural Cooperation and Information Program, Department of State, May, 1947. 129 "The United States Information Service in Europe," IJ^ S. Senate Report No. 855, Eightieth Congress, Second Session; Washington, D. C.J United States Government Printing Office, 1948. "The World Audience for America’s Story," International Information and Cultural Series 5, Department of State, Washington, D. C.s United States Government Printing Office, April, 1949. D. ABSTRACTS AND ADDRESSES "Advertising Campaign Problem," Detailed Outline, Marketing Division, School of Commerce, University of Southern California. deMille, Cecil B., "Crusade for Freedom," An Address Delivered to the Los Angeles Advertising Club, Los Angeles, September 19, 1950. Nielsen, Arthur G., "Radio Audience Research and How to Use It," An Address Delivered to the Radio Writers’ Guild, December 15, 1948, Chicago, Illinois. "Psychological Factors in Advertising," Detailed Outline, Marketing and Foreign Commerce Department, University of Pennsylvania. E. NEWSPAPERS Citizen News, Hollywood, July 7. 1950. May 23, 1951. Los Angeles Times, May 1, 1951. New York Times, November 14, 1950. February 16, 1951. March 4, 1951. March 8, 1951.

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Creator Badcon, James Robert (author)

Core Title The Voice of America program advertising campaign as measured by commercial standards

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Economics

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag business administration, marketing,Economics, General,mass communications,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, E. Bryant (committee chair), Leonard, Joy L. (committee member), Mead, Richard R. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c20-439733

Unique identifier UC11265630

Identifier EP44711.pdf (filename),usctheses-c20-439733 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP44711.pdf

Dmrecord 439733

Document Type Thesis

Rights Badcon, James Robert

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA