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The Nature Of Assisted Performance With Learning Handicapped Students During Language Arts

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The Nature Of Assisted Performance With Learning Handicapped Students During Language Arts

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THE NATURE OF ASSISTED PERFORMANCE WITH LEARNING
HANDICAPPED STUDENTS DURING LANGUAGE ARTS
by
Noraini Abdullah-W elsh
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
May 1995
Copyright 1995 Noraini Abdullah-W elsh
UMI Number: 9600949
Copyright 1995 by
Abdullah-Welsh, Noraini
All rights reserved.
OKI Microfora 9600949
Copyright 1995, by UMI Coapany. All rights reserved.
This aicrofora edition is protected against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.
UMI
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007
T T iis dissertation, written by
...,N o r a^in d u l 1 ah-Welsh
under the direction of teu Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of re
quirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
— -
Dean of Graduate Studiei
Date 3.:..£§.:..S% .............
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Otetrpenon
?
e '
.....
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my father who did not live
to see the fruit of his inspiration.
Acknowledgments
My greatest thanks to Dr. Timothy Asch who took care of the details in his
last days. I would like to extend my appreciation to Dr. Robert Rueda for
his patience, guidance, and feedback throughout the dissertation process.
I would like to thank my husband, John, for listening to my brainstorms
and lamentations as well as for being supportive and patient. Thank you
to my friends who have encouraged me to persevere and trudge on to the
completion of my dissertation. Last but not least, my deepest gratitude
and appreciation goes to my family who have made financial sacrifices
and contributions throughout my study at USC. I would not have made it
this far without their love and support.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication..................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments......................... * .............................................................. iii
List of Tables................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures............................................................................................... vii
Abstract......................................................................................................... viii
I. Introduction: Learning and Learning C ontext.............................. 1
1.1 Problem Statement.................................................................. 1
1.2 Purpose of Study........................................................................3
1.3 Importance of Study................................................................4
1.4 Objectives erf the Study........................................................... 5
1.5 Delimitation and Limitation.....................................................6
1.6 Chapter Organization............................................................. 7
II. Theoretical Framework: A Review of the Literature...................... 9
2.1 Sociocultural Theory............................................................... 9
2.2 Sociocultural Research on Instruction in Special
Education......................................... 11
2.3 Reductionist Research on Instruction in
Special Education.....................................................................14
2.4 The Role of Assisted Performance in
Learning ............................................................................ 18
2.5 Levels of Cognitive Processing.............................................. 29
2.6 Assisted Performance and Cognitive Processing
Level ........................................................................... 34
2.7 The Learning Environment in Literacy
Instruction of Students in Special Education ...............35
2.8 Research Questions................................................................. 44
2.9 Hypotheses............................................................................... 45
2.10 Conclusion................................................................................ 47
2.11 Implications.............................................................................. 48
III. Research Methodology..................................................................... 50
3.1 Sample....................................................................................... 50
3.2 Research Site...............................................................................51
3.3 Design..........................................................................................54
3.4 Instrumentation....................................................................... 56
iv
3.5 Data Collection........................................................................ 62
3.6 Data Analysis........................................................................... 64
3.7 Methodological Limitation......................................................66
3.8 Summary................................................................................... 67
IV. Research Findings............................................................................... 68
4.1 Analysis of Participants According to Ability Levels 68
4.2 Analysis of Classroom Assignments..................................... 73
4.3 Overall Analysis of Assisted Performance.......................... 76
4.4 Assisted Performance and Student Ability Groups 78
4.5 Assisted Performance, Student Ability Croups,
and Types of Assignments.................................................... 79
4.7 Summary................................................................................... 83
V. Conclusions and Implications.............................................................85
5.1 Discussion................................................................................. 86
5.1.1 Choice of Assignments........................................................... 86
5.1.2 Nature of Assisted Performance and Student Grouping... 91
5.13 Assisted Performance, Assignment Choice, and
Student Grouping........................... ........................................95
5.2 Conclusions.............................................................................. 101
5.3 Implications............................................................................... 102
References...................................................................................................... 103
Appendix A: Meaningfulness of Writing Assignments......................... 116
Appendix B: Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted
Performance and Task/Low-High Levels of Cognitive Processing 118
Appendix C: Distribution of Assisted Performance by Student
Grouping and Task/Low-High Cognitive Processing Levels.............. 125
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 4.7
Table 4.8
Table 4.9
Summary of Description of Students According to Ability
Grouping.............. 56
Elements of Skill Based/Reductionist versus
Holistic/Constructivist Characteristics of the
Classroom Assignments.............................. 58
Description of Students and their Ability Levels 70
Distribution of Classroom Assignments on Reductionist-
Constructivist Continuum by Student Ability Groups and
Overall Classroom Total..................................................... 75
Nature of Assisted Performance during Language Arts
Instruction....................... 77
Distribution of Assisted performance by Student Ability
Groups ........................................................................ 78
Assisted Performance at Task Level by Assignment on
Reductionist-Constructivist Continuum and Student Ability
Groups..................................................................................... 79
Assisted Performance at Low Cognitive Level by
Assignment on Reductionist-Constructivist Continuum and
Student Ability Groups............................. 80
Assisted Performance at High Cognitive Level by
Assignment on Reductionist-Constructivist Continuum and
Student Ability Groups.........................................................81
Assisted Performance at Low Cognitive Level during Low-
High Meaningful Writing Assignments by Student Ability
Groups................................................................................... 82
Assisted Performance at High Cognitive Level during Low-
High Meaningful Writing Assignments by Student Ability
Groups................................................................................... 82
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Classroom Assignments on Reductionist-Constructivist
Continuum............................................................................ 73
ABSTRACT
Sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of the social environment
in human learning. Tharp and Gallimore's (1988) description of assisted
performance consolidates findings from cognitive and behavior
psychology which are then embedded within the context of the learning
situation. Englert (1992) and Palincsar and Klenck (1992) have utilized
different means of assisted performance with learning disabled students
within meaningful, authentic, and interesting literacy texts. Their research
has revealed that when students’ performance is assisted, they will be
more active and assume interactive roles, take more risks, and engage in
higher cognitive functioning.
This study examined the nature of assisted performance during
language arts instruction of students with learning handicaps. Data were
collected through classroom observations of interactions between the
classroom teacher and each student as she assisted them in their
completion of language arts assignments. The analysis of the data focused
on the different types of assisted performance the classroom teacher
utilized in relation to the low (knowledge and comprehension) versus
high (application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) cognitive
functioning levels, whether the students were low versus high ability, and
the classroom assignment utilized.
The findings revealed that when students were engaged in
meaningful, interesting, and relevant literacy events, they will be able to
engage in higher cognitive processing even if the students have been
classified as low ability. This study also shows that the classroom teacher
viii
tended to utilize task structuring more frequently with the low ability
students and feed back with the high ability students.
In conclusion, it can be stated that although certain types of assisted
performance tended to be used more exclusively for different ability
students, literacy assignments that were interesting, relevant, and
meaningful provided more significant information on the cognitive
functioning that the students were able to engage in. In summary, literacy
assignments that were more holistic tended to foster assisted performance
at higher cognitive functioning. Conversely, reductionist literacy
assignments tended to discourage assisted performance that were at lower
cognitive functioning levels.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION: LEARNING AND ASSISTED PERFORMANCE
1.1 Problem Statement
The importance of quality education for all special education
students forms the major premise of this research. In their discussion
of free and appropriate education for all, Aulette and Algozzine (1992;
p. 10) state that "[no] area of special education is more important than
intervention" because "the promise of special education is the 'raison
d'etre' of special education." Aulette and Algozzine (1992; p. 10) add
that the area of intervention in special education "has not been the
subject of significant research and what has been done has been less
than com plimentary."
An im portant aspect of intervention that needs to be fully
addressed is the learning environment in special education programs
and what is being done within that context to enable students to
overcome the labels that have been bestowed upon them. Special
education programs arc based on the reductionist model (Thomas et al,
1988; Graham et al, 1993). This model views learning problems as
intrinsic to the individual; hence, research studies in the special
education field have focused on what these students are unable to
"perform" and to base intervention on attem pting to develop these
deficient skills.
In contrast, research of special education students from the
sociocultural perspective has revealed the positive impact of changes
1
in the learning environment. Research (Englert, 1992; Palincsar &
Klenck, 1992; Tharp, 1993; Gallimore & Tharp, 1990) has shown that the
learning environment plays a role in the academic success of students.
When students were introduced to proficient reading and writing
strategies through different means of assisted performance (e. g.,
modeling and questioning) within the context of authentic and
meaningful literacy assignments, they assumed a more interactive and
active role in their reading and writing. Of significant interest is that
they were also able to engage in higher cognitive processes that were
dem onstrated through the different means of assisted performance.
Additionally, longitudinal studies of these students have revealed that
they were still able to utilize the appropriate literacy strategies once
they have acquired the appropriate skills (Englert, 1992; Palincsar &
Klenck, 1992).
The concept of assisted performance is of importance within the
field of special education because the purpose of placing students in
special education programs is to assist them in overcoming their
learning problems by providing them with personalized (where
instruction is provided to them in small group situations or one-to-
one basis) and individualized (where these students are allowed to
work at their respective levels of competence) instructional
environm ent among students who have diverse learning problems.
Consequently, students are provided with assistance within their
classrooms to ensure that they will be able to excel academically.
2
In sum m ary, the main issue that needs to be addressed in special
education instruction is a change in the focus of research and
intervention from w hat is w rong w ith these students to w hat is being
done to provide them with an enriching environm ent that will enable
them to bridge the gap that exists between w hat the students in special
education classes can do in com parison to their "normal achieving"
peers.
1.2 Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the nature of the
different m eans of intervention as em bodied by assisted performance
in a special education setting with learning handicapped students.
Bloom's Taxonomy of cognitive dom ain provides an interesting
perspective on the nature of assisted perform ance for these students.
Researchers have often stated that these students are unable to engage
in higher m etacognitive processing in com parison to norm al children
(Campione, Brown, & Ferrara; 1984) or that they have underdeveloped
w riting skills (Thomas, Englert, & Gregg; 1988). Hence this study seeks
to examine w hat occurs w ithin a special education classroom with
learning handicapped students (which consists of students with
learning disabilities and em otional or behavior disorder).
The focus will be on:
• The type and complexity of assisted performance (that is,
modeling, feed back, contingency managing, instructing,
3
questioning, cognitive structuring, and task structuring) with
learning handicapped students in a special education setting; and
• Whether instances of assisted performance vary by student
ability and types of classroom assignments during Language
Arts.
1.3 Importance of Study
The formation of special programs for learning disabled students
is an attem pt to provide equal but separate learning opportunities in
the "least restrictive environment" for special education students who
present a combination of behavioral, social, emotional, psychological,
and academic challenges.
The deficit driven reductionistic approach of intervention
widely utilized in the special program classes views learning problems
as intrinsic to the students with learning disabilities. Hence, research
have focused on what these individuals are unable to perform
academically. However, in light of the significant role that the
environm ent plays in the learning process, we also need to examine
the classroom environment and what is being done to encourage these
students to overcome their learning problems (Palincsar & Klenck,
1992; Englert, 1992; Levin, 1986).
According to Bruner (1966), instruction is an effort to assist or
shape growth. Hence, the aim of instruction within classrooms for
special education students should attem pt to foster intellectual growth
of these students so that they will be able to overcome their learning
4
problems. Studies done by Englert (1992) on the use of holistic dialogue
in writing instruction as well as Palincsar and Klenck (1992) on
reciprocal teaching reveal that the use of assisted performance
increased learning disabled students' abilities to perform at a higher
cognitive level. In other words, when students with learning
disabilities are placed in a context where the appropriate assisted
performance is available, the same students were observed as playing
more active roles in their learning and were able to perform at higher
levels of competence in their reading and writing than they were able
to do within their own classrooms. These students were also more
willing to take risks and were more eager to engage in their own
learning processes.
Consequently, we need to examine how the academic
performance of students in "special programs" are being assisted so that
they can become better readers or writers. In order to accomplish this
goal, we need to examine the nature of assisted performance in the
special education classroom for students with learning handicaps.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objective of this research is to study the nature of assisted
performance in a special education classroom of students with learning
handicaps (that is those with learning disabilities and emotional or
behavior disorder). Of interest in this study is whether instances of
assisted performance vary by student ability (low versus high) and the
use of different assignments.
5
The attem pt in the study is to ascertain the extent to which
higher levels of the cognitive processes are being fostered through the
different means of assisted performance as well what means of
assisting performance are being utilized by the classroom teacher. The
instances of assisted performance are analyzed in relation to the levels
of the cognitive processing and is supported by Englert (1992; p. 158)
who states that "Vygotsky's work suggests that cognitive processes are
acquired by students in social interaction between a teacher and
students."
1.5 Delimitation and Limitation
The delimitation that will be set in the study will involve the
study of instances of assisted performance for students who are placed
in a Child Guidance Clinic due to a combination of learning,
behavioral, emotional, a n d /o r social problems and therefore may not
be generalized to public schools. The emphasis here is on instances of
assisted performance as they naturally occur in a classroom for students
within the context of a language arts instruction. Hence, the findings
of this study are specific to naturally occurring instances of assisted
performance in a classroom.
The naturalistic and non-obtrusive nature of this research
involved classroom observations and analyses of classroom
assignments utilized. This mode of research reduces the am ount of
interruption in the daily classroom routine while enabling the
6
researcher to obtain a more accurate perception of what actually occurs
in the classroom instruction of these students.
Limitations in the study involve the inability to utilize audio or
visual recording instrum ents so that interactions that occur within the
classroom could be further studied and re-analyzed. The emphasis on
the anonymity of the students prohibits the use of such recording
instrum ents.
1.6 Chapter Organization
The purpose of the study was to examine the nature of instances
of assisted performance that occur in a language arts classroom
instruction of a group of students with learning handicaps and how
these instances relate to the different levels of the cognitive domain,
the respective student groupings, and classroom assignments utilized.
The second chapter of the study examines sociocultural
literature that emphasizes the significance and importance of the
learning environment. It will also address the different approaches to
explicating learning problems briefly and the importance of assisted
performance as a means of intervention (as advocated by the social
constructivist approach) in the classroom instruction of students with
learning handicaps (that is those with learning disabilities and
emotional or behavior disorders).
The third chapter discusses the research methodology utilized to
gather the data to answer the research questions. In chapter three, the
7
sample and terminology used in this study will be fully discussed as
well as the mode of analyzing and coding the data.
The fourth chapter will focus on the research findings in
relation to the means of assisting performance, the levels of the
cognitive domain, language arts classroom instruction, the respective
student groupings, and the assignment utilized in the classroom.
The fifth and final chapter will focus on discussing the research
findings within the context of relevant theories and other research
findings, the implications for future research, and a summary of the
findings of this research endeavor.
8
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK; A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The field of special education is filled with controversies ranging
from how to accurately define and identify students to issues dealing
w ith diagnosis and intervention. Of special interest in this study is
how assisted perform ance — that is, modeling, contingency managing,
feed back, instructing, questioning, cognitive structuring, and task
structuring (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Tharp, 1993)— is being utilized in
classroom instruction for students in special education program s.
In this chapter, the developm ent of cognitive processes and the
use of the different means of assisting performance will be discussed
w ithin the sociocultural theoretical fram ework in classroom
instruction of students in special education program s.
2,1 Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural theory exam ines intellectual developm ent w ithin
a social context because learning is inherently a social process as seen in
child language acquisition (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1991). This
Vygotskian perspective focuses on the developm ent of the individual
in social interactions whereby the individual is formed through
internalization of activities perform ed within a social context and
through interactions that occur within the zone of proximal
developm ent (Rosa & M ontero, 1990; Wertsch, 1979, 1991).
9
The zone of proxim al developm ent is the "distance between the
actual developm ental level as determ ined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential developm ent as determ ined through
problem -solving under adult supervision or in collaboration w ith
m ore capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978; p. 86). It plays a crucial role in the
sociocultural theory particularly as it pertains to assisted performance
since the goal of assisted performance is to encourage students to excel
beyond their actual developm ent to their future developm ental level.
Vygotsky (1978) states that today's zone of proximal developm ent is
tom orrow's actual developm ent level. Hence, assisting perform ance
w ithin the sociocultural approach entails working with students
w ithin their zones of proxim al developm ent.
Bruner (1987; p. 4) elaborates that the zone of proximal
developm ent is the zone w here a less skilled learner can perform at a
higher level of competence when prom pted or "scaffolded" by an
expert than h e/sh e can do on h is/h er own. The notion of "zone of
proxim al developm ent focuses on the role of dialogue as a precursor to
inner speech” between the more expert individual and a less expert
learner (Bruner, 1987). A concept explained in a dialogue between
these tw o individuals (interpsychologically) enables the learner to
reflect upon the dialogue and to utilize its distinctions and connections
to form h is/h er ow n thoughts (intrapsychologically) (Wertsch, 1991).
Learning is then both an individual and a social endeavor.
According to Valsiner (1988; p. 145), the basic message of the
zone of proximal developm ent is the "interdependence of the process
10
of child development and the socially provided sources for that
development." Werstch (1985; p. 70) states that "instruction creates the
zone of proximal development" which is m utually determined by the
child's level of development and the form of instructions involved. In
short, "[the zone] is a property neither of the child nor of
interpsychological functioning alone" (Wertsch, 1985; p. 70).
2.2 Sociocultural Research on Instruction in Special Education
An example of a sociocultural instruction is as seen in the
holistic classrooms which emphasize the use of real texts that are
interesting, meaningful, and relevant (that is, story books that are
culturally relevant) to the lives of the students (Goodman; 1986). This
can be supported by studies of the effect of individual interest on the
comprehension of fifth and sixth graders. These studies indicated that
children's comprehension on topics they rated as interesting was
superior to passages on topics they rated as uninteresting (Asher, 1979;
Asher, Hymel, 4c Wigfield, 1978; Estes & Vaughn, 1973). Additionally,
in examining types of information saliency in school texts and their
effect on children's recall, Hidi 4c Baird (1983) found that interesting
stories motivated students to read and enhance comprehension and
learning. Similarly, Bernstein (1955) studied the relationship between
interest and reading comprehension where students read a high and
low interest story of equal readability. He found that reading high
interest stories resulted in superior comprehension and a fuller, more
11
adequate, and more creative response to questions asked (Bernstein,
1955).
The sociocultural approach "posits that learning is a process
whereby new meanings are created (constructed) by the leam er within
the context of his or her current knowledge" (Poplin, 1988a; p. 404).
Learning is both personally and culturally relevant within the context
of the sociocultural approach; hence, the instructional environm ent
plays a crucial role in fostering the learning process.
The sociocultural approach de-emphasizes developmental
limitation (deficits) and focuses more on the role of affect, intuition,
and sociopolitical forces in learning (Poplin; 1988a). In doing so, he
strengths of the students, not their weaknesses, are emphasized as the
basis for classroom instruction. By addressing their strengths,
classroom instruction is based on what the students already know (that
is, their background knowledge) (Goodman, 1986). A study conducted
by O'Neal (1991) stresses the importance of acknowledging students'
backgrounds in classroom instruction. In his classroom observation of
students with varying levels of exceptionality from learning disabled to
emotionally disabled, O'Neal (1991) found that the students were more
creative and engaged in their classroom assignment when they were
able to utilize their background experiences in their writing.
W ithin the social constructivist/holistic classroom, the language
is kept whole and "involves children using it functionally and
purposefully to meet their own needs" (Goodman; 1986). The aim here
is to encourage students to talk about things they understand and to
12
read for information. Contrary to the emphasis on training subskills
like pronouncing words correctly in reductionist classrooms, the
holistic classroom stresses the importance of inferring meaning from
the texts being read.
The constructivist classroom is a "penalty-free area" so students
are encouraged to participate more freely within their learning process
without fear of being penalized. According to Goodman and Goodman
(1990; p. 236), the major concern in whole language classrooms is to
"free pupils to take risks" so that they will "try new things, invent
spellings, experiment with new genres, guess at meanings in their
reading, to read and write imperfectly, to challenge textbooks, to pursue
inquiry."
In their research of teacher conversation on hearing and
language impaired children, Wood and Wood (1984) found a very close
and systematic relationship between the m anner in which a teacher
controls and manages students' responses and the type of responses
students give. Accordingly, a teacher, who asks most of the questions
and engages in frequent attempts to correct w hat students are trying to
communicate, creates an environment where students are likely to say
little, offer few ideas or contributions, and seldom elaborate on their
responses to the teacher's questions. The more the teacher tells,
informs, speculates, an d /o r simply acknowledges w hat the students
have to say, the more initiative, questions, and elaboration the
students will exhibit (Wood & Wood; 1984). Wood (1989; p. 77) adds
that "ineffective instruction produces a sense of incompetence in
13
young learners and shapes h is/h er own attitudes toward what is being
taught."
2.3 Reductionist Research on Instruction in Special Education
The major premise of the reductionist approach to literacy
instruction in special education classroom is that the deficiency is
intrinsic to the students, not the environment. Hence, much research
dealing with this population have focused on what these students are
unable to perform. The emphasis here is to ascertain the deficient
skills in these students in comparison to "normal" or skilled readers or
writers and to focus classroom instruction on developing these skills.
For instance, in their analysis of errors and strategies in
expository writing of writing disabled students, Thomas, Englert, and
G ^ g g (1988) found that these students appeared to utilize a less
effective strategy for generating ideas. According to Thomas, Englert, &
Gregg (1988; p. 27) these poor writers generate text that are linear and
associative in manner because they "tell everything they know about a
topic in whatever order the ideas come to mind" with "little attention
to constraints imposed by the topic, the match between each new idea
and preceding ideas, the organization of the whole text, or the
organization suited for the reader." The study also revealed that
learning disabled students had difficulties in generating multiple
statements about familiar topics which suggests "distinct problems in
LD students' retrieval and use of relevant schemas that m ight sustain
14
their thinking and writing in a generative way" (Thomas, Englert, &
Gregg, 1988; p. 27).
Additionally, Graham, Schwartz, and MacArthur (1993)
compared students with and without learning disabilities to examine
their knowledge of the writing and composing process, attitude toward
writing, and self-efficacy. From analyses of the interviews conducted,
Graham, Schwartz, and MacArthur (1993; pp. 244 - 245) found that:
• Students with learning disabilities had a less developed
conceptualization of writing and they tend to define good
writing in terms of surface features instead of information
generation (Englert, Raphael, Fear, & Anderson, 1988; Wong,
Wong, & Blenkinsop, 1989);
• Although students with learning disabilities had generally
positive attitude towards writing, they viewed writing less
favorably than their peers without learning disabilities
(MacArthur & Graham, 1987);
• Learning disabled students tend to focus on surface features
when asked what they could do to improve paper (e. g., neatness,
type of print).
Consequently, since the goal is on ascertaining the intrinsic
deficient skill in students in the reductionist approach, the main focus
in special programs is on dividing the complex nature of human
learning into subcomponents "to design more effective practice in
assessment and instruction" (Poplin, 1988b; p. 394). Fot instance, the
complex nature of reading is "simplified" into subskills focusing on
15
specific aspects of reading like word recognition, vocabulary, and
pronunciation. These subskills are then taught directly to students
with reading problems.
Research from the reductionist perspective have also revealed
that special education children are strategy deficient (Borkowski,
Johnston, & Reid, 1986; Campione, Brown, & Ferrara, 1984; Palincsar &
Brown, 1984; Paris & Jacobs, 1984). However, strategy training skills
often do not generalize to new tasks (Borkowski & Cavanaugh, 1979;
Borkowski & Peck, 1986; Campione et al, 1984; Gelzheiser, Solar,
Shepherd, & Wozniak, 1985). In fact, when learning disabled and
retarded children are compared with normal children, the ability to
generalize decreases as the task becomes further removed from the
training task (Borkowski & Biichel, 1983).
In contrast to the constructivist classroom, the reductionist
classroom focuses on punctuation, spelling, handwriting, and
capitalization in writing instruction. Haring and Hauck (1969; p. 346)
describe the learning process within the reductionist classroom as
follows:
When a student mispronounced a word while reading
orally, the teacher directed him to the word for another try
by repeating the word immediately preceding the
[mispronounced] word. With this cue, the student
returned to the mispronounced word for a second try. If
he failed on this try, the teacher provided directional cues
highlighting the beginning, middle, or ending of the
w o rd .. . . If the student failed with this cue, he was told
the sound of part missed, and Anally, told the word, if
necessary. . . Mispronounced words were programmed for
a word list the next day.
16
Additionally, the reductionist belief that basic skills (e. g., sound-
let ter relationship in reading) need to be acquired before higher order
skills (e. g., analyzing text content for incongruous information) results
in em phasis on the teaching of isolated basic skills or strategies in a
context-free, sequential, and hierarchical m anner (Palincsar & Klenck;
1992). This bottom -up mode of instruction discourages students from
being active participants in their own learning process.
A lthough the school environm ent itself m ight contribute to
learning problem s, the only aspect of the environm ent that m ight be
changed is m aking the instructional climate m ore controlled because
the students with learning problem s are purported to learn better in
highly structured environm ents (Poplin; 1988b). The teacher becomes
the controller of content and behavior w ithin the instructional setting
since learning proceeds unidirectionally w ith the teacher as the source
of know ledge and the authority in w hat the students need to learn.
A nother notew orthy elem ent of som e rem edial instructions for
low-perform ing students is that the lesson is entirely scripted so that
teachers and students are engaged in completely contrived social
interactions devoid of negotiation for m eaning (Erickson; 1984).
Goodlad (1984) surveyed 38 U. S. schools and found that the use of
scripted interaction was quite prevalent. Poplin (1988b; p. 395) states
that "[the] m ore control, the less the context; the less the context, the
less meaning" resulting in the inability for learners to generalize skills
or strategies. Additionally, the use of scripted lessons "emphasized rote
learning and student passivity, facts and low level questions, and low
17
level cognitive functions" (Tharp, 1993; p. 271). Since the teacher is the
controller of learning, there is little dialogue or interactive teaching
within the classroom and students are reinforced for being passive
learners.
The need to control students with low reading levels is based on
research findings that there is a higher incidence of behavior problems
among these students. However, W adsworth (1971) states that when
children become interested in learning (which has valid reasons for
them), they are able to learn at an accelerated rate and as they spend
more time on their learning task, they will have less time available for
m aladaptive behaviors.
2.4 The Role of Assisted Performance in Learning
Tharp (1993; p. 272) states that assisted performance:
1) Begins with the child's current level of understanding,
(2) consequently allows the child a meaningful role in the
setting of the instructional task or goal, (3) includes
helping behaviors by the teacher that assist the student to
pursue these goals and move from that level to the next,
by (4) pulling performance from the child, so that a
productive communication or creation by the child is the
vehicle for new knowledge. When teachers assist
performance in this way, they are clearly responsive to the
students' previously existing knowledge base or
performance capacity, and remain responsive to advances
in the students' capacities. They do not work from a
predefined recitation script, but act responsively and
flexibly to reach instructional goals.
The enriching learning environment that is characteristic of a
socioculturally-based classroom can be also be attributed to the modes
18
of assisted performance being utilized. According to Gallimore and
Tharp (1990), assisted performance is viewed as the process by which
the students have pieces of information necessary to construct a
meaning, and the teacher helps by giving the structure and questions
that induces the construction of the information and its organization.
In other words, the learning process is "assembled" from the "separate
contributions" of both the student and the teacher (Gallimore & Tharp;
1990).
The rationale behind the use of assisted performance to foster
student learning is based on Vygotsky's argum ent (Moll, Diaz, Estrada,
S c Lopes, 1992; p. 342) that:
. . . as children internalize the kind of help they receive
from others, they eventually come to use these means of
guidance to direct their own subsequent problem-solving
behaviors. That is, children first perform the behaviors
appropriate to completing a task under someone else's —
usually the teacher's— guidance and direction, before they
can complete the task competently on their own. This
shift in control of the task constitutes learning. To say
that a child is working independently is roughly
equivalent to saying that he is carrying on an interaction
"in his head."
In other words, the student's learning is encouraged by providing
him /h er with the strategies necessary to complete the task through
scaffolding so that the student will be able to generalize and utilize the
acquired strategies independently and competently. However,
Greenfield (1984; p. 120) cautions that scaffolding does not imply
"simplifying the task" but "it holds the task difficulty constant, while
19
simplifying the child's role by means of graduated assistance from the
adult or expert"
Assistance as advocated by Vygotsky is embedded in the different
modes of assisting performance which include going through the
entire demonstration of how a problem could be solved and asking
children to repeat i t initiating a solution, and encouraging the student
to complete i t or by asking leading questions.
Gallimore and Tharp (1990; p. 177) delineate six means of
assisting performance and they are: modeling, contingency managing,
feed back, instructing, questioning, and cognitive structuring.
Modeling is viewed "a powerful means of assisting
performance" (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; p. 47) whereby the teacher
provides the students with a model of the desired behavior for
imitation. For instance, if a classroom teacher would like h is/h er
students to engage in higher level cognitive reasoning (e.g., synthesis
and evaluation of information), the teacher must engage the students
in such higher levels of thinking by asking questions that deal with
more than mere facts.
Contingency managing is a method of assisting performance that
utilizes rewards and punishments following whether a desired
behavior occurs. Reinforcements can occur in the form of "praise and
encouragement, material reinforcement or consumable or privileges."
The focus here is on positive behaviors and rewards.
Tharp and Gallimore (1988; p. 51) add that "punishment is
radically restricted to the loss of some positive opportunity ("timeout"
20
or removal from a social situation) or to brief, firm reprimands." In
addition, Tharp and Gallimore (1988; p. 52) believe that "contingent
praise" can also be utilized to provide "modeled reinforcement for the
entire group."
Feed back is a means of providing students with vital and
accurate information about their performance particularly when it is in
reference to some standards. However, Gallimore and Tharp (1990; p.
180) state that merely providing information is not feedback because
students need to know how they are doing in relation to some set
standards.
Instructing is an essential aspect of assisting performance because
"the instructing voice of the teacher becomes the self-instructing voice
of the learner" (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990; p. 181). Instructing can only
be expected to occur when teachers are responsible for assisting
performance instead of expecting students to learn on their own. An
example of effective instruction would be when the classroom teacher
encourages students to think about the main theme in a story they read
(Tharp & Gallimore, 1988).
Questioning is the mode of implicit instruction and requires
active linguistic response by provoking students to think. Tharp and
Gallimore (1988, p. 59) believe that questioning is a central mechanism
in education because it instantiates the use of language and in doing so,
"assists thinking." According to Gallimore and Tharp (1990; p. 182), the
two advantages to inclusion of questions are that: (a) it activates
students mentally and verbally; and (b) "the teacher will be able to
21
assist and regulate the students' assembly of evidence and their use of
logic" during the exercise of the students' speech and thought. In
addition, if the teacher only lectures, he/she will never learn what the
students are thinking (Tharp S c Gallimore, 1988).
In short, the type of questioning inherent in assisting
performance attempts to tap into the student's higher levels of
cognitive functioning (e. g., analysis of text instead of merely citing
explicit facts within reading texts). Gallimore Sc Tharp (1990; p. 182) call
these type of questions "assistance questions" because they attem pt to
instantiate mental operations that the student is not able to produce
independently. In other words, assistance questions are used to modify
instruction to the student's zone of proximal developm ent through
scaffolding the student’ s responses and questions about the subject
m atter.
Cognitive structuring assists performance by organizing,
evaluating, grouping, and sequencing perceptions, memory, and
actions. GallimoTe & Tharp (1990; p. 182) delineate two types of
cognitive structuring: Type I and Type II. Type I provides structure for
thinking and acting and seeks to organize perception in a novel way (e.
g., explanation that molecular activity increases with higher
tem perature resulting in expansion of gases) by relating new
information to old information.
An example of cognitive structuring 1 is seen in the interaction
between the classroom teacher ~BL— and one of her students where
22
she utilizes what the student knows to enable her to understand the
explanation requested:
DN: What's a syllogism?
BL: It's a thought. .. Syllogism is a two-part analogy. "All
students in the school like rap music; therefore, DN likes
rap music." "All staff members in this school drive
Mercedes Benz; therefore, BL drives a Mercedes Benz."
(Field Notes for 1/21/93).
Type II cognitive structuring provides structure for cognitive
activity (e. g., encouraging students to use the context of the sentence
when they come to unfamiliar word in their reading). In short, it
provides strategies and rules for gathering information. This is
supported by Butterfield and Ferretti (1988; p. 215) who found that
prompting students to use strategies (e. g., encouraging them to
rehearse to enhance memorization) encourages them to use the
strategy on other occasions.
However, Tharp (1993; p. 273) does not separate the two types of
cognitive structuring and he defines cognitive structuring as
explanations that "assists by providing explanatory and belief structures
which organize and justify new learning and perceptions, and allow
the creation of new or modified schemata.” In addition, Tharp (1993)
includes a seventh means of assisting performance that he calls task
structuring.
According to Tharp (1993; p. 273), task structuring refers to
"chunking, segregating, sequencing, or structuring task into or from
components." He adds that task structuring aids learners by
"modification of the task itself, so that the units presented to the
23
learner fit into the zone of proximal developm ent when the entire
task is beyond that zone" (Tharp, 1993; p. 273). An example of task
structuring is seen in the following interaction between BL -th e
classroom teacher— and MN, one of the students in her classroom
(Field notes on 2/11/93):
BL: Nasal. What would a nasal sound be like?
MN: Nose.
BL: Right. You can guess about anything. Even strange sounds.
MN: My m other can.
BL: Think about what the word "guttural" sounds like.
MN: Green and slimy. Like when you belch.
BL: Guttural. What’ s that like? You can look it up in the
dictionary. You're close. You're thinking about sounds and
that's how it is.
MN: It's like Hawaiian music.
BL: It's like /g u tn ab en /, /guttentak/. There's a lot of examples
in German.
Tharp and Gallimore (1988; p. 56) state that "instructing,
questioning, and cognitive structuring are specifically linguistics,"
signifying an interactive verbal interaction between the teacher and the
students. They add that while instructing requires "specific action,"
questioning instantiates linguistics response, and cognitive structuring
provides the students with a structure for organizing information in
relation to one another (Tharp and Gallimore, 1988; p. 56).
Tharp (1993; p. 272) states that "teaching consists of assisting
performance through the zone of proximal development [ZPD]" and
occurs when "assistance is provided at points in the ZPD at which
performance requires assistance." Tharp (1993; p. 271) suggests that
teaching be "redefined as assisted performance" and since it happens
24
when performance is attained with assistance, "teaching is not only
assessing learners, it is assisting them."
Wertsch (1985; p. 71) notes Vygotsky's caution against the over
utilization of instruction since "instruction is good only when it
proceeds ahead of development" because it then activates "an entire set
of functions which are in the state of maturing," lying within the zone
of proximal development. Vygotsky (1978; p. 85) believes that despite
the empirically established fact that "learning should be matched in
some m anner to the child's developmental level/' we should not
constrain ourselves to merely establishing developmental levels "if we
wish to discover the actual relations between the development process
to learning capabilities."
Wood (1989; p. 76) states that there is a tendency to teach
students with learning problems at the "lower boundary" of the zone
of proximal development and consequently, underestim ating what
they might be able to attain. In addition, intention to scaffold these
students also tend to lead to over-scaffolding (as in merely providing
them with the right answer for a comprehension question instead of
trying to understand what the student does not understand). Over
scaffolding fails because it fails to locate or work at the upper boundary
of the zone of proximal development of students w ith learning
problems; thereby, continually confirming that they are incompetent
(Wood, 1989).
Newman, Griffin, and Cole (1989; p. 78) assert that the strategy
utilized within the zone of proximal development is "to build the
25
level of hints up to the point where the child could play a part in the
procedure and then reducing them again until the child [is] is carrying
out the procedure [independently]." In this manner, we are able to
assess: (1) the am ount of assistance the child requires; and (2) the
speed in which the child is able to assume responsibility for carrying
out the task independently once the procedure is carried out
independently (Newman, Griffin, & Cole, 1989). But in order to satisfy
these tw o purposes, we have to be certain that we do not provide more
help than needed because in doing so, we will be unable to determ ine if
the child could have accomplished the task independently.
Studies have show n that the m anner in which the perform ance
of students are assisted in the classroom has an impact on the academic
perform ance of students with learning disabilities. An exam ple can be
as seen in the use of reciprocal teaching (Palincsar and Klenck; 1992). In
their study, six first grade teachers were each observed working with a
group of six students (ranging in age from seven to ten years old) who
have learning disabilities or are emotionally im paired. Each student
group was m atched w ith a control group which listened to the same
passages selected around themes so as to provide topics for writing as
well as allow provision for the use of invented spellings. The control
group did not engage in discussion regarding the content of the reading
passages.
In contrast, the experimental group had dialogues about the
passages read as well as guided practice in the flexible application of
four concrete strategies to the task of text comprehension: questioning,
26
sum m arizing, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and a group of
students took turns m oderating discussions regarding the content of
the text they are jointly attem pting to com prehend. In the initial stages
of reciprocal teaching, the teacher modeled the types of strategies
through implicit instruction while discussing the reading text with the
students.
Palincsar and Klenck (1992) imply that the use of different means
of assisted performance with learning disabled students during
reciprocal teaching have shown to be successful in encouraging these
students to actively participate in the negotiation of m eaning of what
they read and write. The outcomes that Palincsar and Klenck (1992)
noted were as follows:
• Increase in students' willingness to take risks w ith the content of
their reading and writing;
• Increase in the am ount of w riting with use of invented spelling,
experim enting with vowels, consonant blends, and digraphs;
• The students began to generate more complete thoughts in their
w riting (where research have shown that they were incapable of
doing so);
The successful use of assisted performance can also be seen in a
three-year observational study conducted by Englert (1992). The study
examined the effectiveness of instructing students in contexts where
classroom dialogues were held about expository text structures and
w riting strategies when students were involved in the whole writing
process.
27
During the first year of her study, Englert (1992) observed eight
regular education and eight resource room teachers' instructional
practices as they taught writing to fourth and fifth grade students. The
observations reveal that none of the teachers successfully modeled
their own thinking, self-talk, or strategies related to the composition
and editing of texts (Englert, 1992; p. 154). Instead these teachers tended
to assume that "students would learn to write simply by being asked to
write, and by receiving instruction that emphasized directions and
assignment" (Englert, 1992; p. 154). These teachers also did not
emphasize the social nature of writing or writing for real audience and
did not incorporate the collaborative experiences in their writing
instructions. Englert (1992; p. 154) states that by "assigning writing
topics and serving as primary audience for students' ideas," these
teachers invariably reduced the students' opportunity to perform as
authentic writers who choose their own topics and write for different
audiences and purposes.
Upon implementation of the Cognitive Strategy Instruction in
W riting (CSIW) where the teacher modeled the cognitive functioning
inherent in the writing process and worked collaboratively with the
students on writing projects, Englert (1992) observed that:
* Students with learning disabilities could make significant gains
in their abilities to produce text structures, as well as to
generalize their knowledge to compose texts on self-selected
topics;
28
• The students with learning disabilities also show ed increased
language and thought processes related to planning, editing, and
revising their texts (Englert et al, 1991).
• There was the greatest performance gains in transfer measure
"in classrooms of teachers w ho em phasized the holistic and
strategic nature of writing using dialogic and scaffolded
instruction to apprentice students in the strategies of w riting, to
prom ote students' ow nership of the w riting strategies, and to
em phasize the literacy and social com m unity to which students
were a part" (Englert, 1992; p. 169).
Englert's (1992) major finding is that students began to internalize and
utilize strategies that teachers m odeled during the writing process.
In sum m ary, we can infer that assisted perform ance plays a
significant role in the learning process and its utilization in the
classroom instruction of students with learning disabilities need to be
more closely examined. Of special interest In this research study is how
assisted perform ance is being utilized in the classroom instruction of
students placed in special education program s and w hat the em phasis
is (in term s of the cognitive processing levels) during these instances of
assisted performance.
2.5 Levels of Cognitive Processing
Bloom's Taxonomy provides an interesting perspectives as a
means of examining the nature of assisted performance in a special
education classroom. The taxonomy has been widely used in
29
educational practice for forty years and is still being currently utilized as
a measure of the attainment of instructional goals in the classroom.
Anderson (1994; p. 134 -135) succinctly supports this rationale as
follows:
. . . researchers who used the Taxonomy in their studies of
classroom instruction have learned that helping students
master different types or levels of objectives require
different teaching methods and instructional strategies. .. .
[Fewer] than one third of questions asked or the tasks
assigned by teachers require students to engage in higher-
order thinking. . . . [However, when] teachers use higher-
order or assign higher-order tasks their students generally
are able to engage in higher levels of thinking.
Therefore, it can be substantiated that in order for students to engage in
higher levels of cognitive processing, the classroom teacher needs to
assign assignments that encourage students to engage in these very
thought processes.
According to Englert (1992), Vygotsky's work implies that
students acquire cognitive processes in social interactions that happen
between a teacher and students in an educational setting. The
acquisition of higher cognitive processes occurs when the teacher
"[initially], models the self-talk and vocabulary related to the cognitive
process while performing the actions in the process" (Englert, 1992; p.
158). In time, the students will take over the control of the actions and
will be able to engage in the cognitive processes independently and
efficiently.
Consequently, Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
provides an interesting perspective in terms of the focus in the
30
utilization of the respective means of assisting performance. Bloom
(1956) states that the taxonomy of cognitive domain exists in a
hierarchy where each levels builds upon the skills and abilities which
are lower in the classification order. The six hierarchical levels of
Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain are knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Bloom (1956; p. 32) views knowledge as the foundation of critical
thinking or problem solving since students need to utilize their
knowledge of facts and principles in problem solving. Knowledge can
be defined as recall or recognition of a variety of information (Bloom,
Hasting, and M addaus, 1971a; Reinhart, 1991a). The knowledge level
focuses on facts which are readily available from the text that students
read and does not require any manipulation of the information.
Com prehension indicates that the student "understands" or
"internalizes and systematizes the knowledge" (Bloom, Hasting, and
Maddaus; 1971a). Reinhart (1991a) adds that comprehension involves
being able to organize and selects the important facts and ideas.
The third level of the cognitive domain is application which
requires "the use of abstraction in particular and concrete situations"
and "may be in the form of general ideas, rules of procedures, or
generalized methods" (Bloom, Hasting, and Maddaus, 1971b; p. 159).
According to Bloom, Hasting, and Maddaus (1971b; p. 159 -161),
application is frequently viewed "as an indication that a subject has
been adequately mastered". This means that the subject is able to
utilize the facts, rules, and principles to solve a problem within a new
31
situation without being prompted so that solving the problem does not
merely entail memorizing the situation or to an exact m anner of
solving a similar problem in class (Bloom, Hasting, and Maddaus;
1971b; Reinhart, 1991a; Bloom, 1956).
Analysis involves breaking down information into its parts so
that the im portant and main ideas can be separated from the
supporting examples (Bloom, 1956). Bloom, Hasting, and M addaus
(1971b; p. 177) believe that being able to analyze a problem is "a complex
ability" that utilizes knowledge, comprehension, and application but
transcends them. In summary, "anal- sis requires the student to "see"
the underlying machinery, devices, and ideas employed in a document,
which can only be inferred from what the author of the
communication has done” (Bloom, Hasting, and M addaus, 1971b; p.
177). Bloom, Hasting, and Maddaus (1971b; p. 177) add that analysis is
"very im portant to use where a deeper understanding is required
before decisions are reached, problems are attacked, or significant
evaluations are made."
The fifth level of Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain is
synthesis which entails combining the parts to form a whole so as to
construct a structure that was not clearly evident initially (Bloom,
Hasting, and Maddaus, 1971c). Bloom (1956) states "[synthesis] draws
upon many sources of information" and recombining "these into a
structure or pattern" not previously evident. While knowledge,
comprehension, application, and analysis em phasize convergent
thinking where there is only one correct answer that is already known
32
in advance; synthesis focuses on divergent thinking where the right
solution is unlikely known at the onset and allows more creativity in
arriving to solutions to a problem.
Finally, evaluation entails the development of opinions,
judgements, and decisions (Reinhart, 1991b). According to Bloom,
Hasting, and M addaus (1971c; p. 204), evaluation entails the use of
"criteria and standards for appraising the extent to which particulars
are accurate, effective, economical, or satisfying." In addition, the
judgm ent can either be quantitative or qualitative with the standards
being either determined by or provided to the student (Bloom, Hasting,
and M addaus, 1971c; Bloom, 1956). Bloom (1956; p. 185) adds that
evaluation is connected with "affective behavior where likes, values,
and enjoyment forms the central processes."
In Sol man and Rosen's (1986) experiment involving high school
students who were required to complete task item at each level of
Bloom's Taxonomy, they found that as the task becomes more
complex, fewer students were able to complete the task successfully
with highest level of performance noted for the knowledge items and
lowest for evaluation items. Consequently, this implies that
educational objectives can be divided into two categories of cognitive
function with the knowledge, comprehension, application, and
analysis forming the low levels of cognitive functions. On the other
hand, evaluation and synthesis fall into the high levels of cognitive
processing. Additionally, operations that involve synthesis and
33
evaluation "result in better memory of information manipulated"
(Solman & Rosen, 1986; p. 260).
2.6 Assisted Performance and Cognitive Processing Levels
In observations of transactions between teachers and students in
a mixed ability classroom, Kerry (1984) found that out of 1638 teachers-
students transactions:
• 45 percent involved behavior and classroom management;
• 46 percent pertained to instruction; and
• Slightly less than ten percent required some form of thinking by
students, instead of recall of what had been previously taught.
Kerry's (1984) study implies that interactions within a classroom of
students with mixed ability tends not to foster higher levels of
cognitive processing.
In addition, Korinek (1987) conducted a study involving the
nature of questioning of fourteen teachers who forty-five taught
elementary level students who are learning disabled, educable
mentally retarded, or emotionally handicapped. The third and fourth
grade students were divided into groups of two to five students. The
questions addressed in this study during reading instruction include:
questions asked to initiate interactions; follow-up strategies; the
relationship between selected teacher questioning variables and
students’ responses to written and oral questions in reading; and the
nature of the relationship between student responses to oral questions
34
posed and written questions on the Ginn reading series mastery test
covering the same content.
Korinek (1987) found that these teachers asked mostly recall or
factual questions and rarely asked opinion, amplification, or behavioral
questions. Additionally, the feed back they provided were primarily
telling or confirmation feed back and general praise when students
provide correct responses. Incorrect or lack of response were usually
proceeded by focusing or cueing prom pts or telling or giving
information (Korinek, 1987).
The necessity in including high levels of cognitive functioning
is also evident in a study conducted by Renninger (1988). In a
comparison of effects of fifth and sixth grade students' performance
with tasks of mathematical word problems and reading
comprehension, Renninger (1988) found that students tended to be
more proficient in both their reading and mathematical performances
when "the passages or w ord problems involved contexts that included
high levels of knowledge and high levels of value (interest context)
rather than contexts that involved high levels of knowledge but low
levels of value (noninterest context)."
2.7 The Learning Environment in Literacy Instruction of Students
in Special Education
Morsink and Lenk (1992; p. 34) identify four conditions that can
benefit special education students and they are:
(a) learning in collaboration with others, (b) technology
and resources outside school, (c) flexibility to permit
35
unified study, and (d) students' ownership of new ideas in
their own language, with individual ways to improve
competence. . .
In fact, studies dealing with the use of cooperative learning have
revealed that students with handicaps (including those with learning
disabilities and emotional disorder) attain higher achievement in
cooperative learning than individual learning situations (Johnson et
al, 1985; Johnson & Johnson, 1984, 1982).
On the contrary, Duffy's (1983) observations of classroom
instructions reveal that "many teachers are almost obsessed with
establishing and maintaining routines for [competing] skill sheets.”
Consequently, "discussion of comprehension questions was almost
always done in a rush, and that teachers spent hardly any time
explaining concepts, probing students, providing feed back, or
clarifying" (Gersten & Dimino, 1993; p. 7). Duffy (1983) also found that
teachers do not tend to take the time to pause "to listen to what
Advocates of the holistic approach (Gersten & Dimino, 1993;
Goodman & Goodman, 1990; Altwerger, Edelsky, & Flores, 1986;
Goodman & Goodman, 1990; Kucer, 1986) emphasize the utilization of
authentic texts or learning activities. Wolman (1991) compared
sensitivity to causal stories by children with mild mental retardation,
learning disabilities, and without disabilities. In his study, Wolman
(1991) manipulated two stories to obtain a cohesive and non-cohesive
version. He found that children with mild disabilities recall less of the
stories than those without disabilities although all groups recall the
cohesive stories better than the non-cohesive version.
36
Gersten and Dimino (1993; p. 7) state that whole language
instruction is based on the belief that "students will emulate the risk-
taking, the probing, and the sense of experimentation that the teacher
provides.” The teachers models the notion that "questions have many
correct answers" as well as "utilize literature that deals with complex
hum an issues" instead of "simplified, abridged versions."
Fisher and Hiebert (1990) observed 40 days of instruction in
classrooms which were implementing whole language programs in
grades two to six and found that many aspects of instruction that were
superior to conventional basal instruction. Their findings show that,
in whole language programs (Fisher & Hiebert, 1990):
• Students spent significantly more time on literacy and writing
tasks.
• Literacy assignments and projects were more cognitively
dem anding (only 38 percent for second graders and 32 percent of
task) focused on the knowledge and comprehension levels). In
contrast, in the skill based basal programs, 93 percent of the task
assigned to the second grade and 80 percent of the task assigned
to sixth grade students emphasized knowledge and
com prehension.
• Students had much more to say about the type of assignment
they engage in.
Bruner and Bomstein (1989) state that cognitive development
appears more likely when participants collaborate at attaining
intersubjective understanding of the problem and solving the problem.
37
They add that if one of the participants dominates the interaction, or if
participants argue, or when participant are not engaged in the task,
interaction is likely to be less successful (Bruner & Bomstein, 1989).
Tharp (1993; p. 271) supports this argument when he states that "joint
activity requires dual input, which in turn allows a sharing of
perspectives, and encouraging shared understanding."
The em phasis in the holistic/constructivist classroom "is not on
the transmission of knowledge or skills in prepackaged forms in the
hope that these skills would be internalized in the form transmitted"
but "on joint literacy activities mediated by the teacher intended to
help children obtain and express meaning in ways that would enable
them to make this knowledge and meaning their own" (Moll, 1989).
For in order for students to personalize knowledge, they do "not
simply link it to the familiar" but "makes the familiar an instance of a
more general case and thereby produce awareness of it" (Bruner, 1966;
p. 4).
According to Bruner (1966; p. 4), his study of children with
learning problems at the Judge Baker Guidance Center revealed that
once the "blocked" children were able to understand the problems that
were given to them within a "conflict-free" context, they performed
like other children although they were less skilled because they had not
learned to handle the technical instruments they were supposed to be
learning.
Graham (1992; p. 136) states that "[some] experts suggested that
the writing problems of students with LD are a direct consequence of
38
the heavy em phasis that special education teachers place on
m echanics.” Consequently, students with learning disabilities tend to
"over-em phasize the mechanical end of w riting" (Graham & Harris,
1992; p. 49) because most of w hat has been deem ed w riting instruction
for these students has focused "almost exclusively on practicing 'basic'
skills such as spelling, handw riting, and gram m ar." Hence, Graham
and Harris (1992; p. 49) believe that "m ore attention needs to be given
to the substantive aspects of w riting, including cognitive and
metacognitive w riting strategies, for students w ith learning
disabilities."
Graham and Harris (1989) conducted a study which involved
teaching a strategy designed to facilitate the production, framing, and
planning of text to three students with learning disabilities. Their
study revealed that following training, there w as a positive change in
the am ount of functional elem ents the students included in their
essays and that the essays written were qualitatively superior.
A dditionally, w hen m aintenance data was collected on the three
students, tw o of the students were able ”to maintain the gains they had
dem onstrated im m ediately following training” (Graham & Harris,
1989; p. 212).
Graham (1992; p. 140) states that special education teachers too
frequently engage in writing instruction that is equivalent to
"decontextualized instruction in mechanics." Instead of engaging in
m eaningful writing, student work on "how to spell w ord lists, correctly
39
form letters, or correct the punctuation of w ord usage in sentences
w ritten by someone else” (Graham, 1992; p. 140).
Graham (1992; p. 136) points that although it is tem pting to
attribute the cause of writing difficulties of students with learning
disabilities as intrinsic to the students, "the culprit is instruction."
According to Graham (1992; p. 136), the reason these students have an
insufficient background knowledge about w riting and utilize
"ineffective or im m ature com posing strategies is that they have not
been given adequate opportunities or instruction to develop
competence in these areas."
The practice of sim plifying reading and writing processes
increases the frustration levels of students with learning problem s
because they are forced to complete worksheets they do not understand
and are not able to complete satisfactorily. For instead of simplifying
learning, "by teaching reading and writing, or any other higher forms
of learning, as isolated skills we strip away m eaning and make learning
more difficult" (Rhodes & Dudley-M arling, 1988; p. 9).
According to Graham (1992; p. 136), "special education teachers
tend to allocate time and priority to teaching reading, with little
em phasis on w riting.” He adds that they are "often hesitant and
som etim es resistant to allocating sufficient time and energy to writing
instruction" because of the fear of negative effects since the students
will not be receiving "something really im portant like reading or
m ath” (Graham, 1992; p. 136). In addition, Graham (1992; p. 136) states
that consequently, m any teachers do not allocate m uch time to writing
40
"because it is simply not important enough." This perception
contradicts the fact that reading and writing are so closely related that
"writing activities can be fostered the development of reading skills"
(Graham, 1992; p. 137).
A myth held by special education teachers is that "good writing
cannot be taught" despite the argum ent that "we can help children,
including those with a learning disability, to write in a clear and
effective manner" (Graham, 1992; p. 137).
The importance of the facilitative role of the teacher in
encouraging students to learn can be supported by a study by Roehler
and Duffy (1986). In their study of twenty-two teachers to ascertain
w hat makes one teacher a better explainer than another, Roehler and
Duffy (1986) found that "effective explanation require teachers to
verbally mediate students' attempts to make sense of reading" and they
have at least four characteristics:
1. High am ount of teacher talk early in the lesson to provide
students with information needed to use the skill;
2. Usefulness of statem ent in how to utilize the skill when
meaning breaks down and both examples and nonexamples of
situations can be used;
3. Help students assume responsibility for the control and use of
the skills by scaffolding students' performance and then
gradually decreasing assistance as "students assume
responsibility for using the skill, and by allowing students to
verbalize and clarify the thinking required"; and
41
4. Help students transfer the skill to other contexts.
Allington and McGill-Franzen (1989) compared instruction for
Chapter I and Special Education Students in grades two, four, and eight.
The study (Allington & McGill-Franzen, 1989; p. 527) indicated that:
. . . the reading or language arts instruction in special
education programs provided offered the smallest
proportion of active teaching (teacher actively directing
reading instructional activities) and the largest proportion
of seat work activities (either teacher monitored or
independent).
Allington and McGill-Franzen (1989; p. 539) also found that the
substantially greater variability in students achievement in special
education instructional groups and the em phasis on individualized
instruction often decreased classroom sessions to one in which "the
teacher simply monitored progress, checked responses, and recorded
perform ances."
The work of Levin (1988) on Accelerated Schools proves that the
environm ent is crudal in the learning process. Instead of focusing on
skill-based worksheets, accelerated schools focus on the utilization of
stim ulating instructional programs based on problem solving and
interesting applications across the curriculum. The accelerated school
program has been very successful that scores on standardized tests for
these students and school attendance have increased, vandalism has
disappeared, and referrals to Special Education classes has decreased
and is only sanctioned for extreme circumstances (McCarthy & Levin,
1992).
42
According to Levin (1988; p. 5), language use is emphasized
across the curriculum, even in mathematics, and the emphasis in the
program is on "interesting applications of new tools to everyday
problems and events to stress the usefulness of what is being taught
and learned to introduce a problem-solving orientation."
McCarthy and Levin (1992) state that [the] curriculum of the
accelerated school provide a rich framework within which teaching
and learning take place and it is designed to enable students to think
and act at high levels of complexity by providing with relevant,
motivating, and challenging experiences and materials.
Students within these Accelerated Schools are also encouraged
to w rite and read for meaning with an authentic communicative
purpose (e. g., two students choosing to write a letter — using their
knowledge of the continent- to the Principal of the school to tell her
about where they are as they travel on their make-believe ship to
Antarctica). This endorses W adsworth's statement when he states that
when students become interested in learning or have a reason that is
valid to them (i. e., when pleasant things happen to them), then they
can learn at an accelerated pace; consequently, as they spend more time
on their learning activities, they will have less time for maladaptive
behavior (1971),
This is as found by Fine (1989) who studied the impact of
utilizing collaborative writing with students who have behavioral
disorders attending different types of special education programs. In
his study, the writing agenda was determined by the group while the
43
teacher served as facilitator and participant. The findings show that
students took more control over what they write on when they have
control over the writing topic (Fine, 1989). In contrast, Lindsey's
observational research on students with learning disabilities shows
that when these students were given the choice of either writing a story
or copying a story written by the teacher and the class, the invariably
coped the teacher's story. Consequently, by doing so, they spend a good
deal of time each day completing assignments with little meaning and
little potential for cognitive development (Lindsey, 1990).
2.8 Research Questions
Ysseldyke, Thurlow, Christensen, and Weiss (1987) compared
time allocated for instruction for mentally retarded, learning disabled,
emotionally disturbed, and non-handicapped Elementary students.
They found that handicapped students were not allocated as much
time for science, reading, or math as non-handicapped students.
According to Ysseldyke et al (1987), their study questions the placement
of students in special education programs since these programs do not
add to instruction provided in regular education.
Wong (1987; p. 186) states that the problem with intervention
research is that we are constantly attempting to activate some cognitive
skills or strategy that enhances learning. The underlying assumption
here is that in comparison to skilled learners, students with learning
problems have not acquired the skill or strategy targeted for training.
Hence, the intervention study often progress from a hypothesized or
44
empirically substantiated deficiency that is reported from a previous
study. Wong (1987; p. 186) believes that in doing so, we are failing to
ask the right question which is "How do successful learners acquire
that cognitive skill or particular strategy that learning-disabled students
lack?" Or the other question that needs to be asked (and will be
addressed in this study) is "What is being done in special education
program to help these students overcome the deficiency they have
been diagnosed as having?
In light of the literature review focusing on the need to examine
the type of intervention (namely, the types of assisted performance
utilized and the focus in each instance to foster cognitive
development) used to encourage learning among students with
learning handicaps, the following questions will be addressed in the
study:
1. W hat is the type and complexity of assisted performance in a
special education setting with learning handicapped students?
2. Does assisted performance vary by student ability level and type of
assignm ent?
2,9 Hypotheses
As stated earlier, the placement of students special education
programs is to provide them with individualized and personalized
instruction. However, Aulette and Algozzine (1992; p. 15) note that
"[despite] the good intentions and efforts to precisely design IEPs
[Individualized Education Programs], students in special education
45
programs are served in a separate system dissociated from the unclear
missions and intended benefits of public schools." Since the problem is
inferred to be intrinsic to the students with disabilities, the significant
role of the school environment in the learning process is not fully
addressed.
D'Alessandro (1990) supports the significance of the
sociocultural theory in the development of reading as evident in what
happened when a literature based reading program was implemented
for his emotionally handicapped children. Based on his personal
experience, D'Alessandro (1990; p. 290) found that when class
experience was utilized to write group stories, "the language was flat
and uninteresting." He states that the students had difficulty focusing
their attention on the story line and this resulted in an activity that
approached the use of word lists rather than a story that was structured
with a beginning, middle, and end.
However, when a literature based reading program was
implemented, D*Alessandro (1990) found that the students became
more involved and motivated in their reading and writing. Their
engagement in the reading and writing activities resulted in increased
word identification skills without having the students spend a great
deal of time on word attack skills. The success of the program was also
seen in improvement in standardized reading test scores, increase in
the students' abilities to sustain interest and maintain comprehension
while reading, and positive attitudes towards books (D*Alessandro,
1990).
46
Based on the notion that we need to examine the learning
environm ent of students with learning handicaps to ascertain that
assisted performance is being utilized to foster the development of
higher cognitive processes among these students, the following
hypothesis are being proposed:
1. Most instances of assisted performance will be focused on low
cognitive processing levels (that is, knowledge and
com prehension)
2. Students with high ability Teceive assisted performance aimed
at high cognitive processing levels (that is, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation).
3. Assisted performance aimed at high levels of cognitive
processing will be more associated with constructivist oriented
assignments than reductionist oriented assignments.
2.10 Conclusion
Researchers (Aulette and Algozzine, 1992; Wong, 1987) state that
they believe that special educators have spent too much time asking
the wrong questions. The emphasis on seeking the right definition,
combination of test scores, and intervention has been wasted time
because it is time taken away from providing the students with
interventions that actually work (Aulette & Algozzine; 1992).
Since the purpose of placing students in special education
programs is to provide them with individualized and personalized
instruction that will enhance their previous educational experience, it
47
is m andatory that they are provided with interventions that attain that
very goal. The issue of assisted performance plays a major role as a
form of intervention in the classroom instruction of students with
learning disabilities.
Additionally, the focus in the instances of assisted performance
is also significant and need to be examined since development is
preceded by instruction (Wertsch, 1985; Vygotsky, 1978). In order for
students to develop higher cognitive processes, they must be given the
opportunity to utilize these processes to solve meaningful and relevant
problems as supported in a study done by Craik and Lockhart (1972). In
their study, they found that students remembered more when they
were allowed to engage in processing at higher taxonomic levels (Craik
& Lockhart, 1972).
2.11 Im plications
The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the active role
learners play in their learning process and this contradicts the
commonly used practice in special education program where the
teacher becomes the one who delegates what needs to be learned.
Hence, in order for students within special education classrooms to
transcend the learning problems they have and their supposed inability
to engage in higher cognitive process, they need to be encouraged to
engage in higher cognitive processes within the classroom by
beginning to focus on the higher levels of the cognitive domain.
48
Within the framework of the objectives inherent in this
research study whereby the focus is on the means of assisting
performance in Language Arts classroom instructions of special
education students and the focus inherent in the forms of assisting
performance, the theories and ideas discussed in this chapter are of
utmost importance. Namely, the works of socioculturalist like Tharp,
Gallimore, the Goodmans, and Wertsch (among many) enable us to go
into the classroom and analyze what is being done for students who are
wanting of special assistance so that they may excel academically and to
use research gathered to better provide classroom instruction that will
enable students with learning problems to transcend their learning
abilities.
49
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Given the significance of assisted performance in the
development of cognitive processes as advocated by Vygotsky (1978),
this study attem pts to examine the use of the means of assisting
performance in relation to low versus high levels of cognitive
processing in a self-contained special education program for students
with learning handicaps.
This chapter focuses on the research methodology of this study
including the sample which represents the subject of the research
study, design of the research, instrumentation, data collection, and the
mode of data analysis.
3.1 Sample
There were thirty-five to forty students attending a child
guidance clinic (which is a self-contained special education program),
ranging from thirteen to seventeen years old. These students are best
described as youngsters with learning handicaps. The students attend
the clinic in a large metropolis after having been phased out of their
school district due to a complex combination of problems ranging from
emotional, behavior, social, and learning disorders. It should be
emphasized that the problems faced by these students exist in
combination with one another and it is often difficult to separate the
causes from the resulting problems. This was supported by a comment
50
made by the classroom teacher when asked about the nature of the
learning problems of her students.
According to the classroom teacher, it was difficult to ascertain
how the students will perform academically if the emotional problems
they exhibit did not exist due to the close relationship between the
students' emotional states and the impact of the repeated failures they
had experienced throughout their schooling.
Dr. P, the School Principal, states that "[it’ s] hard to say if the
students [at the Child Guidance Clinic] have learning disabilities"
because "they [are] all low functioning." She adds that most of the
students have emotional disorder and "the school district designates
the label on the students.” The school itself does not do any testing to
determ ine the label.
3.2 Research Site
The child guidance clinic provided a year round program,
operating from September to August with a month off for sum m er and
a week vacation for Thanksgiving and Easter. However, the students
were still required to be at school during Easter vacation but for a
shorter school day. During that time, the students were taken out to
am usement parks and picnics. In general, the students attended the
school either on a part-time or full-time basis. In the former instance,
the students attend this Clinic for part of the day and for the other part
of the day, they leave the Clinic to attend either a regular public school,
junior college, or vocational school.
51
The school population was mostly African-American and
Latinos with more than fifty percent of the population being males.
The students were mostly from low socioeconomic background. All
were bused to school by the school vans that picked up the students
from their respective homes (single parent or foster) or group homes
every m orning and then back in the afternoon. Some of the students
had been involved in delinquent behaviors such as petty crimes and
gang activities. To prevent rival gang members from fighting at the
clinic, the school ground was considered neutral territory and all gang
related paraphernalia and conversations were prohibited. To engage in
such behavior w ould result in suspension.
Upon placem ent in and throughout their education at the Child
Guidance Clinic, the students were placed in w hat the staff and the
students called the Level System. H ie Level System focused on four
basic areas of performance:
• Participation in the program ;
• Taking responsibility for their ow n personal behavior (both
socially and academically);
• Interpersonal relations by developing aw areness of and ability
to solve personal problem s in more effective ways; and
• Dem onstrating cooperation in response to staff instruction,
abiding program rules, and serving as a good behavioral
model for other students.
52
The rationale behind the use of the Level System and the associated
Point System was to assist the students to develop their self-control, act
responsibly, and feel better about themselves.
Reinhart (1991b) states that the target behaviors are specified
when the point system is developed as in the Level System set up by
this school. Consequently, the behavior of the students in this school
were consistently and externally controlled since they were required to
abide by a given set of behavioral and academic rules and were
observed by all staff members throughout the day, even during break,
physical education, or field trips. At this child guidance clinic, the
students attended classes and underwent both individual and group
counseling sessions.
There were four classrooms in the school. Each classroom
usually had students who ranged in age, grade level, and degrees of
learning, social, emotional, and behavioral problems. Hence, the
population In a particular classroom was quite heterogeneous in terms
of the diagnosis of problems the students had. When asked about the
logistics regarding the placement of students in specific classroom, the
principal stated that placement depended on the compatibility of the
respective student with the classroom atmosphere and the capability of
the classroom teacher. The objective in placing students in a specific
class was to maintain a balance in the classroom so as not to stress the
teacher and to not have too many students with behavior disorders in
one class, instead more students with severe emotional disorder and
learning disabilities were preferred.
53
The classroom that was selected as the research site was the most
accessible and the classroom teacher was the most receptive to having a
classroom observer for the duration of the study. In addition, the
principal thought that it would be the best environm ent for the
classroom observations since the students were not oppositional and
my presence in the classroom would not distract the students or affect
the day-to-day activities of the classroom.
The principal categorized the students in the classroom as non-
oppositional with mostly psychiatric or neurological problems.
The num ber of students in the class that I observed constantly
fluctuated due to the constant movement of students in and out of the
classroom to and from counseling, speech therapy, suspension,
absenteeism, being sent to the Officer of the Day for behaving
inappropriately in class, or doctor's appointments. There was also a
high turnaround of the teacher's aides for the d ass that I was
observing.
3.3 Design
This study was naturalistic and descriptive in nature through
the utilization of dassroom observations. The study was designed to be
non-obtrusive and non-interventionist so that the dynamics of the
classroom was observed in its natural and normal everyday state.
The research focused on dassroom observations where
classroom instructions in Language Arts took place. Lincoln and Guba
(1985; p. 273} support the use of direct observations because they
54
provide in-depth information about the here-and-now experience.
The focus in this study was on the instances of assisted
performance by the classroom teacher with individual students within
the context of the different types of assignments (that is, engaging skill-
based worksheets, teacher assigned writing assignment, teacher
assigned reading assignment, or independent reading). Activity
settings that were observed were interactions within which assisted
performance occur were observed when students were engaged in
classroom assignments with the teacher.
The activity setting that was the focus of this study was the
interaction between the classroom teacher and individual students or
all the students during the Language Arts period. The emphasis was
on how and w hat the classroom teacher assisted the performance of the
students as they attem pt to encourage these students to become better
learners.
The instances of individual learning activity accompanied by
assisted performance formed the unit of analysis. This was because it is
within this unit of analysis that "the social process common to
participants from which cognitive processes and structures of meaning
develop, and activity settings are therefore the units by which
community and cultural life are propagated" (Tharp, 1993; p. 270).
The focus of the observations in these classroom instructions
was on the types of means of assisted performance being utilized by the
classroom teacher to assist in the student's learning, the types of
reading or writing assignments utilized and selected by the students to
55
work on, and the meaningfulness of teacher selected writing
assignments in relation to the different levels in the cognitive domain
as well as which students were involved.
3.4 Instrumentation
The students were grouped in terms of their ability levels. Table
3.1 shows the low versus high ability breakdown of the students in the
classroom and the characteristics of students in each group. The
teacher rating of a student's level can be inferred in terms of the types
of classroom assignment she assigned to each individual student. The
ability rating derived by the researcher was verified by the school
principal and the classroom teacher.
Table 3.1
Sum m aryofD escriPtion of Students A ccordingto Ability Grouping
Description of Student Grouping
Students High Ability Low Ability
Interaction with
classroom teacher
interactions include
discussion that
encourage expression
of opinion, not
limited to assistance
with assignment
interactions were
limited to assistance
with assigned skill-
based worksheets
Demonstrated literacy
ability
able to read and write
independently
unable to read and
write w ithout
assistance, emphasis on
w ord level when
reading (e. g.,
pronunciation)
56
Table 3.1 (Continued)
Summary of Description of Students According to Ability Grouping
Description of Student G rouping
______ Students ~ High Ability Low Ability
Classroom
assignm ent
Classroom behavior
Help seeking
behavior
reading
com prehension
passages,
independent reading,
teacher selected
writing topic
more focused on
assignments,
motivated to
complete task,
cooperative
calls the classroom
teacher when need
assistance
skill-based worksheets,
copies writing topic
from the blackboard,
coloring pictures
more easily distracted
in the classroom,
learning avoidance
behavior noted,
disruptive, daydreams
sits and waits until the
classroom teacher
comes around
The classroom assignments were analyzed in terms of whether
they were skill-based or more constructivist. It should be emphasized
that the evaluation and rating of the classroom assignments and the
coding of the different means of assisted performance were tested for
inter-coder reliability and a 85 percent consistency was attained. This
was achieved when a sampling of the field notes were given to three
separate independent coders and the coding examples as seen in
A ppendix B was explained.
Table 3.2 shows the differences in the characteristics of a skill-
based/reductionist and the holistic/constructivist that was used to
evaluate the three types of assignments being utilized in the classroom
57
(that is, skill-based worksheets that emphasize phonics analysis or
word attack skills or reading comprehension, teacher assigned writing
topic, and independent reading assignment.
Table 3.2
Elements of Skill Based/Reductionist versus Holistic/
Characteristics of
Assignm ents
Skill-
based/Reductionist
Holistic/
Constructivist
Focus skills or language
parts (e. g., phonics
analysis in reading)
cognitive processes or
strategies
N ature of Language
Use
constrained natural and
m eaningful
Goal of Activity deductively learn
and practice skills in
a hierarchical
m anner
generate meaning and
inductively learn the
literacy process
Reason for Activity leam to practice
isolated skills in
non-authentic ways
leam to use literacy for
functional or
authentic purposes
and in functional or
authentic ways
T hinking convergent with a
single response
divergent with
various correct
responses
Context of Activity independent and
individualistic
collaborative and
social
58
The meaningfulness of teacher selected writing assignments was
assessed utilizing Graham's (1992) criteria for meaningfulness of the
task. The three criteria are as follows:
1. Will the student's writing be aimed at an authentic audience?
2. Is the task interesting or im portant to the students?
3. Is the task designed to serve a real purpose?
The meaningfulness of the assignment to the students were
analyzed in relation to how the students reacted to the teacher selected
writing topic in terms of the focus on cognitive processes in instances
of assisted performance involving students. The meaningfulness of
the assignments were rated on a scale of one (low) to five (high) (See
Appendix A for ratings of teacher assigned writing topic).
Additionally, given the option of working on the teacher
assigned writing topic or on skill-based worksheets (or in one instance,
independent reading), the student selection of assignment were also
noted for each observation day.
The six means of "assisting performance" (Gallimore 6 c Tharp,
1990; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Tharp, 1993) in assisted performance
that were observed and analyzed are modeling, contingency managing,
feed back, instructing, questioning, and cognitive structuring.
Modeling is the process of "offering behavior for imitation"
(Tharp, 1993; p. 272). Tharp (1993; p. 272) states that modeling provides
the learner with information and "a remembered image that can serve
as performance standard."
59
Contingency managing is a means of assisting performance
"through the application of the principles of reinforcement and
punishment" (Tharp, 1993; p. 273). This process "includes social
reinforcements of praise and encouragement, material consumables or
privileges, tokens and symbolic rewards" (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990; p.
179). The focus here will be on positive behavior and positive rewards.
An example of contingency managing as advocated on the research site
is to give points to students who began work when they were told to do
so, stayed on task, and completed assigned task satisfactorily and
appropriately.
Feed back guides the students to substantial improvements in
performance on the next try. During feed back, a student is provided
with information regarding h is/h er performance in comparison to a
standard (Tharp, 1993). This means simply providing information is
not feedback particularly when there is no standard to which the
behavior is compared.
Instructing is carried out within the context of other effective
means, possibly contingency managing, feeding back, and cognitive
structuring. Instructing requires a specific action (Tharp 6t Gallimore,
1988; Tharp, 1993).
Questioning refers to the act of inquiring in order to produce a
"mental operation that the student cannot or would not produce
alone" (Tharp, 1993; p. 273). Responding yes/no to a question does not
constitute a dialogue. The aim in dialogue is to encourage students to
come to the answer with assistance instead of merely being provided
60
the answers (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990; p. 182). According to Tharp
(1993; p. 273), this interaction assists further by providing the "assistor
inform ation about the learner's developing understanding."
Cognitive structuring refers to the act of providing the students
with a "structure, [which may be] a structure for beliefs, for mental
operations, or for understanding," to encourage them to think or act
(Gallimore & Tharp, 1990; p. 182) by organizing, evaluating, and
grouping sequences of perceptions, memory, and action. Tharp (1993;
p. 273) succinctly defines cognitive structuring as "explanations."
Tharp (1993; p. 273) includes a seventh means of assisting
performance that he calls task structuring. According to Tharp (1993; p.
273), task structuring refers to "chunking, segregating, sequencing, or
structuring task into or from components." He adds that task
structuring aids learners by "modification of the task itself, so that the
units presented to the learner fit into the zone of proximal
development, when the entire task is beyond that zone" (Tharp, 1993;
p. 273).
The above mentioned means of assisting performance are
analyzed in conjunction with Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive
Domains (Lefrancois, 1988; Reinhart, 1991a) that have been simplified
to low versus high levels of cognitive processing based on the findings
of Solman and Rosen (1986). An additional level was also added to this
low versus high cognitive processing levels and refers to non-cognitive
behaviors that must be controlled and learned so that the students
would be able to engage in learning activities. This level is labeled
61
"task" and includes behaviors such as staying on task, the use of
profanities in the classroom, and appropriate behavior that m ust be
displayed at all times. (See A ppendix B for examples of assisted
performance and the respective task/low and high levels of cognitive
processing).
3.5 Data Collection
This study was conducted through the use of classroom
observations of a Language Arts classroom. Due to the sensitivity and
the need for utm ost confidentiality as requested from the principal of
the research site, the use of any recording instrument was prohibited.
Therefore, the collection of data was solely dependent on being able to
transcribe the interactions occurring within the classroom as they
occured with little opportunity to go back to review the collected data if
a tape recorder were allowed to be used. In fact, Lincoln and Cuba
(1985; p, 241) discourages tape-recording "unless there are legal or
training reasons for doing so." Therefore, the data collected and
analyzed was based on the compilation of field notes taken at the
research site and then typed at the end of each day.
The classroom observations were conducted over fourteen
separate observations with each session lasting two hours (that is, two
m orning periods per day carried out twice a week) within a seven-week
period in the spring semester. The am ount of time was considered
necessary for the researcher to see more than one type of lesson and to
obtain insight into the classroom dynamics.
62
During the Language Arts period, the students in the classroom
were given the option of either completing their assigned worksheets
(skill based phonics exercises or reading comprehension passages) that
have been placed in their Language Arts folder, writing on a teacher-
selected writing assignment that had been written on the board, or
engaging in independent reading (as part of fulfillment of completing
high school course requirements). The students who chose to work on
their assigned worksheets were also required by the classroom teacher
to copy the writing assignment written on the board onto a piece of
paper which they then place into their Language Arts folder. The
rationale behind this practice (as repeated on a num ber of occasions by
the classroom teacher) was so that the students could practice their
handw riting.
The writing assignments were rarely preceded by pre-writing
discussions and even if there was discussion, it was at a minimal level
with only one student targeted as recipient of such an interaction. Very
few students actually wrote on these writing assignments — only the
high ability students wrote on these teacher selected topics while the
low ability students tended to merely copy the assignment from the
board and then placed these completed tasks into their individual
folders.
As noted earlier, students were given access to high school text
books that they could work on to complete theiT high school
requirements. The emphasis in the classroom tended to be more
individualized instruction rather than whole classroom instruction.
63
The rationale behind this practice is that the students are all at different
levels of competency and therefore, there w as a need to provide the
students with personalized and individualized instruction.
3.6 Data Analysis
Since this study was naturalistic and descriptive in nature and
focused on the use of classroom observations, the major mode of data
analysis was analyzing instances of assisted performance between the
classroom teacher and the individual student within the Language
Arts classroom instruction in terms of the type of assisted performance,
task or low versus high levels of cognitive processing, and participants
of the study.
The data analysis of the classroom observation began with
analyses of the interactions that occurred within the Language Arts
classroom instruction to ascertain the nature of assisted performance in
the Language Arts classroom instruction. This involved analyzing the
occurrence and frequency of the different means of assisting
performance: modeling, contingency managing, feeding back,
instructing, questioning, cognitive structuring, and task structuring as
discussed in Instrum entation portion of this chapter.
The first portion of the data analysis focused on the comparative
analysis of the nature of assisting performance in terms of its frequency
and distribution within the context of the Language Arts. By focusing
on the distribution and frequency of the different means of assisting
performance and the levels of cognitive processing in relation to the
64
participants, it is hoped that the nature of how the classroom teacher
assisted the learning process of the students can be inferred. The
emphasis in these observations was on documenting the nature of the
classroom teacher's mode of assisting the learning performance of the
students in the classroom (that is, the teacher-student interaction) in
relation to the task/cognitive processing levels.
Based on this premise, the data was coded in terms of whether a
specific mode of assisting performance is focused on the task, low
cognitive processing levels (that is, knowledge and comprehension)
and high cognitive processing levels (that is, application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation). The division of the levels of cognitive
processes into low and high levels is based on the findings of Solman
and Rosen (1986).
The data collected were coded as in Appendix B. As stated
earlier, coding tests were conducted to check coding reliability across
independent objective individuals whereby the coding systems were
presented and the individuals were asked to code a sample of the field
notes. The results indicated that these individuals understood and
could utilize the coding systems as set up by the researcher. An
analysis of the cross-rater reliability whereby a random sample of the
field notes were coded by three independent and objective individuals
(utilizing the coding protocol in A ppendix B) indicated an 85 percent
inter-rater reliability.
The second portion of the data analysis entailed examining the
type of writing assignment the students were assigned in terms of the
65
meaningfulness of the teacher selected topic. The meaningfulness of
writing assignments were analyzed in relation to Graham criteria for
meaningfulness (1992) of writing assignm ent These analyses of
classroom assignment were then consolidated to assess the differences
in distribution of assisted performance, task/levels of cognitive
processes, and students' ability levels.
The third and final portion of the data analysis involved going
through the field notes to ascertain the type of assignments the
students would engage in the classroom given the choice of writing on
the teacher selected writing topic, working on teacher assigned
worksheets (which consists of either reading comprehension passages
or phonics a n d /o r word attack exercises), or independent reading to
fulfill high school course requirements.
3.7 Methodological Limitations
The prohibition of the use of an audio recording instrum ent
prevented a re-analysis of the dialogues and interactions in the
classroom that occurred Additionally, closer re-analysis of the actual
dialogues and interaction could be closely re-analyzed in terms of voice
inflection and other possible clues that m ight have enriched the data
collected. Consequently, the data collected and analyzed were based
mostly on the memory of the researcher as recorded in the field notes
and span of attention while present in the classroom.
66
3.8 Sum m ary
This chapter provided an extensive discussion of the
methodology utilized to collect data in an attem pt to study the
comparative nature of assisted performance, levels of the cognitive
domain, students' ability levels, and the types of assignments being
utilized in the classroom.
In the next chapter, the findings of the study will be examined by
utilizing the grouping of the students in terms of ability levels, the
types of assignment utilized within the classroom, and the levels of the
cognitive domain as simplified according to task and low versus high
cognitive processes.
67
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
This study examined the nature of the different means of
assisting performance in the conjunction with the different levels of
cognitive level in Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain (which has
been simplified to low versus high levels of cognitive processing),
assignments utilized, and the respective grouping of participants
during Language Arts classroom instruction of adolescents with
emotional or behavior disorders.
In this chapter, the findings of the analysis are reported in terms
the nature of assisting performance within the context of Language
Arts classroom instruction, the different individuals (who have been
categorized on the basis of ability levels) observed in the classroom, the
assignments utilized, and the task and levels of the cognitive
processing (that is, low versus high). The focus in the data collection
process w as on the interaction between the classroom teacher and
students in the classroom as she provided assisted performance to the
individual student w ith h is/h er classroom assignment.
The analyses of the data gathered from the classroom
observation during the Language Arts period revealed interesting
patterns in the nature of the different means of assisted performance in
relation to the task and low versus high levels of cognitive processing,
the participants (that is, low versus high ability), and the type of
assignments utilized in the classroom during Language Arts.
68
4.1 Analysis of Participants According to Ability Levels
Based on the criteria set in Instrum entation portion of C hapter 3,
the following grouping of students was accomplished and supported by
the School Principal, the analysis of the student classroom behavior (as
seen in the field notes), and the teacher assignments. Table 4.1
summ arizes the characteristics of the students in the classroom and
their ability levels.
As seen in Table 4.1, one of the major differences between the
low and ability students in the observed classroom is the type of
interaction engaged with the classroom teacher. While the teacher's
interaction with low ability students are more focused on assistance
with the classroom assignment, interactions with the high ability
students can be more generalized to include discussion of issues in
current affairs or even college requirements.
Another noted difference is the classroom behavior exhibited by
students in the low and high ability groups. Students in the high
ability group tended to be more motivated to work in the classroom;
conversely, students in the low ability group tended to exhibit learning
avoidance behavior or were more likely to be disruptive and
distracting in the classroom.
69
Table 4.1
jje sc n gtion of Studgnfe_ansLthgiLAfeilLtv Levels
f ImiI m i I
snocni
Name
Age Gender Ethnicity Clmarocm
Behavior
Classroom
A afcm ent
Interaction with
Teacher
Help-seeking
Behavior
A bility
Level
DN 16 female African*
American
cooperative,
able to
read/w rite
proficiently and
independently
independent
reading, writing
assignment,
reading
worksheets
engages in discussion
involving current
affairs and expression
of opinions
raises her
hand, asks for
help,
questions
high
GD 14 male African-
American
short attention
span,
hyperactive,
reads and writes
with assistance
phonics
worksheets,
merely copies
assignments from
the board
interactions were
limited to assistance
with skill-based
worksheets and
discipline
tends to be
disruptive,
requires 1-on-
1 help to stay
on task
low
IT
15 female African-
American
learning
avoidance
behavior, short
attention span,
reads and writes
with assistance
worksheets,
merely copies
assignments from
the board
interactions were
limited to assistance
with skill-based
worksheets and
discipline
just sits and
waits until
the teacher
comes along,
disruptive
low
Table 4.1 (Continued)
T V a a - l — U - — — * J ----- * -
unuipw m oraaiocm i
Student
Name
Age G o d s Ethnicity Cl—mnm
Behavior
Classroom
Aasfenment
Interaction w ith
Teacher
Help-seeking
Behavior
A bility
Level
KN 17 female African-
American
able to
read/w rite
proficiently and
independently
independent
reading, limited
m gagonentin
writing, works
independently,
reading
comprehension
worksheets
interactions include
limited discussion of
text read during
independent reading
raises hand,
asks for help,
questions
high
MN 15 male African-
American
reads/writes
independently
writing
assignment,
reading
worksheets
interactions include
expression of opinion,
not limited to
dassroom assignment
raise hand,
asks for help,
questions
high
M Y 16 female Hispanic unable to
read/w rite
without
assistance in
both first and
second language
phonics or word
attack skills
worksheets
interactions were
limited to assistance
with skill-based
worksheets
sits and waits
patiently
until the
teacher comes
along
low
Table 4.1 (Continued)
^ ________
Description of Student*
Student Age Gender Ethnicity Classroom Classroom Interaction with Help-seeking Ability
Name Behavior Assignment Teacher________ Behavior Level
NL 13 female African-
American
WL 15 male
WY 15 male
reads/ writes
with assistance,
low confidence
African-
American
African-
American
phonics or word
attack skills
worksheets,
merely copies
writing
assignment from
the board
reads/w rites reading
proficiently and comprehension
independently worksheets,
writing
assignment
reads/w rites phonics/word
with assistance, attack skills
hostile, becomes worksheets,
frustrated easily merely copies
writing
assignment from
the board
interactions were
limited to assistance
with dassroom
assignment
interactions include
discussion and
expression of opinion
a t
sits and waits
patiently
until the
teacher comes
along
raise hand,
asks for help,
questions
very limited sits and
interaction and waits,
restricted to becomes
assistance with frustrated
worksheet assignment easily, but
refuses
assistance
low
low
low
The manner in which the low and high ability students requests
for assistance (namely, their help seeking behavior) from the classroom
teacher are also noteworthy. Students in the low ability group were
more likely to sit passively and wait in comparison to high ability
students who were more verbal and interactive in seeking assistance
from the teacher.
4.2 Analysis of Classroom Assignments
This portion of the analysis focused on the examination of the
classroom assignments utilized during the Language Arts instruction.
The criteria for rating the assignments on the skill based versus
constructivist-holistic model scale is as illustrated in Table 3.2 where
the characteristics of these two models were listed.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the position of the classroom assignments
on the constructivist-reductionist continuum.
Figure 4.1
Classroom Assignments on Reductionist-Constructivist Continuum
Reductionist/ ConatnictivUt/
Skill-Based Holistic
worksheets teacher selected Independent
____________________ writing topic_____________ reading
Of the three types of assignments in the classroom, the
assignment that approached the constructivist-holistic end of the
continuum was independent reading because even though the text
read was high school texts, the students had some choice in terms of
which subject matter they would like to work on during the Language
73
Arts period. The teacher selected writing topic assignments fell in
between the holistic and constructivist continuum because the teacher
controlled the choice of the writing topic. The purpose of the teacher
selected writing topic assignments was also questionable since the
classroom teacher constantly emphasized the use of writing as a means
of practicing cursive handwriting and that the students should
"remember to pay attention to [their] punctuations" when they wrote.
There were two types of worksheets being utilized in Language
Arts instruction of these learning handicapped students: (1) skill-based
phonics or word analysis worksheets; and (2) reading comprehension
passage worksheets. The skill based phonics or word analysis
worksheets were assigned to low ability students. These worksheets
focused on separate and isolated skills through the utilization of
constrained non-authentic language since the goal was to practice the
skills so that they will be able to leam deficient literacy skills.
Consequently, these worksheets emphasized only one correct response
to the questions asked within an individualistic context
On the other hand reading comprehension worksheets were
assigned to high ability students. However, the use of reading
comprehension worksheets lacked authenticity because the students
did not have a choice in terms of what they read and the focus in the
questions following the passages emphasized convergent thinking.
Convergent thinking fosters low levels cognitive processing since only
one correct answer is allowed for each comprehension question that
follow the reading passage. Additionally, the comprehension
74
questions did not encourage the students to engage in high levels of
the cognitive processing where they apply, analyze, synthesis, and
evaluate the information inferred from the text.
In fact, students had been observed merely matching question
stems to reading passages instead of completing the reading portion
and then answering the comprehension questions that follow. Hence,
assistance requested in these instances were requests for answers, not
enhancing understanding of the reading passage. Therefore, as seen in
Figure 4.1, the worksheets were at the reductionistic end of the
reductionist-constructivist continuum.
Table 4.2 summarizes classroom assignments on the
reductionist-constructivist continuum by student ability groups during
the Language Arts period.
Table 4.2
Distribution of ClaMroom Assignments on Reductionist-Constructivist
Continuum bv Student Ability Groups and Overall Classroom Total
Students* Assignments on Continuum
Student Ability Reductionist Constructivist
Groups Worksheets Writing Independent
Assignment Reading
Law Ability Students 43 12 0
(n = 5)
High Ability Students 10 15 7
(n = 4)
Classroom Total 53 27 7
(n = 9)
As seen in Table 4.2, the breakdown of assignm ents for
individual m ember of each subgroup shows that the use of worksheets
was more predom inant for students in the low ability group while the
high ability group students were given m ore opportunities to read and
write.
The distribution of assignments for the high ability group
indicates that the students were observed engaging in more instances
of reading and writing. There were fifteen instances of students
engaging in teacher selected writing topic, ten in reading
com prehension worksheets, and seven in independent reading. Table
4.2 show s that, in contrast to students in the low ability group, high
ability students were not only more likely to engage in some form of
reading and w riting than the low ability students; but they also read
and w rote on a m ore frequent basis.
1 3 Overall Analysis of Assisted Performance
In this section of the data analysis, the notion of assisted
perform ance was analyzed in relation to the non-cognitive task level
and the low versus high levels of cognitive processing (as illustrated in
Table 4.3). There were 543 in s ta n c e s of assisted perform ance during
Language Arts in the course of eight weeks of classroom observation
for these students. Feed back was the most frequent m ode of assisting
perform ance with 153 occurrences.
76
Table 4.3
Meant of Assisting Task Cognitive Levels
Performance Total Level Low High
Modeling 14 2 3 9
Contingency Managing 48 25 6 17
Feed Back 153 89 31 33
Instructing 70 33 1 1 26
Questioning 116 43 47 26
Cognitive Structuring 30 2 27 1
Task Structuring 112 7 55 50
Classroom Total 543 201 180 162
Questioning was the second most frequent m ode of assisting the
performance of the students in this dass. Task structuring was also
frequently used with 112 noted instances. O n the other hand, as
illustrated in Table 4 3 , the least frequent mode of assisting
performance was modeling with fourteen noted occurrences.
The most frequent focus in these overall instances of assisted
performance was at the task level with 201 instances. Low levels of
cognitive processing (that is, of knowledge and comprehension) had a
frequency of 180. Finally, there were 162 noted occurrences of assisted
performance focused on high levels of cognitive processing (that is,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation).
77
4.4 Assisted Performance and Student Ability Groups
In this section of the data analysis, a comparative breakdown of
assisted performance and the student grouping will be discussed. As
illustrated in Table 4.3, feed back was the most frequently utilized mode
of assisting the performance of the students in this dass. However, a
closer examination of the nature of assisted performance in relation to
the student subgroups reveals that there were differences in the nature
of assisted performance for each ability group.
Table 4.4 illustrates the nature of assisted performance by student
ability groups.
Table 4.4
M eans of
Assisted Performance
Student Ability Groups
Low Ability
(n«5>
High Ability
(n = 4)
M odeling 10 4
Contingency M anaging 33 15
Feed Back 83 70
Instructing 40 30
Q uestioning 74 42
Cognitive Structuring 17 13
Task Structuring 86 26
TOTAL 343 200
As seen in Table 4.4, task structuring (n = 86) was the most
frequently utilized mode of assisting performance with the low ability
78
students. Feed back (n = 83) was the second most utilized mode of
assisting performance followed by questioning (n = 76) with low ability
students. The least frequent mode of assisting performance for low
ability students was modeling (n = 10).
In comparison, feed back (n = 70) was most frequently utilized
for high ability students, followed by questioning (n ■ 42), and then
instructing (n = 30). Modeling was also the least frequently used mode
of assisting performance for high ability students (n ■ 4).
4.5 Assisted Performance, Student Ability Groups, and Types of
Classroom Assignments
The final set of analysis was accomplished by separating the
distribution of the focus during assisted performance by types of
assignments and ability levels of the students. Table 4 3 illustrates the
distribution of assisted performance at the task level by assignments
and student ability groups.
Table 4.5
Assisted Performance at Task Level by Assignments on the
Reductionist -Constructivist Continuum and Student Ability Groups
Classroom Assignments on Continuum
Student Ability Reductionist Constructivist
Groups Worksheet Writing Independent
__________________________________ Assignment_____Reading
Low Ability Students 54 49 0
High Ability Students 21 56 21
As seen in Table 4.5, the focus on task during instances of
assisted performance differ across the student ability grouping as well
79
as the type of classroom assignment utilized. Instances of assisted
performance at the task level were most frequent when low ability
students were working on their worksheets and when the high ability
students were working on the teacher selected writing assignment.
However, there was no difference in the focus on task when the
high ability students were working on either their reading
comprehension worksheets or independent reading.
Table 4.6 shows assisted performance at the low cognitive
processing level in relation to the types of dassroom assignment on the
constructivist/reductionist continuum and student ability groups.
Table 4.6
Reductionist-Constructivist Continuum and Student Ability Groups
Student Ability
Classroom Assignments on Continuum
Reductionist Constructivist
Groups Worksheet Writing
Assignment
Independent
Reading
Low Ability Students 78 33 0
High Ability Students 23 28 8
As seen in Table 4.6, when low ability students were engaged in
their skill-based worksheets, the instances of assisted performance were
more frequently focused on the low cognitive processing level in
comparison to when they are working on writing assignments. The
same pattern is also apparent with the high ability students.
80
Table 4.7 illustrates the nature of assisted performance at the
cognitive processing levels when students are engaged on different
types of dassroom assignments.
Table 4.7
Assisted Performance at High Cognitive Level bv Assignment on the
Reductionist-Constructivist Continuum and Student Ability Groups
Student Ability
Classroom Assignments on Continuum
Reductionist Constructivist
Groups Worksheet Writing
Assignment
Independent
Reading
Low Ability Students 36 83 0
High Ability Students 4 32 7
It can be seen In Table 4.7 that when students in both the low
and high ability groups were engaged in the teacher selected writing
topic assignment, instances of assisted performance were more
frequently at the high cognitive processing levels in comparison to
when they were working on their worksheets. In comparing Tables 4.6
and 4.7, it can be seen that instances of assisted performance involving
both groups students tended to be focused on the high cognitive
processing levels when students were writing in the dassroom.
In this final dimension of the analysis of assignments involved
examining the difference in the nature of assisted performance when
low versus high meaningful teacher selected writing topic was utilized
during Language Arts. Table 4.8 shows assisted performance at low
cognitive processing levels during the use of low and high meaningful
teacher selected writing topic.
Table 4.8
Assisted Performance at the Low Cognitive Level during Low-High
Student Ability Writing Assignments
_______ Gioupa_______ Low Meaningful High M uningfui
Low Ability Students 3 9
High Ability Students 8 0
Table 4.9 shows the nature of assisted performance at the high
cognitive processing levels when students are engaged in teacher
selected writing assignment.
Table 4.9
Assisted Performance at the High Cognitive Level during Low-High
______________________
Student Ability Writing Assignments
_______ Groups_______ Low Meaningful High Meaningful
Low Ability Students 0 43
High Ability Students 4 4
Both Tables 4.8 and 4.9 indicates that when students in the low
ability group are engaged in meaningful high interest writing
assignments, instances of assisted performance tended to be at the high
cognitive processing levels. This implies that the students were being
encouraged to engaged in higher cognitive processing levels when they
write.
82
4.6 Summary
The chapter attem pts to provide an in-depth analysis of the
nature and dynam ic of assisted perform ance during Language Arts
classroom instruction of learning handicapped adolescents w ho were
attending a Child Guidance Clinic in a large metropolis on the west
coast. The findings of this study can be sum m arized as follows:
• The overall analysis of the classroom distribution of assisted
performance shows that there was a difference in the type of
assisted perform ance utilized by the classroom teacher when she
assisted students of different ability groups. For low ability
students, the classroom teacher tended to use task structuring
and feed back most frequently. O n the other hand, she utilized
feed back m ost frequently with the low ability students.
M odeling w as the least frequently used m ode of assisted
perform ance for both groups of students.
Differences in type of assignm ent and student grouping resulted
in differences in the complexity and type of assisted performance
being utilized in the dassroom . For low ability students, higher
frequencies of assisted performance w as noted w hen they were
encouraged to w rite than when they were engaged in
worksheets. For high ability students, the highest frequency of
assisted performance was noted during the use of teacher
selected writing topic assignment and this is best explained by
the teacher's frequent utilization of writing as the assignm ent
for high ability students.
83
Comparative analysis of the nature of assisted performance in
relation to the types of assignment utilized reveal there was a
difference in the focus of assisted performance for the different
groups. Since low ability group students were frequently
assigned phonics analysis or word attack skills worksheet and
the most frequent focus in these instances of assisted
performance were the low levels of cognitive processing.
• The comparative analysis of assisted performance when students
chose to engage in low meaningful versus high meaningful
writing assignment reveal that when low meaningful
assignment is utilized, the majority of assisted performance were
at the low cognitive processing levels. On the other hand, the
focus is on high levels of cognitive processing when students
engage in high meaningful writing assignment.
In conclusion, it can be stated that when the students (despite ability
groups) were engaged in classroom assignments that were at the
constructivist end of the reductionist-constructivist continuum , they
were more likely to engaged in higher cognitive processing levels as
reflected in assisted performance at that level. The reverse occurred
when students were engaged in classroom assignments that were at the
reductionist end of the continuum.
In the following chapter, the findings of the study will be
discussed within the context of the relevant theories and research
findings that will support the significance of the study.
84
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The purpose of this study was to examine the nature of the
different means of assisting perform ance in Language Arts classroom
instruction of adolescent w ith learning handicaps. It w as conducted in
a naturalistic and non-obtrusive m anner through the utilization of
classroom observations of students and the classroom teacher.
The analyses carried out in the study were accomplished
through exam ination of the field notes for the different m eans of
assisting perform ance classroom instruction in relation to the different
levels of cognitive processing, the individual students, the classroom
teacher, and the types of classroom assignm ents being utilized during
Language Arts classroom instruction.
The findings of the study reveal distinct and interesting patterns
in regards to the different m eans of assisting performance, the task and
cognitive processing levels, the ability grouping of the students
involved in this study, and the classroom assignm ents being utilized.
The task level was added because during the course of analyzing
instances of assisted performance, a recurring category of behavior
could not neatly placed into any of the cognitive levels. These
behavior w ere not cognitive in nature but instead w ere som ew hat
disciplinary or directive.
85
In this final chapter, conclusions draw n from the findings of this
study will be discussed to relation to existing theories and research
findings and implications for future research will be addressed.
5.1 Discussion
5.1.1 Classroom Assignments and Student Ability Groups
As mentioned earlier, there were three different types of
assignments being utilized during Language Arts classroom instruction
of the students in this study:
1. Worksheets that focus on phonics exercises and word attack
skills and reading comprehension passages;
2. Teacher selected writing topic assignments; and
3. Independent reading aimed at completing the eoursework that
contributed to high school requirements.
The worksheet assignments tended to emphasize the lower levels of
the cognitive domain (that is, knowledge and comprehension).
As seen in Table 4.2, students in the low ability group tended to
engage In more skill-based worksheets than any other type of
assignments. In fact, none of the low ability students were observed
engaging in independent reading nor were they given the opportunity
to do so in the classroom. This could be because the classroom teacher
expected these students to develop their deficient skills before they are
allowed to engage in any reading. In many instances the students
seemed focused on merely completing the assignment rather than
learn from the task.
86
Rueda (1990; p. 411) succinctly describes this situation as "rather
than defining reading and writing as integrated, functional activities
that allow one either to gain useful information about the world or to
communicate with others, many poor writers view these activities as
discrete, isolated skills to be performed for the teacher's approval."
The skill-based worksheets emphasize deficit skills in the
students since these skills are thought to be the basis for proficient
reading ability. However, since the emphasis is on subskills inherent
in the literacy process, the language within these worksheets are
constrained. Attempts to contextualize the skill-based exercises have
failed because the conjured text used to contextualize these exercises are
not interesting, meaningful, or relevant to the students while the
language used is not natural (Goodman St Goodman, 1990).
The nature of the language used in these exercises is reflected by
the goal to teach and practice the defidt skills directly. Since the skills
are thought to be hierarchical, they are taught and trained in a
sequential and hierarchical manner. This was apparent in a classroom
observation when the dassroom teacher reprim anded MY for moving
from one worksheet exercise to the next without stopping to be tested
on the completed phonic word list. BL explained to MY that she had to
be tested for spelling knowledge on each word list so that she'll know if
MY had learned the words on the previous list. This inadvertently
leads to the rationale of learning the isolated skills in non authentic
ways.
87
The convergent thinking process was fostered in the use of
worksheets (whether they are skill-based or reading comprehension in
this class) because emphasis was on the one right answer. There is no
room for creative thinking since these worksheets fosters only low
levels cognitive processing (as in knowledge and comprehension).
Invariably, students developed unique strategies for not reading the
passages in the reading comprehension worksheets before proceeding
with the comprehension exercises.
Basically, by going through the text and matching the question
stems with segments of the text, the students will be able to pick out the
one correct answer to the respective reading question. In fact, an
observation of another classroom revealed that when the students
requested for assistance, the reason was because the matching strategy
did not work. In providing assistance, the teacher's aide merely
pointed out the correct answer within the reading passage with no
scaffolding or dialogue (Gersten St Dimino, 1993; Duffy, 1983).
Despite research (Johnson et al., 1985; Johnson Sc Johnson, 1982,
1984) indicating that students with learning handicap attain higher
achievement when they are in cooperative rather than individual
learning situations, the emphasis in special education classrooms is on
providing individualized instruction. Hence, the worksheets assigned
to students fosters the individualized isolated seat work. It appeared
that the role of the classroom teacher in this study was as observed by
Allington and McGill-Franzen (1989) where the emphasis on
individualized instruction relinquished the role of the classroom
88
teacher as someone who simply monitored progress, checked
responses, and recorded performances.
Table 4.2 shows that high ability students seemed to be given
more opportunities to read and write because of their ability to read
and write independently. However, AUington and McGill-Franzen
(1989; p. 538) found that "[time] spent in seat work activities is not a
potent predictor of reading achievement generally, although active
teaching is” and seat work is most frequently utilized in special
education classes.
The lack of teacher modeling was apparent in the classroom that
formed the research site. Students were constantly assigned writing
assignments that did not foster the enhancement of higher cognitive
processing as apparent in the questions asked in teacher selected
assignments (See Appendix B). However, there were also instances
when the teacher selected writing topics closely approached the
constructivist end of the continuum. This occurred when students
used the writing assignments to communicate m eaning for an
authentic and meaningful purpose (e. g., cafeteria writing assignment).
During these instances, students used the assignment to generate
meaning and inductively learn the literacy process (Goodman &
Goodman, 1986). Additionally when this happened, students were
encouraged to be divergent and creative thinkers.
The teacher selected writing topic assignments could have been
utilized to develop higher levels of the cognitive domain (namely,
application, analysis, synthesis, and comprehension). The practice of
89
having teacher selected writing topics contradicts the finding of O'Neal
(1991) and Englert (1992). Both studies reveal that when students are in
control of their writing topics, they assume a more active role and are
more creative in their writing assignments (O'Neal, 1991; Englert,
1992). Englert (1992) also found that by assigning the writing topic, the
classroom teacher de-emphasizes the social nature of writing or writing
for real audience. In doing so, the teacher reduces the students*
opportunities to perform as authentic writers who choose their own
topics and write for different audiences and purposes (Englert, 1992).
Although the utilization of independent reading was more
constructivist in comparison to the worksheets, it still lacked necessary
elements that would make its utilization authentic and meaningful.
As stated, two students were observed engaging in independent
reading but the choice of texts used was high school English text books
that she read and copied passages. There was minimal discussion of
the topic with the teacher with great emphasis placed on low levels
cognitive functioning. This was as observed by Duffy (1983) where the
classroom teacher spent little or not time discussing comprehension
questions, explaining concepts, probing students, providing feed back,
clarifying, pausing to listen to what students thought about the story, or
ascertaining that the students understand what they have read.
Consequently, independent reading, as practiced within this
classroom, did not enable the students — KN and DN— to generate
meaning and inductively learn the literacy process. It did not allow for
divergent thinking since KN and DN did not engage in any exercises or
90
activities following their readings that encouraged them to do so. The
classroom teacher also did not encourage KN and DN to engage in any
higher levels of cognitive processing upon her com pletion of the
assignm ent by engaging them in such high level cognitive activities.
5.L2 Nature of Assisted Performance and Student Ability Groups
The findings in this research indicates that feed back w as the
m ost frequently used m ode of assisting the perform ance of these
students. The data also show s that questioning was the second most
frequent m ode of assisting performance. The least frequent m ode of
assisting performance was modeling. This is explained by the fact that
the classroom teacher did not model any of the literacy skills that she
attem pted to foster in her students.
The m ost frequent focus in the classroom instances of assisted
perform ance w as at the task or non-cognitive level during language
arts instruction of these students. This can be supported by Kerry (1984)
w ho found that a majority of classroom transactions em phasized
classroom m anagem ent m ore than instruction and review of m aterials
taught earlier. As seen in Kerry's (1984) findings, the classroom
observed had slightly higher frequency of assisted performance at the
low than the high levels of the cognitive processing. This is explained
by the em phasis of classroom instructions aimed at the knowledge and
com prehension levels. The em phasis on task level can also be
explained by the teacher's obsession with controlling the classroom
environm ent to keep the students on task (Duffy; 1983)
91
The comparative analysis of the respective student ability groups
in the study revealed that the different groups received different types
of assisted performance at task and low versus high levels of the
cognitive domain. Table 4.4 showed that feed back was most frequently
utilized mode of assisting performance for high ability students. This
is explained by the classroom teacher's practice of informing the high
ability students how they have performed in comparison to the
standard that she had set for them. The use of the point systems for
students in the classroom focused on the exhibition of appropriate
classroom behavior and completion of task assigned, not on the
attainm ent of knowledge in the process of completing the assignment,
also added to the high frequency of feed back for the high ability
students.
In contrast, task structuring was more frequently used mode of
assisting performance with low ability students and this is explained by
the practice of simplifying the task assigned into chunks and segments
that the students were unable to do independently. For instance, the
teaching of word attack skills and the use of cue card caused the teacher
or teacher's aide to simplify the task by breaking down a word into its
phonetic components.
The second most frequent mode of assisting the performance for
the high ability group is questioning. This is because the teacher spent
a great deal of class time asking the students for information within the
context of the assignments they were engaged in and personal goals
that the students were planning to attain for a particular week. For the
92
low ability students, feed beck was the second most frequent mode of
assisting their performance.
The least frequent mode of assisting performance for the class is
modeling. This is in accordance to Englert's (1992; p. 155) classroom
observations prior to implementation of the Cognitive Strategy In
Writing (CSIW) Program where he found that teachers of students
with learning disabilities engaged in very little "overt modeling of
cognitive strategies”; instead "they tested students' knowledge through
rapid question-answer formats.”
Analysis of the focus during instances of assisted performance
reveal that task was the most frequent focus in instances of assisted
performance for the high ability students. This could be explained by
the possibility that the classroom assignments did not capture the
students' interest and attention; instead, the students tended to engage
in non-academic behaviors causing a majority of the teacher's time
spent at attem pting to curb these behaviors. This contrasts with
Levin's (1988) findings during the implementation of his accelerated
school program where once students are engaged in the act of learning,
these types of behavioral problems will subside.
Fot low ability students, task had the most frequent emphasis in
instances of assisted performance, followed by high cognitive
processing levels and then high cognitive processing levels. The high
frequency of assisted performance at the high cognitive processing
level is best explained by their high rate of participation in the writing
assignments during high meaningful teacher selected writing topic.
93
Despite the belief that these students are unable to engage in high
cognitive processing levels (Borkowski et al, 1986; Englert, 1992;
Palincsar & Klenck, 1992), the findings of this study reveal that when
given the opportunity to read and write, low ability students will be
challenged to engaged in more complex thought processes.
Contrary to expectation, high ability students in this study did
not receive assisted performance that were mostly at the high levels of
cognitive processing. This was also best explained by the nature of
assignments utilized within the classroom. Although these students
tended to engage in teacher selected writing assignments, reading
comprehension passages, or independent reading, these assignments
did not challenge them to engage in high levels of cognitive
processing.
Hence, it can be inferred that the nature of assisted performance
with the high ability students was on the lower boundaries of the zone
of proximal developm ent (Rueda, 1990). Therefore, since the
instruction is not challenging them mentally, they tended to engage in
classroom assignments w ith the main intention of merely completing
the task at hand. As found by Wood (1969), the over-scaffolding fails to
locate the upper boundary of the zone of proximal development and
continually confirms to the students that they are incompetent.
Consequently, the high ability students are not challenged and will
complete their classroom assignments to the minimum necessary,
refusing to invest any moTe time or effort than required in their
learning.
5.13 Assisted Performance, Classroom Assignments, and Student
Ability Groups
The analysis of assisted performance during engagement in
teacher selected writing topic reveal that students in the high ability
group tended to engage in the assignments most frequently. However,
as stated earlier when students in low ability group did choose to write,
they were capable of engaging in high levels cognitive processing. This
contradicts the widely held reductionist rationale that students who
cannot read or write well need to be taught the separate literacy skills
first before they should be allowed to read or write (Englert, 1992;
Palincsar A Klenck, 1992; Levin, 1986, 1988; McCarthy A Levin, 1992).
The reverse is seen in instances of assisted performance for high
ability students where the emphasis was at the task level during
teacher selected writing topic assignments. This could be due to the fact
that these students were not sufficiently challenged and are bored.
Hence, the classroom teacher had to spend a great deal of class time
attem pting to control non-academic classroom behavior of these
groups of students (O'Neal, 1991; Duffy, 1963; Wadsworth, 1971).
The nature of assisted performance during writing instruction in
this class is as observed by Englert (1992) where he found that in special
education classes:
. . .writing instruction consists of giving directions, or
asking students to fill-in-the-blank questions that test
their knowledge, rather than providing instruction that
provokes new thinking and understanding about writing.
Students have little voice in the writing assignment (e. g.,
95
choosing writing topics, purposes, or audience), and there
is little opportunity for students to talk am ong themselves
about their papers or their problem-solving strategy. The
em phasis in this classroom is on w riting mechanics.
The above observation was apparent in the classroom observed because
the students had little input in w hat they w rote or read. For m any of
the students, writing appeared to be the m ere act of copying the teacher
selected w riting topic from the blackboard and did not encourage them
to develop ideas and opinions about different issues affecting them
directly. Since the classroom teacher did not model the writing process,
the students seemed to have developed a skewed perspective of w hat
w riting and reading entails (Smith,1986).
Analysis of instances of assisted perform ance during
independent reading reveal that only high ability students engaged in
this assignm ent. However, a majority of assisted perform ance was not
at the high cognitive processing level because the independent reading
sessions were not followed by any discussion of the m aterials read. The
students were also not encouraged to examine the text read through
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of the inform ation read.
The nature of assisted perform ance for language arts instruction
for these students changed not only in relation to the type of
assignm ents utilized and student ability groups but also when low
versus high m eaning teacher selected writing topic were used. Tables
4.8 and 4.9 show the distribution of assisted performance when low
versus high meaningful teacher selected w riting assignm ent were
used.
96
As seen in Table 4.8, the emphasis of assisted performance for
high ability students was at the low levels of cognitive processing and
this is best explained by the nature of the teacher selected writing
assignment that requested the transcription of factual information in
response to a question asked. There was no stimulation for students to
engage in high levels cognitive processing.
In comparison, Table 4.9 shows a marked difference in the
nature of assisted performance for the respective groups when high
meaningful writing assignments are utilized. This is as seen by Fine
(1989) who found that when students took more control of what they
write on when they have control over the writing topic. The difference
is distinctly noted for low ability where the emphasis shifted from low
level cognitive processing to high level cognitive processing.
The behavior exhibited by the low ability students can also be
explained by Englert et al. (1988) who stated that many exceptional
students have more information about topics than reflected in their
written compositions because they lack the strategies that will enable
them to instantiate w hat they do know. However, the appropriate
prom pts and follow-up questions will encourage them to contribute
more of what they know in their writing (Englert et al.; 1988).
Although the classroom teacher --BL— wrote a writing
assignment at the beginning of each language arts period, few students
actually engaged in the task. Most like MY, NL, WY, and JT would
rather work (or pretend to) on the worksheets that BL had dutifully
placed in their respective folders. This happened only after they have
97
copied the writing assignments on the board so that the writing
assignment on the board becomes an act of practicing their
handw riting, not engaging them in higher cognitive processes.
This is in accordance with Lindsey's (1990) who found that when
students with learning disabilities were given the choice of either
writing a story or copying a story written by the teacher and the class,
these students invariably copied the teacher's story. In doing so, they
spent a good deal of time each day completing an assignment with little
m eaning and little potential for cognitive development (Lindsey, 1990).
Analyses of the type of writing assignment the students were
assigned and field notes revealed that the assignment of high
meaningful writing topic was more relevant to the lives of the
students and therefore, there was a high frequency of the different types
of assisting performance as well as more em phasis on higher cognitive
skills, instead of the task level (which emphasizes appropriate
classroom behavior that are non-cognitive in nature). Since the topic
was more interesting, there was also more interaction between the
students and the teacher and teacher's aide as they tried to complete the
w riting assignment. Additionally, the topic was more relevant to the
lives of the students because the students were constantly complaining
about the choice of food they had been served. They were constantly
verbally complaining to the classroom teacher and the staff members as
well as to each other about the palatability of the food. By discussing
the situation with the students and giving the students the assignment,
98
the classroom teacheT was able to provide a context within which the
students could vent their frustrations.
Since the assignments also entailed providing solutions to the
quality of the food, the students were encouraged to be constructive in
their criticisms. The students were also told that their letters will be
forwarded to the cafeteria personnel on school letterhead if they were
good. In thinking that their letter will be read and would have a
positive impact on them, the students thought that they had a genuine
audience in their writing.
This view is supported by Goodman and Goodman (1990; p. 225)
who state that "[language], written language included, is learned most
easily in the context of use" and that "[when] language is whole,
relevant, and functional, learners have real purposes for using their
language, and through their language use they develop control over
the processes of language. Edelsky (1986) also takes this perspective
when she clarifies that authentic events have "personal and significant
meaning for the language user" and the language user transacts with
the text by "building and extending psycholinguistic strategies through
these transaction texts to mediate the development of reading and
w riting."
Bernstein's (1955) study of high interest stories resulting in
superior comprehension and more creative response to questions
asked is applicable to the context of writing instruction. It can be
inferred that if the writing topic is relevant, meaningful, and
interesting as well as validates their background experience, students
99
will engaged in the writing exercise. Hence, in this present study, there
was a higher rate of engagement in the writing assignment when topic
was on the food in the cafeteria and what can be done to solve the
problem.
Goodman and Goodman (1990; p. 225) add that it is crucial that
students "are involved in functional authentic activities in school"
since they will learn more easily "when knowledge is immediately
useful" and "learning is more difficult if it has a more distant
purpose."
In contrast to the evident practice in the observed classroom,
Reinhart (1991; p. 104) suggests that even in working with these
students, we need to focus on higher order thinking skill, not only the
facts and skills. In other words, before BL can successfully implement
efficient and effective writing skills within her own classroom, she
needed to model and facilitate the types of behavior that would foster
writing developm ent in her classroom. Additionally, the practice of
basing instruction on helping students overcome their areas of
deficiencies contradicts Vygotsky's stance that "as children transact
with their world they are capable of doing much more out of an
activity or experience is there is an adult or more experienced playmate
to mediate the experience for them" (Goodman & Goodman, 1990; p.
228).
100
5.2 Conclusions
In Chapter 4, the data revealed that the moat frequent m ode of
assisting the performance of the participants in the study was in the
feed back mode of assisting perform ance and was followed by
questioning, task structuring, instructing, contingency managing, and
modeling. The moat frequent focus in these instances of assisting
performance was at foe task level (which is considered to be the
precognitive level and precursor to actual cognitive processes),
followed by low and then high levels of cognitive processing.
The findings of this research indicate that the student ability
groups determ ined foe type of assisted performance they received.
While high ability students received feed back most frequently as a
means of assisted performance, low ability-high adaptive behavior
students were frequently assisted in the task structuring mode of
assisted performance.
As seen in the data, foe utilization of different classroom
assignments resulted in different focus in instances of assisted
performance and student groupings. While worksheets (both phonics
and reading comprehension) em phasized task and low levels of
cognitive processing, when students were motivated to engage in
teacher selected writing assignments, they were encouraged to engage
in high levels cognitive processing.
The important finding of this study in the study is that there was
high em phasis on the task level and lower levels of the cognitive
domain in Language Arts instruction of these students. The cross
101
reference of the nature of assisted performance, levels of cognitive
domain, and type of assignment utilized revealed that when the
writing assignment was of interest, relevant, and authentic to the
students, there was more emphasis on the higher levels of the
cognitive domain (namely, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation) in comparison to the task and lower levels of the cognitive
domain (that is, knowledge and comprehension).
In summary, the findings of this study revealed that:
• Most instances of assisted performance were at the task and low
cognitive processing levels;
• High ability students did not receive assisted performance at
higher cognitive processing levels in this special education class;
• Assisted performance tended to focus more on the high
cognitive levels when the classroom assignments were towards
the constructivist end of the reductionist-constructivist
continuum .
53 Implications
Research that deals with students in special education programs
tend to focus on the fact that these students are not able to perform
higher cognitive processes with no possible explanations. This
research study attempted to study what actually happens in the
language arts classroom instruction of students in a special education
classroom (which included students with learning disabilities and
emotional or behavior disorders). This study supports the role of the
102
learning environm ent in the learning process as advocated in the
sociocultural approach which views learning as a social and interactive
process.
Consequently, the issue that needs to be addressed by placing
these students in the special education program is w hat is being done
within that context to enable these students to overcome their learning
problems and transcend their labels. According to Tudge (1990; p. 158),
Vygotsky believed that when students "[are) labeled, and treated
differently because of that label, they are placed in absolutely new social
circumstances and their entire development will proceed in an
absolutely new direction." Hence, it can be inferred that the type of
learning environm ent (particularly, m eans of assisting performance)
contributes significantly to the academic achievement of students with
learning handicaps.
One of the ways to enrich the classroom environment of
students with learning disabilities and emotional or behavior disorders
is to encourage them to engage in collaborative learning situations so
that they learn to interact in more than social situations (as advocated
by Englert, 1992; Palincsar and Klenck, 1992).
Another way to enrich the classroom environm ent is for the
classroom teacher to model the types of literacy and higher cognitive
skills that he/she would like to foster in the students. Wood and
Wood (1984) found a very tight, systematic relations between the
m anner in which a teacher controls and manages classroom discourse
103
and various aspects of students* responses (Wood & Wood, 1984).
Wood and Wood (1984) state that:
The more the teacher tells, informs, speculates, an d /o r
simply acknowledges what children have to say, the more
initiative, questions, and elaborations [students] display. . .
. Questions, particularly one with specifics, closed answers
(such as responses to requests for color names, ages, and
the like) usually provoke some response from [students],
but seldom any elaborations or spontaneous comments. . .
A spiral of increasing teacher control is thus initiated that
progressively inhibits responses from the children.
Most special educational focus on what the students are not able
to perform, with little room allocated for collaborative learning among
the students. The emphasis in instruction is an attem pt to develop
areas of deficit to the extent that students are uncertain what they
themselves can do and have to contribute in their own learning
process. In contrast, the sociocultural theorists believe in the
importance of emphasizing the strengths of the students by
acknowledging what they can contribute to their learning (Goodman &
Goodman, 1990).
Vygotsky (1993; p. 199) states that "underdevelopment of the
higher [cognitive] functions is secondary" to the defect and arises from
"isolation of the child from his collective" (i. e., relations, cooperations,
and interactions with others). This isolation from others, in turn,
"conditions underdevelopm ent of higher mental functions which
would, otherwise, arise naturally, in the course of normal affairs,
linked to the development of the child's collective activities"
(Vygotsky, 1993; p. 199). In other words, the placement of students in
104
special education programs leads to the "deprived" climate that does
not foster the development of higher cognitive functions.
105
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Appendix A
Raring for Meaningfulness of Writing Assignments
Date Writing * M eaningful neaa
A—ignm ent Audience Interest Purp
1/12 How to improve the 5 I 1
school
1/19 Write a fax to Clinton 2 3 1
to tell him the things
you think are of most
importance.
1/21 Find Iraq on the map. I l l
What are the colors in
the flag of Iraq. Find
Iraq in the atlas and
write a sentence about
the country.
1/26 Sears, Roebuck, & Co. I l l
will stop using its
catalogue. 50,000 jobs
will be lost. Sears was
losing customers to
Wal-Mart and Toys-
R-Us.
1 /28 Write a paragraph 1 1 1
about (picture of a bat
eating a frog)
2 /2 Copy and answer: 3 3 3
Dear Abby, I have a
friend my parents
do not like. They will
not let me see this
person. What should I
do? — Friendless
2 /4 Write a few sentences 1 1 1
on the film (54th
regiment)
2/9 Write about what you 1 1 1
did this weekend
2/11 No writing 0 0 0
assignment
* Scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high)
Total
” 4”
6
3
3
3
9
3
3
0
116
Appendix A (Continued)
Total |
___________A lignm ent Audience Intotrt Purpose_____
2/16 What is your favorite 3 4 4 11
movie? Tell one
reason why you like
this movie. Write a
paragraph about what
the movie is about
2/18 Write a paragraph 1 1 1 3
telling what you
learned from the Him.
2/23 Find the country 1 1 1 3
Brazil on the map.
Draw a flag of Brazil.
Write a fax to the
President of Brazil
and tell him what it is
like to live in Los
Angeles.
2/25 Write a letter to the 5 5 5 15
school cafeteria telling
them how you feel
about the food. Offer
suggestions.
3 /2 Tell me about your 3 4 3 10
life, home,
boy/girlfriend, or job.
3 /4 Design and illustrate 2 2 2 6
a perfect field trip
” Scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high)
117
Appendix B
Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted Performance and
Task/Low - High Levels of Cognitive Processing____________
Assisted Performance/ Examples
Levels of Cognitive Domain______________________________
Modeling; Using self or others
to provide examples of desired
behavior
Task: non-cognitive behavior
Low Level Cognitive Processing:
High Level Cognitive Processing:
The teacher (BL) to the classroom:
WY is getting points because he is
starting work on time.
(Held notes on 1/12/93)
A student — DN— complained about
the information atlas in the
classroom, saying it was not the in
right type. The teacher took the atlas
and leafed through it with DN, going
to the index, to see what information
the atlas contained.
BL: Here we go. Area and square
miles. (Held notes on 1 /21 /93)
TD — a teacher— was brainstorming
cm a newsletter story with the
students in his classroom. He begins
by thinking out loud about the
sequence of events that took place,
asking the students for clarification
on the details. He set the pace and
then he asked them to work in pairs
to write out the story, giving them
the freedom to embellish and
personalize their stories.
(Held notes on 1/14/193)
118
Appendix B (Continued)
Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted Performance and
^ ___________________
Assisted Performance/ Examples
Levels of Cognitive Domain________________________________
Contingency Managing:
Encourage appropriate behavior
through appropriate reinforcement
Task:
Low Level Cognitive sing:
Throughout the day, BL gave points
and praise to students who begin
their classroom assignments, stay on
task, complete their assignments
properly as well as not engaging in
disruptive behavior.
BL was working with a student --
W L- on a reading passage on Eddie
M urphy (Field notes on 1/19/93)
BL:. . . What is the word in your
story that means "young people"?
WL: Kids.
BL: Good.
High Level Cognitive Processing: BL was working with WY on
simplification of fractions.
BL: What's another pair that might
not be on that list Remember we
always use a number and that
(points to the text). What is ft?
WY: 1 ...
BL: and? (Looks at WY closely)
WY: 32.
BL: Right! (smiles approvingly)
(Field notes on 2 /2 / 93)
119
Appendix B (Continued)
Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted Performance and
^ ___________________
Assisted Perform ance/ Examples
Levels of Cognitive Domain_________________________________
Feed back: Provide students
information regarding how they
are doing according to a set of
standards.
Task: One of the students asked BL if she
could go outside but BL said "No"
since someone else was already
working in the back patio (Field
notes on 1/19/93).
Low Level Cognitive Processing: BL had discussed "Dear Abby"
column and shared an example with
the dass. She had encouraged them
to write their ow n response to the
problem she had selected as their
writing assignment.
CD: W hat's the girl's name?
BL: Friendless. They don't use real
names. (Held notes on 2/2/93)
High Level Cognitive Pran»««lnr A teacher — FD— is examining one of
her student's mathematics
assignment, em phasizing the process
of getting the correct answer.
PD: I don't w ant you to look
behind the book and just write
dow n the an sw er... . Show me how
you got the an sw er.. .How is it that
you have alt the answers written
dow n and you can't do this one? (to
a student — LE). Field notes on
1/14/93)
120
Appendix B (Continued)
Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted Performance and
Task / Low-High Levels of Cognitive Processing_______________________
Assisted Performance/ Examples
Levels of Cognitive Domain_________________________________________
Instructing: Provide information
so that the students can engage in
a specific activity.
Task: A teacher's aide (TA) was working
with a student — DA— who seemed
confused about what the assignment
entailed.
TA: Did you do 9 and 10?
DA: (looks at the pieces of paper
given to her) Do I have to answer
these questions?
TA: No, that's scratch paper. Tum it
over and start your work or you
won't get any points. (Field notes on
1/14/93)
Low Level p unitive Processing:
High Level Cognitive Processing:
Writing assignment for 1 /21 /93:
Find Iraq in the atlas and write a
sentence about the country.
Write a letter to the school cafeteria
telling them how you feel about the
food. Offer suggestions. (Field notes
for 2/25/93)
121
Appendix B (Continued)
Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted Performance and
Task / Low-High Levels of Cognitive Processing_______________
Assisted Perform ance/ Examples
Levels of Cognitive Domain_________________________________
Q uestioning: Instantiate thinking
process that students are unable to
produce themselves.
lash: BL: MN, w hat do you w ant your
goal to be for this week?
MN: Get ten points for homeroom.
(Field notes on 1 /19/93)
Low Level Cognitive Processing: BL was working with one of the
students in class w ho had just read a
comprehension passage on Eddie
Murphy.
BL: W hat's the meaning of
"funny”? (reads the passage aloud to
WL as he listens). .. young
people." W hat's the w ord in your
passage that m eans "young people?
WY: Kids (Field notes on 1/19/93).
High l^vgl Cognitive Piwpwing-
A teacher's aide was working w ith ]T
on the w riting assignment about the
food service at the school.
TA: W hat do you w ant to say?
JT: I w ant to talk about breakfast and
lunch. I think the breakfast is crap
and lunch is crap. (Field notes on
2/25/93)
122
Appendix B (Continued)
Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted Performance and
Task/Low-High Levels of Cognitive Processing_____________
Assisted Performance/ Examples
Levels of Cognitive Domain________________________________
Cognitive Structuring: Provide
explanation and belief structure
that organize and justify new
and perception (Tharp, 1993).
Task:
Low Level Cognitive Processing:
High Level Cognitive Processing:
Held notes on 2/9/93: A new
student was placed in the classroom.
The classroom teacher gave him a
point sheet and explained the Point
System to him.
DN: What's a syllogism?
BL: It's a th o u g h t.. Syllogism is a
two-part analogy. "All students in
the school like rap music; therefore,
DN Ukes rap m usic" "All staff
members in this school drive
Mercedes Benz; therefore,
BL drives a Meroedes Benz."
(Held notes on 1 /21 /93)
A teacher’ s aide was working on a
math problem with WY. He was
frustrated and confused.
TA: We're doing the same thing.
The problem below is like the
problem above. Remember what
you did up here? (Field notes on
1/19/93)
123
Appendix B (Continued)
Examples of Combination of Types of Assisted Performance and
Task/Low-High Levels of Cognitive Processing_______________________
Assisted Performance/ Examples
Levels of Cognitive Domain
Task Structuring; Simplify the
task so that presented units fit
into student's zone.
Task: BL was asking GD for his personal
goals for the week.
GD: Can 1 think about it?
BL: You don't want to get
suspended? (suggests). . . What
about going to the door and all that?
GD: But that's staying on task.
BL: You’ ve got think of the
consequences of running down the
hallway. (Field notes for 2/16/93)
Low Level Cognitive Processing: PD was assisting RD with his
reading. She listened as RD read.
RD :. . . He shot his eyes (read
haltingly)
PD: He shot his eyes? What do
you do when you dose your eyes?
(Held notes on 1/14/93)
High Level Cognitive Processing: BL was working with WL in solving
a math word problem.
BL: Okay, buy four tickets for
Sunday afternoon show. What's the
first thing you must find out?
WL: How much it’ s going to cost?
BL: How much is one adult ticket for
Sunday
WL: Orchestra is $7.95 .. . Put four.
BL: Where?
WL: Add it.
BL: Add it? Right! Fbur times -
$7.95+$7.95+$7.95+$7.95. Or you can
_________________________________times by 4. (Field notes on 2/2/93)
i
124
Appendix C
Distribution of Assisted Performance bv Student Grouping and
Task/Low-High Cognitive Prooesfling Levels __________
Assisted Performance/ Student G rouping ~ Class
Cognitive Processing Low Ability High Ability Total
Levels
M odeling 10 4 14
Task 1 1 2
Low 1 2 3
High 8 1 9
Contingency M anaging 33 15 48
Task 14 11 25
Low 4 2 6
High 15 2 17
Feed Back 83 70 153
Task 41 48 89
Low 21 10 31
High 21 12 33
Instructing 40
s
30 70
Task 19 14 33
Low 8 3 11
High 13 13 26
Questioning 74 42 116
Task 22 21 43
Low 31 16 47
High 21 5 26
Cognitive Structuring 17 13 30
Task 0 2 2
Low 16 11 27
High 1 0 1
125
Appendix C
Distribution of Assisted Performance bv Student Grouping and
Task/Low-High Cogniti ve Processing Levels ___________
Assisted Performance/ Student Grouping Class
Cognitive Processing Low Ability High Ability Total
Levels
Task Structuring 86 26 112
Task 6 1 7
Low 40 15 55
High 40 10 50
Class Distribution 343 200 543
Task Level 103 98 201
Low Cognitive Processing 121 59 180
High Cognitive
Processing
119 43 162
126

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Core Title The Nature Of Assisted Performance With Learning Handicapped Students During Language Arts

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