University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Examining the impact of continuation high schools on students' self-efficacy

(USC Thesis Other)

Examining the impact of continuation high schools on students' self-efficacy

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 1

Examining the Impact of Continuation High Schools on Students’ Self-Efficacy

by

Darryl J. Brown

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2016

2016 Darryl J. Brown

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 2

Acknowledgements
I want to sincerely thank my committee chairs, Dr. Patrick Crispen, Dr. Patricia Tobey,
and Dr. Wayne Combs for their direction, support, and feedback during the dissertation process.
Their encouragement led me to persist and finish my dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr.
Harry Edwards for his stern guidance and feedback that challenged me as an undergraduate
student and motivated me to pursue a doctoral degree. During the dissertation process I bonded
with two members of my cohort. Thank you Darin and Aries for your emotional support
throughout the process and feedback when we shared each other’s dissertation drafts.
Additionally, I want to thank my mother, family and friends, who, over the years,
encouraged me and made feel extremely proud to accomplish this goal. Lastly, but certainly not
least I would like to thank God for being my guiding light throughout my years in the doctoral
program.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 3

Table of Contents
List of Tables 5
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 7
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 11
Research Questions 12
Significance of the Study 12
Limitations 12
Delimitations 13
Definition of Terms 13
Chapter Two: Literature Review 15
Continuation High Schools 15
Continuation High School Curriculum 17
Student-Teacher Interactions 18
Self-Efficacy 19
Academic Self-Efficacy 20
Sources of Perceived Self-Efficacy 21
Mastery Experiences 21
Vicarious Observations 22
Verbal Persuasion 24
Physiological Response 27
Universal Design for Learning 28
Changes in Teacher Practice 29
Providing Multiple Means of Representation 30
Student Choice in Presentation Learning 30
Encouraging Multiple Means of Engagement 31
Student and Teacher Perceptions of UDL 31
UDL and Continuation High Schools 33
Summary 34
Chapter Three: Methodology 36
Sample Population 38
Setting of the Study 40
Instrumentation 48
Data Collection 49
Interviews 50
Observations 50
Review of School Records 50
Data Analysis 51
Internal Validity 51
Chapter Four: Results 53
Research Questions 53
Study Participants 53
Findings 66
Research Question #1 66
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 4

Research Question #2 70
Summary 80
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings 81
Implications for Practice 88
Future Research 90
Conclusions 91
References 93
Appendix A: Informed Consent Form 106
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 108

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 5

List of Tables
Table 1: BCHS Student Demographics 39
Table 2: BCHS Faculty and Staff 40
Table 3: Changes in Students’ Perception of Academic Self-Efficacy 64

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 6

Abstract
The high school dropout phenomenon continues to plague American high schools. When
high school students fail classes they become increasingly at-risk of not completing high school.
While there are a myriad of personal, familial, or societal issues that impact students during high
school, it is important for researchers and educators to continue to develop interventions that
support at risk high school students’ engagement in school. The issue has become of particular
importance to some minority groups whose dropout rates are consistently high. Dropouts are
more likely to become unemployed, poor, incarcerated, unhealthy, and single parents. While the
decision to drop out is a personal one, many former students cite uninteresting classes and not
having a connection with teachers, as well as boredom with school in general as core reasons in
their decision to dropout.
This study was conducted to help better understand the influence of California
continuation high schools on the self-efficacy of students who are at risk of not graduating from
high school in a 4-year cohort. Due to failing multiple classes some students were transferred to
a continuation high school, with the option to return to a traditional high school after retaking
failed classes. The hope of this study was to inform continuation high school educators on the
importance of supporting students’ perceptions of academic self-efficacy through a difficult time
in their lives.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 7

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Failure to graduate high school severely impacts the trajectory of life for students both
personally and professionally (South, Haynie, & Bose, 2007; Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). No single
event in the adolescent life course more strongly determines later social and economic success
then completing high school. The decision to drop out of high school is the result of students
being disengaged from school. The term dropout refers to students ages 16 to 24 who are not
enrolled in school and have not earned a high school diploma (Rindermann & Thompson, 2013).
High school students who fall behind academically become increasingly at-risk of
dropping out of school. Because of circumstances often times out of their control, at-risk students
may have difficulty matriculating in a traditional high school setting (Kerka, 2003; Fall &
Roberts, 2012). At-risk factors cover a variety of issues that impact the well being of students
which may include truancy, teen pregnancy, gang violence, depression, or lack of engagement
among other issues (Conley, 2002).
In California, school districts provide continuation high schools to serve as an alternative
schooling option for students at risk of not graduating due to failing multiple classes.
Continuation high schools are designed to support the academic needs of at-risk students, and to
provide an opportunity for these students to get back on track toward graduating high school
(California Department of Education, 2015). The goal of continuation high schools is to reverse
the personal and school based influences that have contributed to students dropping out of high
school. It is important that continuation high schools offer instructional programs that do not
replicate traditional high school settings (Berliner, 2009). Effective continuation high school
teachers, administrators, counselors, and stakeholders seek to offer more individualized
approaches to teaching and learning coupled with appropriate instructional strategies to support
student engagement (Easton, 2008).
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 8

While continuation high schools represent the state’s cornerstone intervention for
students at-risk of not graduating high school, there is currently no system of accountability in
place to monitor the effectiveness of continuation high schools. Moreover, there is a need to
understand the impact that transitioning to a continuation high school has on students’ socio-
emotional well-being. The reality of having to leave their home school to attend an intervention
school can impact students’ self-efficacy. Increased empirical research on continuation student
perceptions and experiences can provide valuable data on at-risk students’ schooling experiences
and best instructional practices for working with at-risk students. The focus of this study is to
examine the impact of continuation high schools on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy.
Background of the Problem
The schooling experiences of California’s continuation high school students are hard to
measure due to the variance in instructional programs across the state, and the high levels of
mobility of at-risk students. Research conducted by Ed Source (2008) evidenced the difficulties
in collecting data on continuation high schools. Data from the state’s annual counting of students
through a system known as CBEDS, which reflects student enrollment counts on a single day in
October, captured the total number of students enrolled in continuation high schools in 2005–06
at 68,371 students. In contrast, the Alternative School Accountability Model (ASAM) system,
which was the official accountability model for continuation high schools until 2009, estimated
that 116,551 students were enrolled in California continuation high schools. The Alternative
School Accountability Model (ASAM) enacted in 2001-2002 was a system that enabled
continuation high school leaders to report out on the effectiveness of their programs (Ruiz de
Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). In October 2010, the Governor signed a state budget that
eliminated funding for data collection and reporting from ASAM opt-in schools. In addition, the
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 9

California Department of Education has stopped all work on the revised ASAM (California
Department of Education, 2015).
Although participation in the ASAM was voluntary, approximately 1,000 schools
participated in ASAM data reporting (California Department of Education, 2015). From 2001 to
2009, schools participating in ASAM selected three of fifteen indicators from domains including
behavior, attendance, student persistence, writing achievement, reading achievement, math
achievement, course completion data, high school graduation, and GED/CHSPE completion. The
three self-selected indicators comprised a school-level ASAM report. ASAM school-level
reports were publicly posted online each year by the California Department of Education.
Today, measuring the effectiveness of continuation high schools is based largely on a
school being awarded California Model School status, or the number of students graduating
within four years. The California Model School process involves a two-day visit to a
continuation high school site by a 2 – 5 person state appointed panel of local continuation high
school practioners. The team validates data self-reported by the school (California Department of
Education, 2015). Classroom visits and interviews with school stakeholders, including site,
district, and community members are conducted and contribute to the panel’s decision.
Because of the lack of state accountability and research on continuation high schools,
there is a need to examine the effectiveness of continuation high schools in providing high
quality learning opportunities for students who have struggled academically. Continuation high
schools must have the capacity to provide supportive engaging learning environments that have a
positive impact on students’ perceptions of their ability to achieve academic success.
Statement of the Problem
Interventions attempted in comprehensive high schools have done little to curb the
consistent trend of high school students referred to continuation high schools due to failing
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 10

several courses. For some students, their high school experience failed to provide sufficient
academic or socio-emotional support to combat at-risk barriers such as poor attendance,
behavioral problems and apathy toward learning. When students do poorly in school it is largely
attributed to the actions of the student. Engagement in school and academic achievement are
perceived as a product of student effort, and rarely as outcomes of how schools and teachers
approach teaching and engage students (Urban & Schoenfelder, 2006). Gordon and Yowell
(1992) posited reframing the context within which “at-risk” students are viewed by describing at
risk as more appropriately a condition or circumstance brought on by the failure or incapacity of
the developmental environment to support the needs of the developing student. Fine (1986) as
well as Rumberger and Larson (1998) redefined the label of high school “drop outs,” preferring
to refer to this group as “pushouts” which reflects students’ negative experiences, such as
experiencing failure, boredom, cultural rejection, and teacher hostility, which directly contribute
to students walking away from school. It is important for continuation high school staffs and
stakeholders to understand the socio-emotional needs of their unique student population first
before engaging them as learners.
Continuation high schools serve as important interventions in supporting high school
students who have failed courses and may be at risk to drop out of school (California Department
of Education, 2016). Continuation high schools provide an opportunity for students to retake
previously failed classes while matriculating in current grade level classes. Once students have
completed their program, they have the option of returning to a district comprehensive high
school or remaining at their continuation high school to graduate.
Continuation high schools often have negative connotations attached to them due to the
reality of serving a population of students who have done poorly in school or have been
suspended or expelled from a comprehensive high school. While there are continuation high
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 11

schools that perform at high levels and others that do not. There is little research specifically on
the best engagement and learning strategies to use with continuation high school students.
Moreover, the decision on the part of the student to leave their comprehensive high school to
attend a continuation high school can come with a significant amount of emotional distress,
potentially continuing a downward spiral in their high school experience. It is important that
continuation high school educators understand the importance of measuring and supporting
students’ perceptions of self-efficacy as a basic best practice.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the impact of continuation high
schools on student motivation and engagement. Specifically, the study focuses on the sources of
students’ perceptions of self-efficacy while enrolled at a continuation high school. The study
seeks to contribute to the discussion of teacher best practices to promote high perceptions ability,
intrinsic motivation, and positive student well-being. The study also seeks to better understand
the lived school experiences of former continuation high school students.
The setting of the study was a continuation high school in northeast Los Angeles County.
The pseudonym Bueno Calle High School (BCHS) was used in the study when referencing the
school. The staff of BCHS has created an ideal learning environment for students who need to
re-establish themselves as learners. Students often opt to remain at BCHS to graduate because
they like having better access to their teachers and counselor.
BCHS is a California Model Continuation High School, a designation that it has held for nine
years. BCHS is a fully accredited high school graduating an average of 120 students at its June
graduation ceremony, and an average of 25 more students at an August graduation that celebrates
students who graduate over the summer. The study included semi-structured interviews of BCHS
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 12

students who successful matriculated back to a comprehensive high from BCHS to complete
their 12
th
grade year.
Research Questions
RQ: 1 – How do former continuation high school students describe their perceptions of academic
self-efficacy before, during and after attending continuation high schools?
RQ: 2 – What do former continuation high school students identify as having had an impact on
their academic self-efficacy while they attended a continuation high school?
Significance of the Study
This study focuses on one continuation high school setting and it’s impact on the self-
efficacy of students at-risk of not graduating high school. Specifically the study examines the
role of a continuation high school as an intervention in providing at-risk students the opportunity
to recover failed classes, academically reengage in school and return to a comprehensive high
school. There is a need to increase the volume of research on the effectiveness of continuation
high schools in supporting students’ matriculation back to a comprehensive high school setting.
The study’s findings have implications for alternative education practioners in developing high
quality credit recovery programs that provide supportive learning environments, promote
positive self-efficacy cues for students, and support equal access to district and state mandated
curriculums and standards.
Limitations
The following limitations were identified in conducting this study. First, there is a
limitation in the generalizability of this study due to its focus on only one continuation high
school. It will be difficult to determine whether the findings would be similar if the study were to
be replicated at another continuation high school. Findings may be unique to this school
community and not indicative of other California continuation high school communities. Also,
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 13

my own researcher bias acts as a limitation based on my previous experience as the principal of
the site that is the focus of the study.
Delimitations
The first delimitation involves purposefully sampling students from only one
continuation high school. This decision was made due to the variety of credit recovery programs
offered across continuation high schools. The second delimitation are the interview questions
used for data collection that were developed specifically for this study. The last delimitation
involves the sample size, which represents 10 out of 15 former BCHS students who returned to
Westview High Schools during the 2015-2016 school year.
Definition of Terms
At risk – High school students who are in danger of not graduating high school or
dropping out due to academic failure, poor behavior, or socioeconomic issues (Conley, 2002).
Autonomy – Self-directed behavior that initiates from a perception of an internal locus of
control (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Competence – The psychological affect which results from feelings of success in
completing academic tasks initialed by autonomous intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2002).
Continuation High School – Continuation High Schools are designed to meet the needs of
students sixteen through eighteen years of age who are deemed at risk of not completing high
school. Over 500 California continuation high schools serve approximately 115,000 continuation
students year-round (CDE, 1995).
Variable Credit – A curriculum used by continuation high schools that awards five credits
per course, but allows students to earn credits one at a time based on completion of units of
study and projects as opposed to time bound course completion terms such as semesters or
quarters.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 14

Dropout - The term dropout refers to students ages 16 to 24 who are not enrolled in
school and have not earned a high school diploma (Rindermann & Thompson, 2013).
Motivation – The energy and persistence to engage in academic tasks; any force that
energizes and directs behavior (Reeve, 2009).
Self-efficacy – Students’ perceptions of their ability to performance academic tasks at
satisfactory levels (Bandura, 1986).
Mastery Experiences – A source of efficacy information that is based on an individual’s
success or failure at tasks and the impact those experiences have on perceptions of self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1977).
Vicarious Observation – A source of efficacy information based on individuals observing
others perform activities without adverse consequences generating an expectation that the
individual too can be successful at the activity (Bandura, 1977).
Verbal Persuasion - When people are led through suggestion into believing they can be
successful or persist at a given task (Bandura, 1977).
Physiological Response - Moods, emotions, physical reactions, and stress levels that
influence how an individual feels about their personal abilities (Bandura, 1977).

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 15

Chapter Two: Literature Review
The purpose of this literature review is to provide a theoretical framework to support the
analysis of educational issues identified in the research questions of this study. Researchers have
demonstrated that self-efficacy influences an individual’s motivation toward learning, and
subsequent achievement (Schunk, 1995; Pajares, 1996; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012; Komarraju
& Nadler, 2013). This literature review provides an understanding of continuation high school
learning environments and the social-cognitive cues which influence students’ perceptions of
self-efficacy.
Continuation High Schools
Continuation high schools have been in existence since 1919, originally mandated for
students who worked part-time jobs (Kelly, 1993). Today’s continuation high schools generally
use a variable credit recovery curriculum in an effort to help students retake failed classes.
The California Education Code sections that provide for continuation high schools include
44865, 46170, 48400-48438, and 51055. California state law mandates that school districts
enrolling over 100 12
th
grade students provide alternative high school diploma options for
students at risk of not graduating due to academic or behavioral issues (California Department of
Education, 2015). Continuation high school students must attend school for a minimum of 15
hours per week (California Department of Education, 2015). Some continuation high school
schedules offer more then15 hours of instruction per week, as well as Independent Study
programs to better meet the needs of at-risk students’ work schedules and life changes.
California’s approximately 499 continuation high schools are estimated to serve more than
116,500 high school students, which equates to almost 10 percent of all high school students and
as many as one of every seven high school seniors (California Department of Education, 2015)
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 16

Finding consistent and accurate data on continuation high schools is difficult due to the
differences in programs offerings from district to district, as well as due to the mobility of at-risk
students. EdSource (2008) reported that seventeen percent of students in continuation high
schools report changing residences two or more times in the past year, compared to seven
percent of students in traditional comprehensive high schools. Moreover, the report also cited
that forty-seven percent of continuation high school students report having been enrolled in their
current school for less than 90 days. Under the No Child Left Behind accountability system,
California Standards Test assessment data for many continuation high schools was rendered
statistically insignificant due to the lack of students being tested who had been enrolled at the
school for a majority of the school year (California Department of Education, 2015).
The hope in providing these unique school settings is that students who are not on pace to
graduate are given an opportunity to academically re-engage in high school. Research has shown
that students attending alternative schools have demonstrated increased commitment to school
and improved peer relationships (Edgar-Smith & Palmer, 2015). Continuation high schools
generally enroll higher rates of English language learners, students in foster care, victims of
violence, and substance abusers (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). The researchers further
point out the difficult task of providing accelerated learning for students who have demonstrated
low proficiency in academic course work. In the end, the researchers summarized their statewide
review of California continuation high schools by concluding that as a whole continuation high
schools are failing to provide critical academic and support services for students.
Some school districts tend to use continuation high schools as way to mask the number of
possible dropouts and non-graduates for their respective comprehensive high schools. As a
result, continuation high schools continue to fight negative perceptions from those outside of
alternative education due to their enrollment of students that have been labeled with risk factors,
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 17

perceived by teachers as being unmotivated, or considered discipline problems (EdSource, 2008;
Plucker & Spradlin, 2009).
Ruiz de Velasco and McLaughlin (2012) found that in high performing continuation high
schools, students were often very clear on why they were transferred as well as the number of
credits they needed to graduate, and conversely students at lower performing schools gave more
vague responses regarding placement and graduation goals. Edgar and Smith (2015) found that
students who had success at an alternative high school perceived higher levels of teacher support
then when attending a comprehensive high school. Moreover students communicated a sense of
being part of a community due to the positive caring relationships of their teachers. For
continuation high school leaders and teachers creating supportive continuation high school
environments is essential to having a positive impact on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy.
Continuation High School Curriculum
Flexibility in curriculum delivery is paramount to ensuring the success of a continuation
high school student. Perez and Johnson (2008) found a range of instructional practices used
within California’s continuation high schools including independent study, direct instruction,
course contracts and project-based learning. Bush (2012) described three credit recovery
systems, which included creating interdisciplinary instructional blocks, credits awarded after the
completion of a unit of study, and performance-based credit recovery that takes student
attendance into account. The researcher also noted that flexibility in continuation high school
curriculum delivery is essential in providing rigorous and personalized instruction to students
with a wide range of academic backgrounds and at-risk factors. Perez and Johnson (2008) warn
that the major challenge for continuation high schools is to ensure that highly mobile at-risk
students are given access to all state and district-mandated grade level standards. Flexibility in
curriculum delivery provides multiple opportunities for continuation high school students to
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 18

access and engage in learning.
Continuation high schools are often autonomous from the scope and sequence of their
school districts in an effort to facilitate speedy credit recovery (Bush, 2012). While some
continuation high schools require the same amount of credits for graduation as their district’s
comprehensive high schools, others opt for fewer credits required for graduation. Most schools
offer some career readiness courses, life skill courses, as well as some electives that are also
offered at comprehensive high schools (Perez & Johnson, 2008). Providing flexibility in
curriculum delivery affords students a variety of opportunities to have academic success. In
supporting students’ perceptions of self-efficacy, teachers must be willing to adjust and
differentiate instruction to meet individual needs.
Student-Teacher Interactions
The relationship between student and teacher plays a central role in the engagement and
success of continuation high school students. Roorda, Koomen, Split, and Oort (2011) found
student-teacher relationships to play a significant role in the academic adjustment of older
students. Perez and Johnson (2008) found that student-teacher relationships are critical to the
success of students in continuation high school settings as well. Students who were interviewed
appreciated teachers establishing connections and providing continuous support. Jones (2011)
detailed student engagement in a high-functioning alternative learning environment from the
perspective of a sample of twenty-four students. The students describe experiences with caring
teachers that supported their connections to school. Moreover, student responses indicated that
those emotional connections needed to be in place before their behavior began to change.
Student-teacher ratios are purposefully kept small in most continuation high schools.
Smaller learning environments support better student-teacher interactions. Stewart (2009) found
that students from small high schools, enrolling 300 or fewer, were more academically
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 19

successful than students from larger high schools, those enrolling more then 900 students. The
study attributed student success to the “family” theme that dominated the smaller high schools.
Moreover, Perez and Johnson (2008) found that students had better experiences with teachers
and fewer peer distractions disrupting them from doing their schoolwork in continuation high
schools due to smaller class sizes. However, small high schools, like continuation high schools
often struggle to offer multiple academic supports, advanced academic course offerings or a
variety of elective course offerings.
Self-Efficacy
Philosopher John Dewey (1933) is credited with the idea that individuals examine their
own experiences and thinking through the process of self-reflection. Dewey’s work had a
significant influence on the concept of social cognitive theory and its micro theory self-efficacy
that was theorized by researcher Albert Bandura (Bandura, 1997). Bandura described a shift in
the focus of research from behavior to examining the role of cognition and its influence on
behavior (Bandura, 1977). Bandura believed that each person has an innate self-system that
enables them the ability to self-reflect and self-regulate their experiences.
Bandura defined self-efficacy as personal judgment of one’s capabilities to organize and
execute courses of action to attain desired goals. Bandura identified self-efficacy as the capacity
to represent future outcomes based on self-perceptions of ability, and the subsequent approach or
avoidance behaviors that manifest. Students who transfer from their home school to a
continuation high school encounter a new environment within which they will develop
perceptions about their ability to be academically and socially successful. For educators who
work with continuation high school students, understanding and incorporating supports for
student self-efficacy provides an effective environment for students in danger of not graduating.
Self-efficacy is derived from social cognitive theory, Bandura’s larger theoretical
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 20

framework. Social cognitive theory asserts that experiences for an individual are the result of
interactions between a person’s outward behaviors, their interpersonal factors such as thoughts
and beliefs, and environmental stimuli (Bandura, 1997). For continuation high school students
who have struggled academically, interactions with their school environment may have
negatively impacted their personal perceptions of competency undermining their perceptions of
self-efficacy. The dynamic interactions that students experience on a daily basis, when filtered
through the lens of social cognitive theory, may determine whether a student initiates self-
regulatory skills or coping behaviors when faced with an adverse academic task or experience
(Bandura, 1986; Schunk & Usher, 2012). When negative academic perceptions are internalized
they contribute to school avoidance behaviors such as poor discipline, a lack of interest in
school, and poor attendance. Self-efficacy provides a framework through which we examine
students’ self-perceptions, their confidence in future success and the effort that they are willing
to put forth retaking previously failed classes (Schunk, 1995; Bandura, 1997; Wentzel, 2013).
Academic Self-efficacy
Perceptions of efficacy have a substantial impact on students’ approach to academic tasks
(Pajares, 2002). Students who are confident in their academic ability monitor their progress on
schoolwork and demonstrate more persistence then students with lower perceptions of academic
self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Motlagh, Amrai, Yazdani, Abderahim, & Souri (2011)
found self-efficacy to be a significant factory in academic achievement. Their analysis of data
revealed that self-efficacy sub-factors of self-evaluation, self-directing and self-regulation were
correlated with academic achievement. Pajares, Johnson and Usher (2007) examined Bandura’s
hypothesized sources of self-efficacy on students’ writing beliefs. The researchers found that
student’s previous writing experiences were identified as having the greatest variance in
students’ perceptions of their writing ability.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 21

Perceptions of self-efficacy and what a student believes helps in determining the actions a
student may take when given a specific task. Without the belief that they can complete a given
task, students have very little incentive to act (Peguero & Shaffer, 2015).
Students with higher perceptions of self-efficacy have a better chance of not dropping out
of high school (Fall & Roberts, 2012; Komarraju & Nadler, 2013). Perceptions of academic self-
efficacy have been found to be an indicator in students’ sense of belonging, intrinsic motivation,
and willingness to engage in a classroom context. For educators seeking to understand and
increase a students’ level of perceived academic self-efficacy, an analysis of the social cues in
the learning environment that can influence students’ perceptions of self-efficacy needs to be
considered.
Sources of Perceived Self-Efficacy
Perceptions of self-efficacy are derived from four sources of information: mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences through observing others, verbal and persuasion, and
physiological reaction to tasks (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1986, Pajares, 2003). In a school
setting, Bandura’s posited social cues provide feedback on a school’s success in providing
students with opportunities to experience academic mastery, experience positive peer and adult
models, build supportive relationships with teachers and provide support for students’ anxiety
toward learning. This section will provide a review of literature for each of the four identified
social cues that may impact the perceptions of academic self-efficacy for a continuation high
school student. The four domains served as the framework through which data collected for the
current study was analyzed.
Mastery Experiences. Mastery experiences are based on mastery of previous success on
academic tasks (Bandura, 1997). When individuals master a task their perceived efficacy toward
that task and similar tasks may increase. In academic settings, teachers support student
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 22

opportunities to mastery learning through providing multiple opportunities for students to
demonstrate mastery (Margolis and McCabe, 2006). When students are not provided multiple
opportunities to experience mastery in their ability after experiencing failure, their value and
interest in learning will likely drop (Wang & Eccles, 2012). In some instances teachers may need
to lower the difficulty of tasks or provide an alternative assignment to support a student’s initial
success toward mastery.
Britner and Pajares (2006) conducted a study to examine the impact of perceptions of
self-efficacy of middle school students enrolled in science classes. Mastery experiences
positively predicted students’ high perceptions of self-efficacy toward science. Mastery
experiences also accounted for a greater degree of variance in increased self-efficacy for girls
than boys, supporting the notion that encouraging more opportunities for female students to
participate in science activities will increase female self-efficacy toward courses in science,
engineering, math and technology.
Chen and Usher (2013) in their research on student science self-efficacy found a profile
of students who rated mastery experiences higher than other influences of self-efficacy. This
group of students reported the second highest level of science self-efficacy among groups. One
important note is that students who selected more then one source of self-efficacy exhibited
stronger profiles then students who perceived their level of science self-efficacy to be high, but
had only identified one source of self-efficacy. Butz and Usher (2015) also used Bandura’s
sources of self-efficacy to study students’ levels of confidence in math and in reading. The
researchers found that mastery experiences and social persuasion were the most frequently cited
sources of support.
Vicarious Experiences. Bandura’s second identified influence on perceptions of self-
efficacy comes through vicarious experiences as a result of observing and being influenced by
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 23

the actions of others (Bandura, 1997; Wigfield, Muenks, & Rosenzweig, 2015). Vicarious
influences through interacting with peers and teachers impacts students’ self-perceptions of
academic competence, and can impact students’ predictions of success or failure on academic
tasks (Schunk, 1987). Student perceptions of appropriate behavior are derived from their
vicarious experiences with teachers, peers and school personnel.
Schunk (1987) defined modeling as a process by which observers pattern their thoughts,
beliefs, and behaviors, after those displayed by one or more models. Modeling by peers has been
found to be a strong determinate of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977, Schunk, 1987). Students’
observations of how their peers interact socially has been found to influence self-efficacy cues
due to the similarities between the student and the peer model being observed (Schunk &
Zimmerman, 2007). Estell and Alexander (2008) found that peer conversations outside of the
classroom positively contributed to student use of self-regulated strategies inside the classroom.
Zeldin and Pajares (2000) found that self-efficacy increased in students who were exposed early
to mathematics content by family members who were employed in math-based careers. These
vicarious experiences with family members created a positive influence on students’ perception
of their math abilities. Moreover, for continuation high school students, observing peers coping
with and overcoming adverse situations may convey a positive sense of self-efficacy
encouraging the belief that they too can be successful (Schunk, 1987). Conversely, observing
failures may contribute to lower perceptions of self-efficacy beliefs on the part of a student if the
student perceives himself or herself as having similarity to the student model (Schunk &
Zimmerman, 2007).
Fine (1991) discussed ways in which school processes and norms negatively impact
students’ schooling experiences. The researcher found that schools can be ‘silent’ on dialogue
involving social inequity, complaints of racism, or inadequate curriculum, all of which can have
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 24

adverse consequences on a student’s schooling experiences. Moreover, school conditions such as
overcrowded classrooms, inadequate resources, and poor instruction contribute directly student
perceptions of their ability to be successful. Moreover, instructional strategies used by teachers
determine classroom engagement opportunities for students. If students have few opportunities to
develop strong, positive relationships with teachers and peers, their sense of belonging with
school and compliance to school rules and norms will fade (Wang & Eccles, 2012).
Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider, and Shernoff, (2003) investigated high school
student engagement. The researchers found that the use of lecture, note taking, and other non-
interactive activities left little instructional time for student-student or student-teacher
interactions. While this finding is important for all teachers, continuation high school teachers
must consider the implications in designing alternative approaches to teaching that promote
successful academic behaviors in students who have had negative school experiences.
Perez and Johnson (2008) describe students experiencing increased engagement and
competence through classroom experiences at continuation high schools that were different then
their experiences at comprehensive high schools. Smaller class sizes and differences in teacher
styles at the continuation high school provided classroom environments that better suited the
needs of students who have experienced significant academic failure.
Verbal Persuasion. The third of Bandura’s identified influences on perceptions of self-
efficacy is verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1977). Verbal persuasion from teachers is conveyed
through the feedback they give to students. Positive feedback received from a credible source
cultivates an individual’s belief in their ability to accomplish a task (Pajares, 1997). Moreover,
Wang and Eccles (2012) found teacher social support through expressing a sense of care toward
students to have a stronger influence on student behavior and engagement in school then peer
groups.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 25

Positive feedback in the form of encouragement can support coping strategies through
which individuals persist and put forth additional effort to succeed at a task (Bandura, 1987).
However, feedback perceived as negative, or attributed to ability instead of effort can undermine
a student’s self-efficacy beliefs and dissuade students from initiating or continuing a task (Skunk,
1995; Zimmerman, 2000). Seevers, Rowe and Skinner (2014) found that when negative feedback
is delivered publicly, student motivation drops. Zeldin & Pajares (2000) found that girls who
receive encouragement from parents and teachers to persist and persevere in science, technology,
engineering, and math (STEM) courses developed higher perceptions of self-efficacy toward
mathematics when confronted with academic and social obstacles. Verbally encouraging
students to persist in accomplishing an academic task increases their commitment to that goal.
Shute (2008) defines feedback as information communicated to the learner that is
intended to modify behavior or thinking to improve learning. Students’ perceptions of teacher
feedback are mediated through teacher motivational behaviors. Deci and Ryan (2000)
differentiated between two types of teacher motivation behaviors and there impact on student
learning. Autonomy-supportive and controlling styles describe two extremes of teacher
motivational behavior. Autonomy-supportive and controlling teaching styles have a direct impact
on feedback given to students, which in turn impacts their motivation to engage in learning
activities (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Reeves, 1996).
It is important for continuation high school teachers to use feedback to students as an
opportunity to establish positive relationships that encourage student effort and convey caring
and support from the teacher (Edgar-Smith and Palmer, 2015). Moreover, students who attend
alternative schools have shown the greatest achievement when they perceive that teachers,
administrators and staff care for them, show them respect and value their opinion (Quinn,
Poirier, Faller, Gable, and Tonelson, 2006).
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 26

Autonomy-supportive teachers provide feedback that encourages student effort on a tsk
while controlling teacher behaviors focus on measuring students’ abilities. Students’ perceptions
of teacher feedback can be attributed to how well teachers facilitate a student’s perception of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan; 2000; Schunk & Pajares, 2001; Wong,
West, & Cusick, 2002). Intrinsically motivated students freely engage in learning tasks because
of personal interest and perceived self-efficacy to satisfactorily complete the task (Deci & Ryan,
2000). Reeve and Jang (2006) tested the extent to which supportive instructional behaviors
would correlate positively with students’ perceptions of autonomy. Several teacher behaviors
correlated positively with students’ experiences of autonomy, including listening, creating time
for independent work, giving the student opportunities to talk, praising signs of improvement and
mastery, and encouraging students’ efforts. Stroet, Opdenakker, and Minnaert (2013) conducted
a review of seventy-one empirical studies and demonstrated a clear positive association between
a supportive approach to teaching and students’ increases in motivation and engagement.
Researchers have been critical of teachers exhibiting controlling behaviors. Controlling
instructional behaviors by teachers use directive and controlling language when giving feedback.
Controlling instructional behaviors have been found to correlate negatively with students’
perceptions of self-efficacy including uttering directives and commands, and using controlling
questions as a way of directing students’ work (Reeve, 2009).
Many teachers do not intend to be controlling, however it remains the most pervasive style
of motivation used by teachers directly and indirectly (Reeves, 2009). Controlling styles are
manifest through teacher behaviors such as lecturing, not allowing for student voice and choice
and providing few opportunities for students to demonstrate mastery. Soenens, Sierens,
Vansteenkiste, Dochy & Goossens (2012) found that controlling styles of teaching and feedback
were related negatively to students’ use of self-regulation strategies and academic achievement.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 27

Teachers exhibiting controlling behaviors are important to consider due to their negative
implications on students’ perceptions of academic self-efficacy.
Physiological Responses. The fourth influence on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy
is physiological responses. Physiological responses can be triggered by an individual’s
perception of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). An example of this is test anxiety. Over the course
of their schooling students learn to interpret emotional responses as an indication that they will
or will not likely do well on the task presented (Usher & Pajares, 2008) Physiological reactions
occur during learning activities as students have a biological response to their perceived self-
efficacy toward the activity.
At-risk students’ anxiety toward academic tasks may result from previous academic
failure. The emotional state of continuation high school students towards academic tasks must be
considered in order to facilitate their belief in their ability to complete a given task. Research
suggests using strategies that scaffolds learning, exposes students to peers who have mastered the
task, and provides continuous supportive feedback.
Controlling emotional arousal can reduce avoidance behavior (Bandura, 1977). Individuals
with high self-efficacy will approach rigorous tasks and activities with an emotional state
conducive to their expectation of success. However, individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs
may experience avoidance behaviors (Pajares, 1996). Students’ physiological responses possess
strong influences over self-efficacy beliefs. For continuation high school students, the emotions
related to perceived school failure, and the reality of transferring schools can bring on a
disposition that can impact a student’s perceptions of self-efficacy for success and learning.
School leaders and teachers should look to develop students' self-efficacy by exposing
them to positive staff interactions, student activities and learning opportunities that incorporate
all four sources of self-efficacy. Successful mastery experiences can dramatically reduce the
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 28

negative affect of anxiety and stress (Bandura, 1997). Bandura (1977, 1986) further states that
building a strong sense of efficacy comes through increasing cognitive capabilities and self-
regulatory skills for managing academic task demands. Teacher support in providing frequent
mastery opportunities, promotion of goal setting, positive feedback, and encouraging self-
reflection provides solid support strategies for students who exhibit negative physiological
responses toward learning.
Universal Design for Learning
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a set of principles for instructional design that
emphasize adapting learning environments to meet the diverse individual needs of each student
(Wright, 2006; Ralabate, 2011). In the 1990’s, Anne Meyer, David Rose, and the Center for
Applied Science and Technology (CAST) introduced universal design for learning (UDL) as a
framework to improve teaching and learning. While originally derived out of the need to support
students with disabilities in accessing the full curriculum offered in schools, research supports
the benefits of UDL for all students (Meo, 2008; Abell, Jung, and Taylor, 2011). The Center for
Applied Special Technology is credited with developing the term Universal Design for Learning
(Hitchcock, Meyer, Rose, & Jackson, 2002). UDL principles take into account the need to
differentiate instruction to increase student engagement. UDL represents systemic change in the
way students experience school.
Students arrive at school with a variety of factors that may impact their ability to learn or
engage in school, including poor facilities, instructional practices and classroom environments
that have largely gone unchanged for several decades. At the heart of UDL is the idea of
redesigning the educational landscape (Edyburn, 2010). However, educators may experience
push back on implementing UDL due perceived ambiguity around changes in teacher planning,
identifying students’ needs, technology resources and staffing needs.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 29

Hall, Meyer, and Rose (2012) are credited with refining the three core principles of UDL.
UDL is built on brain based learning theories around recognition, strategic and effective
networks. Brain imaging research supports the notion that these three cognitive networks are
actively at work during learning (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The researchers identified these three
conditions as necessary for each student to be provided an optimal learning environment: (a)
recognition - provide multiple means of representing what is being taught, (b) strategic - provide
the learner with multiple strategies for representing learning outcomes, and (c) engagement -
provide multiple means of engagement (Hall, Meyer, & Rose, 2009; Ralabate, 2011).
Changes in Teacher Practice
UDL requires teachers to make accommodations for the differences in students' cognitive
systems. In order to meet student needs teachers must first identify root causes and barriers
inhibiting students from fully engaging in school (Wright, 2006; Ralabate, 2011). The barrier can
be based on a skill deficit or a motivational cause. A core UDL strategy is intervention through
technology that allows for almost any type of adaptation for students’ needs. Teachers must
consider the appropriate strategies that best suit students’ variations of learning styles.
Meeting the needs of all learners entails providing optimal environments that take into
consideration learner differences. Vygotsky (1987) developed the concept of the zone of
proximal development providing a framework for meeting each student at their academic level
and supporting their acquisition of course content. Vygotsky defines the zone of proximal
development as the distance between the actual developmental level and the desired level. For
students, this distance, if not supported, can contribute to gaps in their learning and provides a
barrier to students’ accessing the full curriculum. Vygotsky believed that when the appropriate
level of assistance is provided at a level that meets the students’ developmental level, students
have better opportunities to accomplish academic tasks.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 30

Providing multiple means of representation. Multiple means of representation refers to
teachers using a variety of formats to introduce instruction such as direct instruction, computer
based instruction, PowerPoint presentations, or projects (Smith, 2012). Providing different
representations assists in ensuring that all students are given options to take in information in a
manner which best suit their learning (Smith, 2012). During a UDL lesson one student may
receive direct instruction from a teacher, while another student in class watches a presentation of
the same topic on an IPad or laptop computer. Interactions with peers who have an understanding
of a lesson topic also provides opportunities for students to better understand instructional topics
by pick up on language and symbols from others which supports their recognition and
understand. (Wright, 2008; Vygotsky, 2011).
Students differ in the their comprehension of information that is presented to them. (Hall,
Meyer, & Rose, 2009). Some students are able to comprehend information the first time it is
presented be it in print, audio or visual. Other students have an issue in comprehension that could
stem from barriers within them or outside of them. Multiple means of representation is necessary
to ensure comprehension and learning for all students. Multiple representations provides choice
of learning style for students. Using graphs to display relationships, using images to confer
meaning, drawing on learners past learning and using audio-video representations are
instructional strategies that can provide alternative representations of the same topic being
discussed.
Student choice in presentation of learning. Once students comprehend and have an
understanding of lesson information, UDL principles support students’ also having choice in
selecting strategies to present evidence of their learning. Courey, Tappe, Siker, & LePage (2013)
studied middle school teachers adaptation to incorporating UDL principles into their instruction.
The teachers switched out traditional forms of assessment such as written pencil and paper tests
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 31

and allowed students to demonstrate learning through interviews or by creating representations.
Both teachers and students favored the alternative methods of assessment.
Executive functioning is a critical process in invoking the strategic network of the brain.
Executive functioning is defined as processes that control, direct, or coordinate other cognitive
processes (Bull & Lee, 2014). Planning, goal setting, and reflection are all cognitive processes
managed by an individual’s executive functioning. In their research Bull and Lee (2014) found
that executive functioning might influence math achievement in several ways. For example,
inhibition may suppress cognitive strategies needed during problem solving. Moreover, Bandura
(1997) posits that emotional physiological responses to academic tasks may inhibit performance
as a result of negative perception of self-efficacy impacting executive functioning processes.
Encouraging multiple means of engagement. Teachers redesigning curriculum based
on UDL principles will consider the many ways in which students are motivated to learn.
Teachers planning lessons incorporating UDL principles address the importance of gaining
student interest and supporting students’ persistence in completing an academic task (Hall,
Meyer, & Rose, 2012). Some students are always engaged in learning while others arrive at
school disengaged, or impacted by a non-school related factor. Moreover, while collaboration
may be suggested to support student understand, some students may prefer to work alone.
Providing alternative options for engagement is essential in ensuring that each student develops a
willingness to engage in learning.
Student and Teacher Perceptions of UDL
Research on teacher perceptions of implementing UDL has been positive although more
research on the outcomes of implementation is needed. Dymond, Renzaglia, Rosenstein, Chun,
Banks, Niswander and Gilson (2006) explored perceptions of implementing UDL with high
school staff members, re-designing a secondary-level science class which included at-risk
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 32

general education students and students with disabilities. Although teachers did not receive
specific training on UDL, the teacher team discussed UDL literature. The study revealed through
weekly interviews, and focus groups, that teachers and students had positive reactions to UDL
strategies.
Katz (2015) studied the implementation the Three Block Model of UDL, which
synthesizes evidenced based practices for planning, instruction, and assessment of diverse
learners. Fifty-eight teachers in grades 1-12 were involved in the study. High school teachers
perceived that the model improved their practice and job satisfaction. Teachers noted a marked
increase in student engagement and learning. Teachers also communicated several barriers to
consider including collaboration time, differentiated resources, and educating the public.
Abell, Jung, and Taylor (2011) examined students’ perceptions of classroom
environments based on UDL. Their study examined whether students’ perceptions of classrooms
using UDL differed by grade and gender. The researchers found that high school students held
higher scores for personalization then did elementary and middle school students. The use of
UDL-aligned instructional approaches and curriculum materials supported senior-level students’
interest and engagement with the curriculum due to its relevance and comprehensiveness to their
own learning styles, abilities and interests (Abell, Jung, and Taylor, 2011, p. 182). This finding
supports the use of UDL in high school curriculum in engaging students at an age when social
distractions and a lack of interest in school can contribute to negative student outcomes. High
school students also scored high in participation that was defined as the extent to which students
felt encouraged to participate.
Kortering, Mc Clannon and Braziel (2008) examined findings on student perceptions of
individual interventions based on the principles of UDL. Students were both general education
and students with disabilities. A total of twenty-four interventions were tried in algebra and
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 33

biology classes. Both groups of students reported a strong desire for teachers to use more UDL
interventions. Students were reported as being more engaged in classes that used UDL
interventions.
UDL and Continuation High Schools
Because of the unique populations that they serve, continuation high schools offer
different forms of curriculum and instruction to best suit the needs of students at risk of not
graduation high school. There is a need to increase research on California’s approximately five-
hundred continuation high schools, particularly because continuation high school curriculums are
often allowed to deviate from district mandated curriculum scope and sequences. Few studies
yield research that discusses the variance in program offerings and differences from
comprehensive high school settings.
Bush (2012) provides a rich description of continuation high school structures,
curriculum and instructional design that reflect UDL principles. The study was part two of a
larger study that began in 2007. The researcher identified several structural modifications that
offered support including variable (partial) credit options for continuation high school students in
need of accelerating the process of making up failed classes. Bush (2012) identified the
following significant structural modifications put in place to support accelerated course
completion: (1) Short-term instructional modules in which teachers chunk content into mini-units
based on a set of learning objectives. (2) Performance based credit recovery in which increments
of course credit to be awarded are tied to particular grade. Both teachers and students reported
that mini-units encouraged sustained engagement. However, teachers acknowledged that the
brevity of the mini-units inhibits deeper learning on the part of students. Variable course credit
curriculums provide structural UDL which support credit recovery for at risk students.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 34

Students who enroll in high performing continuation high schools have been able to
recover from poor academic starts in high school due largely to being offered a variety ways to
demonstrate mastery of course standards including projects, independent studies, earning course
credits in increments, service credit, as well as traditional pencil and paper assessments. Based
on the increases in students’ academic performance and perceptions of academic self-efficacy,
continuation high school curriculums warrant examination as models of successful UDL
instruction.
Summary
For many students, entering high school presents a myriad of potential pitfalls, which
may result in the development of low perceptions of self-efficacy. High levels of truancy and
discipline issues are symptomatic of students who are not motivated to learn or who have
developed poor perceptions of school from previous experiences.
Student motivation is considered a dynamic, multifaceted phenomenon (Eccles, Wigfield,
& Schiefele, 1998). Research indicates that high school aged children differentiate between
various teachers based on teacher characteristics that benefit the student’s need (Montalvo,
Mansfield, & Miller, 2007). In a high school setting where a student regularly has up to six
different teachers, negative interactions with teachers and peers can have adverse effects on
students’ perceptions of self-efficacy and sense of connectedness. Students’ beliefs in their
ability to successfully perform academic tasks at a proficient level may vary based teacher
motivational style. Montalvo, Mansfield, & Miller (2007) wrote:
Teachers whom students wanted to please were reported to have: (1) gone out of their
way to help students, (2) provided positive, confidence-building feedback, (3) done
unnecessary things to be nice, (4) respected and trusted students and (5) spaced the
workload so that students did not feel overwhelmed. The researchers also found that high
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 35

school students indicated that peers behaved similarly for teachers they liked and teachers
they disliked (Montalvo, Mansfield, Miller, 2007, pp. 145).
Students’ beliefs in their own abilities has a substantial impact on their motivation to
engage in learning. Moreover, Mojavezi & Tamiz (2012) found that support from teachers has
been found to be a strong indicator of students’ effort at learning. Moreover, students are more
likely to engage in a particular achievement task when they expect to do well. Conversely,
students who feel alienated or perceive themselves unable to complete tasks generally lack
motivation to attend engage and to school in learning (Meece, Anderman, Anderman, 2006).
Classroom strategies that promote teacher-student interactions and differentiation of
instruction are essential factors in motivating continuation high school students to want to
engage in academic tasks. Students care about their relationships with their teachers and peers.
Students demonstrate higher levels of engagement when they perceive that their teachers care for
them and they feel a connectedness to their school (Mojavezi & Tamiz, 2012). Support for the
academic self-efficacy of at risk students is important due to the substantial numbers of students
who continue to drop out of high school (Schunk & Mullen, 2012).

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 36

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to examine the role that motivation plays in students’
experiences in continuation high school settings. Specifically the study examined the impact of
students’ perceptions of self-efficacy on their academic achievement. Interview data was
collected from students who attended Bueno Calle High School (a pseudonym), a continuation
high school in northeast Los Angeles County. This study focused on the stories and experiences
of high school students who transferred to a continuation high due to failing multiple courses and
subsequently becoming at-risk of not graduating high school or dropping out. All study
participants enrolled at Bueno Calle High School (BCHS) and made up previously failed courses
by the end of their 11
th
grade year. These students then opted to return to Westview High School
the traditional high school from which they initially transferred. Westview High School and
Bueno Calle High School are in the same school district. The study catches up with these
students during their 12
th
grade year at Westview High School.
Qualitative methods of data collection were used for this study. Qualitative methods
allow for the development of a rich narrative from which the researcher may make meaning and
provide answers to the research questions of the study. The vastly different experiences of each
student contribute to broader themes, some easily detected; others come about through synthesis
of research and findings. Van Maanen (1979) (as cited in Merriam, 2009) stated that qualitative
research is an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques that seek to describe,
decode, translate, and come to terms with the meaning, not frequency of naturally occurring
phenomena in the social world. Creswell (2009) offers the following description for conducting a
qualitative study: (a) Continual focus on learning the meaning that participants hold about a
problem or phenomenon, (b) the researcher uses multiple forms of data to analyze, and from
which to draw themes, (c) the researcher is the key instrument of analysis, (d) data is collected
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 37

on and about the site where the participants experienced the issue or phenomenon of the study,
(e) is an a inductive process in which the researcher works between analyzing data and
identifying emergent themes, (f) uses purposeful sampling to select participants, (g) findings are
presented in rich descriptive narrative based on themes.
Narrative analysis of interview transcripts was the most critical data collected. Central to
the crux of the study was to develop an understanding of each student’s experiences. The
researcher not only wanted to know which factors influenced students’ perceptions of self-
efficacy, but more specifically, how students were affected by those factors. The researcher was
looking for personal accounts of events and feelings from students. This study was also
concerned with the effects of environmental factors of continuation high schools on students’
self-efficacy. Zimmerman and Cleary (2006) suggest that adolescents’ perceptions of efficacy
play a major role in their transition from being motivated by the dependency of childhood to
adulthood self-sufficiency. Students who participated in this study had poor transitions from 8
th

grade to 9
th
grade. The selected methods of data collection and reporting are intended for the
audience to feel the emotions of the participants’ experiences in order to get a sense of change in
students’ perceptions of self-efficacy.
Merriam (2009) characterized the qualitative process as an attempt to understand how
people make sense out of their lived experiences. Bloomberg and Volpe (2008) stated that
qualitative methods do not examine a large enough sample to make the research reliable and thus
impacting the generalizability of the findings. However, Creswell (2009) defends the use of
qualitative methods suggesting that qualitative research is an attempt to create a holistic
understanding of the issue under study by incorporating multiple different perspectives and
identifying the many factors that contributed to the issue and the themes that emerge from the
lived experiences of the participants.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 38

This study has the potential to help continuation and traditional high school teachers and
administrators understand the importance of students being academically successful, by
encouraging high perceptions of self-efficacy. Student responses to interview questions were
used in the following chapter to convey the emotions and feelings of students and their
subsequent changes in perceptions of self-efficacy.
The following questions guided the focus of this study:
RQ: 1 – How do former continuation high school students describe their perceptions of academic
self-efficacy before, during and after attending a continuation high school?
RQ: 2 – What experiences at continuation high schools do students identify as having an impact
on their academic self-efficacy?
Sample Population
Permission from the Nemark-La Montana Unified School District to conduct this study
was obtained by the researcher. The researcher requested access to student records and
permission to interview identified students upon parental consent. The district agreed to the
researcher’s requests. The district also granted permission to conduct follow-up interviews if
necessary. Participants included current Westview High School 12
th
grade students who
transferred from Westview High School during their 10
th
or 11
th
grade year to Bueno Calle High
School, a continuation high school. Both school names, as well as the school district name are
pseudonyms. Students’ ages ranged from seventeen to nineteen.
This student population was selected because of their unique schooling experiences.
These students provided feedback on their continuation high school experience and the
influences that contributed to their perceptions of self-efficacy. Based on increases in both grade
point average and school engagement, as measured by school records and observation, this group
of students provided a robust interpretation of the impact of a continuation high schools on
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 39

students’ self-efficacy. Purposeful sampling was used to identify qualified students. The school
counselor at Bueno Calle High School helped in identifying eligible students by providing a list
of students who returned to Westview High School. A total of fifteen students were identified.
Interviews were conducted with ten eligible students. Three students opted not to participate.
Two students left Westview High School after transferring back from Bueno Calle High School.
The participants included eight male students and two female students. Seven students identified
as Hispanic and three students identified as white. All students are on track to graduate on time
from Westview High School.
Bueno Calle High School was selected because it has been identified as a high
performing continuation high school. Bueno Calle High School has been designated as a
California Model School for nine years. Representatives from the state visit school sites on
behalf of the California Department of Education validating the content of a self-study report
submitted by the school. If a school is selected, they are awarded a three-year Model School
term. Also, during Bueno Calle High School’s last state accreditation visit, Bueno Calle High
School received a full six-year accreditation.

Table 1– BCHS Student Demographics

ETHNICITY
2015-2016
TOTAL % of POPULATION
African American 18 4.9
Cambodian 2 0.5
Filipino 2 0.5
Hispanic 286 78
Pacific Islander 1 0.2
Tahitian 2 0.5
White 34 9.2
Unclassified 21 5.7
TOTAL 366 100%

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 40

Setting of the Study
Bueno Calle High School (BCHS) is located eighteen miles northeast of metropolitan Los
Angeles. Bueno Calle was selected because of its recognition as an outstanding continuation high
school. Within the Nemark-La Montana Unified School District BCHS is thought of as the
fourth high school, as opposed to the negative connotation that may be applied to a continuation
high school. BCHS is a larger continuation high school which allows the researcher to interview
a sufficient number of students who meet the scope of the study. The researcher also selected
BCHS because of the high level of access that would be allowed to the site, students, and staff
due to the researcher previously being the principal of BCHS.
Table 2 – BCHS Faculty and Staff
STAFFING CATEGORIES # of STAFF 2015-2016
Pupil Support Services (including non-
District employed staff members
1 – Principal
1 - Dean of Students
1 - Counselor
1 - Secretary
1 - 3.5 hr Attendance Clerk
1 - Data Clerk
1 - 3.5hr Library Textbook Clerk
2 - 3.5 hr Security Assistants
1 - School Safety Officer
1 - Outreach Consultant
1 - Probation Officer
2 - Custodians
1 - Cafeteria Manager
1 – 3.5hr cafeteria aide
% Teachers Highly Qualified 100%
Staff Members with advanced degrees 9 (6 teachers, 1 counselor,
2administrators)
Gender 16 Male, 19 Female
Ethnicity (includes non-District employed
staff members
11 Hispanic
17 White
2 African American
1 Chinese
1Vietnamese
District Financial Support LCAP- $41,224
Title I - $44, 500
Categorical- 4

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 41

Few of Bueno Calle’s students live in the immediate neighborhood; most are bused to the
school from the cities of Nemark and La Montana. A few students rely on the public transit
system. Bueno Calle serves students in need of retaking failed classes and previously attended
one of three high schools; John Grant High School and Nemark High Schools, in the city of
Nemark, or La Montana High School in the city of La Montana. BCHS also receives students
who transfer from other continuation high schools.
The majority of students come from low-to-middle socioeconomic families. Family
structures vary. Students come from two parent households with a stable income, from
households where only one parent is present and finances are limited, or live with many extended
family members in one home. About 14%, district-wide, live in the foster care system. At
Bueno Calle, 65% (45% district-wide) are enrolled in the free or reduced lunch program.
A positive relationship exists between the cities of Nemark and La Montana, the two
cities that comprise the Nemark-La Montana Unified School District. La Montana is a mostly
residential community that boasts of its large public golf course, several public parks,
community gym, and youth sports programs. The La Montana Kiwanis and Live with Faith
Church of La Montana are community partners with BCHS. Local businesses in the city include
light industrial, small and medium sized business, and a large number of home-based businesses.
Most large businesses are concentrated in an industrial park located just off the Interstate.
According to the latest census, the city’s population is 48,527; median household income is
$79,347, and median age is 31. Thirty-eight percent of La Montana residents are Hispanic, 59%
White, 2% African American, 17% Asian, 11% other. The city’s crime rate is average.
The majority of students who live in the city of Nemark come from middle to low income
families. Nemark has a population of 105,549, with 62.8% are of the residents being of Latino
or Hispanic origin, 44% White, 12% Asian, 5% African American, and 10% other. Over 47% of
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 42

the city’s land is residential property, while 15% is devoted to commercial and industrial
development. The median household income of Nemark residents is $58,124; median age is 30.
Major employers in the city are the Nemark-La Montana Unified School District, Metropolitan
State Hospital, and county government offices.
Bueno Calle High School enrolls approximately three hundred and fifty students per day
on average. Due to many students living in transition and moving frequently, Bueno Calle
services over six hundred students per year. Student orientations are held throughout the school
year. Students arrive with an unsure look on their face. They have heard rumors about Bueno
Calle. Rumors that gang members go there, and that only losers go there. However, after
attending school for a few weeks, students quickly find friends and report enjoying their time at
Bueno Calle. Bueno Calle High School has been an accredited high school since 1971. In 2013
Bueno Calle was awarded a six-year accreditation term.
Students at Bueno Calle High School are held to the same state standards and graduation
requirements as students at the districts’ three comprehensive high schools. Throughout the
district Bueno Calle is known as the fourth high school without any negative connotation that
usually plague continuation high schools. Courses are standards-based and offer variable credit
for completion. Students attend six, 45-minute periods between 7:55 a.m. and 1:45 p.m. Bueno
Calle High School serves English learners at the Intermediate Level and above. Bueno Calle
High School also serves a caseload of up to twenty-eight special needs students.
The mission statement posted on a banner in main office of Bueno Calle High School
says the school seeks to provide a nurturing, safe school climate in which students experience
academic growth and become responsible citizens as well as life-long learners. The mission goes
on to add that the goal is to make high school relevant for all students preparing them for college
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 43

and career. Bueno Calle High School promotes the following school-wide expected learning
results:
Expected School-wide Learning Results (ESLRs):
P - Plan for Graduation
R - Responsible Citizen
I - Individual Motivation and Determination
D - Decisive Problem Solver
E - Effective Communicator
Upon entering the school from the parking lot one of the first things you notice is that the
school is housed in what was previously an elementary school. The school police officer at the
entrance is polite and engaging, but is an ever-present reminder of some of the potential
disciplinary issues that could arise due to the behavioral histories of some students. After
walking across the blacktop visitors enter the main office. The schools’ secretary greets visitors
and routes them to the appropriate place on campus. The climate of the main office is calm and
the office staff appears to work well together. Posted on the walls are commendations for the
school from the state and the district, as well as pictures of the current school board members.
Both the Principal and the Dean’s office are in the main office.
During student break times the blacktop area is a buzz with student conversations and
interactions. Due to the small size of the campus, all students sit on or near the blacktop area.
Students are very territorial with lunch seating, choosing to sit in the same place each day with
the same group of friends. Students are conscious of keeping their lunch areas clean for fear that
their table will be moved and given to another group. Campus norms for student behavior are
communicated to students daily. The counseling office is open during snack and lunch and many
students go there to hang out with friends or discuss scheduling and credit recovery with the
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 44

counselor. The counselor stated that she allows students into her office during lunch because it
gives her an opportunity to interact with students gauging whether some students are having
academic or personal issues.
The classrooms at Bueno Calle are unique learning environments. Five rows of red-
bricked buildings with four classrooms each define the “campus” of Bueno Calle High School.
Because of the elementary buildings on the site, classrooms still have sinks inside and book bag
latches on the walls. Without the traditional campus landmarks such as a gymnasium or football
field, the grounds of Bueno Calle are a reminder to students that they are indeed at an alternate
high school.
Due to the nature of varying student levels of achievement, credit recovery need, and
student enrollment date, all teachers must provide differentiation to allow students the
opportunity to master course content. In most classes students engage in a full range of tasks
including project-based learning, computer based learning, and independent study. At one table
in a U.S. History class sat three students who were new to the class. These students completed
the beginning reading assignments for the current unit. The unit began last week. These students
will complete a research assignment on the current topic while the class moves toward an
assessment having had several days of instruction already. In a Biology class, students worked
independently or collaboratively on selected unit based projects. Students are shown models of
previous students exemplary work to help them better understand ways in which to demonstrate
their learning. In most classes students were well behaved, disproving outsiders’ stereotypes
about continuation high school students. Class size numbers are kept low to allow more
individual attention.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 45

Instructional Program
There are many strategies used by the school to develop personalized approaches to
learning and alternative instructional options which allow at-risk students access to and progress
in the district’s standards based curriculum. Teachers are organized into professional learning
communities that support teacher collaboration on both students’ academic and behavioral needs.
Lesson Study is another teacher process that promotes teacher collaboration. During Lesson
Study teachers observe lessons of their colleagues in an effort to better their own delivery of the
same lesson. The goal is to observe learning and develop unique teacher skills that engage
students in learning activities.
Instructional Strategies. Teachers use a variety of assessment strategies. In Language
Arts, assessments may include: essays, research projects, oral presentations, tests/quizzes,
performances, or writing portfolios. In math, teachers use tests/quizzes, projects, and technology-
based assessments to measure student learning. Physical Education students are assessed using
performance-based measures conducted in incremental steps so that students’ physical fitness
gains can be monitored. In science courses, teachers use a combination of tests/quizzes, written
reports, lab reflections, and research projects as assessments. Finally, in social studies
assessments include quick writes, tests/quizzes, online activities, whole class activities,
classroom simulations, essays, and student presentations.
BCHS teachers monitor student achievement on an ongoing basis and update grades
regularly to demonstrate to students their growth. Teachers may meet regularly to discuss student
interventions or brainstorm ideas for re-teaching or lesson planning. The use of formative and
summative assessments in all core courses further encourages student progress or points to the
need for intervention. Some teachers have developed student-learning portfolios with work
samples so that students can see growth in their writing and thinking as well as reflect on their
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 46

progress. Writing Across the Curriculum is one area where teachers often discuss their high,
medium, and low student work samples. Analyzing work samples of various levels of mastery
helps the teachers to plan next steps to constantly improve student achievement as well as
calibrate common rubrics for grading writing.
At BCHS the traditional lecture method of instruction is giving way to an increase in
project based learning and cooperative activities. BCHS teachers are beginning to incorporate
lessons that encourage the use of academic language and student discourse. A review of teacher
lesson plans shows evidence of lessons that promote student development of critical thinking
skills through connecting prior knowledge. Teachers often begin class by reviewing the day’s
objectives and linking it to prior learning or previewing the unit of study that will follow.
Some strategies used to promote checking for understanding and active participation are
thumbs up/thumbs down, think-pair-share, white board responses, and collaborative learning
projects. Project based learning opportunities are being used to allow students to learn about core
subject concepts with more breadth and depth. Due to the nature of the need for credit recovery,
some teachers focus on the core standards needed to have a foundation for learning in the next
course.
Supporting Learner Subgroups
Students who are designated as English learners receive the same instructional setting and
support as many of their mainstream counterparts, but are supported with additional strategies for
using English in an academic setting. In all Language Arts classes writing instruction and
practice occurs on a regular basis and staff have been trained in how to use English Language
Development strategies including Think Pair Share and the Frayer Model for vocabulary
development to ensure that English learners receive specific feedback on improving oral and
written communication skills. Students read a variety of genres of literature and engage in
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 47

various assessments designed to check comprehension: reader’s journals, graphic organizers,
essays, or quick writes. EL strategies such as sentence stems are also employed to facilitate
student writing.
English Learners and special needs students are mainstreamed into all classes. BCHS
teachers work with the RSP teacher to differentiate instruction. RSP students also receive support
through a tutorial course offering in which an instructional assistant provides additional support.
Student supports include the use of visual aids and providing opportunities for student talk to
practice academic vocabulary. Realia connected to the content is incorporated into instruction.
Teachers also receive professional development through the district English Language
Development coaches who offer training and aid in using data to impact instruction.
Student Counseling Groups
Goals for Life is a counseling group supported by the National Football League. Retired
professional football players serve as counselors and mentors for both male and female students
to raise self-esteem, and to teach goal setting, and financial management. The program also
coordinates with the school to provide student assemblies with current NFL players to motivate
students.
Don’t Get Crushed is another counseling group which is provided in partnership with
former professional basketball player A.C. Green. His foundation offers at risk counseling
services for students. Counseling groups meet on a weekly basis to support students in
developing positive healthy relationships and understanding the influences of peer pressure.
Straight Talk counseling services are provided through the city of La Montana. Both one
on one and group counseling are provided. An intern counselor comes weekly and works with a
girls’ group to focus on the dynamics being adolescent and building a positive self-perception.
The City of Nemark’s Personal Responsibility in Development and Ethics Program (PRIDE),
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 48

partners with the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department (LASD) to support BCHS students that have
either been on probation or are currently on probation. The PRIDE program makes presentations
to classrooms, and provides assemblies encouraging students to keep focused by making
graduation a priority.
Instrumentation
A 17-item qualitative interview protocol was developed to extract the narrative of
students’ experiences while attending Bueno Calle High School. The researcher developed the
interview questions to solicit opened ended responses that were categorized based on Bandura’s
four identified influences on self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious observations, verbal
persuasion, and physiological responses. Word choice was also a consideration. Questions were
worded to allow students to easily understand and form a response. Nine questions were written
for the first research question and eight questions were written for the second research question.
Questions from the interview protocol asked students to respond about their own perceptions of
self-efficacy as well as school experiences and interactions that influence their perceptions of
self-efficacy. The open ended nature of the questions allowed the researcher to ask additional
probing questions to better understand students’ perceptions and interpretations of experiences.
When ask to be specific students brought up memories and events involving peers and teachers
that provided depth to their initial responses.
Semi-structured interviews provided strong themes that were triangulated with other data
collected. Semi-structured questions allowed some flexibility in order of questioning allowing
the researcher to probe lines of interest that came up during the interview. Due to the privacy of
students’ experiences focus groups were not used to gather data.
Creswell (2009) points out the importance of the researcher sustaining a positive
experience with participants. During the interviews, the researcher was purposeful in noting
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 49

changes in students’ body language, tone of voice, and general disposition in order to maintain a
connection with the students, allowing them to feel comfortable throughout the interview
process. The goal was to promote thoughtful rich responses from the students.
Data Collection
Data was collected over a two-month period during March and April of 2016. Data was
collected through student interviews, observations at Bueno Calle High School, and reviewing
school records.
Interviews
Student interviews were conducted at Westview High School in the office of the
principal. Interviews allowed for students to provide rich descriptions of their experiences.
Students were reminded of the purpose of the study and asked if any clarification was needed.
Water and lunch were offered. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten selected
participants. Interviews focused on students’ experiences while attending a Bueno Calle High
School, specifically their perceptions of academic self-efficacy, and what they perceived as the
sources of their perceptions. Subject to the nature of the interview questions were remarks
regarding obstacles to their learning, both personal and environmental.
Interviews were recorded to allow for transcription capturing students’ full responses to
questions. Interviews were recorded and stored on two recording devices. Each device was
locked with a password known only by the researcher. Both digital and printed interview
transcripts were kept in the office of the researcher. When typing student quotes used in the
study, the researcher used exact words and phrasing of the words used by students during
interviews. Pseudonyms were used for the school district, school and students’ names throughout
the study. Several short interviews were also conducted with the school’s counselor. The
researcher did not record these interviews, however notes were taken to capture words, phrases
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 50

and ideas that were consistent with other data collected.
Observations
Two onsite observations were conducted to engage the researcher with the Bueno Calle
High School campus. Although the researcher was previously the principal of BCHS, it was
important to go back to the setting where the participants’ experiences occurred. Observational
data of the school site helped to validate students’ statements made during interviews.
During each observation the researcher reported to the main office to receive a visitors
badge. Due to the researcher’s familiarity with the campus, access to classroom visits and the
counselor’s office was granted. Observations of classrooms were conducted to examine the
relationship between students and teachers, as well as the instructional tasks that students were
being asked to complete. Through direct observation of the classroom, the researcher could see
how students behaved as a result of tasks assigned and teacher behaviors.
Observations of the counseling office provided an opportunity to observe some of the
school’s student support services. At Bueno Calle High School, many students frequent the
counseling office regularly. Observations of the counseling office provided opportunities to
examine the interactions and dialogue between students and the counselor. Like all schools
Bueno Calle High School has a unique culture that can only be described from having seen and
felt it firsthand.
Review of School Records
Lastly, reviewing school documents including student transcripts provided additional
sources of data from which to validate themes. The review of records included staff meetings
minutes, department chair meeting minutes, school club documents, accreditation reports,
student behavioral logs, student transcripts, district documents, professional development
workshop materials and teacher lesson plans. Data collected allowed the researcher to better
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 51

comprehend the school factors that may have contributed to students’ perceptions of self-
efficacy.
Data Analysis
Merriam (2009) states that qualitative data analysis involves coding of data constructing
categories or themes. For this study data was coded using the constant comparative method
(Merriam, 2009). Narratives from student interview transcripts provided rich descriptions of
students’ experiences. The process of coding involved the researcher engaging the data multiple
times to determine emerging themes. The researcher first read through each interview transcript
making simple notes. A second reading of each transcript was done, however this time the
researcher labeled words, phrases, and ideas that were consistent with other pieces of data.
Codes for this study were categorized according the self-efficacy framework put forth by
researcher Albert Bandura. The researcher was concerned with identifying phrases and themes
that seemed to repeat across all data collected as well as corresponded to one of the four
identified influences of self-efficacy.
Internal Validity
Merriam (2009) stated that internal validity involves questioning the correlation between
study findings and reality. Due to the interpretive nature of qualitative methods, strategies were
employed during data collection to strengthen the trustworthiness of the study.
Triangulation. (Creswell, 2009). Student interviews were conducted, school site
observations were conducted and school records were reviewed to validate themes that emerged
from data collection.
Member checking. (Merriam, 2009). Students were given the opportunity to review their
interview transcript and study findings for clarification of consistency with their interpretations
of their experience.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 52

Identifying researcher bias. (Merriam, 2009). The researcher was previously the
principal of the continuation high school observed in this study. In order to control for researcher
bias, the researcher met with the Bueno Calle High School counselor and two teachers. The
findings of the study were shared to gauge their feedback. These staff members previously
worked with the researcher at Bueno Calle High School and provided feedback aiding in the
validation of findings. Moreover, during student interviews the researcher paid close attention to
his posture and tone of voice during interviews in an effort not to appear to lead or sway student
responses.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 53

Chapter Four: Results
This qualitative study examined the impact of continuation high school settings on the
perceptions of self-efficacy of students at risk of not graduating from high school. Specifically,
the study focused on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy while enrolled at a continuation high
school (Bueno Calle High School) and the changes to their perceptions upon reenrolling into
their comprehensive high school (Westview High School). The study seeks to contribute to the
discussion of best motivational practices for continuation high school programs and effective
teacher practices.
This chapter is organized to provide the reader with background on the school site, the
students who participated in interviews and findings related to each of the two research questions
posed by the study. Findings for the first research question are organized around changes in
students’ perceptions of their own academic self-efficacy before, during and after attending a
continuation high school. Findings for the second research question identify the unique
continuation high school experiences of students that contributed to their perceptions of self-
efficacy.
Research Questions
RQ: 1 – How do former continuation high school students describe their perceptions of academic
self-efficacy before, during and after attending a continuation high school?
RQ: 2 – What experiences at continuation high schools do students identify as having an impact
on their academic self-efficacy?
Study Participants
This study focused on ten former continuation high school students who attended Bueno
Calle High School during their sophomore or junior year. After retaking previously failed classes
during that year, these students returned to Westview High School, which is a traditional high
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 54

school. The students’ backgrounds varied from living with both parents to living with a single
parent. Others lived with extended family. Each student was interviewed to gain an
understanding of his or her experiences and changes in self-efficacy while attending a
continuation high school. Eight male students were interviewed and two female students were
interviewed. Six students identified as Hispanic/Latino and four students identified as white.
Pseudonyms were used instead of students’ real names. The students interviewed were James,
Eric, Stacy, Brandon, Victoria, John, David, Anthony, Derrick, and Jake.
Students Descriptions
Below is a description of each student who was interviewed for the study.
James. James is a tall eighteen-year old white male student who is very likable. James
moved around a lot during his 9
th
and 10
th
grade years. James lives with his mother and two
brothers, of which he is the middle child. James was the first interview and he was eager to tell
his story. He formed thoughtful responses and was purposeful in attempting to be as articulate as
possible, often using hand gestures to communicate his experiences. He admits that some days he
would work in class and on other days he did not and that his poor attendance contributed his
poor grades. James stated that history was his favorite subject because he liked learning about
real things that actually took place. James described transferring to Bueno Calle High School as a
second chance for him. During his interview, James described his positive connections with
teachers. At Bueno Calle James bonded with two teachers whom he credited with helping him
get himself together. James described a conversation with his American Government teacher Mr.
Crowell as having been a moment in time that changed his focus while attending Bueno Calle.
James also discussed his English teacher Mrs. Shanks as always being there to support him or
correct him. James spoke of Mrs. Shanks as a second mother to him.
James had approximately forty-one disciplinary incidents logged into his student record
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 55

from four different high schools. His discipline issues included possession of marijuana,
excessive tardies and truancy meetings, defiance and disruptive behavior. James exhibits
confidence, yet has a speech impediment when he gets excited. James admits that he tends to
hang around the wrong crowd. James has aspirations to become an electrician. James’ grade
point average was significantly higher while he attended Bueno Calle High School.
• 9
th
Grade – 2.0 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 1.8 (at Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 3.0 (Bueno Calle High School )
• 12
th
Grade – 2.8 (Westview High School )
Stacy. Stacy is a seventeen-year old Mexican-American female student who was very
pleasant during her interview. Stacy has an engaging smile and an upbeat positive demeanor.
Stacy is an only child and lives with her mother in the city of La Montana. Like James, Stacy
was eager to discuss her success at Bueno Calle High School. During her time at Bueno Calle
High School, Stacy described herself as becoming more active in student groups and activities.
She was elected as the student body treasurer and became active in the schools’ arts program. Art
is Stacy’s favorite subject. She recalled a time when she was talking to an administrator and was
asked about her interests and hobbies, to which she stated that she loved to draw, and then pulled
out some of her art samples. To her surprise, the next day the administrator called her into the
office and gave her a brand new sketchbook for her art. Stacy described this and other moments
as having had an impact on her comfort level while attending Bueno Calle. She is confident that
she will work as an artist someday.
Stacy believes that it was her procrastination early in high school that contributed to her
failing several classes. She does however believe that she was smart all long, just not applying
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 56

herself. Stacy also looked at Bueno Calle as an opportunity to correct her poor academic start in
high school. Stacy has not had any significant discipline problems during high school. Her
student record reflects only twelve incidents logged, including excessive tardies and truancy
meetings. While at Bueno Calle Stacy had two best friends whom she credits with being there for
her when she needed. Stacy felt that the connections to other students and seeing her friends do
well contributed to her success Stacy’s transcript shows the following grade point averages for
each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 1.5 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 1.3 (Westview High School )
• 11
th
Grade – 3.4 ( Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 3.8 (Westview High School )
John. John is an eighteen-year old Mexican-American male student who is quiet and a
little shy. John is the youngest of three children and lives with both parents in La Montana.
During his interview John stated that he was excited about beginning high school, but he could
not finish all of the work. He also stated that he procrastinated a lot. While he credits his time at
Bueno Calle as having an impact on his ability to be more social, he is still quite reserved. He
spoke with a soft tone during his interview, however appeared eager to share his experiences at
Bueno Calle.
John participated in the intramural sports leagues while he attended Bueno Calle. His
teams were often made up of students who may not be considered the best athletes, but John and
his group of friends would always compete. John also stated that the one on one connections that
he made with teachers at Bueno Calle helped grow his confidence and preparation for school.
Since returning to Westview High School, John has begun to be more social.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 57

John has only five incidents logged into his student record. John is currently an office
aide at Westview High School and appears to be continuing to grow socially. John has attended
only Westview High School and Bueno Calle High School during his four years. John’s
transcript shows the following grade point averages for each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 2.2 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 2.0 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 3.5 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 3.3 (Westview High School)
Victoria. Victoria is a petit seventeen-year old female old Mexican-American student.
Victoria has an upbeat personality and is popular with both students and staff. Victoria lives with
her mother and two younger siblings in an apartment in the city of La Montana. At the time she
transferred to Bueno Calle High School, Victoria stated that she was extremely nervous. While
she can be outspoken, she is self-admittedly shy. During her interview, Victoria stated that her
9
th
grade year did not get off to a good start because she was lazy and that she was more into
hanging out with her friends. Victoria was active at Bueno Calle through her involvement in
student council and the Positive Alternative Outreach program that enlisted students in
supporting the school or community in civic projects. Victoria is interested in a career as a
counselor or nurse. During her time at Bueno Calle, Victoria bonded with the school’s counselor
and teacher Mrs. Santiago. Victoria credits her continuous academic support and life coaching as
guiding her through a tough period in her life.
Upon returning to Westview High School, Victoria became active on campus as an office
aide and peer counselor during her elective period. Victoria developed a confidence about herself
as a result of successfully returning to Westview High School. She does however express that
leaving Bueno Calle was a tough decision because of the relationships that she formed there.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 58

Victoria has only six incidents logged into her student record. Her discipline issues
include excessive tardies and truancy meetings. Her transcript shows the following grade point
averages for each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 1.8 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 2.1 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 3.7 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 4.0 (Westview High School)
David. David is an eighteen-year old Mexican-American male student. Both of David’s
parents speak Spanish fluently and very little English. David has two brothers and a younger
sister. The family resides in the city of La Montana. David describes himself as the 9
th
grade kid
who would just mess around in class all the time. David is an avid football player. At Bueno
Calle he participated in the flag football intramural league. Upon returning to Westview High
School, David joined the football team who went on to win a state championship. This
accomplishment gives David a tremendous sense of pride. After graduation David plans on
working with his father in his construction business.
David has been designated as an English learner throughout his schooling. David has also
attended school in Mexico. During his interview David discussed that his time going to school in
Mexico impacted his use of English and when he returned to California he found it difficult to
learn due to his language barrier. David credits the support from the Bueno Calle teachers as
having given him the confidence that he could graduate high school.
David has twenty-three incidents logged into his student record. The incidents include
multiple truancy notifications, a suspension, as well as various disciplinary referrals for
classroom infractions. David’s transcript shows the following grade point averages for each year
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 59

in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 2.0 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 1.9 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 3.2 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 2.0 (Westview High School)
Anthony. Anthony is a nineteen-year old white male student who appears to be over the
experience of high school. Anthony was the most withdrawn student during the interview
process. While Anthony looked at enrolling into Bueno Calle as an opportunity to recover from a
poor start to high school, his intention was to finish classes as fast as possible and return to
Westview High School. Like some other students that were interviewed, Anthony described
himself as a slacker during his ninth and tenth grade years. He stated that he has never like
English and that if not for an elementary math teacher who took an interest in him, he probably
would not like math, however he stated that math is his favorite subject. Anthony was a football
player at Westview High School before transferring to Bueno Calle High School, however he did
not rejoin the team upon returning to Westview.
Anthony described mixed reactions when asked about his relationships with teachers.
While he described some as extremely helpful, he also stated that a few gave feedback that
discouraged him. Anthony described knowing people who attended or graduated from Bueno
Calle giving him the confidence that he could make it back to Westview High School.
Anthony has nine incidents logged into his student record including parent conferences,
truancy notifications, and guidance meetings. Anthony’s transcript shows the following grade
point averages for each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 2.1 (Westview High School)
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 60

• 10
th
Grade – 2.3 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 2.7 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 2.1 (Westview High School)
Derrick. Derrick is an eighteen-year old white male student who has had his share of
disciplinary incidents. A likable student, Derrick was engaged in the interview from beginning to
end. While he is not involved in any extracurricular activities, Derrick has many friends at both
Bueno Calle and Westview High Schools. He states that his favorite subject is English because
he enjoys writing about his thoughts. He attributes his poor academic start to trying to be cool
when he was a freshman. He credits the teachers at Bueno Calle with connecting with him
personally and motivating him. He further states that he felt no connection with the teachers at
Westview High School. His family, which includes one older brother and a younger sister, reside
in La Montana.
Derrick has sixty-six incidents logged into his school record. His discipline issues include
possession of marijuana, excessive tardies and truancy meetings, defiance and disruptive
behavior. Derrick was also suspended during his senior year for fighting. While Derrick is a
likable student, he sometimes argues school rules and has been disciplined for contributing to
confrontations between other students. Derrick participated in on campus counseling and was on
probation for one year while at Bueno Calle. Derrick’s transcript shows the following grade
point averages for each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 1.4 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 2.4 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 2.8 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 2.1 (Westview High School)
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 61

Jake. Jake is a seventeen-year old Mexican-American male student. Jake is now a young
man with confidence in both his academic ability and in his body. Jake stated that he has lost a
lot of weight since his 11
th
grade year in part because he now works at a fitness center. Jake was
admittedly shy when he began high school. Jake did not socialize with many students when he
transferred to Bueno Calle. Jake enjoyed intramural sports and participated in the Positive
Alternatives Outreach club while at Bueno Calle. Through his interactions with peers in the club,
Jake came out of his shell. Jake worked well with other club members and developed close
friendships.
Jake has eight disciplinary incidents logged into his student record. Jakes’ transcript
shows the following grade point averages for each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 1.9 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 1.4 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 3.4 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 3.5 (Westview High School)
Eric. Eric is an eighteen-year old Mexican-America male student who has an engaging
personality. During the interview Eric appeared to be calm and the discourse with him flowed
fluidly. Eric has a strong interest in art and plans on pursuing a career as an artist. He also plans
on attending college to pursue a business degree. Dressed as he normally does, from the outside
Eric may be assumed to be a gang member. On the day of the interview he had on oversized
black jeans, a black hooded sweatshirt, and a hat that security has warned him about numerous
times. He acknowledges that family members have been involved in gangs, but his is not.
Eric believes that he started off bad in high school because he had been lazy and
uninterested in school. Sometimes he would do homework other times he would not. Eric
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 62

believes that his poor study habits are the main cause of his poor academic start in high school.
Eric was reluctant to answer questions because he feared negative feedback from teachers. Eric
viewed transferring to Bueno Calle as a second chance. Once there, he found confidence in
seeing his peers do well and go back to their home high school or graduate from BCHS.
Eric has fifteen disciplinary incidents logged into his student record. His discipline issues
include excessive tardies and truancy meetings, defiance and disruptive behavior. Eric’s
transcript shows the following grade point averages for each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 1.8 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 2.0 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 3.0 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 3.2 (Westview High School)
Brandon. Brandon is a seventeen-year old Mexican-American male student. On the
surface Brandon may appear shy, but he is an articulate thoughtful young man who believes that
he got off to a bad start in high school because he was lazy and did not have a work ethic. He did
however acknowledge that teachers and family have always told him that he was smart. Most of
Brandon’s family lives in Nemark, however his mother and father moved Brandon and his two
brothers to La Montana due to gang violence in Nemark.
Brandon expressed that history was his favorite subject. Brandon enjoys learning about
the past and reading about controversial social movements. While enrolled at Bueno Calle High
School Brandon served as a student ambassador. In that role he supported new students in
learning about the school and the credit recovery program. He was reluctant to come to Bueno
Calle because of the reputation of continuation high schools. However, he looks back on it as
being one of the best decisions of his life.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 63

Brandon has nine disciplinary incidents logged into his student record, mostly for
attendance and truancy notifications and meetings. Brandon transcript shows the following grade
point averages for each year in high school:
• 9
th
Grade – 1.8 (Westview High School)
• 10
th
Grade – 1.8 (Westview High School)
• 11
th
Grade – 3.0 (Bueno Calle High School)
• 12
th
Grade – 3.4 (Westview High School)

LEFT BLANK

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 64

Table 3 – Changes in students’ perceptions of self-efficacy
STUDENT
NAME
GENDER ETHNICITY
Perceptions of
Self –Efficacy
Before BCHS
Perceptions
of Self –
Efficacy
While at
BCHS
Perceptions of
Self –Efficacy
After BCHS
Changes in
Self- Efficacy
Attributed to
James Male White
Strong
perceptions of
ability, but
admittedly lazy
Completing
school work
regularly
increased
self-efficacy
Confident in
class and
willing to ask
for help
Positive teacher
relationships
Stacy Female
Hispanic/
Latino

Strong
perceptions of
ability, but
procrastination
impacted grades
Involvement
in student
groups
increase
perception of
self-efficacy
Confident in
doing well
returning to
traditional high
school
Strong
connections
with peers
John Male
Hispanic/
Latino

Reluctant to
participate due to
fear of
embarrassment
Perceptions
of self-
efficacy
increased as
he became
more social
at school
BCHS allowed
him to get
himself
together;
increased
confidence
Teachers
building
personalization
into the
classroom
Victoria Female White
Extremely
nervous before
transferring
Became
more vocal
and outgoing
after meeting
friends at
BCHS
Very confident
after meeting
her goal of
returning to
traditional high
school
Strong
connections
with the
counselor and
one teacher
David Male
Hispanic/
Latino

Concerned that
the environment
would have a
negative
influence on him
Seeing peers
graduate and
go on to
school and
work
increased
self-efficacy
Learned
different ways
to study and
how to be
better at school
Supportive
feedback from
teachers and the
counselor
Anthony Male White
Not confident in
doing well due to
previous
slacking off and
poor grades
Interactions
with friends
who went to
BCHS
increased
self-efficacy
Academic
success
contributed
perceptions of
future success
at the
traditional high
school
Teacher and
counselor
encouragement
Derrick Male White
Confident in
academic ability,
but did not put
forth effort
Friends at
BCHS
encouraged
each other
BCHS opened
the student’s
eyes to what
they could
become
Realized that
BCHS was a
second chance
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 65

STUDENT
NAME
GENDER ETHNICITY
Perceptions of
Self –Efficacy
Before BCHS
Perceptions
of Self –
Efficacy
While at
BCHS
Perceptions of
Self –Efficacy
After BCHS
Changes in
Self- Efficacy
Attributed to
Eric Male
Hispanic/
Latino

Felt confident in
some subjects,
but overall
wasn’t confident
in school; didn’t
want to look
dumb in class
The students
made each
other feel
welcome
which made
them feel that
they could do
better
Became more
confident and
involved in
classes
Being able to
see graduation
as a reality
Brandon Male
Hispanic/
Latino

Smart, but didn’t
do homework
Increase in
self-efficacy
because
students
shared a
common goal
More confident
in participating
in class and
activities
Teachers were
more motivating
Jake Male
Hispanic/
Latino

Not interested in
school due to
previous failure;
Confident of
success at BCHS
Began to
come out of
his “shell.”
Began to
figure things
out
Change in
mindset due to
accomplishing
goals; saw
future success
at the
traditional
school
Physical
education
teacher made a
positive impact
on the first day
of school

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 66

Findings
The study examined the changes in students’ perceptions of their own self-efficacy
before, during and after attending Bueno Calle High School, as well as the school experiences
that impacted their perceptions of academic self-efficacy while there. There were three findings
for the first research question that assessed students’ perceptions of self-efficacy before, during
and after attending a continuation high school. Students held high perceptions of self-efficacy
before transferring schools. The data also pointed to students’ perceptions of self-efficacy
increasing while they attended the continuation high. Lastly, students acknowledged exhibiting
better study habits and being more engaged in school upon returning to a comprehensive high
school.
There were seven findings for the second research question. This research question asked
students to identified what had an impact on their academic self-efficacy while attending the
continuation high school. The findings for this question are categorized based on four influences
on self-efficacy; mastery experiences, vicarious observations, verbal persuasion, and
physiological responses. Findings include – 1) A variable credit curriculum used by the school
that provides multiple opportunities and methods for students to demonstrate their learning. 2)
Students’ self-efficacy increased when seeing their peers have success. 3) Teacher feedback
positively impacted students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. 4) Student interactions with the
counselor positively impacted students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. 5) The emotions of
transferring schools impacted student self-efficacy. 6) Students expressed a strong sense of
connectedness to the continuation high school. 7) UDL principles in lesson design supported
self-efficacy by providing flexibility and choice. These findings will be reflected in a category in
the narrative below.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 67

Research Question #1
How do former continuation high school students describe their perceptions of academic
self-efficacy before, during, and after attending a continuation high school?
Students’ held high perceptions of self-efficacy before transferring. In general,
students perceived that they could be success academically at Bueno Calle. Students took
ownership for their poor academic starts in high school. While disappointed, all students
believed that Bueno Calle represented a second opportunity to graduate high school on time. A
few students expressed concerns of being successful in what was perceived as a tough school.
However, having known someone who had attended Bueno Calle helped to ease students’
concerns and change their perceptions before enrolling.
James stated that he felt confident that he could be academically successful at Bueno
Calle; he was concerned about the social dynamic due to the realities of some students being
transferred to Bueno Calle for disciplinary reasons, but did not think that would stop him from
getting his grades up.
Anthony stated that he wanted to get back to Westview High School as soon as possible.
He believed that going to Bueno Calle was going to be easy. He was worried about perceptions
of the school environment and how that could get him into trouble making it difficult to transfer
back.
Stacy commented that when her counselor told her that she would need to transfer to
Bueno Calle, she was not happy. She had family members who had gone there and she did not
want to continue that cycle. However, she felt confident in her ability to do well because she felt
she was capable of putting more into studying then she had before.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 68

Daniel described feeling that he had let himself down. He went on to say that he used the
negative situation as a source of motivation to bounce back. Daniel felt confident that he would
be able to catch up on credits and return to Westview High School.
Victoria stated that she was sad having to leave Westview High School, but she knew that
she could get the grades she wanted at Bueno Calle if she stopped being lazy.
Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy grew while attending a continuation high
school. While enrolled at Bueno Calle High School, students’ perceptions of self-efficacy
increased. Students commented on having academic success and developing strong relationships
with teachers as having played a significant roll in reinforcing their perceptions of academic self-
efficacy. In many instances, the immediacy of feedback on course work increased students’
perceptions of their abilities, which contributed to new study habits, and increasing levels of
persistency on coursework.
Jacob commented, “And then one day I show up to class, I did it! I gained five percent in
one day. It hit me, if I just try I can succeed.”
Stacy stated, “I just saw improvement when I went to Bueno Calle. I saw that I was more
focused than ever. I ran for treasurer at that school, I was more involved with the teachers and
schoolwork. I felt ready.”
During his interview John commented on the fact that the pace of learning seemed slower
and that benefitted him. John went on to state that learning things ‘little by little’ helped him gain
confidence in his ability.
James credited the support from two teachers as supporting his confidence in being
successful at Bueno Calle. He described one teacher as always ‘being real’ with him. For James
the constant reminder that he could do it, coupled with a reality check on the actual effort that he
was putting forth motivated him to believe in himself.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 69

Jacob too credited a teacher with providing steadfast support in the form of
encouragement. Mr. Wale, a physical education teacher, was always there for him. He was
someone who made school fun through engaging Jacob and other students in his Weight Lifting
course. Teacher verbal encouragement is mentioned in every student interview as having a
memorable impact on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy.
Students’ described an increase in motivation and in their ability to self-regulate
their learning. Brandon stated, “Bueno Calle opened me up more. I'm not shy any more. I ask
questions. I'll ask for help if I need help.”
In Derrick’s interview he recalled a time when Ms. Mejia, the counselor, called him up
individually and told him that he was going to be able to make it back Westview High School for
his senior year. It made him feel like he accomplished something that he had worked hard for.
Derrick stated, “It made me realize that if I put my mind to it, then I can get it done.”
Stacy stated, “I felt like I had enough time to get myself together. If it wasn't for my
continuation school, I wouldn't be the student that I am today.”
Brandon added, “First of all going to Bueno Calle, that just sparked my confidence more.
John stated, “It's actually a lot easier now, knowing what I learned at Bueno Calle to
come back to Westview High School. It was just a huge help for me. It got me together, just
taught me that I can do anything if I really put my mind to it.”
Anthony stated, “Because you can get it done faster. You have more faith, like okay
graduation can be three months early, and you're striving to get that done, and start college early
and all that. You know you have something ahead of you.”
The students interviewed in this study described having a moment of sadness regarding
having to transfer to a continuation high school, however expressed confidence in being able to
be academically successful at Bueno Calle High School. Once enrolled mastery experiences and
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 70

teacher encouragement helped to reinforce students’ perceptions of academic self-efficacy.
Moreover, after transferring back the Westview, the traditional high school, students described
ways in which their experience of attending a continuation high changed their academic
behaviors and belief in their abilities.
Research Question #2
What experiences at continuation high schools do students identify as having an impact
on their academic self-efficacy?
This section divides the finding for the second research question into these four
categories; mastery experiences, vicarious observations, verbal persuasion, and physiological
responses. The findings regarding the effects of the principles of Universal Design for Learning
are also discussed.
Mastery Experiences
Mastery experiences have been credited with being the most impactful determinant in
cueing perceptions of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Successful academic experiences can
provide students with a belief that they are competent and able to do well at academic tasks
presented, which in turn contributes positively to perceptions of academic self-efficacy. Students
who attend continuation high schools have had interruptions in their schooling that may include
poor school attendance, frequently moving, lack of engagement, or traumatic life events, all of
which inhibit opportunities for academic mastery. The absence of mastery experiences can foster
perceptions of low self-efficacy.
The variable credit curriculum provided multiple opportunities for mastery. Across
all interviews students cited turning in course credit slips as reinforcing their belief that they
were on track academically. Turning in credit slips facilitated mastery experiences for students.
Students attributed feelings of high perceptions of academic self-efficacy to being able to see
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 71

their progress in completing courses by receiving course credit in increments instead of all at
once at the end of a semester. Most continuation high school curriculums provide accelerated
curriculums based on mini units with partial course credit attached. Due to the long term poor
attendance and enrollment patterns for continuation high school students, course credit is given
throughout the school term instead of at the end of the term. At Bueno Calle High School one
semester is the equivalent of a traditional high school year. Students have the opportunity to earn
one course credit for every ten instructional days.
James stated, “They break it down into simple forms. That's just how it was. It clicked
with me. I was able to get it done.” James continued that receiving credit slips for completing
classes made him feel that he could “do this!”
When comparing his high school experiences, Eric stated, “Over at Bueno Calle if you do
a project and you finish it, you get a credit, over here you finish a project you get 10 points. Over
there it's faster.”
Stacy commented, “When I was there, I would finish classes within weeks. I was on top
of everything, and I realized that it's not much different at Westview High School. It was just
taught differently.”
Brandon also affirmed the variable credit system in supporting his confidence and
motivation when he stated, “Every time I would turn in a credit slip I'd always ask Miss Mejia,
the counselor there, to print out my transcript later on because I always liked to see how much
my GPA went up because of all the A's and B's I would get in there. Just seeing how many more
credits I would have, I would always compare with the old ones, just to see my progress. It
would always motivate me just to do better.”
The flexibility of continuation high school curriculums provides opportunities for
students to learn content in non-traditional ways. Students repeatedly cited completing course
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 72

credit slips as a motivating factor supporting students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. Mini-units
also shorten each course’s length allowing the opportunity for students to take more courses in a
school year.
Vicarious Observations
For students, vicarious observations through interactions with others are most impactful
when students view themselves as similar to the individual whom they are observing. A strong
theme that emerged from the interview data collected was the positive influence on students’
perceptions of self-efficacy when seeing other students succeed at Bueno Calle High School.
Positive peer models influenced perceptions of self-efficacy. James commented,
“Some of my friends actually went there and they were able to get themselves back. So it was
like a self-motivation thing. If my friends could do it, I could do it.”
Eric stated, “They motivate me, all the time I saw that if they can do it, I can do it. Some
people would just be in class for a certain period of time and I was like "Wow, they did it? So
quick, I'm pretty sure I can do it and just pass this class.”
Stacy agreed, “Definitely everyone around me; seeing them do good; being the only
person that seemed caught behind affected me. I made friends there that I had things in common
with. I wasn't the only one that got stuck, and felt like a failure at one point in my life. I related to
some people that were there.”
Brandon also gained confidence through observing other students stating, “I heard his
stories, how he picked up a lot of credits during summer school and during his last year at Bueno
Calle, so I was like if he can do it then I can do it. There were many other ones too you know.”
Another student, Anthony, upon seeing a friend graduate on time, felt that he too could “get it
done.”
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 73

Students attributed previous negative experiences to poor choices starting in their ninth
grade year. Victoria commented, “I was kind of lazy. My grades began to drop. It was more in
the people that I hung out with.” Victoria credited her friends at Bueno Calle with helping her
stay focused.
Derrick stated, “My freshman year it was typical freshman. Going into high school.
Trying to be cool. Later on I figured out that it's not about being cool. It was time to do my work
and get my grades up.” Derrick stated that he realized that he had to change some of the people
he hung around.
Verbal Persuasion
Usher and Pajares (2008) posited that encouragement from parents, teachers, and peers
whom students trust can boost students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. Positive persuasions may
work to encourage and empower, but negative persuasions can work to defeat and weaken
students’ beliefs. Both teacher and counselor feedback played important roles in the development
of students’ perceptions of self-efficacy at Bueno Calle High School.
Teachers feedback positively impacted students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. During
the course of student interviews, the teachers’ at Bueno Calle were described as supportive and
encouraging. James commented, “Miss Shanks, she was on you about your stuff. She wanted you
to get your stuff done so you could get back to your regular high school. And that's what helped
me out because that was my goal in general. Mr. Crowell was real at all times. He was honest
about everything.”
When comparing his experience with continuation high school teachers and
comprehensive high school teachers Eric stated, “Bueno Calle teachers listen to you, they
understand you. They put themselves in your spot, probably because it's fewer students. Over
here at Westview High School, a lot of teachers don’t do that. I think Bueno Calle teachers have
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 74

a better personality I guess you could say. Eric continued, “I felt like I was actually wanted in the
class because the teacher, like randomly she would come up to me and ask me if I needed help
and if I was okay.
Stacy stated, “The teachers are hands-on at Bueno Calle. Since there are smaller groups
in a class, they can talk to you easier. The teachers here at Westview can’t do that. They have so
much going on, and they have all these students that they have to worry about. Stacy further
commented, “The teachers Bueno Calle gave me guidance saying things like, "Hey, when you go
back, you have to do this and that. You have to stay on top of what you're doing."
Brian commented, “So many teachers and staff were there that would help me. They're
very open and I feel like they're very helpful and it just made me feel more motivated about
school. The teachers at Bueno Calle, I feel like they're more open about their life. They share
about their own personal life, so you don't feel like you're just talking to a stranger, you kind of
know their story, so you kind of relate to them better and you get to know the teacher better and
you get along with them better. It helps you do better in class I believe.”
Victoria discussed the differences in receiving feedback stating, “Here at Westview, it
was just like as a whole class, even if you wouldn't really understand something, you can raise
your hand and ask but they don't really pay attention to you. But at Bueno Calle they were really
helpful, like they would even help you one on one, stuff like that. They made sure that you fully
understood it. Here at Westview, they're stricter, at Bueno Calle they're more willing to talk to
you.”
When asked about his experience with continuation high school teachers John stated,
“They motivated you to keep trying to do better. They would connect with you. It was different
because the classes are a lot bigger at Westview so you wouldn't have that one on one connection
with the teachers like you did at Bueno Calle.” John also discussed having difficulty with a
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 75

continuation high school teacher who was perceived as being less open and more controlling. He
stated, “My teacher was a bit more structured, because he had everything planned out the way he
wanted to and how he wanted everything to go. I don't know how to explain it. At the time I was
still trying to get myself together, so I wasn't fully prepared for that.”
David described his perceptions of Bueno Calle teachers’ persuasions and feedback. He
stated that his math teacher Mr. Harnby would say things like, “You know, you might need it in
life you know." David continued, “He'd just teach me different skills. The Westview teachers
would just repeat, doing the same thing over and over. I couldn't get it because they wouldn't
teach me.” David continued, “Mrs. Santiago told me don't mess up. This is the only time that you
can catch up at school because it goes by fast. She told me to be confident.”
Derrick’s comments were consistent with previous students. He stated, “I say it's
different because, over here at Westview High School, the teacher is talking to everybody. If you
want to talk to them individually, you have to wait until after class, or such. At Bueno Calle, if
you're really about getting your work done, then the teacher is really going to work with you, and
talk to you individually during class.”
Interactions with the counselor positively impacted students’ perceptions of self-
efficacy. Another consistent theme across all interviews was the supportive role of the counselor,
Miss Mejia. James commented, “She was always calling me up to see where I was with my work
in my classes and checking on my credits.”
Stacey described the counselor as helpful and supportive. She appreciated Miss Mejia
going out of her way to make her feel comfortable and capable at Bueno Calle.
When comparing Westview High School counselors to Bueno Calle High School
counselors, David stated, “I barely could have got the classes I wanted at Westview.” David
described having little input into selecting his classes at Westview. He felt uncomfortable with
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 76

his classes sometimes, but did not feel that his counselor would listen to him. However, Miss
Mejia at Bueno Calle would discuss course options and better explain why she was suggesting
taking a particular class.
Brandon commented, “My counselor would always tell me, "Keep doing good. Keep
doing good. You're turning in those credit slips, you're doing well, just keep going. Keep
working hard."
Victoria responded, “My counselor at Bueno Calle would always tell me how smart I
was, and then she would tell me how she can't believe I came here and that she knows I could do
it.” Victoria felt that her counselor saw potential in her. Victoria stated that counselors at
Westview don't talk to you like the counselor at Bueno Calle.
John also affirmed the supportive role of the counselor at Bueno Calle stating, “She was
cool. She was always supporting me, trying to get me to finish my work on time and just trying
to get me to finish.”
Anthony stated that Miss Mejia at Bueno Calle helped him out by encouraging him to
earn credits and helping him plan his route back to Westview High School. Anthony stated that
her support was a big boost to his confidence.
Derrick commented, “Ms. Mejia, would talk to you, and tell you where you are at. What
you should do, and what not to do. She just motivated me because she would always tell me how
many credits I had earned and that she was proud of me.”
Positive persuasive feedback provided by teachers and counselors was cited as significant
sources of support for students’ perceptions of their ability to be academically successful at
Bueno Calle High School.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 77

Physiological Responses
Bandura (1977, 1997) posited that situations that are emotionally taxing or bring on stress
impact perceptions of self-efficacy and personal competency. Usher and Pajares (2008) stated
that students learn to interpret their physiological responses as indicators of perceptions of
competence impacting their performance. The decision to transfer to a continuation high school
was difficult for the students and their families, and effected students’ mood initially as many felt
that they had let themselves and their families down.
Emotions of transferring schools impacted student self-efficacy. While students as a
whole felt confident in their ability to compete the course work at Bueno Calle, other issues such
as safety and the social dynamics of the school caused emotions of fear and anxiety on the part of
students which made theme question whether they would actually be successful.
James commented, “At first, I was like, dang. Do I really have to go there? Once I got
there then I was like this is an opportunity for me to get myself straight and get my stuff together
so I can be able to graduate on time from high school. James found comfort in his history teacher
who was reassuring that he had made the right decision to come to Bueno Calle and that he
should not be ashamed of coming there. James described going to Bueno Calle as a second
chance.
Eric initially had feeling of anxiety about changing schools described the student culture
as very comfortable. He attributed this to everybody knowing everybody because of the smaller
campus. Eric too commented that attending Bueno Calle gave him a feeling of getting a second
chance.
Victoria commented, “I was sad, disappointed in myself that I let myself get that far off
track that I had to go to a continuation high school. I know better than that. I knew I could get the
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 78

grades I wanted. I told myself that I wasn't going to stay there and that I was going to come back
here. But I was still nervous.”
David stated, “I was embarrassed. I was not confident at all.” David too expressed
anxiety because of things that he had heard about continuation high schools. He expressed
concern that he would get caught up in a bad environment in which he would continue to do
poorly.
The emotions of transferring to Bueno Calle High School impacted students’ perceptions
of their future success. While students felt academically capable of being successful, students
had reservation about the learning environment.
Students expressed a strong sense of connectedness to the continuation high school.
Students interviewed expressed a connection to the student body at Bueno Calle High School.
John stated, “Because I know we're somewhat on the same track, we were all just trying to help
each other. At Westview, it's like everyone is on their own.”
Eric commented, “When I went to Bueno Calle I saw that other people felt so
comfortable with each other. They would just ask for help. Everybody just knew everybody and
everybody would talk to each other, it was a good little community. After I was in there for like
two to three weeks I finally realized I could do this. It's not hard.”
Stacy stated, “It almost felt like a family. Stacy continued, “It was crazy. I never thought
I would second-guess if I wanted to come back to Westview High School. I felt so comfortable at
Bueno Calle.”
The Curriculum Incorporated UDL Principles Supporting Student Interest and Choice
The principles of universal design were evident throughout interview responses and
onsite observations. Due to the demands of servicing students with different course credit
deficiencies, as well as possible behavior or attendance issues, the teachers at Bueno Calle High
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 79

School used a variety of strategies to engage students in learning, to explain lesson content in
ways that connect with students, and to provide some choice and flexibility for students in
demonstrating what they have learned.
Student responses reflected strong support for the variable credit curriculum and
underlining UDL teacher designed lessons. The flexibility of the school’s curriculum provides
access for all students. Online learning in available for almost every course and school based
independent study is offered for students who have significant health or social welfare issues that
negatively impact their attendance.
Eric stated, “Over there (BCHS) if you do a project and you finish it you get two credits.
Over there it’s faster.” John however had a different need stating, “At BCHS it wasn’t as fast
paced, so that kind of helped me. You take it slow and learn everything little by little, and it
slowly builds up.” James commented on his fondness for online learning, “I’m on a computer,
that’s all I have to do. I can still take notes, I can still do what I have to do.” Some students’
comments rebuffed negative connotations of continuation high school curriculums. Stacy stated,
“People made it seem like it was kindergarten, like you were sitting there doing packets of stuff.
I didn’t expect what I got from that school. I realized that it’s not much different from La
Montana. It was just taught differently.”
Classroom observations provided feedback on the use of UDL principles and their impact
on student self-efficacy. In one science class the teacher designed each unit of study to begin
with a short direct instruction summary of key topics and themes then allowed students to choose
to continue with the planned unit of study, which may include project based learning, or take an
online version of the unit of study. When asked, students liked having the option of how to
complete the unit. Students who needed less then five full course credits stated that they opted to
do online units in order to move on to the next class as quickly as possible. The school’s
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 80

economics teacher uses project based learning regularly to engage students in real world
applications of concepts. Students are allowed to work in groups with each person given a
designated responsibility. Students may opt to complete an independent study project as an
alternative. Similar strategies were observed in other classes.
Summary
Based on the findings from data analysis, continuation high schools indeed have an
impact on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. The findings point to some significant issues
that positively impacted students self-efficacy while they attended the continuation high school.
Students also commented on developing more focus in class and increased self-regulatory skills
after leaving the continuation high school and returning to the comprehensive high school. Also,
consistent with previous research on self-efficacy, mastery experiences provided significant
reinforcement for students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. The variable credit system, which uses
mini-units to accelerate making up failed classes, provided students with more immediate
feedback on progress in their courses, as well as provided more opportunities for students to
demonstrate mastery of course content.
Another significant factor on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy was students
observing other students being successful in class as well as graduating. Observation of peer
models had a strong influence on a students’ perceptions of self-efficacy. Encouragement and
personalization from teachers and the school’s counselor also contributed significantly to
students’ perceptions of their own ability to be successful. Lastly, students commented on the
family feeling and connectedness they felt while at Bueno Calle High School. The sense of
connectedness had a positive impact on students’ feelings of anxiety around transferring to a
continuation high school. Chapter five will provide discussion on the impact and importance of
these findings for continuation high schools.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 81

Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings
Failure to graduate high school in the 21
st
century should be almost impossible. With
amount of research conducted around high school drop outs, the achievement gap, and at risk
student populations, one would think that high school educators are armed with enough
knowledge to identify and intervene on behalf of a struggling high school student. In the state of
California, continuation high schools are tangible reminders that public high schools continue to
fail to meet the educational needs of all students.
Given the central role that continuation high schools play in providing a second chance
for students to graduate high school and access college and career possibilities, it is important to
evaluate the impact these schools have on student schooling experiences and outcomes. An
accountability system must be put in place to ensure that continuation high students are receiving
access to the same curricular and social learning opportunities as their peers at traditional
comprehensive high schools. In California the system for monitoring continuation high schools
ended in 2009 due to budgetary constraints, leaving local districts and the schools themselves
with only the state accountability model used to measure traditional high schools as the tool to
measure continuation high schools also. It is imperative that more research be conducted to
document the best instructional and engagement practices to be used in theses unique learning
environments. Bandura (1996) stated, "What people think, believe, and feel affects how they
behave" (Bandura, 1986, p.25). The focus of this study was on the perceptions of self-efficacy of
students who transferred back to a traditional comprehensive high school after attending a
continuation high school.
Research Questions
1. How do former continuation high school students describe their perceptions of academic
self-efficacy before, during and after attending continuation high schools?
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 82

2. What experiences at continuation high schools do students identify as having had an
impact on their academic self-efficacy?
The first research question sought to better understand students’ perceptions of self-
efficacy before, during, and after attending a continuation high school. Although they failed
several high school courses, students reported having confidence in their academic abilities
before transferring to a continuation high school. While enrolled at the continuation high school,
students attributed their sustained perceptions of high self-efficacy to supportive caring teachers
who interacted with them and the sense connectedness they felt with the student body. After
leaving the continuation high school students reported specific changes in academic habits, such
being more proactive in asking for help, taking time to organize their work, and increased
persistence on schoolwork.
The second research question sought to better understand students’ experiences at the
continuation high school that contributed to their perceptions of self-efficacy. Findings for this
research question are categorized by Albert Bandura’s identified influences on an individual’s
perception of self-efficacy; mastery experiences, vicarious observations, verbal persuasion, and
physiological responses. The following themes emerged as experiences that impacted students’
self-efficacy: (1) Master Experiences – Variable credit curriculums offer students multiple
attempts to master course content, (2) Vicarious Observation – Peer models of success had a
positive impact on students’ self-efficacy, (3) Verbal Persuasion – Verbal persuasion from
teachers and the counselor supported students’ perceptions of self-efficacy, (4) Physiological
Responses – Adverse emotions around transferring schools were supported by students’ feeling
connectedness with peers and the school contributed positively to self-efficacy.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 83

Research Question - #1
How do former continuation high school students describe their perceptions of academic self-
efficacy before, during and after attending continuation high schools?
Students’ held high perceptions of self-efficacy before transferring. Although
students had poor academic starts in high school, almost all students held high levels of
confidence in their abilities to be successful at the continuation high school. During interviews
students recalled previous positive academic experiences. These memories served as strong
reminders of previous mastery experiences. Students remembered fond experiences in
elementary, middle school, or even high school. Students largely attributed their poor start in
high school to reasons such as being lazy, procrastinating or hanging out with the wrong crowd.
Students acknowledged a strong belief in their ability to get back on track. Students’ high
perceptions of self-efficacy before transferring provided a solid foundation for success at the
continuation high school. Usher & Pajares (2008) found that students who are confident in their
academic ability monitor their progress on schoolwork and demonstrate more persistence then
students with lower perceptions of self-efficacy. Moreover, Motlagh, Amrai, Yazdani,
Abderahim, and Souri (2011) found self-efficacy of to be a catalyst for self-evaluation, self-
directing and self-regulation.
Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy grew while attending a continuation high
school. Students expressed increases in their academic self-efficacy while attending the
continuation high school. Students credited completing classes and building strong relationships
with teachers as having had a significant impact on increasing their perceptions of self-efficacy.
Students described themselves as becoming more focused on school while attending the
continuation high school. The continuation high school learning environment created a sense of
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 84

competence and relatedness for students that contributed positively to their overall well-being
(Deci & Ryan, 1985).
During interviews some students acknowledged concerns regarding the negative
stereotypes associated with continuation high schools. Some students who enrolled in the
continuation high school had been suspended for serious offenses such as weapons possession on
school grounds, drug possession on school grounds, assault, and theft. Once enrolled, new
students found the students and staff to be very encouraging and connected. Positive interactions
with students and teachers encouraged new students in believing that they would do well at
Bueno Calle. Students cited the fact that all of Bueno Calle’s students shared the same issue of
retaking failed classes and that positively impact their own self-efficacy.
Students described an increase in motivation and in their ability to self-regulate
their learning. In my instances student experienced what can only be described as
breakthroughs in their motivation to learn. Students described learning to speak up more in class,
realizing that if they worked hard they could do well in school, and attributing Bueno Calle as
giving them a second chance. During focus group interviews with continuation high school
students Ruiz De Velasco (2012) found that continuation high school students expressed genuine
surprise at their transformation into “good students,” having previously experiencing failure.
These students also credited teachers and staff with encouraging them and promoting a positive
outlook for their future.
After returning to their traditional school, students exhibited positive school engagement
behaviors. Students who were previously shy in class described being more outspoken. Students
who had truancy issues attended school more regularly. Referrals to administration for
disciplinary actions were less frequent for students. While students stated that they held high
perceptions of self-efficacy prior to attending Bueno Calle, upon leaving they were now
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 85

equipped with strategies and behaviors to support their confidence and academic self-efficacy in
taking on challenging tasks and returning to a traditional high school.
Research Question - #2
What experiences at continuation high schools do students identify as having had an impact on
their academic self-efficacy?
The variable credit curriculum provided multiple opportunities for mastery. The
findings of this study support continuation high schools use of curriculums which award credit
for courses in increments throughout the semester instead of awarding full course credit at the
end of the term. The use of these ‘variable credit curriculums’ scaffolds learning and offers
multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate mastery positively impacting students’
learning experiences. Teacher flexibility in allowing students to select units to study supports
interest and autonomy in learning (Deci & Ryan, 1985). When students failed a class at the
traditional high school, they receive no course credit even if they demonstrated mastery on a
particular unit of study in the course curriculum. Variable credit curriculums provide students the
opportunity to immediately reengage in a unit of study on which they received a failing grade.
Students’ experiencing successful mastery experiences is important in developing intrinsic
motivation in students’ to engage in academic tasks.
Positive peer models influenced perceptions of self-efficacy. Continuation high school
students derived strong perceptions of self-efficacy from seeing other students succeed by
graduating or returning to a traditional high school. During student interviews several students
mentioned the names of students whom they observed be successful at Bueno Calle High School.
Three students stated they when they saw a particular student have success they believe, “If they
can do it, I can do it.”
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 86

Teacher and counselor feedback impacted students’ perceptions of self-efficacy.
Perhaps the strongest influence on continuation high school students’ perceptions of self-efficacy
was through their interactions with teachers. Students interviewed in this study remarked on the
many positive experiences they had with continuation high school teachers and how that differed
from their experiences with comprehensive high school teachers. In class students expressed
feeling comfortable and welcomed by the teacher. Students commented on appreciating the
advice on both school topics as well as person things that their continuation teachers would offer.
Many students stated that at their traditional high school the classes were too large to have a real
connection with their teachers. Teachers’ verbally encouraging students was a significant factor
in students believing and persisting in making up their failed classes at Bueno Calle High School.
Students stated that teachers who were encouraging and supportive in the way they
approached teaching a lesson were more likely to perceive that they would be successful.
Conversely, some students reported that teachers who gave them a complete unit of study to
work on independently, without providing much support made them feel overwhelmed.
Moreover, if the teacher modeled negative feelings toward the student for their lack of progress,
this negatively impacted students' perceptions of their academic self-efficacy in that class. For
students who may lack academic motivation, positive supportive feedback from a teacher was
perceived as having a strong impact on their self-efficacy. Brewster and Bowen (2004) found
that teacher support in the form of listening to, encouraging, and respecting students relates
positively to the academic engagement.
Feedback from counselors was also found to have a significant impact on students’
perceptions of self-efficacy. Students described the counselor’s positive and immediate feedback
as encouraging and supporting of their growing belief in their ability to succeed at a continuation
high school. Counselor support was essential to students navigating the new curriculum and the
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 87

emotions of transitioning to a continuation high school. Unfortunately, in comprehensive high
school settings, counselor caseloads are often much too large and can inhibit frequent student-
counselor interaction. In either school setting, feedback from the guidance counselor plays an
important role in supporting students’ perceptions of academic self-efficacy after they have
failed several high school courses.
The emotions of transferring schools were supported by a strong sense of student
connectedness. Students stated that transferring to Bueno Calle High School was a stressful
decision. Several students were uneasy based on what they had heard and perceived about
continuation high schools. They feared getting caught up with the wrong crowd, potentially
getting into a fight or having disciple problems. Usher and Pajares (2006) found that students’
interpretation of their emotions might negatively impact their confidence. They emotions of
transferring schools are significant. Students leave behind friends, extracurricular activities, and
some of the high school hopes and experiences that they had dreamed of upon leaving the 8
th

grade. This dynamic, coupled with the negative perception that may come with attending a
continuation high school, can have a significant impact on students’ beliefs and emotions.
However, during interviews students remarked that once they got to know more students they
felt very connected to Bueno Calle High School. Several students described how everybody
knew each other, and that there was a family feel to the school that made them feel at ease while
at school. Student connectedness supported high perceptions of self-efficacy.
Universal Design for Learning principles in lesson design supported self-efficacy by
providing flexibility and choice. Faced with the task of designing a curriculum which
accelerates making up failed classes for students who have different credit recovery needs, and
enroll at varying times during the school year, Bueno Calle High School teachers used a myriad
of strategies to engage and support the academic needs of all students. Continuation high schools
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 88

offer a unique opportunity to observe the impact of principles of Universal Designs for Learning
(UDL) on student learning.
There are often two or three ways for students to explore the topic of study including
teacher lecture, online course, collaboration between teacher and student or amongst students.
Instruction incorporating project based learning, independent study contracts, and short-term
teacher driven modules with traditional pencil and paper assessments provide access to the same
curriculum in different ways. For continuation schools, offering this type of curriculum is a
largely out of necessity. Courey, Tappe, Siker, and Le Page (2013) found the use of non-
traditional forms of assessment beneficial to both teachers and students.
Students’ interests in learning were the initial catalyst toward their eventual mastery of
the subject matter. By building positive relationships with students, considering their interests
and later incorporating choice, continuation schools provide safe trusting spaces for at risk
students who have previously experienced teacher driven curriculums that did not consider their
interests nor provide any choice in how they received information or demonstrated their learning.
Implications for Practice
One of the aims of this study was to provide research on best practices for continuation
educators. Many times practioners look to assess only academic issues while neglecting
underlying issues effecting a student’s motivation. Continuation high school leaders must ensure
a school culture that seeks to embrace and engage students who have experienced failure in high
school. Adult behaviors both inside and outside of the classroom must seek to have a positive
influence on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy.
Administrators
The role of the continuation high school administrator is vital to providing both the
course recovery needs for at-risk high school students and helping students recover from the
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 89

psychosocial damage that occurred as a result of their negative academic experiences. The school
principal must be knowledgeable of the various motivational and cognitive processes involved in
educating this group of students and their unique challenges. Curriculum and instructional
decisions must be grounded in research-based theories to acutely support the needs of
continuation high school students, including ensuring that their psychosocial needs are met, the
most significant of which are the needs to feel competence and supported. The principal must be
the central gatekeeper for ensuring a positive school culture.
Teachers
This study as well as subsequent research has demonstrated that teachers play a
significant role in influencing students' perceptions of self- efficacy. Teacher feedback and
behaviors are interpreted by students and indeed have an impact on their motivation. Teachers
must understand the implications of students perceiving them as supportive or controlling.
Controlling teachers tend to provide feedback which is attributes student success or failure to
their ability instead of the effort put in to accomplish a task. In order to increase students’
confidence, students must be encouraged to engage and persist in learning. They must believe
that they can accomplish the task. Attributions based on effort support students’ persistence in
the face of challenges while pursuing a goal.
Continuation high school teachers use principles of Universal Designs for Learning in
providing best instructional strategies for the students they serve. The uniqueness of the learning
environment provides an opportunity to document effective modifications to lessons and
curriculum that may support interventions at traditional high schools. Continuation high school
teachers must continue to develop units of instruction that incorporate the principles of UDL in
order to effectively meet the variety of needs that unfortunately impact the learning experiences
of at risk students.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 90

Teachers also need a sufficient understanding of the psychosocial and developmental
needs of high school students. Understanding the social cues that may impact a students’ self-
efficacy is a critical students’ well-being and development. Making the effort to connect with
students will enhance the teachers' ability to communicate both positive and critical feedback.
Future Research
Based upon the conclusions and findings of this study, there are three recommendations
for further study. First, research should be conduct on the summative proficiency levels of
students who attend a continuation high school and then return to a comprehensive high school.
Upon entering a continuation high school, most students have not met proficiency on standards
taught. The continuation high school curriculum must help students recover failed classes in an
accelerated form and as a result, students may not get access to the depth and breath needed to
demonstrate proficiency. Research into this area supports the importance of equity and access to
a standards based curriculum for all students.
Secondly, students made distinctions between their interactions with teachers at
continuation and comprehensive high schools. A follow-up study on teachers’ perceptions of
their engagement with students would provide perspective with which to compare to the
students’ perceptions of their interactions with teachers in both settings. Research is clear as to
what type of teacher behaviors students find most supportive of their perceptions of self-efficacy.
Continued research in this area may support teacher preparation programs in developing
teachers’ understanding of the dynamics which may impact their student-teacher classroom
interactions.
Finally, because the students involved in this study made a second transition back to a
comprehensive high school, a post-graduation study would possibly determine beyond just self-
efficacy what self-regulatory strategies and habits students developed in order to be successful
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 91

upon their return to a comprehensive high school. Understanding students shifts in cognition and
development of self-regulatory skills may better inform traditional high school educators on the
importance offering academic skill advisory courses to support students’ development of
metacognition and executive functioning.
Conclusion
While the reality for students attending continuation high schools is to make up failed
classes in an effort to graduate high school on time, the development of confidence and self-
regulatory processes in students is also important. The challenge of promoting high perceptions
of self-efficacy in students and their need for academic skill development makes the work of
continuation high schools both academic and social-emotion based.
Deci & Ryan (1985) posited the importance of the basic psychological needs of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness in promoting a positive wellbeing. Their findings
indicate that autonomy, competence, and relatedness when supported in classrooms and school
wide facilitate the internalization of intrinsic motivation. Successful continuation high schools
seek to establish supports for these core psychological needs in an effort in increase students’
perceptions of self-efficacy. The findings of this study suggest that students’ interactions with
peers, teachers and counselors play the most significant role in developing their perceptions of
self-efficacy.
Continuation high school students have experienced failure in high school. Students’
perceptions of their academic self-efficacy are dependent largely on the internalization of their
previous experiences. These perceptions often frame a students’ confidence impacting their
choice of schooling and career aspirations. The role of the teacher in the classroom has the most
significant impact on developing student self-efficacy, which in turn may shape the life trajectory
for high school students (Goodenow, 1993; Wentzel, 1997).
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 92

Supporting students’ in believing in their ability to succeed in school is central to the
success of any school. Administrators and teachers must incorporate strategies such as peer-
mentoring, goal-setting, academic and cognitive interventions into continuation high school
programs. The use of differentiated learning styles and the socio-emotional needs of continuation
high school students must be taken into consideration. Moreover, an understanding of the role
of students’ perceptions of self-efficacy and the psychosocial development of high school
students by all school staff is the only way to promote and ensure a culture of support for student
motivation school wide.
In the face of increasing accountability for student academic performance in California
schools, it is concerning that continuation high schools currently do not have an accountability
system. Because of the transient flow of students enrolling in and out of these types of schools,
capturing data on a statistically significant population of students can be difficult. It is imperative
that the California Department of Education develop a system of accountability for continuation
high schools. These and other types of alternative learning environments serve as important
interventions in the prevention of students dropping out of high school.

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 93

References
Abell, M. M., Jung, E., & Taylor, M. (2011). Students’ perceptions of classroom
instructional environments in the context of ‘Universal Design for Learning’.
Learning Environments Research, 14(2), 171-185.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of
educational psychology, 84(3), 261.
Bandura, A., Barbarnaelli, C., Vittorio Caprara, V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted
Impact of Self-Efficacy Beliefs on Academic Functioning. Child Development,
67(3), 1206-1222.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychological review, 84(2), 191.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.
Berliner, D. C. (2009). Poverty and potential: Out-of-school factors and school success.
Education Policy Research Unit.
Becker, E. S., Goetz, T., Morger, V., & Ranellucci, J. (2014). The importance of teachers'
emotions and instructional behavior for their students' emotions–An experience
sampling analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 43, 15-26.
Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2015). Completing your qualitative dissertation: A road
map from beginning to end. Sage Publications.
Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self‐efficacy beliefs of middle
school students. Journal of research in science teaching, 43(5), 485-499.
Bull, R., & Lee, K. (2014). Executive functioning and mathematics achievement. Child
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 94

Development Perspectives, 8(1), 36-41.
Bush, S. C. (2012). Building Effective Learning Environments in California’s
Continuation High Schools
Butz, A. R., & Usher, E. L. (2015). Salient sources of early adolescents' self-efficacy in
two domains. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 42, 49-61.
Cable, K. E., Plucker, J. A., & Spradlin, T. E. (2009). Alternative schools: What’s in a
name. Education Policy Brief, 7(4), 1-12.
California Department of Education (2015). Continuation Education. Retrieved from
http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/eo/ce/
Cervone, D. (2000). Thinking about self-efficacy. Behavior modification, 24(1), 30-56.
Chalker, C. S., & Stelsel, K. (2009). A fresh approach to alternative education: Using
malls to reach at-risk youth. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 45(2), 74-77.
Christenson, S. L., Reschly, A. L., & Wylie, C. (2012). Handbook of research on student
engagement. Springer Science & Business Media.
Chen, J. A., & Usher, E. L. (2013). Profiles of the sources of science self-efficacy.
Learning and Individual Differences, 24, 11-21.
Conley, B. E. (2002). Alternative schools: A reference handbook.
Continuation Education in California Public Schools. (1995). California Department of
Education.
Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective:
A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 113-143.
Courey, S. J., Tappe, P., Siker, J., & LePage, P. (2013). Improved lesson planning with
universal design for learning (UDL). Teacher Education and Special Education:
The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 95

Children, 36(1), 7-27.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative and mixed methods approaches.
London and Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human
behavior. Springer Science & Business Media.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments
examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological
bulletin, 125(6), 627.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs
and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. University
Rochester Press.
De Velasco, J. R., & McLaughlin, M. (2012). Raising the Bar, Building Capacity:
Driving Improvement in California's Continuation High Schools. Chief Justice
Earl Warren Institute on Law and Social Policy.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the reflective thinking to the educative
process. Heath.
Dymond, S. K., Renzaglia, A., Rosenstein, A., Chun, E. J., Banks, R. A., Niswander, V.,
& Gilson, C. L. (2006). Using a participatory action research approach to create a
universally designed inclusive high school science course: A case study. Research
and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(4), 293-308.
Easton, L. B. (2008). Engaging the disengaged: How schools can help struggling
students succeed. Corwin Press.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 96

Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998). Motivation to succeed.
Edgar-Smith, S., & Palmer, R. B. (2015). Building supportive school environments for
alternative education youth. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for
Children and Youth, 59(3), 134-141.
Ed Source (2008). California’s Continuation Schools. Retrieved from
http://edsource.org/wp-content/publications/ContinuationSchools08.pdf
Edyburn, D. L. (2010). Would you recognize universal design for learning if you saw it?
Ten propositions for new directions for the second decade of UDL. Learning
Disability Quarterly, 33(1), 33-41.
Fall, A. M., & Roberts, G. (2012). High school dropouts: Interactions between social
context, self-perceptions, school engagement, and student dropout. Journal of
adolescence, 35(4), 787-798.
Fine, M. (1986). Why urban adolescents drop into and out of public high school. The
Teachers College Record, 87(3), 393-409.
Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students
relationships to motivation and achievement. The Journal of Early Adolescence,
13(1), 21-43.
Goodenow, C., & Grady, K. E. (1993). The relationship of school belonging and friends'
values to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. The Journal of
Experimental Education, 62(1), 60-71.
Gordon, E. W., & Yowell, C. (1992). Educational Reforms for Students At Risk: Cultural
Dissonance as a Risk Factor in the Development of Students.
Hall, T. E., Meyer, A., & Rose, D. H. (Eds.). (2012). Universal design for learning in the
classroom: Practical applications. Guilford Press.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 97

Harter, S. (1980). A scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom:
Manual. University of Denver.
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the social support scale for children. University of Denver.
Harter, S. (1988). Manual for the self-perception profile for adolescents. University of
Denver.
Hitchcock, C., Meyer, A., Rose, D., & Jackson, R. (2002). Providing new access to the
general curriculum. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(2), 8-17.
Jones, M. H., Estell, D. B., & Alexander, J. M. (2008). Friends, classmates, and self-
regulated learning: Discussions with peers inside and outside the classroom.
Metacognition and Learning, 3(1), 1-15.
Jones, J. N. (2011). Narratives of student engagement in an alternative learning context.
Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 16(3), 219-236.
Katz, J. (2015). Implementing the Three Block Model of Universal Design for Learning:
effects on teachers' self-efficacy, stress, and job satisfaction in inclusive
classrooms K-12. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 19(1), 1-20.
Kerka, S. (2003). Alternatives for At-Risk and Out-of-School Youth. ERIC Digest.
Komarraju, M., & Nadler, D. (2013). Self-efficacy and academic achievement: Why do
implicit beliefs, goals, and effort regulation matter?. Learning and Individual
Differences, 25, 67-72.
Kortering, L. J., McClannon, T. W., & Braziel, P. M. (2008). Universal design for
learning. A look at what Algebra and Biology students with and without
high incidence conditions are saying. Remedial and Special Education, 29(6), 352-363.
Lee, V. E., & Smith, J. B. (1997). High school size: Which works best and for whom?.
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 19(3), 205-227.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 98

Libbey, H. P. (2004). Measuring student relationships to school: Attachment, bonding,
connectedness, and engagement. The Journal of school health, 74(7), 274.
Kelly, D. M. (1993). Last chance high: How girls and boys drop in and out of alternative
schools. Yale University Press.
Kronick, R. F. (2013). At-risk youth: Theory, practice, reform. Routledge.
Margolis, H., & McCabe, P. P. (2006). Improving self-efficacy and motivation what to
do, what to say. Intervention in school and clinic, 41(4), 218-227.
Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach: An
interactive approach. Sage.
Mega, C., Ronconi, L., & De Beni, R. (2014). What makes a good student? How
emotions, self-regulated learning, and motivation contribute to academic
achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 121.
Meo, G. (2008). Curriculum planning for all learners: Applying universal design for
learning (UDL) to a high school reading comprehension program. Preventing
School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 52(2), 21-30.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation:
Revised and expanded from qualitative research and case study applications in
education. San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass.
McNeely, C., & Falci, C. (2004). School connectedness and the transition into and out of
health-risk behavior among adolescents: A comparison of social belonging and
teacher support. Journal of School Health, 74, 284-292.
Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2006). Classroom goal structure,
student motivation, and academic achievement. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 57, 487-503.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation:
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 99

Revised and expanded from qualitative research and case study applications in
education. San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mojavezi, A., & Tamiz, M. P. (2012). The impact of teacher self-efficacy on the students'
motivation and achievement. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(3), 483.
Montalvo, G. P., Mansfield, E. A., & Miller, R. B. (2007). Liking or disliking
the teacher: Student motivation, engagement and achievement.
Evaluation & Research in Education, 20(3), 144-158.
Motlagh, S. E., Amrai, K., Yazdani, M. J., altaib Abderahim, H., & Souri, H. (2011). The
relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement in high school
students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 765-768.
Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the
classroom Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and
Research in Education, 7(2), 133-144.
Noddings, N. (1992). The challenge to care in schools: An alternative approach to
education. New York: Teachers College Press.
Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of
educational research, 70(3), 323-367.
Peguero, A. A., & Shaffer, K. A. (2015). Academic self-efficacy, dropping out, and the
significance of inequality. Sociological Spectrum, 35(1), 46-64.
Pelletier, L. G., Séguin-Lévesque, C., & Legault, L. (2002). Pressure from above and
pressure from below as determinants of teachers' motivation and teaching
behaviors. Journal of educational psychology, 94(1), 186.
Pajares, F., & Johnson, M. J. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs and the writing performance of
entering high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 33(2), 163-175.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 100

Pajares, F. (2002). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic contexts: An outline. Retrieved
October, 31, 2003.
Pajares, F., Johnson, M. J., & Usher, E. L. (2007). Sources of writing self-efficacy beliefs
of elementary, middle, and high school students. Research in the Teaching of
English, 104-120.
Pajares, F., & Schunk, D. (2001). The development of academic self-efficacy.
Development of achievement motivation. United States, 7.
Perez, P., & Johnson, J. F. (2008). California continuation high schools: A descriptive
study. Retrieved July 12, 2009.
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning
components of classroom academic performance. Journal of educational
psychology, 82(1), 33.
Quinn, M. M., Poirier, J. M., Faller, S. E., Gable, R. A., & Tonelson, S. W. (2006). An
examination of school climate in effective alternative programs. Preventing
School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 51(1), 11-17.
Ralabate, P. K. (2011). Universal design for learning: Meeting the needs of all students.
The ASHA Leader, 16(10), 14-17.
Reeve, J. (1996). Motivating others: Nurturing inner motivational resources. Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Reeve, J. (2009). Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and
how they can become more autonomy supportive. Educational Psychologist,
44(3), 159-175.
Reeve, J. (2012). A self-determination theory perspective on student engagement. In
Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 149-172). Springer US.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 101

Reeve, J., Bolt, E., & Cai, Y. (1999). Autonomy-supportive teachers: How they teach and
motivate students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 537.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Carrell, D., Jeon, S., & Barch, J. (2004). Enhancing students'
engagement by increasing teachers' autonomy support. Motivation and emotion, 28(2),
147-169.
Reeve, J., & Jang, H. (2006). What teachers say and do to support students' autonomy
during a learning activity. Journal of educational psychology, 98(1), 209.
Restrepo, A. M., & Ramírez, M. (2015). Autonomy-support and students motivation.
Instituciones participantes en el coloquio, 2.
Rindermann, H., & Thompson, J. (2013). Ability rise in NAEP and narrowing ethnic
gaps?. Intelligence, 41(6), 821-831.
Roorda, D. L., Koomen, H. M., Spilt, J. L., & Oort, F. J. (2011). The influence of
affective teacher–student relationships on students’ school engagement and
achievement a meta-analytic approach. Review of Educational Research, 81(4),
493-529.
Ruiz de Velasco, J., & McLaughlin, M. (2012). Raising the Bar, Building Capacity:
Driving improvement in California’s continuation high schools. The California
Alternative Education Research Project.
Rumberger, R. W., & Larson, K. A. (1998). Student mobility and the increased risk of
high school dropout. American journal of Education, 1-35.
Rumberger, R. W. (1987). High school dropouts: A review of issues and evidence.
Review of educational research, 57(2), 101-121.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000)a. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic
definitions and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54- 67.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 102

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000)b. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of
intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American psychologist,
55(1), 68.
Ryan, R. M., & Grolnick, W. S. (1986). Origins and pawns in the classroom: Self-report
and projective assessments of individual differences in children's perceptions.
Journal of personality and social psychology, 50(3), 550.
Ryan, R. M. (1991). A Motivational Approach to Self: Integration in Personality Edward
L., Deci and. Perspectives on motivation, 38, 237.
Schunk, D. H. (1987). Peer models and children’s behavioral change. Review of
educational research, 57(2), 149-174.
Schunk, D. H. (1995). Self-efficacy and education and instruction. In Self-efficacy,
adaptation, and adjustment (pp. 281-303). Springer US.
Schunk, D. H., & Mullen, C. A. (2012). Self-efficacy as an engaged learner. In Handbook
of research on student engagement (pp. 219-235). Springer US
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children's self-efficacy and self-
regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading & Writing
Quarterly, 23(1), 7-25.
Schunk, D. H., & Usher, E. L. (2012). Social Cognitive Theory and. APA educational
psychology handbook, 1.
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.). (2012). Motivation and self-regulated learning:
Theory, research, and applications. Routledge.
Seevers, M. T., Rowe, W. J., & Skinner, S. J. (2014). Praise in public, criticize in private?
An assessment of performance feedback transparency in a classroom setting.
Marketing Education Review, 24(2), 85-100.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 103

Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Schneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student
engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory.
School Psychology Quarterly, 18(2), 158.
Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of educational research, 78(1),
153-189.
Smith, F. G. (2012). Analyzing a college course that adheres to the Universal Design for
Learning (UDL) framework. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and
Learning, 12(3), 31-61.
Soenens, B., Sierens, E., Vansteenkiste, M., Dochy, F., & Goossens, L. (2012).
Psychologically controlling teaching: Examinioutcomes, antecedents, and
mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(1), 108.
South, S. J., Haynie, D. L., & Bose, S. (2007). Student mobility and school dropout.
Social Science Research, 36(1), 68-94.
Stewart, L. (2009). Achievement Differences between Large and Small Schools in Texas.
Rural Educator, 30(2), 20-28.
Stroet, K., Opdenakker, M. C., & Minnaert, A. (2013). Effects of need supportive
teaching on early adolescents’ motivation and engagement: A review of the
literature. Educational Research Review, 9, 65-87.
Thomas, M. A. E., & Müller, F. H. (2014). Autonomy support: a key for understanding
students learning motivation in science?. Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung, 4(1),
43-61.
Tschannen-Moran, M., Parish, J. E. N. N. I. F. E. R., & DiPaola, M. (2006). School
climate: The interplay between interpersonal relationships and student
achievement. Journal of School Leadership, 16(4), 386.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 104

Tyler, J. H., & Lofstrom, M. (2009). Finishing high school: Alternative pathways and
dropout recovery. The future of children, 19(1), 77-103.
Urdan, T., & Schoenfelder, E. (2006). Classroom effects on student motivation: Goal
structures, social relationships, and competence beliefs. Journal of School
Psychology, 44(5), 331-349.
Usher, E. L., & Pajares, F. (2008). Sources of self-efficacy in school: Critical review of
the literature and future directions. Review of educational research, 78(4), 751-796.
Vallerand, R. J., Fortier, M. S., & Guay, F. (1997). Self-determination and persistence in
a real-life setting: toward a motivational model of high school dropout. Journal of
Personality and Social psychology, 72(5), 1161.
Vygotsky, L. (1987). Zone of proximal development. Mind in society: The development
of higher psychological processes, 5291.
Vygotsky, L. S. (2011). The dynamics of the schoolchild's mental development in
relation to teaching and learning. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology,
10(2), 198.
Walker, C. O., & Greene, B. A. (2009). The relations between student motivational
beliefs and cognitive engagement in high school. The Journal of Educational
Research, 102(6), 463-472.
Wang, M. T., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Adolescent behavioral, emotional, and cognitive
engagement trajectories in school and their differential relations to educational
success. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 31-39.
Weiner, B. (1990). History of motivational research in education. Journal of educational
Psychology, 82(4), 616.
Wentzel, K. R. (1997). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 105

pedagogical caring. Journal of educational psychology, 89(3), 411.
Wigfield, A., Muenks, K., & Rosenzweig, E. Q. (2015). Children’s achievement
motivation in school. The Routledge International Handbook of Social
Psychology of the Classroom. London: Routledge, 9-20.
Williams, K. C., & Williams, C. C. (2011). Five key ingredients for improving student
motivation. Research in Higher Education Journal, 12(1), 1-23.
Wolford, P. L., Heward, W. L., & Alber, S. R. (2001). Teaching middle school students
with learning disabilities to recruit peer assistance during cooperative learning
group activities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(3), 161-173.
Wong, E. H., West, D. J., & Cusick, L. B. (2002). Perceptions of autonomy support,
parent attachment, competence and self-worth as predictors of motivational
orientation and academic achievement: An examination of sixth-and ninth-grade
regular education students. Adolescence, 37(146), 255.
Wright, J. (2006). Learning Interventions for Struggling Students. Education Digest:
Essential Readings Condensed for Quick Review, 71(5), 35-39.
Zeldin, A. & Pajares, F. (2000). Against The Odds: Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Women in
the Mathematical, Scientific, and Technological Careers. American Educational
Research Journal, 37(1), 215-246.
Zimmerman, B.J., Bandura, A. & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-Motivation for
Academic Attainment: The Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Personal Goal
Setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663-676.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2006). Adolescents’ development of personal agency:
The role of self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulatory skill. Self-efficacy beliefs of
adolescents, 5, 45-69.
Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 106

Appendix A
INFORMED CONSENT FORM

RESEARCH CONSENT FORM

TITLE OF STUDY:
Examining the Impact of Continuation High Schools on Student Self-Efficacy

STUDY RESEARCHER:
Darryl Brown
______________________________________________________________________________

Invitation to Participate & Study Description
You are invited to participate in a research study about high school students transitioning from
attending a continuation high schools back to attending a comprehensive high school. Your
participation is completely voluntary. This study will help us better understand what factors of
continuation high schools support students’ perceptions and beliefs that they can be successful in
high school. By agreeing to participate in this study, you are agreeing to be interviewed about
your experiences while attending a continuation high school. The interview will take
approximately 30 minutes and will be recorded.

Risks & Benefits
This study does not involve any type of physical risk. You will be asked questions about your
experiences as a student at a continuation high school. Although this study is not designed to
help you personally, the information you contribute will help us better understand how to
motivate at-risk students and encourage their perceptions of their ability to be successful in high
school. The results of this study will be included in the dissertation of the researcher. Your
personal information, such as your name, will not be included in any research documents.

Confidentiality
The information you provide will be kept strictly confidential. To protect your privacy, your
responses to interview questions will only be identified with a code number and will be kept by
the researcher. Your name will not be associated with research findings.

Your Right to Refuse or Withdraw
The decision to participate in this research project is entirely up to you. You may refuse to take
part in the study. You may also choose not to answer any question posed. Your decision does
not impact any aspect of your current schooling.

Your Right to Ask Questions
You have the right to ask questions about this study and to have those questions answered by the
researcher before, during or after the study. If you have any concerns about your rights as a
research participant that have not been answered by the researcher you may contact University of
Southern California professor Dr. Patricia Tobey, Chair of this research study at

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 107

Consent
If you are a minor you will need to parental consent to participate in this study. Your signature
below indicates that you have decided to participate voluntarily in this study and that you have
read and understood the information provided above. You will be given a copy of this form to
keep.

Name of Participant (PLEASE PRINT):

____________________________________________________

Signature of Participant: _____________________________________ Date: _______________

Signature of Parent: ________________________________________ Date: _______________

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS 108

APPENDIX B.
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

INTERVIEW GUIDE

TITLE OF STUDY:
Examining the Impact of Continuation High Schools on Student Self-Efficacy

RESEARCHER:
Darryl Brown
______________________________________________________________________________

RQ: 1 – How do former continuation high school students describe their perceptions of self-
efficacy while attending continuation high schools?

1. When you began high school, what type of student were you academically?
2. Describe your favorite subject?
3. What led to the need for you to transfer to a continuation high school?
4. Tell me about your decision to transfer to a continuation high school.
5. What were your beliefs about being successful academically at a continuation high
school?
6. What made you believe that you could be successful returning to a comprehensive high
school?
7. Are you finding returning to a comprehensive high school what you expected to be?
8. What if you would have remained at your continuation high school to graduate?
9. Describe your most memorable school experience?

RQ: 2 – What experiences at continuation high schools do students identify as having an impact
on their self-efficacy?

1. What aspect of attending a continuation high school gave you the belief that you could be
successful academically?
2. Describe how your study habits and academic behaviors changed while attending a
continuation high school.
3. Describe your classroom learning experiences.
4. Describe your interactions with teachers.
5. Describe your interactions with school staff.
6. Tell me about your future academic goals.
7. What else would you like to share about your experience attending a continuation high
school?
8. Describe your most memorable academic experience?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The high school dropout phenomenon continues to plague American high schools. When high school students fail classes they become increasingly at-risk of not completing high school. While there are a myriad of personal, familial, or societal issues that impact students during high school, it is important for researchers and educators to continue to develop interventions that support at risk high school students’ engagement in school. The issue has become of particular importance to some minority groups whose dropout rates are consistently high. Dropouts are more likely to become unemployed, poor, incarcerated, unhealthy, and single parents. While the decision to drop out is a personal one, many former students cite uninteresting classes and not having a connection with teachers, as well as boredom with school in general as core reasons in their decision to dropout. ❧ This study was conducted to help better understand the influence of California continuation high schools on the self-efficacy of students who are at risk of not graduating from high school in a 4-year cohort. Due to failing multiple classes some students were transferred to a continuation high school, with the option to return to a traditional high school after retaking failed classes. The hope of this study was to inform continuation high school educators on the importance of supporting students’ perceptions of academic self-efficacy through a difficult time in their lives.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The effect on teacher career choices: exploring teacher perceptions on the impact of non‐instructional workload on self‐efficacy and self‐determination

PDF

Reclaiming the dream: credit recovery and graduation at a California model continuation high school

PDF

An exploratory study on flipped learning and the use of self-regulation amongst undergraduate engineering students

PDF

High school single-gender science classrooms, minority females, and perceptions of self-efficacy

PDF

Perceptions of inclusion: high school students diagnosed with learning disabilities and their level of self-efficacy

PDF

The impact of the mindful method Youth Empowerment Seminar (YES!) on students' self-efficacy, self-regulation, and academic performance for becoming college- and career-ready

PDF

The tracking effect: tracking and the impact on self-efficacy in middle school students

PDF

Examining the impact of peer mentoring on transitioning socio-economically disadvantaged minority middle school students

PDF

Best practices general education teachers implement to foster a positive classroom environment

PDF

The beauty of resilience: an examination of how continuation high school students overcome daily adversities

PDF

A case study: what factors influenced classical music professors' self-efficacy in teaching and their self perceived self-efficacy on how to teach/mentor their classical music students to degree ...

PDF

A case study of student engagement in a high performing urban continuation high school

PDF

Latino high school students: Self-efficacy and college choice

PDF

The influence of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation on academic achievement among Latino high school students

PDF

The relationship of students' self-regulation and self-efficacy in an online learning environment

PDF

The relationship between the campus climate and under-represented students’ experiences on campus and the influences on fit, self-efficacy, and performance: a qualitative study

PDF

Examining mathematics anxiety and mathematics teaching self-efficacy of elementary school teachers in a Hawaii school district

PDF

An exploration of student experiences in a preparation program for online classes in the California community college system

PDF

The effect of reading self-efficacy, expectancy-value, and metacognitive self-regulation on the achievement and persistence of community college students enrolled in basic skills reading courses

PDF

Teachers in continuation high schools: attributes of new teachers and veteran teachers in urban continuation high schools

Asset Metadata

Creator Brown, Darryl J. (author)

Core Title Examining the impact of continuation high schools on students' self-efficacy

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/16/2016

Defense Date 10/04/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag at-risk,continuation high school,High School,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,self-efficacy,students' sense of connectedness,teacher behaviors

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Combs, Wayne (committee member), Crispen, Patrick (committee member)

Creator Email darrylbr@usc.edu,mrdb123@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-320692

Unique identifier UC11214763

Identifier etd-BrownDarry-4927.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-320692 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BrownDarry-4927.pdf

Dmrecord 320692

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Brown, Darryl J.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA