Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
Reflective practice: the administrator behind the process
(USC Thesis Other)
Reflective practice: the administrator behind the process
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
Running head: REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 1
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: THE ADMINISTRATOR BEHIND THE PROCESS
by
Julie Brandon
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2016
Copyright 2016 Julie Brandon
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 2
Table of Contents
List of Tables 4
Abstract 5
Chapter One: Introduction 6
Background of the Problem 6
Statement of the Problem 7
Purpose of the Study 8
Significance of the Study 10
Limitations and Delimitations 10
Definition of Terms 11
Organization of the Study 12
Chapter Two: Literature Review 13
Research Questions 14
History of Reflection in U.S. Public Schools 16
Current State of Reflection in Education 20
Social Justice and Social Equity 26
Reflective Practice 29
Enacting the Reflective Practice Process 31
Importance of Reflective Practice 37
Summary 41
Chapter Three: Methodology 43
Methods 43
Sample and Site Selection 44
Data Collection 45
Survey 46
Interviews 47
Observations 48
Data Analysis 49
Researcher Biases and Positionality 50
Chapter Four: Findings 51
Surveys 52
Administrator Perceptions 54
Encouragement of Teacher Reflective Practice 60
Infrastructure of Support 64
Interviews 71
Administrator’s Perceptions 72
Encouragement of Reflective Practice During PLC Process 75
Infrastructure of Support 77
Administrator Concerns 79
Observations 80
Discussion 84
Chapter Five: Discussion 86
Discussion of Findings 87
Administrator Perceptions of Reflective Practice 88
Engaging in Reflective Practice 89
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 3
Administrator Support for Teacher’s Reflective Practice 90
Implication for Practice 91
Conclusion 93
References 95
Appendix A: Informed Consent Form 99
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 102
Appendix C: Interview Protocol Letter to Participants 106
Appendix D: Interview Protocol and Research Question Alignment 107
Appendix E: Observation Protocol Letter 111
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 4
List of Tables
Table 1: Demographic Data/Personal Characteristics of Administrators 53
Table 2: School Demographic Data 54
Table 3: PLC Participation and Rate of Participation 54
Table 4: Administrator Beliefs Regarding Reflective Practice (n = 31) 55
Table 5: Administrator Understanding and Description of the Purpose of Reflection as it
Relates to Teacher Classroom Performance (n = 30) 58
Table 6 What Topics do you Consider Important for Your Teaching Staff to Reflect Upon?
(n = 31) 61
Table 7: Time Allotted to Reflective Practice (n = 31) 62
Table 8: Frequency of Teacher Reflective Practice During PLC Time 63
Table 9: How do you Facilitate Reflective Practice for Your Teaching Staff in Relation to Their
Yearly Goals and Objectives? (n=28) 65
Table 10: What Types of Reflective Questions Do You Ask Your Teachers After Observing a
Lesson? 69
Table 11: Questions Asked by Administrators to Encourage Reflection 76
Table 12: Infrastructure of Support given to Teachers by Site Administration 79
Table 13: Administrator Concerns 80
Table 14: Observation Data 81
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 5
Abstract
Thirty-one participants took an electronic survey, nine participated in interviews and two
participated in observations. Findings support research claims that the current state of reflection
in education is, at best, a work in progress. Reflective practice holds numerous interpretations,
definitions, and procedures. It is challenging to determine what an individual administrator
holds as adequate levels of reflection or what critical reflection looks like to an individual.
Reflective practice, however, allows an individual practitioner to identify personal strengths and
weaknesses and gives them an avenue to elicit change whether it is through dialoguing with
colleagues, keeping a portfolio, writing about their practice, using a rubric or any other vehicle
for reflection. Regardless of how reflective practice is enacted, research supports that with this
process a practitioner may achieve a metacognitive state wherein they can see how their practices
affects all learners in their classroom, uncover biases and make positive shifts in pedagogy and
instruction to meet their students’ needs.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 6
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
This dissertation addresses the problem of high-stakes accountability testing measures
placed upon teachers, schools and students in California. Standardized assessments that students
are required to take each spring, directly link school funding and sanctions placed upon schools
and districts.
Most recently, in 2013, students in California took the California Assessment of Student
Performance and Progress (CAASPP). The CAASPP replaced the California Standards
Assessment program, enacted in 1999, as a part of the California Public Schools Accountability
Act (California Department of Education [CDE], 2015). Under the previous system, students in
grades two through eleven took a series of assessments designed to match their grade level’s
content standards in English language arts, mathematics, social sciences and science.
The 2013 CAASPP assessment results highlight that only 44% (CDE, 2015) of students
tested in California exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and 33% (CDE,
2015) exceeded or met the standard in mathematics and demonstrates these numbers present
problem. This problem is important to address because students who do not perform well in
school have an increased risk of dropping out and not graduating.
Background of the Problem
In the last twenty years, teachers have faced an increase in professional obligations,
including selecting appropriate pedagogical strategies, how to best present the curricular content,
individual responsibility, liability and accountability for student achievement (Sellers, 2012).
Therefore, school administrators have also been expected not only to be the lead learner as well
as to manage the day to day operations of their site, but to also know and understand how to
support teachers with curriculum, shift in professional development and pedagogy, and
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 7
accountability. Working with teachers to ensure both teacher and student success is paramount
for site administrators.
Since 1999, mandated assessments have been the crux of funding via the Academic
Performance Index (API). API is the measurement of schools’ progress across California, and
schools are ranked according to this score, which measures between two hundred and one
thousand. Schools are ranked against one hundred schools that have similar demographic
measures and receive given a score between one and ten. A score of ten indicates that the school
is in the top ten percent of all schools ranked (CDE, 2015).
The new Common Core State Standards (CDE, 2015) outline grade-level content that
students need to master in both English language arts and mathematics. Therefore, in 2013,
California replaced the California Standards Test with the CAASPP assessment, which is now
the new measure of student and teacher accountability. Third- through eighth-grade students
take this assessment and are expected to meet or exceed the standards addressed on this
assessment.
Initial results indicate low student achievement in English language arts and mathematics
as measured by the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (CDE, 2015) assessment. The
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium is the entity that develops and administers next
generation, adaptive, online assessments to students in grades three through eight and grade
eleven in English language arts and mathematics.
Statement of the Problem
School administrators are responsible for insuring that teachers are teaching using
effective methodologies, have access to current pedagogy and ultimately, that all students are
learning and achieving at high levels. The administrator must also ensure any existing
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 8
achievement gaps for all students close. This dissertation addresses the problem of high-stakes
accountability testing measures placed upon teachers, schools and students in California.
Mandated standardized assessments taken each spring are directly linked to school funding as
well as to sanctions placed upon schools and districts (CDE, 2015).
The current evidence highlights that only 44% (CDE, 2015) of students tested in
California exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and 33% (CDE, 2015) of
students exceeded or met the standard in mathematics. These numbers demonstrate that this is a
problem. This problem is important to address because students who are not performing well in
school have an increased risk of dropping out and not graduating.
Purpose of the Study
Reflective practice is a promising process used in many professions with the intention of
reflection being personal and/or professional growth for practitioners (Clark, James, & Kelley,
1996; Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Larrivee, 2008; Rodgers, 2002; Schön, 1992; Thorsen &
DeVore, 2013; Zeichner, 1994). Teachers may accomplish this task by frequently and honestly
looking at their craft and analyzing the impact of teaching strategies, pedagogical strategies and
learning outcomes when they meet and collaborate with their colleagues during the professional
learning community (PLC) time during the school day (Collin & Karsenti, 2011; Colton &
Sparks-Langer, 1993; Farrell, 2012;). Regardless of the processes that teachers utilize, what
remains crucial is that teachers do reflect upon practice and adjust their teaching strategies,
pedagogical strategies and learning outcomes to ensure that student learning and achievement is
taking place. It is important to understand that the reflective practice process is very different
from teacher planning. Reflective practice, if used consistently, may help change the status quo
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 9
and bring critical change to classrooms across the country and ensure that all students have
access to the curriculum.
The PLC model (DuFour, 2006) is one forum where reflection can take place. The
PLC’s underlying assumption is that each student learns (DuFour, 2006). Three crucial
questions guide the work of the PLC. First, what do we want all students to learn? Second, how
will we know when each student has learned it, and, finally, how will we respond when a student
has difficulty learning (DuFour, 2006)? The PLC model and reflective practice process appear
to allow for seamless imbedding of collaboration among teachers. Given the opportunity to have
reflective conversations, teachers may question each other’s approaches and further develop their
knowledge, unveil assumptions and reconsider what they learn during their teaching practice.
There is little research available on the role of an administrator, whether it be a principal,
assistant principal, professor, dean, or superintendent when it comes to teacher reflective
practice, and what the administrator to facilitate it can do. If the leader of the school cannot
understand how reflective practice has the potential to improve teacher methodologies, it is
possible for staff to remain stagnant. Stagnation can negatively affect student learning and lead
to minimal academic success. The administrator must not only understand the reflective practice
process, but also provide an infrastructure for teachers that includes a variety of tools to help
them become critically reflective practitioners, since reflective practice can be enacted in a
multitude of ways (Colton & Sparks-Langer 1993; El Ashi Shabeeb & Akkary, 2014; Lyons,
1998; Thorsen & DeVore 2013; York-Barr et al., 2006).
The goals of this study are to identify and understand the role of the administrator in the
reflective practice at the institutional level, in this case, at the K-8 elementary school levels in
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 10
urban areas. The following questions aim to understand the current perceptions of school
administrators.
1. What are school administrator’s perceptions of reflective practice process and its
importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff?
2. How do school administrators encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice
during their Professional Learning Community time?
3. In what ways do school administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the
reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition?
Significance of the Study
This study addresses the problem that students are scoring at minimal levels on the newly
adopted CAASPP assessment. The ongoing examination of the effectiveness of teaching
strategies and methodologies utilized in the classroom and the impact of those strategies and
methodologies on student achievement are critical to student academic success.
The findings may help school district stakeholders, in the case of this study, K-8 site
administrators and teachers, understand the extent to which educators engage in regular
reflective practice processes during PLC time, can do to enhance teacher metacognition (Sellers,
2012) on strategies and methodologies that have the most impact on student learning. If teachers
regularly engage in reflective practices that focus on what Schön (1992) describes as reflection in
and on action in the classroom, it is possible for teachers to grow and develop as professionals.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of this study include a small sample size of administrators in cities in a major
urban area. For more generalizable results, it would have been best to survey and interview
administrators across the state. Due to time limitations, this is not possible. Limitations also
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 11
include no criteria for the number of years the administrator has been a site leader. Therefore,
there will be varying degrees of understanding regarding how best to facilitate reflective practice
among the teaching staff.
A third limitation may be that participants may be concerned that their direct supervisors,
the superintendent and the assistant superintendents, will learn of the outcomes of this study.
Therefore, privacy and ethics will be the researcher’s top priority. Informing participants occurs
via consent rules, followed by the assignment of aliases. Finally, participants can request copies
of their interviews, observations, and the outcome of the study.
Definition of Terms
CAASPP - California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress. The new Federal
assessments that measure student progress on Common Core State Standards. Students in grades
3 through 8 and 11 take this assessment each spring.
Collective collaboration - the act of engaging in reflective conversation with colleagues.
Common Core State Standards - The Common Core is a set of high-quality academic
standards in mathematics and English language arts/literacy (ELA). These learning goals outline
what a student should know and be able to do at the end of each grade (Common Core State
Standards Initiative, 2016).
Metacognition - An awareness and/or understanding about one’s own thought processes.
Portfolio - A collection of artifacts.
Professional Learning Community - An ongoing process in which educators work
collaboratively in recurring cycles of collective inquiry and action research to achieve better
results for the students they serve (Solution Tree, Inc., 2016).
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 12
Reflection in action - Being able to respond to a situation that presents itself in the
classroom. The teacher’s ability to think on their feet.
Reflection on action - Reflecting on a situation after it happens; thinking deeply and critically
about how one responds and the effects of that response.
Reflective Practice - A method to examine one’s experiences and methodologies to improve
oneself as a practitioner. One must carefully stop, think and analyze professional practices and
analyze choices and decisions made therein. Ultimately, this process aids in the acquisition of
new knowledge for the practitioner.
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium - A public agency that includes fifteen of the
United States, one territory and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This group created the online,
adaptive assessments that measure student progress on the Common Core State Standards.
Organization of the Study
This study begins with a review of the literature that includes information regarding the
history and current understanding of teacher/administrator reflective practice. The following
chapter examines role the PLC (collective collaboration) plays in reflective practice as well as
metacognition and how it relates to reflective practice.
The study will provide a qualitative approach to data collection, as it is the goal of this
study to understand and explain reflective practice, its utilization in schools and what the role of
the administrator is within this process. Methodologies include a Likert-scale survey, interviews
and observations. The researcher will utilize the constant-comparative empirical coding
technique and sort data into open, axial and selective categories for data analysis.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This paper addresses the problem of high-stakes accountability testing measures by
which California assesses teachers, school administrators, and students. Standardized
assessments that the state requires students to take each spring directly affect school funding and
may result in sanctions for schools and districts. Most recently, in 2013, California students took
the CAASPP. Replacing the California Standards Assessment program enacted in 1999, the
CAASPP is part of the California Public Schools Accountability Act (CDE, 2015). Under the
former system, students in grades two through eleven took a series of assessments designed to
match their grade level’s content standards in English language arts, mathematics, social
sciences, and science.
The evidence highlights that only 44% (California Department of Education, 2015) of
students tested in California exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and only
33% (California Department of Education, 2015) exceeded or met the standard in
mathematics. These problematic results are important to address because students who are not
performing well in school have an increased risk of dropping out and not graduating.
Many professions have long used reflective practice in order to achieve personal and/or
professional growth. Teachers may implement this process by frequently and honestly
examining their craft and analyzing the impact of teaching strategies when they are meeting and
collaborating with their colleagues during PLC time. Regardless of the processes that teachers
utilize, what remains crucial is that teachers reflect upon practice and adjust their teaching
strategies to ensure that student learning and achievement is taking place. The PLC model
(DuFour, 2006) is one forum where reflection and collective conversations can take place. The
PLC’s underlying assumption is not only that each student is taught, but also that each student
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 14
learns. Three crucial questions guide the work of the PLC. First, what do we want all students
to learn? Second, how will we know when each student has learned it? Finally, how will we
respond when a student has difficulty learning? PLC and the reflective process appear to go
hand-in-hand, as this model contains both collaboration and reflection. The purpose of this paper
is to examine the role of the school administrator in this process and how the process shapes
teacher reflective practice.
Research Questions
1. What are school administrators’ perceptions of the reflective practice process and its
importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff?
2. How do school administrators encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice
during their Professional Learning Community time?
3. In what ways do school administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the
reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition?
Scholars frequently describe reflection and reflective practice as processes whereby
educational leaders and teachers examine their instructional practices and related consequences
in an attempt to understand what they know about teaching and how they implement that
knowledge in the classroom. This frequent reexamination of the teaching craft theoretically
allows teachers to develop their knowledge, expose their biases, and continually improve their
craft with the ultimate goal of improved student achievement.
Clark, et al. (1996), Dewey (1938), Farrell (2012), Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998),
Larrivee (2008), Rodgers (2002), Schön (1992), Valli (1997), and others all agree that reflective
practice is paramount to improved performance, yet Larrivee (2008), Parsons and Stephenson
(2005), Hebert (2015) and Zeichner (1993) all claim that “reflective practice” lacks an actual
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 15
agreed-upon definition in the context of education. Furthermore, they caution that the vast
number of definitions ascribed to “reflective practice” can undermine the practice.
Valli (1997) argues that educational practitioners turned to reflective practice for various
reasons. Some were dissatisfied with the current state of performance in American
schools. Other practitioners viewed reflective practice as a tool for the professional development
of teachers. Still others adopted reflective practice due to their reliance on the use of psychology
to explain how thinking can affect behavior. According to Valli, reflection is a systematic mode
of though in which teachers should reflect on obstacles to student motivation and learning,
curriculum improvement, lesson delivery and design and ultimate goal-setting and goal
attainment. Valli also states that reflective teachers link theory and practice, examine their own
practices to improve their craft, analyze problems from many perspectives, and use new evidence
to reassess decisions.
Whereas Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998) claim that reflective thought is a dialectic
process that incorporates action with experiences to reveal one’s underlying assumptions of
reality, Clark, et al. (1996) contend that practitioners use reflection to make sense of an
experience and to refine, renew and, revise personal knowledge.
Larrivee (2008) proposes four levels of the reflective process: pre-reflective, surface
reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection. Larrivee thinks of reflection as
developmental, with possible reflection on technical skill occurring first then progressing
towards the ultimate goal of critical reflection. Larrivee argues that reflection is embedded in
one’s values, assumptions, and expectations.
Rodgers (2002) addresses the issue of teachers being able to slow down and successfully
differentiate between what they are teaching, and what students are actually learning, through
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 16
student feedback and teacher reflection. Rodgers further states that teachers must access four
stages of reflection. Reflection as a meaning-making process is the first stage. Student learning
and the teacher’s practice, experience, interaction, and continuity direct this stage of
reflection. Second, the teacher must create a hypothesis when they detect a problem. Why did
the students not learn? What happened? This second stage involves careful analysis of this
hypothesis followed by experimentation to resolve the problem. The third stage of reflection
according to Rodgers is expressing this situation in a reflective community. Finally, Rodgers
describes the fourth stage as reflective attitudes—mindsets involving wholeheartedness,
directness, and open mindedness to allow teachers learn or block their own learning about what
they observe in their classrooms.
With so many varying definitions and stages of reflective practice, it is easy to see how
based upon one’s personal history, interpretation and understanding of the constitution of
reflective practice, professions that institute reflection as a focus for improving practice may
obtain varied results.
Chapter Two explains the history and current applications of reflective practice in the
United States. It also discusses the practice’s impact on a multitude of facets in education,
including social justice, student equity, and efforts to close the achievement gap. In addition to
providing valuable background information, Chapter Two examines a framework for reflective
practice. This examination provides a critical look into what reflective practice involves,
reflective practice enactment strategies, and finally the importance of reflective practice for all
educators, especially teachers and administrators.
History of Reflection in U.S. Public Schools
Dewey (1938), Schön (1992), and Zeichner (1994) have enlightened the world of education
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 17
with the concept of practitioner reflection and have laid a foundation for what constitutes
reflective practice and why it is important. Teachers and practitioners learn from purposefully
examining experiences that include teaching strategies, planning, and the impact of these
experiences in and outside the classroom. From a historical perspective, Dewey (1938) claims
that once practitioners have a theory built from their experiences, they can go about planning and
organizing their subject matter in a way that allows them to connect to students’ prior knowledge
and help provide students’ with meaningful learning experiences.
Scholars (Dewey, 1938, Schön, 1992, Zeichner, 1994) agree that reflection is a
purposeful act paramount to improving the craft of teachers and administrators and assisting
them in becoming lifelong learners. Scholars Beauchamp (2015), Valli (1997), Boske (2011),
Brown (2006), Farrell, T. (2012), Hebert (2015), and Rodgers (2002) have continued to build on
this foundation established by Dewey’s initial works.
Dewey’s (1938) work has a sense of practical growth, as it suggests that teachers can
learn from reflection much as students learn through experiences. Dewey further claims that
routines for “new education” must be established and organized around new
principles. Establishing these new routines is challenging due to the ingrained mindset of what
education “should be” (Dewey, 1938). Educators need to discover the connection that exists
between their past achievements and present issues.
With this connection in mind, Dewey (1938) further claims that when teachers plan, they
need to remember that an activity should not be a means to an end. In its perfect form, an
activity should be the educational and/or intellectual activity that leads students to “educational
freedom.” The teacher’s job is to create “social intelligence.” This give-and-take between
teachers and students occurs via lessons and activities that lead to educational freedom.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 18
Therefore, the plan for education should include a timeline of completion. Educators must
always have a plan, and for the plan to transpire, educators must engage in reflection. Once
educators, through reflection, form a theory of what experiences should be, they should then
present the principles that frame this theory. (Dewey, 1938.)
Schön (1992) states that educators should view learning as designing and designing as
learning. The teaching and learning process is one of collaboration, communication, design, and
discovery. Schön further asserts that designing and discovering are closely coupled, that
learning is essential to designing, and that a designer must reflect on the strategies and
assumptions underlying the designer’s choices. Teachers must engage in reflective conversation,
reflecting, and thinking or acting situationally.
Schön (1992) identifies two types of reflection. “Knowing in action” is not true
reflection according to Schön, but, rather, more of an intuition or instinctive feeling about an
event or thinking about what you are doing while you are doing it. “Knowing on action,” which
occurs after an event, is the careful consideration of why a person acts or reacts to an event the
way they did. It is a deeper state of understanding actions and how to respond to them.
Zeichner’s (1993, 1994) work claims that the reflective movement is the reaction against
a view of what teachers do, specifically putting into practice what they learn from top-down
models of reform. Reflection recognizes teachers as models of lifelong learning who enhance
their craft throughout their career. Reflection allows for the internalization of strategies and
commitment to a teacher’s own professional development, empowerment, and growth. Zeichner
further claims that “reflection as a slogan” signifies that learning to teach happens throughout a
teacher’s entire career.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 19
In his research, Zeichner (1993, 1994) discusses types of reflection and educational
traditions. The academic tradition of reflective practice focuses on students’ subject-matter
comprehension. The social efficiency tradition pinpoints teacher use and application of research-
based practices for problem solving in the classroom. The developmentalist tradition focuses on
educational practitioners engaging in reflection around student thinking and understanding.
Finally, the social-reconstructionist tradition spotlights reflection as a political act (Zeichner,
1993). Zeichner (1994) warns that teachers must transcend technical reflection, that which
focuses on academics and teaching strategies, and aim for critical reflection. The process should
focus on who benefits from the teacher’s practices and should additionally address issues of
racial, gender and, social class equity.
Although scholars agree that reflection is paramount to the improvement of one’s
professional development, “reflective practice” has no one agreed-upon definition. Although
Dewey (1938) believes reflection to be a purposeful act, he focuses on two opposing views in
education, traditional and progressive. He criticizes traditional education for being too rote and
failing to account for students’ past experiences. Reflection, in this sense, must come from
theories and frames put into place by the teacher, which usually evolve from the experiences of
that teacher. Dewey argues that these experiences can be harmful as well as beneficial to
students, depending on the student. Dewey states that planning is paramount to reflection
because without careful plans, teachers, and consequently their students, will not be as
successful.
Schön (1992), on the other hand, examines reflections in two states: reflection in action,
and reflection on action; both types of reflection can improve professional practice. “Reflection
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 20
in action” is the thinking practice that accompanies doing, while “reflection on action” is the
practice of examining one’s past practice in order to gain knowledge.
Zeichner (1994) views reflection as an evolutionary process with the ultimate goal of
critical reflection, which takes into account how the educator affects matters of educational
equity and social justice.
With accountability and student achievement as ever-present entities for educators,
reflective practice, although lacking an agreed-upon definition, is crucial for continuous
development as an educator. Only 44% (California Department of Education, 2015) of students
tested in California have exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and only 33%
(California Department of Education, 2015) have exceeded or met the standard in mathematics.
These problematic results are important to address because students who are not performing well
in school have an increased risk of dropping out and not graduating.
Dewey (1938), Schön (1992), and Zeichner (1993, 1994) have laid the historical
foundation for reflective practice. Emerging theories and more contemporary interpretations of
reflective practice sprang from the works of Dewey, Schön and Zeichner. Reflection, critical
reflection and the processes therein have roots that tie back to these three scholars as far back as
seventy-eight years ago. The current state of reflection in education yields multiple approaches
and effective practices for educators.
Current State of Reflection in Education
The aims of reflective practice are not only teacher improvement and growth, but
ultimately student achievement and success. Although scholars (Dewey, 1938; Schön, 1992;
Zeichner, 1994; Valli, 1997; Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006; Hatton &Smith, 1995) acknowledge a
lack of consensus as to the definition of reflective practice, they agree that teachers who engage
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 21
in reflection engage in an active, decision-making thought process that allows for constant
improvement and professional development.
Reflection is a systematic mode of thought (Valli, 1997), the aim of which is to actively
engage with obstacles to student motivation and learning through curriculum improvement as
well as lesson delivery and design. The ultimate goal of reflection is teacher goal-setting and
attainment. Valli identifies five types of reflection, each built on the foundational works of
Dewey (1938) and Schön (1992).
The first type of reflective practice is technical. Technical reflection focuses on current
research, classroom management, student behavior, and teacher instructional practices. The
second type of reflection revolves around Schön’s work focusing on reflection on action—a
teacher’s personal performance. Deliberative reflection involves the organization of classroom,
students, curriculum, and teaching strategies. Personalistic reflection focuses on the self and
interpersonal relationships. Finally, the most challenging form of reflective practice is critical
reflection, which focuses on the social, moral, and political consequences of a teacher’s belief
system, how they teach, and how this belief system affects their student’s progress.
Valli (1997) claims that reflective teachers link theory and practice, examine their own
practices to improve their craft, analyze problems from many perspectives, and use new evidence
to reassess decisions. Valli further claims that teachers should incorporate reflective practice
into their preparation and professional development. Teachers should not assume that they will
become reflective with time and experience; rather, they must foster and carefully cultivate
reflection. Valli advocates for a purposeful and deliberate reflective practice process that aims
for constant improvement of one’s teaching methodologies.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 22
Beauchamp (2015) describes both internal and external rationales for reflection. The
reflective practice contexts, according to Beauchamp, include the cognitive and affective
processes as well as components of Schön’s (1992) work, reflection in action and reflection on
action. Beauchamp further claims that today’s educational institutions do not allow for reflection
and that student teachers, mentors, and supervisors should learn to facilitate and support
reflection as part of a teacher prep program. Such support and facilitation is vital because
reflection is talked about more than it is practiced in the field. Beauchamp’s claims are of utmost
importance to be aware of, especially for administration. Although it is important to facilitate
reflection in student teachers, it is of critical importance for administration to provide a
supportive infrastructure for teachers so they can continue to improve their practice in a
deliberate manner throughout their careers.
In a qualitative study focusing on twelve pre-service students over a two-year period,
Trede and Smith (2012) found that participants’ achievement of reflection conceptualization
requires skilled facilitation by another. The workplace must support reflective practice by
providing an intellectual and respectful climate that allows the free expression of opinion, ample
time to reflect, and a perception of relevance. The site administrator can provide such a
reflective-inducing climate to support teachers in the reflective process.
Reflection, according to Rodgers (2002), utilizes a four-pronged systematic meaning-
making process that differs from other thought processes. The reflective process includes
experience, interaction, continuity, and attitude. A reflective teacher seeks meaning and creates
a theory by which to work, all directed by student learning and the teacher’s practice. Rodgers
(2002) further asserts that reflection is a rigorous way of thinking about experiences, naming a
problem or asking a question and then carefully analyzing the practitioner’s
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 23
hypothesis. Practicing or applying a solution and coming to a conclusion based on the results are
also part of the reflective practice process.
Rodgers (2002) supports the findings of Trede and Smith (2012) that reflection in the
community allows for practitioners to express themselves in order to then understand their
ideals. Rodgers further contends that a supportive community allows practitioners to discuss
these ideals, including their strengths and flaws, openly. I would suggest this community could
be a school’s PLC group or grade-level team. The final prong of Rodgers’ process involves
educators viewing reflection as a set of attitudes. One’s attitude can help or block one’s learning,
claims Rodgers. Practitioners who are open-minded, whole-hearted, responsible, direct, and
ready are more apt to be successful with this overall process.
On the other hand, scholars warn reflective practitioners against becoming products of
systemization and standardization. Galea (2012) claims that some educational circles consider
reflective teaching a tool in “democratizing” teaching and student learning. By employing the
reflective practice process as a tool to change their own thinking about their practices as well as
the practices themselves, teachers ultimately learn that teaching is a process of inquiry that has
no ends. Galea (2012) claims that in current educational settings, teachers reflect via a
“standardized tool” and thereby limit their potential as reflective practitioners. Furthermore,
open mindedness is crucial to teacher development. Galea cites Pollard (2000), who poses this
question to teachers: “Do you think you are truly open-minded enough to be reflective?”
According to Thompson and Pascal (2012), professional reflective practice is not as
simple as applying solutions to problems encountered in practice. Reflection should examine
both theory and practice and include “professional artistry” to move and develop. Much work
remains in order to develop a sophisticated understanding of teacher reflective practice and how
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 24
it integrates theory and practice. Thompson and Pascal claim that theory and practice are more
effective when blended and that currently reflective practice theory is underdeveloped. The
authors criticize the work of Schön (1992) for lacking critical dimension of reflection and taking
for granted that teachers would not question their learning regarding the curriculum they
teach. Thompson and Pascal (2012) add that Schön’s work is over-simplified and lacking in
language, meaning, and narrative. They agree with the work of Mezirow (1981) and state that
reflective practice should “emancipate” teachers and empower them to find new meanings.
In their study discussion, Hatton and Smith (1995) examined sixteen studies that involved
the effectiveness of different approaches reflective practice. Methods included reflective
teaching instruments, research, and variations on action research. The authors concluded that not
only is the lack of uniform definition of reflection inadequate and problematic, but it also creates
challenges in developing a means for gathering and analyzing data to prove undeniably that
reflection actually took place. Furthermore, the authors examined problems currently associated
with reflective practice—in particular, they observed that reflection is not usually a process
associated with teaching, due to the persistence and strength of teachers’ own preconceived
notions, other’s reactions to one’s reflection, and the lack of supportive infrastructure.
A longitudinal action research study that Hatton and Smith (1995) conducted over a ten-
year period via their SOL mathematics program included a strong focus on university students
employing reflection throughout teaching. The authors focused on what types of reflection study
participants utilized and found that descriptive reflection was most prevalent, though participants
also utilized dialogic reflection. Hatton and Smith found only three instances of critical
reflection.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 25
The current state of reflection in education is, at best, a work in progress, with many
definitions and procedures that relate to it. Scholars (Dewey, 1938; Schön, 1992; Zeichner,
1994; Valli, 1997; Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006; Hatton &Smith, 1995) agree that engaging in
reflection may allow practitioners to develop professionally, uncover biases and provide a
vehicle for collegial discourse regarding teaching methodologies that may lead to student
achievement. At this time, however, only 44% (California Department of Education, 2015) of
students tested in California have exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and
only 33% (California Department of Education, 2015) have exceeded or met the standard in
mathematics. These problematic results are important to address because students who are not
performing well in school have an increased risk of dropping out and not graduating.
With so few students making progress towards federally-mandated student learning
standards, standardized testing, and achievement goals (California Department of Education,
2015), educators must examine the role of equity and access for students and how reflective
practice can foster this process for teachers and administrators to ensure all students are
accessing the curriculum.
Current State of Critical Reflection Towards Equity and Access in Education
Scholars (Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006, Kline and Gardner (2005) agree that students
learning English, students of color, and students with disabilities face social injustices in public
schools when compared to their white, middle class counterparts. These inequities include, but
are not limited to, a lack of highly qualified teachers, curriculum that perpetuates the morals and
standards of those with white privilege, and insufficient funding and school structures. Research
suggests that these inequities result in limited access to curriculum, lower achievement scores,
and the perpetuation of staggering high school dropout rates (Brown, 2006).
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 26
Social Justice and Social Equity
Brown (2006) argues that students of color, students of low socioeconomic status,
English language learners, and students with disabilities consistently experience significantly
lower achievement in test scores and meeting teacher expectations. These experiences may lead
to lower graduation rates for these subgroups of students. Take, for example, the graduation
rates for 2014. Graduation statistics in 2014 indicated the highest graduation rate in California in
years, with 80.8% (CDE, 2015) of students graduating. 65.3% (CDE, 2015) of English language
learners graduated, only 76.4% (CDE, 2015) of Latino or Hispanic students graduated and 68.1%
(CDE, 2015) of African American students graduated.
Since personal beliefs influence professional beliefs and actions, an educator should
strive to have positive interactions with cultural and social justice issues. Pre-service
administrators should also deepen their awareness of these concepts. Reflective practice,
through the lenses of adult learning theory, critical social theory, and transformative learning,
will help produce school leaders who will lead the charge for social justice and equity in schools.
In Brown’s (2006) mixed methods study, quantitative findings suggest that a pre-service
administrator’s “ability to lead for social justice and equity—an awareness of and openness to
issues of diversity—might be successfully taught and developed in students during the process of
preparing for the principalship.” Qualitative findings suggest that through the lens of critical
reflection, some pre-service administrators were able to examine and reevaluate their thinking
and experiences and thereby achieve a deeper understanding of themselves. It is through this
type of critical self-analysis and reflection that teachers may discover once unidentified biases
that may hinder student academic success. Critical reflection allows practitioners to be mindful
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 27
and pay special attention to specific subgroups such as English learners, students labeled at risk,
minorities and students of poverty.
In arguing for social equity, Boske (2011) states that scholars are concerned about the
academic achievement of students and the families that live “on the margin.” Underachievement
calls for transformative leaders to overhaul the educational system by instituting holistic,
authentic, comprehensive, and curricular reform emphasizing equity and educational access.
Boske argues that making art and creating spaces that promote and address social justice can
constitute one such reformation because arts-based principles focus on sensory ways of
“knowing.” Educational leaders must engage in “sensual” reflective practice. Boske’s
qualitative study examined students enrolled in the “Leading for Social Justice” class at a
northeastern university. For 15 weeks, participants engaged in “sense making” reflective
practices that included increasing critical consciousness through weekly audio and video
reflections on cultural proficiency. Participants then transformed their reflections into pieces of
artwork.
Boske (2011) studied the various ways participants experienced encounters with sense
making. Boske examined meaning making within relationships between school communities
and school leaders and found that participants developed a greater understanding of their own
ideals and application of “personal frames” by going through this process. Furthermore, sense
making and knowing through sensory experiences led participants towards making meaningful
change and leading for social justice.
Kline and Gardner (2005) claim that deliberate critical discourse is lacking between
students and instructors in higher education, specifically within master’s programs. Kline asserts
the need for a process teaching students to work as “social agents” while they are developing
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 28
within their master’s programs. The goal, Kline states, is to create transformative people who
will act as agents of social change. Such transformation begins with developing an awareness of
daily acts of oppression that are intertwined with daily living and examining how this oppression
taints one’s own personal and professional practices. In a study, Kline gathered data on students
enrolled in student affairs master’s classes. These students participated in two “quasi
experiments,” one experiment in 2000 and the second in 2002. In the first experiment, students
engaged in in-class exercises that focused on common themes; they shared personal experiences
around these themes, applied social justice theories to these experiences, and then critically
reflected on this dialogue. These exercises enabled the students to assess their personal theories
on the given themes as well as the effectiveness of their communication. Kline hypothesizes that
this critical reflection and dialogue is helpful in professional practice because it brought
awareness to the student participants.
Kline and Gardner’s (2005) 2002 experiment examined the use of reflection, action
theories, and social justice readings. Using the readings, students would reflect on their own
experiences and beliefs within the scope of “student affairs.” Nine students participated in
interviews, written data, professional dialogue, group projects, and a praxis paper that examined
the evolution of their ideas and beliefs related to their professional practice.
Although both of these experiments had limitations, findings suggest that students
benefited from the exercises, and their experiences and dialogues helped them understand
theories of social justice. Students, at the beginning, had difficulty explaining the origins of their
beliefs on diversity issues that lead to professional decision-making.
Equity in education includes all students having equal access to federally adopted
Common Core State Standards. As scholars have suggested, reflective practice, specifically
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 29
critical reflection, is one way to directly affect educational access and equity. Critical reflection
allows practitioners to uncover biases and step back to analyze if their methodologies are
reaching all learners in their classrooms and granting access to the curriculum. When student
outcomes set by practitioners fall short, critical reflection may allow practitioners to self-assess
to determine why students are not reaching learning targets. Given the low percentage of
students demonstrating mastery of the new CAASPP assessment, teachers and administrators
must consistently access the reflective practice framework to engage in meaningful reflective
practices, both individually and in their PLC team meetings. For teachers to truly engage in
reflective practice, they must understand the processes and procedures therein.
Reflective Practice
Reflective practice is an active process by which teachers construct meaning from their
practices and how these practices affect student learning. Although researchers (Boske, 2011;
Brown, 2006; Clark et al., 1996; Dewey, 1938; Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Lyons, 1998;
Schön, 1992; Valli, 1997; Zeichner, 1994) do not agree on a single definition of reflective
practice or what process practitioners should use, all claim that reflection involves examining
one’s practice and its impact on students through a critical and honest lens. Critical reflection
transcends one’s own teaching practice, as its goal is to see how one’s practice influences student
achievement and social-emotional well-being as well as social justice issues.
Clark, James and Kelley (1996) state that reflection happens throughout one’s
professional practice. According to these researchers, the purpose of reflection is to make sense
of an experience such as teaching strategies during a lesson and the effectiveness or
ineffectiveness of those strategies. Practitioners can use reflection to refine, renew, revise, and
ultimately share personal knowledge. Through engaging in reflection, practitioners may gain a
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 30
greater understanding during the process as they reshape and reformulate existing knowledge or
practices. According to the authors, the goal is deliberative reflection, which involves teacher
planning, preparing, analyzing, synthesizing, and finally, evaluating practice. Clark and
Kelley’s description of planning relates to Dewey’s (1938) notion of planning. Dewey states:
It is much more likely to arise from failure to arrange in advance for the kind of work (by
which I mean all kinds of activities engaged in) which will create situations that of
themselves tend to exercise control over what this, that, and the other pupil does and how
he does it. This failure most often goes back to lack of sufficiently thoughtful planning in
advance.
According to Clark and Kelley (1996), one central question that practitioners should ask
during practice is, “What happens in practice?” This process embodies Schön’s (1992) notion of
reflection in action—thinking about what is happening at the time it is happening. Clark and
Kelley go on to state that the goal should be deep reflection. Simply put, “know what you know,
and how you got to know it.” Clark and Kelley also claim that reflection may provide value and
give support during professional development.
An integral part of reflection is the practitioner reaching a deep or critically
reflective state. In a longitudinal study of pre-service teachers, Lyons (1998) observed a
redefinition of practice involving reflections through the portfolio process, a process by which a
practitioner gathers artifacts and engages in reflection about these artifacts. This study is located
in the section entitled “Enacting the Reflective Process.”
Lyons (1998) suggests that reflection is a long process that takes place over time and that
one must make connections between one’s values, purposes, and actions when engaging
students. These connections take place through critical interrogations and conversations with
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 31
colleagues as they discuss practices. This concept of reflective practice and conversation with
colleagues directly supports the work of Clark and Kelley (1996).
Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998) claim that reflective thought involves a dialectic process
and the incorporation of action with experiences to reveal ones underlying assumptions. They
suggest that this type of “reflection in action” leads to strong reflective practice and segues to the
creation of effective solutions problems. By using this kind of reflection in action, practitioners
can problem-solve instead of relying on years of work experience. Ferry and Ross-Gordon’s
claims support Schön’s’ (1992) theory that reflecting teachers use constructivist approaches and
non-reflective teachers use a problem-solving approach.
Research (Clark et al., 1996; Lyons, 1998, Dewey, 1938, Schön, 1992; Zeichner, 1994;
Valli 1997; Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006; Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998) suggests that the reflective
practice process is an active examination of one’s practice and its impact. This impact can be
social-emotional or academic, and it can even affect equity and access to the curriculum.
Reflective practice can aid teachers and administrators alike in furthering their professional
development and allow them to understand its impact. Through this type of metacognition,
educators can strive to plan lessons and learning experiences that reach all students.
Clark et al. (1996), Lyons (1998), Dewey (1938), Schön (1992), Zeichner (1994), Valli
(1997), Boske (2011), Brown (2006), Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998) and others laid the
foundation for the importance of an educator’s reflective process. With multiple theories and
claims supporting the importance of the reflective process to both student and teacher success,
one must gain an understanding of how to best enact the process.
Enacting the Reflective Practice Process
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 32
Just as there are numerous theories regarding what constitutes reflective practice,
research reflects a multitude of vehicles through which practitioners can effectively enact this
process. Although all of the strategies are different, each involves a critical analysis of the
practice, its impact on continuous practitioner development, and its influences in the educational
setting.
As previously mentioned, scholars describe many processes by which practitioners can
enact the reflective practice. These processes include educator portfolios (Lyons, 1998),
professional development (York-Barr et al., 2006; Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993; El Ashi
Shabeeb & Akkary, 2014), collective conversations (Collin & Karsenti, 2011; Parsons &
Stephenson, 2005) and rubrics for analyzing artifacts that allow educators to “see” where they
fall on the reflective practice continuum (Thorsen & DeVore, 2013).
Colton and Sparks-Langer (1993) state that reflective process weaves together cognitive,
critical, and personal characteristics to create a framework for “reflective decision-making.”
According to Colton and Sparks-Langer, teachers must attend to many components as they
engage in reflective decision-making. Pedagogy and content knowledge are one unit of
reflective decision-making, but teachers should also consider many aspects of instructional
strategies. What methodologies and theories are teachers utilizing? Are they effective? Are
students mastering the content? How do we know? Teachers must also carefully consider the
context of what is happening, which involves understanding students’ cultural backgrounds, their
level of parental involvement, and even their politics. Additionally, teachers must be aware of
and value professional prior experiences, which will differ with each teacher. Finally, teachers
must take into account their own personal and social values, formed over time by family, life
experiences, and readings.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 33
The reflective-making processes begin with teachers’ personal involvement in a specific
experience or event and their decision to attend to some aspect of it. Next, teachers begin to
analyze the information to develop mental representations. Teachers refer to their prior
professional knowledge base to determine if any of this new information is similar. At this point,
if teachers can find nothing relevant in their prior experience, they acquire new information to
problem-solve via collaborative dialogue and professional reading. Finally, teachers develop a
hypothesis, mentally test it, and implement an action plan. The cycle begins again, upon analysis
of the consequences of “the plan.” (Colton and Sparks-Langer, 1993).
Collin and Karsenti (2011) state that the collective dimension of reflective practice has
been under-conceptualized. Their work focuses on conceptualizing the relationship between
reflective practice and verbal interaction in a collective approach to reflective practice.
Reflective practice does not have a collective component, so the authors use a “third party
theory” to model the relationships between reflective practice and verbal interaction. Verbal,
collective interactions support the development of pre-service teachers and providing them a
method by which to confront and discuss attitudes and practices with each other. Upon teacher
employment, a PLC group may pose the perfect vehicle for a similar discourse between
colleagues.
Collin and Karsenti (2011) claim that reflection is grounded, thereby associating their
definition with Schön’s (1992) reflection in action. Teachers, pre-service teachers, and even
administrators adjust their actions and repeat those actions with new approaches. The authors
also describe reflection as generic, in that it is not limited to application in professional fields but
is also utilized in daily life. Reflection promotes cognitive development, and adults have the
cognitive abilities to pursue the reflective process as individuals.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 34
In their qualitative study, Parsons and Stephenson (2005) posed two questions: Does
collaboration with peers and more experienced colleagues help pre-service teachers think more
reflectively about their practice, and does the provision of structure via weekly tasks help pre-
service teachers develop as reflective practitioners? Study participants participated in interviews,
answered questionnaires, and created written reflections after each lesson. Participants tended to
focus on what was “done” during the lesson instead of reflection, which may have been due to
the inexperienced nature of the subjects. Findings suggest that a collaborative approach to
reflection helped pre-service teachers gain a deeper understanding of practice. The work of
Parsons and Stephenson supports the collective collaboration work of Collin and Karsenti (2011)
and Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998), and further lay the contemporary doctrines for the
importance of critical analysis of practice among teachers and administrators.
As mentioned previously, Lyons (1998) conducted a qualitative longitudinal study of pre-
service teachers in an attempt to determine whether reflective practice was teachable. This study
involved teacher observation and interviews throughout the creation of portfolios and the
collection of artifacts, which included tapes, teacher created lesson plans, and student
work. Reflection, in this study, emerged as the process by which pre-service teachers justified
choosing specific artifacts for the portfolio. Based upon “how” and “why” participants chose
artifacts, they were asked to question their teaching and instructional practices and to then
discuss these practices with their pre-service colleagues. The ensuing conversations focused on
making connections between one’s values, purposes, and actions, as well as their impact on
student engagement. Finally, participants refined their practices to meet the needs of their
students. This process closely resembles Schön’s (1992) reflection on action. Lyons’ findings
suggest that over the course of time, teachers begin to redefine their thinking and that the
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 35
portfolio process and conversations resulting from collegial interactions support this redefinition.
It is through this critically reflective lens that educators may begin to determine if student
learning occurring, and if not, what to examine to change that.
York-Barr et al. (2006) claim that reflective practice is the means by which learning,
renewal, and growth continue to develop throughout an educator’s career; however, the dominant
culture of schools is “doing” and involves little time for reflection. The authors state that
“reflecting with another has the potential to greatly improve practice due to the fact that a partner
can give a perspective that can help one become aware of their own ‘fixed assumptions’” (p. 59).
“Reflective partners” is the name of this practice. Discussions during PLC meetings constitute
one example of what reflective partners could look like at a school. The authors go on to claim
that the purpose of having reflective partners is to expand ones understanding about one’s
teaching practice. For this type of reflection to be successful, a trusting relationship is
paramount.
York-Barr et al. (2006) state that reflective partner participants must have awareness of
their practice and ask themselves, “What is conducive/not conducive to my reflective process?
How do I reflect while teaching?” Additionally, the authors scaffold this process when working
directly with participants by giving reflective partner prompts they can discuss to enable trust.
York-Barr et al. further suggest that, at the beginning of all reflective interactions, partners
discuss what they want to get out of the interaction. The process should focus on “frame
breaking or looking at practice from another perspective (York-Barr et al., 2006, p. 64). Frame
breaking involves the following process. Teachers must first be able to recognize educational
dilemmas. Next, teachers must respond to these dilemmas with similarities and differences and
frame and reframe them. Finally, teachers must experiment to find the impact of solutions and
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 36
examine the solutions’ intended and unintended consequences. This cycle repeats until
participants find a solution to the original dilemma. The authors suggest other processes for
reflecting with colleagues as well, including dialoguing through interactive journals, structured
dialogue, action research, weekly reviews, listening practice, and observational learning.
Regardless of the process, the consistent focus of improvement of methodologies is at the crux of
reflective practice.
Teachers and administrators can currently engage in the reflective process using many
routes. Whether one keeps a portfolio, analyzes artifacts, engages in collective conversations
with colleagues, or attends professional development, the end goal remains the same: to develop
as a professional and improve one’s teaching craft and to strive to meet the needs of all learners.
As previously discussed, only 44% (California Department of Education, 2015) of
students tested in California have exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and
only 33% (California Department of Education, 2015) have exceeded or met the standard in
mathematics. This evidence demonstrates an achievement gap. Educators can address this gap
by carefully analyzing their teaching strategies to ensure they are meeting the needs of students,
including learners unable to access the curriculum due to living on the margins, learning English
as a second language, or experiencing other issues.
The gap in both mathematics and English language arts underscores the importance of
reflective practice for teachers and administrators alike. Reflective practice allows educators to
identify these gaps and collectively work together to address them effectively so that students
achieve at high levels.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 37
Importance of Reflective Practice
Clark et al. (1996), Dewey (1938), Farrell (2012), Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998),
Larrivee (2008), Rodgers (2002), Schön (1992), Valli (1997), and others all agree that reflective
practice is paramount to improved performance and have provided a foundation from which
reflective practice has grown. Active engagement into examining one’s professional practice
continuously helps one develop as a professional. Scholars such as Sellers (2012), Marcela,
Gutierrez, and Aldana (2015), Thorsen and DeVore (2013), and El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary
(2014) all claim that teachers must create changes within themselves (their personal values and
“frames”) and their environments, particularly their classrooms. They must also critically
examine why they choose particular strategies and methodologies and whether those strategies
and methodologies are effective.
Thorsen and DeVore (2013) claim that reflective practice is important because it allows
teachers to adjust their teaching methods and the way they question students. It also enables
teachers to differentiate instruction and instructional practices to assure they meet the learning
needs of their students. According to Thorsen and DeVore, reflective practice also improves
teacher effectiveness and the learning outcomes that follow instruction. The authors further state
that reflective practice allows teachers and other practitioners to consider politics and systems
“within their sphere of influence to affect change and promote social justice, educational
opportunity, and equity.”
In their study, Thorsen and DeVore (2013) utilized a rubric with pre-service teachers to
analyze artifacts. The rubric gave an overall picture of reflectivity as it pertained to the specific
artifacts, and not “overall reflective practice.” The goal of the study was to help candidates be
critical of their personal, moral, and ethical practices as well as evaluate the policy-related and/or
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 38
political outcomes of their practice. Participants identified and analyzed reflective elements
currently present or absent from their practice. Although the study’s sample size was very small
and the analyses were limited to artifacts and digital stories, teachers who engaged in this process
found it beneficial.
El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary (2014) claim that reflecting on one’s practice is a key
catalyst for building the capacities of teachers, principals, and schools. Critical reflection and the
application thereof allows teachers and educational leaders, such as principals, to analyze their
personal values and the theories shaping what they do in the classroom and how they interact
with students. Through critical reflection, teachers can move towards greater self-knowledge
and self-challenge in their professional development. Professional development, therefore,
should take into consideration a teacher’s beliefs, practices, and career stage. Further,
professional development should teach teachers the skills to locate and collect data relevant to
the situation or problem, and finally, it should instill in teachers a deep consideration of the
cultural context where their training will take place.
El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary (2014) discuss tools that may aid practitioners throughout
the reflective practice process, including diaries, action learning groups (quite possibly PLC
groups), autobiographical stories, case studies, action research, mentoring, and sketching. One
of the authors’ most salient points was that individuals must make time for individual
reflection. Questioning and problem solving are pivotal in order to reach the critical reflection
level.
In their qualitative study, El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary (2014) studied eleven participants
that utilized York-Barr’s Reflective Practice Spiral Model. The authors claim that, under this
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 39
four-level model, reflection begins with oneself and moves from the inside out. One begins with
individual reflection then moves to partners, small groups, and finally the school level.
Participants in El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary’s (2014) study observed professional
development sessions identifying activities that developed reflective practice. Observational
data about the content and approach used to conduct these sessions followed. Participants filled
out a demographic form and participated in a semi-structured interview. A focus group
interview identified factors that had affected participant’s reflective practice and what they found
helpful during the professional development sessions. Teachers reported using different tools to
aid in their reflective process—most reported using portfolios and planners. Furthermore, the
participants analyzed artifacts and documents about school during their reflection time. Most
participants reported reflecting on their teaching and co-teaching. Collective collaboration was
most valuable. This specific discovery supports the findings of other scholars including Ferry
and Ross-Gordon (1998), Collin and Karsenti (2011), Thompson and Pascal (2012), and Lyons
(1998). Professional development providing tools and activities that taught teachers how to
reflect was most helpful.
Sellers (2012) states that reflection is important because it may create change that
improves practice. Reflection also aids in the development of further self-knowledge and
understanding. When a practitioner engages in this process, they examine, re-examine, and
check both their self-knowledge and capacity to use this knowledge to improve practice. A
metacognitive undertaking such as reflection is a very personal pursuit. Sellers describes the
reflective practice process as participating in an initial event, then describing, universally
analyzing, and evaluating this event against specific criteria. According to Sellers, the final stage
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 40
of reflection involves making decisions related to change, adaptation, or the modification of
professional practice with a deliberate focus on professional improvement.
Marcela, Gutierrez, and Aldana (2015) underscore the importance of deepening one’s
own knowledge about personal teaching practices. For their action research project, the authors
met every three weeks for a year. Their goal was to utilize the reflective practice process to
reach a critical state of reflection that would enable them to both engage in transformative
teaching and learning and transcend reflection of pedagogical practices. In order to reach the
important stage of critical reflection, each author identified one critical incident involving
something surprising or unexpected. Authors then confronted their own theories, shared their
perspectives, and responded to each other’s critical incidents. Next, the authors examined their
experience through multiple lenses, including social, political, educational, and ethical. Findings
suggest that engaging in a form of collective collaboration aided the authors in knowledge-
building and critical reflection.
Researchers including Sellers (2012), Marcela, Gutierrez, and Aldana (2015), Thorsen
and DeVore (2013), and El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary (2014) agree that educators must
constantly evaluate their professional practice through the process of reflective practice.
Engaging in this process will help teachers to pinpoint effective practices by shaping and
reshaping their current theories while trying to close the achievement gap.
When educators engage in the reflective process, they may begin to address student
achievement and access to the curriculum in a more focused and engaged fashion. During this
reflective time, educators must create changes within themselves (personal values and “frames”)
and their environments (mainly their classrooms) and examine why they choose their particular
strategies and methodologies as well as whether those strategies and methodologies are
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 41
effective. A critical part of reflection would be examining social justice issues, assurance that
curriculum and learning is accessible to all students, an identifying any bias of the teacher.
Engaging in the reflective process may yield valuable professional growth for educators and help
practitioners understand how and why their classroom methodologies affect students.
Summary
Student achievement in the state of California is currently at a minimum, according to the
scores released on the 2015 CAASPP assessment. Only 44% (California Department of
Education, 2015) of students tested in California have exceeded or met the standard for English
language arts, and only 33% (California Department of Education, 2015) have exceeded or met
the standard in mathematics. This evidence indicates an urgent need for educators to evaluate
what is contributing to this problem. Practitioner reflective practice is one way to critically
examine oneself as well as how one is engaging in their craft in and outside of the classroom.
This chapter has provided insight into the foundations of the reflective practice process
(Dewey, 1938; Schön, 1992; Zeichner, 1994). Although theorists (Clark et al., 1996; Dewey,
1938; Farrell, 2012; Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Larrivee, 2008; Rodgers, 2002; Schön, 1992;
Valli, 1997) differ in their opinion as to the exact protocol one should follow to engage in this
process, they agree that it is a valuable tool. When used consistently, honestly, and critically,
this tool can help redefine one’s current frames of practice and personal theories. Furthermore,
through critical reflection teachers can move towards greater self-knowledge and self-challenge
in their professional development (El Ashi Shabeeb & Akkary, 2014).
Although theorists disagree on which tool is most effective, strategies, available to the
practitioner include, but are not limited to, educator portfolios (Lyons, 1998), professional
development (York-Barr et al., 2006; Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993; El Ashi Shabeeb &
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 42
Akkary, 2014), collective conversations (Collin & Karsenti, 2011) and rubrics that help analyze
artifacts (Thorsen & DeVore, 2013). (Such rubrics allow educators to “see” where they fall on
the reflective practice continuum.)
The failure of educators to engage in the reflective process may result in a lack of
professional growth and, consequently, the continuing dismal achievement of students
(California Department of Education, 2015). Without an awareness of how their theories and
frames impact students on a socio-emotional and achievement level, educators will not have the
metacognitive “moments of clarity” enabling them to construct new, meaningful learning
experiences for their students leading to increased achievement and academic success.
Educational leaders such as principals, assistant principals, professors, and deans alike
must not only understand and engage in the reflective process for their own benefit, but also as
leaders within the institutions they serve. How can a leader who does not understand the
reflective process practice foster the concept of constant improvement and growth in the teachers
they serve? Little research exists in the area of an administrator’s perceptions of reflective
practice and how to successfully foster it with their teachers.
Chapter three will include a qualitative approach to gathering data that may help answer
the following research questions:
1. What are school administrators’ perceptions of the reflective practice process and its
importance to the teaching staff’s classroom performance?
2. How do school administrators encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice
during their Professional Learning Community time?
3. In what ways do school administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the
reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition?
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 43
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This dissertation addressed the problem of high-stakes accountability testing measures
placed upon teachers, students and schools in California. Standardized assessments taken each
spring directly link school funding and sanctions placed upon schools and districts.
The current evidence highlights that only 44% (CDE, 2015) of students tested in
California exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and 33% (CDE, 2015)
exceeded or met the standard in mathematics and demonstrates these numbers present
problem. This problem is important to address because students who do not perform well in
school have an increased risk of dropping out and not graduating.
The goals of this study were to identify and understand the role of the administrator in the
reflective practice at the institutional level, in this case, at the K-8 elementary school levels in
urban areas. An examination of the following questions allowed for understanding of the current
perceptions of school administrators:
1. What are school administrators’ perceptions of reflective practice process and its
importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff?
2. How do school administrators encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice during
their Professional Learning Community time?
3. In what ways do school administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the
reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition?
Methods
The methods used in this study were qualitative in nature, and include surveys, interviews
and observations. Qualitative research aims to understand opinions and reasons for doing
something. Merriam (2009) states that qualitative researchers are interested in understanding
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 44
how people interpret and give meaning to experiences. Qualitative research was used to uncover
how K-8 administrators perceive reflective practice, how K-8 administrators encourage their
teachers to engage in reflective practice, and what infrastructure K-8 administrators provide to
promote reflective practice to enhance teacher metacognition. This approach categorizes this
study as an applied research project (Merriam, 2009). This study falls under Merriam’s
interpretive/constructivist type of studies due to the nature of the research questions and
interview questions.
Sample and Site Selection
This study utilized a convenience sample (Merriam, 2009) for both site selection and
participants. A convenience sample is a non-probability sample of people who are easy to reach.
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Convenience samples are discouraged due to the non-random
nature and poorer results (Maxwell, 2013). However, for this study and the period for
completion, it was an appropriate choice. As a current employee of one participating district, the
trust-building process occurred, and I had access to participants and schools. Furthermore, as a
current employee of one participating district, there was possession of a deeper understanding of
how each school operates and what normative practices occur at each.
Site. Two school districts, chosen together as a convenience sample, participated in this
study. I was employed in one district and have colleagues in the other. I had a protocol letter I
sent all participants to gain consent and participation.
Participants. Participants were also found through convenience samples. Access to
participants occurred as follows. The superintendent and/or assistant superintendent of
educational services determined permission to conduct research within Districts A and B. I
provided information and an explanation of the study and how it will benefit the districts. The
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 45
next step was to recruit the principals in the District A and B, and verbally or electronically, via
email, ask them to participate in a voluntary survey during an Educational Services Leadership
meeting or at a time more convenient for them. At the end of the survey, there was a space for
participants to leave contact information to voluntarily participate in a thirty-minute
interview. For the interviews, nine administrators participated in total, five from District A and
four from B. For the observation, both participants were from District A, one from a Title I
school, one from a Non-Title I school. No participants in District B volunteered for
observations.
All participants, regardless of participation in survey, interview or observations were
distributed a specifically developed protocol. Each protocol described the nature of this study,
selection of the participants and sites and what would happen with data and participant
anonymity. One is a protocol for the survey, one is a letter stating the nature of the interview,
and the final protocol is specific to an observation. The appendices contain all permissions and
protocols utilized.
Administrators selected for this study all had a varied amounts of experience. For the
purposes of this study, it was important to be able to interview experienced (six or more years as
an administrator) administrators and newer (one to five years as an administrator) administrators
to gain a greater insight into years of experience and how the administrator facilitates the
reflective practice process with the credentialed teaching staff members.
Data Collection
This study utilized anonymous surveys, interviews, and observations. There was an offer
to all survey participants for an opportunity to participate in a thirty-minute interview.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 46
Observations occurred when the site administrator participating in the interview process
volunteered and granted permission based upon scheduling and time constraints.
Survey
Creswell (2014) describes survey design as a method of obtaining quantitative
descriptions of attitudes, trends and opinions of a population. From the results of a survey, a
researcher may be able to generalize to a population. The survey for this study was electronic.
The purpose of participants completing this survey is to obtain a baseline of demographic and
attitudinal data and for the purpose sample stratification (Creswell, 2014). Attitudinal data will
support the research question that asks, “What are school administrators’ perceptions of
reflective practice process and its importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff?”
The final question on the survey provided a separate link to a Google form, and asked
administrators for voluntary participation in an interview. This provided one avenue for
participant selection, and kept their survey data anonymous. It was very important for
participants not to feel coerced because responses may not be genuine, and this would skew data
collected. Upon selection of interview candidates, after the interview is completed, I asked them
personally to participate in an observation. The process for this included explaining the purpose
of the observation, and how the observation will assist in triangulating the data collected from
the initial survey as well as the interview. Assurance of anonymity for participants in the
interview and observation is paramount. A copy of all notes taken during the interview and
observation are available upon request.
The survey, administered to principals and assistant principals in District A that were
present at a monthly district-level principal’s meeting, was a group administration (Creswell,
2014). Administrators not present were able to take the survey on their own time. The survey
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 47
was sent electronically to participants in District B. The survey was electronic, via the
university’s Qualtrix account, with data compiled directly in the form. Surveys began in May
2016. Before the survey was given, I obtained permission from the superintendents of both
districts by setting up a meeting and sharing my research and explaining the benefits of my study
to both districts, providing consent forms as well as providing district mandated research forms.
Furthermore, I gained permission from volunteers by first explaining my study, then
administering consent forms to all administrators present at the meeting. I reassured them that
participation was voluntary, and that results would remain confidential. The survey is in the
appendices. Sixty-two surveys were sent electronically. Of the thirty-four surveys received,
three were blank, resulting in thirty-one completed surveys.
Interviews
Interviews provide in-depth information and experiences on a given topic. Interviews also
provide a one-on-one experience for the interviewer and interviewee (Merriam, 2009). Tone,
body language, inflection and clarification help analyze results more so than a do answers on a
survey emailed to participants and help the researcher drill deeper for meaning. For this study,
the questions were highly structured (Merriam, 2009). The questions build upon each other. This
leads to a greater understanding of how school administrators utilize and understand the
reflective practice process.
The interviews conducted are based upon the work of Merriam (2009) and Maxwell
(2013) and are informal in nature. The interview protocol includes an introduction, setting the
stage, the interview and closing. All parts of the protocol and structure include probing
questions. Interview questions align with the research questions. For example, the questions
“Please describe your understanding of the reflective process,” and “What is your belief about
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 48
the role that reflective practice plays in the classroom performance of your teaching staff?”
directly relate to the research question, “What are school administrators’ perceptions of reflective
practice process and its importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff?”
Nine administrators participated in the interviews. Interviews took place at a location of
the participant’s choice. The interview began with a distribution of the interview protocol. A
copy of the questions helped participants focus throughout the interview process. All interviews
lasted approximately forty-five to sixty minutes. The interview protocol is in the appendices.
Interview transcription occurred in several ways. First, I kept an interview log. This
process involved listening to each interview in small increments, summarizing and time
stamping the data. I reviewed the summaries and take notes and categorize information
provided, and match them with the research questions. I followed this process until each
interview was completely transcribed and coded. Another method of transcription was an audio
log. An outside transcription service provided the transcriptions of salient points of interview
logs. A final method included researcher notes and memos during and after the interviews to aid
in coding and remembering details.
Observations
Merriam (2009) states that observations are a primary source of data collection and help
triangulate other data, such as interviews. One of the benefits is seeing first-hand how
participants interact, listening to comments made and content not addressed, all in their natural
environment. For the purposes of this study, two observations took place. One observation
occurred in the principal’s office at a non-Title I school. The second observation took place in a
classroom at a Title I school, during a PLC meeting. In conducting observations, watching the
administrator in action with their teaching staff allowed the researcher to gather pertinent data
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 49
that relate directly to research questions. The researcher saw, first-hand, how the administrator
facilitated the reflective practice process as well how the s/he perceived the importance of
reflective practice in relation to teacher’s pedagogy and instructional methodologies.
Each participant knew that the object of the observation was to see how the administrator
guided staff through reflective practice. Data collected included information on the physical
setting of the location, how participants interacted, and their tone and conversation. Although
best practices would include videotaping an observation, this study relied on research notes in
order to respect the normative practices and anonymity of school officials not directly
participating in the study.
Data Analysis
Researchers (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009) all claim that data
triangulation allows for validity. This study triangulated data utilizing various methodologies.
Analysis included the empirical coding (Harding, 2013) technique. The empirical coding
process began with the researcher reading interview transcripts and field notes taken during
interviews. A priori codes that include “reflective practice” “administrator perception” and
“infrastructure of support” exist from the construction of the survey and interview questions.
Furthermore, the researcher’s notes served as other possible categories that tie into the research
questions posed in this study. Categories included open codes such as “administrator
engagement of teachers” and “encouragement of reflective practice.” These larger, open code
topics, axial codes became narrower in scope. Axial codes included subtopics such as
“administrator understanding of reflective practice” or “PLC’s as time for reflection.” Finally,
from axial codes, selective codes denoted very precise data. Selective codes include subtopics
such as “metacognition during PLC time,” “types of support.” “administrator concerns”
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 50
“reflective practice and student achievement.” Application of this process led to the creation of a
codebook. This process also applied to surveys and observations. Once this process was
complete, there were three separate codebooks. These three codebooks served as sources of data
to create one comparative master codebook that utilized open, axial and selective codes for the
overall findings of the project.
Researcher Biases and Positionality
In my current position of employment as fellow administrator, I had to be aware of my
positionality and biases throughout this study. Furthermore, I had to ensure I took an emic look
at participants and did not add my own strategies and methodologies to the matter. I had to
provide ample encouragement, opportunity and infrastructure to allow for teacher reflective
practice on my campus. As a colleague, I had to be careful and let all participants know that
anonymity was paramount, that none of the information or data collected were shared with the
executive cabinet, and that it would not be used for evaluative purposes.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 51
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
School administrators are responsible for ensuring that teachers use effective
methodologies, have access to current pedagogy and, ultimately, that all students learn and
achieve at high levels. The administrator must also ensure any existing achievement gaps for all
students close.
As stated in Chapter Two, reflective practice is a promising process that many
professions utilize. The intention of the reflective process is personal and/or professional growth
for practitioners (Clark et al., 1996; Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Larrivee, 2008; Rodgers, 2002;
Schön, 1992; Thorsen & DeVore, 2013; Zeichner, 1994). Teachers may accomplish this task by
critically examining their craft and analyzing the impact of teaching strategies, pedagogical
strategies and learning outcomes when they meet and collaborate with their colleagues during
PLC time (Collin & Karsenti, 2011; Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993; Farrell, 2012;). Reflective
practice is an active process by which teachers construct meaning from their practices and how
these practices affect student learning.
Although researchers (Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006; Clark et al., 1996; Dewey, 1938; Ferry
& Ross-Gordon, 1998; Lyons, 1998; Schön, 1992; Valli, 1997; Zeichner, 1994) do not agree on a
single definition of reflective practice or what process practitioners should use, all claim that
reflection involves examining one’s practice and its impact on students through a critical and
honest lens. Critical reflection transcends one’s own teaching practice, as its goal is to see how
one’s practice influences student achievement and social-emotional well-being as well as social
justice issues.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 52
The goals of this study were to identify and understand the role of the administrator in the
reflective practice at the institutional level at a K-8 elementary school in an urban area. The
following questions aimed to understand the current perceptions of school administrators.
1. What are school administrator’s perceptions of reflective practice process and its
importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff?
2. How do school administrators encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice
during their Professional Learning Community time?
3. In what ways do school administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the
reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition?
Surveys
Sixty-two surveys were sent electronically. Of the thirty-four surveys received, three
were blank, resulting in thirty-one completed surveys. Merriam (2009) states that qualitative
research questions should include demographic data and opinion and value types of questions.
The survey included both of these types of questions. Demographic data collected was relevant
to this study, as it provided key information as to participant experiences, age, number of
teachers, type of school and if the teaching staff participated in the PLC process. Value
questions (Merriam, 2009) elicit responses about a person’s opinion regarding reflective practice
and how this opinion relates to the overall research questions examined in this study.
The demographic data, displayed in tables one, two and three indicate that a variety of
administrators took part in the survey. Most (51.61%) of participants reported their current role
was as K-6 principals who have one to three years’ experience as an administrator overall. The
sample majority was female, and the age range majority fell between 31 and 40 years old.
(Table 1). School site demographic data (Table 2) showed 58.06% of participants stated they
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 53
were an administrator at an urban school. All reported their teaching staffs participate in PLCs
with 41.94% of administrators stating their credentialed staff met twice a week (Table 3).
Table 1
Demographic Data/Personal Characteristics of Administrators
Role n= 31 Percentage Number
Principal K-6 51.61% 16
Assistant Principal K-6 9.68% 3
Principal K-8 3.23% 1
Assistant Principal K-8 9.68% 3
Principal Junior High 6.45% 2
Assistant Principal Junior High 16.13% 5
Gender n = 31
Male 29.03% 9
Female 67.74% 21
Decline to State 3.23% 1
Age n = 31 Percentage Number
21-30 0.00% 0
31-40 45.16% 14
41-50 32.26% 10
51-60 22.58% 7
61+ 0.00% 0
Decline to State 0.00% 0
Years of Overall Administrative Experience n = 31 Percentage Number
1 - 3 years 35.48% 11
4-6 years 9.68% 3
7-10 years 29.03% 9
11-15 years 22.58% 7
16-20 years 3.23% 1
21 or more years 0.00% 0
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 54
Table 2
School Demographic Data
School Setting n = 31 Percentage Number
Urban 58.06% 18
Suburban 41.94% 13
Title I School n = 31 Percentage Number
Yes 48.39% 15
No 51.61% 16
Average School Enrollment n = 30 Percentage Number
300-400 students 3.33% 1
401-600 students 33.33% 10
601-800 students 43.33% 13
801-1000 students 16.67% 5
1001 or more students 3.33% 1
Credentialed Teaching Staff n = 29 Percentage Number
0-9 0.00% 0
10-15 3.45% 1
16-20 10.34% 3
21-25 27.59% 8
26-30 34.48% 10
31-35 13.79% 4
36 or more 10.34% 3
Table 3
PLC Participation and Rate of Participation
Does Staff Participate in PLC’s? n = 31 Percentage Number
Yes 100% 31
Frequency of PLC Participation = 31 Percentage Number
Bi-Weekly 41.94% 13
Weekly 19.35% 6
Bi-Monthly 29.03% 9
Monthly 9.68% 3
Other 0.00% 0
Administrator Perceptions
Research Question One was aimed at examining the school administrator’s perceptions of
reflective practice process and its importance to the teachers’ classroom performance. Findings
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 55
from the survey suggest that 58.06% of school administrators highly agree that reflective practice
is a critical skill for teachers to utilize. A total of 35.48% of participants stated that reflective
practice is a critical still for teacher utilization. Furthermore, when asked their familiarity with
reflective practice, 61.29% reported they were moderately familiar with it while 35.45% reported
that they were very familiar with it, and only 3.23% reported extreme familiarity.
Administrators reported the degree to which they believe that teachers engaging in
reflective practice would help identify strengths and weaknesses in teaching methodologies and
instructional strategies. Some (35.48%) reported to a very high degree, 58.05% reported a high
degree, and 6.45% reported an average degree. It is clear that the majority of the sample
believed that reflective practice aids in the identification of strengths and weakness in
methodologies and instruction. Furthermore, 41.94% of participants reported that reflective
practice helps improve teaching methodologies to a very high degree while 54.84% stated
reflective practice helps to a high degree. Only 3.23% reported that reflective practice helps
improve teaching methodologies to an average degree.
Table 4
Administrator Beliefs Regarding Reflective Practice (n = 31)
To what degree do you believe that teacher reflective practice
helps teachers identify their strengths and weaknesses in their
teaching methodologies/strategies?
Percentage Number
Very High Degree 35.48% 11
High Degree 58.06% 18
Average Degree 6.45% 2
To what degree do you believe that teacher reflective practice
helps teachers improve their teaching methodologies?
Percentage Number
Very High Degree 41.94% 13
High Degree 54.84% 17
Average Degree 3.23% 1
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 56
Impact of reflective practice on classroom performance of teachers. The aim of
Research Question Two was to investigate school administrator’s perceptions of reflective
practice process and its importance to the teachers’ classroom performance. Clark et al. (1996),
Dewey (1938), Farrell (2012), Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998), Larrivee (2008), Rodgers (2002),
Schön (1992), Valli (1997), and others all agree that reflective practice is paramount to improved
performance.
Larrivee (2008) proposes four levels of the reflective process: pre-reflective, surface
reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection. Larrivee describes reflection as
developmental, with possible reflection on technical skill occurring first and progressing towards
the ultimate goal of critical reflection. When asked about personal understanding of the purpose
of reflection as it relates to teacher classroom performance, thirty administrators reported that
reflection involved and examination or evaluation of one’s practice.
One administrator embodied Larrivee’s (2008) process by stating, “The purpose of
reflection is to give teachers an opportunity to think deeply about their practice and make a plan
for action. Teachers can process and problem-solve challenges and further develop their skills.”
This statement demonstrates that part of the reflective practice process is changing one’s craft to
overcome challenges and grow as a professional via deep thinking and/or critical reflection. This
statement also encompasses Schön’s (1992) concept of reflection on action, and Thorsen and
DeVore’s (2013) claim that reflective practice is important because it allows teachers to adjust
their teaching methods.
Upon detailed analysis of responses, administrators described a developmental and
technical side of their understanding of reflective practice as described by Larivee (2008). This
suggests a lack of the pedagogical and critical side of reflection, as only four of the nine
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 57
interviewees reported that reflection is a critical analysis of practice as described by Larivee.
This poses a critical question: if less than half of the participants believe that reflection involves
critical analysis, may this perception by administrators hinder professional growth for their
teaching staff? Two administrators, in their survey comments, closely aligned to what research
throughout this study claimed. One administrator stated,
Reflection is not only an important part of the PLC process, but also an important
component of success for all educators. Reflection allows teams and individuals to
purposefully think about their work. Reflective practice promotes student achievement
and teacher efficacy.
A second participant replied,
The reflective practice process is the critical and honest evaluation of a practice and
asking one’s self, am I meeting my goals? Are my students learning? What can I do
differently? It’s being aware of what you are doing when you do it, and being aware after
you complete a task.
These two administrators encapsulated the essence of reflection, how it aligns to instruction and
PLC’s, and how it correlates to research.
The findings also suggest a lack of specificity when it comes to “examining practices”
and “looking at your practice” as stated by thirteen of the thirty participants. These differences
in administrator perception may have a direct impact on the effective practices of teachers.
Scholars (Dewey, 1938; Schön, 1992; Zeichner, 1994) agree that reflection is a
purposeful act paramount to improving the craft of teachers and administrators. Ten
administrators reported that reflection is a means to improve practice, showing consistency with
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 58
the research of Dewey (1938), Schön (1992) and Zeichner (1994). Administrators’ responses are
reported in Table 5.
Table 5
Administrator Understanding and Description of the Purpose of Reflection as it Relates to
Teacher Classroom Performance (n = 30)
Administrator Comment
A1 Thinking critically about how what T’s are doing in the classroom and how it
effects students.
A2 Teachers examining their practices in the classroom.
A3 Examining your practice and making changes based upon the reflection.
A4 Critical examination of all aspects of teaching practice.
A5 Looking at how/what you teach and if kids get it via data analysis.
A6 Looking at your practice and methodologies.
A7 Self-analysis of practice.
A8 Examining one’s practices in the classroom - teaching, data, etc. How what
is what you are doing working.
A9 Thinking about your teaching practice and data.
A10 Looking back on your practice and how it impacts students in your
classroom.
A11 Staff thinking about what/how they teach.
A12 Allows teacher to test their teaching practices with colleagues to ensure
students are getting the best possible instruction.
A13 Teachers need to reflect all along the continuum of teaching. From
establishing objectives and prior knowledge, to assessment and application,
teachers should be reflecting on their practice.
A14 Teaching, then reflecting on what happened - if the students learned and how
the teacher knows.
A15 Thinking about what you are doing and acting upon it.
A16 The reflective practice process is the critical and honest evaluation of a
practice and asking one’s self, am I meeting my goals? Are my students
learning? What can I do differently? It’s being aware of what you are doing
when you do it, and being aware after you complete a task.
A17 During informal observations, formal observations and walk-throughs
teachers are given feedback with instructional areas that need improvement
and with areas of strength. The purpose for all feedback is so that teachers
will reflect upon it and improve their instructional and professional practices.
A18 It is the process of continuous learning, and reviewing what has been done
and its success, both for the student and the teacher.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 59
Table 5, continued
Administrator Comment
A19 The purpose of reflection is to give teachers an opportunity to think deeply
about their practice and make a plan for action. Teachers can process and
problem-solve challenges and further develop their skills.
A20 Reflection is a purposeful time when we ask questions about our practice.
The goal is to keep doing what works and make changes that will improve
the outcome. Reflection is done best through coaching. Asking questions
rather than giving directives.
A21 It assists in helping students recognize who get it, students who don’t, and
how to intervene.
A22 The purpose of reflection is for teachers to look at all aspects of their
teaching, instruction, assessment and to then reflect on their goals and
evaluate if they have changed and improved their practice. I personally enjoy
using Marzano scales for teacher reflection.
A23 Reflective teachers are able to improve instruction, improve student learning,
problem-solve and focus on their metacognition as a result of reflective
practices, all of which improve classroom performance.
A24 The purpose of reflection is to give yourself time to reflect, think, modify
and plan how to improve this lesson or strategy.
A25 Purpose is to improve practice by reflecting on actions and outcomes for
continuous improvement.
A26 To critically think about how the lesson you designed made an impact (good
or bad) on the learning of students and what you will do as a result of that
knowledge to improve instruction and lesson delivery.
A27 Reflection is not only an important part of the PLC Process, but also an
important component of success for all educators. Reflection allows teams
and individuals to purposefully think about their work. Reflective practice
promotes student achievement and teacher efficacy.
A28 Reflection means looking at professional practice, evaluating that practice,
and making adjustments to the practice based on data. This could be in
looking at student data, surveys, videos, a journal, working with a coach, etc.
A29 Improving your practice.
A30 Data driven discussion to improve student outcomes.
Scholars describe many processes by which practitioners can enact reflective practice.
One of these processes involves collective conversations (Collin & Karsenti, 2011; Parsons &
Stephenson, 2005). Collin and Karsenti’s (2011) work focuses on conceptualizing the
relationship between reflective practice and verbal interaction in a collective approach to
reflective practice.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 60
In their qualitative study, Parsons and Stephenson (2005) posed two questions: Does
collaboration with peers and more experienced colleagues help pre-service teachers think more
reflectively about their practice, and does the provision of structure via weekly tasks help pre-
service teachers develop as reflective practitioners? Findings suggest that a collaborative
approach to reflection helped pre-service teachers gain a deeper understanding of practice. The
work of Parsons and Stephenson supports the collective collaboration work of Collin and
Karsenti (2011). Teaching team members may engage in this collaborative approach or
collective conversation during their PLC times.
Encouragement of Teacher Reflective Practice
The second research question for this study examined how school administrators
encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice during their PLC time. As noted in
demographic data, all respondents reported that their staff engages in PLC time. Although times
differ at different sites, teachers meet in PLC groups on a bi-weekly, weekly, bi-monthly or
monthly basis. Furthermore, as data pertaining to the first research question suggests, 93.54% of
administrators stated that they believed to a very high degree (35.48%) or high degree (58.06%)
that reflective practice was a critical skill for teachers to utilize.
The research of Collin and Karsenti (2011) and Parsons and Stephenson (2005)
prompted this research question. Fourteen administrators reported they ask questions that relate
to school goals, grade-level goals, or personal goals. Six administrators reported that questions
and conversations revolve around academic data. Three administrators reported they do not take
on this role because the principal does it. One administrator reported not having begun to
encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice, and one administrator reported they do not
facilitate PLC meetings, as they are led by teachers.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 61
A follow-up question to this regarded the topics participating administrators consider
important for teachers to reflect upon. The data in Table 5 demonstrate that instruction was the
top response (100%) and was followed by student achievement (90.32%) and classroom
management (90.32%). The responses under “Other” were school mission and vision, CGI and
Marzano strategies, arts integration and support for high achievers.
Table 6
What Topics do you Consider Important for Your Teaching Staff to Reflect Upon? (n = 31)
Topic Percentage Number
Curriculum 87.10% 27
Instruction 100.00% 31
Classroom Management 90.32% 28
Parent Involvement 58.06% 18
Student Achievement 90.32% 28
Progress of English Learners 80.65% 25
Response to Intervention 87.10% 27
Progress of SpEd Students 74.19% 23
Professional Development 54.84% 17
Other 9.68% 3
When asked how frequently administrators see teachers engaging in the reflective
practice process during PLC time six (19.35%) administrators reported that teacher use PLC time
to plan. Six (19.35%) reported that the time used is not enough or is not consistent. Eleven
(35.48%) administrators reported some type of reflection, but only when they are present and
two (6.45%) reported they do not attend PLC meetings.
Participants reported (Table 7) that teachers are given time to reflect at PLC meetings, yet
the frequency varies. The majority (48.38%) of administrators reported that their teachers are
given two times a week to engage in reflective practice.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 62
Table 7
Time Allotted to Reflective Practice (n = 31)
Time Allotted to Reflective Practice Percentage Number
Twice weekly 48.38% 15
Weekly 6.45% 2
Bi-Monthly 16.12% 5
Monthly 6.45% 2
Three times yearly 6.45% 2
Two times yearly 3.22% 1
Not at all/not enough 12.90% 4
As stated in data pertaining to the first research question, 93.54% of administrators stated
that they believe to a very high degree (35.48%) or high degree (58.06%) that reflective practice
was a critical skill for teachers to utilize. Only eleven (36.6%) administrators reported that
reflection happened during PLC times when they were present. Furthermore, 48.38% of
administrators stated that teachers have time twice weekly to reflect, yet, according to data,
reflection does not appear to happen on a consistent basis. This suggests a large discrepancy in
what administrators hold to be a critical skill and its actual use in practice.
Frequency of reflective practice during PLC time. Upon detailed analysis of the data,
nine of the participants stated they believed that teachers used PLC time to plan instead of for
time to reflect upon pedagogy and instructional practices and how these two educational
practices may have an impact on student learning. Furthermore, data suggests that
administrators do not attend PLC meetings on a regular basis to ensure that reflection happens on
an independent level. As one administrator stated, “To be honest, only when I am present,
because I am asking very direct, guided questions. I can only hope they do it more frequently
than when I prompt them.” This comment suggests that teachers may not necessarily know how
to engage in reflective practice independently. Another administrator claimed something very
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 63
similar, “They discuss data frequently. I don’t attend all PLC meetings, but, when I do, I lead
conversations around data.” This statement also suggests that teachers are not able to reflect
independently about data and that the principal feels they need to lead the conversation.
As to the frequency of reflection during PLC times, one participant stated,
I see our teachers doing this [reflecting] often and sharing how they achieved a goal or
altered a teaching practice that made an impact on the classroom and on data. I would say
this is a part of our school culture and that our teachers engage on the reflective process
at least once a month.
Granted, due to the anonymity of the responses, the frequency of PLC times at this site
cannot be established. However, if teachers are only reflecting one time monthly out of a
possible eight times a month, this administrator is allowing for something that contradicts their
claim that reflection is important and that reflective practice can improve teaching and learning.
All participant responses are listed in Table 7.
Table 8
Frequency of Teacher Reflective Practice During PLC Time
Administrator Comment
A1 They plan, mostly.
A2 When I attend their meetings and ask direct questions.
A3 Honesty, I think they only do it in my presence.
A4 I don’t attend their meetings.
A5 What you were teaching?
A6 I don’t typically attend PLC meetings.
A7 They discuss data frequently - I don’t attend all PLC meetings, but when I
do, I lead conversations around data.
A8 I think when I am present, they are more reflective. What I’m not, my guess
is that they plan.
A9 Only when they are asked questions. They use the time to plan.
A10 when they discuss data - at least 4x month.
A11 They plan, they don’t reflect.
A12 Usually the first 5-10 minutes.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 64
Table 8, continued
Administrator Comment
A13 Sometimes.
A14 Not frequently enough.
A15 I try not to attend plc’s, unless we are discussing data.
A16 To be honest, only when I am present, because I am asking very direct,
guided questions. I can only hope they do it more frequently than when I
prompt them.
A17 Most teachers respond positively after purposeful dialogue and reflection of
their observation.
A18 Only after a project based learning opportunity or when asked to review data.
A19 I meet with PLCs monthly to review their meeting notes and provide support.
A20 Some grade levels more than others. Not consistent enough.
A21 They do not. PLC time often reverts to field trip planning.
A22 I see our teachers doing this often and sharing how they achieved a goal or
altered a teaching practice that made an impact on the classroom and on data.
I would say this is a part of our school culture and that our teachers engage
on the reflective process at least once a month.
A23 At least at one of their PLCs per week.
A24 During PLC time teachers do reflect on instructional strategies used but this
is not done often enough.
A25 3 times per year
A26 When they look at data and create groupings and create CFA or decide who
to send to RtI.
A27 I require formal reflection at the end of each PLC Cycle, so that is for sure
happening, but I don’t think that formal reflection is part of each PLC Mtg.
A28 I think this really depends on what we call reflection. Teachers are
desegregating data and interpreting results, looking at best practices, etc. I
wouldn’t say that in PLC I am getting deep personal reflections about a
teacher’s individual professional practice.
A29 During PLC time teachers usually plan and strategize about data and next
steps.
A30 Not as often as they should.
A31 Less than 50% of the time.
Infrastructure of Support
The purpose of Research Question Three was to examine the ways school administrators
provide an infrastructure of support for the reflective practice process to enhance teacher
metacognition. For the purposes of this study, identification of infrastructure of support from
administrators takes on a variety of methodologies that prompt teachers to consider their practice
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 65
and the effect it has on students. These prompts (Table 8) include guiding questions posed to
teachers that relate to their yearly goals and objectives.
Table 9
How do you Facilitate Reflective Practice for Your Teaching Staff in Relation to Their Yearly
Goals and Objectives? (n=28)
Administrator Comment
A1 With the teachers I evaluate, we meet twice a year to discuss goals and
progress. I usually ask questions that probe them to reflect on if they are
close timer ting their goals and how they know.
A2 I meet with them individually and ask targeted questions based on
achievement and data records.
A3 We meet after their lessons as well as twice a year and I ask questions that
specifically relate to their goals.
A4 Two times a year we meet. I asked them what data supports them meeting
their goals or not. If they have not met their goals, we discuss possibilities
as to why this occurred.
A5 I ask them what data they have used to determine if they have met their
goals.
A6 I don’t, the principal does.
A7 I don’t - the principal does.
A8 I leave comments for teachers throughout the year that induce reflective
thought that relate to their goals.
A9 By asking what data supports student achievement.
A10 As an AP, the direction of the [professional development] is handled by the
principal. In pre-meeting with the principal, I internet ideas and some are
taken and others are not. However, teachers on my evolution process, I try
and touch base with them and help them along at least one or twice a week.
A11 One activity that I would like to try this year is to provide teachers with a
reflection “chart” where throughout the school year they can monitor their
own progress on their goals and objectives.
A12 I meet with them 2x a year to ask what data they have to support what
claims what they are making on their forms.
A13 we look at data that supports their goals.
A14 One method is by having the teachers go to their goals and comment as to
how they are doing towards their professional goals.
A15 I consider instructional practices, state test, and district test when having
discussions with teachers throughout the school year. Together we
determine goals for each school year. For example, we come up with a
percentage of growth and areas that the teacher would like for me to focus
on to improve instruction.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 66
Table 9, continued
Administrator Comment
A16 I do not at this time include the practice formally in those conversations.
A17 Their yearly goals and objectives are reviewed by the administrators two
times a year. I meet with teachers to review their goals and progress
towards their goals.
A18 Our teachers are given substitute time during the year and summer to meet
together along with administration for planning. We discuss the goals and
backwards plan. We identify our GV standards, unpack them and develop
the CFA’s. We’re still in the process of using scales with students.
A19 Our leadership team meets and reflects, but more reflection takes place on
school initiatives and events than it does on instruction or student growth.
We are growing in our reflective practices.
A20 Teachers meet with administrators and are able to reflect on their
instruction in reading and math and then they create their own goals for
professionalism and how they collaborate with their team members.
A21 Teachers and administration meet at the beginning of the year to discuss
grade-level and individual goals and objectives. Admin engages the staff in
conversations that require reflection and planning of specific actions to
obtain the goals. Throughout the year, teachers are reflecting on their
progress as a grade level and with admin during PLCs. At the end of the
year, admin meets with teachers individually to reflect on
achievement/progress of goals.
A22 I meet with every staff member individually at end of year to reflect on
goals and set next steps for personal growth. This allows us all a direction
prior to leaving school at the end of the school year.
A23 I give them time and resources.
A24 Meet with them and ask them reflective questions or more likely on the
eval document.
A25 We meet two or three times annually as per our district requirements...
A26 This year, we are using the Plan for Professional Growth setting goals, and
using mid-year and end-of-year meetings with admin and teacher. We also
use classroom walk-throughs and formal observations to target these goals.
A27 Facilitating how and why questions that are rhetorical in some sense but
can be answered when related to school goals. Example: What do you
think your relationship to your students can affect student behavior? Do
you think your relationships can affect the overall school climate? If so,
how can we improve relationships to positively affect our school climate.
A28 Provide them guiding questions.
Administrators may also provide an infrastructure of support to teachers throughout the
year during formal and informal classroom observations (Table 9), during staff meetings, and
through targeted professional development (Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993; El Ashi Shabeeb, &
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 67
Akkary, 2014; York-Barr et al., 2006). A final support provided to teachers allows them to keep
portfolios and collect artifacts (Lyons, 1998).
When asked how participants facilitate reflective practice for the teaching staff in relation
to their yearly goals, 11 (37.93%) participants reported they ask questions that specifically relate
to data and to how teachers feel they met their goals based on student achievement data. Ten
(34.48%) of administrators reported that they meet with staff members to discuss data and ask
questions relating to their goals. Seven (24.13%) participants stated that they meet to reflect
upon goals with staff as per district mandates. Two (6.89%) administrators stated they do not
participate in this process and that the principal helps teachers with meeting their yearly
objectives. One (3.44%) administrator stated that they do not include the practice formally into
conversations. One (3.44%) participant stated that the principal handles professional
development, but no example was given. Some participants shared two strategies in their
responses, and were counted separately.
Infrastructure of support and teacher metacognition. As previously stated, the
purpose of Research Question Three was to examine ways school administrators provide an
infrastructure of support for reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition.
Metacognition is described as an awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes.
Clark et al. (1996), Lyons (1998), Dewey (1938), Schön (1992), Zeichner (1994), Valli (1997),
Boske (2011), Brown (2006), and Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998) all suggest that the reflective
practice process is an active examination of one’s practice and its impact. Furthermore, the
effects of a teacher’s practice can be social-emotional or academic for students. These practices
can even affect equity and access to the curriculum. Through this type of metacognitive and
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 68
critical reflective practice, educators can strive to plan lessons and learning experiences that
reach all students and help them learn at high levels.
Critical reflection may help teachers become more aware and in tune with the choices
they make during and after a lesson. If teachers regularly engage in reflective practices that
focus on what Schön (1992) describes as reflection in and on action in the classroom, it is
possible for them to grow and develop as professionals. One infrastructure overwhelmingly
referred to by participants was questioning. When asked what types of questions administrators
ask teachers after observing a lesson, multiple responses were collected. Many of these
questions prompt teachers think about their strategies and how effective they are when it comes
to student achievement. Two central themes emerged from the questions. One theme was rooted
in instruction and pedagogy and the other in student achievement. Metacognitively focused
instructional and pedagogical questions prompted by administrators included the following from
Table 9: How did you plan for you EL’s and RSP kids? How did you decide what strategies to
use? Why did you choose those strategies for that specific lesson? How did you differentiate the
lesson to meet the needs of all students? How will you re-teach it to struggling learners? How
did you choose the groups students were in? Why did you teach the lesson the way you did?
How did you decide on that strategy? One question prompted reflection in action as described by
Schön (1992): “Did you depart from your plan?”
These types of questions, as reported by participants, are rooted in the research of Colton
and Sparks-Langer (1993) that claims the reflective process weaves together cognitive, critical,
and personal characteristics to create a framework for reflective decision-making. Colton and
Sparks-Langer ascertain that teachers must attend to many components as they engage in
reflective decision-making. Pedagogy and content knowledge make for just one component of
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 69
reflective decision-making. Furthermore, Colton and Sparks-Langer state that practitioners in the
classroom should also consider many aspects of instructional strategies. What methodologies
and theories are teachers utilizing? Are they effective? Are students mastering the content?
How do we know?
The second type of questions directly related to student achievement. The second type of
metacognitively focused questions provided by participants focused on student achievement.
These questions, found in Table 10 included
How do you know student met the lesson objective? How do you know students learned
what you were teaching? What evidence do you have that the objective was met? How
do you know the students understood the content - what evidence supports this? Did my
student learn something new or relearn an old skill? Did the students learn what you
intended for them to learn? How do you know? What does the student work reveal about
their levels of engagement and understanding?
As stated previously, metacognition is described as an awareness and understanding of one’s
own thought processes. These questions direct teachers to critically reflect upon their
understanding of what they are doing and how they are doing it.
Table 10
What Types of Reflective Questions Do You Ask Your Teachers After Observing a Lesson?
Administrator Comment
A1 How will you follow up with struggling students? How did you plan for you
EL’s and RSP kids? What was the best part of the lesson? Worst?
A2 What went well? Why? What didn’t? Why? How do you know student met
the lesson objective? How do you meet needs of all students?
A3 What data (formal/informal) supports student academic achievement? How
did you decide what strategies to use?
A4 Why did you choose those strategies for that specific lesson? How did you
modify instruction for RSP/ EL?
A5 How do you know students learned what you were teaching?
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 70
Table 10, continued
Administrator Comment
A6 How did you differentiate the lesson to meet the needs of all students? How
will you re-teach it to struggling learners?
A7 How did you choose the groups students were in? Why did you teach the
lesson the way you did? How do you think it went/what surprised you?
A8 what was the objective of the lesson? What evidence do you have that the
objective was met? It depends on what I see in the classroom during the
lesson. Sometimes it is a management question, sometimes an instructional
question.
A9 How did the lesson go? How do you know? What would you change? How
did you differentiate for your EL’s/RSP students?
A10 how did you decide on that strategy? how do you know the students
understood the content - what evidence supports this? How will you re-teach
if necessary? What are your next steps?
A11 what did you like best about the lesson, why? what would you change, why?
A12 What went well? did I meet my objective? were my students engaged? did
my student learn something new or relearn an old skill?
A13 How did you think the lesson went?
A14 how did you decide what teaching strategies to use for this lesson, how did
the lesson go, what evidence do you have?
A15 how do you think the lesson went, what would you do differently?
A16 What was the learning goal? What made you decide to use the instructional
methodologies that you chose? Was the lesson effective, why/why not?
What went well? What didn’t go as planned? How do you know the students
understood the lesson? What will you do next and why?
A17 (1) In general, how successful was the lesson? Did the students learn what
you intended for them to learn? How do you know? (2) What does the
student work reveal about their levels of engagement and understanding? (3)
Comment on your classroom procedures, student conduct, and your use of
physical space. To what extent did these contribute to student learning? (4)
Did you depart from your plan? Comment on different aspects of your
instructional delivery. To what extent were they effective? If you had an
opportunity to teach this lesson again what would you do differently.
A18 What made your lesson successful and how do you measure it?
A19 Your writing workshop mini lesson had a very clear teaching point. How
might you ensure that all students understood your teaching point.
A20 Here are some of the questions I use: As you reflect on your lesson, how do
you feel it went? What did you see students doing (or hear them saying) that
made you feel that way? What do you recall about your own behavior during
the lesson? Compare (Draw a comparison between student behavior
performed with student behavior desired.) How did what you observe
compare with what you planned? etc.
A21 Johnny was finished before everyone else. How will you know if Johnny
finished and was right or wrong, understood the concept or didn’t, and what
will you do to engage him?
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 71
Table 10, continued
Administrator Comment
A22 I ask curriculum, instruction, lesson artifacts, classroom management, and
planning questions
A23 How do you think your lesson went? How do you know? How were you able
to demonstrate the standards you listed for your lesson? What parts of the
lesson do you feel were effective? What suggestions/comments would you
make?
A24 Tell me about the strategies you used that helped you enhance your lesson.
How would you change what you did and what are your next steps for
professional growth in this area?
A25 How did you plan...? What would you change...? What did you expect...?
A26 what student observable behaviors lead you to believe students understood
the lesson? What would you do differently if you were to teach this lesson
again?
A27 What would happen if...? How might student respond to...? Have you
considered...?
A28 It depends. I might ask, how do students know when they have mastered the
learning target?
A29 What do you think about this strategy? How do you know your students
learned? What would you have done different?
A30 how do you think you could improve your lesson
A31 Scenarios, like “How could you do ____ differently next time?”
Interviews
Interview questions delved more deeply into the three research questions examined in this
study regarding school administrator’s perceptions of reflective practice process and its
importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff, how administrators encourage
teachers to engage in reflective practice during their PLC time, and the ways in which
administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the reflective practice process to enhance
teacher metacognition.
Nine administrators participated in the interviews and answered the same eight questions.
Limitations of interviews included differing probing questions for each interviewee to provide
deeper, more detailed data and information. Interview findings are organized in the following
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 72
sections: administrator’s perceptions, importance of reflective practice to classroom
performance, encouragement during PLC process, infrastructure of support. One sections that
was relevant, yet not a part of the original research questions surfaced. This section is titled
administrator concerns.
Administrator’s Perceptions
The first research question in this study aimed to examine school administrators’
perceptions of reflective practice process and its importance to the teachers’ classroom
performance. Therefore, how an administrator perceives reflection is important to understand.
With so many differing definitions of reflective practice in the educational field alone, what the
principal of a site expects and models can enlighten or hinder teaching staff.
As described in the review of literature, Sellers (2012) states that reflection is important
because it may create change that improves practice. Reflection also aids in the development of
further self-knowledge and understanding. When a practitioner engages in this process, they
examine, re-examine, and check both their self-knowledge and capacity to use this knowledge to
improve practice. A metacognitive undertaking such as reflection is a very personal
pursuit. Sellers describes the reflective practice process as participating in an initial event, then
describing, universally analyzing, and evaluating this event against specific criteria. According
to Sellers, the final stage of reflection involves making decisions related to change, adaptation, or
the modification of professional practice with a deliberate focus on professional improvement.
Eight administrators provided various definitions of their perceptions of reflective
practice. All nine agreed that reflective practice was a time for teachers to look at data, examine
instruction, and a plan to move forward. One administrator did not know what reflective practice
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 73
was, initially, until given a definition. Once provided, the administrator agreed that reflective
practice was good for teachers.
Eight participants stated they felt reflection was centered on student achievement data;
one stated, “If there is no data, there is nothing to reflect upon.” This participant felt strongly
about reflection being exclusive to data. When the researcher suggested teachers could reflect on
teaching strategies, the administrator replied, “If the strategies were successful, this would be
indicated in assessment data.” The participant further stated, “When the assessment results are
poor, it is obvious that the pedagogical approach was faulty, and then the teacher should reflect
on what went wrong.” When asked to clarify if reflection should be an ongoing process, the
participant agreed, but added, “If things are going well, reflection should be focused on what
isn’t going well, as indicated by summative and formative assessment data.” This proof in the
pudding attitude was shared by four other participants.
Perceptions also included the link between data and instructional strategies, specifically if
the data is indicative of a lack of student performance and how this ties into instruction. Other
perceptions were how teaching practices can be refined by addressing what is taught, how it is
taught and was there truly a “best first teach.” All nine participants stated that reflection should
revolve around meeting the needs of all students.
Reflection and teacher performance. The first research question in this study
examined the school administrator’s perceptions of reflective practice process and its importance
to teachers’ classroom performance. This section dovetails to the previous one and examines the
second prong of the first research question.
Scholars claim that reflective practice is a process on which one builds their craft. El Ashi
Shabeeb and Akkary (2014) claim that reflecting on one’s practice is a key catalyst for building
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 74
the capacities of teachers, principals, and schools. Lyons (1998) suggests that reflection is a long
process that takes place over time and that one must make connections between one’s values,
purposes, and actions when engaging students. These connections take place through critical
interrogations and conversations with colleagues as they discuss practices. Furthermore,
Larrivee (2008) built on what Lyons asserts and add that there are four distinct levels of the
reflective process: pre-reflective, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical
reflection. Larrivee (2008) describes reflection as developmental, with possible reflection on
technical skill occurring first then progressing towards the ultimate goal of critical reflection.
Critical reflection and the application thereof allows teachers and educational leaders,
such as principals, to analyze their personal values and the theories shaping what they do in the
classroom and how they interact with students. Through critical reflection, teachers can move
towards greater self-knowledge and self-challenge in their professional development. If teachers
begin on the reflective path as suggested by Larrivee (2008) and, ultimately, implement
reflection using a critical lens as described by Larrivee and by El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary
(2014), they will be able to identify strategies that work best.
The data suggest a central theme that emerged from the interviews, and that is that
reflective practice should be a given due to the constant evolution and dynamics of the teaching
profession. Teachers need to constantly change and learn in order to be responsive to what
students demonstrate. As one participant stated, “The most reflective teacher is the most
effective teacher. One the other hand, teachers that struggle don’t usually have the ability to
reflect.” The participant who made this statement detailed that the best teachers on that staff
have the ability to teach a lesson and reflect during the lesson, noting how students respond, who
is learning, and whether the instructional strategy implemented is effective. Then, after the
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 75
lesson is over, the teacher details what worked, overall, and what did not. This process,
reflection in action and on action, directly correlates to Schön’s (1992) work. This participant
further added that teachers who struggle are not aware of how their teaching affects students.
She added that the few struggling teachers on her staff believe that they taught a good lesson, and
cannot understand why students do not understand the content. These teachers have not made a
shift from teaching to student learning and, usually, blame outside factors such as socioeconomic
status, language ability and parenting for students’ inability to master content. She stated that,
with this attitude, the teacher may feel that reflection is not necessary because, in their own
minds, their instructional approaches are, indeed, effective. It is through teacher reflection and
action upon their reflection that student achievement may be positively affected.
Encouragement of Reflective Practice During PLC Process
The second research question was aimed at examining how school administrators
encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice during their PLC time. Eight of nine
administrators stated they encourage their teachers to engage in reflection during PLC time,
while one stated that the teachers at the site just plan lessons and pacing because they do not
know how to reflect. Eight of nine administrators stated that they provide the teaching staff
some sort of prompts to guide their discussion during PLC times to help support this process.
Eight administrators stated that PLC time is crucial for teacher reflection.
Guiding questions came from DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, Many and Mattos (2006) and
Marzano, Boogren, Haflebower, Kanold-McIntyre and Pickering (2012), or the administrators
created them specifically for district assessments or common formative assessments that link
directly to standards in English/language arts or mathematics. Nine administrators stated that,
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 76
when they do sit in on teacher PLC times, encouragement comes in the form of probing
questions found in Table 10.
Table 11
Questions Asked by Administrators to Encourage Reflection
Question N
Why do you think that happened? What would you change? Why? 9
What were some of your successes/challenges? 9
What evidence do you have that supports students learned what you are teaching? 9
Where are you as a teacher in relation to your student academic goals? 9
DuFour’s (2006) questions:
(1) What do we expect our students to learn? 5
(2) How will we know they are learning?
(3) How will we respond when they don’t learn?
(4) How will we respond if they already know it?
Marzano (2011) questions based upon individual teacher goals. 5
(1) What will I do to establish and communicate learning goals, track
student progress, and celebrate success?
(2) What will I do to help students effectively interact with new knowledge?
(3) What will I do to help students practice and deepen their understanding
of new knowledge?
(4) What will I do to engage students?
What did you do when you met with a small group to re-teach? 3
What did you do differently with the small groups? 3
How were instruction and materials presented differently? 3
What different materials did you have for them? 3
What artifacts do you have? 3
How do you plan so that the new skills transfer over to other content areas? 3
What have you come across on campus that is helping you meet your goals? 2
Have you seen anyone else try ____ before? What did they do? 2
Nine administrators required grade-level teams to keep running notes of their PLC
meetings, yet four stated they responded to each grade level’s documents and provided feedback,
answered questions and provided specific reflective questions through a non-standardized PLC
form. Four administrators stated that the form inhibits conversation because the focus of the
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 77
PLC is filling out the form. One administrator stated, when probed about the form used at their
school,
There is a form to help facilitate what you should be doing…to give teachers a starting
point, but you need to be creative. We need to create a new culture. You need to have
good conversations. That is hard to do when tied to a form.
When asked about current times for teacher PLC groups, all nine administrators stated it
was not enough time. PLC times occur for different durations and the breakdown varied from
meeting once a month, once weekly for fifty minutes, meeting twice weekly for fifty minutes,
and four times a year. Two administrators stated that to get more PLC time for teachers, one
pays out of budget for substitutes an additional three times a year, and one administrator stated
that their parent-teacher association helps pay for a physical education teacher so that teachers
can meet one additional time a week.
Infrastructure of Support
Although theorists disagree on which tool is most effective, strategies, available to the
practitioner include educator portfolios (Lyons, 1998), professional development (Colton &
Sparks-Langer, 1993; El Ashi Shabeeb & Akkary, 2014; York-Barr et al., 2006), collective
conversations (Collin & Karsenti, 2011) and rubrics that help analyze artifacts (Thorsen &
DeVore, 2013). Interview responses varied in the type of support from administration, although
nine administrators stated they believe they do provide support. Table 11 lists examples of
administration support provided to teachers.
The data collected indicate that all nine participants believe that time to reflect and time
to write about reflection are a significant type of support they give to their staff. This finding
correlates to research by Lyons (1998), which suggests that reflection is a long process that takes
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 78
place over time. Time to write, also allotted by all nine participants, may serve as a portfolio of
sorts for teachers. This writing may serve as an artifact for examination. Allowing time for
teachers to write, in the form of a blog, diary or portfolio is also supported by Lyons (1998).
Lyons (1998) conducted a qualitative longitudinal study of pre-service teachers involving
teacher creation of portfolios and the collection of artifacts, which included tapes, teacher created
lesson plans, and student work. Reflection emerged as the process by which pre-service teachers
justified choosing specific artifacts for the portfolio. Using Lyons’ study as a foundation,
administrators in this study could encourage teachers to discuss the how and why they chose to
write about the topics they did. Teachers may then begin to question their teaching and
instructional practices and to then discuss these practices during PLC times.
Another trend that emerged from the data included worked examples of quality PLC
notes as well as reflective questions to guide team discussions. Questions are noted in Table 10.
Feedback was also popular among eight of the participants. Although the methods of feedback
varied from participant to participant, all stated that, when they did a walk-though or formal
observation, teachers received feedback afterwards. Methods of feedback included emails sent
from the classroom, SeeSaw, hand written notes and an application for the iPad and/or iPhone
called Notability.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 79
Table 12
Infrastructure of Support given to Teachers by Site Administration
Example N
Time to reflect 9
Time to write (portfolio/blog) 9
Worked examples of PLC notes 8
Examples of reflective questions 8
Feedback 8
Grade-level release days 6
Instructional rounds 5
Professional development 3
Surveys 1
Student feedback 1
Data notebooks 1
Staff discussions 1
Modeling by grade levels (fishbowl discussions) 1
Administrator Concerns
Administrator concerns were not a part of the three research questions. This section was
added because, during each interview, participants raised various concerns regarding the
hindrance of reflection. These concerns did not fit into the identified categories; therefore, they
were listed separately in Table 12. The concerns listed in Table 12 may provide avenues into
further research. All nine participants stated that there is a fear of reflection in the presence of
other teachers. Each participant stated that reflective practice in the presence of others requires
the letting go of one’s ego, and that is difficult to do. This comparison, especially when looking
at achievement data, may allow for categorization of good teachers as bad ones as a result of
student performance.
Another major concern for eight of the participants was that teachers did not know how
to reflect without the use of prompts and that they have too many other initiatives going on that
cause them to become too overwhelmed to regularly engage in reflective practice.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 80
Table 13
Administrator Concerns
Concern N
There is a fear that prevents individual critical reflection in presence of
other teachers
9
Fear of critical self-reflection/comparison to others 9
Teachers don’t know how to reflect without prompts 8
Teachers are overwhelmed and doing too much to reflect 8
Teachers think reflection is planning time 7
Teachers don’t know how to reflect individually 6
Hard to measure how much teachers are reflecting 4
Fear of district mandates, checklists, reading of PLC notes 3
District should encourage use of social media as reflective tool for RP 2
Observations
Merriam (2009) states that observations are a primary source of data and help triangulate
other data gained through other methods, such as interviews. One of the benefits is seeing first-
hand how participants interact, listening to comments made, and noting content not addressed, all
in participants’ natural environment. Two observations took place in order to triangulate data
(Table 14).
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 81
Table 14
Observation Data
Behaviors observed
Infrastructure of
support
(O1) Principal (P) explained reflective practice (RP) to staff (S)
P asked the following questions and each staff member responded:
What beliefs do you hold about yourself as an educator?
What beliefs do you hold about your colleagues?
What beliefs do you hold about your students?
What beliefs do you hold about your instructional
practices?
How can these beliefs skew the way you look at your data?
(O1) P provided S guided questions and explained each question to
staff.
(O1) P indicated to S how to interpret data.
(O2) P asked questions regarding data–specifically common
formative assessments and student progress on standards. “What
instructional methods were used to teach the initial lesson,” “How
did you differentiate for your English learners and students with
IEP’s” “How will you re-teach the lesson based upon the data you
have gathered.” “What will you do to enrich for those that
understand.”
Encouragement (O1 & O2) P facilitated discussion with S regarding student data,
encouraged staff to share specific teaching practices utilized during
instruction.
Principal
perception:
importance of RP
(O1) P asked S to brainstorm and create list of four results
statements about patterns found in data and student performance.
(O1 & O2) P asked S to discuss what students may have found
difficult, and facilitated conversation around teaching strategies.
Body language and
tone of P
(O1) P sat at table and leaned into each teacher as they directly
spoke.
(O1) P was calm, used low pitched voice to explain bias.
((O1 & O2) P raised voice encouragingly when S discussed patterns
in data
(O1 & O2) P raised voice encouragingly when S discussed student
achievement
(O1 & O2) P used low voice when S discussed teaching strategies.
P would pause and appear to think carefully about each S statement
before commenting or questioning.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 82
In order to triangulate the data, the observations provided in-person ability for the
researcher to address the three research questions. The first question examined the school
administrator’s perceptions of reflective practice and its importance to the teacher’s classroom
performance. The second question investigated how school administrators encourage teachers to
engage in reflective practice during their PLC time. Finally, the third research question addressed
the ways school administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the reflective practice
process to enhance teacher metacognition.
One observation occurred in the principal’s office at a non-Title I school and lasted
ninety minutes. Participants were the site principal and three sixth grade teachers (O1). The
second observation took place in a classroom at a Title I school, during a PLC meeting (O2).
Participants were the principal and two fourth grade teachers. In both observations, the
researcher was silent observer. Conversations centered on data and instruction during both
observations, and the questions and reactions of the administrators were very similar in nature.
One administrator provided teachers with a handout while the other facilitated discussion in a
more casual way. Both administrators asked questions that led their staff to conclusions centered
on the data, patterns in data, and instruction.
One administrator focused formally on reflective practice and took time to explain it to
staff members whereas the other prompted teachers with reflective questions without letting
them know they were reflecting. Both administrators facilitated conversations on pedagogy,
instruction, and student responses to instruction.
When looking carefully at the data (Table 13), there are several similarities and
differences in the approaches of the administrator to help support reflection among teachers.
One similarity was the demeanor of the administrators. Both were encouraging, used raised
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 83
tones in their voices when discussing data, both leaned into their chairs towards teachers during
the meetings, and both used lower-pitch voices when teachers discussed data patterns and
teaching practices.
Upon further analysis, the first administrator observed took careful and calculated care in
ensuring that the staff members had a vivid picture of themselves before they enacted direct,
purposeful reflection. It appeared to be a training sessions for teachers to make them aware of
their own biases before looking at the data. These biases, especially when asked about beliefs
about students may have a direct impact on social justice issues as suggested by Zeichner (1994).
These constructed questions evolved and built upon each other in a way that was purposeful and
deliberate. Teachers engaged in conversation that was frank, direct, and the principal asked
probing questions throughout the meeting. The first observation set the foundation for reflection
and why it was important. Another difference noted between the two observations is that, in the
first, the principal required teachers to note and discuss patterns in the data along with possible
reasons for their occurrence. It was during this time that one of the teachers pondered how one
particular standard was assessed in the previous grade level. It was discovered that the
mathematical concept in question was briefly introduced. The teacher pondered if this was the
reason a majority of the students did so poorly on the thread of standards that had been assessed.
On the other hand, the administrator guiding the second observation asked pointed
questions regarding data. There was no foundational piece to begin the meeting; the team just
delved into the data. It came across that this administrator assumed teachers understood
reflective practice and did not guide them through how teacher thoughts and assumptions could
bias their interpretation of pedagogy and assessment results.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 84
Discussion
Clark et al. (1996), Dewey (1938), Farrell (2012), Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998), Larrivee
(2008), Rodgers (2002), Schön (1992), Valli (1997) and others all agree that reflective practice is
paramount to improved performance, yet Larrivee (2008), Parsons and Stephenson (2005),
Hebert (2015) and Zeichner (1993) all claim that “reflective practice” lacks an actual agreed-
upon definition in the context of education.
When analyzing surveys, interviews and observations, data remained consistent regarding
all three research questions. Research Question One examined school administrator’s perceptions
of the reflective practice process and its importance to teachers’ classroom performance. The
findings suggest participants had their own definition of reflective practice, yet all agreed that it
was an examination of classroom practices. Furthermore, although all administrators agreed
reflection was an important practice for teachers, they differed on other aspects of how, why and
how frequently it should be enacted. This raises an additional: does the formal schooling and/or
employment experience somehow parallel to one’s personal definition of reflective practice?
An emerging theme focused specifically on reflective practice as a constant review and
monitoring of student progress. Students’ progress, or lack thereof, specifically focused on state
and local assessments (district benchmarks, individual classroom and grade-level). If there were
no data, teachers would have nothing to reflect upon and not know which students require
interventions. It was from this perspective that all nine administrators tied in effective teaching
strategies, pedagogy, and methodologies into classroom performance. Participants felt that, if
students were not successful on assessments, instruction and methodologies required analysis by
the classroom teacher. The data showed a correlation between what administrators define as
reflection and that it is important to teachers’ classroom performance.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 85
The second research question addressed how school administrators encourage teachers to
engage in reflective practice during their PLC time. There appears to have a disconnect in this
area. Although administrators do encourage reflection during PLC times, teachers do not
regularly engage in reflection. A possible next step is to provide administrators tools and
training to teach their staff how to engage in reflective practice and to consistently monitor
reflective practice without micromanaging PLC meetings.
The final research question examined what types of metacognitive infrastructures of
support school administrators provide teachers when it comes to reflective practice.
Administrators provide numerous types of supports to teachers, such as time to reflect, worked
examples, professional development, instructional rounds/observations, feedback, data
notebooks and targeted questions during observations and during meetings regarding teacher
professional goals.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 86
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
One school administrator responsibility is to make sure teachers utilize current, research-
based, effective classroom practices. An important component to implementation of effective
teaching practices is providing teachers access to current pedagogy and research. Excellent
teaching helps to ensure students achieve at high levels, which may lead to closing existing
achievement gaps.
This dissertation addressed the problem of high-stakes accountability testing measures
placed on teachers and students in California. Mandated standardized assessments taken each
spring directly link to school funding as well as to sanctions placed on schools and districts
(CDE, 2015). Current evidence highlights that only 44% of students tested in California
exceeded or met the standard for English language arts, and 33% of students exceeded or met the
standard in mathematics (CDE, 2015). These statistics gathered from the 2015 state assessments
clearly demonstrate low achievement, and this problem is important to address because students
who do not perform well in school have an increased risk of dropping out.
Not a new concept, consistent and critical analysis of one’s teaching practice may be one
method to ensure teachers are teaching at high levels and that students are learning at high levels.
Reflective practice in the teaching profession may be one avenue that allows teachers to improve
their craft. Reflective practice can be enacted in a multitude of ways (Colton & Sparks-Langer
1993; El Ashi Shabeeb & Akkary, 2014; Lyons, 1998; Thorsen & DeVore 2013; York-Barr et
al., 2006), but, regardless of how, it is pivotal that educators frequently and honestly look at their
instruction, pedagogy to student outcomes and analyze the impact of what happens in their
classroom. Although it is important to reflect as an individual, when teachers meet and
collaborate with their colleagues during the PLC time (Collin & Karsenti, 2011; Colton &
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 87
Sparks-Langer, 1993; Farrell, 2012;), reflective practice can allow them to have metacognitive
conversations that lead to higher levels of student achievement.
The goals of this study were to identify and understand the role of the administrator in
reflective practice at the institutional level at K-6 and K-8 elementary schools in urban areas. The
following questions aimed to understand the current perceptions of school administrators.
1. What are school administrator’s perceptions of reflective practice process and its
importance to the classroom performance of teaching staff?
2. How do school administrators encourage teachers to engage in reflective practice during
their Professional Learning Community time?
3. In what ways do school administrators provide an infrastructure of support for the
reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition?
The methods utilized in this study were qualitative. The study utilized electronic surveys,
nine in-person interviews and two observations. Qualitative research aims to understand
opinions and reasons for doing something. Merriam (2009) states that qualitative researchers are
interested in understanding how people interpret and give meaning to experiences. Qualitative
research methods helped uncover how school administrators perceive reflective practice, how
they encourage their teachers to engage in reflective practice, and what infrastructure they
provide to promote reflective practice to enhance teacher metacognition.
Discussion of Findings
This study posed three research questions. Clark et al. (1996), Dewey
(1938), Farrell (2012), Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998), Larrivee (2008), Rodgers (2002), Schön
(1992), Valli (1997) and others all agree that reflective practice is paramount to improved
performance, yet Larrivee (2008), Parsons and Stephenson (2005), Hebert (2015) and Zeichner
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 88
(1993) all claim that reflective practice lacks an agreed-upon definition in the context of
education.
Administrator Perceptions of Reflective Practice
In examining data pertaining to the first research question, the findings are that school
administrators perceive reflective practice as a crucial component of classroom success.
Classroom success in comprised of two factors: the teacher and the instructional strategies and
pedagogy occurring in the classroom. The number one indicator of student success is the teacher
in the classroom (DuFour, 2006). The teacher needs to be cognizant of the effectiveness of
classroom strategies and how students respond to these strategies. Teachers need to be able to
ascertain if high-level learning is happening.
Administrators described reflective practice as a teacher looking back and examining
classroom practices. Administrators cited practices and pedagogy as important components of
reflection. However, administrators felt that reflection specific to analysis of data was
paramount to student success, and, with no data, there would be nothing to reflect upon. As
supported by research (Clark et al., 1996; Dewey, 1938; Farrell 2012; Ferry & Ross-Gordon,
1998; Larrivee, 2008; Rodgers, 2002; Schön, 1992; Valli, 1997), there was no consistent
definition stated by any of the participants.
The research of Marcela, Gutierrez, and Aldana (2015) underscores the importance of
deepening one’s own knowledge about personal teaching practices. The authors met to critically
discuss practice over the course of a year. Findings showed that engaging in a form of collective
collaboration aided the authors in knowledge-building and critical reflection. Sellers (2012)
asserted that reflection is important because it may create change that improves practice.
Reflection also aids in the development of further self-knowledge and understanding. Likewise,
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 89
the research of in El Ashi Shabeeb and Akkary (2014), Ferry and Ross-Gordon (1998), Collin
and Karsenti (2011), Thompson and Pascal (2012), and Lyons (1998) all support the idea of
collective collaboration. PLC time may provide such a forum.
Engaging in Reflective Practice
The second research question examined how administrators encourage teachers to engage
in reflective practice during PLC time. Teachers drive PLC meetings (DuFour, 2006). During
these meetings, they examine and respond to three crucial questions. The first question is what
they want all students to learn. Second, they look at how they will know when each student has
learned it, and, finally, how they will respond when a student has difficulty learning (DuFour,
2006). The PLC model and reflective practice process appear to allow for seamless imbedding of
collaboration among teachers. Given the opportunity to have reflective conversations, teachers
may discuss and examine each other’s approaches and further develop their knowledge,
communicate assumptions and reconsider what they learn during their teaching practice.
The findings showed a disconnect. Although data confirms administrators perceive
reflective practice as crucial to students’ academic performance and as an avenue to improve
practice, findings indicate that, unless the administrator is present and guiding the reflective
practice process, it does not regularly occur during the PLC meeting. This presents a catch-22
scenario. Administrators, in a true PLC model, do not regularly attend PLC meetings. Teachers
keep notes, share them with administration, and discuss progress with teams, possibly, once a
month. All participants reported their teachers engage in the PLC model. Forty-one percent of
participants stated that teachers met bi-weekly, 29.03% reported bi-monthly, 19.35% reported
weekly and 9.68% reported monthly. If 60.39% of teachers meet as frequently as once or twice a
week and submit notes to administrators, questions arise as to how frequently we want teachers
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 90
reflecting and as to the model that can be used to embed regular reflective practice within PLC
meetings.
Administrator Support for Teacher’s Reflective Practice
The final research question examined the ways that school administrators provide an
infrastructure of support for the reflective practice process to enhance teacher metacognition.
Although researchers (Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006; Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Clark et al.,
1996; Dewey, 1938; Lyons, 1998; Schön, 1992; Valli, 1997; Zeichner, 1994) do not agree on a
single definition of reflective practice or what process practitioners should use, all claim that
reflection involves examining one’s practice and its impact on students through a critical and
honest lens. This examination takes on a host of methods that include reflection in action or
reflection on action (Schön, 1992). Clark and Kelley (1996) state that reflection happens
throughout one’s professional practice. According to Clark and Kelley, one central question that
practitioners should ask during practice is, “What happens in practice?” This process embodies
Schön’s (1992) notion of reflection in action—thinking about what is happening at the time it is
happening.
The methods to enact reflection vary as much as the actual definition of reflective
practice. Research suggests that these processes may include educator portfolios (Lyons, 1998),
professional development (Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993; El Ashi Shabeeb & Akkary, 2014;
York-Barr et al., 2006), collective conversations (Collin & Karsenti, 2011; Parsons &
Stephenson, 2005) and rubrics for analyzing artifacts that allow educators to see where they fall
on the reflective practice continuum (Thorsen & DeVore, 2013). Findings in this study
conclusively indicate that administrators provide teachers an infrastructure of support. All nine
administrators interviewed stated they provide time to reflect (PLC meetings) as well as the
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 91
ability to write about reflective practices. Time is a crucial component for reflection, but again
time needs to be utilized wisely.
Eight participants stated they provide worked examples of PLC notes as well as guiding
questions for teachers. Other forms of support were grade-level release time, surveys,
professional development, feedback from classroom observations, instructional rounds, data
notebooks, and modeling. Implications for practice call for an examination of the disconnect
between what administrators perceive as minimal reflections by teachers.
Implication for Practice
Findings indicate that administrators believe reflective practice is critical for teachers and
student achievement. Furthermore, administrators provide an infrastructure of support to allow
for reflective practice. Findings also indicated teachers do not reflect as much as administrators
perceive they should be. Second, teachers only engage in reflection when an administrator is
present at a PLC meeting.
The lack of adequate reflection, as described by the participants, could hold negative
implications for practice. If classroom teachers are not reflecting adequately and at critical
levels, student achievement, as well as teacher classroom performance, may be negatively
affected. Fear of reflective accountability to your administrator or the District as well as a fear
of reflecting in front of and/or judgment by your peers will not foster critical levels of reflection
amongst teachers. Furthermore, the lack of adequate critical reflection as perceived by
administrators may have a significant implication in the areas of social justice, access to
curriculum, and equity. Scholars (Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006; Kline & Gardner, 2005) agree that
students learning English, students of color, and students with disabilities face social injustices in
public schools as compared to their white, middle class counterparts. It is through critical
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 92
reflection that teachers begin to understand how current instructional practice, pedagogy, and
bias may negatively affect students of color, students with disabilities and English language
learners.
Based on the findings, there are two recommendations for future research. Although
there has been extensive research into the practitioner’s perspective, the first recommendation is
to conduct research from a practitioner’s perspective to gain insight in the area of teachers’
beliefs regarding how an administrator could provide support to ensure critical reflection, with
out fear of accountability or judgment by colleagues. Furthermore, it would be beneficial for
practice to understand how teachers believe their administrators hinder reflective practice. This
well-rounded, dual perspective could help administrators with facilitation of reflective practice at
critical levels at their campus.
A second prong of research could involve the discovery of existing barriers to critical
reflection, and how to aid teachers to overcome perceived barriers and to begin engaging in
regular critical reflective practice. One recommendation to lay the foundation of this specific
research would be to survey and interview classroom teachers to begin to understand how
reflective practice is perceived through the teacher’s lens. With this valuable information,
administrators will begin to understand both how teachers define reflection and critical reflection
and how to help them move past perceived barriers. This research could also help administrators
know how to differentiate reflection by allowing different types of evidence of reflection, such as
portfolios, blogs, artifacts, data, and collective conversations, not just a hyper-focus on data and
results. This research would also help glean information as to what type of professional
development or modeling teachers would require to engage in regular reflection.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 93
The second recommendation regards the PLC model. Administrators stated teachers are
reflecting at minimal levels, with an, often directed, hyper-focus on data. With this narrow
scope, it seems that deeper, critical levels of reflection do not occur as frequently as
administrators would like to see. A further extension is to teach administrators that reflection is
multi-faceted; discussion around instruction, pedagogy and curriculum is equally important as
discussions surrounding student data. Practitioners should be encouraged to look at student-
centered side of instruction as well as how to fine-tune their craft. Another possibility to foster
reflection is to allow for more time for informal discussion in the form of a critical friends
setting. This setting may help teachers feel more comfortable reflecting in front of colleagues.
This critical friends setting may be a vehicle to build trust amongst colleagues and allow for
robust discussion around instruction and pedagogy. Sadly, the minimal reflection described by
administrators may suggest that issues of student equity and social justice are not occurring. It is
crucial that PLC discussions include critical levels of reflection and a social justice component
beyond the established questions currently examined. An examination is needed into structures
that can be provided to ensure teachers are reflecting, and not just planning and discussing
school-related events, and, finally, into how we can move past a one-size-fits-all standardized
method of documentation.
Conclusion
This research involved reflective practice from the administrator’s perspective,
specifically how school administrators perceive reflective practice, how they encourage
reflection and what metacognitive promoting infrastructures of support they provide teachers.
Although administrators agreed that reflection is important and that they provide varied
structures of support that allow for metacognition, the sentiment was that teachers are not
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 94
reflecting enough, or at critical levels, to truly change current practices that may have a positive
impact on student achievement.
Replication and implementation of this study would be beneficial at any educational
institution, as reflective practice is not limited to the K-6 and K-8 levels. Examining two
districts, with a small sample size and response rates, yielded limited results. Further research
into the teacher’s perspective of reflective practice could glean important information on how to
best support regular critical reflective practice.
Findings support research claims that the current state of reflection in education is, at
best, a work in progress. Reflective practice holds numerous interpretations, definitions, and
procedures. Scholars (Boske, 2011; Brown, 2006; Dewey, 1938; Hatton &Smith, 1995; Schön,
1992; Valli, 1997; Zeichner, 1994) agree that engaging in reflection may allow practitioners to
develop professionally, uncover biases and provide a vehicle for collegial discourse regarding
teaching methodologies that may lead to student achievement.
In closing, it is challenging to determine what an individual administrator holds as
adequate levels of reflection or what critical reflection looks like to an individual. Reflective
practice, however, allows an individual practitioner to identify personal strengths and
weaknesses and gives them an avenue to elicit change whether it is through dialoguing with
colleagues, keeping a portfolio, writing about their practice, using a rubric or any other vehicle
for reflection. Regardless of how reflective practice is enacted, research supports that, with this
process, a practitioner may achieve a metacognitive state wherein they can see how their
practices affects all learners in their classroom, uncover biases and make positive shifts in
pedagogy and instruction to meet their students’ needs, especially students labeled at risk.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 95
References
Beauchamp, C. (2015). Reflection in teacher education: issues emerging from a review of current
literature. Reflective Practice, 16(1), 123-141.
Boske, C. (2011). Using the senses in reflective practice: Preparing school leaders for non-text-
based understandings. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing (27)2. 82-100.
Brown, K. (2006). Leadership for social justice and equity: Evaluating a transformative
framework and andragogy. Education Administration Quarterly (42)5 79-110
California Department of Education. (2015). California Assessment of Student Performance and
Progress. Retrieved from www.cde.ca.gov
Clark, B., & Kelley, J. C. (1996). Reflective practice: reviewing the issues and refocusing the
debate. International Journal of Nursing. Stud. 33(2) 171-180.
Collin, S., Karsenti, T (2011). The collective dimension of reflective practice: the how and why.
Reflective Practice, (12)4, 569-581.
Colton, A., Sparks-Langer, G. (1993) A conceptual framework to guide the development of
teacher reflection and decision making. Journal of Teacher Education, (44)1, 45-54.
Common Core State Standards Initiative (2016). Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/
Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative and mixed methods approaches.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan.
DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., Many, T., Mattos, M. (2006) Learning by Doing: A
Handbook for Professional Learning Communities at Work. Bloomington:IL. Solution
Tree Press.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 96
El Ashi Shabeeb, L., Akkary, R.K. (2014). Developing teachers’ reflective practice: An
explorative study of teachers’ professional learning experience in a private Lebanese
school. Professional Development in Education, (40)3, 376-397.
Farrell, T. (2012) Reflecting on reflective practice: Revisiting Dewey and Schön. TESOL
Journal (3.1). doi:10.1002/tesj.10
Ferry, N., Ross-Gordon, J. (1998) An inquiry into Schön’s epistemology of practice: Exploring
links between experience and reflective practice. Adult Education Quarterly, (48)2, 98-
112.
Galea, S. (2012) Reflecting reflective practice. Educational Philosophy and Theory (44)3.
Gilroy, P. (1993) Reflections on Schön: an epistemological critique and a practical alternative.
International Analyses of Teacher Education.
Marcela, O.P., Gutierrez, R. & Aldana, M.F. (2015) Engaging in critically reflective teaching:
from theory to practice in pursuit of transformative learning. Reflective Practice (16)1.
16-30. DOI:10.1080/14623943.2014.944141.
Harding, J. (2013). Qualitative Data Analysis from Start to Finish. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Hatton, N., Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: towards definition and
implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, (11)1, 33-49.
Hebert, C. (2015). Knowing and/or experiencing: a critical examination of the reflective models
of John Dewey and Donald Schon. Reflective Practice (16)3. 361-371.
DOI: DOI:10.1080/14623943.2015.102.3281.
Larrivee, B. (2008). Development of a tool to assess teachers’ level of reflective practice.
Reflective practice: International and multidisciplinary perspectives, 9(3), 341-360.
Lyons, N. (1998) Reflection in teaching: Can it be developmental? Teacher Education Quarterly
115 - 127.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 97
Marzano, R., Boogren, T., Heflebower, T., Kanold-McIntyre, J. Pickering, D. (2012). Becoming
a reflective teacher. Bloomington: IN. Marzano Research Laboratory.
Maxwell, J. (2013). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.
Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. D. (1981). A critical theory of adult learning in education. Adult Education
Quarterly, 32, 3-24.
Parsons, M. Stephenson, M. (2005) Developing reflective practice in student teachers:
Collaboration and critical partnerships. Teachers and Teaching, (11)1, 95-116.
Pollard, A. (2002) Readings for Reflective Teaching. London. Continuum Press.
Rodgers, C. R. (2002). Seeing student learning: teacher change and the role of reflection.
Harvard Educational Review, 72(2), 230-253.
Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking.
Teachers College Record, 44, 842-866.
Schön, D. A. (1992). The theory of inquiry: Dewey’s legacy to education. Curriculum inquiry,
22(2), 119-139.
Sellers, M. (2012). Teachers and change: The role of reflective practice. Procedia: Social and
Behavioral Sciences (55). 461-469.
Solution Tree (2016) Retrieved from http://www.solution-tree.com/presenters/plc-at-work
Thompson, N., & Pascal J. (2012). Developing critically reflective practice. Reflective Practice,
(13)2, 311-325. doi:10.1080.14623943.2012.657795.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 98
Thorsen, C., DeVore, S. (2013) Analyzing reflection on/for action: A new approach. Reflective
Practice, (14)1, 83-103. doi:10.1080/14623943.2012.732948
Trede, F., Smith, M. (2012). Teaching reflective practice in practice settings: students’
perceptions of their clinical educators. Teaching in Higher Education, (17)5, 615-627.
Valli, L. (1997). Listening to other voices: A description of teacher reflection in the United
States. Peabody Journal of Education, (72)1, 67-88.
York-Barr, J., Sommers, W., Ghere, G. Montie, J. (2001) Reflective practice to improve schools:
An action guide for educators. Corwin Press. CA: Thousand Oaks.
Zeichner, K.M. (1993). Connecting genuine teacher development to the struggle for social
justice. Journal of Education for Teaching, (19)1.
Zeichner, K. (1994). Research on teacher thinking and different views of reflective practice in
teaching and teacher education. In I. Carlgren, G. Handal, & S. Vaage, (Eds.), Teachers
minds and actions (pp. 9-27). Bristol, PA: Falmer Press.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 99
Appendix A
Informed Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
The Reflective Practice Process: Role of the Administrator
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Julie Brandon and Dr. Jenifer
Crawford, Advisor, at the University of Southern California, because you are a current school
administrator. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask
questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please
take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to discuss
participation with your family or friends. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign
this form. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to examine the role of the K-8 administrator in the teacher reflective
practice process. Specifically, administrator’s perceptions and the importance of reflective
practice to a teacher’s performance, how administrators encourage teachers to engage in
reflective practice during PLC times, and finally, how administrators provide an infrastructure of
support to enhance teacher metacognition.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, all survey participants will be invited to participate in
an optional follow-up interview. For participants who indicate on the survey that they are willing
to be interviewed and who provide contact information, we will conduct a brief telephone
interview lasting approximately 40-60 minutes.
I am attaching an example of a recently approved IRB application that may or may not be useful
for your reference.
The survey questions provide a baseline of data that include demographic data and questions that
are linked to the purpose outlined above.
Interview questions are more detailed and specifically constructed to elicit responses that will
help the researcher gather data regarding the reflective practice process, encouraging the
reflective practice process and specific details on infrastructure provided to a teaching staff to
encourage reflection and enhance teacher metacognition.
Interviews will be audio recorded. Interview setting and time will be determined by the
participant. All interviewees will remain anonymous. You will be provided with notes,
/transcription if you so request.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 100
Observations will be conducted as a silent participant; no researcher interaction will occur. Field
notes will be taken during the observation. There will be no video recordings or photography
involved in the observation. You will be provided with notes/transcription, if you so request.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks by participating in this study.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Benefits are contingent upon results found in this study. Anticipated benefits of this study
include helping school administrators gain an understanding of the Reflective Practice process
and its use in school settings. Specifically, if an administrator’s support and facilitation of
teacher reflection aides in the development of teacher metacognition and improvement of
teaching practices in general.
CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
The data will be stored on the researcher’s computer. The participant has the right to review
audio recordings and transcriptions. Transcriptions are obtained through Rev.com. No other
entities will have access to data.
Researcher notes, audio recordings, transcripts and other data will be kept for a minimum of
three years after completion of the study.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue
participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because
of your participation in this research study.
EMERGENCY CARE AND COMPENSATION FOR INJURY If you are injured as a direct
result of research procedures you will receive medical treatment; however, you or your insurance
will be responsible for the cost. The University of Southern California does not provide any
monetary compensation for injury.
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact
1) Julie Brandon. 714-447-7710. Jabrando@usc.edu. 1400 W. Fern Drive, Fullerton, CA
92833.
2) Dr. Jenifer Crawford. 213-740-0152. Jenifer.Crawford@usc.edu. Rossier School of
Education, USC 1150 S. Olive Street, #2100 Los Angeles, CA 90015.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 101
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.
AUDIO/VIDEO/PHOTOGRAPHS
□ I agree to be audio recorded if selected for an interview.
□ I do not want to be audio recorded if selected for an interview.
Name of Participant
Signature of Participant Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Consent
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 102
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
Thank you for participating in the following brief survey. All information will remain
confidential. The purpose of this survey is to gain insight into an administrator’s role as it
pertains to teacher reflective practice.
Survey Questions
1) What is your current assignment?
Principal K-6 Assistant Principal K-6 Principal K-8
Assistant Principal K-8 Principal, Junior High Assistant Principal, Junior High
2) Which best describes the number of years you have been an administrator overall?
1-3 4-6 7-10 11-15 16-20 21+
3) What is your gender?
Female Male Decline to State
4) What is your age group?
21- 30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61+ Decline to State
5) Which describes your school setting?
Urban Suburban Other
6) Title 1 School?
Yes No
7) How many students attend your school?
300-400 401-600 601-800 801-1000 1001+
8) How many credentialed teachers are on your staff?
10 – 15 16-20 21- 25 26-30 31-35 36+
9) Do your teachers participate in Professional Learning Community time?
Yes No
10) If you answered yes to #9, how frequently?
Bi-Weekly Weekly Bi-Monthly Monthly
11) Do you personally engage in reflective practice?
Yes No
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 103
12) What priority do you give to reflective practice as a process for your teaching staff?
Very high high average low very low
13) How familiar are you familiar with the reflective practice process?
Very familiar familiar average familiarity low familiarity no familiarity
14) In the space below, please briefly describe your understanding of the purpose of reflection as
it relates to teacher classroom performance.
15) To what degree do you consider reflective practice to be a critical skill for teachers?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
16) To what degree do you believe that teacher reflective practice helps teachers identify their
strengths and weaknesses in their teaching methodologies/strategies?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
17) To what degree do you believe that teacher reflective practice helps teachers improve their
teaching methodologies?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
18) How frequently do you provide time for teachers to engage in the reflective practice
process? Please answer in the space below.
19) How frequently do you ask reflective questions of your teachers after observing a lesson?
Please answer in the space below.
20) How frequently do you see teachers engaging in the reflective practice process during PLC
time? Please answer in the space below.
21) How you facilitate reflective practice for your teaching staff in a group setting? Please
answer in the space below.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 104
22) What topics do you consider important for your teaching staff to reflect upon? Choose all
that apply.
Curriculum Parent Involvement Response to Intervention
Instruction Student Achievement Progress of SpEd students
Classroom management Progress of English Learners Professional Development
Assessment Other ________________________________
23) To what degree do you believe the reflective practice process as being a critical element in
improving instructional strategies?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
24) To what degree do you believe that the reflective practice process helps teachers improve
student learning?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
25) To what degree do you believe that reflective practice process is a critical component in
supporting systemic change at your school site?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
26) To what degree do you believe that the reflective practice process helps teachers problem-
solve?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
27) To what degree do you believe that the reflective practice process supports teacher
metacognition with respect to their teaching methodologies?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
28) To what degree do you believe that the reflective practice process allows teachers to uncover
bias with respect to their teaching methodologies?
Very High Degree High Degree Average Degree Below Average Degree No Degree
29) In the space below, briefly describe how you facilitate reflective practice for your teaching
staff in relation to their yearly goals and objectives.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 105
30) In the space below please describe how you support your teachers with the reflective practice
process.
31) If you would like to volunteer to participate in a thirty-minute interview, please provide your
contact information in the space below.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 106
Appendix C
Interview Protocol Letter to Participants
Thank you so much for taking time out of your busy day to meet with me, I appreciate
it! I am currently enrolled in the Doctoral program at USC, and I am conducting a study for my
dissertation that focuses on teacher reflective practice, the role of the administrator in this
process. The purpose of this study is to examine the role of the K-8 administrator in the teacher
reflective practice process. Specifically, administrator’s perceptions and the importance of
reflective practice to a teacher’s performance, how administrators encourage teachers to engage
in reflective practice during PLC times, and finally, how administrators provide an infrastructure
of support to enhance teacher metacognition.
I am interviewing five to seven administrators for this study, and observing how
administrators guide the reflective practice process with their teaching staff.
For this study, I am strictly a researcher, and that my questions have absolutely no
bearing on you and what you do at your school site. I will not share any information with your
supervisor, executive cabinet, the district or any of your colleagues. The interview questions are
in no way evaluative in nature. If you are interested in the results of my study, I will be happy to
supply you with a copy of my paper.
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 107
Appendix D
Interview Protocol and Research Question Alignment
ITEM 1: Introduction
Thank you so much for taking time out of your busy day to meet with me, I appreciate it! I am
currently enrolled in the Doctoral program at USC, and I am conducting a study for my
dissertation that focuses on teacher reflective practice, the role of the administrator in this
process. The purpose of this study is to examine the role of the K-8 administrator in the teacher
reflective practice process. Specifically, administrator’s perceptions and the importance of
reflective practice to a teacher’s performance, how administrators encourage teachers to engage
in reflective practice during PLC times, and finally, how administrators provide an infrastructure
of support to enhance teacher metacognition.
I am interviewing five to seven administrators for this study, and observing how administrators
guide the reflective practice process with their teaching staff.
For this study, I am strictly a researcher, and that my questions have absolutely no bearing on
you and what you do at your school site. I will not share any information with your supervisor,
executive cabinet, the district or any of your colleagues. The interview questions are in no way
evaluative in nature. If you are interested in the results of my study, I will be happy to supply
you with a copy of my paper.
Do you have any questions or concerns you would like me to address before we begin? With
your permission, I’d like to begin the interview. To make this as accurate for data collection as
possible, I’d like to record the entire interview. Would that be acceptable?
ITEM 2: Setting the Stage
As you know, our district has had Professional Learning Communities (PLC) as a focus for
discussing data, instructional strategies, and student achievement. Also, in the teacher’s goals
and objectives, there is a reflective component. I am interested in how these two are tying
together.
Reflective practice during PLC time may help teachers analyze and adjust their instruction,
teaching strategies and methodologies to increase student achievement. I would love your
insight into this process and how you encourage your teachers to engage in reflection during
PLC times.
I’d like to start by with you telling me a little bit about your experience here in FSD. How many
years have you been an administrator? What are your other experiences in education? Can you
share a bit about your site demographics (# of teachers, EL’s, RSP, etc.)?
Part 3 – Heart of the Interview
Please describe your understanding of the reflective process. (That is interesting–can you please
tell me more about… if needed as probe)
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 108
What is your belief about the role that reflective practice plays in the classroom performance of
your teaching staff? (That is interesting–can you please tell me more about… if needed as
probe)
What strategies do you utilize to encourage your teaching staff to engage in the reflective
practice process? Can you give specific examples? (Can you please elaborate/clarify what you
mean by… if needed as probe)
To what extent do your teachers utilize the reflective practice process? Please give examples.
What is your opinion regarding teachers engaging in the reflective process during Professional
Learning Community time? (That is interesting–can you please tell me more about…Can you
please elaborate/clarify what you mean by… if needed as probe)
How do you encourage your teachers to utilize teacher PLC time for reflection?
Can you describe what infrastructure (ex: time, tools, materials, guidance, modeling) you provide
your teaching staff to support the reflective practice process?
What is your belief about how reflective process promotes teacher metacognition? (give def. of
metacognition if necessary)
What is your belief about the role that the reflective process plays in increasing student
achievement? (Can you please elaborate… if needed as probe)
Part 4 - Closing Question
Is there anything else you would like to share with me?
Part 5 – Closing
Thank you so much for taking time from your busy schedule to meet with me today. All
that you have shared is helpful for my study. Your perspective will certainly help me! If I need
to follow up with you, are you willing to allow me to contact you again via email or in
person? Also, as a token of my appreciation, please take this Starbucks gift card. Your
perspective on reflection will help me understand the “behind the scenes” of the PLC and how
teacher reflective process works in that framework. Thanks again!
Part 6 – Special Considerations/Probing Questions
I will use the probing questions if/when necessary:
Can you please elaborate/clarify what you mean by…
That is interesting–can you please tell me more about…
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 109
Interview Protocol and Research Question Alignment
Research Question Interview Question Research Supporting the
Questions
What are school
administrators’
perceptions of reflective
practice process and its
importance to the
classroom performance
of teaching staff?
Please describe your understanding of
the reflective process.
What is your belief about the role that
reflective practice plays in the
classroom performance of your teaching
staff?
What is your belief about the role that
the reflective process plays in
increasing student achievement?
Dewey (1938); Schön,
(1992); Zeichner (1994);
Valli (1997); Boske (2011);
Brown (2006);
Hatton &Smith (1995);
Clark & Kelley (1996);
Lyons (1998); Dewey
(1938); Schön (1992);
Zeichner (1994); Valli
(1997); Boske (2011);
Brown (2006); Ferry &
Ross-Gordon (1998);
Farrell (2012)
Boske (2011); Brown
(2006), Kline & Gardner
(2005)
How do school
administrators encourage
teachers to engage in
reflective practice during
their Professional
Learning Community
time?
What strategies do you utilize to
encourage your teaching staff to engage
in the reflective practice process? Can
you give specific examples?
What is your opinion regarding teachers
engaging in the reflective process
during Professional Learning
Community time?
How do you encourage your teachers to
utilize teacher PLC time for reflection?
Trede & Smith (2012);
Rodgers (2002);
Hatton and Smith (1995)
Ferry & Ross-Gordon
(1998) Clark & Kelley
(1996) Collin & Karsenti,
(2011); Parsons &
Stephenson (2005)
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 110
In what ways do school
administrators provide
an infrastructure of
support for the reflective
practice process to
enhance teacher
metacognition?
Can you describe what infrastructure
and/or (ex: time, tools, materials,
guidance, modeling) you provide your
teaching staff to support the reflective
practice process?
What is your belief about how reflective
process promotes teacher
metacognition?
Lyons (1998); York-Barr et
al., (2006); Colton &
Sparks-Langer (1993); El
Ashi Shabeeb & Akkary,
(2014); Collin & Karsenti,
(2011); Parsons &
Stephenson (2005);
Thorsen & DeVore, (2013)
Sellers (2012); Marcela,
Gutierrez, & Aldana
(2015); Thorsen & DeVore
(2013); El Ashi Shabeeb &
Akkary (2014)
REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 111
Appendix E
Observation Protocol Letter
I am currently enrolled in the Doctoral program at USC, and I am conducting a study for
my dissertation that focuses on teacher reflective practice, the role of the administrator in
this process. The purpose of this study is to examine the role of the K-8 administrator in the
teacher reflective practice process. Specifically, administrator’s perceptions and the importance
of reflective practice to a teacher’s performance, how administrators encourage teachers to
engage in reflective practice during PLC times, and finally, how administrators provide an
infrastructure of support to enhance teacher metacognition.
Thank you for allowing me to observe at your school site. During this process, which
will last approximately forty-five to sixty minutes, I will act as a silent observer, which means I
will not interact with anyone in any way. I will not be video or audio recording these
observations. I will, however, be taking field notes during the observations. You are welcome
to a copy of these notes.
Your willingness to participate in this process will help gain a better understanding of the
administrator’s role in the reflective practice process. Thank you again!
Sincerely,
Julie Brandon
Abstract (if available)
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
Reflective practice and pre-service language teacher preparation
PDF
Exploring the reflective practices of secondary, in-service teachers of students from diverse backgrounds
PDF
An exploration of reflective practice amongst marriage and family therapy candidates
PDF
Administrator reflective practice to support Latino youth in Orange County public schools
PDF
An analysis of reflective practices utilized to support the inclusion of K-5 students with disabilities
PDF
Reflective practice and the Master of Public Administration degree
PDF
Reflective journeys: African American community college STEM students' perceptions on equity and access
PDF
The role of teachers in academic discussion
PDF
The opportunity gap: culturally relevant pedagogy in high school English classes
PDF
Civic engagement in American schools: an evaluation study
PDF
""Having the right info"": College readiness as college knowledge among minoritized students in an urban education setting
PDF
A case study about the implied and perceived messages sent by one teacher through instruction for academic and behavioral expectations of students
PDF
Examining the practices of teachers who teach historically marginalized students through an enactment of ideology, asset pedagogies, and funds of knowledge
PDF
The effect of opportunity gaps: the charge for culturally relevant pedagogy in middle school social studies classes
PDF
Teacher discourse and practice: the role of discourse in grade-level meetings for teacher learning and changes in practice
PDF
Puncturing discourse: Russian heritage learner language and identity in higher education
PDF
Increase parental involvement to decrease the achievement gaps for ELL and low SES students in urban California public schools: an evaluation study
PDF
Examining the intersection of ideology, classroom climate, and pedagogy in creating open-forum discussions in secondary English classrooms
PDF
Critical ambitious language pedagogy for cognitive academic language proficiency development in two-way immersion schools: teachers' ideologies and practices
PDF
Perceptions of inclusion: high school students diagnosed with learning disabilities and their level of self-efficacy
Asset Metadata
Creator
Brandon, Julie
(author)
Core Title
Reflective practice: the administrator behind the process
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
11/09/2016
Defense Date
10/14/2016
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Administration,OAI-PMH Harvest,reflection
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Crawford, Jenifer (
committee chair
), Carbone, Paula (
committee member
), DeMark, Alison (
committee member
)
Creator Email
jabrando@usc.edu,julie_brandon@myfsd.org
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-319255
Unique identifier
UC11214778
Identifier
etd-BrandonJul-4908.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-319255 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-BrandonJul-4908.pdf
Dmrecord
319255
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Brandon, Julie
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA