University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Counselor Trainees' Perceptions Of And Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment In Relation To Feminist Beliefs

(USC Thesis Other)

Counselor Trainees' Perceptions Of And Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment In Relation To Feminist Beliefs

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content INFORMATION TO USERS
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI
films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some
thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may
be from any type of computer printer.
Hie quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the
copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality
illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins,
and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete
manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if
unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate
the deletion.
Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by
sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and
continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each
original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in
reduced form at the back of the book.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced
xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6 " x 9 " black and white
photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations
appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly
to order.
A Bell & Howell Information Company
300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. M l 48106-1346 USA
313/761-4700 800/521-0600

Counselor Trainees’
Perceptions of and Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment
in Relation to Feminist Beliefs
by
Amy Manfrini
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education - Counseling Psychology)
December 1995
Copyright 1995 Amy Manfrini
UMI Number: 9616987
Copyright 1995 by
Manfrini, Amy
All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 9616987
Copyright 1996, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, MI 48103
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL.
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007
This dissertation, written by
AfPX.Manfcr.wtf.........................................................
under the direction of her. Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re
quirem ents for the degree of
D O C TO R OF PH ILO SO P H Y
Dean of G raduate Studies
October 24, 1995
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Acknowledgments
ii
I would like to acknowledge several important people who have
contributed to this project. I first want to thank my husband Paul, who has
encouraged, supported and guided me through these past years. His
commitment to this goal for me and our family has been truly amazing, and I
could not have accomplished this without him. I appreciate him for his
constant dedication to this achievement more than I can ever express in words.
I also want to thank my eldest daughter for her sacrifices, which someday
Allison, you will understand. To both of my daughters, you gave me great
pleasure and joy through this arduous process and I hope to support you both
through many of your own academic and professional pursuits.
My parents I thank for giving me the foundation, strength of character
and courage to pursue such an endeavor, and for their belief in me and my
ability. My siblings, John, Larry, and Kathy gave me motivation through their
endless pride and support. And my sister, Debbie, and Dr. Merrill Lewis
always unselfishly provided me with constant encouragement and support,
always believing I would succeed, even during their most difficult of times.
Irene, Cary, Jacquie, Pat, Shannan, Jacqueline and Chris have also respected
my commitment to this pursuit, and stood with us throughout.
Dr. Scott Whiteley, my chair, has guided, taught and supported me
Ill
throughout my doctoral process. His unwavering support of this project
presented as respect and support for myself, which provided great
encouragement for me throughout. He has also shown me, through his
mentorship, a balanced and professional way of being in this field. He has
taught me the value of excellence and importance of pursuit and completion. I
will always be grateful to him for these lessons.
Dr. Rodney Goodyear and Dr. Thomas Jablonsky served on my
committee, and provided a great deal to enhance this project. I appreciate their
commitment and their investment in my pursuit.
Finally, my mentors, colleagues and dear friends have never ceased to
provide me with support and encouragement. Dr. Jim Bitter knows his
contribution to my entering and completing these doctoral studies. He also
knows I cannot possibly thank him enough for his contribution to my
professional evolution and growth. Dr. Gerald Corey and Dr. George Williams
have also supported and provided me with great encouragement, as well as with
excellent professional opportunities and experiences throughout. My friends
and academic partners continued to bring balance, pleasure and enjoyment
throughout these past years. Thank you.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments.............................................................................. ii
List of Tables and F igures.................................................................vi
Chapter One: In tro d u ctio n ............................................................. 1
Review of the Literature........................................................ 6
Definitions of Sexual H arassm ent............................ 7
Perceptions of Sexual Harassment............................ 13
Theories of Sexual Harassment ............................... 16
Natural/Biological M odel............................... 17
Organizational M o d e l.................................... 17
Sociocultural M o d e l....................................... 17
Sex-Role Spillover Model ............................ 18
Sexual Misperceptions Model ...................... 19
Social Psychological Model ......................... 19
Sociological M odel.......................................... 20
Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassm ent...................... 20
Attitudes Toward Feminism .................................... 23
Counselor Training, Sexual Harassment and
Fem inism ...................................................................... 24
Statement of the P roblem ...................................27
Importance of the S tu d y ............................................. 28
Research Questions.....................................................28
Hypotheses ..................................................... 29
Chapter Two: Methods ................................................................... 32
Participants.............................................................................. 32
Instrumentation ...................................................................... 33
The Attitudes Toward Feminism and the Women’s
Movement Scale ........................................................ 33
The Sexual Harassment Attitudes Scale .................35
The Perceptions of Sexual Harassment
Questionnaire ............................................................. 36
The Potential Sexual Harassment Scenarios 37
P rocedures.............................................................................. 38
Participant Recruitment and Instructions................. 38
Statistical A nalyses..................................................... 41
Delimitations and Limitations................................................41
Deliminations ............................................................. 41
Lim itations................................................................... 41
Chapter Three: R e s u lts ....................................................................42
Frequencies of Variables .........................................................42
Analyses of Research H ypotheses...........................................45
Hypothesis 1 ....................................................................45
Hypothesis 2 ....................................................................47
Hypothesis 3 ....................................................................48
Hypothesis 4 ....................................................................50
S um m ary................................................................................. 52
Chapter Four: D iscussion.................................................................54
Interpretation of R esu lts........................................................... 54
Hypothesis 1 ....................................................................54
Hypothesis 2 ................................................................ 58
Hypothesis 3 ................................................................ 60
Hypothesis 4 ....................................................................64
Limitations/Delimitations ..................................................... 66
Implications and F indings..................................................... 67
Theoretical Implications................................................ 67
Clinical Implications and Directions for
Future Research........................................................... 70
References ......................................................................................... 74
Appendices
Appendix A: Information and Informed Consent
Statem ent................................................................................. 79
Appendix B: Demographic Information Form ................ 80
Appendix C: Information on S tu d y .................................... 81
Appendix D: The Attitudes Toward Feminism and the
^ ^ Women’s Movement Scale .................................................. 82
Appendix E: The Sexual Harassment Attitudes Scale . . . 83
Appendix F: The Perceptions of Sexual Harassment
Questionnaire ......................................................................... 87
Appendix G: The Potential Sexual Harassment Scenarios 92
vi
List of Tables
Table Page
1 Frequencies of Variables 43
2 Correlation Matrix of Dependent Variables 45
3 Means, Standard Deviations and Summary 47
of t-tests for Differences Between Females
and Males in Relation to Attitudes Toward
Feminism
4 Means and Standard Deviations for Low and 48
High Age Groups in Relation to PSHQ, 18
Situational Scenarios and SHAS
5 Means and Standard Deviations for Levels 49
I, II, III and IV of Counselor Training in
Relation to PSHQ, 18 Situational Scenarios
and SHAS
6 Means and Standard Deviations for Levels 50
I and II, III and IV of Counselor Training
in Relation to PSHQ, 18 Situational Scenarios
and SHAS
7 Differences Between Group Means on the FWM 51
Scale in Relation to Group Members’ Scores
on the 18 Situational Scenarios and SHAS
1
Chapter One
Introduction
Sexual harassment is a topic presently receiving widespread attention in
academic, workplace, and public arenas. In recent years a great deal of
evidence has served to suggest that the sexual harassment of women is a serious
social phenomenon that has been, and remains, quite prevalent. Although men
can also be sexually harassed by women, the vast majority of sexual harassment
has been found to be male to female. ((Tangri, Burt and Johnson, 1982).
Malovich and Stake (1990) asserted that women have been sexually harassed on
the job for as long as they have been working. All women know about or are
aware of sexual harassment, with almost all women being a victim of it in some
form at some time in their lives (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1993).
The past decade reflects an increase in the literature focussing upon
sexual harassment (Fitzgerald and Shullman, 1993), and although recent
research has yielded information regarding many aspects of sexual harassment,
a great deal has yet to be examined. The two major themes in the research that
have emerged as primary areas of focus to date, and been examined quite
extensively, include prevalence and perceptions of sexual harassment of women
(Fitzgerald and Shullman, 1993). An increasing amount of research is being
conducted in both public, professional, and academic settings in order to further
2
ascertain the extent of sexual harassment in these environments, and in an effort
to better understand current perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual
harassment, as well as additional variables related to sexual harassment.
A widely researched area, and one of great controversy, has been
definition of sexual harassment. Problems in defining sexual harassment
revolve around different emphases to be included within a definition (Hotelling,
1991). Without a commonly accepted definition among researchers, the
measure of such related variables as prevalence of, reactions to, and
consequences of sexual harassment will be problematic, with interpretation of
results resting on a wide and varied range of definitions of the construct of
sexual harassment. Early definitions of sexual harassment attempted to provide
a framework within which to categorize behaviors of sexual harassment
(MacKinnon, 1979; Till, 1980). Subsequent efforts to define sexual harassment
have focussed on the inclusion of specific dynamics as part of a relationship
between a victim and a perpetrator of sexual harassment, such as power
(Fitzgerald, Gold, Ormerod, and Weitzman, 1988; Gutek and Morasch, 1982;
MacKinnon, 1979). To date, an unclear definition of sexual harassment
remains.
Perceptions of what actually constitutes sexual harassment have been
quite extensively explored with concurrent development of several instruments
designed to assist in the identification of what people perceive to be sexually
3
harassing behavior (Fitzgerald, Shullman, Bailey, Richards, Swecker, Gold,
Ormerod and Weitzman, 1988; Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1991; Terpstra and
Baker, 1987).
Such areas as theories of sexual harassment are being developed more
thoroughly in an effort to provide a context within which this phenomenon can
better be examined and understood (Lach, Gwartney and Gibbs, 1993; Pryor,
LaVite and Stoller, 1993; Stockdale, 1993). Prior research has also offered
models by which sexual harassment could possibly be explained (Padgitt and
Padgitt, 1986; Tangri, Burt and Johnson, 1982).
Most recently, sexual harassment literature has increased with regard to
lesser scrutinized areas of this phenomenon. Reactions to sexual harassment
have been more closely examined, with the identification and classification of
sexual harassment (Terpstra and Baker, 1989). Legal outcomes of sexual
harassment have been explored as well (Terpstra and Baker, 1988; Terpstra and
Baker, 1992). Attitudes toward sexual harassment (Malovich and Stake, 1990;
Reilly, Lott and Gallogly, 1986), consequences and importance of
understanding sexual harassment (Gutek and Koss, 1993; Tinsley and
Stockdale, 1993) and previous and future directions of research and
methodology of sexual harassment (Fitzgerald and Shullman, 1993; Vaux,
1993) are presently being focussed upon.
4
As an outgrowth of sexual harassment research, several variables related
to the sexual harassment of women have been measured with regard to degree
of relation. Gender has been frequently measured as a correlate of sexual
harassment, and been yielded as one of the most robust of the variables
explored (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1991; Kenig and Ryan, 1986; Malovich and
Stake, 1990). Lafontaine and Tredeau (1986) measured such correlates as
marriage of worker, managerial levels, length of employment, and type of
employment setting. Mazer and Percival (1989) explored personal experience
with sexual harassment in relation to attitudes toward harassment. Malovich and
Stake (1990) measured the personality variables self-esteem and sex-role
attitudes in relation to attitudes toward sexual harassment. Age has been
measured as a correlate of perceptions of sexual harassment (Fitzgerald, et al.,
1988; Reilly, et al., 1986), as well as professional or academic status
(Fitzgerald, et al., 1988). Additionally, attitudes toward women (Baker,
Terpstra and Lamtz, 1990), macho attitudes, and attitudes toward feminism
(Mazer and Percival, 1989) have been examined as factors related to sexual
harassment.
The populations that have been heavily researched, with regard to such
aspects of sexual harassment as harassment of women in work and academic
settings, include college students and employees (Fitzgerald and Ormerod,
1993; Fitzgerald, et al., 1988; Gutek and Morasch, 1982; Gutek and Koss,
5
1993). More specifically, college students at both undergraduate and graduate
levels have frequently been examined with regard to incidence, (Adams,
Kottke, and Padgitt, 1983;) experience, (Mazer and Percival, 1989) and
perceptions (Terpstra and Baker, 1987) of sexual harassment, as well as
attitudes toward sexual harassment (Mazer and Percival, 1990). Additionally,
people in the workplace have been surveyed with regard to these same aspects
of sexual harassment, while also exploring such factors as the dimensions
(Fitzgerald et al., 1988) and consequences (Crull, 1982) of sexual harassment.
The present study explored perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual
harassment within the specified population of graduate level counselor’s in
training at a university. The counselor in training will eventually be in a
position where their perceptions, attitudes and beliefs will be transmitted to
their clients, as well as to society as a whole through the counselor’s work in
social agencies, schools, colleges and universities, hospitals, and private
practice settings. Frazier and Cohen (1992) reported that surveys of graduate
students indicate that adequate training is not received on general issues related
to counseling women. Furthermore, they stressed the critical nature of such
inadequate training and view it as imperative in training programs to avoid the
secondary victimization of those clients that the well intentioned but uninformed
counselor is attempting to serve.
6
Ultimately, it is important that the counseling profession be mindful and
aware of present perceptions and attitudes of student counselors with regard to
critical social and personal issues, in order to assess ongoing training and
professional needs. It especially important that this be done in relation to areas
that go beyond an individual and personal realm and impact society on a large
scale. Sexual harassment is such an area.
Review of the Literature
This review of the literature will include discussion of definitions and
perceptions of sexual harassment, these being two of the most widely
controversial and researched aspects of this topic, respectively. Early and
emerging theories of sexual harassment will also be outlined, and attitudes
toward sexual harassment and feminism will be reviewed. Finally, the
literature in counselor training, specifically as it relates to the victimization of
women, will be examined.
Although areas such as definitions and perceptions of sexual harassment
have been quite extensively examined, as reflected in the literature, several
areas remain only superficially explored. For example, the two major themes
in the research that have emerged as primary areas of focus with regard to
sexual harassment, and been examined quite extensively, include prevalence and
perceptions of sexual harassment (Fitzgerald and Shullman, 1993). However
7
as Tinsley and Stockdale (1993) point out, such constructs as beliefs and
attitudes surrounding harassment need further examination. For instance, they
draw a comparison between sexual harassment, institutional sexism, and racism
claiming that it is possible that sexual harassment may be institutionalized and
maintained in our society as a result of wide ranging attitudes, beliefs and
behaviors. This provides a good rationale for continuing research of such
attitudes, beliefs and behaviors, and support for the importance for subsequent
adequate classification and identification in the literature.
Definitions of Sexual Harassment
MacKinnon (1979) noted that until 1976, no term existed for the
experience that came to be labeled sexual harassment. Working Women United
Institute reportedly were the originators of the term. From its inception, there
remains lack of clarity regarding the definition of the term "sexual harassment".
Much of the literature on sexual harassment suggests that the
phenomenon of sexual harassment involves sociological, cultural, political, and
personal perspectives, but that a common definition has yet to be accepted
(Gruber, 1992). As Terpstra and Baker (1987) have indicated, many of the
surveys utilized in the research to date have employed varying operational
definitions of sexual harassment, and point out that even legal definitions are
ambiguous. The lack of agreement regarding what behaviors and acts actually
8
constitute sexual harassment has created difficulties for researcher investigating
this problem (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1991).
To date, definitions of sexual harassment can fall into one of three
categories, as outlined by Fitzgerald (1990), and incorporate myriad of factors
such as unwelcome sexual advances, unsolicited sexual behaviors, and the
intentional use of sexual words and gestures.
Most definitions of sexual harassment are a priori, or based upon
informally observed phenomena (Fitzgerald, 1990). Two types of a priori
definitions have been outlined. Type 1 consists of general statements which
describe either the nature of behavior being referred to, and aspects or the
status of the relationship being referred to. Type 1 definitions of sexual
harassment encompass regulatory constructions and legal constructions as well
as theoretical statements (Paludi and Barickman, 1991).
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) offers an a
priori definition of the first type, and defines sexual harassment as "unwelcome
sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical
conduct of a sexual nature..." (Paludi and Barickman, p. 3, 1991). This
definition is comprised of three conditions, including submission to harassment
as a condition of employment, submission to or rejections of harassment used as
the basis of employment decisions, and harassment creating an effect which
9
substantially interferes with one’s work performance or results in an
"intimidating, hostile, or offensive" work setting (EEOC).
Type 2 a priori definitions typically identify specific actions or behaviors
and usually includes the notions that these actions and behaviors are unwanted
by the recipient.
One of the earliest and most influential Type 2 a priori definitions is
MacKinnon’s (1979) which includes "the unwanted imposition of sexual
requirements in the context of a relationship of unequal power. Central to the
concept is the use of power derived from one social sphere to lever benefits or
impose deprivations in another..." (1979, p.l).
A third category of definition, utilized more by researchers than legal
professions, regulatory systems or political organizations, is the empirical
category (Fitzgerald, 1990). This allows for an inductive and data-based
strategy by which elements of sexual harassment can be systematically classified
and examined. Till (1980) outlined perhaps the most comprehensive and
widely used empirical definition to date. A national sample of college women
yielded responses that were then categorized into five descriptions of sexual
harassment behavior. These categories are comprised of a) generalized sexist
remarks, b) inappropriate and offensive, but essentially sanction-free sexual
advances, c)solicitation of sexual activity or other sex-linked activity by promise
of reward, d) coercion of sexual activity by threat of punishment, e) sexual
crimes and misdemeanors, including rape and sexual assault. Within the last
three categories of Till’s definitional system, quid pro quo is an inherent
characteristic of the harassing behavior or act, with these situations being what
most people regard as sexually harassing (Fitzgerald, 1990).
Fitzgerald (1988) has modified Till’s definitional system, resulting in
what is perhaps seen as the most useful definition of sexual harassment to date
(Paludi and Barickman, 1991). A continuum of sexual harassment behaviors
parallel Till’s categories, and include a) gender harassment, b) seductive
behavior, c) sexual bribery, d) sexual coercion, e) sexual assault. Along this
continuum behaviors are generally viewed and classified into one of the five
outlined general categories. Support for this definition rests in its empirical
component, as well as the fact that the concept of intent is not included, but
rather the power differential and/or recipient’s reaction the sexually harassing
behavior are the critical variables considered (Paludi and Barickman, 1991).
Gruber (1992) has created a comprehensive categorization of harassment
types, which lie within one of three categories. The first category outlined is
verbal requests, which is comprised of sexual bribery, sexual advances,
relational advances, and subtle pressures/advances. Second is the verbal
comments category, constituted by personal remarks, subjective objectification,
and sexual categorical remarks. Third is the category of nonverbal displays,
11
comprised of sexual assault, sexual touching, sexual posturing, and sexual
materials.
Regardless of definitional structure, most definitions of sexual
harassment have focussed upon a wide range of variables considered to be
important components to be included within the definition. Power is a
construct that is a widely agreed upon critical variable of any given definition
(Hotelling, 1991). Theorists generally concur that the harasser is in a position
of power over the recipient of the harassment and that power is constituted by
unwanted sexual advances toward the recipient by the harasser (Gutek and
Morasch, 1982; Malovich and Stake, 1990). As MacKinnon (1979) states,
"Sexual harassment...refers to the unwanted imposition of sexual requirements
in the context of a relationship of unequal power" (Paludi and Barickman, p. 3,
1991).
In a revealing article by Cleveland and Kerst (1993) the concept of
power and its role in sexual harassment is explicitly explored. Power can be
categorized into three levels: societal, organizational, and interpersonal/
personal. The power differential in gender differences is a form of societal
power. Organizational power is seen in the structure of occupations within
organizations. Societal power that men may possess and exercise often extends
to organizational structures, thus assuming the form of organizational power.
Finally, interpersonal/personal power can be expressed through varied
12
behaviors and means, and is representative of the behavior of the powerholder
and the reactions of the recipient. Both societal and organizational power can
greatly influence one’s sense of interpersonal or personal power, as a
powerholder or recipient.
Pryor (1985) found that hypothetical scenarios are more likely to be
perceived as sexual harassment if the perpetrator is of higher status. Pryor,
LaVite and Stoller (1993) support the notion that social power and sexuality are
linked, lending to the conclude that "sexual harassment seems to involve a
fusion of ideas about power and sexuality" (Pryor, LaVite and Stoller, 1993 p.
75). Thus support is extremely strong in favor of the notion that sexual
harassment is related to power (Stockdale, 1993).
Fitzgerald and Ormerod (1993) has formulated a rational-empirical
definition, drawn both from theory and data-based classification systems. This
definition incorporates the critical aspects of sexual harassment as previously
discussed in this section and states that "Sexual harassment consists of the
sexualization of an instrumental relationship through the introduction or
imposition of sexist or sexual remarks, requests or requirements, in the context
of a formal power differential." She includes, in her definition, that where no
such formal power differential exists, the pertinent component is whether the
behavior is "unwanted by or offensive to the woman" (Fitzgerald and Ormerod,
p. 7, 1993).
13
The lack of generally agreed upon operational definition presents
problems in the research of this phenomenon, which leads to confusion in the
literature regarding this area and yields information that may be questionable
regarding outcome given the uncertainty of what is actually being referred to as
sexual harassment (Fitzgerald, 1990). This also has implications for
methodologies used in the study of sexual harassment (Gruber, 1992). For
these reasons, it is crucial that the definition of this construct be refined and
operationalized as part of continuing research efforts.
Perceptions of Sexual Harassment
Perceptions of sexual harassment, or what one perceives constitutes
sexual harassment, have become and remained central in the study of this
problem. In 1987, Terpstra and Baker examined the relationship of several
variables and students’ perceptions of sexual harassment, at which time little
research had been conducted on specific variables that influenced individuals’
perceptions of sexual harassment (Terpstra and Baker, 1987). Attitudes toward
women, gender, religiosity, self-esteem, and locus of control were all examined
as they impact one’s view of what constitutes harassing behaviors. Findings
revealed that perceptions of sexual harassment were not adequately explained by
simple main effects, but instead clearly a function of complex interacting
factors.
14
It has been proposed that perceptions of sexual harassment are a function
of cognitive appraisal of an occurrence of social-sexual behavior, and that such
appraisal processes are affected by a wide range of individual, as well as
situational, variables (Terpstra and Baker, 1987). Thus, pointing to specific
variables’ relationship to perceptions of sexual harassment may be too narrow
of a way in which to conceptualize how or why one perceives a particular
situation as sexual harassment.
Subsequent research, however, has yielded significant information
regarding several variables that do appear to be specifically related to
perceptions of sexual harassment and to date there is fairly good consensus
regarding several of these factors. These include the gender of the perceiver,
the severity of the harassing behavior, the status or position of the initiator, the
extent of previous relationship between the victim and initiator, and finally the
various attitudes held by the perceiver (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1993).
Of these identified variables related to perceptions of sexual harassment,
gender has clearly been shown to be related to perceptions of harassment, with
women universally being more likely to perceive a situation as sexually
harassing than men (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1993). Mazer and Percival
(1989) found significant gender differences in relation to perceptions of sexual
harassment. In fact, to date, gender remains the most robust variable related to
perceptions of sexual harassment, with investigations of sex differences in
15
interpretations and perceptions of harassment being consistently supported
(Adams, Kottke and Padgitt, 1983; Gutek, Morasch and Cohen, 1983).
Not only are women much more likely than men to define incidents as
sexual harassment, but they will typically regard such behaviors as more
offensive than men as well (Mazer and Percival, 1989). Fitzgerald and
Ormerod (1993) note that women seem to be more sensitive to issues of sexism
in academic contexts, and offended by sexually explicit jokes and other types
incidents of gender harassment.
Where women are consistently more likely to perceive scenarios as
sexually harassing than men (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1991), findings also
indicate that these same women are unlikely to perceive themselves as victims
of sexual harassment under the same circumstances and that both graduate and
undergraduate female students revealed that when they experienced obviously
harassing behaviors such as fondling, touching and propositions, only a small
percentage of them viewed this as sexual harassment (Fitzgerald, et al., 1988).
One interesting, and puzzling, finding in a study by Fitzgerald et al,
(1988) regarding gender was that a substantial number of women who had
actually experienced fairly clearly defined instances of sexual harassment did
not perceive and label their experiences as such. Additionally, in samples of
university women, graduate women were more likely to perceive herself as
having been harassed more than women at the undergraduate level. Contrary to
16
this, women within a work context did not differ in their perceptions of their
own sexually harassing experiences. These findings suggest that while gender,
in and of itself is clearly a variable related to perceptions of sexual harassment,
differences among women’s perceptions seem to exist and would lend
themselves well to further research.
A second variable that has been identified as highly related to perceptions
of what constitutes harassment is the severity of behavior in question. The
more explicitly coercive a sexually harassing behavior in question is, the more
likely that it will be perceived as sexual harassment, regardless of gender
(Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1991). Both men and women perceive quid pro quo
behaviors, sexual imposition and sexual assault as harassment (Fitzgerald and
Ormerod, 1993; Reilly, Lott and Gallogly, 1982).
Perceptions of what constitutes sexual harassment are, in summary,
greatly influenced by myriad of factors with gender and severity of harassing
behavior being shown to most greatly influence perceptions of sexual
harassment.
Theories of Sexual Harassment
Despite the tremendous amount of interest that has been shown in
relation to the topic of sexual harassment in recent years, comparatively little
has emerged regarding theoretical frameworks from which to research and
17
further understand this phenomenon (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1993). In 1982,
Tangri, Burt and Johnson identified three broad models of sexual harassment.
Natural/biological model. The natural/biological model is based on the
assumption that men and women experience a natural/biological and mutual
attraction to one another. Furthermore, according to this proposed model,
whereby the attraction is mutual, men experience a stronger sex drive than their
female counterpart, resulting in males becoming the sexual initiators. Based
upon these premises, sexual behavior in a work setting is simply a natural
extension of male and female sexual attraction. Such behavior is not considered
harassment because it is neither offensive or discriminatory, but instead a
natural expression of biological phenomena.
Organizational model. A second model, an organizational framework,
examines common structural aspects of organizations. It is suggested that
organizational infrastructures are arranged hierarchically, and inherently
unrelated to gender. Within an organization, those with power will have
opportunities for sexual aggression toward those in subordinate positions.
According to this model, because women primarily maintain subordinate
positions, and men assume the available power positions, it is men who
typically sexually harass women.
Sociocultural model. A final model outlined by Tangri, et al., (1982) is
the sociocultural model, and is characterized by the male domination of women
18
in work settings. This theory is based upon the view that systems are
patriarchal in nature, and sexual harassment is the assertion gender/male based
personal power. Therefore, the premise is gender based, versus
organizationally or biologically based.
Sex-role spillover model. Also in 1982, Gutek and Morasch (1982)
proposed a theory based upon sex-roles of men and women, suggesting that
sexual harassment of women is a product of sex-role spillover, defined as "the
carryover into the workplace of gender-based expectations for behavior that are
irrelevant or inappropriate to work (p.55)." For example, women’s sex-role
expectations often include the projection of a sexual image through their
behavior, appearance or dress, where a man’s sex-role expectation may include
sexually aggressive behavior. The generalization of these sex-roles into the
work-role is the premise of this theory. Gutek and Morasch also offer some
explanations for sex-role spillover, one of which is that gender identity may be
a more primary cognitive category than work-role.
A second explanation for sex-role spillover is that women possibly
experience more comfort with a typical women’s role that they believe will be
better received by men in a work setting. Support for this notion lies in
literature reflecting six communication differences between men and women
(Berryman-Fink, 1993, chap. 15). Women are more likely to self-disclose and
smile in communication interactions, where men are more aggressive, have
19
greater personal space zones than women, touch more and interrupt more. If,
indeed, these sex-role characteristics spillover into the workplace it becomes
clear how sexual harassment may occur within such a context.
More recently, expanding the sexual harassment body of literature, are
additional descriptions of emerging theories of forms of sexual harassment.
Sexual misperceptions model. A sexual misperceptions theory
(Stockdale, 1993) formulated an explanation of sexual harassment based upon
the idea that attitude and belief systems that support propensities toward sexual
harassment may be evidenced by tendencies to perceptually distort women’s
friendly behavior by attaching sexual interpretations to them. Preliminary data
from Stockdale’s research of traditional sex-role attitudes in relation to one’s
nonacceptance of feminist views lends support to the theory that sexual
harassment is a function. In other words, it is the construct of power, within
the context of a relationship, that explains the phenomenon of sexual
harassment.
Social-psychological model. A social psychological perspective has also
been offered by Pryor, LaVite and Stoller (1993), and conceptualized the sexual
harassment of women as behavior that some men engage in some of the time,
as well as one that is influenced by both situational and social factors. Personal
and individual differences occupy a significant place in this theoretical
perspective.
20
Sociological model. A sociological perspective (Lach and Gwartney-
Gibbs, 1993) of sexual harassment has also been offered, and described how
sexual harassment may be patterned by employing organizations, social
arrangements, sex segregated and nontraditional occupations, race, and
ethnicity. This approach emphasized environmental and nonpersonal forms of
harassment, and looked instead at institutional attributions of and motivations
for sexual harassment.
These efforts at explanation and theory of sexual harassment attempt to
offer some insights into the reasons and ways sexual harassment occurs, in
addition to those areas that have already been addressed in the literature such as
prevalence and perceptions of. The further development of theories may serve
to also refine the operational definition of sexual harassment, as well as offer
frameworks that pave the way for improved methodologies and outcomes in
future research endeavors.
Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment
An attitude is an opinion or disposition (Webster, 1983). Malovich and
Stake (1990) illuminate the idea that whether or not sexual harassment is
tolerated and allowed to continue may very likely depend upon attitudes toward
sexual harassment held and maintained by organizations or the general social
community. They recognize the efforts of researchers and theorists to explain
the phenomenon of sexual harassment, noting that sociological perspectives that
21
include the element of power are widely accepted. They expand this area of
interest by examining individual personality variables in relationship to attitudes
toward sexual harassment. Not only is this study innovative in examining
specific personality factors versus larger scale social perspectives, the focus is
upon attitudes toward sexual harassment versus the more commonly examined
factors of incidence, perceptions, definitions and theories of sexual harassment.
The variables included in this study of over 200 undergraduate men and
women were self-esteem, sex-role attitudes, and experience of sexual
harassment. Findings indicated that personality factors were quite important in
determining harassment attitudes. Specifically, non-traditional attitudes toward
women were associated with lower victim and higher perpetrator blame than
traditional attitudes toward women. Furthermore, high self-esteem was
associated with lower victim blame and higher perpetrator blame as well.
These results advise further study of individual, as well as sociological, factors
to enhance understanding of the dynamics and premises underlying this
phenomenon.
Jensen and Gutek (1982) also explore attitudes toward harassment on an
individual level, and propose that not only will attitudes toward harassment
influence victims’ perceptions and interpretations of the offense but attitudes
about harassment will also impact the degree to which victims are supported or
perpetrators are condemned in academic and work settings.
22
In a study by Reilly, Lott and Gallogly (1986), the Tolerance for Sexual
Harassment Inventory (TSHI) was developed to examine men’s and women’s
attitudes toward and acceptance of sexual harassment. Their findings, reflecting
gender difference in attitudes, indicated that women held more negative
attitudes toward and less tolerance of harassment than men. However, women
were reportedly more likely to accept harassing behavior as inevitable, going so
far as to even blame themselves for being sexually harassed.
Mazer and Percival (1989) developed the Sexual Harassment Attitude
Scale (SHAS), used to examine the role of one’s consciousness and ideology in
relation to reporting incidents of sexual harassment. This study also emphasizes
gender difference in attitudes, where SHAS scores indicated that men
maintained more tolerant and accepting attitudes toward sexual harassment than
women, and that there is a positive correlation between more sexist and
discriminatory attitudes, and tolerance and acceptance of sexual harassment.
Overall, women regard sexually harassing behaviors as more serious and
offensive and experience less tolerant attitudes toward such behavior.
In summary, the study of attitudinal factors in relation to perceptions,
definitions, tolerance, and acceptance of harassment is a revealing area of
sexual harassment research, and one that can continue to provide greater
understanding of the many critical variables related to this phenomenon.
23
Attitudes Toward Feminism
Fitzgerald and Ormerod (1993) draw a strong relationship between
attitudes toward sexual harassment and attitudes toward feminism. According
to Fitzgerald and Ormerod, there is support for a relationship that has been
drawn between sexist attitudes and level of acceptance of sexual harassment. An
individual’s attitudes toward feminism have been identified as the most notable
variable of influence upon whether or not one perceives an incident as sexual
harassment. Where gender is the most robust single variable of influence upon
perceptions of harassment, of the various attitudes impacting the view of the
perceiver, it is attitude toward feminism that will effect one’s perception of
sexual harassment most, with those holding profeminist attitudes being more
likely to perceive a scenario or incident as harassment. This research supports
the importance of considering attitudes toward sexual harassment and feminism
in sexual harassment research, and is substantial.
Jensen and Gutek (1982) support this premise with their findings that
victims of sexual harassment who maintained feminist attitudes were less likely
to blame themselves for incidents of sexual harassment. Stockdale (1983) stated
that nonacceptance of feminist attitudes about sexual harassment is associated
with the tendency of men to sexually misperceive and distort women’s friendly
behavior as sexiness. Basow and Campanile (1990), in their study on exploring
attitudes toward feminism in relation to another form of sexual exploitation and
24
victimization of women, prostitution, also provided empirical support for the
positive relationship between profeminist attitudes and the exploitation view of
prostitution.
This emerging literature on attitudes toward feminism illustrates and
clarifies the importance of incorporating this variable, and further exploring its
role, in sexual harassment research.
Counselor Training. Sexual Harassment and Feminism
"Experiencing sexual harassment transforms women into victims and
changes their lives" (Koss, 1987, chap. 4). Sexual harassment as a legitimate
form of victimization of women has a relatively short history, but has gained
attention in the past several years. In light of this, it is prudent to recognize the
psychosocial and psychological needs of the victim of sexual harassment within
the counseling community, and to ascertain the need for training of counseling
students to treat victims of sexual harassment.
A natural point at which to examine these needs is within counseling
training settings and institutions, with an inquiry into the degree to which
counseling trainees are aware of the psychological affect that sexual
victimization of women, including sexual harassment, may have upon women.
This is a contemporary gender issue, and therefore an important component of
counselor training curricula.
25
Harassment is also a psychosocial issue and has been found to have
behavioral, mental, physical, and cognitive impacts on its victims (Koss, 1987,
chap.4), with victims reportedly experiencing such affective responses as
confusion, self-blame, fear, anxiety, depression, anger, and disillusionment.
Quina (1987, chap. 5) defines three common survivor reactions to and features
of sexual victimization. These are sexual assault as a severe trauma, sexual
assault as a violation, and sexual assault as a primary cause of secondary social
losses.
Given the evidence of psychological distress and ancillary behavioral,
mental, physical, and cognitive problems harassment victims experience, it is
important to examine implications for clinicians and counseling the woman who
has been sexually victimized or harassed, and therefore counselor trainees.
In a study by Frazier and Cohen (1992), the frequency and correlates of
sexual victimization of 82 female university counseling center clients were
examined. Of these 82 women, 40% reported being victims of some form of
sexual discrimination or exploitation, with 16% having reported a previous
experience of being sexually harassed, most often occurring in a college
academic setting. This is one of few available studies to date focussing upon
implications for counseling the victim of sexual harassment.
Crull (1981) has noted that counseling for the victim of sexual
harassment "should provide the woman with an opportunity to vent and explore
26
her feelings, discuss coping strategies, and learn about her legal rights" (p.
542).
Koss (1987, chap. 4) outlines six psychotherapeutic techniques that may
be consistent with counseling the victim of sexual harassment. These are
validation of feelings, search for meaning, expression of anger, monitoring
subsequent damage, provision for mourning loss, and offering hope.
Wagner (1987, appendix p. 287) outlines material developed by Working
Women’s Institute in New York for support counselors who were providing
clinical services to victims of sexual harassment. Goals of intervention included
validation of the survivor’s affective experience, clarification of the harassment
experience, confrontation of reality, and support.
Given the substantial amount of literature describing tangible affects of
sexual harassment on its victims, it is clearly critical that counselors be current
with regard to knowledge surrounding sexual victimization, and more
specifically for purposes of this study, sexual harassment, of women. When
working with the client who has been sexually harassed, Lee (1992) stresses the
importance of communicating to the client that the counselor believes their
client and will support her as she explores her affective responses and reactions
to the situation. The counselor should emphasize that such victimization is not
the fault of the victim in order to dissuade the client from blaming herself. The
counseling process should encourage the victim to regain trust in her
27
perceptions, and subsequently be provided with strategies for future action if
necessary.
Statement of the Problem
The majority of research on sexual harassment to date has focussed on
definitions, perceptions, and prevalence (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1993). The
study of this phenomenon has primarily been comprised of a series of
disconnected studies where exploratory efforts have reigned. Results of these
studies have brought about an awareness and a body of knowledge that provides
the beginnings of a cohesive understanding of this form of sexual victimization
that pervades academia and the workplace.
Methodologically, measurements of sexual harassment and its ancillary
constructs have primarily surveyed college students and employees in the
workplace regarding their perceptions of what constitutes sexual harassment,
and its many identified ancillary constructs. Where definitions of the very
concept being measured have previously been unclear and inconsistent, the
flood of research interest in the past decade has yielded some useful operational
definitions, and specifically identified some consistent and robust related
variables and constructs. Design and widespread implementation of several
instruments measuring aspects of sexual harassment represent efforts to broaden
our understanding of this phenomenon, and the facets of harassment being
measured.
28
Importance of the Study
The degree to which clinical procedures and interventions will be utilized
by counselors, with the victim of sexual harassment, will be directly impacted,
either positively or negatively, by the counselors own attitudes, perceptions,
and level of understanding of the sexual victimization and harassment of
women. The importance of this study is supported by the knowledge we now
have indicating that the counselor trainee population reflects attitudes toward
feminism and sexual harassment that are recursively related to their perceptions
of sexual harassment and consequently greatly influence their approach to
treatment with this client population. At the most basic of levels, it will be
important for counselors to initially recognize and identify a victim of sexual
harassment, for whom they may then provide necessary clinical interventions.
Therefore, it is imperative that the counselor-in- training population be
examined in this initial effort to ascertain some common attitudes toward and
perceptions of sexual harassment, and other possible related variables.
Research Questions
The following questions will be addressed in this study:
1. Are there gender differences in one’s perceptions of and attitudes toward
sexual harassment?
2. Are there age differences in one’s perceptions of and attitudes toward
sexual harassment?
29
3. Are there differences in level of counselor training within the graduate
program of study, and will the level of training impact one’s perceptions of and
attitudes toward sexual harassment?
4. Are there differences in attitudes toward feminism related to perceptions
of and attitudes toward sexual harassment?
Hypothesis 1. The variable of gender will influence one’s perceptions of
and attitudes toward sexual harassment, with women being more likely to
perceive scenarios as sexual harassment than men. Rationale: since it is
commonly accepted that the components of power and unwanted sexual
advances are manifestations of sexual harassment (Malovich and Stake, 1990),
women and men will unavoidably perceive scenarios depicting sexual
harassment differently. Fitzgerald and Ormerod (1991) support this statement
in their findings that women were more likely that men to perceive situations as
harassment.
Hypothesis 2. The variable of age will contribute to one’s perceptions of
and attitudes toward sexual harassment, with older participants being more
likely to perceive a scenario as sexual harassment than younger participants,
and older participants having less tolerant attitudes toward sexual harassment
than younger participants. Rationale: the older the individual, the more likely
they will be to perceive a situation as harassment. Fitzgerald et al. (1988)
found support for this statement in their study of graduate and undergraduate
30
university women, where graduate women were more likely to perceive
themselves as harassed. This study also yielded results that clearly indicated
older women were more likely to perceive themselves as harassed than younger
women.
Hypothesis 3. Level of student training, or phase of program, will
correlate with perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment, with
counselors in training at higher levels within their training program reflecting
broader views of sexual harassment than those at lower levels of training.
Rationale: presently, no apparent data exists on the degree to which
victimization of women issues are addressed in counselor training programs
(Frazier and Cohen, 1992). Corey (1992) states, however, that throughout the
course of graduate counseling training, factors such as academic training in
ethics, self-awareness, and insight, will enhance the future helping professional
on both personal and professional levels. It follows that as one progresses
through a counselor training program and grows in these capacities, personal
attitudes toward social issues pertinent to the profession would be expanded.
Hypothesis 4 . The variable of attitudes toward feminism will influence
one’s perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment with participants
with stronger feminist attitudes being more likely to perceive scenarios as
sexual harassment, and being less tolerant of sexual harassment than
participants with assailable feminist attitudes. Rationale: the most notable
31
attitudinal variable to impact one’s perception of what may constitute sexual
harassment is feminism (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1993). Furthermore, one’s
own need not have any cognitive knowledge of feminist principles or
philosophy to react affectively to feminism or to maintain attitudes toward
feminism (Fassinger, 1994).
32
Chapter Two
Methods
The present study utilized a quasi-experimental, multi-factorial research
design. Gender, age, as well as phase of the four-phase Counseling program in
which the student was, and scores on the Attitudes Toward Feminism and the
Women’s Movement (FWM) Scale (Fassinger, 1994) served as independent
measures in this study. The Sexual Harassment Attitude Scale (Mazer and
Percival, 1989), the Perceptions of Sexual Harassment Questionnaire
(Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1991) and the 18 Situational Scenarios of Sexual
Harassment (Terpstra and Baker, 1987) served as the dependent measures in
this study.
Participants
Research participants were 120 graduate level students, 92 female and 28
male students, from the Department of Counseling at California State
University at Fullerton, California. Each participant was in one of four phases
of the graduate program, each phase determined by number of semester units
completed within the Counseling program. Participants completed four
questionnaires, two of which were measures of perceptions of sexual
harassment, one measuring attitudes toward sexual harassment, and one
measuring attitudes toward feminism. A brief demographic questionnaire was
included as well. Participation was voluntary and occurred during students’
33
classtime. Course instructors permitted time as part of students classtime for
the research to be conducted. Participants were notified at the onset that they
were not required to participate in the study and could leave at any time prior
to or during the study. Consent forms also reflected that any participant was
free to decline participation or to withdraw at any time with no consequences.
Course instructors were permitted to remain present during the 30 to 40 minute
time period allotted for administration of instruments.
Instrumentation
Four instruments were utilized in this study: the Attitudes Toward
Feminism and the Women’s Movement (FWM) Scale (Fassinger, 1994,
Appendix D), the Sexual Harassment Attitude Scale (Mazer and Percival, 1989,
Appendix E), the Perceptions of Sexual Harassment Questionnaire (Fitzgerald
and Ormerod, 1991, Appendix F) and the Potential Sexual Harassment
Scenarios (Terpstra and Baker, 1987, Appendix G).
The Attitudes Toward Feminism and the Women’s Movement Scale
The Attitudes Toward Feminism and the Women’s Movement Scale
(FWM) is a 10 item instrument used to measure one of the independent
variables of this study, attitudes toward feminism. This scale was designed to
measure a range of pro-feminist positions, and affective attitudes toward
feminism and the women’s movement (Fassinger, 1994). The FWM was
developed to supplement the few established attitudinal measures of feminist
34
philosophy or belief available, and to provide an instrument that measured a
unique construct of feminist attitude.
Most available measures of feminist constructs actually tap aspects of
gender-role attitudes or beliefs about women and men, or measure attitudes
toward one’s belief of feminism, i.e. cognitive internalization of beliefs toward
gender-roles or women, as opposed to actually measuring one’s subjective, or
affective, attitude toward feminism. The development of the FWM is based
upon the premise that attitudes toward feminism can be largely independent of
cognitive knowledge of specific feminist philosophies, movements or politics
(Fassinger, 1994). The FWM measures the unique construct of one’s affective
attitudes toward feminism, versus one’s cognitive view of feminism or simply
aspects of gender, making the FWM unique among feminist attitudinal scales.
For this reason, the FWM was selected for use in this study to measure the
independent variable of attitude toward feminism.
Development of the FWM began with the generation of an 84 item pool
by 8 respondents, with items discriminated along a continuum of unfavorable to
favorable using the summated rating method developed by Thurstone in 1959
(Fassinger, 1994). Preliminary scoring yielded a total of 18 items used to
establish an initial item pool, readministered to 10 new respondents, yielding
the 10 final items of the FWM, measured on a 5-point summated rating scale.
Six of the final items represent favorable attitude and four unfavorable attitude
35
statements toward feminism and the women’s movement, randomly ordered in
the final version of the FWM.
Reliability measures of this instrument primarily focus upon the internal
consistency of the FWM. However, a test-retest coefficient of .81 for a
modified version of the FWM was established (Fassinger, 1994). From a
sample of 117 undergraduate students comprised of 76 females and 41 males,
full scale reliability reflected by Cronbach Alpha coefficients for males,
females, and total sample were .899, .865 and .890, respectively.
Validation of the FWM primarily focussed on establishing convergent
and discriminant validity. Correlations of the FWM with three additional
measures used to establish convergent validity yielded significant results on all
measures for males, females and total sample (Fassinger, 1994). Discriminant
validity was established overall correlating items in the FWM with items on
three additional instrument, supporting the crucial notion that pro-feminist
attitudes measured by the FWM are moderately and positively related to
measures of liberal philosophies of women’s roles, gender roles and one’s
identification as feminist (Fassinger, 1994).
The Sexual Harassment Attitudes Scale
The Sexual Harassment Attitudes Scale (SHAS) developed by Mazer and
Percival (1989) will be administered as a measure of the dependent variable,
attitudes toward sexual harassment. This is a 19 item scale on which
36
participants indicate the degree to which they agree, based on a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from ’strongly agree’ to 'strongly disagree’. The SHAS extends
Lott, Reilly and Howard’s (1986) Tolerance for Sexual Harassment Inventory
(TSHI). The SHAS incorporated 9 of 26 items from the TSHI which were
selected based on enhanced scale reliability with 10 additional items comprised
to evaluate contemporary feminist conceptualizations of sexual harassment. Six
of the items from the TSHI were written by the authors while three were
selected from Beauvais (1986).
Psychometrically, the TSHI and the 9 SHAS items reflect a substantial
relationship between scores (r=.614, p<.001). The SHAS also yields slightly
better scores of internal consistency than the TSHI, with coefficient’s alpha of
.84 and .75 respectively.
Perceptions of Sexual Harassment Questionnaire
The Perceptions of Sexual Harassment Questionnaire (PSHQ) is a 24
item inventory used to measure one of the dependent variables, perceptions of
sexual harassment. Items were selected from the Sexual Experience
Questionnaire (Fitzgerald, Shullman, et al., 1988) and rewritten to elicit
respondents’ judgments concerning sexual harassment. All items reflect
situations of sexual harassment in an academic setting. The Sexual Experience
Questionnaire (SEQ) is an inventory based on five categories of harassment in
education identified by Till (1980). Each of the 24 items on the PSHQ reflect
37
situations which constitute an example of one of the five types of sexual
harassment previously identified in university settings (Fitzgerald, Shullman, et
al., 1988; Till, 1980). A 7-point Likert scale was used to assess perceptions
concerning each situation, with possible responses ranging from ’definitely not’
to ’definitely is’ sexual harassment, with the label ’unsure’ providing the
midpoint of the scale.
The PSHQ was piloted on a sample (N = 136+) of undergraduate
students, both male and female. Wording of the instrument was revised on
feedback from this sample yielding 24 items included in the final version of the
PSHQ. Internal consistency analysis utilizing Cronbach’s procedure yielded an
alpha coefficient of .91. Test-retest correlation for the SEQ, the instrument
upon which the PSHQ is based, equals .86 covering a 2-week interval
(Fitzgerald, Shullman, et al., 1988), but no stability estimates are available for
the PSHQ itself.
The Potential Sexual Harassment Scenarios
The Potential Sexual Harassment Scenarios (Terpstra and Baker, 1987)
will also be used as a measure of the dependent variable, perceptions of sexual
harassment. This measure is comprised of 18 situational scenarios selected
from case examples of sexual harassment in the Fair Employment Practices
Guidelines (Bureau of Business Practices, Inc., 1978-1982), with the length and
format of each scenario standardized to control for extraneous cues. The
38
scenarios were selected to represent the range of major types of sexual
harassment and randomly ordered in the survey instrument. All items reflect
incidents of sexual harassment in an occupational setting. Perceptions are
assessed by examining participants’ responses to the instruction to determine
whether s/he personally thinks the incident constitutes harassment by answering
either ’yes’ or ’no’ to each scenario.
Procedures
Participant Recruitment and Instructions
In this study 120 graduate-level counseling students, 92 females and 28
males, at California State University, Fullerton, California, were invited to
participate in the study. All participants were approached during a regularly
scheduled graduate course in which they were enrolled, where all courses were
scheduled between 4:00 and 9:45 PM, Monday through Thursday. The period
during which data was gathered was the final six weeks of a sixteen week
semester. The instructor of the course was invited to remain in the classroom
during the introductory and closing procedures, as well as the time of
instrument administration. All students were invited to participate voluntarily at
the onset of the procedure, and explicitly informed that in no way was their
participation mandatory or related to their course in any way. Whether
information was gathered at the beginning, middle or end of the class period
was left to the discretion of the course instructor.
39
Consent forms (Appendix A) were distributed immediately to those who
wished to remain and make an informed decision regarding their participation.
Consent forms invited the students to participate in the study, and provided
information regarding the researcher and purpose of the study, as well as
confirmation of anonymity. Subsequent participants were then informed that
following the administration of four brief questionnaires requiring
approximately 30 total minutes for completion, they would be debriefed
regarding the goals and importance of the study. Participants were left with a
means by which they could receive additional information on the results of the
research following completion of the study.
Participants were given a packet of materials containing the consent form
(Appendix A), a general demographic questionnaire (Appendix B) and four
instruments (Appendices D, E, F and G). The demographic information
reflected which one of four phases of the graduate Counseling program at Cal
State Fullerton the participant was presently in, with phase of program being an
independent variable in this study. Program phases included I, II, III and IV.
Students begin in phase I and upon completion of specific coursework and
accomplishment of particular competency areas, progress through each of the
four phases to achieve program completion. Additional demographic
information included gender and age of participant, both of which were also
independent variables in this study.
40
The order in which the four instruments utilized in this study were
administered was informed by the constructs being measured. The first
instrument that participants responded to was the FWM Scale (Fassinger, 1994)
and was administered as a measure of a final independent variable in this study.
This was the only of four measures to examine attitudes toward feminism. In
an effort to avoid responses on this measure being influenced or contaminated
in any way by thoughts provoked by the three measures of dependent variables,
the FWM Scale was administered as the first instrument and requires
approximately five minutes to complete.
The SHAS (Mazer and Percival, 1989) which required approximately
five minutes to complete, the PSHQ (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1991), and the
Situational Scenarios of Sexual Harassment (Terpstra and Baker, 1987) which
were administered respectively, each requiring approximately ten minutes to
complete.
Following the completion and receipt of all material packets, all
participants were provided with a brief written statement thanking them for
their participation and providing some information about this study and sexual
harassment, a verbal debriefing providing an explanation of the study, and a
means by which participants could receive results upon completion of the study
(Appendix C). All 120 participants completed material packets, and only seven
values from all packets were missing and replaced.
41
Statistical Analyses
The primary hypotheses of this study, that participant’s gender, age,
phase of program within which they were, and attitudes toward feminism would
significantly correlate with perceptions of sexual harassment and attitudes
toward sexual harassment, were tested using multi factorial design. MANOVA
was applied to examine the differences between factors, with post-hoc follow up
analyses which included One-Way ANOVA and t-test analyses.
Delimitations and Limitations
The following delimitations and limitations were noted in this study:
Delimitations
1. Only graduate counseling students from one university were sampled.
2. The majority of students were female, as this counseling education program
is comprised primarily of female students.
Limitations
1. Students sampled may have had varying levels of prior training or
experience, influencing their perceptions of this research topic.
2. The degree to which methodological assumptions were not met the internal
and external validity of the study could be limited.
42
Chapter Three
Results
The results of the data analyses are presented in the present chapter.
First, participants are described in terms of their distribution on the variables of
gender, age, level of training, and attitudes toward feminism. Next, correlation
values between both measures of perceptions of, and the single measure of
attitudes toward, sexual harassment will be presented. Lastly, the research
hypotheses are restated followed by the results of the statistical analyses used to
test each hypothesis.
Frequencies of Variables
Frequencies were calculated for each of the independent variables
utilized in the study (see Table 1). The gender distribution of participants
consisted of 77 % females and 23 % males, and reflects the overall gender
distribution of the counselor training program utilized in this study. A median
split was determined to be statistically appropriate and used to categorize the
variable of age into younger and older groups, with each group being
comprised of equal numbers. Phase of Program within which a student was in
at the time this research was conducted included one of four groups, with N
ranging from 16 to 44 in a single phase. Finally, scores of attitudes toward
feminism and the women’s movement, as measured by the Attitudes Toward
Feminism and the Women’s Movement Scale (FWM), were categorized either
low, medium or high attitudes toward feminism.
43
Table 1
Frequencies of Variables
Variable_____________________ SL
Gender
Female 92 76.7
Male 28 23.3
Age
22-30 60 50.0
31-62 60 50.0
Phase of Program
Phase I 36 30.0
Phase n 16 13.3
Phase m 24 20.0
Phase IV 44 36.7
Attitudes Toward Feminism
Low 35 31.0
Medium 37 32.7
High 48 36.3
44
Correlations were examined between the dependent variables used in this
study to ascertain if these measures were correlated and degree of any existing
correlations (see Table 2). Descriptive statistics were also calculated for each
dependent variable in the study (see Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).
Correlation coefficients suggest that the PSHQ and 18 Situational
Scenarios measures are strongly correlated (r=.6631, pC.O l). Both
instruments were utilized in this study to measure respondents perceptions of
sexual harassment, in workplace and academic settings respectively.
Both measures of perceptions of sexual harassment also appear to be
correlated with the SHAS, with the PSHQ and SHAS yielding a correlation
coefficient of .3933 (r=.3933,p< .01) and the 18 Situational Scenarios and
SHAS yielding a correlation coefficient of .3349 (r=.3349,p< .01). These
results indicate that both measures of perceptions of sexual harassment are quite
strongly correlated measuring the single construct both purport to measure.
45
Table 2
Correlation Matrix of Dependent Variables
PSHQ 18 Scenarios SHAS
PSHQ 1.000
18 Scenarios .6631 1.000
SHAS .3933 .3349 1.000
Analyses of Research Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1, that the variable of gender will influence one’s perceptions
of and attitudes toward sexual harassment, with women being more likely to
perceive scenarios as sexual harassment and less tolerant of sexual harassment
than men, was partially confirmed.
A multivariate analysis (MANOVA) was performed using the two
categories of gender as the independent variable and the PSHQ, 18 Scenarios
and SHAS scores as measures of the dependent variables. The outcome
indicated that gender contributes to perceptions of and attitudes toward
46
harassment overall, with Pillais test of significance yielding statistically
significant results (F[3,107] =3.7781,p <.05). Univariate analysis (t-test) of
the dependent variable measures of perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual
harassment reflect no significance. However, t-test results for analysis between
gender and attitudes toward sexual harassment reflect a significant relationship
(t= 3.41,dfll8, p <.001). Furthermore, differences between groups of
females and males support the hypothesis that in this study women were
significantly more likely than men to report less tolerant attitudes toward sexual
harassment, (see Table 3). Means and standard deviations for both males and
females on all three dependent measures are also presented in Table 3.
47
Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations and Summary of t-tests for Differences
Females and Males in Relation to Attitudes Toward Feminism
G ender
Males Eemales
(N=28) (N=92)
M
SB
M
SB
PSHQ 148.577 13.687 153.246 11.109
18 Scenarios 15.679 4.119 15.696 3.277
SHAS 66.088 8.392 71.790 7.555***
*** p<.001
Hypothesis 2
The hypothesis that one’s age will contribute to perceptions of and
attitudes toward harassment was not confirmed. MANOVA (F[3,107] =2.2205,
p < .09) results using Pillais test of significance reflected no overall differences
between the two age groups in relation to the three dependent measures. Table
4 reports the means and standard deviations for this data on all three dependent
measures. These results suggest that participants in a lower or higher age
group did not vary in their perceptions of or attitudes toward sexual harassment
as a function of age in this study.
48
Table 4
Means and Standard Deviations for Low and High Age Groups in Relation to
PSHQ, 18 Situational Scenarios and SHAS
Age=22-30 vrs Age=31-62 vrs
M
SB M SB
PSHQ 149.827 12.250 154.486 11.087
18 SS 14.900 3.731 16.483 3.022
SHAS 70.197 8.022 70.722 8.222
Hypothesis 3
The hypothesis that level of student training, more specifically the level
of program in which respondents of this study were, will correlate with their
perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment was not confirmed. It is
noteworthy that MANOVA results using Pillais test of significance reflected no
overall differences between the four levels of counselor training in relation to
the three dependent measures (F[9,348] = .30043, NS). Unequal and very small
cell sizes were resulting in a singular variance/covariance matrix, violating the
assumptions of MANOVA. To remedy this, the four categories of Phase of
Program were collapsed into dichotomous data.
49
Multiple analysis of variance of the subsequent two groups yielded no
overall significance between phase of program and perceptions of and attitudes
toward harassment (F[3.116] = .62234, NS). This finding reflects that level of
student training did not influence the way in which students perceived sexual
harassment, or their attitudes toward sexual harassment in this study. Tables 5
and 6 present means and standard deviations for levels I, II, III and IV, and a
dichotomized grouping of levels I and II, III and IV, respectively.
Table 5
Means and Standard Deviations for Levels I, II, III and IV of Counselor
Training in Relation to PSHQ, 18 Situational Scenarios and SHAS
Level I II HI IV
(N=36) (N=16) (N=24) (N=44)
M S B M SB M SB M SB
PSHQ 152.101 13.683 148.938 15.000152.708 11.211153.072 9.132
18SS 15.639 3.743 14.875 3.442 15.917 3.296 15.909 3.422
SHAS 69.660 7.556 68.654 9.023 71.125 8.838 71.407 7.854
50
Table 6
Means and Standard Deviations for Levels I and n, and Levels III and IV of
Counselor Training in Relation to PSHQ, 18 Situational Scenarios and SHAS
Lgygls I &.P HI & IV
(N=52) (N=68)
M
SD
M SD
PSHQ 151.127 15.404 152.943 9.941
18SS 15.404 3.637 15.912 3.353
SHAS 69.350 7.959 71.308 8.150
Hypothesis 4
The hypothesis that the variable of attitudes toward feminism will
influence one's perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment was
confirmed. Overall results of MANOVA were significant
(F[6,216] =5.4278,p< .001). Univariate analyses were performed utilizing
One-Way ANOVA on two of the three dependent measures, the 18 Situational
Scenarios and the SHAS, in relation to the FWM.
FWM scores by 18 Situational Scenarios scores yielded significance
(F[2.117]=4.0751,p< .05). Using Tukey HSD post hoc analysis, group mean
51
differences were calculated and are presented in Table 7, and illustrate a
statistically significant difference between groups one and three, those with anti
feminist and pro-feminist attitudes respectively, in relation to respondents
perceptions of what constitutes sexual harassment.
Table 7
Differences Between Groups Mean on the FWM Scale
in Relation to Group Members’ Scores on the 18 Situational Scenarios and SHAS
Feminist Attitudes
Anti Neutral Pro
M
SD M SB
M
SB
PSHQ 148.067 15.097 151.832 10.382 155.537 9.998
18SS 14.233 4.256 15.898 3.543 16.512 2.314*
SHAS 64.431 8.026 70.271 6.289 75.096 7.166****
* p< .05
**** pc.OOOl
FWM scores by SHAS scores yielded significance (F[2,l 17] = 19.8349,
p < .0001). Utilizing Tukey HSD post hoc analysis, group mean differences
were calculated and are also presented in Table 7. All three groups, those with
52
anti-feminist, neutral and pro-feminist attitudes, are significantly different from
one another indicating that respondents with anti-feminist attitudes were
significantly more tolerant and accepting of sexual harassment, those with
neutral feminist attitudes unsure about their attitudes toward feminism, and
those with pro-feminist attitudes were significantly less tolerant and accepting of
sexual harassment.
Although no significant relationship was found to exist between
perceptions of sexual harassment measured by the PSHQ in relation to attitudes
toward sexual harassment measured by the SHAS, means and standard
deviations are also presented in Table 7.
Summary
Results of analyses of each of the research hypotheses in this study
varied. To summarize: (a) gender strongly influenced respondent’s attitudes
toward sexual harassment, with women having less tolerant attitudes toward
harassment than men; (b) age did not appear to contribute to either perceptions
of or attitudes toward sexual harassment in this study; (c) Level of student
training, or specific phase of program in which respondents were in at the time
of study, did not appear to contribute to either their perceptions of or attitudes
toward sexual harassment; (d) attitudes toward feminism influenced
respondent’s perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment.
Although age and phase of program did not significantly relate to
perceptions of and attitudes toward harassment, both gender and attitudes
toward feminism did. Gender was found to significantly make a difference
respondents’ attitudes toward harassment, with attitudes toward feminism
strongly related to harassment acceptance and tolerance, as well as to
perceptions of harassment.
54
Chapter Four
Discussion
In this chapter, the results of this study are interpreted and discussed in
relation to prior research. Then, limitations and delimitations of the present
study are presented and discussed. Finally, theoretical and clinical implications
are presented, and future directions for research suggested.
Interpretation of Results
Overall, the findings of this study suggest that one’s perceptions of and
attitudes toward sexual harassment are influenced by some variables. The
results of the study will now be discussed in order of hypothesis.
Hypothesis 1
The results of the first hypothesis, that there would be gender differences
in both attitudes toward and perceptions of sexual harassment, suggest two
ideas. First, that in this study, gender is not related to one’s perceptions of
sexual harassment. However, one’s attitudes toward feminism and the women’s
movement is significantly related to one’s attitudes toward sexual harassment.
In the present study, two measures of the dependent variable of
perceptions of sexual harassment were used. The PSHQ examined respondents’
views of what constitutes sexual harassment in an academic setting, whereby
the 18 Situational Scenarios measured perceptions of harassment within the
workplace. Gender was not found to be significant in relation to respondents’
55
perceptions of sexual harassment on either dependent measure, indicating that
females were no more likely to perceive a scenario as sexual harassment than
males. Although this hypothesis has been tested numerous times with gender
remaining, to date, the most robust variable related to perceptions of sexual
harassment, it was not confirmed as a significant variable in this study. This
hypothesis should be interpreted with some caution given the unequal group
sizes of males and females.
There are several theories that attempt to explain this consistently
confirmed gender difference in perceptions of this phenomenon which are
highlighted, followed by a discussion of the lack of significance of gender as a
predictor in this study.
Power underlies many researchers’ explanations of gender based
differences in perception of harassment, and is illuminated in the premise that
sexual harassment reflects the "imposition of sexual requirements in the context
of a relationship of unequal power" (MacKinnon, 1979, p.l). In a context
where sexual harassment frequently occurs, the workplace, it has been theorized
that work settings are characterized by the domination of males, resulting in
patriarchal systems where sexual harassment is the assertion of power (Tangri,
etal., 1982).
Harassment, also frequently occurring and studied within academic
settings, also seems to occur within contexts where gender based power
56
differential exists and frequently reflects the male professor-female student
configuration. In a sample of 235 male academics employed at a prestigious
university, Fitzgerald, et al. (1988) concluded that at least 25% of faculty
members are estimated to become sexually involved with students, with this
actual number likely to be higher. Where only one participant reported that he
believed he had ever sexually harassed a student, 11 % reported they had
attempted to stroke, touch or caress female students.
Sex-role development and identification within a societal context, as
discussed by Gutek and Morasch (1982), attempt to explain gender differences
in sexual harassment theory by way of role expectations. Women learn sex-
role expectations that often include the projection of a sexual image through
their behavior and dress, whereby men acquire sex-role expectations that
include sexually suggestive, initiating and aggressive behavior.
The participants’ responses in the present study do not lend additional
confirmation to previously established gender based differences in perceptions
of sexual harassment, specifically in relation to the counselor trainee
population. It is likely that counselors in training, particularly at the graduate
level such as were the participants in this study, have acquired greater
awareness of gender sensitivity through gender and feminist components of
required courses. Although there is no separate and specific course on the
development of gender, or feminist counseling, individual course curricula
57
incorporates lectures and readings related to feminist counseling and gender
difference. This may reflect the possibility of a heightened degree of awareness
of such issues as sexual harassment, and explain the homogeneity of responses
regarding perceptions of sexual harassment on the variable of gender.
Furthermore, it is possible that students entering a graduate level
counselor training program have received previous formal training in a
counseling or human services related academic program, receiving prior
training and consequently predisposing them to gender awareness, feminist
thought, and sensitivity to the victimization of women, once they have attained
graduate status.
The second finding related to this hypothesis was the significant
difference between gender and attitudes toward sexual harassment, suggesting
that although respondents’ gender did not influence perceptions of harassment,
gender did influence attitudes toward harassment. Women were more likely
than men to report less tolerant attitudes toward sexual harassment. This
finding has been previously substantiated by Reilly, Lott and Gallogly (1986)
where men were found to indicate a greater level of tolerance of sexual
harassment than women. Although both males and females in this study do not
differ in their views of what constitutes sexual harassment, how they interpret
such behavior does significantly differ.
58
Malovich and Stake (1990) discuss implications of gender differences in
attitudes toward harassment, and note that attitudes will affect the degree of
support or blame placed upon victims and perpetrators, and at large, may
determine whether harassment is allowed to continue or is eradicated.
In the present study, the question of what distinguished one’s perceptions
of from their attitudes toward sexual harassment on the variable of gender,
remains. It is possible that increased gender awareness and a greater degree of
feminist attitudes held may explain why this group perceived harassing
scenarios with no significant differences, but the degree to which respondents
tolerate sexual harassment reflects less acceptance among women than men,
which is congruent with previous findings in the literature.
Hypothesis 2
The hypothesis that one’s age will contribute to perceptions of sexual
harassment was not confirmed. The hypothesis that one’s age will contribute to
attitudes toward sexual harassment was also not confirmed.
Age as a predictor of perceptions of sexual harassment has not been
exclusively or extensively studied to date. However, it has been identified that
women at the graduate level in a university sample were more likely than
women at the undergraduate level to perceive themselves as having previously
been sexually harassed (Fitzgerald et al., (1988). Furthermore, Reilly, et al.,
(1986) report that victims of sexual harassment are most likely to be female and
59
young. Finally, a substantial number of women who had actually experienced
clearly defined instances of sexual harassment did not perceive and label their
experiences as such in a study by Fitzgerald et al., (1988).
Inferences from these data suggest that young women are more likely
than older women to be harassed, and conversely less likely to perceive their
experience as sexual harassment. Although this concept could imply that
younger women, and possibly men, would perceive harassment differently than
older women and men, it was not confirmed in this study.
As was previously discussed in relation to hypothesis 1, it is possible that
graduate status and previous training may have predisposed the counselor
trainees in the present study to a greater level of awareness of such gender
related and social issues as sexual harassment. This may account for the
absence of any difference in age groups in relation to their perceptions of
sexual harassment. However, age has not previously and specifically been
explored in relation to perceptions, and no prior positive relationship has been
established.
Age in relation to attitudes toward sexual harassment has been previously
studied and identified as significantly related to attitudes toward sexual
harassment. Reilly, et al., (1986) found a highly significant age difference
between older and younger students, indicating a greater level of tolerance and
acceptance of sexual harassment by younger students.
60
This was not confirmed in the present study, and may again be related to
a sophisticated level of awareness of a graduate level counselor trainee in
relation to such issues as the victimization of women.
Overall, age did not contribute to participants’ perceptions of and
attitudes toward sexual harassment. This would suggest that the population in
this study may maintain a level of gender awareness and sensitivity to such
social and relationship issues as harassment that would facilitate more
homogenous perceptions of and attitudes among both younger and older
graduate counseling students.
Hypothesis 3
Level of student training within this counselor training program did not
support this hypothesis, specifically that level of training would correlate with
perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment. The participants of this
study were students in counselor training program comprised of four phases.
When looking at perceptions and attitudes across all four phases, the
distribution of participants became problematic, as discussed in the results
section. Therefore, the original four phases were collapsed into two groups,
yielding a more equal and favorable distribution. However, analyses of both
configurations yielded insignificance regarding level of training in relation to
perceptions of and attitudes toward harassment.
61
There is no prior research examining the counselor trainee population
and their perceptions of and attitudes toward harassment. However, it was
predicted that as one’s level of training in gender related issues increased,
which is incorporated into this particular training program, one’s perceptions of
what constitutes sexual harassment would become more wide ranging, while
attitudes would reflect less tolerance and acceptance.
It is likely that the previous preparation graduate counselor trainees have
received have influenced their perceptions and attitudes more so than for a
beginning undergraduate student. This provides one explanation for absence of
significant findings in relation to this variable.
It is also possible that there is a developmental component present in
graduate counseling students that may provide some explanation for this finding
that, in this population, neither age nor level of training appear related to
participants’ perceptions of or attitudes toward sexual harassment.
Several widely accepted theories of development have been established
are utilized to explore and explain such processes as morel reasoning
(Kohlberg, 1696), intellectual development (Perry, 1970; Piaget, 1952), and
ego development (Loevinger, 1970). Developmental theory outlines periods or
stages individuals face throughout their lives. A stage is an increment of time
during which one confronts and resolves a developmental theme or task.
Resolutions of a them or task may be either adequate or inadequate. Some
62
developmental theories are based upon age-linked stages, others are based upon
other processes and are relatively independent of chronological age.
Cognitive developmental theory is one specific model of development
that postulates that developmental change results from resolution of cognitive
conflict (Perry, 1970). What occurs is a process by which an individual is
faced with a cognitive experience, or dilemma, which requires that a new and
more complex form of reasoning take place as a means by which the dilemma
is resolved.
The results of the present study may suggest that in this graduate sample
of counseling students, a common level of cognitive reasoning has been
attained. This may be reflected in the significant relationship between feminist
attitudes and perceptions of and attitudes toward harassment, both of which are
cognitive concepts that are quite complex. There may be a positive relationship
between perceptions and attitudes of sexual harassment and feminism, and
higher level cognitive reasoning processes. This relationship may be
independent of chronological age, and may also somewhat surprisingly be
independent of phase of program.
It was hypothesized that each sequential program phase might contribute
to increasing student’s awareness and sensibility to sexual harassment. Such a
relationship was not found, suggesting that either that the program did not
63
promote this developmental experience, or that these students were already
operating at a similar level of cognitive development.
Further support of the possible presence of a developmental component
at work in this study lies in findings of a study by Thomas (1981) where the
relationship between age-linked periods of adulthood, their characteristic
developmental tasks, and their utility for describing the tasks common to
graduate students, were examined. It was concluded that the developmental
stages of graduate students did not appear to be related to age-linked adult
developmental periods. Thomas found that age parameters often used to define
developmental periods in the general adult population are likely too restrictive
when applied to graduate students. These findings may provide a basis for
understanding the lack of significance between the variables of age and level of
training, and harassment perceptions and attitudes, in the present study.
This concept of graduate populations being more homogenous than the
general adult population in relation to developmental periods could be further
explored and possibly provide additional information regarding when and how
one actually develops thoughts, attitudes and beliefs that will be related to their
perceptions of sexual harassment. Future research might include examining
counselor trainees’ cognitive levels of development, specifically in relation to
their perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment and feminism, with
speculation that further understanding of these processes in relation to cognitive
64
development may broaden our understanding of the social phenomenon of
sexual harassment and increase our awareness of clinical and training
implications for counselors.
Hypothesis 4
This hypothesis, that attitudes toward feminism and the women’s
movement measured by the FWM will influence one’s perceptions of and
attitudes toward sexual harassment was confirmed.
Respondents’ perceptions of harassment were significantly related to
attitudes toward feminism, with those with anti-feminist and pro-feminist
attitudes differing from one another in relation to perceptions of sexual
harassment measured by the 18 Situational Scenarios instrument. There was no
significant difference detected in feminist attitudes and perceptions as measured
by the PSHQ, however.
These findings suggest that, first, pro and anti-feminist attitudes were
related to students’ perceptions of what constituted sexual harassment in
vignettes depicting harassment in a workplace setting, but no differences in
feminist attitudes were detected in relation to scenarios in an academic setting.
Although both dependent measures of perceptions were shown to be moderately
correlated, these results indicate a difference in feminist attitudes among these
two measures.
65
Overall, however, there is evidence that anti'feminist and pro-feminist
attitudes will negatively or positively correlate with perceptions of sexual
harassment respectively. This is supported by previous research (Fitzgerald and
Ormerod, 1993) and emerged in the literature as a promising variable with
potentially strong predictive and informative power.
Finally, the hypothesis that attitudes toward feminism would influence
one’s attitudes toward sexual harassment was highly significant. These findings
reflect that one’s attitudes toward feminism strongly relate to the degree to
which they tolerate sexual harassment. Those with pro-feminist attitudes will
have significantly less tolerance for harassment where conversely those with
anti-feminist attitudes will have a greater degree of acceptance of sexual
harassment. Finally, those with neutral attitudes toward feminism and the
women’s movement will have unsure attitudes toward sexual harassment.
Overall, this variable of attitudes toward feminism appears to be the most
robust variable related to one’s perceptions and attitudes in relation to
harassment in this study. This suggests that as an emerging variable in the
sexual harassment literature, it would behoove the research community to
further explore feminist attitudes and the potential predictive ability this
construct in relation to sexual harassment, and possibly other issues regarding
the victimization of women in society.
66
Limitations/Delimitations
Some delimitations of the present study warrant mention. First, only
graduate counseling students from one university were sampled. This could
limit the generalizability of any findings from this study to all counselor
trainees. It is likely that the participants in this study were a generally
homogeneous group, given that most were specifically in training to become
Marriage, Family and Child Counselors or to receive a Pupil Personnel
Services credential. This group may have been homogeneous on such factors
as values regarding children and families, interest in career direction and goals,
and previous training received. All of these factors could limit generalizability
of research findings.
Secondly, the majority of students were women versus men, with this
sample being comprised of 92 female and 28 male respondents. Until the study
can be replicated with a larger number of males in proportion to females,
results specifically related to the variable of gender, and in general, should be
interpreted with caution.
Thirdly, this population was comprised of 120 predominantly white
students, and did not include an overall ethnically diverse sample. Thus, an
important variable was not included in this study and limits results and
interpretation of these results. Future research is needed with more ethnically
67
diverse populations in psychological research in general, and more specifically
in the sexual harassment literature.
A fourth, and similar limitation of this study, is that sexual harassment
was defined and approached in the present study as a behavior initiated by
males toward females. While the majority of sexual harassment is perpetrated
by males toward females, with estimates ranging from 75-90% (Reilly, Lott and
Gallogly, 1986), females also harass males, males harass other males, and
females harass other females. Where these many forms of sexual harassment
have been identified, only male harassment of females was examined in this
study.
Finally, participants ranged widely in age, and possibly prior levels of
general life experience as well as work and academic experience, influencing
their perceptions of this research topic on several levels. As the literature has
shown, previous experience with sexual harassment, for example, impacts one’s
perceptions of sexual harassment scenarios (Fitzgerald and Ormerod, 1993).
Other specific and general life experiences participants may have had could
influence responses on dependent measures and remain unaccounted for.
Implications of Findings
Theoretical Implications
The emergence of sexual harassment as a serious social phenomenon
within the past two decades has led to the development of several sexual
68
harassment theoretical contexts, but only within the past few years have
researchers expanded upon earlier theoretical frameworks and begun to refine
explanations for this form of victimization.
The construct of power, within the context of a relationship, appears to
surface in much of the literature as an explanation for harassment, and has its
roots in theory. Stockdale (1993) stated that power is the construct that
explains sexual harassment. Power is usually evident in the sexual harasser’s
organizational, academic, social or economic position, and the perpetrator
typically relies on the fear and vulnerability of their victim (Quina, 1990).
Furthermore, power is gender based as well, with males being characterized by
their domination of females, and reflected in systems that are widely patriarchal
in nature (Tangri, et al., 1982).
Gutek and Morasch (1982) outlined a "sex-role spillover" theory which
could provide some understanding of the way power becomes distributed,
subsequently leading to the common male/female hierarchical configuration
found in academia and the workplace. This theory examines gender-based
expectations for behavior that men and women assume in daily living, but that
are inappropriate for or irrelevant to work. Nevertheless, these characteristics
spill over into the workplace resulting in women often engaging in behavior that
includes projection of a sexual image and men exhibiting behaviors that are
often aggressive and sexually suggestive.
69
This study attempted to incorporate the theoretical underpinning of power
and gender by including gender as an independent variable, and although there
were no significant differences between men and women in relation to
perceptions of sexual harassment, gender in relation to attitudes toward sexual
harassment was highly significant. Gender continues to prove to be one of the
most robust theoretical constructs in the harassment literature. It is theorized
by this author that in the present study students have achieved a moderately
sophisticated degree of gender awareness, suggesting that it is likely that
participants as a whole previously have been educated and challenged with
regard to the construct of power and its differential that frequently presents in
male/female relationships. This may partially explain the significant
relationship between gender and attitudes, and the lack thereof between gender
and overall perceptions.
The majority of literature to date, in contrast to the population in this
study, likely samples a more heterogeneous population yielding more accurate
data regarding gender and power differences in relation to perceptions of sexual
harassment. Theory continues to include power as a major construct in the
understanding and explanation of sexual harassment and researchers should
continue to explore the construct of power, more specifically, in relation to
harassment.
70
Clinical Implications and Directions for Future Research
Several important clinical implications can be derived from the results of
this study. Perhaps the most critical of these is related to gender. The evident
relationship of gender to sexual harassment attitudes reflected in this study, and
perceptions of harassment supported numerous times in previous research,
should be regarded as an area of great importance in counselor training. Future
clinicians should be apprised of gender difference in society, as they will be
providing a variety of clinical services to individuals, couples, families,
children, and groups. They may also assume academic positions, transmitting
counseling knowledge and skills to other trainees. One’s individual gender
beliefs and attitudes will impact greatly those with whom they treat, teach and
ultimately influence.
Counselors-in-training may also clinically evaluate and treat the victims,
and possibly perpetrators, of sexual harassment. As Frazier and Cohen (1992)
point out, although counseling psychologists have made emerging contributions
to the literature on treating victims within the past several years, little attention
has specifically been given to general victimization issues in the counseling
literature. To date, no data appears to exist on the extent to which
victimization issues are addressed in counseling training programs, leaving
many students with inadequate training on general issues related to counseling
women victims, and resulting in the future counselor possibly inadvertently
71
contributing to what is described as "secondary victimization" of their clients
(Frazier and Cohen, 1992).
Although counselor training programs may not adequately be addressing
training in the specialized area of victimization, and more specifically sexual
harassment, Rabinowitz (1990) has outlined specific advice for counselor,
advocates, and educators. She concluded that clinically, it is important to
acknowledge the victims courage to address their own victimization, and
encourage the ventilation of the victims feelings and perceptions. It is not the
counselors role to determine whether sexual harassment has occurred by legal
definition, but to instead validate the victims experience of the violation. It is
also the counselors role to provide information and education, and to aid the
victim in rebuilding beliefs about her/his victimization that will replenish self-
respect, self-esteem, and empowerment. The counselor should also remain
cognizant of the emotional distress sexual harassment can lead to for the victim,
and continuously assess for the presence of emotional, physical, interpersonal,
and academic reactions. Finally, skills-training can be provided to the victim in
counseling, which provides a safe context and allows assertiveness, problem
solving, stress management and decision making can be taught.
Directions for future research of gender in relation to sexual harassment
should continue to examine additional ways which it may impact perceptions of,
attitudes toward, reactions and responses to, and behaviors of sexual
72
harassment. Additional research should also include further exploration of
female to male, male to male, and female to female sexual harassment, this
having particular clinical implications for the overall victim populations.
A second clinical implication of this study lies in the absence of
confirmation that both age and level of graduate training within this population
impacted perceptions of and attitudes toward harassment. This may suggest
several possible inferences as discussed previously, but the possibility that no
inherent developmental component appears to exist with regard to what
perceives as harassment, or one’s attitudes towards harassment. The variable
of development has not, to date, emerged in the harassment research and
literature, and could be a potentially informative factor in this area of research.
For example, it would be interesting and valuable to explore differences in age
as a variable across a more heterogenous group with an age range similar to
that in the present study (age range = 22-62 years).
Finally, of special interest with regard to clinical implications and
research direction is the finding that feminist attitudes appear to be a strongly
related variable to perceptions of sexual harassment, and a very strongly related
variable to attitudes toward sexual harassment. This suggests that the counselor
trainee, accomplished clinician, and the counseling academician should be
aware of their feminist beliefs, as these will directly relate to degree of
tolerance and acceptance of sexual harassment, and most likely other forms of
73
victimization and commonly seen gender inequity such as discrimination. To
date, this study is a first effort at examining the specific relationship between
attitudes toward feminism and sexual harassment and results were highly
significant. This area warrants replication and therefore, further research.
This study examines graduate level counseling students’ views of what
constitutes sexual harassment and their threshold of tolerance for sexual
harassment, in relation to their age, gender, level of graduate training and their
attitudes toward feminism. Because several of these variables have been
previously examined in the literature, such results as gender and feminist
attitudes relating to perceptions of and attitudes toward harassment were not
surprising. What is quite interesting, however, was the degree to which these
two particular variables made a difference in participants’ responses.
Of utmost interest was the highly significant relationship between
attitudes toward feminism and tolerance of sexual harassment. Intuitively, this
finding makes sense. Statistically, this finding is worthy of further
examination, and suggests it should be seriously considered and accounted for
when considering curriculum development for counselor trainees. This, and the
other findings in this study, speak to the need to continue to be aware of and
sensitive to the relationship between gender, power, feminist ideals and the
ways in which these constructs impact the counselors views of such important
social and clinical issues as sexual harassment.
74
References
Adams, J.W ., Kottke. J.L., and Padgitt, J.S. (1983). Sexual harassment of
university students. Journal of College Student Personnel. Nov., 484-
490.
Baker, D.D., Terpstra, D.E., and Lamtz, K. (1990). The influence of
individual characteristics and severity of harassing behavior on reactions
to sexual harassment. Sex Roles. 22(5-6). 305-325.
Basow, S.A. and Campanile, F. (1990). Attitudes toward prostitution as a
function of attitudes toward feminism in college students. Psychology of
Women Quarterly. 14, 135-141.
Beavais, K. (1986). Workshops to combat sexual harassment: A case study of
changing attitudes. Signs. 12, 130-145.
Berryman-Fink, C. (1993). Preventing sexual harassment through male-female
communication training. In G.L. Kreps (Ed.), Sexual Harassment
Communication Implications (pp. 267-280). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton
Press.
Brooks, L and Perot, A.R. (1991). Reporting sexual harassment: Exploring a
predictive mode. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 15, 31-47.
Cleveland, J.N. and Kerst, M.E. (1993). Sexual harassment and perceptions of
power: An under-articulated relationship. Journal of Vocational
Behavior. 42. 49-67.
Corey, G. (1991). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. (4th
ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks-Cole Publisher.
Crull, P. (1982). Stress effects of sexual harassment on the job: Implications
for counseling. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 52, 539-544.
Fassinger, R. (1994). Development and testing of the attitudes toward
feminism and the women’s movement (FWM) scale. Psychology of
Women Quarterly.
75
Fitzgerald, L.F. (1990). Sexual harassment: The definition and measurement
of a construct. In M.A. Paludi (Ed.) Ivory power: Sexual harassment
on campus (pp. 21-44). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Weitzman, L.M ., Gold, Y. and Ormerod, M. (1988).
Academic harassment: Sex and denial in scholarly garb. Psychology of
Women Quarterly. 12, 329-340.
Fitzgerald, L.F. and Ormerod, A.J. (1991). Perceptions of sexual harassment:
The influence of gender and academic context. Psychology of Women
Quarterly. 15. 281-294.
Fitzgerald, L.F. and Ormerod, A.J. (1993). Breaking the silence: The sexual
harassment of women in academia and the workplace. In F. Denmark
and M. Paludi (Eds.) Psychology of Women: A handbook of issues and
theories (pp. 553-581). New York: Greenwood Press.
Fitzgerald, L.F. and Shullman, S.L. (1993). Sexual harassment: A research
analysis and agenda for the 1990s. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 42.
5-27.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Shullman, S.L., Bailey, N., Richards, M., Swecker, J., Gold,
Y., Ormerod, M., and Weitzman, L. (1988). The incidence and
dimensions of sexual harassment in academia and the workplace.
Journal of Vocational Behavior. 22, 152-175.
Frazier, P.A. and Cohen, B.B. (1992). Research on the sexual victimization of
women: Implications for counselor training. Counseling Psychologist.
20/1. 141-158.
Gruber, J.E. (1992). A typology of personal and environmental sexual
harassment: Research and policy implications for the 1990s. Sex Roles.
26, (11/12L 447-463.
Gutek, B.A. and Koss, M.P. (1993). Changed women and changed
organizations: Consequences of and coping with sexual harassment.
Journal of Vocational Behavior. 42, 28-48.
Gutek, B.A. and Morasch, B. (1982). Sex-ratios, sex-role spillover, and
sexual harassment of women at work. Journal of Social Issues. 2£, 55-
74.
76
Gutek, B.A., Morasch, B. and Cohen, A.G. (1983). Interpreting social-sexual
behavior in a work setting. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 22, 30-48.
Hotelling, K. (1991). Sexual harassment: A problem shielded by silence.
Journal of Counseling & Development. 69, 497-501.
Jensen, I.W. and Gutek, B.A. (1982). Attributions and assignment of
responsibility in sexual harassment. Journal of Social Issues. 38/4. 121-
136.
Kenig, S. and Ryan, J. (1986). Sex differences in levels of tolerance and
attribution of blame for sexual harassment on a university campus. Sex
Roles. 1 5, 2 Z 1Q , 535-548.
Kholberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental
approach to socialization theory and research. New York: Rand
McNally.
Koss, M.P. (1990). Changed lives: The psychological impact of sexual
harassment. In M. Paludi (Ed.) Ivory power: Sexual harassment on
campus, (pp. 73-92). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Lach, D.H. and Gwartney-Gibbs, P.A. (1993). Sociological perspectives on
sexual harassment and workplace dispute resolution. Journal of
Vocational Behavior. 42, 102-115.
Lafontaine, E. and Tredeau, L. (1986). The frequency, sources, and correlates
of sexual harassment among women in traditional male occupations. Sex
Roles. 15, 7/S, 433-442.
Lee, L.A. and Heppner, P.P. (1991). The development and evaluation of the
harassment inventory. Journal of Counseling and Development. 69/6.
512-517.
Loevinger, J. and Wessler, R. (1970). Measuring ego development. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mackinnon, C.A. (1979). Sexual harassment of working women. New Haven,
CN: Yale.
77
Malovich, M.J. and Stake, J.E. (1990). Sexual harassment on campus:
Individual differences in attitudes and beliefs. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 14, 63-81.
Mazer, D.B. and Percival, E.F. (1989). Ideology or experience? The
relationships among perceptions, attitudes, and experiences of sexual
harassment in university students. Sex Roles. 2Q, 3/4. 135-147.
Padgitt, S.C. and Padgitt, J.S. (1986). Cognitive structure of sexual
harassment: Implications for university policy. Journal of College
Student Personnel. 22, 34-39.
Paludi, M.A. and Barickman, R.B. (1991). Academic and workplace sexual
harassment: A resource manual. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Perry, W. Jr. (1970). Intellectual and ethical development in the college years.
New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York:
International Universities Press.
Pryor, J.B. (1987). Sexual harassment proclivities in men. Sex Roles. 17.
5Z6, 269-290.
Pryor, J.B., LaVite, C.M. and Stoller, L.M. (1993). A social psychological
analysis of sexual harassment: The person/situation interaction. Journal
of Vocational Behavior. 42, 68-83.
Quina, K. (1990). In M.A. Paludi (Ed.) Ivory power: Sexual harassment on
campus, (pp. 93-102). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Reilly, M.E., Lott, B. and Gallogly, S. (1986). Sexual harassment of
university students. Sex Roles. 15. 7/8. 333-358.
Stockdale, M. (1993). The role of sexual misperceptions of women’s
friendliness in an emerging theory of sexual harassment. Journal of
Vocational Behavior. 42. 84-101.
Tangri, S.S., Burt, M.R. and Johnson, L.B. (1982). Sexual harassment at
work: Three explanatory models. Journal of Social Issues. 4, 33-
54.
78
Terpstra, D.E. and Baker, D.D. (1987). A hierarchy of sexual harassment.
Thg_Iflurnal of Esychfllogy, 121, 6, 599-605.
Terpstra, D.E. and Baker, D.D. (1988). Outcomes of sexual harassment
charges. Academy of Management Journal. 1 1 ,1 , 185-194.
Terpstra, D.E. and Baker, D.D. (1989). The identification and classification of
reactions to sexual harassment. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 10.
1-14.
Terpstra, D.E. and Baker, D.D. (1992). Outcomes of federal court decisions
on sexual harassment. Academy of Management Journal. 35.1 , 181-
190.
Thomas, Marilyn L. (1981). The application of adult developmental stage
theory to a selected sample of graduate students (Doctoral dissertation,
Indiana University, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts International. 42,
3463.
Till, F. (1980). Sexual harassment: A report on the sexual harassment of
students. Washington, D.C.: National Advisory Council on Women’s
Educational Programs.
Tinsely, H.E.A. and Stockdale, M.S. (1993). Special issue on sexual
harassment in the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 42, 1-4.
Vaux, A. (1993). Paradigmatic assumptions in sexual harassment research:
Being guided without being misled. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 42,
116-135.
Wagner, K.C. (1990). Training for faculty in issues relating to sexual
harassment on campus: A resource manual. In M.A. Paludi (Ed.) Ivory
power: Sexual harassment on campus. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Webster, N. (1983). In J.L. McKechnie (Ed.) Webster’s new universal
unabridged -digtionary.-
79
Appendix A
Information and Informed Consent Statement
I would like to ask you to participate in a research study which is being
conducted in order to satisfy the requirements of the Ph.D. degree at the
University of Southern California in the School of Education, Division of
Counseling and Educational Psychology. The goal of this study is to
investigate issues of sexual harassment.
Please read the following information describing the study as well as the
potential risks and benefits to you as a participant. When you feel you
understand the process of this study and are willing to volunteer as a research
participant, you may begin the questionnaires.
All of your questionnaires will be completely anonymous. No
information which could identify you will be requested, and all information
gathered will be reviewed only by myself and my doctoral advisor. Your
participation is completely voluntary and you may choose to skip particular
questions or stop at any time while completing the questionnaires.
If you would like to discuss any portion of this research, you may
contact me, Amy Manfrini, at (714) 495-3611, or my research supervisor, Dr.
Scott Whiteley, at (213) 740-3266. If you have any problems or questions
regarding this research, you may contact the Institutional Review Board at the
University Park Campus of the University of Southern California at (213) 740-
6721.
Signature/Date
Student Researcher
Signature/Date
Faculty Supervisor
Appendix B
Demographic Jnformation Form
Gender: Female____ Male___
Age: _______
Phase of Counseling Program you are presently in:
Phase I ________
Phase I I ________
Phase III _______
Phase IV ______
81
Appendix C
Information on Study
Researcher: Amy Manfrini, Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California
Department of Counseling Psychology
I am in the process of completing a doctorate in Counseling Psychology at the
University of Southern California. As part of this process, I am conducting a
research study and will be completing a dissertation with the results of this study.
The purpose of this study is to examine Counselor Trainee’s Perceptions of
and Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment. The high prevalence of sexual harassment
has been well established, in both work and academic settings. This social
phenomenon has also been cited numerous times in the public arena in recent years,
becoming an area that is now being taken quite seriously. As a researcher, I am
interested in this area, as well as that of counselor training. My aim in this study is
to further examine perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment in the
counselor trainee population. More specifically, I am interested in whether gender,
age, and your attitudes toward feminism will impact your perceptions of and attitudes
toward sexual harassment. Additionally, I would like to assess whether or not the
particular phase of the Counseling program at Cal State Fullerton, that you are
presently in, will impact your perceptions of and attitudes toward sexual harassment.
Previous research has shown that gender is the most robust variable of impact
on one’s perceptions of what constitutes sexual harassment. Age, student versus
occupational status, and previous personal experience also seems to impact
perceptions of harassment. Attitudes toward sexual harassment are often based upon
such factors as attitudes toward women and macho attitudes. I am attempting to
replicate some previous research findings as well as include additional variables for
study never before examined.
Through my research process, particularly of the literature on sexual
harassment, I have come to realize the importance of the counselor’s role in
understanding such social phenomena. I would like very much to share more of this
information with you, and will do so at your individual request. I anticipate
completing this study by the Fall of 1994. Please feel free to contact me for the
results of the study, and any additional on this study.
Thank you so much for your willingness to participate in this project, and
assist me in my pursuit. Maybe I will be in position to assist you in such a pursuit in
the future.
Amy Manfrini, Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California
82
Appendix D
ATTITUDES TOWARD FEMINISM SCALE
Circle the number corresponding to your level of agreement of the following items.
Strongly Disagree
disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
1. 1 2 3 4 5 Feminist principles should be adopted everywhere
2. 1 2 3 4 5 The women’s movement has made important gains equal rights and
political power for women
3. 1 2 3 4 5 Feminists are a menace to this nation and the world
4. 1 2 3 4 5 There are better ways for women to fight for equality than through
the women’s movement
5. 1 2 3 4 5 The women’s movement has positively influenced relationships
between men and women
6. 1 2 3 4 5 More people would favor the women’s movement if they knew more
about it
7. 1 2 3 4 5 I am oveijoyed that women’s liberation is finally happening in this
country
8. 1 2 3 4 5 The women’s movement is too radical and extreme in its views
9. 1 2 3 4 5 Feminists are too visionary for a practical world
10. 1 2 3 4 5 The leaders of the women’s movement may be extreme, but they
have the right idea
83
Appendix E
THE SEXUAL HARASSMENT ATTITUDE SCALE
1. An attractive woman has to expect sexual advances and should learn how to
handle them.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
2. Most men are sexually teased by many of the women with whom they interact on
the job or at school.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
3. Most women who are sexually insulted by a man provoke his behavior by the
way they talk, act, or dress.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
4. A man must learn to understand that a woman’s "no" to his sexual advances
really means “no".
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
5. It is only natural for a woman to use her sexuality as a way of getting ahead in
school or at work.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
84
6. An attractive man has to expect sexual advances and should learn how to handle
them.
1
strongly
agree
2
agree unsure
4
disagree strongly
disagree
7. I believe that sexual intimidation is a serious social problem.
1 2 3 4
agree unsure disagree strongly
agree
strongly
disagree
8. It is only natural for a man to make sexual advances to a woman he finds
attractive.
1
strongly
agree
2
agree unsure
4
disagree strongly
disagree
9. Innocent flirtations make the workday or school day interesting.
1 2 3 4 5
agree unsure disagree strongly
agree
strongly
disagree
10. Encouraging a professor’s ar a supervisor’s sexual interest is frequently used by
women to get better grades or to improve their work situations.
1
strongly
agree
2
agree
3
unsure
4
disagree strongly
disagree
85
11. One of the problems with sexual harassment is that some women can’t take a
joke.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
12. The notion that what a professor does in class may be sexual harassment is taking
the idea of sexual harassment too far.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
13. Many charges of sexual harassment are frivolous and vindictive.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
14. A lot of what people call sexual harassment are two completely different things.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
15. Sexual assault and sexual harassment are two completely different things.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
86
16. Sexual harassment refers to those incidents of unwanted sexual attention that
aren’t too serious.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
17. Sexual harassment has little to do with power.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
18. Sexism and sexual harassment are two completely different things.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
19. All this concern about sexual harassment makes it harder for men and women to
have normal relationships.
1 2 3 4 5
strongly agree unsure disagree strongly
agree disagree
87
Appendix F
PERCEPTIONS OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT QUESTIONNAIRE
1. A situation where a professor or instructor attempts to touch or fondle a student
(e.g., stroking the student’s leg or neck, touching the student and so forth)?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
2. A situation where a professor stares or leers at a student in a way that seems
inappropriate, or that makes the student feel uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
3. A situation where a professor or instructor makes unwanted attempts to draw a
student into a discussion of personal or sexual matters (e.g., attempts to discuss
or comment on the student’s sex life)?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
4. A situation where a student engages in unwanted sexual behavior because of a
promise or a reward? Is the student being harassed?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
88
5. A situation where a professor or instructor engages in what may be considered
seductive behavior toward a student (e.g., makes flattering or suggestive remarks,
suggests that the student might want to "get together" for a drink, offers a
backrub to a student)?
1. 2
definitely is
not sexual
harassment
4
unsure definitely is
sexual
harassment
A situation where a professor treats male and female students "differently" (i.e.,
favors one sex or the other)?
1 2
definitely is
not sexual
harassment
4
unsure definitely is
sexual
harassment
7. A situation where a student is actually rewarded by a professor or instructor for
being socially or sexually cooperative (e.g., going out to dinner, having drinks,
establishing a sexual relationship?
1 2
definitely is
not sexual
harassment
4
unsure definitely is
sexual
harassment
8. A situation where a professor makes unwanted attempts to have sexual intercourse
with a student that results in the student being extremely uncomfortable or
frightened.
1 2
definitely is
not sexual
harassment
4
unsure definitely is
sexual
harassment
9. A situation, other than a class on human sexuality or similar topics, where a
professor uses or recommends sexist or suggestive materials (e.g., pictures,
stories, pornography)?
1 2
definitely is
not sexual
harassment
4
unsure definitely is
sexual
harassment
89
10. A professor or instructor subtly threatens a student with some sort of
"punishment” for not being sexually cooperative.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
11. A situation where a student engages in unwanted sexual behavior because of
threats or fear of punishment. Is the student being harassed?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
12. A situation where a professor or instructor makes deliberate attempts to touch,
fondle, kiss, or grab, a student?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
13. A situation where a professor or instructor attempts to establish a romantic sexual
relationship with a student?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
14. A situation where a student experiences negative consequences for refusing to
engage in sexual activity with a professor or instructor?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
90
15. A situation where a professor or instructor asks a student for a date?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
16. A situation where a professor makes crudely sexual remarks, either openly, or to
a student in private (e.g., during office hours, etc.)?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
17. A situation where a professor or instructor directly threatens or pressures a
student to engage in sexual activity by threats of punishment or retaliation?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
18. A situation where a professor or instructor pays sexual attention to a student?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
19. A situation where a professor attempts to subtly bribe a student with some sort of
reward (e.g., preferential treatment, influence) for engaging in sexual behavior
with him or her?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
91
20. A situation where a professor or instructor habitually tells suggestive stories or
offensive jokes?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
21. A situation where a professor or instructor makes seductive remarks about a
student’s appearance, body, or sexual activities?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
22. A situation where an instructor makes sexist remarks (e.g., suggesting that
traditionally masculine fields like engineering are inappropriate for women, or
that there must be something "wrong" with men who want to be nurses)?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
23. A situation where a professor or instructor "propositions" a student?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
24. A situation where a professor or instructor directly offers a student some sort of
reward for being sexually cooperative?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
definitely is unsure definitely is
not sexual sexual
harassment harassment
92
Appendix G
POTENTIAL SEXUAL HARASSMENT SCENARIOS
1. Mr. Y had repeatedly asked Ms. X to have an affair with him. She had told him
she was not interested yet he continued. Mr. Y had indicated that if she didn’t
have an affair, her job status might be negatively affected.
Harassment: Yes No
2. Coarse language was commonplace around the firm where Ms. X worked. As
the male workers went about their business, they peppered their conversation with
references to male and female genitalia and to sexual activity. This made Ms. X
uncomfortable.
Harassment: Yes No
3. Ms. X found using the company’s one and only restroom to be an uncomfortable
experience. The male co-workers continually made reference to her through
obscene, explicit graffiti on the walls.
Harassment: Yes No___
4. Ms. Y considered the lewd, explicit graffiti in the company’s one and only
restroom to be offensive.
Harassment: Yes No
5. As Ms. X walked by Mr. Y and Mr. Z, they once again made obscene, sexually
oriented gestures for her benefit. This made her uncomfortable.
Harassment: Yes No___
6. Mr. Y strode up to Ms. X and quietly asked her if she would consider having an
affair with him. It was not the first time he had asked her, even though she
clearly told him at the outset that she was not interested.
Harassment: Yes No
7. Mr. Y put his arm around Ms. X as he informed her of the details of his unit’s
new project. She had asked him not to put his arm around her before, but he
continued to do so.
Harassment: Yes No
93
8. Mr. Y put his arm around the shoulders of Ms. X, his fingers gradually straying
to her breast while he continued to talk to her about the plans for the new plant.
He had done this before, and she had expressed her displeasure.
Harassment: Yes No
9. As Ms. X walked by the company storeroom, Mr. Y pulled her in and locked the
door. A rape incident ensued.
Harassment: Yes No
10. Although Ms. X had indicated that she was not interested, Mr. Y persisted in
propositioning her. Mr. Y had indicated that her job status might be enhanced if
she would have an affair with him.
Harassment: Yes No___
11. Mr. Y had repeatedly expressed his sexual desire for Ms. X. Although Ms. X
knew it was only a game he frequently played with female employees, it still
bothered her.
Harassment: Yes No
12. Every time Ms. X walked by Section B of the plant, her male co-workers have
her the "wolf-whistle". She considered this to be offensive.
Harassment: Yes No___
13. Ms. X was becoming increasingly upset with the actions of her male co-workers.
Their easily overheard remarks about her sexual characteristics and sexual
potential were beginning to wear on her.
Harassment: Yes No
14. Ms. X was becoming increasingly uncomfortable. Mr. Y, seated at the work
station next to her, had been staring at her and "looking her over" for days.
Harassment: Yes No___
15. Each morning Mr. Y would bring Ms. X a cup of coffee at her desk and give her
an affectionate squeeze on the shoulder with his hand. Ms. X considered this to
be offensive.
Harassment: Yes No
94
16. Ms. X was becoming increasingly uncomfortable around Mr. Y. Every time he
had the opportunity, he asked her "out" for a date. She had told him that she
wan not interested, but he still persisted.
Harassment: Yes No
17. As the supervisor and crew sat down for coffee during the break, Mr. Y led off
with his usual off-color, sex-oriented joke. Ms. X knew that more would follow
as the male members roared their approval. She considered the jokes to be
offensive.
Harassment: Yes No
18. It was not uncommon at the plant for Ms. X to observe the male workers making
obscene gestures during the working hours. While the gestures were not directed
towards her, she still considered the actions offensive.
Harassment: Yes No

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

A Comparison Of Female Inmates With And Without Histories Of Prostitution On Selected Psychosocial Variables

PDF

Child sexual abuse in a sample of male and female Hispanic and White nonclinical adolescents: Extending the reliability and validity of the Trauma Symptom Inventory (TSI)

PDF

An investigation of the psychological well-being of unaccompanied Taiwanese minors/parachute kids in the United States

PDF

Neuropsychological And Psychological Correlates Of Marital Violence In A Clinical Sample

PDF

Integration of science and practice: A collective case study of scientist -practitioner programs in counseling psychology

PDF

Intergenerational conflict, family functioning, and acculturation experienced by Asian American community college students

PDF

Attachment Style And Psychological Separation As Influential Factors In Friendships Among College Students

PDF

Gender differences in motivation for sexual intercourse: Implications for risky sexual behavior and substance use in a university and community sample

PDF

Heterosexuals' attitudes toward lesbians and gay men and the attitude functions they serve: Correlates, stability and gender differences

PDF

Behavioral and demographic predictors of breast cancer stage at diagnosis

PDF

Development and validation of the Cooper Quality of Imagery Scale: A measure of vividness of sporting mental imagery

PDF

Gender role conflict, personality, and help -seeking in adult men

PDF

An investigation of a new diagnostic sub-type: Post traumatic stress disorder with psychotic features

PDF

Self-Concept In Adult Women: A Multidimensional Approach

PDF

A daily diary approach to compare the accuracy of depressed and nondepressed participants' estimation of positive and negative mood: A test of the depressive realism hypothesis

PDF

A correlational study of feminist/womanist identity development and depression in women

PDF

Attachment style, interpersonal guilt, parental alcoholism, parental divorce and eating disordered symptomatology in college women

PDF

Gender differences in symptom presentation of depression in primary care settings

PDF

Perceptions of parental behaviors by a sample of gifted and no gifted women: an exploratory study

PDF

A cross-cultural comparison of marital power and dyadic adjustment among American, Indo-American, and East Indian dual-career and single-career couples

Asset Metadata

Creator Manfrini, Amy (author)

Core Title Counselor Trainees' Perceptions Of And Attitudes Toward Sexual Harassment In Relation To Feminist Beliefs

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education - Counseling Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Guidance and Counseling,Education, higher,OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,psychology, industrial,psychology, social,sociology, individual and family studies,women's studies

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Whiteley, Scott (committee chair), Goodyear, Rodney K. (committee member), Jablonsky, Thomas J. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c20-606313

Unique identifier UC11227116

Identifier 9616987.pdf (filename),usctheses-c20-606313 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 9616987.pdf

Dmrecord 606313

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Manfrini, Amy

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA