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An analysis of a humanistic and existential oriented doctoral counselor training program

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An analysis of a humanistic and existential oriented doctoral counselor training program

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Content AN ANALYSIS OF A HUMANISTIC AND EXISTENTIAL
ORIENTED DOCTORAL COUNSELOR TRAINING PROGRAM
by
Richard Lee Golden
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education--Counseling Psychology)
May 19 8 7
Copyright 19 87 Richard Lee Golden
UMI Number: DP25159
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissartstioni PyWisling
UMI DP25159
Published by ProQuest LLG (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLG.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CAUFORNIA 90089
This dissertation, written hy
raCHARD lEE œUDEN..........
under the direction of h.^^.. Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of re
quirements for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H ILO S O P H Y
Dean of Graduate Studies
Da te Septg[^r 17, 1986
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
/I
......
Chairperson
BIS U L
PLD.
Ed
^2.3 O 4
DEDICATION
It has been said that the major problem of our century is
how to promote the development of society without doing
violence to the individual; it is indeed, a search for
ways in which man's freedom to create may be more widely
established and understood. If this volume has an
underlying purpose, it is to help in the realization of
such an ideal.
George Kneller 1958 p. IX
And you may ask yourself
What is that beautiful house?
And you may ask yourself
Where does that highway go to?
And you may ask yourself
Am I right?...Am I wrong?
And you may say to yourself
MY GOD!... WHAT HAVE I DONE?
SAME AS IT EVER WAS...SAME AS IT EVER WAS...SAME AS IT
EVER WAS...SAME AS IT EVER WAS...SAME AS IT EVER WAS...
The Talking Heads
from Once In a Lifetime
If this volume is an accurate reflection of the actual
process it purports and describes, it is but faint praise
to those who were engaged in the struggle. I dedicate
this to all who shared the pride and joy of their
successes, and the anguish, pain, and sorrow of their
failings, for without their honesty, nothing could have
been said at all.
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to express my appreciation to each of my
committee members, Dr. Frank Fox, Dr. Myron Dembo, and Dr,
Marie Weil. Dr. Fox, my chair, was supportive, gracious,
and always kind. He continuously gave me a sense that
problems would be overcome. Dr. Dembo was humane and
fostered a professional and ethical climate which allowed
the dissertation process to be a learning experience
rather than an obstacle to graduation. To Dr. Weil I will
always be indebted. When formulating my dissertation
committee she made herself accessible, personally and
professionally. I felt unequivocally accepted with the
freedom to be open and frank.
Two very dear, special and unique people edited my
dissertation. Initially, Debi Silveria read my
manuscript. It is to her 1 felt most able to risk showing
my foibles and flaws without fear of judgement. Valerie
Cox put in an extraordinary amount of work and effort.
When she approved 1 was truly honored. 1 am blessed to
call these two women my friends. I love you both.
Anyone who has cut and pasted a long written work will
appreciate Joan Degelsmith. Joan gave me a computer and
tape transcriber for three years to write my dissertation
on. Without her, three years would have turned into ten.
Thank you!
Ill
The plight of writing is arduous and lonely. Diana
Nordli was caring and accepting, loving and resilient.
How she tolerated me during this time will forever be
confounding. With her the loneliness was more tolerable
and the work less difficult. Despite the torture of the
task you accomodated me, 1 love and appreciate you.
My final appreciation is to my family. My mother knew
1 would graduate when she died almost five years ago. I
wish she could have enjoyed the completion. My brother
Les has always been proud of my success. In his unsaid
manner he has communicated his feelings, and they have
been appreciated. My father singly gave me the greatest
gift prompting my graduation, the opportunity to be
different and still be loved. I hope in some measure my
success is shared by each of you, 1 am grateful and love
you.
1 V
CONTENTS
Dedication....................................... ................ ii
Acknowledgements .........................................i ii
Abstract ............. viii
Chapter Page
I Description of the Setting and Statement of
the Problem............................. . . 1
Historical Context and Development of the
Department............. 2
Description of the Setting .................7
Program Goals........................................8
Program Characteristics. . . . ................. 10
Population Served. ..................... 10
Personnel.................................... 11
Committees..................................12
Physical Plant ............. 13
Statement of the Problem and Background. . . . 13
Organization of the Remainder of the Study . . 16
II Review of the Literature. . 18
Philosophical Background of Existentialism . . 19
Nineteenth Century Existentialism............20
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. . . . . . . 20
Husserl and Phenomenology...............24
Summary of Nineteenth Century
Existentialism .............................. 26
Twentieth Century Existentialism ............. 26
Jaspers. . . . . . . . . . 27
Heidegger. ................... 29
Summary of Twentieth Century
Existentialism..................... 33
Sartrean Existentialism............. 34
Summary - Existential Philosophy ............. 39
Existential Philosophy and Education ..... 39
Existential Psychotherapy. . . .. . 43
Transition of Philosophy to Psychotherapy. . 44
Underlying Assumptions . . .. . 45
Role of the Therapist. ............. 47
The Therapeutic Relationship . . . 50
Goals of Therapy . 51
Summary- Existential Psychotherapy ........... 53
Humanistic-Existential Psychotherapy ........... 54
HE View of the Person. ....................* . . 54
The Therapeutic Relationship . . . . . . . . 56
The HE Concept of Change ..................56
Psychopathology . . ........................... . 57
The Goals of HE. ................ 58
Awareness .....................................59
Authenticity ................................ 60
Openness........................................60
Equality........................................60
Integrity........................................60
Summary - Humanistic Existential
Psychotherapy.........................................61
Summary - Existentialism . 61
Graduate Training........................................62
Counseling Psychology Training . . . . . . . . 62
Training Orientation ................... .63
Training Issues................................65
Ethical Considerations ........................... 68
Sexual Intimacy. . 69
Dual Relationships ......................71
Confidentiality. ........................... 72
Appropriate and Responsible Roles. . . 72
Summary - Ethical Considerations . . . 73
Summary - Counseling Psycholqgy..................74
Existential Training ............................. 74
The Context.................................... 75
The Role of the Teacher............. 76
The Role of the Student...................7 7
The Learning Experience....................77
Summary - Existential Training .... 78
Summary - Graduate Training. ................... 78
Summary of the Review of Literature................78
III Research Methods and Data Presentation ............. 80
Research Access to the Program ................... 82
Gaining Access to the Classroom..................82
Access at the Organizational Level . . .. . 85
Data Collection............. 85
Participant Observation.............................86
Subject Interviews .............................. . 87
Subject Selection.....................................90
Role of the Researcher . 95
Subject Responses to the Researcher.............99
Data Analysis. ............. .102
Participant Observation Phase. . . . . . . .103
Interview Phase. ...................... 105
Integration Phase.................. 107
Summary ...................................... 10
IV The Results: The Program Description............... 110
Contextual Issues...................................... Ill
Program Participants.................................118
Fa c ulty. . . . .............. . 118
Students................................ 121
Instructional Practices of the Program . . . .124
The Educational Style: Experiential
Orientation..........................................124
The Philosophy .............................. 127
The Method of Evaluation.........................130
VI
Confidentiality.....................................134
Relationships.........................................136
Summary....................................................138
V The Results: Theory of Student Matriculation. . .139
The Naive, Interested, and Unaware ... . . .141
F e a r ...................................................... 146
Issue 1: Situational Confrontation............ 148
Home: The Felt Experience.............. 155
The Alienated..................................157
Issue 2: Personal Confrontation...............160
Power...................................................... 172
Issue 3: Reformulating Relationships. . . .176
Loneliness................................ . . . .182
Issue 4: Personal Identity................ . .183
Death..................................... 189
Issue 5: Professional Identity................ .190
Summary. . ............. ......................... . .195
VI Interpretation, Recommendations, and Summary . . .198
Interpretations. . 198
Milieu/Contextual Issues.........................198
Information Taught.................................204
Eigenwelt, Mitwelt, and Umwelt . . . .205
Humanism and Existentialism..............208
Group Dynamics .................210
Varieties of Student Experience:
The Program as Parent........... 212
Sexuality. .................222
Recommendations For Further Study.................227
Self-Confidence or Narcissism?.................228
Boundary Confusion.................................229
Summary....................................................232
References..................................... 236
Appendix A Open-ended Interview F o r m s ...................250
Appendix B Program Information. ........................ 258
Appendix C Student Advisement N o t e s ......................261
Appendix D Departmental Notes on Practicum............. 286
Appendix E Student Census Reports ......................293
Vll
ABSTRACT
This study examined the effects, upon students of the
Humanistic and Existentially oriented graduate training
program as taught in the Department of Counseling, School
of Education, at the University of Southern California.
Using Patton’s (1981) definitions of description,
analysis, and interpretation, a theory positing the course
of student matriculation is proffered and inferences about
the effects of student enrollment are made.
Participant observation was initiated in four graduate
level counseling classes which then were used to focus the
development of open ended interviews. The interviews were
conducted with all the faculty involved in the counseling
training, a stratified sample of students enrolled in the
program, graduates of the program, and students who had
transferred out of the program. Responses from all
subjects were tape recorded and inductively assessed.
Further data was accumulated as it was available from key
informants and records of the Department of Counseling.
The results describe a theoretical model of student
matriculation presenting four phases. The phases contain
a total of five critical issues which students must
reconcile as they progress through the course of
enrollment. Finally, interpretations about the humanistic
Vlll
and existentially oriented training, as practiced in the
Department of Counseling, are made, and the implicatons
are related for teachers, educators and psychotherapists.
IX
CHAPTER I
DESCRIPTION OF THE SETTING AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This study is a qualitative analysis of the graduate
counseling training program of the University of Southern
California Department of Counseling. This program is
considered unique in its philosophical orientation and
emphasis on experiential method. This research is
descriptive and the methods utilized are interviewing,
participant observation and review of school documents.
The focus is on the beliefs and the practices of the
program as they relate to the direction and results of the
educational process. Specifically, this study has two
thrusts: first, describing the Department of Counseling
and determining what the Department of Counseling is
doing. It is assumed that by interviewing the program
participants, faculty and students, utilizing participant
observation, and gathering data, an accurate description
of the program is attainable; second, generating a
theoretical model, grounded in the descriptive data, which
articulates the students’ educational evolution. This
model reflects what characteristics and processes the
Department of Counseling enhances in the enrolled
students. In scope this study focuses on the Department
of Counseling: Specifically, the faculty involved with
the training of counselors, the students training to
become counselors, and graduates who are presently-
employed as counselors. It is assumed that through
assessing and describing explicitly what the Department of
Counseling training process does, a reflection of the
distinctive tenets and design of the program will emerge.
Further, if as Beckman (1979) avers, the implications for
psychotherapy and the educational training mode are
similiar, these implications will have extensive
application in assessing the impact of the humanistic and
existential modality because the critical variables of the
education process will be identical to those issues
arising in patients treated by practitioners of this
training orientation.
Historical Context and Development of the Department
The genesis of the Department of Counseling is rooted
in school guidance and education. As late as 1949 the
department included the fields of Special Education,
Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Guidance, The
faculty in the late 1940’s were all trained in the field
of education and the population of students served were
solely interested in public schooling or employment in
public schools. The classes were oriented to facilitate
progress in that field and were considered student
guidance classes.
In 1949 the first counseling psychologist was hired in
the department, Dr. Earl Carnes. His orientation viewed
the counselor as a primary practitioner, and led the
Department to view school counselors not as adjuncts to
school administration but as autonomous agents of change.
During this time, the forerunners of the present classes
were initiated in the curriculum, but the department
philosophy remained oriented to education. In the mid
1950’s enrollment began to increase which resulted in the
formation of the Department of Counseling and Guidance as
a separate and distinct department from Educational
Psychology and Special Education. Soon after, the
National Defense Education Act (1958) was enacted which
indirectly effected the Department of Counseling because
it subsidized the training of public school counselors.
The technological success of the Soviet Union had prompted
educators and government to commit to educational
achievement; improving school counselors was part of this
effort. The prevailing philosophy assumed training good
school counselors would encourage gifted students to
enroll in the sciences and other appropriate courses.
At this time, with the monies available, creativity
and innovation of the faculty was sanctioned and new ideas
were nurtured. The staff was involved in many national
and regional institutes geared to discuss the training and
I
j education of students. From these discussions the idea of
I supervised training experiences was born, and in 1960, the
Department initiated the use of practicum type courses.
These courses initiated the use of direct supervised
experiences for training; observation rooms were built
with one-way mirrors and groups for supervision and
discussion were created and utilized. Concurrently, the
theory taught in the courses became psychologically and
psychotherapy oriented as the faculty focused on the
practical aspects of educational counseling.
In the 1960’s Dr. William V. Ofman began to shape and
influence the Department. The Department was primarily
interpersonal and humanistic with existential leanings.
Dr. Ofman was a proponent of a particular type of
existential philosophy which he translated into a unique
style of Humanistic-Existential psychotherapy. Through
j the influence of his personality, his committment to his
beliefs, and his highly regarded intellectual abilities
both faculty and students were drawn to the program, to
Dr. Ofman, and the Humanistic-Existential orientation. He
became the focal point of the Department of Counseling and
exercised the greatest philosophical influence upon the
shaping of the Department of Counseling.
The philosophical foundation of Humanistic-Existen-
j tialism was Sartrean but while many of the staff were
initially attracted to Dr. Ofman’s teachings they
generally remained Heideggerian (See Chapter Two for
explication of these orientations). Despite the Heideg
gerian leanings of the faculty, the Department became
known as a Sartrean Humanistic-Existential Department.
This was a result of Dr. Ofman and graduates of the
program supportive of the Humanistic-Existential beliefs
becoming either the teachers of the theoretical classes
offered or the teaching assistants involved in the
laboratories of these classes. This is not to dismiss the
importance of other instructors teaching Existential
classes or theory but it was Dr. Ofman, and many of his
proteges, who had the greatest influence because of their
committment to Humanistic-Existentialism.
Further, due to the need for instructors with
backgrounds in the approach taught in the Department many
of the graduates became affiliated with the program as
adjunct professors or eventually fulltime faculty. Thus,
by the end of the decade, the courses were generally
intact in both theory and format and the department had
attracted a group of philosophically compatible people.
The change in orientation and training resulted in the
department attracting students other than those interested
in becoming school counselors. Students primarily
interested in becoming psychotherapists began applying to
program, which in turn accelerated the reorientation of
the program to better serve these interests of the new
applicants. Through the I960’s the Department continued
to broaden its scope and perspective. In the middle of
the I960’s the department received a government grant for
the training of rehabilitation counselors. By the 1970’s,
the Department was serving a population of students with a
vast and diverse set of needs and interests. Master
degree level applicants included those interested in
college student personnel work, public school counseling,
rehabilitation counseling, and the Marriage, Family,
Child, Counseling License. The Marriage, Family, Child
Counseling licensure had been initiated in (1959) and the
Department of Counseling qualified as an accreditted
educational institution.
The program for the Doctorate was training counseling
psychologists who were having difficulty qualifying for
the psychologist license. The Board of Medical Quality
Assurance was not readily accepting applicants with
Doctorates in Education with a specialization in
counseling psychology. A push to qualify graduates for
licensure, led by Stanford University, the University of
California at Berkeley, and the University of Southern
California, eventually succeeded and further increased
the number of applicants wanting degrees leading to
licenses as Psychologists.
The qualification of the Department for Psychology and
Marriage, Family, Child Counselor Licensure increased the
number of students wanting psychologically oriented
training. Coupled with this, fewer students, possibly
resulting from the competition of the State Colleges and
the higher tuition costs, applied to the Department who
were interested in public school counseling. At the end
of the 1970’s the Department lost the government grant for
the training of rehabilitation counselors which diminished
the scope of the Department. Prior to these trends most
graduates found jobs teaching in colleges or as counselors
in college counseling centers but now the bulk of students
served were interested in Marriage, Family, Child
Counselor or Psychologist Licensure, with some students
training in the area of vocational or college student
personnel.
Description of the Setting
The Department of Counseling is the largest department
in the School of Education at the University of Southern
California. The department is distinctly oriented to
training students both philosophically, with its
existential basis, and experientially, with its observed
practicum courses being central to the training process.
Overall, the Department has evolved with the numerous
influences typical of any institutional program, but at
most pivotal moments, decisions about orientation or style
i have repeatedly and unexpectedly been novel (i.e., the
initiation and use of counseling observation rooms).
Program Goals
At the time of this evaluation, there was no single
overview of program goals or objectives available. The
goals identified here were gleaned from documents used to
orient applicants and new students to the department and
the Bulletin of the University of California, School of
Education (1981-82).
I The Department of Counseling offers master and
I
I doctoral degrees in Education with specialization in four
I
I areas ;
; SPECIALIZATION 1: PUPIL PERSONNEL SERVICES. Offers a
specialization in counseling leading to a master’s
degree amd the Standard Pupil Personnel credential as
a psychological consultant to the school and school-
related community.
SPECIALIZATION 2; COLLEGE STUDENT PERSONNEL WORK.
Offers a specialization at the master’s and doctoral
level emphasizing the delivery of services to college
students, the administration of student affairs, and
counseling based approaches to student development.
SPECIALIZATION 3: REHABILITATION PSYCHOLOGY. Offers
master's and doctoral degree programs with heavy
emphasis on field experience in community agencies
related to rehabilitation of the severely disabled
individual.
SPECIALIZATION 4; COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY. Master’s
level specialization in effective human and
interpersonal relationships. Doctoral level specialty
grounded upon scholarship as it bears upon the
philosophy, theory, research, and principles of
authentic relating as a basis for therapeutic human
interactions. The thrust of the specialty is
humanistic and existential in flavor (Bulletin of the
University of Southern California School of Education,
1981-82, p. 139).
These areas of specialization each have select classes
supporting their particular focus but all are based upon a
core curriculum of theoretical and experiential counseling
classes. The focus of these courses is the demonstration
or expression of criteria unique to the individual and
framed in the language of the existential philosophic
orientation; Responsibility, the absence of duplicity,
openness, courage, personal commitment, and the toleration
of ambiguity (Intentions of the Department of Counselor
Education, no date).
Thus, the explicit objective of the Department of
Counseling is to develop master and doctoral graduates
with skills enabling them to be "an effectve counselor,
i.e., an individual who demonstrates facilitative
interpersonal and therapeutic behaviors" (General
Information of the Department Counselor Education, no
date). These skills obviously emphasize the development
of highly skilled clinicians. Although the classes
emphasize and require academic accomplishment, the
emphasis is primarily personal in nature as expressed by
extensive experiential coursework and practicum courses
which include supervision from practitioners who have
directly observed the counseling sessions of students to
improve and evaluate each student's ability to do
counseling.
Program Characteristics
Population Served
The Department of Counseling has increasingly served
more students, expanding enrollment from 1976 to 1983 by
11.5%. Although there is no single typical student (67%)
are females, (80%) Caucasian, (54%) between 26 and 35
years old, and (80%) majoring in counseling psychology.
The pre-enrollment background of students is generally in
the field of psychology at the Baccalaureate Degree level,
and counseling psychology, at the Master's Degree level,
with most of the students drawn from California schools
10
(See Appendix E).
Personnel
In 1983 the Department of Counseling merged with the
Department of Special Education. Despite this each
section oversees the matriculation of students
specializing in their own areas. This study began before
the merger and was continued with its focus entirely upon
the faculty and students in the Department of Counseling,
The Department of Counseling has six tenure track
positions and approximately eight to ten adjunct
professors hired each semester. Only the tenure track
professors can chair and supervise doctoral dissertations
and master's theses. At the time of this study, one
position was unfilled with the emminent retirement of
another professor. The faculty remained stable for
approximately ten years, 1973-1983, when one faculty
member resigned.
Adjunct professors are hired with concern for the
needs of the Department; because of these particular
needs many adjunct professors are graduates of the
Department itself. Many of these instructors have
consistently taught the same classes over time, because
the theoretical orientation of the department requires
specialized training in existential philosophy. This
training is not commonly available at the doctoral level.
11
and the practicum courses require instructors familiar and
practiced in the humanistic and existential orientation.
This hiring policy by the Department of Counseling
suggests that instructors with this experience are better
able to supervise and evaluate competency.
There is one full-time and one part-time secretary
handling clerical and telephone responsibilities. The
full-time position has been vacated approximately once a
year in recent years and has remained unfilled for periods
up to a few months during these instances. The half-time
position has been intermittently filled by a student,
often someone enrolled in the program, and has also been
vacated about once a year.
Committees
The staff regularly convenes weekly staff meetings,
which are open to all students and staff. These meetings
are presided over by the Department Chairman and include
any programmatic, curriculum, or community issues. Both
long and short range planning issues are focused on in
these meetings. At the end of the weekly staff meetings
an executive session is convened and all nontenured
participants are required to leave. It is in these
meetings that all information and decisions reserved only
for tenured staff are discussed and decided.
12
Physical Plant
The Department of Counseling occupies the fifth floor
of Waite Phillips Hall and consists of: one large and one
small room for staff offices, one large group therapy room
with two adjoining observation rooms, and eight small
individual therapy rooms with four centralized adjoining
observation rooms. Each of the therapy rooms are equipped
with one-way mirrors and microphones. There is also one
video tape recorder and camera, without a camera lens ;
the video tape recorder has been inoperable for at least
five years. Most classes are convened in Waite Phillips
Hall, or in the adjoining Sociology Department Building
with the exception of the practicum classes which are all
convened in the therapy observation rooms.
Statement of the Problem and Background
Since the time of the Shakow report (American
Psychological Association, 1947) and the subsequent
adoption of the Boulder Model (Raimy, 1950) psychologists
have been concerned with the kind of experiences offered
in clinical training programs trying to coordinate
training goals with job requirements to improve the
practical utility of education. In subsequent years, a
number of conferences have continued to refine the
approach taken in clinical training (Tyler & Speisman,
1967), including the Vail Conference (Korman, 1976);
13
reflecting a trend oriented toward psychotherapeutic
activities (Garfield, 1981).
Numerous difficulties are inherent in differentiating
successful and valuable programs from those which are
unsuccessful and poor (Clair & Kiraly, 1971; Gelso, 1979;
Suchman, 1967). These difficulties are further attenuated
by different modalities (Beckman, 1979) and the absence of
a single source of accreditation (O’Malley, 1977). In a
study of the demographics in the counseling field,
Krauskopf, Thoreson, and McAleer (1973) describe an
increasing divergence in training, skills, and goals:
I This may result in a unique and personalized body of
knowledge for each student’s individual and specific
goals. No doubt the counseling field has entered the era
!
I of specialization.
I This "state of chaos" as described by Rogers (1963, p.
6) suggests two means of assessing counseling psychology,
outcome and process studies (Gel so, 1979; Patton, 1981).
Often these two methods of research reveal different
results, many times in opposition to each other. To
combat these divergent results Beckman (1979) notes a
reemphasis on more wholistic and integrated approaches
when researching counselor training modalities (Arbuckle,
1975; Bernstein & Le Compte, 1976; Chenault, 1968;
Johnson, 1977; Mahon & Altmann, 1977; Spice & Spice,
14
1976). This dissertation is designed to build upon this
wholistic trend.
Little information is available detailing the impact
of humanistic and existential training on students
(Beckman, 1979). The literature available focusses in four
general directions. First, critical variables are
ascertained and correlated with the counselor (Charnofsky,
1965; Gabrinetti, 1981; Green, 1973; Langelier, 1975;
Rogal , 1970). Second, an attempt to delineate particular
characteristics and their relationship to students
(Bassett, 1970; Ceru, 1978; Cohen, 1978; Deckert, 1975;
Ferriolo, 1973; Garett, 1975; Poole, 1976; Torrez, 1973).
Third, an attempt to delineate the influence of particular
variables of existentialism on particular traits of
counselor trainees (Beckman, 1979; Blount, 1976; Dweck,
1978; Moore, 1972). Fourth, are the philosophical
treatises explicating particular tenets of existentialism
or existentialism and education (Baker, 1964; Barondes,
1972; Bedford, 1961; Morrison, 1967; Rutman, 1975;
Talifer, 1979).
i These areas fail to bring to life the results and
I
effects of Humanistic and Existential training upon
students. The problem centers around the absence of a
common underlying theoretical framework. In each of the
studies mentioned above different assumptions and
15
definitions are used thereby undermining the possibility
of a cohesive body of information. Herein lies the heart
and soul of this research: The investigation of an actual
Humanistic and Existential training program without
arbitrary philosophical assumptions or definitions.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The next chapter will review the general issues of
existential philosophy, psychology, and psychotherapy to
give a framework for the theoretical practices of the
Department of Counseling. In addition, issues related to
graduate training, (i.e., counseling psychology training,
existential education, and ethics are presented to further
ground the practices of the Department of Counseling.
Chapter Three is an explication of the qualitative
methods and procedures utilized in this study.
Chapter Four is the descriptive portion of this
research. It describes the Department of Counseling in
order to explicate the practices, activities, and methods.
Chapter Five, the analytic portion of the research,
presents the theory of student matriculation. The theory
views student matriculation from initial enrollment to
graduation from the Department of Counseling describing
the important issues relevant during each phase of student
i matriculation.
Chapter Six is the interpretation of the data
16
collected. Recommendations for further research is
offered and a summary of the findings is presented.
17
Chapter II
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The particular orientation of the University of
Southern California, Department of Counseling, is
Humanistic and Existential, This chapter is organized to
explicate the components of this particular orientation
and to describe the background and theoretical framework
of the department as it presently exists. This chapter
examines the following areas:
1. The historical development of Existentialism
including the theoretical definitions and concepts
related to existential philosophy, existential
education, existential psychotherapy and Humanistic-
Existentialism.
2. The theoretical definitions, concepts and research
related to Graduate counseling training, including
counseling psychology, existentialism, and ethics.
Before turning to the review of literature a caution
must be mentioned. Existentialism has been described as a
"philosophy of man." To utilize nonsexist language
throughout this review, the writings were rendered into a
"philosophy of person." Occasionally this translation is
awkward.
18
"Existentialism is not a philosophy but a label for
several widely different revolts against traditional
philosophy" (Kaufmann, 1956, p. 11), The ancestry of
existentialism has continuously been forged in reaction to
the failures of the rational philosophy of the times
(Krill, 1969) and has a diverse range of spokespersons,
many claiming not to be existentialists (Kaufman, 1956).
To explicate Existentialism as it is taught in the
University of Southern California Department of
Counseling, a broad historical review of existential
philosophy and existential psychology is necessary. The
first area reviewed is existential philosophy.
Philosophical Background of Existentialsm
Existentialism is a brand of philosophy seen as a
revolt against the threat of science to human freedom
(Russell, 1959). It is a revolt that is not univocal
(May, 1958) and as such has a diverse and vast range of
doctrines, some often at odds with each other. The common
thread in all existential doctrine, however, is a revolt
against the failures of rationalism to weave a rich fabric
of individual human experience. This premise is
represented by the Sartrean dictum, "existence precedes
essence," which undercuts the Cartesian subject/object
dilemma to place (wo)man as central and in process; a
coming into being (May, 1958). This section focuses upon
19
three areas:
1. Nineteenth century existentialism.
2. Twentieth century existentialism.
3. Particular Sartrean issues in existentialism.
Nineteenth Century Existentialism
The roots of existential philosophy have been traced
as far back as Hebraism and Hellenism (Barrett, 1958) but
begin to take clear shape in the nineteenth century.
Existentialism is conditioned by three situations of the
nineteenth century: (1) the advance and elevation of
science and rational philosophy in the aftermath of Kant
and Hegel; (2) the diffusion of Christianity after the
Enlightenment, as religion was moving to the periphery of
societal concern; and (3) the advance of the progressive
industrial society in which "the person" was becoming lost
and isolated (Blackman, 1965). A review of the history of
existential philosophy is best started with Kierkegaard
and Nietzsche.
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche
Soren Kierkegaard is commonly regarded as the father
of modern existentialism (MacQuarrie, 1972). Kierkegaard
was a fervent Christian attempting to reconcile his faith
! with the rationalist theology of the Danish Church
(Russell, 1959). He finds rationalism, of all kinds,
limiting to the existence of the individual. From his
20
struggle, Kierkegaard concludes there is a difference
between existence and a theory about existence and
purports the importance in the former (Barrett, 1958).
Kierkegaard elevates will over reason (Russell, 1959) and
j suggests that the need to act and choose is a spontaneous
I function in which one is free to accept faith. Hence, the
, individual is not a spectator of her/himself but is
■/
her/himself a living reality (Barrett, 1958), The person
is a true participant in the world, with experience being
achieved through the intensity of feeling (Wahl, 1949);
Reason fails Kierkegaard in achieving a truly personal and
passionate existence (Barrett, 1958)./
I The "Either/Or" of choice is the decisive encounter
I
i for Kierkegaard (Barrett, 1958). "Either" individuals can
j attempt to deny they exist, "Or" they can concentrate
i their totality upon the fact they are existing individuals
1
I
(Blackham, 1965), Kierkegaard places the living of an
individual’s existence, the event itself, as the primary
tenet to an understanding of humankind.
r
^Kierkegaard recommends a "rediscovery of the religious
center of the Self" y(Barrett, 1958, p. 177) through
subjectivity and commitment; a recommendation left
unheralded until Nietzsche began to proffer similiar
formulations from an atheistic stance (May, 1958).
(Kierkegaard’s return "back beyond organized Christiandom"
21
(Barrett, 1958, p. 177) to a personal faith is countered
by Nietzsche’s belief that the individual ought to move
beyond Christianity altogether (MacQuarrie, 1972)^ Where
Kierkegaard is concerned with how to be a Christian,
Nietzsche is concerned with how to renounce Christianity
(MacQuarrie, 1972).
^Nietzsche believes that the individual is best
described as independent and self-reliant (Russell, 1959)
rather than as an individual in a childlike posture to God
(Barrett, 1958).^/ Christianity presents for Nietzsche a
slave morality which is a ’’mutilation of the human spirit
and its freedom’’ (MacQuarrie, 1972 , p. 55). Nietzsche
replaces Christianity with his own doctrine of the
superman: ’’man surpassing himself’’ (MacQuarrie, 1972 , p.
55). Nietzsche exhorts the individual to rise above the
average person and make her/himself Godlike.
/ Nietzsche suggests the death of God, as such,
obligates man to make an affirmation of life against the
backdrop of an absurd and godless world (MacQuarrie,
1972)^ The world is permeated with nihilism, and
Nietzsche believes that it is only from this backdrop that
a true theory of being can emerge (Collins, 1952).
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche both foretell much of the
historical change, (social, economic, and military), that
occurred in the nineteenth century, particularly
22
I illuminating the effects of these changes upon the
psychological makeup of the person. They both saw the
societal changes impinging upon people. Within the
changing world the individual becomes a being who
I
' surrenders self awareness as a protection against reality
and then suffers the neurotic consequences becoming a
"being who represses" (Kemp, 1971, p. 3; May, 1958, p.
23) .
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are concerned about the
impact these many changes have upon the individual. They
both support a view of the person as a truly "human"
being, as opposed to a human derived from reason and made
over in the image of a machine. These two philosophers
set the stage for the existential movement by clearly
elucidating and renouncing a world bent on destroying each
individual's personal culture as s/he is cut off from
her/his roots in nature by technology and science
1
: (Yankelovich & Barrett, 1970). ^Kierkegaard and Nietzsche
I ^
both contribute to humanizing philosophy by illuminating
the alienation produced from the subordination of the self
to something else; anything else.’ "\
To summarize, the philosophies of Kierkegaard and
Nietzsche reflect the tumultuous times in which they
lived. It was a period of fragmentation, alienation and
upheaval for the individual, as God was no longer the
23
central guiding force for the individual (May, 1958). \The
world's industrialization and new technology led to a
culture of "mass humanity" (Russell, 1959) against which
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche firmly stand (Kemp, 1971) and
\
sympathetically write. | This concern for the predicament
/
of the individual is taken up by Jaspers, Heidegger, and
Sartre as the twentieth century begins. These men combine
the existential movement with Husserl's phenomenological
approach to give existentialism a method of inquiry.
Therefore, before turning to an explication of the
philosophy of these twentieth century existential
thinkers, it is necessary to delineate Husserl's
phenomenology.
Husserl and Phenomenology
Philosophy at the end of the nineteenth century
reached an impasse between the realists and the idealists
stemming from the Cartesian dualism between mind and
matter (Yankelovich & Barrett, 1970). The realists
believe in the independent existence of objects; the
idealists believe in the priority of the subject (Barrett,
1958), Edmund Husserl offers an alternative which
presupposes the subject/object issue: phenomenology.
Husserl proposes basing philosophy on a firm
foundation resulting from the direct observation of data
of any sort from an unbiased and nonjudgmental stance
24
(May, 1958). The absence of prejudice and presupposition
I enhances observation and ensures the accuracy of the
description (MacQuarrie, 1972; May, 1958). Philosophy
becomes an act of leaving the world as it is. The core of
phenomenology is then, systematic description (Barrett,
1958; MacQuarrie, 1972).
Husserl "brackets the real world" or puts aside the
question of whether things are real. Whereas Descartes
suspends belief in the objects about him and asks whether
they are real, Husserl inquires as to whether the objects
about him are real and asserts that what is discovered is
I
I consciousness itself and that the question of the reality
I of things is not an issue. Husserl's bracketing of the
I
: world (Epoche) leaves consciousness outside the world of
i
things with no interiority or determinant nature. The
nature of consciousness is to a point beyond itself, to
the phenomena it is conscious of; hence, consciousness is
referential (Barrett, 1978). This is Husserl's doctrine
of the intentionality of consciousness. As consciousness
views the bracketed world, the phenomena observed manifest
themselves with increasing richness and variety (May,
1958). Husserl decrees, "to the things themselves" and
consciousness has a full and accurate view of the world
based in reality.
To summarize, Husserl's phenomenology is the
25
methodological principle (May, 1958) appropriated by
existentialism to pursue the investigation into human
existence (MacQuarrie, 1972). The quest for essential
knowledge, in the Husserlian sense, is fundamental to
existentialists and the union between the importance of
the person (individual existence) with the phenomeno
logical form of investigation (purified universal essence)
precludes many of the problems of the realism/idealism and
subject/object dichotomies (Collins, 1952).
Summary of nineteenth century existentialists
(^The marriage of Kierkegaardian and Nietzschian thought
with Husserlian method gives a substantive voice to the
concerns of the existential movement as a response to
Materialism at the end of the nineteenth century.^
Existential philosophy, with its emphasis on the
estrangement of man from his own Being, steps into the
twentieth century (Barrett, 1978).
Twentieth Century Existentialism
(^xistentialism is ushered into the twentieth century
by Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegge^as they translate the
reflections of the nineteenth century existential
i
philosophers into more intellectual terms (Wahl, 1949).
They each take Kierkegaard and Nietzsche as their sources
(Barrett, 1958) and focus on the issue of human existence
and being.
26
Jasper s
Karl Jaspers begins investigating philosophy through
an interest in psychology and more specifically,
psychopathology (Russell, 1959). Jaspers translates these
interests into his philosophy by focusing his concerns on;
the human being, the human being in extreme situations,
and the problem of method and conceptual knowledge in
scientific activity (Blackham, 1965), Jaspers' exis
tential philosophy is a dialectic hierarchy of being from
which individuals, against a backdrop of nihilism, can
fully realize themselves when faced with the most critical
situations (Wahl, 1949).
There are three levels of being in Jaspers' theory.
The initial level is. —the,,, objective world, which in.cl-u,d.e-s-
science. Bering at this level is grasped objectively from
the outside, and is 1 ab,,eJrTe"d' ng there." The second
level of being is called "being-1, " or exist-etLC-e... and by
nature allows the self to recognize its own existence.
This second level of being is responsible to the rational
categories that rule the first level. This personal
existence of Level II always points beyond itself. .T,he
third, and highest, 1 e v e 1 _o J__.b_e i n g is a combination of the
first and second levels, a.n4--±"S"'^"'~ciaJrTed«.."being-in-itselfJ!
or the transcendental level (Russell At Level
III, individuals sense something other than themselves.
27
not necessarily clarified or construed, and maybe
inexpressible. At the moment individuals feel they are
doomed and thought has failed, they assert their personal
existence and fulfill themselves in a transcendent act
(Wahl, 1949). Thus an individual’s existence is derived
from the relationship with the sense of transcendence
which the individual never knows but intuits (Wahl, 1949).
Jasper's theory of being demarcates the boundaries
over which transcendence must occur. Each level by
itself, fails to grasp the totality. Objective knowledge
(Level I) is not comprehensive knowledge and for this
reason science, on its own, fails to grasp the reality of
true existence (Collins, 1952; Russell, 1959). This is
also true of existence (Level II).
On the basis of Jaspers' division of being, two main
implications can be drawn. First, Jaspers speaks of his
philosophic faith as a middle ground between
ecclesiastical religion and nihilism and between theology
and positivism, which treats science as having the final
account of things (Blackham, 1965). spers here stands
in opposition to both Kierkegaard's Christianity and
Nietzsche's godlessness by advocating the possibility of
transcendent being (Collins, 1952)X The second impli
cation stems from the dialectical role of the rationalism
and objectivity of Level I and the personal existence of
28
Level II. The oppositional nature of these two levels of
being precludes either from ever overcoming the other .
Existence without rationalism fails in its endeavor to
approach reality (MacQuarrie, 1972) and results in (wo)man
being torn apart by the paradox.
In 1958, Jaspers declares his philosophy is not a
philosophy of existence but a philosophy of Reason (Kahn,
1962).) As an adversary of rationalism, Jaspers attempts
to give Reason careful respect (MacQuarrie, 1972) ^ut in
attempting to use reason to invalidate Reason, Jaspers
contradicts his own theory (Russell, 1959^. {^^e effort of
existentialism to integrate the person and her/his own
being is taken up by Martin Heidegger, not in an attempt
to reconcile the equation of existence and Reason but by
placing human existence and Being as the central concern
of humans (Kahn, 1962)^
%
Hei dagger
Martin Heidegger was Husserl's student and eventual
successor as a professor of philosophy at Freiburg
University. Heidegger's training began as a Jesuit
novice. His main philosophic concerns are Husserls'
phenomenology, "the question of being," and etymology.
Like Kierkegaard, Heidegger is interested in human
existence, not as a focal point, but as the means of
attaining a view of Being. He attempts to redefine Being
29
by returning to the origin of the definition of being
itself (Barrett, 1958). Heidegger finds the origin of
philosophic thought and inquiry to be based on the
presupposition of being and defines his "fundamental"
ontology as the study of the foundations upon which
metaphysics and all philosophy rest. Primary to all
thought for Heidegger, is Being (Collins, 1952).
After Being and Time was published, Heidegger became
convinced that very few grasped the true meaning of his
book and attributed this to the lack of understanding of
the ancient meaning of Being (Collins, 1952). Heidegger
believes the source of this misunderstanding is not error
or fallacy but the result of choices made by Plato and
; Aristotle which illuminate one aspect of being and plunge
I
I others into obscurity (Yankelovich & Barrett, 1970). The
j genealogy of philosophy beginning with Plato and Aristotle
I
I and continuing through Descartes and Husserl places
I consciousness, within which is a predisposed privacy and
separation of the mind from the world, as the starting
point of philosophy. This subject/object split is
redefined by Heidegger.
K^eing is characterized by Heidegger as "Being-in the
world," existence standing outside of itself and deeply
embedded in the world, Heidegger's definition overcomes
the subject/object split by the inclusion of the two parts
30
of the definition of Being. Thje Jirs,t_i^s yhe classic
meaning of Bein g ^ a„§., the things that are." This
definition, ascribed to by the aforementioned phi
losophers, is in terms of "thing^./ Heidegger finds it to
be empty of useful information when describing human
beings because of its generality. Tp _ t h is—^.^c-Tas^ i c
definition of Being, Heidegger returns the part he
believes is missing, the part that is meant by the "to be
of whatever is." This aspect of Being Heidegger names
Dasein, which literally translated from German means
"Being-th,,ere" is the individual mode of human existence
(Kahn, 1962). this additional aspect, HejLdegger
introduces Being into a r^ej_ational world. not represented
by (wo)man's body, but by the field in which (wo)man lives
and experiences his or her life (Barrett, 1958).
(The understanding of human existence changes with
Heidegger's unique formulations. Human existence is not
understandable as a thing to which there is a central
substance but is a field in which the human being
penetrates the everyday world of experience.\ Heidegger
describes existence with these traits or "existentialia:"
(1) mood or feeling, which is the pervasive sense, not
that a person is "having," but that which they "are ;" (2)
understanding, which is the sense, not necessarily
rational, the individual has for the way the world exists.
31
and; (3) speech, which is the conduit through which the
individual is in touch with, and open to the world
(Barrett, 1958). These three traits make up the overall
context within which man exists, as Barrett (1958, p. 224)
notes, "Being is the context in which all beings come to
light." These existentialia don’t define the person as a
thing or in terms of things, but as a process, for they
allow the person "to be illuminated by letting Being
reveal itself" (Barrett, 1958, p. 221).
/
To Heidegger’s mind, the classical understanding of
Bein^v is now redefined and in his "fundamental onotology"
he develops the constitution of Dasein whereby the meaning
of Being is elucidated (Blackham, 1965)^/^ His theory must
be understood in terms of a relationship with Time into
which Heidegger extends his field theory with an emphasis
on the future Individuals don't live in a continuous
sequence of "nows," instead they carry with them the
burden of their past "the no longer" as they view or
select it, and orient themselves to the present "the here
and now" in actual situations, such that they project
themselves to the future "the not yet" and define their
own Being (Barrett, 1958 ; Kahn, 1962). Hence, the time of
the person is a unity including all time rather than a
single (one) time (Kahn, 1962). Heidegger defines the
time of human existence as a temporality.
32
\ From theories presented in Being and Time Heidegger
develops many concepts; only two are developed here.
First, Heidegger believes all manifestations of human
I existence are filled with and are in whatever individuals
do. The individuals go into the future through devotion
to something; s/he is a center of Care (Wild, 1958). The
j Being of Dasein is defined as Care (Brock, 1949). Second
is the anxiety of dread. Dread is an anxious feeling
which is the result of facing Nothingness (Barrett, 1958).
Nothingness exists in absolute terms ; it is a something.
It is Nonbeing. The dread of Nothingness represents a
type of existential crisis, and only from exposing oneself
to and going through this crisis will the individual enter
into an authentic existence. Unauthentic existence is the
everyday or ordinary existence through which people pass
without taking in and making personal their concern for
the "existentiels" that takes life out of the commonplace
and into Heidegger’s authentic existence (Kahn, 1962).
Summary of Twentieth Century Existentialism
Jaspers and Heidegger are linked as the leading German
' existentialists although they differ on religious issues
j (Collins, 1952). Jaspers presents an unsubstantiated
philosophic faith providing no description or definition
of existence so that individuals can find their way to the
transcendent (Kahn, 1962). However, Heidegger in
33
describing and developing his ontology presents an
atheistic "this-wordly’’ definition of Being (Collins,
1952) .
^^heir differences aside, Jaspers and Heidegger began
the bridge from philosophy to psychiatry and psychology.
Each takes much of his direction from Kierkegaard and
Nietzsche. Jaspers borrows from Kierkegaard the notion of
the subject-never-as-an-object, and from Nietzsche the
notion of the possibility of nihilism (Blackham, 1965).
Heidegger takes the alienation and estrangement of man
from his own being, common to both Keirkegaard and
i Nietzsche, as his central theme (Barrett, 1958).
Binswanger (1958) believes Heidegger’s formulation,
’’being-in-the-world , ’’ gives existential analysis its
/stimulation, foundation, justification, and methodological
directives^ However, before turning to existential
psychotherapy, the atheistic and existential philosophy of
Jean-Paul Sartre is considered.
Sartrean Existentialism
The impact of Heidegger was felt strongly in France as
the existentialist movement expanded in scope and impacted
the field of literature. Writers placed their characters
in irrational and absurd settings and then described the
drama that ensued. One such author, central to the
existential movement, Jean-Paul Sartre, published both
34
\
A
literature and philosophy and pushed the revolt against
rationalism to its furthest end. Sartre matured during
the critical period of social and political tumult between
World War I and World War II. The issues shouldered by
existentialism in general, and Sartre in particular, were
timely and reflected a world occupied with its own
existential issues.
Jean-Paul Sartre is considered the best known
representative and exponent of existential thinking
(Collins, 1952; Russell, 1959)) Sartre trained and taught
philosophy in France before he went to Germany and studied
under the tutelage of Husserl. A prodigious writer,
Sartre influenced literature, politics, journalism,
theater, and philosophy with his ideas. In 1943, he
published his first major philosophical work. Being and
Nothingness, which is the fulcrum of his entire
philosophy.
/Sartre’s philosophy, like Husserl and Heidegger before
him, is an attempt to build an ontology based on
phenomenological grounds. Two interdependent and mutually
supporting postulates precede the development of Sartre s
philosophizing; Nietzsche’s atheism and Husserl’s self-
sufficient phenomenology./? The atheistic postulate allows
Sartre to confidently restrict his ontology to a
reflection upon the conditions prevailing within the
35
phenomenological reduction. The self-sufficient pheno
menological postulate gains Sartre entrance to a self-
contained region without reference to a causal order of
God. In his introduction to Being and Nothingness, Sartre
states the aforementioned postulates which are the
conditions necessary for the description of acts of the
mind and, thereafter, Sartre attempts to "establish the
presence of these factors in all basic situations
involving human behavior" (Collins, 1952, p. 45).
I Sartre develops his theory of being by dividing being
into two fundamental kinds; (1) Being-in-itself and, (2)
Being-for-itself (Sartre, 1956). Being-in-itself is
nonconscious being, it is the being of a thing and the
being of a thing is itself (Sartre, 1956). "Being-for-
it s el f is coextensive to the realm of consciousness, and
the nature of consciousness is that it is perpetually
beyond itself" (Barrett, 1958, p. 245) and in constant
movement (Wahl, 1949). Together these two modes of being
comprise all being in the world.) Being-in-itself is
opaque to itself precisely because it is filled with
itself and Being-for-itself is never itself because
consciousness is intentional. Thus consciousness is only
a focus and is defined by what it attends to.
In the duality of being-in-itself (matter) and being-
for-itself (consciousness), Sartre (1956) describes human
36
L>
existence as perpetual self-transcendence ; the individual
is always existing beyond her/himself . Th^e essence of
jcon_sx^QJl§Æ.ess is transcendence. This continuous exf.§nsion
o f , 9, ^ d ourselves gives rise t o' " the
i d u ^ a b e c a u s e one's existence has no
grounding. Herein lies the origin of the individual’s
continuous and
F ro,m,, , , , t bric of b ein g - f s
t h 9 p r e s e n^c e of Nothin g the negation of Being which
Being carries within itself. Nothingness is not
substantive but ’’comes into the world by the For-itself
and is the recoil from fullness or self-contained Being
which allows consciousness to exist" (Barnes, 1956, p.
800). Sartre (1956) describes Being as emergin.g from
^1-d^-^n o-t^—eLxa,^s t « Nocthingness and without Nothingness Beinj
Nothingness is at the heart of Being and Being nihiliates
Nothingness in its Being. Nothingness is not outside of,
complimentary to, or a structure of Being, it is not a
thing.
The elucidation of the person, translated by Sartre in
terms of Being and Nothingness, is conrp/lete freedom,, as
signified by the manifestation of anguish. The person,
defined as consciousne^^ is e^n/ptv of all can.t-eTii:'- an^-dlTë
to the self-transcending and inten%lonaT ' nature of
37
consciousness, is constantly obligated to renew her/
himself in the moment (Sartre, 1956). Individuals exist
in an arbitrary world absent of a God. For Sartre, the
world is where anything is possible and an individual is
dependent upon her/himself to sustain her/himself in
her/his existence. The entrance into Being, from
Nothingness, by the Self is done as a "freedom."
Individuals are never totally known because their
consciousness is in-the-worId and always in process. In
finality, an individual's existence always precedes his or
her essence.
In summary, the postulates posed by Sartre (1956)
define ontology as requiring the phenomenological method
for accuracy. He assigns issues of causality, deductive
explanations, and hypotheses about existence to the
contingent discipline of metaphysics (Collins, 1952) and
the result is a theory of the person, living in a world
without external justification and obliged to act. Sartre
pushes human freedom to the limit. Accor(/ing..-.^t.o.^._^^^ ,
the person must continuously choose a ^ destiny .^,^wi;^fLOJLLt
links to tradition or preceding events and wl.t?h™-eaeh
decision a total commitment is exacted. The only way to
escape Sartre's world is to seek protection by
rationalizing it in some way.
38
Summary - Existential Philosophy
The review of existential philosophers is presented to
detail the advent of existentialism and explore the
philosophical roots of the University of Southern
California, Department of Counseling. The review,
although chronological, is not meant to be a comprehensive
or final analysis of existentialism but to give the
framework and main conceptions from which the Department
of Counseling takes its orientation. If, as Miguel de
Unamuno (1957, p. 28) declares, "Philosophy is a product
of the humanity of each individual," then these
philosophical tenants should also be the philosophical
foundation of the students enrolled in the Department of
Counseling.
Existential Philosophy and Education
The translation of existential philosophy to
educational practice is taken up by but a handful of
medlarles, reaching different conclusions dependent upon
their philosophical foundations and unique biases.
Discordance may stem from the absence of much direct
writing by existential philosophers on education. Despite
this problem, a growing body of work is beginning to
accumulate which began with the publication of George
Kneller’s Existentialism and Education in 1958.
Before turning to these interpreters one caution must
39
be mentioned. Much of the argument of the applicability
of existentialism to education turns on the primacy of
Sartre and Sartre’s notion of freedom (Baker, 1964;
Overhold, 1969). If this Sartrean conception of freedom
is solipsistic, applicability within the American
compulsory school system is limited at best. For the
purposes of this review it will be assumed existentialism
is not solipsistic so as not to distract from any
implications which can be inferred. The validity of this
assumption will be left to the reader.
George Kneller (1958) bases his writing upon the
philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre and notes that
existentialism is not a comprehensive or completed body of
knowledge. 'His primary guidelines for education emphasize
the search for authenticity and the quest for personal
meaning within the educational process. Kneller advocates
the education of student self-reliance and the placement
of the student over and above subject matter. Thus the
role of the teacher is to engage the affective part of the
student.
Morris (1961) emphasizes that the first goal of
education is to build responsible selfhood in the
individual. He recommends use of the Socratic method, as
does Kneller, to provoke the student to self-awareness in
an aesthetic way. He intends the student to choose the
40
subject matter and believes this is fundamentally a moral
choice .
Like Morris, Greene (1973, 1978) expounds the import
of the aesthetic component. The effort is to be aimed at
engaging the student’s subjectivity and having the student
question him or her self. Thus, the strength of this
approach is that it appeals to the senses, teaching the
student to respond with feelings. The student gets
experience in choosing the relationship s/he wants and
learns not to withdraw from full participation in a
situation. Troutner (1966) contends the central value of
existential philosophy is in its contribution to
alleviating the errors of objectification. He finds
existentialism gives a better understanding of the
immediate situation of the student and prefers teaching
focus on the development of the student’s completeness as
a human being rather than the conveyance of facts. In
line with Heideggarian thought, Troutner defines the
educational process as a place to learn a way of being.
Also rooted in Heidegger, Vandenberg (1971) posits the
central concern in the educational process as the
alientation of the being of the student. He claims a need
for a common and universal curriculum which opens
possibility for the student. The teacher must take a
stance of positive neutrality, to eliminate inauthenticity
41
(Vandenberg, 1962), The student becomes the origin of
authority whereby education ends and schooling occurs
without the objectification of the student.
The primacy of the individual and the individual’s
experience is also supported by Denton (1968, 1970). He
believes the educational experience needs to be highly
personal for it to be meaningful to the student, but not
at the expense of isolation. Denton (1968) finds the
social dimension and the responsibility to others
imperative if existential education is to be successful.
Meaningful education occurs in an equal, open, authentic,
and immediate relationship between teacher and student.
Basic to all the above mentioned writers on
existential education is Martin Buber’s work on
relationship. Buber (1952, 1955) is one of the few
existential philosophers to write directly about
education. He believes education to be a particular form
of the I-Thou relationship occurring between teacher and
student. Only when students bring both their creative and
genuine self into communion with the teacher, in an I-Thou
relationship, is the foundation set such that education
occurs. Teacher, student, and subject matter are all
brought forth to the experience in a personally meaningful
reality. Buber describes it this way when talking about
adult education:
42
Our aim goes considerably beyond that of imparting
knowledge. We are not directly and especially
interested in knowledge. We are interested in man.
Man must have knowledge, too, but if knowledge becomes
the center of the person, it is just the opposite of
what we want. We want the wholeness of a person
because only whole persons can influence others as we
want to influence others. (Buber, 1957, p. 179)
Buber’s essence of education is the authentic
communication planted in the I-Thou framework.
In summary, no single unified existential philosophy
of education is presented. Existential terms (e.g.,
subjective present, personal responsibility, and freedom)
can translate directly from philosophy to education,
particularly when describing the student in individual
terms, but the explications of existential education vary
according to the interpreter and the interpretation.
Existential Psychotherapy
Like existential philosophy, existential psychotherapy
is borne out of the disappointment with current reigning
theories (May & Basescu, 1968). Ludwig Binswanger (1963)
and Medard Boss (1963) form the nucleus of this movement,
both taking their lead from Heidegger (1962), but there is
no single or universal voice of the existential ,ma3Lema-n-t'
in psychotherapy (Kaufman, 1956; May, 1958). This section
is organized around an examination of the context of
existential psychotherapy with particular attention to the
following areas :
1. The transition from and difference between
43
philosophical theory and psychological practice.
2. The underlying assumptions of the therapeutic
situation.
3. The role of the therapist.
4. The therapeutic relationship.
5. The goals of therpay and the client.
Transition of Existential Philosophy into Psychotherapy ^
Existential philosophers seek to answer questions
about the meaning of life by looking at the "inward
experience" of the person: "reality as immediately
experienced in actual living" (Kemp, 1971, p. 4).
Existential philosophy and existential psychotherapy are
both equally rooted in this identical starting point of
personal experience. "In its recognition of the stark
reality of man’s situation, existential philosophy is both
the outcome and expression of a world in which peril is
the norm of man’s life. Psychotherapy, too, is concerned
with man’s problem of daily existence in such a world"
(Ruitenbeek, 1962, p. XV). Existential philosophy and
existential psychotherapy are inexorably linked as Tillich
(1961, p. 11) remarks, "No therapeutic theory can be
developed without an implicit or explicit image of man ...
Every practical dealing with reality provides experiences
which have theoretical impact."
Existential psychotherapy is an extension of
44
existential philosophy. A philosophical concern for the
human condition becomes a psychological concern for the
condition of the individual. The shift is from abstract
to concrete, general to personalThe bonding however,
between philosophy and psychology is not totally uniform.
Yalom (1980) cites his dependence upon philosophical works
to illustrate clinical issues, all the while noting the
limitations of entering the therapeutic context with a
theory into which the patient must fit. The best
description of this difference may be that of Arbuckle
(1971, p. 33):
This existential counselor is somewhat different than
the existential philosopher. The counselor lives and
exists and experiences with the being that the
philosopher talks and writes about.
May and Basescu (1968, p. 82) describe this as the
"existential attitude toward or context of psychotherapy."
The significance of existential psychotherapy is that it
should not be done to someone and it is not a technique
but a therapy that must be experienced in the immediate
situation (Hora, 1960).
Under lying Assumptions
Existential psychotherapy is based on the effort to
unite science and ontology. This primary assumption, that
it is possible to study the individual without destroying
his or her humanity, uniquely organizes the therapeutic
situation and any investigation of the individual. The
45
specific and unique structure of the person is the
phenomenological starting point of reality and constitutes
her/his own world. So existential psychotherapy attempts
to understand the private world of the person and
understand her/his being from a phenomenological mode of
observation (May & Basescu, 1968).
The being of the person is always a "being-in-the-
world." The hyphenated word designates the inseparable
relationship of the being and the world (Binswanger, 1956;
Bugental, 1976; Heidegger, 1962; May, 1958). Being-in-
the-world is divided into three modes. First, the umwelt,
meaning the natural world around, or the world of objects.
Second, the mi twelt, meaning the world of one’s
relationship with one’s fellow man. Third, the eigenwelt,
meaning one’s own world or the relationship of the self to
itself (Kemp, 1971 ; May, 1958). All three modes of being
are simultaneously experienced by the individual and all
three must be included in any designation of the person’s
full existence in reality. It follows then that to
understand the individual is to understand his or her
entire world (Kemp, 1971).
Attempting to understand the other person’s world
requires obviating the traditional subject/object
dichotomy with its inherent alienation between the person
and the world (May, 1958). Every human action has
46
subjective and objective factors, and in the dialectical
relationship between them is the source of human freedom
and creativity (May, 1966). The person becomes the object
of outside pressures and forces, but insofar as the person
remains conscious of these factors he or she is a subject
and can choose her/his personal attitudes toward the world
(Kemp, 1971). The person is free to choose for
her/himself beyond the limits of the given time and space
(May, 1958) ^^/^he transcendent quality of the person gives
existential psychotherapy a distinctive orientation to
time (Kemp, 1971; May, 1958). -.xThe individual is not
viewed as a static object or fixture in space, but as an
actively transcending being^^/^ The person is always in the
process of relating to the future from experiences of the
past in the present moment. The person continually
transcends the past and present in terms of the future
(Kemp, 1971). The person can only be understood as an
intentional future oriented temporal being (Kemp, 1971)/
Role of the Therapist
The existential therapeutic role has but one rubric
the absence of a single technique or theory (Buber, 1957
Bugental, 1965; Hora, 1960; Kemp, 1971; May, 1958, 1967
Miller, 1978; Van Dusen, 1962). This framework is
particularly understandable by existential practitioners
since each therapist attempts to overcome the limits of
47
any particular role. When the therapist confronts the
therapeutic relationship based on the nonrational forces
of two people, person and therapist, there is Ano rational
means to determine or base success (Havens, 1960).
Alexander (1961, p. 314) calls the favorable results
of a good match between therapist and person, "personality
factors." For the existential psychotherapist these
factors are not stable parts of her/his own personality
but the result of an immediate "event in which existence
becomes manifest and reveals itself to the participants"
(Hora, 1960, p. 495), /Therefore the primary role for the
existential therapist is to be where the person is
(Havens, 1974) for existentialism views reality in the
experience itself
The existential psychotherapist must allow people to
=lLe,. what they are .. . so their essence, their being, will
become clear (Heidegger, 1960, 1962; Hora, 1959, 1960;
Keen, 1970). Margulies and Havens (1981) believe this
process starts with putting aside preconceptions of the
other person. This stance, which parallels pheno
menological inquiry, is humanistic and clarifying, not
interpretive or diagnostic.
There are two steps by which existential
psychotherapists strive to bring the clarity of being into
the counseling experience. First, the counselor must
48
strive for authenticity to initiate the healing and growth
process (Bugental, 1965). Rogers (1961) defines this
aspect as congruence, a kind of immediate and honest
subject awareness. Along similiar lines Kempler (1969-
1970, p. 57-60) defines this activity as "Manifest
Presence" and adds the need to translate and communicate
the subjective awareness in an experiental way/ What is
required for authentic prese,uc.e._is both accessibility and
ex^ress/yejyess_ which is charac.t . _ e , r .ized nt ia 1
quality of being there (Bugental, 1978)
The second step by existential psychotherapists is
derived directly from Heidegger (1961, 1962). The
therapist must’nurture '>n attitude which allows the true
emergence and presence of the other person to be revealed;
the essence of this in the relationship is freedojiL-. (Hora,
1959, 1960). This is the concept of 1 et^t/n_gjrbe
(Heidegger, 1961). Letting the person be doesn’t
characterize the psychotherapist as quiet or passive nor
as leaving the person alone, but it is an affirmation of
the other persons' existence as a subjective existent in
the world (Hora, 1960).
In summary, the precise behavior from which these
activities are induced into the therapeutic situation are
unique to circumstance and practitioner (Edwards, 1975;
Havens, 1974 ; Kemp, 1971; Margulies and Havens, 1981;
49
lA
Miller, 1978; Yoder, 1981). There is no existential style
of therapy per se (May, 1958; Miller, 1978; Van Dusen,
1962). Both the striving for personal authenticity
through subjective awareness and an attitude of the'
psychotherapist of empathetic letting-be, are needed. In
concert these two activities allow the therapist to
understand the person’s being from the person’s world and
let the change the therapist hopes will occur, come from
within the person (Keen, 1970).
The Therapeutic Relationship
Since the existential encounter is defined as
mutuality and authenticity (Bugental, 1965, 1970; Keen,
1970) a problem arises when two people attempt to
communicate their subjective experience. Van Dusen (1962)
states it this way :
In a way, existentialism finds it almost impossible to
be true to itself when its findings are to be
communicated from one person to another. Inside
himself a man can keep within the phenomenology of his
subjective experiences. But when he attempts to
translate a living experience into dead signs (words)
he has to go outside that experience, (p. 32)
This problem becomes critically attenuated in the
psychotherapeutic relationship and is clarified by Tillich
(1961) when he describes:
A further problem is that of the relations between the
analyst and the patient in the therapeutic process. A
person becomes a person in the encounter with other
persons and in no other way. ...This interdependence
of man and man in the process of becoming human is a
judgement against a psychotherapeutic method in which
50
the patient is a mere object for the analyst as
subject, (p. 15)
This attempt to overcome the built-in objectification
and depersonalization of the individual is reflected aptly
in the work of Buber (1955, 1958). Buber (1955) describes
the therapeutic relationship in a hierarchy in which the
person is excluded at the shallowest level and mutual
experience occurs at the highest level The opportunity
for mutual experience is always possible but can only
occur when the person relates totally and openly to the
other who in turn must do the same. "A gen-udine relation
cannot be one-sided, dominating or oppressive"
(MacQuarrie, 1972, p. 109) and alternatively it cannot be
a total bonding or merging with the other. The
eXi^-trerTtj.a 1 encounter J.-S--—a— ) . It
allows the differentiation of each person while
simultaneously eliminating the separation between subject
and object, therapist and person. The full expression of
the being of both individuals is predicated on the absence
of objectification and depersonalization.
existential encounter, a shared ongoing human bond, can
only occur within this framework.
Goals of Therapy
The specific and unique goals of an individual are
just that ; particular and specific goals for that
individual. But, inherent in existential psychotherapy is
51
a context in which these goals must fit and, the context
is there equally for therapist and person. Hence,
although the goals are directed at the person, so too are
they important and applicable to the psychotherapist.
Existential psychotherapy emphasizes the fullness and
wholeness of _t.he . - p e n s w a n g e r , 1956;
Edwards, 1975; Macquarrie, 1972; Margulies & Haven, 1981),
But the "inviolability of human experience" (Ford & Urban,
1963, p. 480) is a necessary precondition for the
occurence of existential psychotherapy, not the solution
(May, 1958). Existential psychotherapists hold that there
is no ma.p_ _o r_ hi u e p r i n t for all or any person ; each person
must decide for her/himself. MacQuarrie (1972) describes
it this way:
Man must decide who he will be, and more than this,
each individual must decide the question for himself.
Each one's existence is his own, characterized by a
unique "mineness." There is no universal pattern of a
genuine humanity that can be imposed on all or to
which all must conform. Indeed, to impose such a
pattern or to demand conformity would mean to destroy
the possibility of a genuinely human existence for the
persons concerned. They become themselves only to the
extent that they freely choose themselves, (p. 206)
The issue turns on the authenticiÆ^-—or-^— 1 nauthenticity _of
the freedom, choice, and responsibility of each person
(Sahakian, 1975-1976). Thus no single or particular goal
can be arbitrarily chosen or predetermined for any one
person .
The initial step in choosing authenticity is the
52
removal of all distortions of awareness (Bugental, 1965).
The person must be open to reality as it reveals iself
without repressing any awareness (Van Kaam, 1961). As
people become more aware of the full range of
possibilities, aware of their freedom, they begin to
realize the countless demands of living among conflicting
events which results in feelings of anxiety (Bugental,
1965; Miller, 1978). Concomitant to the autonomy and
anxiety is a sense of personal responsibility for one's
choices. Now responsible for the choices, the
meaningfulness of the decisions an individual makes is
laid bare. The person makes personal, responsible, and
authentic choices in an ambiguous world.
To summarize, existentia 1 psychotherapy iaZeajijs to
have meaningfulness be central in a person's life, if s/h„e„
so wishes (Franklin, 1955). This comes about through,
first, the person's awareness of her/his freedom in the
world ; second , the arbitrary nature of any choice with its
concomitant anxiety and ; third, the responsibility of
her/himself for the choices and the consequences of the
choices.
Summary - Existential Psychotherapy
Existential psychotherapy characterizes a unique
alternative to the psychoanalytic and behavioristic
therapies embedded in a deterministic viewpoint.
53
Existential psychotherapy is subjective, immediate,
holistic, and phenomenological. The review presented here
is not meant to be posited as an absolute "truth," but as
a representation of the guiding principles for the
existential psychotherapeutic process.
Humanistic-Existential Psychotherapy
The "Intentions" (1978, see Appendix B) and "General
Information" (not dated, see Appendix B) of the Department
of Counseling, an overview of the texts required for the
classes offered by the department, and the publications of
the instructors in the department, provided the framework
for this section. It is presented here to illustrate the
Humanistic-Existential approach of the Department of
Counseling (henceforth referred to as HE). This section
explores five areas pertinent to HE:
1. The HE view of the person.
2. The therapeutic relationship.
3. The HE view of change.
4. Psychopathology as seen by HE.
5. The goals of HE.
The HE View of the Person
A common thread endemic to all existentialism is the
emphasis on man as central or homeoergic (Bloland &
Walker, 1978; May, 1961; Ofman, 1976; Sartre, 1956; Van
Kaam, 1966; Yalom, 1980) and HE is no exception to this.
54
This existential approach, based on the famous Sartrean
dictum "existence precedes essence" (Sartre, 1965, p. 34),
considers all persons as free, with no predetermined
essentialistic nature (Beckman, 1979). The person is seen
as subject (Keen, 1970; Ofman, 1976) and always able to
create her/himself (Barnes, 1959; Frankl, 1958; Patterson,
1973; Ofman, 1976; Sartre, 1956, 1967; Singer, 1970) for
the person exists first; hence the person is not definable
and has no predetermined nature.
The person is self-reflexive and unique and as
distinct from nonhuman reality has the opportunity to take
any stance toward objects. This freedom to interact
places a nothingness between individuals and objects, a
space which displays consciousness as relational to an
object. Given this "being and nothingness" (Sartre, 1956)
individuals are totally free to choose themselves because
person and object are not one (Kaiser, 1965; Ofman, 1976).
Hence the person relates to the world by an assumption of
(Ofman, 1976), or faith in (Barrett, 1978), an arbitrary
point of View.
HE defines the person as "a being of whom no essence
can be affirmed" (Tillich, 1961, p. 9). A person as such
is firmly entrenched in a situation as a participant,
totally responsible and without outside restriction
(Bloland & Walker, 1978; Ofman, 1976).
55
The Therapeutic Relationship
The therapeutic relationship is defined as a struggle
existing between the two participants (Ofman, 1976). This
relationship embodies the quest for mutuality (Buber,
1958; Ofman, 1976), which Tillich (1961, p. 15) describes
as the "interdependence of man and man in the process of
becoming human." The therapeutic relationship demands the
counselor be a full participant.
As characterized by Ofman (1967) the "engaged
encounter" is summarized as;
1. Two gods openly struggling with their subjec
tivity, constantly asking "How can we permit each
other to enter into the other's system for a while,
for as long as is possible."
2. I-Thou. The making of the other as holy (Buber,
1958).
3. Affirmation. This is the process of confriming
the reality of the other, their feelings.
4. Authenticity.
5. Struggle toward the establishment of mutual
process and the essential we.
6. Avowal of implicit symmetry, (p. 126)
The HE Concept of Change
The HE position is uniquely oriented to the concept of
change. It posits the value of a person's present
position as not only valid, but appropriate for her/him in
every way (Corey, 1966; Ofman, 1976). Each person acts
with integrity (Ofman, 1976). To summarize Ofman (1976,
p. 156-161) the HE position is;
1. To affirm the person as he is, is to affirm the
validity of his/her present position.
56
2. To always search for the truth and correctness of
the clients position and choices. Man always acts
rightly (Clive, 1965).
3. There are positive and negative consequences to
their choices: all choices.
4. Affirmation of the person’s need and want.
Implicit in the message of change is a negation
(Laing, 1967), or violation (Ofman, 1976) of the other’s
integrity and the good reasons for her/him being the way
s/he is. The HE position views explict awareness, hence
clarity of the results in any given personal position, as
change enough in and of itself (Ofman, 1976). Awareness
of the positive and negative aspects of one’s position so
one can authentically choose is the goal in therapy.
Clinical interaction is not oriented toward producing
change but rather towards increased awareness of the
ramifications of one’s position.
Psychopathology: Duplicity, Self-Deception, and Bad Faith
Psychopathology is borne of a person’s choices which
result in the truth being hidden from her/him self. Self-
deception (Fingarette, 1969; Kaufman, 1956; Ofman, 1976),
duplicity (Kaiser, 1965) and ’’Bad Faith’’ (Sartre, 1956)
are synonomous with psychopathology, and represent the
consequence of a chosen path away from authenticity
57
whereby having once chosen, the answer lies outside one's
awareness (Fingarette, 1969),
Self-deception does not posit an unconscious which,
because of its nature, is unknowable. Self-deception is
chosen in full awareness: first, by not attending to
oneself or second, by not believing what was attended to.
The person can at any time recall the situation and attend
to the facets present in the situation and take
her/himself out of self-deception. This process acts as a
way to order reality for the individual (Ofman, 1976).
The product of this self-deception is an
objectification and denial of the self and freedom. Self-
deception leads to an invalidity and confusion of the
natural connections in the world and the person is
emotionally taken away from the situation to thoughts of
other things. A cleavage between experience in the
situation with others occurs as the person becomes
alienated from her/his own feelings.
Reality is thus distorted as the person continues to
change her/himself and further disorder her/his behavior,
hence the resultant psychopathology.
Goals of HE
The implications for therapists as individuals and the
goals of therapy are identical because the relationship
between therapist and patient becomes an example of each
58
participant’s total self. The relationship translates to
the person who the therapist is and what the therapist
values and wants. The therapist is unable to offer as a
goal anything s/he does not also strive for. Thus, the
following section defines the goals of the HE therapy
between counselor and client as being important for both
the therapist and the patient. The model for these
therapeutic traits are the ’’Intentions’’ (1978) and
’’General Information’’ (not dated) of the Department of
Counseling.
Awareness
Total awareness is a process in which both
participants are fully themselves. It implies an
acceptance of the way things are without ’’shoulds.’’ The
process is facilitated by stressing the ’’here and now,’’
explicit awareness, self declaration, the personal
validity of each individual’s perception, and the constant
struggle to search for the truth (Ofman, 1976).
Change is_._nrLt the goaj.. behavioral or emotional. The
goal is the full illumination of the person’s reality.
___
The major gain is the assumption of personal
responsibility and thus freedom and possibility for one’s
own life. This is a process whereby all of the person can
be integrated into a total unity in honesty (Ofman, 1976).
/">
59
Authenticity
Authenticity is open, honest, and genuine relating as
a totally human human. The person who is committed to
living with total awareness is willing to accept the
consequences for her/his choices. This is what Poole
(1972) calls "deep subjectivity." This places each person
firmly in the world with the focus not self-oriented, but
with each person responding directly and immediately to
the other (Ofman, 1976).
Openness
Openness is the availability of one to be affected and
impacted by another. The emptying of oneself to become a
"zero" such that one is filled by the other (Buber, 1958).
Equality
The encounter between persons is reflective of the
position each person takes. The position the therapist
takes teaches the patient a value in the world (Ofman,
1976). This is the context in which the relationship
occurs; the meta-level. This is the frame (Goffman, 1974)
the person is "in" and who the person is with. When no
one in a relationship has higher position or station than
another equality is achieved.
Integrity
Integrity is the unity of the individual as implied by
what the person does and wants. The focus of the
60
therapist is to reveal all the aspects of the person’s
position, positive and negative, thereby elucidating the
good reasons for doing and being oneself. Thus, this is
one’s acceptance of responsibility for one’s own life
(Ofman , 19 74).
Summary-Humanistic Existential Psychotherapy
Humanistic-existentialism is presented as a system of
psychotherapy which places the person as central, fully
free, and responsible for the choices s/he makes.
Bugental (1965) describes the person this way:
Man is. Not man is good or man is bad, the limits of
his awareness, responsible for his choices, without
the guideposts of instincts or innate nature, and
trying to find meaningful relation with his fellows,
man is, period, (p. 143)
The goal in the therapeutic process is complete awareness
which occurs only within the framework of an authentic,
open, equal, and mutual relationship. Humanistic-
existential psychotherapy is then an ongoing and immediate
interaction between two people, each struggling to
experience her/his own humanness.
Summary - Existentialism
This section reviews the literature relevant to
existentialism. The areas covered are: 1) Existential
philosophy; 2) Existential philosophy and education ; 3)
Existential psychotherapy, and 4) Humanistic-Existential
psychotherapy. The literature reviewed here gives a
61
framework for the existential foundations of the
University of Southern California, Department of
Counseling. To give foundation to the practices of
graduate training in the Department of Counseling the
guidelines for training are presented.
Graduate Training
The research of graduate training is varied and broad.
The major difficulty being the determination of what
contitutes relevant training (Howe & Neimeyer, 1980).
This section is organized to review training in counseling
psychology and existentialism and to do so, literature
from fields labelled psychology, school psychology,
counseling psychology, and clinical training are included.
Counseling Psychology Training
The field of educational training in counseling
psychology is increasing in importance while developing
significantly in the last thirty years (Bradley & Olson,
1980; Brown, 1981; Fretz & Mills, 1981; Coh, 1971;
Guidubaldi, 1981; Howe & Neimeyer, 1980; Krauskopf,
Thore son, & McAleer, 1973; Tryon, 1980). Specifically,
the counseling psychology speciality is difficult to
define due to an ambiguous role and a diverse array of
training backgrounds (Ivey, 1979; Krauskopf, Thoreson, &
McAleer, 1973). The guidelines of the counseling
psychology training program are reviewed to illustrate the
62
University of Southern California, Department of
Counseling program.
Training Orientation
As noted above, training in counseling psychology is
diverse. Factors of consumer protection, accreditation,
certification, third-party payment, and licensure also
impinge upon educational training (Fretz & Mills, 1981).
Due to the ambiguous nature of the field, guidelines are
established (American Psychological Association, 1977)
which are generally accepted and enforced by the
evaluating agencies. Fretz and Mills (1981, p. 6)
describe these criteria:
Criteria for Designation of Doctoral Programs in
Psychology
1. Programs that are accredited by the American
Psychological Association are recognized as meeting
the definition of a professional psychology program.
The criteria for accreditation serve as a model for
professional psychology training.
2. Training in professional psychology is doctoral
training offered in a regionally accredited
institution of higher education.
3. The program, wherever it may be administratively
housed, must be clearly identified and labeled as a
psychology program. Such a program must specify in
pertinent institutional catalogues and brochures its
intent to educate and train professional psy
chologists .
4. The psychology program must stand as a
recognizable, coherent organizational entity within
the institution.
5. There must be a clear authority and primary
responsibility for the core and specialty areas
whether or not the program cuts across administrative
lines .
6. The program must be an integrated, organized
sequence of study.
7. There must be an identifiable psychology faculty
63
and a psychologist responsible for the program.
8. The program must have an identifiable body of
students who are matriculated in that program for a
degree.
9. The program must include supervised practicum,
internship, field, or laboratory training appropriate
to the practice of psychology.
10. The curriculum shall encompass a minimum of three
academic years of full time graduate study. In
addition to instruction in scientific and professional
ethics and standards, research design and methodology,
statistics, and psychometrics, the core program shall
require each student to demonstrate competence in each
of the following substantive content areas. This
typically will be met by including a minimum of three
or more graduate semester hours (5 or more graduate
quarter hours) in each of these four substantive
content areas: a) biological bases of behavior;
physiological psychology, comparative psychology,
neuro-psychology, sensation and perception, psycho
pharmacology; b) cognitive-affective bases of
behavior : learning, thinking, motivation, emotion ; c)
social bases of behavior : social psychology, group
processes, organizational and systems theory ; d)
individual differences: personality theory, human
development, abnormal psychology.
In addition to these criteria, all professional
education programs in psychology will include course
requirements in specialty areas. (Weliner, 1978, pp.
29-30)
The basis of training is the traditional scientist-
professional model which seeks to integrate academic and
scientific skills with professional experience to improve
the ability of students (Shakow, 1978). The scientist-
pofessional model is supported as the most (Goldstein,
1970; Weiner, 1969) or only (Hartman, 1981) viable model
in training because of its highly flexible and adjustable
nature. Others (Derner, 1975; Peterson, 1968, 1976a,
1976b; PottharSt, 1970) have advocated alternatives.
Myers (1981) recommends an increased diversity in
64
meeting the needs of Americans due to the changing
cultural map but finds the pressures of organized
psychology suppresses innovative styles of rendering
services. Myers (1981) says:
There has been no rapid increase in the number of
training programs and those that exist seem to be
responding to the conservative influences of organized
psychology, (p. 41)
Krauskopf, Thoreson, and McAleer (1973) in their
demographic survey of counseling psychology offer a
tripartite educational model as a solution to the two
positions mentioned above. They recommend training be
oriented to three areas:
1. Education/administration - this area relinquishes
its identification with psychology and is oriented
toward student personnel.
2. Professional psychologist - this area abandons any
pretense of following the traditional scientist/
professional model.
3. Social scientist - this area is oriented to the
procedure of basic research. (Krauskopf, Thoreson, &
McAleer, 1973)
Training Issues
The literature on training reflects a wide focus of
concern. Clearly the increasing emphasis on clinical
training results in educators assuming more responsibility
and care for the quality of students graduating from their
65
schools. Rogers (1962) proposes key ingredients in the
helping relationship while Truax and Carkhuff (1967) later
attempt to operationalize these qualities. The thrust of
this work results in the development of a "skills
training" orientation (Carkhuff, 1969; Ivey, 1971; Kagan,
1972). These programs attempt to deduce the specific
behaviors or skills of the interpersonal relationship
which relate to successful outcomes of therapy. Of course
the character of the training is dependent on the
definition of success.
Mahon and Altmann (1977) question the singularity of
this movement and report inconsistent results of skill
transfer to intended setting from the training situation.
Calia (1974) also opposes skills training because he finds
trainees unable to both transcend their training and to go
beyond the techniques learned. Ivey (1974) concurs and
describes the process of relating to others as consisting
of more than simply behavioral skills. An alternative to
skills training is to include in training some practice
using one’s self as an instrument (Combs, 1969; Combs,
Avila, & Turkey, 1971) so the individual can generalize
the skills learned in training to nonspecific situations.
Mahon and Altmann (1977) make these recommendations to
facilitate training oriented to this end:
1. Research methodology needs to be more carefully
controlled.
66
2. The components most essential for effective skill-
training programs need to be more clearly identified
and researched.
3. Personal qualities underlying and unifying skills
need as much or more emphasis as the skills
themselves, (pp. 48-49)
Analogous to the skills training issue is the
relationship concerning counselor orientation and
attitudes (Fiedler, 1950a, 1956b). Fiedler (1950a, 1950b)
finds that experts of different counseling orientations
are more similiar than novices and novices were more
heterogeneous than experts. Prompted by these findings,
Peterson and Bradley (1980) investigated the relationship
between counselor orientation and attitudes. They report
"a significant relationship between counselor orientation
and theoretical tenets; level of experience did not
contribute significantly to within groups’ variance’’ (p.
554). A flaw in this study is the focus on counselor
attitudes only and not counselor practices.
Myers (1981) makes eight recommendations for training
programs that serve as guidelines for future education:
1. Training programs in counseling psychology should
rediscover the importance of work (and workplace) as
an influence on human well-being and seek to stimulate
student interest in the psychological aspect of work,
2. Training programs in counseling psychology should
recognize that some of their graduates will work in
settings designated as mental health delivery systems
and should orient their students accordingly.
3. The social efficacy of mental health delivery
systems should become a topic of importance in
training programs in counseling psychology,
4. Training programs in counseling psychology should
give explicit emphasis to the value of individual
67
counseling and psychotherapy as methods for
developmental, preventative, and remedial intervention
and give equal emphasis to their limitations.
5. Training programs in counseling should delib
erately acquaint their students with the variety of
human services providers who seek to contribute to
psychological well-being of others and should foster
collaboration with the various providers of mental
health services.
6. Training programs should advocate the assessment
of competence as the primary criterion for entitlement
(i.e., licensure, certification, third party payment),
both with their students and in public forums.
7. At a time when the efficacy of the
scientist/practioner model is being questioned,
training programs should reaffirm their belief in
disciplined inquiry as a necessary concomitant of
competent practice.
8. Training programs should add substantially to the
amount of attention they pay to the increasing
diversity of our society, (pp. 42-44)
Ethical Considerations
Ethical issues for psychologists are a primary and
central focus of late. The rising costs of liability
insurance, the potential dangers which come with the
varying degrees of sanctions (Hall & Hare-Must in, 1983),
and a better informed public which has taken a more
aggressive policy with ethical issues, has prompted much
of the concern (Pope, Levenson, & Schover, 1979).
Concurrently, ethical issues as they regard educators and
school faculty are also increasing in importance. To
complete an understanding of the roles, duties, and
obligations of the members of the faculty the ethical
issues which are pertinent are reviewed.
When ethical issues enter the arena of professional
68
practice it takes close consideration to clarify what is a
violation and when a violation has occurred. A review of
the relevant issues are those which are pertinent to the
Department of Counseling, a training ground for counselors
and counselor educators. The areas of potential violation
to an individual’s rights, (i.e., students), and
appropriate professional practice (i.e., instructors) is
the focus. The issues raised are sexual intimacy, dual
relationships, confidentiality, and the appropriate and
responsible professional roles.
Sexual Intimacy
Principle number three (Moral and Legal Standards) of
the Ethical Principles of Psychologists (1981) proposes
that the pscyhologists’ moral and ethical standards of
behavior are a personal matter to the same degree as they
are for any other citizen, except as these may compromise
the fulfillment of their professional responsibilities or
reduce the public trust in psychology and psychologists.
Regarding their own behavior, psychologists are sensitive
to prevailing community standards and to the possible
impact that conformity to or deviation from these
standards may have upon the quality of their performance
as psychologists. Psychologists are also aware of the
’’possible impact of their public behavior upon the ability
of colleagues to perform their professional duties’’ (APA,
69
p. 634, 1981), Specifically, the American Psychological
Association (1977, 1979) declares sexual contact between
therapists and clients unethical, with Masters and Johnson
(1976) even advocating that therapists be charged with
rape when having sex with their patients.
When generalizing these standards to the educational
setting the same high standards are applicable and
necessary. The sexual issues inherent in the therapist-
client relationship are further attenuated in the
educator-student relationship due to the collaborative
effort and differentials in social power (Glaser & Thorpe,
1986). Glaser and Thorpe (1986), while only investigating
male educators and female students, find 20% to 25% of
their subjects had sexual relationships with educators,
and, when surveyed, two thirds of these respondents viewed
these activities as unethical and potentially damaging.
Much needs to be clarified about sexual relationships
within the educational setting, but the potential problems
alone deem these activities prohibitive and the proper
ethical practice suggests, as do Glaser & Thorpe (1986),
that educators remove themselves from the educative role
when sexual issues are present in educational
relationships,
70
Dual Relationships
Issues which arise due to conflicts inherent in dual
relationships are delineated directly in Principle 6,
Welfare of the Consumer, of the Ethical Principles of
Psychologists. Principle 6a states "psychologists make
every effort to avoid dual relationships that could impair
their professional judgement or increase the risk of
exploitation. Examples of such dual relationships
include, but are not limited to, research with and
treatment of employees, students, supervisees, close
friends, or relatives. Sexual intimacies with clients are
unethical" (APA, p. 636, 1981). Further, Principle 7 d
Professional Relationships states, "psychologists do not
exploit their professional relationships with clients,
supervisees, students, employees, or research participants
sexually or otherwise" (APA, p. 636, 1981).
It is uncommon for students not to be in a myriad of
roles with instructors over the course of their
educational training. The roles teachers need to fulfill
for students vary among, supervision for practicum type
courses, participation in dydactic classes, research
activities, program advisement, personal confidants, and
professional colleagues. No one is surprised to find an
educator and student in dual relationships, they may be
unavoidable. But the practices of educators, as governed
71
by the "Ethical Principles" (1981) suggest, particularly
when the issues are problematic, dual relationships are to
be avoided, and smart ethical conduct supports open
discussion about dual relationships when they are
unavoidable.
Confidentiality
"Psychologists have a primary obligation to respect
the confidentiality of information obtained from persons
in the course of their work as psychologists" (APA, 1981,
p. 636-637). Principle 5a of the Ethical Principles
(1981) further specifies "information obtained in clinical
or consulting relationships, or evaluative data concerning
children, students, employees, and others" (p. 636), The
rights of students, especially when in practicum or
supervisorial situations need and deserve the protection
granted by the intent of the principles of
confidentiality. Students are required in the role of
student to reveal themselves. An educator, who uses
information discovered through the course of an educative
role, for their own welfare or at the expense of the
student, violates the intent of this ethical standard.
Appropriate and Responsible Roles
The Preamble of the Ethical Principles of
Psychologists (APA, 1981) states, "psychologists respect
the dignity and worth of the indvidual and strive for the
72
preservation and protection of fundamental human rights"
(p. 633), and continues describing the responsibilities
required of psychologists as, "competence, objectivity in
the application of skills, and concern for the best
interests of clients, colleagues, students, research
participants, and society" (p. 633). Principle 3c also
adds that "in their professional roles, psychologists
avoid any action that will violate or diminish the legal
and civil rights of clients or of others who may be
affected by their actions" (p. 633). This infers any
action, or set of actions, which infringe the rights of a
student can be deemed unethical. The responsibility
attached to the education of students demands clarity
about these issues. The issues of social learning
(Bandura, 1969) alone call for educators to maintain the
highest professional standards when dealing with students.
Pivotal to this issue is the potential coercion and
exploitation, intentional or inadvertent, in educator-
student relationships. Any situation which presents these
problems must be avoided and prevented due to their
untenable and unethical implications.
Summary - Ethical Considerations
In summary, the issues relating to appropriate and
proper ethical conduct harbor many difficulties for the
concerned professional. While the issues discussed are
73
not a comprehensive review of all the ethical issues for
psychologists, they help detail the conduct necessary for
the conscientious professional, counselor or educator.
These issues present a framework to observe the expected
or ideal conditions for educators and counselors in the
University of Southern California Department of
Counseling.
Summary - Counseling Psychology
This section reviews research relevant to graduate
training, orientation and issues, all of which undoubtedly
have an impact on students. The importance of this
training warrants attention when discussing education
because where one is trained will effect the way a student
will practice once entering the professional work place.
Existential Training
There is little consensus as to what determines viable
training approaches for producing effective counselors
(Cormier, Hockney, & Sequist, 1974). The problem of how
Humanistic-Existential education should take place and
what is the appropriate method is stated well by Ofman
(1 9 6 7 ),
...it is submitted that a descrepanc y exists between
the idea of the counseling process on the one hand and
the teaching and practice of counseling on the other
hand. (p. 932)
Ofman recommends that trainers need to embrace the
theories taught and actualize these theories as the
74
trainers teach.
In his review of the literature of existential
training Beckman (1979) reports no empirical studies which
postulate cause due to the difficulty of operationalizing
existential constructs. The recommendations are primarily
philosophical (See Existential Philosophy on Education
above) or theoretical (Ar buckle, 1971, 1975; Brammer,
1971; Chenault, 1968; King, 1979). This section is
organized to synthesize the recommendations and describe
the form an existential training program would take. The
following areas are reviewed:
1. The context
2. The role of the teacher,
3. The role of the student.
4. The learning relationship.
Context
"An educational program based on the principles of
existentialism might suggest to some the abandonment of
systematic learning" (Bowers, 1965, p. 228). Ofman (1967)
characterizes the development of an existential curriculum
by dividing it into two parts ; necessary and sufficient.
The necessary condition is the knowledge of and training
in the "theoretical basis for understanding persons and
for the establishment of helping relationships" and the
sufficient condition is characterized as the "development
75
of the kind of person with whom professional contacts are
excitement to growth" (p. 934). Beckman (1979) defines
this as the holistic approach.
The translation of the basic constituent of the
holistic approach to the student is the product of
meaningful and understood experiences (Ar buckle, 1971).
The program, if not related to the individual,
accomplishes only half the task because it only offers
objective information. The core of the program must offer
experiential opportunities for "sensing" others (Ar buckle,
1975). Personal growth, which is the result of this deep
interactive process, is the desired result as opposed to
simply learning objective information (Chenault, 1968).
Finally, the absence of any absolute objective or
standardized criteria for evaluation is inherent.
Chenault (1968) recommends that evaluation occurs best
when the student's comprehensive understanding of the
counseling process and beliefs about the functioning of
people are assessed.
Role of the Teacher
Existential teachers must make themselves available
for direct and immediate relationships with students
(Beckman, 1979). These relationships should occur in
class and everywhere teachers and students interact. In
these relationships teachers should allow for the
76
acceptance of the students' personal reality by
facilitating the expression of the student's perceptions
while concurrently expressing their own perceptions. The
learning process then becomes a place where teacher and
student alike learn together (Arbuckle, 1975).
Role of the Student
In an existential training program the student must be
involved in the learning process in a personal way and
must undertake the responsibility of determining what and
how he or she wants to learn (Arbuckle, 1975; Chenault,
1968), The search for experiences that are intriguing and
growth oriented guide the learning process (Brammer,
1971). This requires the student be fully conscious,
trusting and aware (Arbuckle, 1975; Brammer, 1971). Thus
learning to be a counselor is not an attempt at learning
how to help, but is rather a change in the student's way-
of-being (Beckman, 1979).
The Learning Experience
Counseling and learning are fully human experiences
between people in an existential training program
(Arbuckle, 1975; Ofman, 1967). This creates a need for
the total person to be manifested and willing to deeply
share and experience with others (Arbuckle, 1971).
Kemp (1971) recommends a diverse and wide exposure to
always unfamiliar educational fields. The student is
77
expected to always search for even more perspectives
through which comes the understanding that there is no
single or absolute answer. Thus, the student will learn
to live with and accept ambiguity (Kemp, 1971). Then the
student's learning experiences is always a personally
guided exploration of one's self (Kemp, 1971).
Summary - Existential Training
Existential training is described as committed to the
subjectivity of the participants. The participants,
teacher and student alike, each mutually share the tasks
of learning. The training process occurs as the student
formulates and integrates philosophical conceptions about
the human condition, the counseling process, and her/his
own existence (Brammer, 1971), Thus, school becomes an
involved, total, and immediate experience.
Summary - Graduate Training
This section summarizes the concerns of graduate
training, and more specifically counseling psychology and
existential training. It is expected that the training
milieu affects the student and thus, depending upon the
type of training, students with different orientations are
produced.
Summary
This chapter reviews research relevant to this
particular study. Areas covered are: Existentialism and
78
Graduate Training.
The research in this chapter tends to provide evidence
that there is a particular mode of existential training
which satisfies the guidelines for graduate training and
produces students with a unique orientation toward
counseling. It is assumed that whatever impact the
program has on students, the framework for describing the
particular orientation is provided here.
79
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODS AND DATA PRESENTATION
In review, the nature of this study is a critical
examination of the impact of humanistic and existential
training, as well as the development of a model describing
the integration of this training by students. In order to
undertake this investigation, it was necessary to
determine what areas were of importance. The initial step
in this investigation was the detailed account of
existential and humanistic training research reviewed in
Chapter Two.
Through the review of literature the framework began
to take shape from which to investigate the training
process in the University of Southern California
Department of Counseling. The focus was placed on getting
as complete an overview of the Department as possible
while at the same time selecting particular classes
emblematic of the entire program. Discussions with
members of the faculty, dissertation committee, and
students, in addition to inspection and reflection upon
the Bulletin of the University of Southern California,
School of Education (1981-1982), henceforth referred to as
Bulletin, pinpointed the classes steeped in theory,
practical application, and those requiring progressively
80
more sophistication in theoretical knowledge.
Due to practical considerations (the limited time
available to the researcher and the logistics required to
investigate classes at different times and on different
days) four classes were considered practical and
determined to be representative. Although emblematic of
the program, the four classes are by no means considered
as absolutely or totally reflective. These classes were
deemed worthy because they represent the best examples of
both theory and practice while at the same time offering a
variety of instructors.
It must be remembered that there are problems often
precipitated by initiating this kind of research, when an
educational program makes itself available to scrutiny.
Under typical conditions this would mean an evaluation
detailing the positives and negatives of the program with
the use of some criteria to measure success or failure.
This typically exposes the program, individuals, and the
practices of the program to criticism and judgement.
Further, when the information is to be made public,
participants are often defensive and nondisclosive.
Entering a research effort of this kind can be an
extreme1y difficult task.
What was of interest is the understanding of the
program through qualitative and phenomenological methods.
81
specifically the task is decription and analysis whereby
the essential features of the program will emerge. The
hope is after detailing the actual activities, methods,
and results, the administration would be able to initiate
changes, if appropriate, with some insight about the
results and impact of the program as it is currently
operating. Further use by other programs or educators
might also result after abstracting elements considered
valuable or useful. It is from this perspective that the
research began.
Research Access to the Program
Prior approval of the dissertation proposal had
certainly guaranteed access and permission to initiate
this research. Although this research fulfills the
dissertation requirements it was necessary to apply for
approval to begin from the school committee for the
protection of subjects. The permission was granted, then
communicated, and within two weeks of application access
to the milieu was gained.
Gaining Entry to the Classrooms
The participant observation took form soon after the
researcher had gained access to the milieu. Upon release
to initiate the research, approval was also needed from
each class instructor to permit observation and data
collection in their courses. Two of the classes were
82
practicum type courses, and in each the instructors
requested the researcher to present the aims and goals of
the research to the students before granting access.
Further, while both these instructors were open and
supportive of the research they would approve only with
concordance from the students.
Unfortunately, first entrance into the classrooms was
approximately four weeks after the beginning of the
semester, this delay related to the time it took to
process and to receive approval for the research to begin.
In three of the four classes observed (EdCo 500, EdCo 541,
& EdCo 741) their was no notable disruption mainly because
the class size (approximately 30) and method (dydactic)
were amenable to participant observation. The fourth
class (EdCo 560) was a practicum class and both the
instructor and the researcher were concerned about
potential disruptions in the newly forming group cohesion.
The class size was small (10) and the supervision a highly
personal process, so the instructor and researcher agreed
to temporarily initiate attendance with the stipulation,
if disruption occurred the researcher would leave. Two
weeks later, and without discussion, the instructor gave
his consent to participation for the remainder of the
semester because the class had readily accepted the
presence of the researcher.
83
Most students were open and amenable to the research
and the researcher although requests for anonymity and
confidentiality were voiced by particpants in all four
classes. In each case guarantees of privacy were
extended. After the issues of confidentiality were
allayed most students were curious about the research and
many asked particular questions after the formal
acceptance had already been granted. So despite some
feelings of apprehension by the students, access to the
milieu was without notable incident or obstacle.
As a result, access was granted and all parts of the
classes were observed with one exception ; the laboratory
section of EdCo 541, The teaching assistants, leaders of
the laboratories denied access because of the potential
interference to the group process. The lab section is a
small group setting, in which dydactic information is
shared, questions are answered in more depth and
specificity, and supervision is begun. The small groups
are led, with few specific guidelines, by the teaching
assistants chosen by the instructor. Generally, there are
three small groups in each laboratory. While not directly
observed, information was gathered from interviews with
teaching assistants leading these groups and the student
interviews which followed the participant observation
phase of the research.
84
Access at the Organizational Level
The organizational level of the Department was not as
readily accessible to observation and investigation,
although the lack of penetration was due in part to the
limitations of the researcher's time. A scheduling
conflict occurred on Thursday afternpons. This is when
staff meetings, open to anyone interested, and executive
session staff meetings, closed to all but the core
faculty, occurred. When attendance was possible the
faculty was inviting and amenable.
Demographic or hard data collected by the School of
Education or the Department of Counseling was not
available to the researcher. Information regarding the
program came from interviews with the Chairman of the
Department and census surveys (See Appendix E) collected
by the Department of Counseling. It is the researcher's
opinion this absent information did not limit or skew the
findings.
Data Collection
Initiating the participant observation research using
qualitative methods was exciting and unique. With little
or no idea about what might be found from the research,
and the only orientation being past personal experiences
of doing observation research, the data collection began.
The ethnographic field study began using participant
85
observation, (attendance occurred in many student and
faculty gatherings in the breaks between class sections or
after class), and often participants were engaged in
interviews, (informal dialogues when questions were asked
after the class or in the breaks).
Participant Observation
The research began by attending the four classes
observed in the same week. Extensive field notes were
recorded, including the reproduction of dialogues and
conversations overheard. Notes were made as soon after
the observed events as possible. Observation occurred
when sitting in the back of the class to remain as
inconspicous as possible. Four weeks of classes had been
missed, and in one a great deal of comment about previous
events was overheard. In order to recount and reformulate
the occurrences of the previous weeks many people were
asked to retell the interactions from their perspective.
In only one of the classes did some of the past events
continue to influence the behavior observed in the class.
But soon, the observation revealed similar occurrences
which students identified as incidences exemplary of the
earlier events.
All the classes were attended, without exception, for
the remainder of the semester, while the researcher
mingled with the participants as much as time would
86
permit. In the beginning, the research time was evenly
split among instructors and students but soon the decision
and need to concentrate on one group or the other became
apparent. More time was spent with the instructors, thus
enabling the researcher to focus in greater detail on the
issues of the instructors (i.e., grading, evaluation,
goals, organization, and class preparation).
The informal interviews with students and staff was
ongoing, the only limit of information being the time
restraints of the researcher. There was no time when in
the milieu was the researcher "off the job," and most
everyone was willing to talk and offer their perspective.
People soon sought the researcher out to vent their
feelings, to tell their opinion, or to criticize a
particular occurrence. It was soon clear that students
and faculty identified the research and the researcher as
a part of their process. This relationship yielded rich
data, with many individual perspectives all focusing on
the Depart me n t .
Subject Interviews
Two different populations were interviewed, faculty
and students; however, the interview process was the same
for both populations. Each interview was tape recorded
and ranged in duration from one hour to three and one half
hours. Generally, the duration of the interviews
87
diminished over time, particularly as the research began
to focus on information more pertinent, and experience
doing the interviews was gained. The initial interview
was conducted in February, 1985, and the final interview
was conducted in July, 1985.
The interviews were arranged individually with student
or instructor usually through telephone contact, and
surprisingly, no one contacted refused participation.
During the interviews notes were be taken and questions
were written down to ask at a more appropriate time. The
interviews were structured (See Appendix A) but very open-
ended. Participants often digressed and told of personal
or unique experiences and had perceptions that were
returned to later in the interview.
Int: Let me ask you finally, do you see anything I
should ask you that I haven't? Anything that's
been in your experience since you've started to
be involved in the program that I haven't
touched on?
PP5; Umm, I notice you haven't, in any way, really
shown much interest in my evaluation of the um
academics, or you're just going to let me, but
you didn't, well, you didn't focus on any, now
that I realize it you just let me talk and
didn't focus on any area. I guess in answer to
your question, no, you just haven't been
directive.
AB2: I feel like I'm talking around too much, I
guess. This open-ended is not good for me, I
still have my need for limits. I feel like I'm
talking, over here, over here, over here, over
here. Is this what you want ?
Int: You're doing fine.
AB2; I'm just laughing because ray clients, when I'm
giving them tests, psychological tests, say,
88
"You want the Bender on this one page" and I
say, "You're doing fine." You're doing fine
too, you're very good at open-ended. This is
like therapy, you know that.
The faculty was amenable and willing to spend the time
required for interviews, either accommodating their
schedules or finding time outside of the parameters of
their duties. Only one instructor was resistant to the
interview, the objection being the added demand of time
without compensation and an overall objection to the
research itself. Not surprisingly, this interview
generated little in the way of new or personal data. The
student interviews proceeded with very few obstacles. The
group in which the most difficulty was anticipated, when
trying to locate participants who had transferred out of
the program, was as available, willing, and open as the
others. One of the participants who transferred out of
the program spent the entire Saturday evening discussing
the program and included an invitation for dinner in order
to conclude the discussion. The interview didn't conclude
until approximately 12:30 a.m.. This kind of flexibility,
openness and frankness was pervasive among all the
participants, they spoke with concern seeking certainty
their perspective would be accurately represented.
The interviews were informative and usually very
personal events for both the researcher and the
participants. Those interviewed often expressed thanks
89
for the opportunity to talk. Many mentioned they had
learned a great deal about themselves and their
experiences from recounting their histories. A recurrent
quotation was;
PRl: This is really helpful. It gives me some
clarity about it [my experience].
AB6: I ’ve never thought about it like this before [my
experience ] .
The interview process itself had allowed student and
faculty to conceptualize their experience in a unifying
way, often giving them a perspective they had gone without
before the interview. This was found to be true of both
faculty and students.
Intermittently, participants would request that the
tape recorder be turned off to protect their
confidentiality: This request was always granted. During
these times notes were not taken to respect the privacy
the person requested. The information received during
these times often expanded the research perspective but
usually required delicate handling since an object of the
research was not to put people in vulnerable positions.
Subject Selection
The intent of this research is to describe, analyze,
and interpret the activities of the Department of
Counseling, which proposes a model elucidating the
patterns of student matriculation. As a result, choosing
90
who to include in the interview required some planning.
Any instructor currently in the Department of Counseling
and involved in the training of counselors was
interviewed: Including full-time, part-time, and adjunct
professors. The final total of instructors was eleven.
One conflict occurred when interviewing instructors.
Some of the instructors were also graduates of the
Department of Counseling, two as recently as one year. In
order to account for this dual role, note of their
position was always remembered, and when recording their
data, information which seemed valuable in other
categories was added to those categories. But generally,
the information each person offered was recorded in the
category they were interviewed in.
The selection of students was different. Obtaining a
sample of students at different levels of the program
required a stratified sample. A plan was formulated,
derived from the review of existential literature,
reflection upon the program format, and inspection of the
Bulletin (1981-1982). The initial plan included eight
groups of students, with approximately five participants
in each group, and selection based upon semesters of
enrollment in the Department of Counseling. This
formulation soon gave way to another plan which better
accomodated the unique features of the program.
91
The study included six groups with approximately five
people in each group. The Department of Counseling
requires students to enroll in a series of theoretical and
practicum courses. These courses and the qualification
examination for doctoral candidacy became the boundaries
which separated the student groups because they better
delineated differences among students. A total of forty
interviews were conducted. The groups are defined below.
The codes used to denote the category or group the
interviewee belongs in is in parenthesis. These codes are
used to protect the confidentiality of each interviewee
and allow the reader to know the perspective of the
interviewee.
Graduates (GR). Students who had graduated from the
program. These people were included primarily to gain
some perspective about the value of the program over
time. Five members.
All but dissertation (AB). Doctoral candidates having
completed all the coursework required by the program
and having only their dissertation left to complete.
Five members.
Fre-Qualifying Examination (PQ), These students had
not sat for the qualification examinations but had a
doctoral pass in EdCo 660. EdCo 660 is the doctoral
level practicum course that every graduate student is
92
required to pass before they are granted permission to
take the qualifying examinations. Five members.
Pre 660 (PR). These students had passed the master’s
level practicum course, EdCo 560, but had not received
a passing mark in EdCo 660. EdCo 560 has two passing
grades, a doctoral pass and a master's level pass.
All students with a degree objective of Ed.D. or Ph.D
must receive a doctoral pass to progress in the
program. Students who desire a Master of Arts degree
require only a master’s level pass. Only students who
had received doctoral passes were interviewed in this
group, none of the students interviewed had taken and
failed EdCo 660 previously. Three members.
Pre Practicum (PP). These students had not received a
passing mark, either a doctoral or master’s level in
EdCo 560. This meant students either had not enrolled
or were not completed with this course. This group
was primarily students new to the Department of
Counseling. Five members.
Transfers (TR). The people in this group were
students who had transferred out of the Department of
Counseling. These students had transferred to other
departments in the School of Education at the
University of Southern California or other school
programs which allowed them to continue work for a
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Ph.D. in Psychology. These people could be viewed as
"successful casualties" of the program. People who
were capable of doctoral level work but did not fit
the department criteria in some way. Five members.
The coded identification label used for all the interviews
is numbered to allow the reader to discriminate between
subjects in each characteristic group. There were eleven
interviews with instructors, and the code, (T), will be
used to denote teachers. The author conducted all the
interviews, this code will be (Int).
The framework for student interview selection was
"purposeful sampling" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p. 67).
Students were chosen because they were deemed as useful
and helpful to the research. The names and telephone
numbers of students who had agreed to participate had been
saved from the participant observation phase. Some
students were requested because they were known to the
researcher and qualified for a particular group. The
remainder of the students enlisted came from using the
"snowball-sampling technique" (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982, p.
66): When students were interviewed each were asked to
recommend others who might be helpful. When these methods
dead-ended, formal requests for appropriate candidates
were extended by the researcher in classes of the
Department of Counseling.
94
The group of Transfer students was identified through
two methods. First, recommendations were requested from
the Department of Educational Psychology. The instructors
in that Department were asked to refer any graduates who
had transferred out of the Department of Counseling.
Second, some former students of the program, students who
had been known during the course of the researcher’s
tenure, were invited to participate. Both methods were
successful and through these procedures the group of
interview participants was obtained.
Role of the Researcher
As is natural in the course of research methods, the
role of the researcher changed over time and within each
particular context. Often it changed within the same
class or interview. Despite the changes in roles needed
by the researcher, a description of the roles used to
collect data for this research is possible. The first
days in the field were awkward, not unlike what Roasalie
Wax (1971) predicts for each novice in the field.
Uncertainty about the appropriate role, technical and
otherwise, blurred what would be found. But, due to the
researcher’s experience as a student, familiarity with the
surroundings and comfort with the format, assimilation in
each class was easier. In this regard, others new to this
kind of research would have had one more obstacle to
95
overcome, adaption to the environment. This familiarity
allowed better and more attention to the research and less
occupation with distracting concerns about the appropriate
role .
Gold (1958) describes the roles of the researcher
along a continuum ranging from "complete observer," to
"observer-as-participant," "participant-as-observer," and
finally to "complete participant." The range varies on
the degree of participation the researcher is involved in
a situation or milieu. The complete observer would remain
completely uninvolved and nonparticipatory in any event or
activity occurring in the research setting. At the other
end of the continuum, the complete participant would
participate in all the activities, just like the
"natives."
At the beginning of the research the interviewer made
the attempt to become the complete observer. This attempt
was prompted by a concern with the impact and implications
that participation of the researcher would have on the
people in the field. It was difficult to account for the
effect on the surroundings initially, so the effort was
made to withhold participation and to control involvement
as much as possible. This decision was extremely useful
and practical especially because of the Open-ended nature
of the research at this early time. It was also extremely
96
easy at this early juncture. In the practicum course,
trying to follow the conversation required total
attention, thus to write and remember prevented any
involvement. In the more dydactic courses, other than
asking questions, the students and the researcher were
doing exactly the same thing, paying attention to the
conversation at hand and taking notes.
Two changes moved the researcher into a more active
research role. First, the researcher gained acceptance by
the participants in each milieu, and, second, the
researcher learned to discriminate the impact the research
had on the surroundings See section on Subject Responses
to the Researcher). Soon after these changes, the
researcher was in the role of observer-as-participant. It
was within this role the majority of information for this
research was collected. Students were always aware of the
position of the researcher, but having adapted to the
activities of the researcher, the students would ask
questions about what had been recorded or found on that
day, or what was being written about.
It was disconcerting to have people inquire about the
writing or attempt to look at it, this prompted
fearfulness and protectiveness. It was believed, that the
the writings could hurt someones feelings or prompt
whomever read the notes to become threatened by the
97
presence of the researcher or the research. The student
might see a critical comment about her/himself, another,
or read one of the many personal field notes which would
place s/he in a position where s/he would see the
researcher as "a man in a white coat" observing rats.
Great pains were made to keep the field notes out of
public view. They were never left open to possible
scrutiny nor left unattended. When people were more
direct in their attempts to read the notes direct requests
were made asking them to stop.
The last two roles along the continuum Gold (1958)
describes are particpant-as-observer and complete
participant. As discussed below (See section on subject
responses to the researcher), the researcher was required
to answer questions and participate. Most times these
situations put the researcher in the role of participant-
as-observer. Although sporadic, these requests occurred
with regularity, and when they did, compliance with the
demands of the role were attended to. Avoidance would
have been extremely disruptive and might have undermined
the ability to collect further research in the setting.
The role of complete participant occurred the least often.
Seldom did involvement become so total that the research
or the role of researcher was forgotten. It did occur,
and these times were usually in the less formal school
98
surroundings, (i.e., on the way to the school cafeteria in
class breaks, when eating or drinking with students after
class, or standing around talking with a group of students
who were socializing). During these times and two roles
the least informative data was acquired. It seemed
perspective was diminished by involvement, observation and
participation couldn’t occur at the same time, and the
moments this occurred were more an indication of the
researcher’s personal intent rather than reflective of the
situation being studied.
In summary, all four roles along the continuum
described by Gold (1958) were utilized. The observer-as-
participant role was chosen most often because of the high
yield of information. But, the truly most advantageous
position was the one directly responsive to the situation
at hand. Resisting the demands of the situation more
often undermined data collection than being in any
particular role.
Subject Responses to the Researcher
The researcher expected to be ignored and remain
unobtrusive during the participant observation phase of
the research. Surprisingly, this was not the case.
Students made mention of the presence of the researcher,
particularly at the beginning of the research, to each
other. Most of the people felt somewhat uncertain of the
99
position that the researcher would take. Since the
presence of the researcher was evident students often
attempted to limit conversation with a joke or warning
remark. Fortunately these remarks soon became accepting
and not simply tolerant. This is not to imply the
comments about the presence of the researcher diminished.
Often greetings during the partie pant observation began
with questions of "How's the research going?" and "What
are you finding out?" As a result, identification of the
researcher, as a researcher, was noted throughout the
research.
Intermittently during the participant observation,
students approached the researcher as they would an expert
or experienced veteran of the Department of Counseling.
During one particular class when the instructors were
having difficulty explaining a concept the researcher was
requested to offer a definition. On another occasion the
researcher was requested to give testimony about personal
experiences during matriculation through the Department of
Counseling. At these times, to avoid participation would
have been disruptive. As instructors and students became
accustomed to the data collection, the researcher's
presence became accepted. Unfortunately, some of these
interactions attracted attention to the researcher and
thus reminded people of the ongoing research activities.
100
Overall, many students had difficulty knowing how to
interact with the researcher. The uncertainty was often
beneficial for the research. Students and faculty would
talk very openly, approaching the researcher as an ally
capable of understanding their situation and without a
vested interest. Students and faculty spoke as if the
researcher was a perfect sounding board. It was at these
times students and faculty interactions yielded insightful
data. But, there were times when students were
apprehensive about the researcher. These students would
either ask the researcher to leave them alone, something
the researcher always did without question, or they would
again request the researcher’s committment to their
privacy.
In the final accounting, there was a correlation
between responses of the subjects and their acceptance of
the research effort. Most students and faculty were
supportive of the effort and saw the research as valuable
and useful, hence their openness. Those who were leary of
the researcher or the research itself were less disclosive
or revealing. The support came from those who viewed the
research as an opportunity for their perspective to be
expressed and clarified. Almost all the student and
faculty participants would take extra time to make certain
their particular perspective was understood by the
101
researcher so that the researcher would "get it right."
Bogdan and Biklen (1982) describe the "cooperative style"
of research in which subjects in the observed environment
become active in the collection of data. The cooperative
style of research was successfully accomplished. Because
the students and faculty in the Department began to take
an active and participatory role in the collection of
data, they would make suggestions, recommendations, and
bring ideas to the attention of the researcher.
Data Analysis
This research is an observational case study but in
many ways this effort was thwarted and the focus of the
research changed. As noted above, access to "hard data"
(the school documents), didn't occur, so the focus of the
research moved toward investigating the actual day to day
practices of the program and the analyses of these
practices. As is true in most qualitiative research, data
analysis didn't occur as a separate phase of the research,
but occurred concurrently. This was the result of
deciding to use an analytic induction technique for the
data analysis of the particpant observation phase, and
then a constant comparative method once the open-ended
interviews began (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982).
Before data collection or analysis began an extensive
review of literature (See Chapter Two) pertinent to
102
existential psychotherapy, existential philosophy, and
existential education was initiated. This literature
review helped focus the initial steps of the research.
Using the literature review and a study of the program
format in the Bulletin (1981-1982), participant
observation began in four core classes. There are eight
core classes in the Department of Counseling in which
counseling theory and practice are taught. The four
courses chosen were used to represent the practices of the
program, and once this decision was made, the actual
observational data collection began.
The Participant Observation Phase
Data analysis, as in all qualitiative research, began
soon after the first involvement in the participant
observation process. From the beginning, notes were made
and ideas, theories, and hypotheses were posited. The
actual working routine entailed writing about any
pertinent activity or information heard or seen in the
field. Class discussions and dialogues between students
were recapitulated and recorded. Volumes of ethnographic
data was being collected, but the data was broad in focus
and lacked the order and direction necessary for analysis.
The first step in data analysis was to reidentify the
research goals and objectives. Answering the question,
"what am I looking for" led to acknowledging the true
103
research interests (Patton, 1980). The researcher's
desire was to know as much as possible about the changes
of students as they integrated existential concepts. The
goal of the research was an analysis of the matriculation
of individuals in the Department of Counseling.
The actual method of data analysis in this phase of
the research is similar to the constant comparative method
suggested by Glaser (1978). The steps of this method are:
1. Begin data collection.
2. Look for key issues, recurrent events, or
activities in the data that become categories of
focus,
3. Collect data that provide many incidents of the
categories of focus with an eye to seeing the
diversity of the dimensions under the categories.
4. Write about the categories you are exploring,
attempting to describe and account for all the
incidents you have in your data while continually
searching for new incidents.
5. Work with the data and emerging model to discover
basic social processes and relationships.
6. Engage in sampling, coding, and writing as the
analysis focuses on the core categories.
Once data collection began, issues, events, and
activities were identified and organized into categories
104
or groups (step 2). These groups of information evolved
and were reorganized as the researcher’s observations
revealed new information (step 3), The data continued to
be collected while theoretical propositions were explored
and ideas began to be developed (step 4). Many of the
core issues of the proposed theory of matriculation
emerged at this point, while some of the inter
relationships between ideas were explored (step 5), As
many of the fundamental categories were described and
written about, the development of the interview schedules
began to take form.
The Interview Phase
The interview schedules were developed by using the
information organized during the participant observation
phase to help reveal the course and changes occurring
through student enrollment in the Department of
Counseling. Students were asked to recount their
matriculation in the program to the present, and then to
project their direction in the future (See Appendix A for
the interview schedules).
The interview data collection began by developing a
great many preliminary ideas and thoughts. During the
interview process a modified version of analytic induction
was used to assess the data. The steps recommended by
Robinson (1951) and employed by this researcher are:
105
1. Early in the research you develop a rough
definition and explanation of the particular
phen omenom.
2. Hold the definition and explanation up to the
data as it is collected.
3. Modify the definition and/or explanation as you
encounter new cases that do not fit the definition and
explanation as formulated.
4. Actively seek cases that you think may not fit
into the formulation.
5. Redefine the phenomenom and reformulate the
explanation until a universal relationship is
established, using each negative case to call for a
redefinition or reformulation.
As the data collection began, the ideas conceptualized
and developed during the participant observation phase
were added to the data received during the interview
phase. A rough explanation of student matriculation was
developed (step 1), and as the interviews proceeded the
explanations were compared to the data collected from the
next interview (step 2). As new cases were encountered
the definitions and ideas were reformulated (step 3).
Half-way through the interview process, data saturation
occurred. That is, the information collected became
redundant and repetitious (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982). At
106
that point, data collection turned to finding cases which
might not fit the explanations and formulations (step 4).
The final step (step 5) continued until no new explanation
seemed needed to account for negative cases. The
interviews were terminated at this point.
The Integration Phase
As the data began to accumulate during the interview
phase of the research it became voluminous. The problem
needing solution was how to put this information into a
cohesive and cogent body of information. The data
gathered was not from a single source, nor was it in one
particular style. The interviews had been used to talk
about the past, present, and future. Many people from
differing perspectives and degrees of experience in the
program were interviewed. The data reflected numerous and
particular perspectives was as if there were cameras
focusing on the program from many different angles all
trying to elucidate and clarify what had been seen.
Rather than eliminate great bodies of research data at
the point of data saturation, the decision was made to
change the planned course of research. Data collection
continued but the framework, taken from Lofland (1971) and
Patton (1980) proposed investigating data as two separate
bodies of information. Applying the recommendations of
Lofland (1971), that qualitative research is enriched by
107
its ability "to provide an orderly description of rich,
descriptive detail" (p. 59), provided the first step. The
method, to report the data in a descriptive and orderly
fashion, is the information and format of chapter four.
The second step is the analysis of the data. Analysis is
defined as "the process of bringing order to the data,
organizing what is there into patterns, categories, and
basic descriptive units" (Patton, 1980, p. 268). The
explanations and categories developed in the participant
observation phase and the interview phase are reported in
Chapter Five in the theory of student matriculation.
The third and final step in this method is
interpretation of the data. Interpretation "involves
attaching meaning and significance to the analysis,
explaining descriptive patterns, and looking for
relationships and linkages among descriptive dimensions"
(Patton, 1980, p. 268). Once the decision to change the
plan of research occurred, the explanatory and categorical
information developed from the participant observation
phase and the interview phase was utilized in the
interviews. That is, explanations and interpretations
were offered to the students, at the end of the open-ended
interviews, for their perspective or opinion. This co
researching (Seabaugh, 1984) was utilized to have the
students help explicate the categories, explanations, and
108
paradigms developed in the first two phases of the
research. Students were asked if the ideas were accurate
from their perspective, and if so, the concepts were
deemed to have validity. If not, students were asked to
explain the inaccurcies so that a reformulation could
occur. This interpetive data is reported in Chapter Six.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter is to document and
describe all the procedures used in this research project.
As in all qualitative research, the development of each
component described occurs concurrently in the actual
research process. No single process is independent of the
others nor is the process linear. Many factors at one
time influence the decisions, choices, and directions made
by the researcher. Through the presentation of methods
the reader will gain an understanding of the procedures
utilized and in what context this research progressed. In
the next three chapters the data gleaned by using the
methods described here is presented.
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CHAPTER IV
THE RESULTS: THE PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
In this chapter the program is described and detailed.
To organize this process, and the information presented,
arbitrary boundaries are created and utilized. These
groups are employed only as a method to view the material
collected and doesn’t imply the information has impact
only within the boundaries of the group. The framework
moves from the macro to the micro, detailing the context
of the program, the program participants, and the
instructional practices of the program.
The reporting of this data is limited by three
factors. First, the main focus is on the Department of
Counseling when the Ph.D. is the ultimate goal. Although
some students are only interested in a Master of Arts
degree, they are considered within a perspective viewing
the Doctoral degree as completion (Ph.D and Ed.D. are
treated the same). Second, due to the needs of
confidentiality and privacy, the data from all the sources
are treated within a context which views the program as a
single case or unit. The effort of this research is not
to detail the particular assets or liabilities of a single
class, faculty member, student or program objective; but
110
to describe the program and develop a theory reflecting
the patterns of student matriculation. Thus, this action
is useful and practical. It is also true that in research
of this kind, the political and personal ramifications
affecting individuals need to be taken into account, and
this action is a partial extension of that concern.
Specifically, the audience of this research is the
Department of Counseling and many of the people who
participated as resources are still associated with the
program. Third, the reporting of the data is descriptive
and illuminative rather than critical or evaluative. This
approach, similar to that proffered by Partiett and
Hamilton (1976), is taken to enable the reader to get an
accurate and reflective understanding of what the
experience of being a student is like. Thus, the emphasis
is with description rather than measurement, and while
many of the assertions made later in this dissertation
undertake a perspective designed to interpret inter
dependent issues, within this section the researcher
attempts to avoid interpretation.
Contextual Issues
The University of Southern California’s School of
Education is housed in Waite Phillips Hall on the main
campus. The School of Education provides undergraduate
and graduate degrees: Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Master
111
of Science in Education (M.S. Ed.), Advanced Master of
Education (Adv.M.Ed.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), and
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) with a major in education.
The two Doctorate degrees are essentially the same with
the Ed.D. designed for professionals specializing in
education particularly in the practice of Education, and
the Ph.D. emphasizing theoretical aspects leading to
research and education in a university setting (Bulletin,
1980-1982).
The Department of Counseling is similar in many ways
to other programs in Counselor Education. The Department
requires the preliminary coursework and overall standards
necessary for accreditation by the National Council for
the Accreditation of Teacher Education (reaccreditation
occurred in 1980). Although the Department of Counseling
is not presently accredited by the American Psychological
Association it has currently begun procedures to receive
this acknowledgement. Also, students seeking a Doctorate
(Ph.D.) must satisfy the requirements of the Graduate
School as well as the School of Education (Bulletin, 1981-
1982). The primary goals of the Department of Counseling
are the "preparation of persons choosing to enter the
applied psychological profession," and the "scholar-
practitioner who is broadly grounded in philosophy,
psychological theory, and its application." (Bulletin,
112
1981-1982, p. 83).
Students have a wide range of undergraduate and
graduate backgrounds and degrees and come from a variety
of sources (See Appendix E). While the census of many
other programs declined in the 1970’s and 1980’s, the
University of Southern California Department of Counseling
continuously maintained its size.
The selection of students in the Department of
Counseling is somewhat different than other programs.
Although requirements for the University of Southern
California and the School of Education are standard,
students who satisfy these requirements are generally
accepted and given a chance to succeed. There isn’t a
limited or select few students who are admitted to the
program and matriculate together. The program could thus
be regarded as a ’’wash-out ’’ program. Meaning that through
attrition, selection occurs not before application through
an extensive and difficult application procedure, but
after class attendance has begun. The initial acceptance
of an application grants a student permission to take
classes. Students are then allowed by the program to
enroll in classes, but must then apply for admission to
the doctoral program. Requirements must then be satisfied
(See Bulletin, 1981-1982) for the student to be admitted
as a doctoral student in the doctoral program.
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The curricula in the program revolves around a series
of core counseling courses. These courses (EdCo 500, 541,
542, 560, 640, 741, 760) are the theory and practice
courses elucidating the program philosophy and style.
These classes are progressive, and although some of the
them may be taken concurrently they can be viewed in five
steps. Ini tally, the core class in the program is
dydactic in style and theoretical in focus (EdCo 500). At
the next level of difficulty, classes become more
experiential in style and add a personal focus (EdCo 541,
542). They evolve into the practicum courses (EdCo 560,
660) which are essentially experiential and personal.
These classes eventuate to a solely experiential course
(EdCo 760) which is the supervision of counseling, and
then the advanced level theoretical courses (EdCo 641,
741) which are solely dydactic. The majority of the
remaining classes required to meet the criteria for
graduation are dydactic and informational in style and
focus. There are only two notable exceptions. First, the
field placement (EdCo 561), which requires actual
counseling experience in a setting approved by the
instructor and, second, the two internship courses :
Internship in Counseling (EdCo 663) and Internship in
College Student Personnel Services (EdCo 664).
Classes vary in size depending upon student enrollment
114
and the class objectives. The practicum courses usually
vary between five and ten students but some times
enrollment is as high as twelve. The practicum courses
are similar in style to seminar courses, of which there
are few. The seminar courses contain approximately ten
students. The dydactic courses have a larger range, ten
to thirty-five. The courses are led, almost without
exception, by faculty. When instructors are detained or
ill teaching assistants lead the classes, while classes
without teaching assistants are usually canceled.
The classes of the Department of Counseling are
generally scheduled in the late afternoon and early
evening with a scattered few scheduled in the morning.
Only in unique circumstances do classes meet more than
once a week. The classes range in time, depending upon
credits, from one and one half to five hours per session
including breaks. The laboratory sections are generally
scheduled directly after the dydactic or lecture class.
This class scheduling and format allows students to
maintain jobs while enrolled fulltime.
The individuals in each classroom are not a
homogeneous unit. Students do not navigate through the
program in a set linear method together with the same
group of students. Some classes can contain students in
their first semester and students in their very last
115
class, these courses are generally the elective courses.
Also, because the Department of Counseling is but one in
the School of Education, students not majoring in
Counseling are enrolled in Departmental courses.
As students progress through their coursework and
other program requirements, four events become the pivotal
centerposts upon which continuence (success or failure) in
the program turn. Initially, for students to continue
making progress, they must receive a doctoral pass in the
initial practicum class (EdCo 560). This course requires
a student to prove her/his competency as a counselor
during direct observation and supervision. This class
must be passed before admission as a doctoral student is
granted and a student is allowed a maximum of three
attempts to pass this course.
The second event is passing the admission examination.
This examination includes five tests, objective and essay,
which surveys the preliminary coursework and prerequisite
information the Department of Counseling and School of
Education require. The material covered is general in
focus and grading is based upon the scores of the
individual as compared to previous applicants. Although
there is a degree of latitude dependent upon individual
circumstances, any score above the average is passing.
Incorporated in the admission process is the presentation
116
of some written work representative of the students
ability to write at the doctoral level, Graduate Record
Examination scores, letters of recommendation, grades, and
a personal interview with the examining committee.
Third is the qualification examinations which allow a
student to become a doctoral candidate and begin work on
her/his dissertation. The fourth and final step is the
completion of the dissertation and oral defense
examinations. All the other requirements of the School of
Education and Graduate School (See Appendix C) also apply
and remain important to student success.
Overall, the curriculum in the Department of
Counseling is oriented to training students by offering a
theoretical yet highly structured experiential education.
The core classes are based on a "learning by watching and
doing" approach.
PP5: Realizing maybe what the therapist is or isn’t
doing. Just seeing it modelled. Seeing, them
modelling being there, and being honest and not
being techniquey or anything. Just modelling
letting people going through their own shit.
(The philosophic orientation of the Department of
Counseling is explored in the section on instructional
practices of the program). Students are asked to put into
practice their own personal and theoretical approach under
the watchful eye of supervisors and their peers. The
program participants are the next portion of the
117
Department of Counseling delineated.
Program Participants
In Chapter Three (See section on subject selection),
the dual role some faculty members have as both
instructors and past graduates from the Department of
Counseling, is noted. It is also true that students
acquire a dual role when becoming teaching assistants
within the program. As a result an effort is made to
distinguish between teachers and students by role rather
than title, thus within this section categorical labels
are particularly limiting in denoting a persons true role
in the Department of Counseling.
The Faculty
The faculty consists of six full-time faculty, one of
which is untenured, and five part-time faculty involved in
the direct training of the counselor students in the
Department of Counseling. In addition, approximately five
adjunct professors are teaching classes. Also involved in
the instruction are teaching assistants assigned to some
of the experiential and practicum courses (EdCo 541, EdCo
542, EdCo 560, EdCo 660).
The faculty is a diverse and dissimilar group. They
live in many different locations in Los Angeles, and for a
variety of reasons, they don’t generally socialize with
each other. Their schedules and time spent on campus are
118
unique to their interests and teaching responsibilities.
The entire faculty assembles only during regularly
scheduled staff meetings and they have their own
particular and individual research interests, infrequently
working in concert. Philosophically the instructors
differ as well. They vary among existentialists,
developmental, learning theorists, trait theorists,
proponents of object relations, and eclectics.
T“3: I'm psychodynamic with elements of existen
tialism and developmental psychology, with
Winnicott and Erickson.
T-4; I'm object relations oriented.
T-6; My orientation would be humanistic and eclectic.
T~8: Pretty much Roger ian......Fairly eclectic,
humanisticly oriented.
T-9: I suppose eclectic from the [a name] school,
which is an empirical based um, it started out
as a trait and factor psychology.
Til: I live my life by the principles of
existentialism.
Three of the six core staff have private clinical
practices while one staff member works in the field of
stress management as an educator. Of the six core staff
only two are currently licensed as psychologists and one
licensed as a Marriage, Family, Child Counselor. Four of
seven adjunct staff are licensed as psychologists, with
three licensed as Marriage, Family, Child Counselors.
Most of the adjunct staff work in clinical positions, and
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a few maintain paid fulltime or consulting positions as
well.
There is no single teaching method or style in the
Department. Despite concurrence about the quality of work
they want from students, the instructors have their own
conclusions about what and how it is best to educate and
teach doctoral students.
T-3: Interactional and in dialogue. Their perception
is from where I start.
T-4: Integrative. I think what I do is, is I'll push
the students to look at issues. Like I'll ask
them to talk about a case, they'll start to talk
about the case and I'll start to ask some
questions really pushing them to come up with
the theoretical orientation, what they think
they should do, um, and then I'll start to talk
about the case. But I try to find out where
they're at before I give them feedback. Because
I want to know what their thinking process is,
and how they think. Because I think that is the
best way to teach, is to not shove stuff down
peoples throats, and to make it more
interactive, where they feel like they have a
say in what's going on, and where they can pick
and choose what they get from you.
T-5: Socratic, put that down, Socratic developmental.
T-6: Modelling possibly, another thing is not doing
too much of that so people get to try on new
behaviors, and, and, feel that they can. That
they're not competing to be noticed that, that
their uniqueness is an asset, and that's the
task.
Int: How do you get it down in nuts and bolts?
T-6: Use as much empathy as possible. Try and avoid,
an ongoing task to avoid doing things to show
off and because of ego. Um, never, I try to
never use any more power than I have to, 1 try
and minimize that so people can do things with
some sense of choice. And being willing to
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invest, to truly care about my kids, even though
there is a good chance it won't get
reciprocated, or even appreciated.
T-8; I think I’m fairly existential at this stage of
things. I’m certainly more person oriented than
anyone on the staff. When it comes down to
really being concerned about the welfare of the
people I deal with...... What I try to do is
create an atmosphere where their anxiety can be
managed, um, I believe people grow when the
atmosphere is conducive to growth. I don’t
think people grow very well when the atmosphere
is one where a lot of negatives are prevalent.
So I try to create an atmosphere where we spend
a lot of time identifying the positive sides of
people.
T-9: I think probably my major role, probably lies
more, not more behavioral because I ’m not really
behavioral. Um, a cognitive kind of approach.
I don’t subscribe to any particular philo
sophical underpinning because I don’t need it
for what I do. It’s heavily flavored by
existentialism, I believe in cognition, and I ’m
heavily involved in practical applications ;
translation of theory to practice. Interested
in training questions and so forth, and how one
does that rather than whether they are
philosophically genuine or not. I’m a pragma
tist I suspect is probably what it amounts to.
Til: I approach the classroom from the point of view
of, of an existential philosophy, but I find
myself using a lot of behavioral techniques. I
really don’t think behaviorism is a learning
theory nor a philosophy of human behavior, it’s
a technique, and it works.
Int: So you incorporate it into what you do. What
other mo des do you use, besides that one, in
your method?
Til: Brunerian, very much, um, I will lead you to
discover for yourself.
The Students
The students are as diverse in background as the
instructors primarily due to the Department of
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Counseling’s selection process (noted above). The
students generally come from the Los Angeles area but many
students have been known to commute from as far away as
San Diego and Fresno. The range in professional
experience upon entrance is dramatic also. Some students
have had no work experience while others enter with
licenses (Marriage, Family, Child Counselor licenses) and
a vast work history in the field. One central concern for
applicants is tuition. Students either have financial
support (i.e., grants, savings, or parents) or they must
continue to provide their own (i.e., loans, work).
Usually students are working in jobs related to the field
of psychology but some have jobs in other fields that
either pay very well, give flexibility, or lend financial
ass i s tanc e.
For the most part, students come to the program by way
of a referral of some sort. Students are not usually
familiar with other applicants at admission nor are they
familiar with any of the staff, with the exception of
those who have had an interview with a staff member prior
to admission while investigating the program. For many of
the students, the University of Southern California was
their first and only choice among graduate schools. Only
a few students interviewed had applied to other programs,
and yet most claimed to feeling confident of their ability
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to succeed and had little doubt about their performance
ability when they compared themselves to students in other
programs.
The goal most commonly expressed by students was to
work as a psychologist in private practice. Only three
students interviewed expressed an interest in becoming
researchers, but many were interested in becoming
professors in a university or college setting doing some
research.
PP5: I would like to have a private practice. But not
just be isolated in that 1 would like to have
some university connections.
PQ9: I think my ideal situation could be to see
clients fifteen hours a week, certainly no more
than that, about fifteen hours a week. And do
research and teaching the rest of the time. I ’d
like to teach and very much want to do some
research .
PQ3: I really want to teach. I would really like to
write. I ’d like to write a book. I ’d like to do
some more writing and thinking and talking. And
I ’d like a university teacing position, and
that’s what I ’ll do with my Ph. D ., and keep my
clinical work up.
Despite the nonspecific nature of student goals none of
the students expressed any concern for finding a job, nor
how they would financially support themselves. Those
students who entered the program with licenses expressed
desires to expand their educational knowledge and as a
result, make a more lucrative income for themselves.
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Instructional Practices of the Program
The following section delineates how the instructional
practices particular to the Department of Counseling take
form and shape. These are activities abstracted from the
diversity of teachers, teacher styles, and classes which
can best reflect the nature of the education in the
program. Of course, these issues vary among teachers and
classes, but they are presented here to clarify the
environmental framework and structure within which
students must adapt to progress.
The Educational Style; Experiential Orientatation
In the section reviewing the course curriculum, the
central theoretical and practicum (core) classes are
described as being the mainstays of the Department of
Counseling. These classes are described as moving from a
dydactic to a more practical and personal orientation.
Here, the particular experiential structure of the classes
is described, paying attention to the procedural
activities of individual classes, to help clarify the
experiential nature of the program.
The laboratory section of EdCo 500, the first
existential theoretical course, requires students to
participate as a client for practicum students. There are
approximately five practicum courses offered per semester
with a variety of times and days. Attendance is required
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once a week for the duration of the semester. Grades are
not assigned for performance but nonattendance decreases a
grade. Students are also required to be a client when
they are enrolled in practicum courses and when there is a
dearth of clients available. At this time instructors
request practicum students to become clients for each
other. Although there is no program requirement for
students to be engaged in counseling, many instructors
direct particular students to seek therapy outside of the
scool environment, and in general, recommend it to all
students. There are two other times a student might
become a client within the context of the Department of
Counseling. One is in the "role plays" of the laboratory
classes in EdCo 541 during which students trade off being
therapist and client, and the other is if they volunteer
for being in the "fishbowl :" When a student becomes the
client for the instructor, or teaching assistant, in the
demonstration of counseling, which is observed and
discussed by the entire class (e.g., EdCo 541 and EdCo
542) .
In addition to being clients, students are given
increasingly more opportunity to be therapists. The
process starts in the laboratory section of EdCo 541,
which requires that students role play as a therapist for
short periods of time, and finalizes in the practicum
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courses. These courses require students to actually do
counseling in observation rooms, each with one-way mirrors
and microphones, and then receive supervision and feedback
from their peers and instructors. This process allows
students to enroll, and receive credits, in a class (EdCo
760) designed to give them experience in the supervision
of counseling .
Coupled with the experiential orientation in the
Department of Counseling, is the class procedure, in EdCo
541 and EdCo 542, in which students and faculty start to
speak from a personal position. One teacher gave the
directive this way;
This situation is very difficult and the position is a
very defensive one, your job isn’t to criticize us but
for you to learn and talk about yourself. What occurs
in the therapy room occurs for the right reasons,
whatever they are even if there are fuckups. If I
were in your situation I’d be anxious about speaking.
I want to hear from you. 3/6/84
This procedure requires students to give input to the
instructor about the "therapy session they have observed
in the fishbowl." Instructors in this class do two things
during this activity. They affirm and confirm a student's
perception when they believe it to be accurate, and in
turn also point out inaccuracies. Secondly, the
instructors confront a student's viewpoint by questioning
the underlying intentions, processes and personal
conflicts. These activities occur within the framework of
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the individual instructor’s beliefs.
By the end of the program, a student will have been
given the opportunity to; be a client, observe therapy,
practice doing therapy, be evaluated for doing therapy,
and finally supervise the practice of therapy. These are
the central features which give the Department of
Counseling its practical and experiential orientation.
The Philosophy
The philosophy of the Department of Counseling is
particular and central to the identity of the program, it
is described as ’’basically humanistic and strongly
existential in flavor’’ (Course Catalogue, 1981-1982, p.
83). The existential theory is primarily taught in EdCo
500, EdCo 541, EdCo 542, EdCo 640, and EdCo 741, with
existential practice applied and supervised in EdCo 560,
EdCo 660, EdCo 760. The committment to this orientation,
combined with the experiential teaching method, has given
birth to the unique qualities of the the program.
The philosophic orientation, as espoused in the
Department of Counseling, can be described as a humanistic
approach which views the individual within context; in
relationship to others. The preliminary classwork bases
the introductory information on a variety of theorists and
practitioners (i.e., Bugental, Gendlin, Keen, Kell, Ofman,
Wheelis, & Yalom). This introductory work attempts to
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give students a practical framework upon which to build
their own theory of counseling. The primary coursework is
an introduction to existential psychology, elucidating
ideas of existential psychological concerns, issues, and
practices. As the coursework progresses, the material
becomes more theoretical and philosophical orienting the
student to existential philosophy as a foundation for
their existential psychological practice. This occurs
concurrently with the practical requirements of the
curriculum.
Existential psychology is an orientation that
elucidates the essential concerns of the individual. The
practice of existential psychology as it takes shape in
the Department of Counseling is, as best explicated by one
student, "process therapy,"
Int; What do you mean by process?
AB3: The moment to moment, um, goings on between us,
what was occurring on an unattended to level
that the, the meanings of our behavior and
activities toward each other, how we felt. Our
goings and comings around everything, the
resentments, the um, the feeling level of our
relationship.
Int; So why did you pass?
AB3; I passed because I seemed to have the capacity
to recognize aaa, process, immediate process,
and comment on it effectively, and nonhostilly,
and in ways that my client could hear and
understand.
Int; Was there anything else besides the process
comments that you felt like you were suppposed
to do or did do that got you the pass?
AB3; That was the biggest thing, that was really the
emphasis, was if you could understand immediate
process, and have the courage to confront
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effectively on that, that was enough, that was
enough. Maybe having some sense of human
dynamics helped, and um, normal, it might not be
normal, basic theory sort of theory and
appreciation for, for human process and
affirming that, so affirmation was very
important too.
Existential psychology requires the therapist, or student
trainee to adopt certain intentions rather than particular
characteristics. A student described it this way:
PQl: Trust the feelings. The feelings are there for
a reason, that they are just information to use,
and to go with that. And to work with the
connection with the person and be present. ...
and validation over and over again.
Int: And validation being what?
PQl: Validation of the client, that he's okay, that
what he is doing is appropriate considering how
he sees the world. And then the other half of
that is your response to that. And those are
the twin themes. Your validation of the client
and your response to the client. There was very
little in the way of technique stuff.
Int: And to what end were those two concepts used?
PQl: That the validation, it seems to me that’s just
healing in itself. That having someone say
"what you're doing is appropriate and makes
sense." .... The other responses had to do with
their connectedness to the world around them.
And that was letting them know what impact they
were having . And like that opened up an area of
freedom for them in a way. By letting them know
what impact they were having they could choose
whether or not that really was what they wanted.
Int: Was that for one teacher or for all the
teachers ?
PQl: I think it's across the board.
The focus is on the underlying activity of the client so
that awareness or clarity about "self" will occur. The
primary concerns are interpersonal and immediate.
Specifically, the issues emphasized by supervisors focus
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on the "here and now" and are about the nature of the
relationship as they occur between the practicum student
and the client. The effort of the supervisors is to
enhance the willingness of the practicum student to
describe (in the here and now) the activity of the client
as it relates to the practicum student (focus on the
interpersonal) thereby allowing the client to have a clear
(conscious) perspective about who they are and the
ramifications of their position. As defined by a student,
PP5; Process therapy is the ability to capitalize
more on what's happening, being able to stop and
think about the process that's going on between
people ... it isn't judgemental, it is
confrontive. Confrontive lays bear your truth
without meddling it up. Intimacy rather than
distance.
Another student, when describing the goals of therapy for
practicum students put it this way:
PQl: From the two practicums I've seen most recently
it seems to be just, "is this person [the
client] aware of what they are doing in there
[the therapy room]. Are they aware of what the
impact is. .... Granted they know what they are
doing, but what is the value of it for them.
Int: So the goal was awareness in and of itself,
defined by those two concepts you gave me
earlier ?
PQl: Awareness and then the meaning. Be aware of the
process and then what is the meaning of the
proc ess.
The Method of Evaluation
As in all doctoral programs evaluation in the
individual classes is dependent upon the nature of the
class material and teacher objectives. A discussion of
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these methods offers little insight into the Department of
Counseling. But what is informative is clarifying the
unique methods used to evaluate the mastery of the
philosophic orientation endemic to the Department of
Counseling. Within practicum the application of theory
can be unique and individualistic but generally it must be
compatible with both the student’s personality and
existential theory. This requires the use of objective
and subjective criteria and results in disputes in
judgement, not surprisingly, mostly among those students
expecting higher evaluations from the instructors. These
problems usually occur when, as a student described the
problem of inappropriate evaluations:
PQ5: The most common complaint that you will hear
from a student in practicum, particularly when
they have to do a dyad or something, "I’m sick
and tired of having my psychology become the
means of evaluating me as a student." That is
the most common complaint I ’ve ever heard........
But I think that students are being evaluated as
patients, and not as students. In places where
it's inappropriate to be evaluated as patient.
The objective portion of the evaluation uses twenty
one scales with a score of one to five assigned to
trainees. Students are asked to maintain eight
therapeutic conditions, they are; be empathie, respectful,
genuine/authentic, concrete, self-disclosive, confrontive,
immediate, and validating/affirming. These conditons are
to be exhibited in a context which is nonjudgemental,
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accepting, and supportive. Even this portion of the
evaluation is subjectively assigned (See Appendix D).
The subjective method used to evaluate the student's
counseling skills, specifically in the practicum classes,
can be termed consensual validation. This is a process
whereby all the instructors involved in leading the
particular practicum class offer their subjective opinions
about the performance of a student therapist. When all
the instructors concur on a grade, it is assigned to the
student. One student described the difficulty of grading
in practicum;
PQ3; It's like in practicum you know who is good and
who isn't good, everbody does. But trying to
explain what specifically it is, it's a bitch.
But the process is more clear than that. A student, who
had participated in evaluations described the process this
way :
Int; What is a fair evaluation?
ABl: I guess all you can say is that if a number of,
if two or three people, different people,
observe the same event, and generally arrive at
the same feeling. It is like being in a group,
if you are in a group and two or three peope
tell you that they see you a certain way then
you can believe it more than if one person does.
I mean a fair evaluation is one that is
generally agreed upon, or one that you agree
upon. Somebody may say, "Well you're really
inexperienced" and you go, "well yes I am"
that's a fair evaluation, it fits. That may not
even require anybody else, but if it is an
evaluation that goes against what you think
you're doing, it's nice to have three or four
other people say, "Well that's true or not
true." So even research wise, they make three
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or four different people evaluate the same
situation, if there is consensus then it is
considered valid, if there's not, then the
reliability or the validity, whichever it is,
goes down. So that's, so that's, aaa,
scientifically fair.
In each class this process will include the professor
teaching the course, teaching assistants (this can range
from one to three), and EdCo 760 students (these are
students enrolled in a class designed to give them
experience supervising other counselors).
Although this process varies among the teachers of
this class, a general method can be described. From the
very beginning of the class all the staff members discuss
the particular features of the individual practicum
students. This process occurs in informal conversations
during class breaks, in the observation rooms, after the
end of class, or between class sessions. Issues include
any problems, limitations, assets, or special skills of
each practicum student observed by the staff. This
continues throughout the semester until specific
evaluation (grades) are required. At this time, class
members contribute their subjective descriptions, usually
in written form, of the practicum student's skills
delineating assets, liabilities and unique charac
teristics. This information is pooled and compared among
the participants, with discrepancies receiving discussion
and inspection. When agreement is reached the student
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receives notation of the grade and a brief critique of
their skills.
Confidentiality
One harbinger of conflict for students, developed by
the practical and personal nature of the educational
format, is confidentiality. Because the practicum classes
require students to reveal themselves, whether as a
client, therapist, or person, the degree to which people
respect and keep the privacy of each other is tantamount
to the amount of trust they feel. In most of the classes,
the necessity for this "right to privacy" is expressed by
the faculty to students while many students echo this
desire for themselves. This issue remains critical
none th ele s s.
Students and faculty alike are requested to limit
conversations about others to the issue at hand and not to
talk about their peers or "clients" outside of the class
situation (Discussions of this nature were often observed
by the researcher during the participant observation
phase, and never was concern for the confidentiality of
students observed in these conversations). The nature of
psychologically oriented discussions calls into question
the personalities of its members and puts students into
ambiguous relationships if information discussed in one
context is revealed to others in another context.
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Students participate in many situations where the explicit
rule is, "Don't break confidentiality!" but there is no
way a guarantee can be secured. Despite this, students
are expected to participate in all the activities and
discussions of the class without regard for potential
violations or ruptures of privacy. Generally, the privacy
of others is respected but violations do occur. On an
individual basis it is important to note the intentions of
someone breaking confidentiality, but from a general
perspective which discusses potential violations it
doesn’t matter. The violation, whether innocent or not,
undermines the effectiveness of the format. Violation of
confidentiality becomes an implicit expectation of the
students in the Department of Counseling.
GR2; I felt a conflict, at times, with how far to go
with somebody. Um, and I didn't like that
process. I felt like, um, you know, we talked
about confidentiality, but that that was next to
a joke in that kind of situation. Um, and I
have a lot of resentment about that process.
Int; On both sides of the seat, not just necessarily
being the therapist but being the student?
GR2; More so, the client.
Int; Who were students at S.C.
GR2; Right, right. Um, because I think that there is
value in having your work observed. And I'm not
in particular sure, you know, how that happens
in an easy kind of way. Um, because I think
that clients coming in from the outside also
don't have as much confidentiality as they would
in a closed room. At the same time, they are
not somebody you are going to see in the hall,
they are not somebody that's going to be sitting
next to you in class the next semester. I
think, I particularily had feelings about it in
terms of students, um, and that that was a
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requirement, in terms of going through the
program. Um, almost as if, if you refused to do
it you weren't open enough to go through the
program.
Relationships
One unique feature of the existential mode is the
postulate that people remain people within any context;
they don't play a role or take on a veneer to represent
who and what they are but maintain their humanity and
individuality in any situation. For teachers, this means
they must not only teach students but do this from a
personal and genuine context. The degree to which this
occurs varies among teachers. A student described one
teacher consistent with this existentially based demand.
PP5; There is something unique in the student-teacher
relationship with [her/him]. For one thing is
[her/him] own openness.
However, the important issue is that due to the emphasis
on maintaining open and human stances, faculty members are
in unique relationships when compared to classical
teacher-student roles.
Student-Student roles are different as well. The
milieu, because of its demands, structurally and
methodologically, requires students to interact different
than those students in a simple dydactic educational
environment. One student described the difference this
way,
PP5; With the students there is something unique in
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that in class discussions or things they get to
express themselves about, or anything like that,
they might be like expressing their anger about
being forced to do the practicum client thing.
Some of them really don't like that. And, it's
like revealing certain dynamics that you ' re not
normally conscious of. I guess there is a
greater feeling of, on my part, of seeing what's
going on with people than before.
Part of the class framework promotes the changes from the
normal student and teacher roles. For instance in the
first of the core classes (EdCo 500), students are
involved in doing experiential exercises that help break
down some of the inhibitions students normally feel in the
classroom setting and when discussing their feelings.
PP5; There seems to be more ability to be open. We
have these class exercises, especially in the
first part of the semester. You sit down with a
stranger and do something that can be very
threatening, you know, and um, there is less of
a feeling of guardedness and even though there
is one that causes me to be very anxious. My
heart's beating anxious and stuff like that. I
was able to go through it, without, and I hadn’t
hurt anybody, if I show fear, or if 1 show
anxiety, this person is going to think this,
that or that about me. But what s h e doing in
counseling, oh my god! He's one of those crazy
counselors that everybody knows about that, you
know shouldn't even be a counselor. And it's
given me the opportunity to be around, and I
don't know if it's the type of people but in a
situation where people don't react that way.
Overall, the existential orientation calls for people to
be themselves. When engaged in the educational system in
the Department of Counseling, faculty to student, and
student to student, relationships require people to be
genuine and personal.
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Summar y
In this chapter the framework and structure of the
Department of Counseling is described. This chapter
clarifies the actual activities of the program as it
operates day to day. The contextual issues, the program
participants, the instructional practices, the method of
evaluation, and confidentiality are set forth to give the
reader a perspective and context for the proposed theory
of student matriculation and for the interpretations which
emerge from the data. Overall, the Department of
Counseling is shown to be unique in style (experiential
and practical), philosophy (existential), and format
(subjective evaluation). These distinctive features set
the Department of Counseling apart from most doctoral
training programs and creates the grounding from which
student development gets the particular and select
characteristics discussed in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER V
THEORY OF STUDENT MATRICULATION
In their study of the development and socialization of
medical students, Howard Becker, Blanche Geer, Everett
Hughes, and Anselm Strauss (1961) focus on the internal
perspectives students develop in order to overcome the
problems they faced. Their research describes the
internal reorganization of attitudes and beliefs each
individual needed to become a medical doctor. Their
interest was prompted by a "concern over the quality and
the performance of those who apply and are admitted to
colleges and professional schools" (1961, p. 9). The
research presented here, although similar in its
investigation of students enrolled in an educational
setting, is borne from a somewhat different interest. The
researcher's concern is in the unique and characteristic
changes people display when adapting or integrating
existentialism whether in theory (therapy) or process
(education).
The theory of student matriculation is founded upon
the data analyses described in Chapter Three. Four
phases, derived from the participant observation and
interviews, are in the theory of student matriculation and
139
describe the course of student matriculation in the
Department of Counseling. The four phases are fear,
power, loneliness, and (old age) death. These four
existential issues are the framework for understanding the
five issues students face in the Department. The
information is organized around these phases to best
explicate the actual process through which students go to
become graduates of the Department of Counseling. Unlike
the previous chapter, some liberty will be taken to infer
from the data, and to create characteristic labels to help
relate the information presented (See data analysis in
Chapter Three).
During the first phase, fear, students are timid and
apprehensive, and they are confronted with two issues; a
situational confrontation and a personal confrontation.
The situational issue consists of the factors inherent in
the program requirements and methods, and the personal
confrontation relates to the factors arising when the
program demands the student to be personally involved.
The second phase, power, reflects the factors occurring
when students begin to assert their values, attitudes, and
ideas in their lives. The issue emerging in the second
phase is the reformulation of relationships, the by
product of being more powerful. Loneliness is the third
phase and is illustrative of the ramifications occurring
140
when students commit to their own beliefs. The issue
emergent in the loneliness phase, personal identity,
refers to the development of identity separate from that
of student. The fourth phase of the theory of
matriculation is death. This final phase represents the
separation, termination, and individuation of students
from the educational milieu, and the issue intrinsic to
death, professional identity, applies to the themes
emanating as students enter the working world as
professionals.
The Naive, Interested,and Unaware
"In the beginning..." starts the Old Testament, yet
many people would ask what was before the beginning. For
the University of Southern California Department of
Counseling it is valuable to note and delineate not only
what the program is, but who comes to the program and how.
These students can be partitioned into three different
groups, naive referrals, the interested people, and the
unaware accidents.
The majority of students come to the program through
referrals of some kind and they usually have little
specific information about the Department, A large
segment of these applicants learn of the program through
friends, teachers, or supervisors, who have been
affiliated with the University of Southern California
141
Department of Counseling. Some come to improve their
vocational standing by continuing their education, and are
usually currently employed in the field of psychology or
counseling. Another segment of these students come as
direct referrals from other colleges or universities.
Generally, these applicants aren't currently employed in
the field and so continuing their education is the central
focus of their activities. This segment of students is
large at the University of Southern California Department
of Counseling because graduates and associates of the
program feel positive about their experience and convey
this experience compellingly, These applicants are
usually aware of some program requirements:
PPl: I heard that my issues were going to have to be
on the table, ... that there were certain
teachers you didn’t want to have, certain people
you didn’t mess with, a typical graduate school
that you, play by the rules but in the end you
wind up doing your own thing, and just keep
focused on the fact when it’s all said and done,
and you’ve got your degree and your license you
can do whatever you want to do.
but they do not have clear expectations of the program.
The second group of applicants to the Department of
Counseling are the interested students. These are
students either well read in humanism or existentialism,
interested in pursuing these theoretical viewpoints, or
knowledgeable about the experiential structure in the
Department of Counseling.
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PP4: The most exciting thing was the program, the
fact that it trains you to be a therapist, it
doesn’t train you to be a researcher, it trains
you to be a therapist. And that it is so hands
on, and there is so much actual experience and
training in the one on one relationship with
people. And it trains you to be a counselor.
This group of applicants come to the program with strong
theoretical or philosophic foundations. These people also
have clearer expectations than most of the other students,
particularly in relation to the actual practice of
existential therapy or the practices of the Department of
Counseling.
Int: Do you remember what you imagined the program to
be like?
PQl: I think I had two competing ideas at the same
time. I think on sort of a surface level I
thought it would be like any other graduate
program. You come in, you read the books, you
pass the tests, you write the papers, and then
you go out. Somehow I think I knew better.
Although I don’t think I would have gone.
Int: Pardon me ?
PQl; I don’t think I would have gone, if I didn’t
know there was something else there too.
Int: You didn’t know what it was but you had a sense
there was more?
PQl: There was something else there. It couldn't
have been just reading the books and writing the
papers.
PQ2: I was pretty well versed in humanism but not
existentialism at all. But, one of the things I
wrote in my statement when I sent graduate
school applications that they asked me about at
[another school] when I had an interview was
that the responsibility of change, for change,
was ultimately with the client. And they didn’t
understand that at [that school] and they
understood it at S.C.. And they seemed to be
saying that and that was one thing I recall that
sticks in my mind.
Int: When you say "they seem to be saying that," who
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are you talking about?
PQ2 ; I’m talking about in the ’’Intentions," and in
talking to [a teacher]. ( . . . .)The main thing was
reading the "Intentions," which I was impressed
with, coming from where I was coming from, it
sounded like, oh ray god, they are understanding
what they are not understanding in [the other
school ] .
Int: What was it that they understood that wasn’t
being understood at [your other school]?
PQ2: What it meant to be a therapist. What it meant
to be a therapist working with other human
beings, and that really all you have is
yourself, not what you learn from a book.
The third group of students come accidentally to the
program. These students are categorized as the unaware.
The unaware come into the program in two ways: first,
after having applied to many different programs, the
Department of Counseling is the only one to which they
were accepted; second, after having applied to and been
rejected by another department at the University of
Southern California, usually the Psychology Department,
the students are sent a recommendation for application to
the Department of Counseling as an alternative choice.
The following students are examples of each category in
this group of applicants:
PQ3; So I applied to grad schools, eight grad schools
all over the country, for clinical psych. I was
rejected by all of them, including U.S.C..
U.S.C., however, sent me a letter saying that
there were some other alternatives available to
me. I was desperate, I hated this job, I felt
trapped, like I had tried to get other jobs and
I was not very successful at getting other jobs.
Um, I was trying to get into grad schools and
every one of them rejected me. So I followed up
on one of the alternatives which was counseling
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psych. And I had them send my paperwork to
counseling psych and counseling psych accepted
me .
AB3: I came to the program by accident. I had
applied for U.S.C, clinical psych program and
didn't get admitted, so they suggested, they
would send my application over to the Counseling
Department. So I thought, "well that’d be okay,
I ’ll go there for a semester or so and see how I
like it, then see what I wanted to do because I
had no intentions of staying. So I came by
accident. I had never heard of the program
before. I knew nothing about any of the people
and knew nothing about what it was about. And
just signed up for the normal classes.
Overall, these applicants are unaware of the workings
within the Department of Counseling. Most expect the
standard educational format that leads to a doctoral
degree. These people are unaware of the differences in
format, style, or philosophy unique to the Department of
Counseling. They report being very surprised by what they
found in the program. As this same student was to
continue :
PQ3: I had no sense of what the program was going to
be like. All other graduate programs, all
school programs I had been in, I had breezed
through. I’m bright. I ’m articulate, I can
write well and I never had problems in school.
I saw this program as my ticket out of this
horrible situation.
Overall, applicants are a "mixed bag” of people with
different levels of expertise, knowledge about the
program, psychology, work history, and expectations. There
are only two notable commonalities among the students:
First, their diversity and high anticipation when starting
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classes; and, second their goal to become practicing
therapists or counselors.
PQ4: I wanted to do therapy, I wanted to be a
counselor........I got into it because I wanted
to do therapy, and I wanted to find out what
counseling was about. I knew I wanted to be a
therapist, I didn’t want the [another program]
approach. So that’s how I first got in.
Int: The back door.
PQ4: Yeah, I got into it without really ever knowing
what, what it was about, the program. I had
heard it was existential, I didn’t know what
that was really, except from brief readings. I
had existentialism in philosophy class.
The three groups of applicants, the naive, the interested,
and the unaware account for ’’who’’ and ’’how’’ students come
to the program. In the next sections of this chapter,
’’what’’ occurs to students as they matriculate through the
Department of Counseling is set forth.
Fear
The students entering the Department of Counseling
have certainly attended school before, have a general idea
of the nature of schooling, and know the proper behavior
necessary when attending classes. But, as noted above,
students come into the program unprepared and unaware of
the actual regimen and processes of the Department of
Counseling. Most of the students interviewed mentioned
being excited and somewhat anxious when first attending
classes.
PP4: My first class was 500 [EdCo 500], it started on
[a day]. I don’t know what my first impression
of [the teacher] was, [s/he] was just real
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competent and a real serious human being who
really values other human beings, and umm I
just, I remember coming home that night and just
being real excited about what [the first
instructor] talked about. We were talking about
therapy. We were talking about being with other
people, and working with other people, and, and,
helping them achieve their potential and solve
their problems and stuff ... I was, you know,
afraid, I was wondering what that was going to
be like, you know, am I going to stick out like
a sore thumb?
Feeling at ease and knowing what to expect takes time for
individuals entering a new situation. It is no surprise
then for students to feel some apprehension and anxiety
beginning a doctoral program when they have so little
insight into expectations.
PPl: Like they don’t tell you how they want you^to
write or what they want you to know until the
very end of things. You never know that until
the end. Like finals or midterms or something.
But in the beginning it’s all this information,
and go with your mind, and go with your gut, and
play with it, and do everything and then in the
end there is something you’re supposed to do.
So you start out doing something like the shape
of a box which is no color and no nothing and
then you have to go to this cup and follow the
lines or something,
PR2: A lesson that keeps coming back to me, you’re on
your own no one is going to take care of you. I
see that from the T.A.’s [teaching assistants],
and from the faculty.
Students begin to adapt to the program soon after
attendance because, as noted in chapter four, of the
heterogeneity of the classes. This process is speeded up
by the highly interactive nature of classes. Students are
required to relate and communicate with their peers in
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classes.
PP4: And there is just a lot of conversation there.
I've made friends, I've had people call me up,
and I have their phone numbers, and you know we
work together on projects, and I know they’re
going to be my friends, and they’re going to
call me for other stuff ... I like that, I
didn’t expect that, I just expected to, to kind
of go and, you know, receive instruction and do
my work and leave.
They begin learning more about the expectations of the
Department of Counseling, the individual teachers, and the
particular courses from other students with more
experience in the program.
PP5: I would take a list like this [holding up a list
of names] and say who is good? So far the
hearsay I ’ve gotten is sort of apocryphal. I
guess it does bias me.
Int: Where did you get all this information?
PR3: Everybody talks like crazy. I want to get
through this, everybody wants to get through
this.
This results in a variety of relationships made among
students that emphasizes the passing of information about
the program and instructors. It is soon after the
student's initial enrollment in courses of the program
that the first issue of the proposed theory of
matriculation ensues.
Issue One: Situational Confrontation
Soon after enrollment in the Department of Counseling
students start to become aware of the actual practical and
methodological requirements of the program. Most students
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describe feeling very anxious, apprehensive, and
indecisive at first.
PRl: Then I come to S.C. and I get Singer’s book. I
read the preface to it, which says that the
behavioral approach, which I was trained in and
did a lot of in my work are fascist. Freaked
the shit out of me. I went to 541 [EdCo 541]
fishbowls and didn’t know what the fuck was
going on. I wasn’t real familiar with
approaching therapy from a process orientation.
And I would sit there and say what the fuck is
going on. And then going to [a teacher]’s class
and, like I said earlier, [s/he’s] real high
power. ... I was real freaked out being in
[her/his] class. I was also thinking this
approach was real bullshit ... I was terrified
initially.
PR2; [I was] feeling a lot of anxiety, and umm a lot
of fear, umm, and not being able to put it in a
way that felt safe to me. It didn’t feel safe.
PQl: When I came in what I remember most was, it was
like coming to a foreign land. I felt like a
complete alien in there. I had a [therapeutic
modality] background, it was very different.
... [in my first class] we all sat in a circle
around [her/him], and [s/he] said, ’’I’m going to
be a client, and we just started talking. And
[s/he] would point, and whoever [s/he] pointed
to was to respond to whatever [s/he] was talking
about at that time. And I was almost hoping I
would lose consciousness. It was real scary, I
didn’t want to do it, I just wanted to talk
about it.
People are dealing with issues inherent in the educational
and philosophic orientation plus the strong social
structure. One by-product of the strong program structure
is that the social milieu is highly attractive, and so new
students feel like outsiders and they want to be included
within the social milieu.
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PPl
Int
PPl
PP4
I wanted to belong.
To what?
To the program, to be part of it, ... it’s my
world, [and tells me] that I don’t exist alone.
To be a part of the program is to just talk
about what goes on and what’s happening is to
not be an isolated student ... just forming the
bonds, as people go through classes everybody is
together and because I have chosen to take one
or two classes at a time, go through this as
best as I can, um I will lose touch with those
people because they will all progress together,
and I will be left behind.
At S.C., it’s only my first semester, and I
haven’t finished with it yet, and I really feel
a part of something, I feel, you know, I feel
like I belong there, I feel like I ’m known
there, and I feel like I have a place.
The attractive social structure and situational
confrontation quickly prompts students to be deeply
involved with their peers. Many of the students talked
about the importance of the relationships developed at
this time.
PQl: That in the program, at least the people I
started with, was a pretty extraordinary group
of people. And it’s been worth it, if for no
other reason than knowing those people and what
I got from them. Maybe I got more from them
than I got from the instructors.
PQ2: What sticks in my mind most was taking [a
teacher’s] class. We had a really good group
and I met the people who are now my best
friends, then. Who I ’ve stayed very close with
throughout the program.
Intimacy develops between people that forges bonds which
gives support to manage the difficulties of being new to
the Department o Counseling.
AB2: It was a good experience, as far as the dyads
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and watching therapy, that was a lot, that was a
real good experience, and being able to talk
about it and that part of it, with other
students. And kind of the comradeship of where,
no one else knew what was going on either. They
all bullshitted too, okay, so, that was
comforting too, after the dyads you went out and
you went, "Where the hell did they get that?"
"I don’t know." "Oh, you don’t know either, oh
good!" So it was like none of us knew what was
going on.
Yet the closeness and importance of the milieu, and the
relationships developed, while often pivotal for students
is just beginning.
PQ3; I became friends with two people that I know,
still know. One who is now a member of my group
and one who was a T.A.. He was the leader of my
lab group. But besides those two people I
didn’t really get very close to anybody. I met
[a person] who is a good friend of mine now, we
met, we were in 500 together, but we didn’t
really spend any time together during that time.
We sort of picked up the next semester. And we
started spending time together then. I was
real, I felt isolated in a way but I was aware
that I isolate myself because I don’t initiate
contact. I wait for people to come to me. So I
learned a lot about how I do relate with people
although I wouldn’t say that, yes I would, that
my way with people changed, but it did begin to
change at that time.
The central concern for students at this point in the
program is whether they consider the program and its
philosophy objective. As understanding of the tenets of
the program develops, the question of consonance or
dissonance with the philosophical tenets intensifies.
Students face the decision about whether to continue or
quit the program. This decision, about remaining in the
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program, is predicated on how students understand the
theoretical aspects of existentialism, as taught in the
program, and how they begin to assimilate into the highly
structured milieu.
PRl: It was an investment, you know, I made, and
that’s still where I am right now and this still
has occurred with prelims coming up. I made
such an investment to come out here, I gave up
so many things and turned my life around so much
that there was no way I was going to fail, you
know. And I had, you know, it felt okay, you
know, the existential approach felt okay. So I
was willing to give it a chance and see what
would happen.
Int: What do you mean, it felt okay?
PRl: It felt fundamental. It felt real. It felt
like it could be used.
Upon entrance students are unfamiliar with the
expectations, and as they begin to work within the program
and learn, they become either comfortable with the
program, and its implications, or they do not. This
comfort or discomfort prompts the choice about whether to
continue or leave the program. While not all the students
who are uncomfortable leave the program at this point,
PQ2: Some people just didn’t want, they said, ’’listen
I ’m paying money why should I take this?’’, and
they were kind of bright, you know "this isn’t
what I want to do." And so they see themselves
as being hurt and they thought why am doing
this. I ’m a little more masochistic than that,
and I also had more invested. I was willing to
take more hurt before I would leave, even though
I considered leaving even though I had passed.
AB4: I overall, my experience at U.S.C. was similar
to ray wedding in feeling like a prisoner, in
feeling awful in it, that's my general
impression looking back, was how bad I felt.
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.... Within the first week of class I felt, I
remember feeling absolultely devastated, and I
was in [a teacher's] class. This horrible
atmosphere, it felt like to me, especially in
[her/his] class. Um, I felt absolutely blown
away. I almost quit. I was so shook up, I was
shaking going into class, I just felt horrible.
Also, aaa, the jolt of, they see things
differently here, in terms of therapy and how to
be. I got used to how we did it with [a
therapy], and with the people I was with, some
familiarity. And here it was real clear, the
ground rules were different, some ground rules
were different. Um, and I felt really unsure of
myself, and I think the only reason I didn’t
quit was because, to get a Ph.D. I didn’t know
any other programs here, I felt lost and I
thought, "Well, I'll just keep going," so that
was my beginning at U.S.C.
they do have to adapt to the theoretical environment,
recognizing it as different.
AB3; What you needed to learn was, I ’m not sure you
needed to learn it, you needed to make a choice,
then, I think, whether or not you wanted to be
courageous or not. You had to make that choice,
and if you didn’t you should get the hell out.
Some students who transferred out of the program did
so at the point they became aware of the theoretical
therapeutic implicatons of the philosophy, and began to
have a perspective about the social milieu. The issues
vary, one student did not believe in what the philosophy
offered in its explanation of relationships and therapy,
TRl : Feeling like, this orientation to me, is
shallow, it's not helping me as a person
separate and individuate. It’s making me feel
like, something’s being recreated here, in terms
of this sticky icky stuff, of a family that I
can’t get out of. Um, so I started to evaluate
what I wanted to do, and sort of mid year there,
um, the second year, about May/June I just, just
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started feeling I had to leave this therapy.
And of course, at the same time comprehensives,
whatever those exams are called, I don’t know,
were coming, and I was anxious about that. And
really not sure if I wanted to continue on,
really not sure what this therapy had been all
about. Feeling like I had learned a lot, but
didn’t feel like that was the kind of therapy
that I wanted to continue with or practice. I
was getting, at that point I was getting very
disillusioned with the teachers there, the
people that the first year, I idolized and
looked up to, and thought they were just
brilliant people, in the second year didn’t look
so good.
Later in the interview, this person was to continue about
what was termed ’’ethical issues.’’
TRl; Those were big events, for me to really start to
scrutinize what was going on there. Now if
these were the people that I was supposed to be
learning from, I didn’t want to learn from them,
because I felt that there were certain ethical
things that were not right. I didn’t even know
what the ethical issues were at that point, but
something inside said, ’’This is not right.’’
Another person felt the decision was based upon honoring
what s/he felt inside, or adapting, inappropriately to
what was required by the student and faculty environment.
TR2: Basically, it was either go with what was going
on, what I thought was appropriate with my
clients, or try to change myself to be more
appropriate for what, for what they thought
needed to be done. Um, at first, I know this is
how I am, I tried changing everything, taking
the suggestions and the next week I would do it,
and it’s not appropriate because it was last
week’s feedback. And, I decided well, I really
liked my clients a lot, and it wasn’t worth it
so, I went with what I was, you know, I was
appropriate and good, and, um, I had a different
opinion,
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The students can be described by delineation into two
groups when dealing with the issues surrounding the
situational and personal confrontations. Each group has a
different feeling about the program one is comfortable and
one is uncomfortable. The students with the comfortable
feelings are described first.
Home: The felt experience. Many of the students
interviewed feel very comfortable and at ease within the
program from the beginning. They quickly begin to develop
an affinity for the philosophy. These students become
very excited, often becoming socially involved with other
students to talk about these new concepts or, individually
they begin reading a lot about existentialism. They
describe going through an experience which is labeled.
Home: The Felt Experience. This is a felt sense that the
existential information is both personally familiar and
explanatory. Some students mention feeling like they knew
this information all their lives, but now their readings
give them a philosophic understanding and the conceptual
labels for their beliefs.
PQ3: Existentialism fit so well with who I was, that
I just seemed to be reading about stuff that I
had thought about and felt a lot anyway. It fit
so well with the way I operate, or the way I
conceptualize the world at that point, that, um,
it was fascinating to me. And it was almost
reinforcing to read a lot of the existential
literature........ It told me that the way I saw
the world was pretty right on, and I wasn’t
crazy, .... The existential literature sort of
155
reinforced what I had been doing but not really
understanding. It was telling me I was okay and
I wasn’t as fucked up as I thought I was. That
I was making some choices that Wheelis talks
about, you know, that I had been in this rut and
somehow I was able to see the rut and get out,
and I was in that stage of fear and confusion,
having been in the rut that I had never dealt
with, what I wanted. So here I am and I have
this whole life and I have all this time on my
hands and I don’t know what to do with it. I
began to figure what I wanted to do with it and
then get to S.C. and read about what I had been
doing for the last six years. It was real, it
was validating, to use an existential word. It
was sort of seeing my own struggle and my own
method of resolving the struggle in philosophy
and literature.
Int; What went on as you started the program?
ABl : Actually it was the books assigned in 500 kind
of blew me away. It validated everything I
already knew.
Int: So what was going on for you then, when you
first started ?
ABl: Well, I read the books and it validated my
approach to people. Basically, because, as I
grew up, and as I worked with people, I always
thought that I observed people fairly well and I
trusted my own feelings. But I always thought
that somehow I was missing something. I mean my
family wasn’t really validating, and the school
system wasn’t validating, so reading these books
was real validating.
Int; How did it effect the rest of your life?
ABl; Well it helped because I felt like I had a
place, emotionally I had a place. At times it
was alienating because I didn’t, it was a new
found thing that I couldn't really share.
Because, it was too internal of an impact to
really share with anybody, so at times it made
me feel lonely. I felt I had just discovered a
part of myself and it would sound like bullshit
to share it. To say, this validates my whole
life, it’d sound like an over exaggeration. But
it really wasn’t because it had a temendous
impact.
AB3; It was the affirmation level that really felt
good. It was one of the first places where
156
people were saying, "how you are is okay." You
know, you may want to move from that or
something, but it was the first place that I
heard that. And that allows you then to see
what it is that you do feel, if it’s okay if
your not just playing. So it was a real
invitation to see how I actually felt in an
environment which would say that, "how I felt
was okay, or normal." Because I never thought
how I felt about things was normal. So it, I
guess it was one of the first times I felt
normal. So that’s, I guess that’s where it felt
like home, because it felt like being normal.
People were saying, "Yeah, everybody feels very
very frightened in relationships, everybody
feels scared making choices and doing things and
acting, and engaging with others," and so, that
was real wonderful to have someone say that
stuff was okay and I didn’t have to be strong
and tough. So it was the first penetration of
my mask, ever, that I had developed........ So I
think I was an existentialist even before I knew
what it was. It was more, just filling in for
me, what, what I thought anyway, and people who
were brighter than me, and had better language,
just described the particular train we find
ourselves on, but it was always the same train.
The Alienated. These students, some transferred out
of the program while others did not, did not claim any
initial familiarity or understanding about the theoretical
tenets. They described feeling like they didn’t fit in
the group, and that they didn’t really "get" what was
going on around them.
AB2: At one point I did feel left out. In the
beginning because of the so called [a person’s
name] clique. The [another person’s name],
those people who were supposedly the real super
therapists, the real bright people, okay? ....
So that school or that clique, I did feel kind
of left out. The [a name]ites I guess is what
they were called. I felt a little left out
because of that, because of that, and that’s, it
just started to make me remember why I started
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to do all that reading and everything. To get
up with those people, to understand what was
going on.
AB4: I started a group, and I started individual,
that’s when I started my individual therapy. So
that became an important support group and
grounding for me. And helped me not feel so
strange, I got a little clearer about the
program. I didn’t like it, and I didn’t fit. I
felt real strange. I think overall my
experience was there, ’’I don’t like this, I
don’t agree, and I’m not going to say too much
about it.’’ I did not feel strong enough in my
self to speak up and say how I disaggreed.
Int; What is it that made you reevlauate?
TRl: Things just started to feel real narrow and
shallow for me. You know, like I said, my
therapy was a big influence, it didn't get me
anywhere, except maybe more regressed, in the
two years. Um, and the reading was of one
particular, I mean, you know, the language
starting getting to me. Everything was, the
positive and negative consequences, I mean,
there was this little language, and you could
put it in a box, and that’s all there was. And
nobody was talking about anything else, and it
felt real bizarre, and then all these little
incestuous things were happening, and I know
that happens everywhere, but at that point, in
my development um, it just seemed to me that, if
you weren’t going to like, join this, then you
were going to be alienated somehow. If you were
going to be at all, critical or sceptical then
you would be alienated from it. I just, in my
second year starting feeling very alienated from
people, and from professors as well.
The alienated students attempted to maintain a degree of
separation from the group as a means of protecting
themselves. This way they had a degree of safety and
perspective.
PQ2; I’m sitting there saying, ’’Wait, there is
something not right here. There is something
really important that is missing.’’ And if I
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AB4
Int
AB4
don’t find an affirmation, like where that’s
spoken to, then I feel, like, crazy. Because
what I’m hearing and what other people are
sitting there nodding their heads to isn’t,
doesn’t jive with what I think.
It felt very strange to me.
What do you mean, strange?
Um, the school I had been in, I really
characterize, we fondly called it the womb.
Because that’s how it felt, um, several of us
had commented on that. We felt so supported,
and so allowed to be who we were, and respected,
that we felt like we were getting a lot of
nourishment in a womb. And it felt wonderful,
it felt safe enough to really explore a lot.
When I came here, it was a jolt, kind of like I
got kicked out of the womb. And, kind of felt
like a wanderer, my image is that I ’m a
wanderer, and they won’t let me in the door. It
felt strange, it felt, aaa, I was in a crisis at
that time, and it was that numbness of being in
a crisis. I didn’t feel much in contact. I was
mainly anxious when I came to school.......... It
was analogous in some ways of when I went to
Europe for the first time, and there was so much
new stuff, and I didn’t fit in, and um, I felt
kind of out of it.
Thus, the first issue in the Department of Counseling
requires the recognition and reconciliation about the
consonance or dissonance with existential philosophy, and
the concurrent pressures which are generated by the social
milieu.
PPl: You get forced, you can not hide, they allow you
to leave when you need to leave but you always
get, you always have to be there, there is just
no doubt about it. They leave all the sticky
situations there as well as the pleasant ones
because they want you to go through it ...it
forces you to be right there at the moment with
your feelings and know exactly gut level what
you’re doing .
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AB3: I decided to stay.
Int: What made you decide that?
AB3: Because it was home, and it felt good. And it
was also intellectually exciting and very very
interesting, and I started really liking a lot
of the people. I started feeling more
connected, um, so I decided that I wanted to,
that this is, that this is where I should to be.
The decision to remain or leave the Department of
Counseling is based on the understanding of existentialism
and the implications of the theories. In essence,
students are beginning to find their own place within the
educational milieu, and they take on an initial attitude
which sets the stage for the next step in their progress.
Issue Two: Personal Confrontation
Once students begin to understand the intellectual
framework and implications of existential theory, they
begin to focus on other matters. Their concerns soon give
way to more individual and personal issues. This change
occurs concurrently, but is not necessarily parallel, with
the more experiential and personal focus of the Department
of Counseling.
In the practicum classes and the prerequisite courses,
the class procedures and practices demand personal student
involvement. Students come to view the process of therapy
as an extension of their own personality. As one student
said in an interview;
PPl: I want to know the information and learn to
apply it. I don’t give a shit whether I get an
A, a B, or a C, I want to know that I know the
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information and can utilize it in a healthy
fashion.
Int: And, as you become part of the program that
happens ?
PPl: Yeah! Then I am okay as a human being!
Students are pressured by the theory (existentialism) and
the practices and procedures of the program not to
separate between what they do and who they are.
Int: What were you afraid of?
PRl: Being negatively evaluated. Being thrown out.
I again brought up this stuff of, I ’ve made all
these changes in my life to be out here, and
they’re going to throw me out. And even though
the reality is I can take it again in June it
doesn’t help any.
Int: What do you think they evaluate you on?
PRl: My personal character
Int: What do you mean?
PRl: Who I am as a person.
Int; What does that mean?
PRl: My basic value as a, as a human being. Who I
am. And they have the power to say whether I’m
okay or not.
AB2: I didn’t want to be challenged at that level.
For who I was as a person, that’s what came
across as, um, not that you’re having
difficulties in therapy, but you’re a bad person
because this. It wasn’t what they said, from [a
teacher] and in the practicum classes a lot of
times.
Int; What do you mean, it wasn’t as they said?
AB2 ; That you’re there to help the student a lot of
the times, or to better their therapy, or to
point out how they could make things better or
what was going on. It was you’re bad. The
message came across is that you’re a bad person.
Not even that you’re a bad therapist, a bad
therapist a lot people I think could handle,
they don’t expect to be good therapists, at that
point in time.......But it was very biting, like
that person will never make a good therapist, or
that person just doesn’t get it, or you just
don’t get what’s going on, do you. To make
people feel like they were inadequate, as
people, not as therapists.
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Students must begin to deal with their instructors, peers,
and the information from a clearly personal, involved, and
honest way.
PRl; Well, if, if someone, when you spoke about
stuff, what [the teacher’s] response back to you
was, "What’s that saying about you?" Or, "Where
are you coming from with that?" As opposed to
you know, just accepting the surface words. It
was more an examination of what was underlying,
that, and what you were actually saying in that
statement.
Int: What do you mean, actually saying?
PRl; Well, people would criticize what was happening
in the fishbowl, you know, and [s/he] would want
to know where that was coming from, or what that
meant. She wouldn't accept that it was, that it
was, that there was something going on between
two people in the fishbowl that was wrong. That
was something that was your process, that was
important and got people to examine that........
[S/he] made you examine what your underlying
motives were, I hate using all these words, like
your intentions or whatever, but I think that's
true. What was underlying where was it coming
from? As opposed to, [s/he] never accepted that
what you said was all there was to it. There
was more, and made you think back about that and
figure out where it was that that was coming
from. ...It’s okay. Where you’re coming from
is okay. It’s you, and it's part of you. But
what was most important was to speak where you
were coming from, to have the courage to do
that, and that was okay.
Students, whether they believe in existential theory or
not, are asked by their instructors to make clear their
beliefs and intentions, and then acknowledge their
responsibility for the consequences of them. There are
three main responses to these activities and they will be
dealt with individually. These three responses to the
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personal confrontation are not directly correlated with
personal theory.
PQl; At the time, I felt like [s/he] was asking
something of me I couldn't do because I didn't
know what it was. And all I think [s/he] really
wanted was some direct expression, something
spontaneous, and I just wasn't willing to do
that in there,
That is, students fall into all three groups independently
of whether they would call themselves existential,
analytic, behavioral, or any other label.
First, if students are willing to acknowledge their
beliefs, intentions, and consequences they usually begin
to feel more confident and sure of themselves.
PQl; I couldn't do therapy. I couldn't do the sort
of therapy they want to see at U.S.C. Unless I
was willing to give up being a walking computer.
Int; And how was it that you were supposed to do
that?
PQl: It's hard and it's so simple. Just trust
yourself, if you feel something, it's true.
Believe in that, and go from that. I found that
extremely difficult. I found it extremely
difficult to just trust what I was feeling.
Int; What does that mean?
PQl; It means that it's legitimate, and that there is
a reason for it. It's not just coming out of
the blue. That there is some reason for that
feeling. And that it's appropriate, and that
it's okay to let it out.
Int; You pressed yourself into the program, why?
PQl; It made me feel less crazy. The more I got it
out, the less crazy I felt. The more validation
I got, the less crazy I felt.
These students receive a great deal of support, positive
feedback, and acceptance from instructors and peers.
AB2; But when I was in [a teacher's] class I sort of
like came together. And I became sort of like
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one of those people on the other side, who saw
what was going on in five minutes. Who saw what
was defensive, who saw what was attacking, who
saw what was hidden. Um, it’s like, all of a
sudden it came together, what that stuff meant.
And I was able to test out my belief system and
my hunches in [a teacher's] class, and get
affirmation for them, and validation that they
were correct, that they were, that I was
perceptive, that I wasn't stupid. Because for
awhile, I did start like, doubt my ability to
look at things. And um, so then I would try
because I felt comfortable in [his/her] class.
And I got a lot of strokes from [the teacher],
from the T.A. at the time, a guy named ..., from
um, a lot of the other students in the class.
These students seem to possess the ability to be open and
honest while being supportive, empathie, and confrontive.
In the practicum classes, these students facilitate the
self-reflective investigation of the client by the client.
AB3: I would confront my client with process issues.
I would comment on process issues, attend to
process issues, and not only just experience and
walk out of the room standing, but I was getting
feedback from my teachers, and T.A., and fellow
students, that that was good, and that they
liked that. So I was getting a lot of positive
reinforcement for doing that, along with just
experiencing that. It demanded that I, that I
experience that, and I experienced that and it
worked. So I became more and more confident, it
was a learning, it was a real learning
experience.
The second response is confusion. These are the
students who are either; unaware of some of their beliefs
or intentions, don't acknowledge the reponsibility for the
consequences of their behavior, or don't understand some
portion of the request.
PRl: That was horrible!
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Int: Why ?
PRl: Because, it’s like I didn’t understand what was
going on, a lot. And I kept trying to grab hold
of some mooring. You know, some firm land, and
there wasn’t any to be had. In the mean time,
if I did feel like I had grasp of something
solid it would, it would dissipate in the next
practicum, in the next class. It was the worst
process, I would go to [a teaching assistant]
with the tape, and listen to the tape, and get
some suggestions. I would go to the next
session and try to incorporate some of that and
I would get blasted for it. It was miserable, it
was miserable. ... That one didn’t feel like a
learning experience.
Int: What did it feel like?
PRl: Torture! I say this with a smile. It was awful!
Int; What was tortuous?
PRl: That I didn’t feel safe. That I didn’t feel
like 1 could cognitively grasp what was going
on. That I didn’t, there was like nothing solid
at all, there was no footing, no grounding, no
focus. It was real amorphous.
Students who are invested in the program, whether
theoretically or personally, can become extremely
frustrated and agitated at this point. The implicit
message of the personal confrontation, for these people,
becomes an indictment of their skills and abilities. The
self esteem of these students is also shaken because they
don’t seem to be able to trust themselves.
PRl: I just felt more and more frightened. And the
more I was frightened the less I, what I think I
did was shut down more on my own ability to pull
on myself. You know, I kept turning myself off
more and more. And listening less to myself,
and trying to listen more and more to them. And
losing contact to the person I was with. That’s
what happened. Because that’s different than
what happened with ... [another teacher]. I ’ve
come to discover that what to me what counter
transference means is listening to myself, and
trusting those things that I hear inside myself.
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And that’s not what I did in the first 560, I
didn’t trust myself at all.
PR2; I really had to deal with, you know, just
feeling like a real failure. ... even ray
therapist thinks it really sort of brought me to
the core of my shit. Feeling like a failure,
and and I can’t do it right, and I don’t know
lots of stuff.
The third response is anger, but two diverse groups of
students respond in this way. The first group is made up
of the students who feel unclearly observed. They respond
with hostility and anger in proportion to the error they
perceive in the observation and feedback of the
instructors or peers. These people can be divergent in
theory (not existential), simply misperceived, or they may
have personality issues with the instructor or their
peers.
PQ2; Because that experience was real horrible for
me. I took it with a, I can’t remember her
name, it was a T.A. [teaching assistant], and it
was real attacking. I had colitis through half
the semester. I just got personality conflicts
with the professor, and ended up getting through
but with, going through hell.
The commonality among people in this group is that they
all feel attacked and in a defensive position in some way,
A student described the problem for students, when it
occurs in practicum, this way:
AB2: In theory it’s [practicum] a good idea. In
practice what goes on is a lot of humiliation of
other people, and a lack of empathy for the
other . person’s position which is exactly what
the department teaches. There is supposed to
be, I mean, therapists, budding therapists are
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people too. They have emotions just like the
clients, and they have feelings too, and those
aren't explored. I think if those were more
explored on a level that was not as critical,
then you would see a whole lot better grade of
therapy taking place. But when students are
attacked and they are made to feel defensive,
what do you expect is going to happen? .... It's
okay to criticize, it's okay to hear the areas
you need work in, or what the other person feels
is going on.
The second group of people who respond this way are those
students who are unwilling or unable to be clear about
themselves. One student described the response of this
group of students, when reflecting upon (her/his)
experiences in class:
PQ3: I had some people that I was in class with, that
first semester, who quit, after that first
semester. And when I would talk with them about
their experiences of the program they very much
presented themselves as victims of unfair
brutality. And my perception of what had gone
on was that they, like me, had been told who
they were and how they presented themselves.
But, the way they took that in was to see it as
someone picking on them, or someone brutalizing
them. And, I saw the same feedback that I got,
not the exact same feedback, but the feedback I
got related to how I presented myself, and
somehow, I was able to own my part of that, and
I didn't see that going on with them. I didn't
see them say, "I do this" and "I need to do
this." I saw them not owning that, not owning
up to their part.
Int: Can you, can you sort of be more specific about
what you mean about, "owning up to their part?"
PQ3: Uh, I saw, I don't know if this is more
specific, but I saw them as seeing themselves as
innocent victims of unfair ridicule. And I saw
them as being, the "unfair ridicule" as being
right on. My perception of it, from my
perspective, the feedback they were getting, and
the feedback I was getting was right on. You
know, it was painful, it's hard to deal with.
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urn, I didn't like admitting that it was right
on, but it was right on. Six people don't see
the same thing unless their is some truth to it.
Later in the same interview, when attempting to explain
the responses of students who become angry, this student
described someone (s/he) knew who had left the program;
PQ3: My sense is that, to some degree he is very
comfortable living his life the way he is living
it. And that he didn't want to wreck it. He
didn't want, he didn't want to hear stuff that
was going to shake up his life.
Int: What do you mean?
PQ3: Well, for example he was married, and he was
fooling around with other women, and he didn't
want to deal with the issues that that brought
up, you know, in terms of responsibility and
honesty. And he wanted to continue doing what
he was doing and not be confronted about that
stuff. And aaa, so that my sense is that the way
things were, were acceptable enough to him to
not want to take information that was going to
make it difficult or make him think about it, or
make him examine. Maybe I was just more unhappy
than he was, more able to take in information.
Maybe I was more able to let go of some stuff.
The personal confrontation can be resolved at any
point after dealing with the situational confrontation,
but the personal confrontation usually escalates in
intensity and becomes more critical as the coursework
progresses toward a more personal focus. The personal
confrontation culminates and comes to fruition by the time
a student passes the practicum course (EdCo 560), at the
doctoral level, because of its direct observation and
supervision.
PQl: Interesting that when I talked earlier about
events I didn't mention practicum, any
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of them. And those are certinly critical events
and important classes.......... I just felt like I
was in over my head, and I just understood about
half or less of what was going on around me. At
that time I don't think the concepts were really
very clear to me, I don't think I really knew
what therapy was about.
To the extent students assimilate, identify, and then
make the existential information personal is usually
reflective of the degree they begin to recognize and
describe themselves as existentialists. One student, who
described (herself/himself) as an existential psycho
therapist, described the importance of her/him personal
involvement with the existential information:
AB3: I had no idea you were, it was okay to tell your
client, she was coming across like a cunt, stuff
like that. Wait a second, you know, it was not
my conception what it [the therapy process] was.
It was even, even more powerful, more direct,
more authentic, and more, more, you were more
personally in it. Urn, where in 500 I got the
sense that you cared and you, your feelings
counted, and that you paid attention to that
stuff. In 541 I saw you were in it, too. And
that made it real real exciting and real real
scary, real scary. But the excitement out
weighed the um, the scariness to it.
The students who do not identify themselves as
existentialists must overcome this through a different
means but must face the issues inherent in the personal
confrontation nonetheless. Because of the direct and
personal requirements of the class formats and discussions
they must, at the least, be able to incorporate their own
beliefs and individual style into an orientation
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compatible to the prevailing existential thrust.
TRl: I didn't believe in what I was doing when I was
in the two way mirror situation. I was doing it
to pass the class, I knew how to do it to pass
the class.
Int: And you didn't believe in it?
TRl: No.
Some of the students interviewed who identified themselves
as something other than existentialist claimed they had
assimilated existential theory at this point and then
began to learn and develop a different philosophical or
psychological orientation afterwards. The following is
from a student self described as psychodynamic:
PQ5: I think I've learned that existentialism is,
it's like the bottom ground for psychotherapy,
but it is not a method. And that where there
has been an attempt at a methodology, in the
sense that our program teaches practicums and so
forth, that it's, it's extremely anti-
existential, and doesn't owe very much
allegiance to existentialism as far as I can
tell...........[I found] something is wrong here,
it just doesn't feel right to me. And it forced
me to think , "Hold it, what is right for me,
like, what makes sense to me." That's what made
me go after supervison, made me teach my own way
there. So I guess in some way it's, it's, like,
it's from a negative standpoint, it's like my
critique, and my needing to articulate that
critique for myself, of the program, is
basically what has fostered my getting these
things. Seeing these gaps and trying to fill
them.
As students integrate the information, in a very
practical and real sense, they attempt to get a mastery
and understanding of the information in their own lives.
The information starts to infiltrate their daily
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and dealings with people. Students begin to
change the way they deal with the world in general. Soon
the ideas, theories, and new ways of thinking about people
begin to influence each students attitudes, behavior, and
affect.
PP5: The same thing happened with a guy here ... who
I have a sort of false relationship with, you
know, we speak to each other, "hi, hi," and all
this stuff, yet in reality, I make jokes about
him or am in on jokes that other people make,
and I know that he says things about me because
1 have a person who is a sort of mutual friend
that reports these things to me. So one night
he is sitting in here and he is sort of asking
me something about my political orientation ...,
and 1 asked him, "What's your intensity about, I
feel some real intensity coming from you and I'm
wondering what it is?" And man, things just
changed immediately. They went from, you know,
question from him and then almost like
rationalization from me, very uncomfortable
feeling, to all of a sudden very real. And it
was, for one thing he went on a five minute roll
of sort of disjointed rambling. Which, during
which time I all of sudden I realized he was
very uncomfortable getting at this level. We
talked about that for a little while, ... and, I
think a couple of things happened. For one
thing there doesn't seem to be as much
interaction, in a way, but what there is is more
real, and um, I feel better about myself not
sitting there and acting as if I was having this
interesting discussion with the guy, when I
really didn't like it, didn't like really being
with him, and when I got on a more honest level
I just felt better about it. We're not good
buddies now or anything, but at least now there
is, there is not as much of this false shit.
That's a couple of examples of the way things
seem to be different in the personal type thing.
I seem to feel more comfortable with myself in
outside situations too, its like, rather than
rehearsing what would be the right thing to do
in a certain situation or circumstance. I'm more
willing to trust that. I'll be able to tune into
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my feelings or my, just the way I'm feeling
about something and get off this trip of
pleasing the other person. I'm more confident
that that will happen unbitten, if I'll give
myself a moment.
In summary, the issues in this section of the chapter
relate directly to the students finding their way within
the Depar troent of Counseling and the philosophy it
presents. During the interviews most of the students
talked about feeling apprehensive and tentative at first,
with fearfulness being the common characteristic the
students present.
Once the confrontation occurs, students go through an
emotional reorganization when dealing with the two issues
in the "fear" stage. But, the confrontation is within a
context that is validating and accepting. As one student
said :
PQl: The confrontation helps, but it's not enough.
It's like that message is that you're okay.
Int: That's what validation is, that confrontation is
not ?
PQl: Yeah. It's like the confrontation says, "This
is what you're doing." The validation adds to
that, "That it's okay." It may not be okay what
you're doing, I may not like it, but at least
there is the sense of, "It makes sense from your
point of view that you are doing it that way."
Power
Within this framework students overcome their
fearfulness and go on to deal with the next phase of
student matriculation: power, and the consequences from
asserting and presenting themselves. The movement of
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students during this phase comes about through the rigid
and structured nature of the program, and effort of the
instructors. These features help students to answer the
kinds of questions dealing with personal issues, for after
having been confronted by the participants, faculty, and
structure of the program, they are asked to reconcile
their personal issues. One student summarized this phase:
AB3: So I thought, "My God" you know, I thought being
an adult meant you didn't, you didn't feel
passion. So I was, I thought being an adult and
passion was, were mutually exclusive. So here I
was starting to feel passion again, and it was
real wonderful to feel that, and also very
frightening. But it interf erred with, I
couldn't play this other role and feel all this
passion at the same time. So it sort of left me
not knowing how to be. I was, so I had to start
over on how to relate, I didn't know how to do
any of that, and I was so frightened it was, it
was very very scary. Because I didn't know how
to talk to people , and afraid to talk to people,
and my old way felt false, you know, even though
it was sort of slick and glib and clever, but it
didn't feel good, it felt false. So I didn't
like doing that, but I didn't know how not to do
something else, but I was also feeling this
passion and energy. So it was, I didn't know
what to do with any of that stuff, but it was
all happening. So it was radically transforming
me, really leaving me unable to know what to do
with any of that stuff, and that's why at the
end of that semester I went into therapy. At
least I knew where to go, it never occurred to
me to go into therapy, I was perfect before, I
didn't need therapy. Suddenly the part that was
perfect was gone and there was nothing else to
take it's place, so clearly I needed to be in
therapy.
One of the by-products of the highly intensive and
personal focus of the Department of Counseling is the
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manifestation of strong personal relationships among
students.
AB5: It’s a shared struggle. And it’s shared for
trying to, um, we’ve all shared it kind of,
around wanting to be therapists, quote unquote.
There, my friends in this program, we all share
a certain committment towards struggling.
Struggling for some you know, some piece of, a
little piece of the truth about human beings.
And, we’re trying to be true to the individual,
and then also, find out what is that thread that
goes through everyone.
Often many of the personal and social relationships among
students begin to flourish and expand beyond the
boundaries of the program. Although many of the
relationships may already be professional or social before
this time, as students begin to assert themselves their
personal relationships take on a form and value beyond the
limits of the classroom.
Int: What about your relationship with your peers,
your fellow students?
PRl: Aww, that’s real good. Real positive. That’s
been excellent, that’s been a real source of joy
at S.C.. Because I don’t know, I don’t know
anybody outside the people, I know one person
outside the people I know in the program, that I
have regular contact with. And they’ve been
real supportive and real caring and real helpful
in all of this.
PQ4: That period, that time then, that started me
kind of expanding outward. My relationships
outside of school, I started going out with
[mates name], we started getting serious. My
relationship with [best friend], we got very, we
were very intimate in our relationship. That’s
the first time I really ever got intimate like
that with a man, it was very scary, he was
scared too. That was a new experience, it’s
like, all of a sudden different type of
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relationship, relationships that could get real
close. And I wasn’t afraid to give anymore, to
give my all to relationships. And it's like if
I got rejected, well then that would be painful,
but there was, but I wasn’t so scared of it
because I could give it all, I could give as
much as I could give. And I wouldn’t hold back
as much.
AB6; I, I do have very strong friendships, now, and
that’s different for me. And I am more active
in those friendships.
Int; So you mean, social ties as a result of, or as
the cause of.
AB6; As a result of the changes that I ’ve been going
through. I have been able to express myself
more honestly with people. Particularly, about
my own sense of insecurity and inadequacy, and
much to my surprise. And I’ve been able to ask
for things from people, from friends. And
that’s felt like it has strengthened
friendships.
In their attempts to build new and reformulate old
relationships the students begin to develop a social
community, with people compatible with their ’’new self.’’
As described by one student, students have learned a great
deal ;
PQ4; I came out being able to express my feelings
more. Being confident that what I felt was
accurate. In the past I wouldn’t have said much
about what I was feeling, and if I did I would
be very quick to take it back, I would be very
quick to say, ’’I must be misperceiving something
here’’ there is, you know. But I came out with
the confidence to hang in there with what I was
feeling, what I was saying. Knowing that, you
know. I ’m not crazy in a way that, what I was
feeling is accurate, is accurate for me. And
that’s got a lot of validity to it, you know,
and there is no reason why I should give that
up. Just because someone else may not be
feeling that same way. So I came out, when I
came out of myself I came out with some power,
some self-confidence.
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When a student was discussing why (s/he) believed the
focus was first personal, and then moved on to
reformulating relationships succinctly replied;
AB5; I had to get real clear on me before I could get
clear on anybody else.
Mostly, the people students are comfortable with are peers
or fellow students. These are the people students are
involved with within the process of matriculation.
Issue Three: Reformulating Relationships
Almost all of the students, after confronting their
own issues within the environment of the Department of
Counseling, come away with a sense of integrity. They
begin to feel a degree of confidence, having become
somewhat sure of their beliefs and perceptions, and more
certain of their ability to articulate them. One student
summarized the influence of the personal confrontation on
(her/his) relationships, while the second describes the
change in their ability to be clear;
PQ3; I think the program helped me to realize that
the problems I was having with relationships
were not just because of the people I was
getting involved with. But because there was#
something I was doing. There was something I
was doing that contributed to the demise of all
those relationships. And I don’t think I
clearly saw that before.
Int; And now your relationships seem, I sense, you
haven't said it clearly, but that they are
somewhat different than they were in the past.
PQ3; I would say I am more able to set my boundaries
than I used to be. I am more able to take care
of myself without having to physically remove
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myself from the relationship, I am more able to
say no, essentially,
AB5: I figure that if I actually got clear, I would
find myself, and that is the bottome line.
Int: And the clarity was, is what?
AB5: The clarity is the sense of the decisions that
I ’ve made, and the legitimacy of the fear, I
can’t believe I ’m looking at some of those
things because, for me, in some ways, once I got
clear I knew I was going to do things
differently, and that was frightening to me.
Certain things would be different as a function
of the clarity. Almost, not even necessarily as
a choice, like I then would decide to do, it was
like things were simply going to be different.
What students are now faced with is the prospect of
reformulating relationships. They find the influence of
the program has changed the people they choose in their
lives, and the way they deal with these people.
PQl: My relationships are a lot different, and the
types of people that I have relationships with,
are a lot different. I think I generally hang
around brighter people than I used to hang
around .
Int: Say that again?
PQl: I hang around with brighter people than I used
to spend time with. People who are alive.
The relationships with people in the lives of students,
those who have known them for a long time, begin to be
fractious and difficult. The recurrent issue students
mention at this point is the friction with other people,
specifically people not enrolled in the Department of
Counseling.
PRl; This is the other problem, you know. It’s like,
it’s taken it’s toll. I ’m involved in another
relationship, or I ’m getting out of it right
now. But that relationship suffered because it
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doesn’t have what my relationship has, what my
relationships with people in the program has.
It is much too superficial and there is no
emotional sharing, but 1 feel I need that.
Maybe I ’ve just outgrown it this quickly, but
maybe I ’m growing that quickly, I don’t know.
But I wish I could get what I ’m looking for,
what I want to look for now is a relationship
with a man that offers the same types of things
that I have with, with people I go through this
program with, I don’t know if this is possible.
These people, friends, mates, relatives, and
associates of the students, are usually uninformed about
the new information and sophisticated ideas learned by
students in the Department of Counseling, and any changes
students make in their personality brings the most
pressure to bare on these relationships. Students begin
to face people who have viewed them within an old context
and perspective. Any internal changes, in perceptions or
viewpoints, creates conflicts between student’s "new self"
and the other person’s old conceptions. Students are now
asserting their ideas, wants, and desires. The people
around the student are often very intimidated or confused
by the student’s change in behavior and attitude. As one
student described the difficulty, it became a choice
between her self and the others in her life including her
child and her husband;
PQ2; I was starting to identify myself as someone who
was a feminist.
Int; How did your life go during that time?
PQ2; It was the only year since I was sixteen I was
not working. I was going to school taking three
classes and I had my son. And I was having a
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lot of trouble adjusting to not working and not,
my husband and I were having a lot of trouble
adjusting to a child, actually that was easier
then since I was home. I felt really caught, I
mean if the baby sitter didn’t show up I
couldn’t take [a teacher’s] midterm because my
baby sitter forgot to come. And I never felt so
trapped and enraged in my whole life. Because I
couldn’t leave my kid, and knew damn well I
couldn’t take him and my husband wouldn’t come
home and I was pissed. And I was trapped by
something I loved. And it was then that I began
to feel all the time, everytime I walked out the
door I had to weigh myself, or the people that
loved and depended on me. My infant who
depended on me totally for his life, down to
what he ate, down to, it was like I began this
balancing act, this choice every moment of who
to be for, me or him. And sometimes I could be
for us both but it seemed more like I had to
choose.
An unwritten theory about the Department of Counseling
is that students who are married, or in steady
relationships, will suffer a divorce or separation before
the end of their enrollment in the program. Approximately
fifty percent of the students interviewed (10 of 19) who
were in steady relationships at the start of their
enrollment terminated their steady relationship. It is
during this phase of assertion and power that the majority
of these relationships crumble and dissolve. The
following student talked about the changes and reasons
s/he started to cut off from others;
PQ4; My relationship with my [girl/boy] friend in [a
city] broke up. Um, that was destined to break
up, though. [S/he] had, actually what happened
was, [s/he] had been in therapy for a long time,
and um, I was just kind of starting this whole
process. I was feeling, kind of like, um, I
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needed to work on myself for a while. With all
the changes I was going to do I’m turning out to
be very different than when I first came in.
And what I needed to do was to break off a lot
of relationships, and I needed to work on
myself. And I felt like, having the types of
relationships I had in the past was going to
interfere with where I wanted to go, you know,
because um, the newer people that I was meeting,
and I was hanging with at school, were opening,
we’re all working towards the same thing it,
seemed like. So, a lot of my old relationships
kind of faded away, for me. I kind of broke
them off. I tend to, to hang out more with the
school people, and even there, I was, there,
there wasn’t anything really going on in my
life. I wasn’t kind of like, you know. I'm
doing this with my hands, kind of looking like
it’s a closed system. And I think it was. I
think I was kind of closed off to meeting people
because, I wanted to um, I was so focused on
myself and looking at who I was and looking at
how I liked my life so far, what the
consequences were, I mean living my life the way
I was living it, it was like I was really focusd
on myself at that time.......... I guess I learned
enough about myself, I had changed enough, that
I was ready to explore other relationships, that
I was ready to come out then. I was ready to
come out of myself, and use what I learned about
myself in relationships. I was feeling
confident enough that I could be more authentic.
While relationships end for reasons other than those
caused by enrollment, it seems the changes in students,
and then their willingness to assert these changes,
escalates the pressure and stresses, which accelerates the
dissolution of relationships.
Int: What’s going on in your life, aside from, what’s
happening to you personally?
AB3; My marriage is going to shit.
Int: How did that happen?
AB3; That happened because I am starting to radically
change, and as all family systems people know,
that mucks up the works. So I am. I ’m not the
JL&D
same person, so I am bringing, I ’m trying new
things in the relationship. I ’m, and, this, and
more and more dissatisfied with the old way I, I
did it in the relationship, and then of course
being an asshole, projecting that onto
[her/him]. And then trying some new stuff, and
then also starting to really feel um, passion,
and my passion, and sexuality, I was really
starting to feel sexuality, and starting to see
a lot of that stuff felt real dead in my
marriage, and I was starting to look elsewhere.
And I didn’t like that, ’’Why don’t I like that
here’’ and I just wasn’t there. And I could feel
that with other [(wo)men], and I didn’t feel
that with my [wife/husband], and I didn’t like
that, it felt real uncomfortable. And didn’t
know quite what to do with that, so our
relationship became more and more tumultuous,
and I started to feel a lot of the resentments I
had held in, and I started to, to cathart that
stuff. So it must of really taken [her/him] by
surprise, well I know it did. And all of this
stuff I thought had been okay, and had sort of
gone along with, and I had, and I had been the
strong one in the relationship, and had taken
care things, and had sort of taken care of
[her/him] emotionally in many ways, I didn’t
want to do that any more, and I was feeling very
much resentment over that, that [s/he] got
[her/his] way, in a lot of things. And I
started to get real angry about that, so our
life got real angry, real angry.
Int: How do you attribute all that process to the
program, or do you?
AB3: They, the program awoke, awoke in me my passion.
It awoke in me, it, the, the notion that I was,
that I had sat on a lot of stuff. And what it
did is, made, it did those two things, it made
how I was doing it uncomfortable enough for me
to start feeling things, and wanting to feel
things, and when I felt things a lot of what I
felt was, a lot of the negatives. And a lot of
the negatives in my primary relationship. So
that stuff started to come up, and it had never
come up before in our relationship, and our
relationship had no way to deal with that, we
didn’t know what to do with that, neither of us
did. And so it was very frightening for both of
us, and we went to a counselor, and we had a
shitty counselor, and I ’m not sure it would have
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worked anyway because, it doesn’t matter, but,
but that stuff, but it was released, I feel
like part of what the department did was release
all that stuff, and sort of give me license to
release all that. That’s the um, where it
becomes extreme and unfortunately when it first
starts it getting released you have eight years
to release all at once, and so it comes out a
lot stronger and everything comes out a lot
stronger. And you have no idea why, or that you
get past that, and that’s only because it’s old,
and then when you could work through that, and
it isn’t as much. And we never got past that,
and we never built a way to allow it, um,
feelings to be dealt with honestly in the
present. We seemed unable to do that.
To summarize, power is the term used to symbolize the
changes occurring during this phase. The common thread is
the assertion of each student’s individual needs and
beliefs as they become comfortable presenting and acting
upon the internal changes they have integrated during the
course of participating in the highly structured and
intense training program. The issue during this phase,
relationships, usually go through a reformulation as a
result of the pressure. By this time students are then
ready to expand their horizons beyond the scope of the
training program, and these are the issues taken up in the
next section.
Loneliness
Generally, the first three issues are resolved by the
time students pass the practicum courses. As students
finish the ’’core classes’’ they are faced with completion
of the less programmatically focused requirements for
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their doctoral degrees. Usually, students are becoming
more vocationally oriented at this time, they either have
jobs already or starting to look for working positions in
the field of counseling or education. Students now
confront the ramifications of committing themselves to
their beliefs and profession, this prompts the fourth
issue.
Issue Four; Personal Identity
The process leading to completion of the program
culminates once students reconcile their relationships.
The major focus of each student broadens and begins to
include vocational and professional concerns. Students
can be divided into two separate groups at this point,
those who are committed to the existential philosophical
orientation and feel comfortable with it, and those who
are not satisfied with it.
Some of the students committed to the existential
orientation continue to be highly involved within the
Department of Counseling, becoming teaching assistants.
They usually become associated with a particular
instructor, whether adjunct or tenured, and may continue
in this capacity until graduation. These students remain
strongly attached to the social and educational milieu
finding the association stimulating and beneficial,
GRl; I think as a student I was one thing, as a, once
I was a T.A. I was on the inside circle........
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It was like, it reminds me of someone who has
gone to med school, once your in med school,
almost no one flunks out, how difficult it is to
get into med school.
The majority of these students are satisfied with the
existential orientation and go on expanding their
educational professional expertise from this framework.
The students who are not involved in the milieu begin
to create professional relationships outside of the
educational structure. They often do so with peers,
former associates, or faculty members of the Department of
Counseling, and, of course, there are some who go off on
their own.
PQl: It was fun then, it was nice, but there is a
difference now in that, the sorts of connections
I made there I can make other places now. I
don't depend on it, I don’t depend on having to
go to class to meet people. I ’m not dependent
on going to class to make connections.
GRl: Because I believed at a time that these friends
were real, and they would be there for me, and
aaaa, that when I needed them they were going to
be there, they were true, you know, and I don’t
believe that to be true. The fact is that
they’re not there. I, I, out of that whole
program I really have not kept any of those
friends. The ones I had before are still there
in my life, and they’re still there now, when I
said something about worrying about who’s going
to take care of my kids, my friend said, ’’don’t
worry. I ’ll take care of your kids,’’ That’s not
what I ’m going to find at S.C..
Students who are not satisfied with existential
orientation are usually attempting to find more
psychological information to augment the education they’ve
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received within the program. Students often said in the
course of the interviews that the existential orientation
had limited usefulness.
PQ3; The theory is not that important, although it
has been important because it gave me a frame.
It gave me a way to look at what I did
differently. I think I mentioned to you before,
that the way I learned the theory, I may be
getting ahead of the game here, but the way I
learned this theory was not enough for me in
terms of giving me a frame for understanding
because, like I said, it helped me see how I was
and the costs and benefits of being how I was
but just looking how I am and seeing it as
intentional, in quote "intentional," for me
still left me lacking in empathy for myself and
for other people. You know, it’s like, "you
choose to be this way," that kind of approach
that seems to be very prevalent among my
collègues and peers. It’s sort of a kind of
blaming that goes along with it, "well you chose
to be this way so what the fuck are you bitching
about?” You know, that kind of thing. And, it
lacked depth for me, it lacked something, there
was something missing, and what I eventually did
was I took an object relations seminar with [a
teacher]. What object relations did for me was
to fill in what was missing. And that is, the
trauma, the early trauma of the child who then
develops these defenses out of necessity. And
it’s not so much a choice, you know, it’s more
of a survival technique. And that although they
choose in the present to maintain it the concept
of choice is stretched a bit. And I guess for
me I needed that extra perspective. The
perspective of, of the child grasping at
whatever they could find that would protect
them. You know, in order to have empathy with a
patient that comes in with some bizarre defense
mechanism, or some bizarre symptom, to see that
it wasn't merely a choice, like I walk into your
store and I pick this instead of this. But that
it was a choice under extremely unique
circumstances, desperate circumstances. So I
think that the theoretical frame, 1 guess is
what I ’m saying, the theoretical frame of
existentialism is important and valid and, and
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it has helped me to be very effective in terms
of working with what’s happening in the room,
and focusing on those things. But I also feel
like it’s not, the way it was taught to me was
not enough for me to understand, the quote ’’good
reasons’’ that people choose what they choose.
So the important experience that I ’ve had in
this program has been the actual clinical
experiences, and then secondly the theoretical
frame that I ’ve developed here, to help me
understand what’s going on.
Almost all of the students talked of the benefits of the
education they received, mentioning a confidence about
themselves and their work, but still recognizing some
limitation in their theory and education.
AB2: But I didn’t do it at U.S.C., they didn’t give
me that. But they must have given me something,
because I picked it up pretty easy.
Int: What was it, if it wasn’t that stuff?
AB2: An ability to be open, number one. And a sense
of security in like I say, my basic philosophy
of human nature and of what therapy consists of,
and of, and that the relationship is what really
heals people. And how you get there, I guess
you could say I ’m more eclectic, okay, like I
will use cognitive therapy with different
people, I will use techniques, and I guess
wholistic, strict, rigid existential therapy
says you shouldn’t use techniques. .... There is
a lot of struggle that I still have as a result
of being in the department. They are struggles
I want to have, they’re struggles I like.
Many of these students pursued training in other schools
or taking intern training positions with supervisors or
facilities with orientations other than existential or
humanistic, not necessarily because it was required but
beause they wanted to expand their skills and education.
PQ4: Another thing I started doing because of the
progam was an internship, and started working on
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my clinical skills that way.
Int: You say because of the program, how, or why
because of the program?
PQ4: Well, you know, in order to pass practicum, in
order to, to, I felt I had to have experience.
I couldn’t just go through just practicums,
there wasn’t enough there. There wasn’t enough
time for me.
Int: And somehow the program told you to go get some
experience?
PQ4: Well, I mean I told, I told myself in a way. I
could see the requirements. And I could see I
wasn’t going to make the requirements, I didn’t
do it. So, the program didn’t tell me to do it,
but if I wanted to, to do well, I was going to
have to do more work in there.
Almost all of the students interviewed mentioned
having to begin to individuate from their identity as a
student. They are dealing with managing their way
professionally, and must begin to make their decisions
based on self serving issues, (i.e., financial, &
vocational). Central to this process is the need to act
independently of the school milieu and choose a
professional direction personally satisfying and finan
cially adequate.
PQ2: School has not had a priority, it is not been a
priority in my life and I feel when I go up on
the fifth floor and when I see people I haven’t
seen for six months I, it’s like a, it’s a small
part of my life right now. So it’s been, it’s
been gradually becoming that way. It was a
major part of my life,
Int: Is it because of the learning that you valued
there is over?
PQ2: Well, I ’m not taking any more courses in the
department. I was real disappointed with the
final course that I took. I think I am learning
but I ’m doing it very independently. I ’m
learning by reading and doing my work, my own
independent study. And I ’m learning a lot by
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that. I haven’t yet, um, gotten involved with
my committee members, in terms of really getting
down to them chewing over with me what I ’m
doing, and I hope that that’s going to be
helpful to me. And I think that will be good
but like the teaching assistant thing I saw on
the board, I wanted to do it much more than I
wanted to do anything in the department and that
was in [another program at U.S.C.]. So my
interests are really going.
Int; Gone?
PQ2: Not gone, but they’re less. But they’re not
really that invested in the program right now.
Int; Is it because your interests are changing or
because what’s offered there is not as valuable
as what else there is to learn or?
PQ2: Yeah, I think I ’ve learned a lot of what I could
learn there and my interests are really
solidifying in a different direction. And some
of that grew out of what the department offered
but my interests are really in a different
direction right now.
The separation and independence from the program
stimulates each individual student to recognize their
personal needs which in turn begins to rupture the
attachment and connection to the Department of Counseling.
When reflecting about the attachment to the social milieu
one student said;
AB2: We had the closeness that you get from being in
a 560 class when you are ranked on every week by
everybody, and you go out for a drink across the
street with all the people in your class.
That’s the real, I mean it was the social life,
not only an education at that time. Um, the
sadness is, is that it’s sort of an artificial
type social life. I ’m kind of having that now
with some friends that I ’m doing my
dissertation, trying to get my dissertation done
with. We’re all kind of struggling, so that,
there is kind of that um, that friendship that’s
based on mutual need or you’re both in the same
boat type thing.
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They must begin to act alone. Students must learn to act
independently, but this may be positive, as one student
said :
PQ3: One of the things that this program does do is
that it facilitates people who are self
starters. You know, I think if you make it
through this program you’ve got to damn well
know how to take care of yourself. You’ve got
to damn well know how to get out there and do
for yourself and make things happen for
yourself. In a way it’s an advantage.
Death
The final step for any student is graduation, and for
the students from the Department of Counseling this is no
exception. As noted in the previous section, students
start to expand their focus beyond the educational milieu
before graduation. If they want to practice as licensed
psychologists they must eventually satisfy the California
state requirements which includes supervised hours and
passage of the state examination, written and oral.
Students begin to focus on finishing and terminating their
relationship with the Department of Counseling.
PQ4: I guess I ’m feeling that part of the phase I ’m
in now is that um, in my, then I started,
started looking towards my goal of graduating.
You know, I guess, you know, I think I ’ve been
taking it like a semester at a time, because
like the next thing that came up, I breezed
through 560, the next thing was 660, so I set my
sights on 660 and preliminary review, and um, I
got through that without any problems. I'm
feeling like I was breezing through the program
now. That’s kind of like where I ’m at right now
is, is. I ’m in. I ’m in the phase of you know.
I ’m trying, you know, now to just try and get
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through.
Int: For the moment, this may not be accurate, but it
almost sounds like the program is done for you
in a way. You've already learned what you need
to learn and it's time to move on.
PQ4; Right, right. I'm feeling like um. I've gotten
what I wanted to get out of the program. Um,
I'm done with, the only courses I have left are
courses that "A", I know a lot about, and "B",
I'm kind of not interested in It's just
like now I'm doing the things I need to to get
out.
Issue Five; Professional Identity
The presentation of each individual to the
professional world presents the final stage in the theory
of student matriculation. Students must pick their areas
of work and expertise, either finding a professional
position for which they are qualified, or an area in which
they can earn a living. Most of the students interviewed
had a firm belief in their abilities and skills despite
the recognized deficiencies in their training.
Int: So are you recommending then, that one of the
weaknesses of the program is a lack of practical
application, can you say more about that?
ABl: Oh yeah, I think that's it. I think that the
program is not, in terms of the way we have to
practice out in the world as clinical
psychologists, it doesn't do the full job in the
preparation. It doesn't encourage membership to
professional organizations, it doesn't
strengthen the assessment and diagnostic skills,
it doesn't stress the ethical and confiden
tiality issues, it doesn't give a broad base to
theoretical issues, which I don't really care so
much about because I really like the theoretical
base I come from, but still you have to jump
those hurdles. It is really geared towards
people who are going to be in private practice,
not for people who are going to be consulting
psychologists, not for people who are going to
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be industrial psychologists. All of which
doesn’t, you know, address issues of how to run
a business. And those aspects that are popular
at conferences, on how to make your practice a
business, how to promote your business, how to
do billing, what about insurance. I mean all
the practical aspects. It's like you come out
of the program sort of philosophically nubile,
you know, you know, a real, almost aware person,
but what you're walking into, is this grown up
world in which you do not have the skills. You
may have the integrity but you do not have the
skills.
Int: You don't seem angry about that?
ABl: Well skills are easier to get than integrity. I
rather be, if I had to be one or the other, I
think most programs provide the skills and not
the integrity our program really requires.
At this point, the end of the program and education,
students feel very little in regards to the program.
Attending school is simply a task which one must finish
and complete.
GR2: I think probably the first two years felt like I
got the most learning. The last two years felt
like all I wanted to do was get through and
finish the classes, and get out of there. And
some of that had to do with it being the last
two years rather than the first two years. But
I think some of it had to do with that I felt
like a lot of the courses during the second half
were, putting in time.
Few of the students interviewed felt they had any useful
classes to take after this time, believing that finishing
the program was more dealing with the programmatic or
bureacratic requirements than receiving classes of
practical or professional value.
Overall, students now feel they are the best judges of
their education and what is best to learn about. Most
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students are interested in finding instructors who want to
support them in their efforts to accomplish their
dissertations, research, or professional interests, but
none describe this support as necessary if it is not
forthcoming. If one word were to describe this group it
is independent. One student summarized the program, and
what they had acquired;
ABl; I think it's given me excellent training as a
therapist. And it has forced me to be more
independent and becoming more broad based. I
think it has encouraged independence. I think
that the program itself does not ever hold your
hand, so in some ways, you do not come out
deficient because what it doesn't give you. You
get to be a survivor, and so the other part is
easier to, kind of, pull together, because of
that. So it encourages independence, and it
trains people to be decent therapists. That's,
that's a nice summary.
A graduate of the program discussed the skills and
abilities acquired within the program in comparison to
other post doctoral interns:
GRl: At one point [supervisors name] got angry at me
about something, and I came back and said, "How
dare you be angry." I screamed and yelled at
him. No one of the five other interns would
ever consider doing that. In the end,
[supervisor's name] respected me for it, it was
the right thing to do.
Int; What was it that you did? I don't mean be
angry, what was it that you had that in your
repertoire or within your personality that those
other people didn't that allowed you to do that?
GRl: I was not cowtowing or cowering in fear of
[her/him], and [s/he] appreciated that. And
there, there was a part of me that was beyond
[her/his] reach. The others were so concerned
about what evaluation they would get, or da da
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da, and I wasn't into that. I, I, I was sort
of, not in that position with [her/him], and
[s/he], and it was a relief. There was a
genuine, I mean, I wasn’t thinking about what's
this, how's this going to effect my evaluation.
And the rest of them were, were trying to figure
out, their concern was the evaluation, I think.
It's funny I'm talking about playing the game,
but it wasn't to play the game, it was to get
what I wanted. And if it meant sitting down and
playing "the old boy game" which was a big, you
know, the "good old boy game" and talking about
hunting and football and basketball that’s
natural, that’s part of me, I'll do it, and
enjoy every minute of it. Um, I felt in a sense
safe, and I think that's what the rest of them
didn’t feel. and I don’t know why. There was a
certain amount of security within myself, I knew
that I was a good therapist. Maybe I didn’t
have diagnostics, and maybe I didn't have
testing, but I had something that was somewhat
undenialable. And even put up against these
other people there was no question I had it.
Int: What was the "it" do you think?
GRl: I think you almost go back to the qualities that
make for a good therapeutic relationship. ...
More that just empathy, I have the ability for
the client to feel, my empathy. They know that
I care about them. And although I make a
million mistakes a day, and I know I do, the
basis is always very strong, and they know that,
and it's somehow, that's probably my strongest
quality, I have that ability to make them
realize they are really cared for.
Int: Where did you learn that?
GRl: .... I went into it [U.S.C.] hoping I would feel
real real competent. That I would walk out with
a big sign that said, "competent" on ray
forehead. And what I walked away with is the
realization that I don't want that, I don't want
to ever feel that sure of myself, or that
competent, or that fixed, in any one thing. In
fact, it's not a goal. That the very fact that
I make mistakes, and that I'm human, is also,
you know, one my strengths. And I think that
program gave me that feeling. Where the other
interns I was competing with, were more
concerned with being perfect. I didn't come in
needing to be perfect, or wanting to be perfect,
in fact. I'm not even looking towards that, and
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that's another good thing that came out of
there. You know Richard, sometimes I think the
whole thing is bullshit, psychology is doesn't
work, and that I, I really make no difference in
anybodys' life, and I go through moments of
doubt, like that. And I'm glad I do. You know,
it's like I'm always struggling, wondering,
trying, doing.......... I get most frightened when
you start thinking you've got all the answers.
I went into S.C. looking for the answers, and
what I've come to realize is there aren't any,
and I'm glad. You know, the flaw is that some
people believe that existentialism was the
answer, the good part is that through
existentialism I ’ve realized there isn’t any.
.... I came in with what I thought the was
probablly the most important quality. And what
I needed to pick up was the details. You know,
the details could be learned.
Int: What was the important quality?
GRl: I think, the important quality has to be, you
know, being a human being in a relationship, and
being able to relate well to people. You know,
that’s what I came in with. And many of,
particularly, they didn't have that. .... I
guess I feel pretty powerful, and I think U.S.C.
gave me that power, that sense of my own self,
and who I am, you know, and I walked away from
there feeling like, a very valuable person, you
know, that, I guess confidence is part of it. I
knew that I was a good therapist, not perfect,
not the greatest, but a good therapist. And
there aren't that many out there who are, and
even better than that. I'm a good human being,
and that's where it all starts.
To review this section, the issues students are
dealing with are outside the scope of the Department of
Counseling. The term death, is used to represent the
death of the program. Students are no longer concerned
with the educational milieu, except in a secondary way.
They look now to further their own professional interests
with only the most practical regard or attention to
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accomplishing the requirements of the program.
Summary
The investigation of the Department of Counseling has
led to the proposed theory of student matriculation
presented in this chapter. The theory suggests that
students come to the program usually with little idea of
what the actual experience will be, and they must
reconcile different issues, in a fairly linear fashion, in
order to graduate from the program. It should be clear
from the theory presented, that the necessity to become
existential or humanistic is not mandatory, but it is
necessary to integrate and accommodate the philosophic
orientation of the Department of Counseling.
The passage from initial applicant to a graduate with
a Doctorate isn’t a simple integration of information.
Students must be ready to deal with more than the
cognitive and abstract material. Enrolling in the
Department of Counseling at the University of Southern
California is a personal confrontation with a highly
structured and particular social system. But, as
presented in this chapter, very few, if any, are prepared
to get what they bargained for. The program doesn't
deceive applicants, nor are the instructors unaware of the
implications of the process, and when in particular cases
it's appropriate, the faculty advises students to delay
195
enrollment in the program. This is not an organized or
structured process but one which the instructors trust to
their intuition.
Being a student in the Department of Counseling
doesn’t guarantee anything for applicants. In fact,
enrollment and matriculation usually obligates the
students to deal with their own personal issues in
relation to the social milieu. The underlying assumption
of the Department of Counseling proposes that dealing with
the personal issues of the student, in a real and personal
way in the educational milieu, will generalize, endure
over time, and then translate to the people students are
to counsel and educate. The entire value of the
orientation and method of the Department of Counseling
rests on this assumption. To the extent it is true, is
the extent to which the program is successful in creating
accomplished and complete doctoral students.
The four terms used in this chapter (fear, power,
loneliness, and death), are used to represent the concerns
for students at each stage of the program. The main focus
of this framework is the elucidation of the issues
students need to resolve in order to matriculate and
finish the requirements of the program. In no way does
this framework describe individual students, but it is the
196
researcher’s intent to describe the essence of the student
experience.
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CHAPTER VI
INTERPRETATION, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUMMARY
In the previous two chapters the Department of
Counseling is described and the theory of student
matriculation is proposed. The intention of this chapter
is to use the data presented to make interpretations and
project implications, then to make recommendations for
further research, and finally to summarize the research.
Interpretations
Interpretation is defined here as, the process which
’’involves attaching meaning and significance to the
analysis, explaining descriptive patterns, and looking for
relationships and linkages among descriptive dimensions”
(Patton, 1980, p. 268). These concepts are partitioned
into two areas; Mi lieu/Contextual Issues and the
Information Taught,
Milieu/Contextual Issues
The diversity and dissimilarity of the faculty (e.g.
philosophically, logistically, research interests, non
teaching vocations, personally, and socially) continuously
splinters programmatic decisions and sets the faculty at
odds with each other. They have differing viewpoints on
the proper educational direction the Department of
198
Counseling should take. The split is between proponents
of a stricter adherence to existential theory and
practice, and those wanting to offer a broader and more
orthodox education. During recent discussions on updating
the curriculum of the Department, debate is focused on how
best to continue the emphasis on existential theory and
practice, without diluting the unique value and quality of
the core courses.
Some of the faculty members have a personal investment
in maintaining the orientation and philosophy of the
Department of Counseling. They want the existential
theory to remain central and to maintain the experiential
method. Another faction of the faculty wants to diversify
the educational approach. They want to maintain the
existential philosophy and experiential method, but
support an expansion of theory classes to include a
variety of approaches to elevate and equalize importance
given to other psychological orientations and modalities.
This group of faculty also want to include more of the
classical courses required of the psychologist as a
scientist/professional (i.e.; research, statistical, &
scientific classes; classes emphasizing testing, interpre
tation, & diagnosis, and; highly supervised intern
placement courses). So despite the general tendency to
seek American Psychological Association accreditation the
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actual goals and future of the Department of Counseling
are uncertain.
The friction over curriculum coupled with the absence
of faculty cohesion, creates a teaching climate or
atmosphere which is competitive and individualistic in
nature. The instructors operate independently, guided by
their own individual interests and investments, rather
than orchestrating the activities of the program from a
common ground. If a parallel process occurs (e.g., the
behavior, attitudes, and values of the staff parallels the
behavior, attitudes, and values of the students) between
faculty and students, imagining a student body in a
individualistic or competitive learning climate is not
difficult. Research investigating the influence of group
processes on learning achievement purports that student
learning styles influence achievement. Further, individ
ualistic and competitive styles, almost without exception,
correlate lower with student achievement than the
cooperative style (Johnson et al., 1981). Thus, the
fractious nature of the faculty milieu may have a strong
impact on students in the program and lower their
achievement.
The friction among the faculty precludes gaining
support from each other as a group, although there are
select exceptions. In part, this atmosphere prompts the
200
faculty to either get the support privately and
individually from other instructors or to turn to students
for support. While it is not uncommon for students to
form individual and mentor-student type relationships with
instructors; these often lead to professional and
vocational opportunities for students while at the same
time accelerating the student’s learning. What is
somewhat unique to the Department of Counseling is the
extent and quantity of teacher-student relationships which
extend into personal and social relationships. The
informal atmosphere is tolerated and accepted partially as
an extension of the humanistic portion of the program but
this informality often puts teachers and students in dual
roles, some leading to conflictual situations. Approx
imately half (fourteen of twenty nine) of the students
interviewed reported being in situations with the faculty
or teaching assistants where a conflict of interests
occurred, thereby creating some ambivalence and stress for
students about the appropriate action to take.
Due in part to the multifaceted relationships among
faculty, teaching assistants, and students it is clear
there are many different roles for the faculty to play.
Some of the role conflicts for teaching assistants is a
result of limited supervision afforded these students.
What is required for students in these roles varies among
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instructors, but most of the faculty does little. The
usual format implies that once students are accepted into
the role of teaching assistant they are considered and
treated as an equal, and as noted earlier, most teaching
assistants form enduring relationships with faculty
members. Hence, true supervision, entailing discussions
of ethics, conflicts of interest, and appropriate roles,
doesn’t occur .
Within most graduate training programs, the diversity
and variety of philosophic orientations among the faculty
promotes the variety of learning experiences for students
and increases the possibility that students with differing
interests would find instructors able to help in their
educational pursuits. This is only somewhat true in the
Department of Counseling. Two related, but distinct,
ambiguities arise within the Department of Counseling
because of the diversity of staff beliefs. First, there
is a conflict between the educational philosophy of the
instructors and the format of the program. This conflict
calls into question the effectiveness of teachers who are
attempting to educate students in a particular method,
when their beliefs about education differ from the methods
they use to do this. In particular, six of the eleven
instructors interviewed questioned the productivity of the
educational method used in the Department. The ’’double
202
messages” abound when students interact with instructors
of this ilk, and to infer this dissonance might undermine
the productivity of the format or integration of the
information by students is not farfetched.
Second, is the conflict between the staff’s personal
philosophy and the single philosophy proffered as central
to the program. All materials presented to applicants say
the Department of Counseling is humanistic and
existential. Instructors teaching in the ’’core classes”
are either existential in orientation or graduates from
the program. But, three of five of these instructors, in
addition to other faculty members, do not describe
themselves as humanistic and existential in orientation.
What results, in effect, is a portion of the faculty
attempting to educate students in humanistic and
existential theory from other theoretical perspectives.
This is a difficult task at best, and may be impossible to
attain in reality. For students, this could explain why
they don’t necessarily feel their education is complete or
comprehensive after integrating the humanistic and
existential perspective offered within the program.
Descriptions similar to the following student’s
experience, which prompted her/his turning to object
relations theory, were not uncommon.
FQ3; An experience I had with a practicum instructor,
[the instructor’s name]. S/he was one of the
203
most phenomenal people I’ve ever met. And aaa,
s/he operated from an object relations
perspective, and sort of a gestalt perspective,
.... The object relations theory gave me more
theoretical frames, to understand not only how I
was in the present, but where all that came
from. And how in fact I had defended myself as
a child, and that allowed me to feel more okay
with who I was. Because there was a reason that
made sense to me, you know, that I had done what
I had done and I was who I was. And that I
guess, in a real sense, I began to see who I
was, and how I had become who I was. To large
extent the program did that.
Those who are clearly committed to this orientation stated
they had to go beyond their training, through private
reading or other training opportunities, to complete their
philosophic and practical understanding of the existential
orientation. In summary, what instructors say they are,
and in effect what they do, may be disparate. Students
are requested, paradoxically, to ascertain and integrate
humanistic and existential concepts with role models who
are espousing one ideology and practicing another. This
sets the stage for a great deal of ambiguity, in the
integration of existential information, and prevents a
sense of completion to the comprehension of the experience
of patients.
Information Taught
This section details the areas which are taught and
learned in the Department of Counseling. Five
formulations are presented; First, ’’Eigenwelt, Mitwelt,
and Umwelt, separating the information taught to students
204
into the three worlds of existential analysis; second,
Humanism and Existentialism, explicating the philosophical
framework taught in the Department; third. Group
Dynamics, clarifying variables of instructional style;
fourth, the Varieties of Student Experience, a cross-
sectional overview elucidating the range of student
experiences; and, fifth. Sexuality, discussing the issues
of sexuality within the educational environment. These
five formulations have been constructed using all portions
of the data, interviews and observations, and are
influential to the experience of students,
Eigenwelt, Mitwelt, and Umwelt
According to Binswanger, a pioneer of existential
psychology, here referred to as daseinanalysis, entails
the exploration of three worlds or "welts :”
1) Eigenwelt: the self world of inner feelings and
affections, including all of those experiences we
think of as "within” the body sphere; 2) Umwelt: the
environment or "world around" us, including both
animate and inanimate features of existence; and 3)
Mitwelt: the social world, the world of one's fellow
men, iniending all of those things we refer to when we
speak of "society" (Rychlak, 1973, p. 452).
The educational focus in the Department of Counseling is
on the "mitwelt" with little focus on the "eigenwelt" or
205
"umwelt." The emphasis on the social world limits
student’s comprehensive understanding of daseinanalysis
pushing students to investigate other psychological
theories to gain a satisfactory and complete theoretical
framework for counseling and therapy.
There are three factors that support the Department of
Counseling as being highly oriented to the mitwelt.
First, in the practicum courses, the here and now
orientation is tied to the emphasis on the two people in
the relationship. Evaluation, practice, and discussion
focuses on the issues between the student/therapist and
client (mitwelt) often to the exclusion of the other
"worlds" (eigenwelt and umwelt). Second, most of the
classroom material, informational and dydactic, emphasizes
the interpersonal relationship. Third, there is no
particular class which offers a comprehensive explication
of the facets of the "eigenwelt" and "umwelt."
An explanation of both the faculty and student
dissatisfaction with the existential theory, as taught in
the Department of Counseling, can be attributed to this
emphasis upon the "mitwelt" at the expense of the
"eigenwelt" and "umwelt." It is possible the Department
of Counseling wants their orientation to be such, and the
time restrictions in practicum classes prevents focus on
the other "welts" but another avenue of explanation is
206
more probable. The faculty members familiar with the
importance and practical application of these concepts in
existential therapy haven’t asserted the necessity of
incorporating classes explicating these concepts success
fully to the rest of the staff. The faculty members
dissatisfied with the "narrowness," as one instructor
stated, of existential theory might feel differently with
a expansion of training focus beyond the "mitwelt."
Int; So it [existentialism] wasn’t getting across to
those deeper issues, and the psychoanalytic has
begun to do that?
TRl; Yeah.
Int: What is it that it can do that the existential
stuff didn’t?
TRl: I don’t know, it just gets to the deeper issues,
by not talking about projects and all those
little terms, that I felt that people were
getting hung up on.
Int: Can you clarify what those words meant, when you
say projects and violation and?
TRl: I really can’t. I can’t give you definitions.
Int: What things did those words focus on?
TRl: There, external stuff.
Student dissatisfaction with the Department of
Counseling can also be attributed to the lack of
explication of "eigenwelt" and "umwelt." Twelve of the
twenty four students interviewed turned to object
relations, eclectic, gestalt, developmental, or behav
ior ial theory to understand the psychologies of their
clients. Without the expansion of existential psychology
to these two other "worlds," students continue to feel
they have inadequate explanations of human beings and will
207
continue to find their educations incomplete. Students
who attempt to search for information to complete their
educations will do so in other theoretical frameworks
unless the Department of Counseling expands its
existential emphasis.
In the final analysis, a true existential education
must include all the "welts" for students to be able to do
daseinanalysis. Since the Department of Counseling
doesn’t, it isn’t presumptions to suppose that this
deficiency is the primary cause of student’s search for
further explanations that often results in a change of
philosophical orientation.
Humanism and Existentialism
Two very important issues emerge when investigating
the program’s philosophical framework. First, the program
advertises itself as humanistic and existential, but when
tracing the philosophical history of these two concepts a
very important disparity must be overcome before these
orientations can be compatible. Humanism can be
deterministic while existentialism stands in revolt
against determinism. When the orientation in the
Department of Counseling was framed by the Humanistic-
Existent ial ism proposed by Dr. Ofman, Humanism was an
adjective or modifier to the existential approach, thereby
precluding the disparity. But the presentation in the
208
Department currently doesn’t clearly delineate the
integration of these two theoretical orientations and may
place them in opposition. It is important and necessary
to clarify the relationship and position of these
philosophical concepts, enabling students to better
integrate the theoretical orientation of the Department of
Counseling and crystalize a unified theoretical framework.
Second, while the program advertises itself as
"basically humanistic and strongly existential in flavor"
(Bulletin, 1981-1982) the practical application, emphasis,
and uniqueness of the Department of Counseling is clearly
the existentialism. The milieu is highly personal and
human, but the existential perspective dominates,
delegating humanism to a secondary position. When
describing the actual practices of the program an acronym
could be used "hE," the "h" of humanism is in small case
and the "E" of existentialism capitalized, denoting the
elevation in importance of existential theory over and
against the humanistic orientation. The elevation of
existential theory over humanistic theory also contributes
to the confusion among students when they are integrating
the philosophy as proffered in the program. One very
important implication of this, similar to Barrett’s (1978)
when he reviewed existential theory, is the possible
absence of a moral and ethical framework for the type of
209
existentialism taught in the Department of Counseling.
The decision whether schools are in the business of
educating students about morals will be left to the
reader, but a counseling training program should certainly
teach ethical practices, and if there is a deficiency in
this area it must be taken up by the program.
Group Dynamics
Students are primarily involved in group experiences
throughout their tenure in the Department of Counseling.
The classroom supervision for the practicum courses, the
laboratory experiences, and even the social milieu can be
described as small group activity. With only four
exceptions, students learn about existential counseling
theory and practice in small group situations. The only
times students are actually in one to one situations with
clients are in the two practicum classes, when they are
being observed in their counseling sessions, the intern
placement course, when they are with their clients, the
laboratory portion of EdCo 541 which intermittently
requires short sessions, usually twenty minutes maximum
where students role-play being counselors, and in the
laboratory portion of EdCo 500 where they may be a client
for another student.
In addition to the repetition of group experiences,
the overall milieu, with its diversity of instructors with
210
differing ideological stances and personal theoretical
investments in the Department of Counseling, presents a
diffuse picture to students. There is no single "set of
rules" or method to accomplish success in the Department
of Counseling, Not even the instructors who describe
themselves with the same philosophical label (e.g.,
existential), use or have the same criteria for
evaluation. Each class, with its particular structure and
requirements demands students to learn different sets of
operating procedures in different situations. Many times
during the course of enrollment students are required to
adapt to new group dynamics. Students become facile in
new group environments simply because of experience.
Unique skills develop when students continue to
grapple with this pattern. Although most instructors
believe the single most powerful element of the program is
the practical and experiential method, the learning by
"watching and doing," each student’s development of
independence and the self-confidence to handle themselves
in new situations may be the most adaptive skills students
take from the program. This results from the need to
adapt to new groups and the mercurial atmosphere.
Int: You learned what?
GRl: To play the fucking game, I think. To play the
game well. I played the game well at S.C. I
don't feel like it’s bullshit. I think it’s
like there’s this, you know, like in a marriage,
there are certain things that, that a person
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will or will not accept, and if you know what
they are and don't have to step over the line
until your on their toes, it helps a lot.
If this is so, it would explain why students from the
program are successful as professionals in the community
despite not having some of the more formal counseling
skills, like testing and diagnosis, and why graduates from
the Department of Counseling also report being
financially successful (See census report in Appendix E).
The class structures obligate students to learn very well
how to handle themselves in confounding, political, and
unfamiliar situations. Thus, the changing group dynamics
and the confusion of the program leads students to become
highly independent thinkers very confident and skilled
when dealing with new situations. The graduates who were
interviewed, without exception, felt self-assured and
highly confident of their own abilities, claiming that
after their tenure in the program, they could handle most
any new situation. This confidence and independence,
coming from their educational experience in the program,
just might be what propels graduates to go after, and then
succeed in other new situations (e.g., professional or
vocational ) .
Varieties of Student Experience: The Program as Parent
There are many roles, faces, and facets to the
Department of Counseling, The diversity of faculty, the
212
importance of groups, and the absence of a single or
clarified theoretical perspective, are just a few of the
many issues noted in the research presented here. When
attempting to bring the many diverse elements into a
single framework, conceptualizing the program in parental
terms helps as a metaphor for understanding. A continuum
accounting for the variety of students* experiences is
presented. When viewing the many interactions any one
student has in his or her tenure in the program, no one
characterization will account for all the individual
experience. The continuum should be used to denote
complexes of behavior and activity thus allowing the
metaphors to succeed, as symbols, when describing the
varieties of student experience. These labels are used to
refer to the myriad of elements influencing students and
their achievement (i.e., all faculty issues, classroom and
instructional variables, student-teacher relations, and
the school climate). The labels account for experiences
which happen in formal (i.e., classes, teacher
appointments) and informal settings (i.e., conversing in
the hallways, at parties).
Incestuous Absentee
Parent Parent
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 4-2 +3 +4 +5
Judgemental Benign Good and
or Critical Parent Supportive
Parent Parent
Placement of the labels along the continuum is
213
somewhat arbitrary although the numercial categories are
used to imply intensity or degree of impact upon students.
The range of positive numbers, between zero and five,
reresents the kind, accepting, supportive, and nurturing
type parent. These were typically growth oriented
experiences for students and would include all the overtly
"good" traits any parent (e.g., instructor, role model)
would have plus some of the traits tied to student
achievement (i.e., teacher's maintaining high positive
expectations for students [Brophy & Good, 1970; Good &
Brophy, 1977, 1978], strong teacher efficacy [Brophy &
Evertson, 1976; McLaughlin & March, 1978], good classroom
management [Kounin, 1970]; and, creating the appropriate
student to student relationships whether competitive,
cooperative, or individualistic [Johnson et al., 1981]).
There is no delineation of the characteristic labels
along the positive range of the continuum. During the
interviews with students, they didn’t discriminate
varieties of positive experiences. This is probably
because when students had their positive expectations met,
no incident of note was registered. But the more negative
interactions were distractive so students remembered these
experiences as critical or powerful; thus, being more
motivated and able to clarify them. A student described
this very well when s/he said:
214
AB5; It must be hard to get at what it is that works,
when what focuses your attention is what doesn’t
work.
The polar opposite of the the negative characterizations
(e.g., present for absentee, accepting for judgemental or
critical, and nonviolating for incestuous) probably are
the labels, with the correlated positive attributes, to be
posited along the positive range of the continuum.
There are two important factors contributing to
experiences associated with the negative side of the
continuum. The first is due to the inequality of roles
because teachers, teaching assistants, and students are
not in relationships of parity. If nothing else, the
power inherent in the administration of grades often poses
a threat to students and creates the potential for
violation by teachers. Second is the degree of perceived
violation by students. The more a student felt violated
or brutalized the more negative they described their
experiences. A cautionary note must be acknowledged
because the perceived violation can be real or imagined.
Some students may have used the perceived violation as a
defense against facing personal liabilities, while other
student descriptions may in fact reflect true violations.
The reliability of student reports has been put aside
because the research effort was to attempt to accurately
describe the experiences of students. Discerning the
215
degree and amount of violation of students, or degree or
nature of student distortion must be left to further
research.
At zero on the continuum is the benign parent. This
label is used to reflect the many kind, gentle or mild
experiences. Ninety percent of the students talked about
different facets of the program as being "just okay," or
simply not mentioning them in the interviews (e.g., they
may not have had interactions with some instructor or
didn’t take a particular class).
Int: So your experience was exactly the oppposite of
your past experience.
AB4: Yeah [s/he] was rather benign, but useless it
felt like, incompetent.......I felt it was much
more, you would learn your lessons, in this hard
knock responsibility, kind of like a parent
teaching a lesson. Versus a parent who provides
a fertile bed of respect for this child growing
up so they can explore themselves.
At approximately negative two on the continuum is the
absentee parent. This label accounts for the experiences
which occur to the student when they are let down or
dissappointed (i.e., when expectations are not met,
faculty members don’t attend classes or they cancel
appointments). One byproduct of the absentee experience
may be positive for students. In their schooling it
becomes necessary for them to develop independent action
and direction to surivive this kind of educational
experience. But generally, these experiences are seen
216
negatively by students. Fifty percent of the students
interviewed view instructors as being aloof or truant,
finding them as defaulting their responsibilities. Sixty
percent of the interviewed students view other students as
letting them down or deserting them, and twenty percent
see the philosophy and their education as vacuous.
GR2: I mean, I was absolutely appalled at how little
I learned, and that, that was going to be the
only class in [that area]. And, I felt that
most of the people coming out of that class were
going to do what they did in [the class], at
some point in their career. And problably they
would get no more training than they got there,
about [the subject area]. And I was, I was
really appalled. Um, and I had felt like I had
learned more in my undergraduate classes than I
had in that one. And I think, that started me,
in terras of feeling like, I wanted to learn
something, and no one was willing to teach.
That, there was a sense of, "You’re bright, you
can read, here are the books, and go to it," and
I really resented that. I felt there should
have been more, um, because there was a lot in
the books but, hopefully somebody is teaching
that class that also had a whole richness of
experience and other material they could bring,
stuff like that, that I felt I never got. And,
probably because I knew more about that subject
it was most apparent to me there, because when I
didn’t know something, everything was new, so I
felt I got more. And I don’t think it was I
just should have been in the advanced class, I
think I should have gotten more there, too. And
felt like people who didn’t come in knowing
about [the subject] got nothing, in terms of
anything they could really use,
GR3: They didn’t try to help facilitate where I was,
or help me understand more where I was. They
were really coming from a place where they were
trying to change me, or deny it. So there was a
lot of rhetoric about giving me freedom, or
supporting me, but they didn’t try to use their
abilities, you know, to really help me where I
217
was, I remember, one of the big things too was,
it felt like in group, especially at times that,
so, I felt so much was left up to you to guess.
Judgemental or critical parent is at approximately
minus three on the continuum. These are experiences in
which the student feels at fault or blamed. Often
students in this position feel their personalities are
being disparaged or vilified, that others disapprove or
dislike them, and the actions others are taking is
aggressive, violating and unwarranted. Usually, students
rationalize these feelings by describing the other people
as arrogant or snobbish, attempting to maintain a sense of
security and balance to their self-esteem by finding
support from their peers, enrolling in different classes,
or avoiding particular instructors. Students who view the
program in this way, and don’t find a peer group within
the school setting, often proceed through the program
staying isolated and withdrawn.
AB4: I didn’t feel any true mutuality, and that’s
what HE is about. Um, I felt like it was a
parent saying, ’’Hey kid wake up, this is the
real world take responsibility, kind of like in
Sybil, when her mom trips her down the stairs
and says, ’’You can’t trust anybody," something
like that. Kind of like that hard knock, kind
of, that was how I felt they were over there in
some ways. That was what stood out.
The final descriptive label, incestuous parent, placed
at minus five on the continuum, is used to denote the most
insidious and violating experiences students have. The
218
formal definition of incest, sexual relations between
persons so closely related that marriage is illegal, only
symbolizes the use of this term in this research. Here,
incestuous relationships are those in which interde
pendency is primary, and when one participant, usually the
one in the more powerful position, violates the trust and
nature of the relationship for their own gains. This
would account for teacher to student, teacher to teaching
assistant, and teaching assistant to student relation
ships, as well as any other relationship in which there is
an inequality of power, role, or station. Sixteen of
twenty four of the students, and all of the transfer
students, described these experiences, or instances of
incestuousness, when other participants had taken
advantage of them, using terms reflecting brutality and
savagery. These students felt they would have diffficulty
trusting others when in similar relationships, and they
felt they had been traumatized by the degree of violence
perpetrated in these kinds of situations. Although the
term incestuous was not chosen by accident, sexual
violations in which students felt vicitimized were
described, the depth of violation reflected in nonsexual
experiences was considered as equally traumatic by those
who described them.
AB2: I don’t know if everywhere you go the incestuous
consists at a theoretical level. I think a lot
219
of other departments have, people in the
business school sleep with other teachers, and
have other fights, and have other things. But I
don’t sense that marketing and accounting, on a
philosophical basis are going to town. It
seemed in our department it seemed like, you got
an existential rating, someone might of had
behavioral leanings, thats what you thought
about. Not only who you slept with but it was
like, would the behaviorist sleep with the
existentialist, that was like, not heard of.
You couldn’t do that, you were sort of judged
according to your, your philosphical bent.
GRl: I managed to escape. You know, because, there’s
where I played the game. I acted flattered by
it, um, I know I ’m angry at myself that I didn’t
stand up to [her/him]. When [s/he] needed help
I did [her/his] wash for [her/him], I took care
of [her/him], you know, that kind of stuff. I
didn’t want to, I hated [her/him] at that time.
I hated [her/him] for putting me in that
position with [her/him], but it wasn’t a choice,
I had to do it because I was the student and
[s/he] was the professor.
To summarize this proposition, the varieties of
student experience are envisioned within a parental
framework. The range of experience varied depending upon
the degree of perceived violation, giving experiences a
negative valence, or upon the degree of supportive or
growth oriented interactions, giving a positive valence to
student experiences. Some of the students interviewed
described their tenure in the Department of Counseling as
entailing a variety of experiences, but many have a single
central perspective which is conceptualized by the
characteristic labels used here. The etiology and
consequential effects of these findings were not revealed
220
in this research, but clarifying these implications in
further research would be of import and value. The
following student conceptualized the parental perspective
of the program, with some insight about those students who
simply want to be given knowledge, and the second student
describes the inequality.
PQ5: Yeah, and I think that the idea is not, if you
take it from that metaphoric therapeutic
situation, that the issue isn’t really that, I
mean, I don’t find myself wanting the good mommy
or the good daddy, it’s like I want the real
parent. That means that there is a weaning
process, and all that goes on too. It’s not
like, I don’t think we’re just asking for a tit,
because I do experience that in students, just
saying please, you know, just feed the line from
your nipple to our mouths and let it go to our
brain, this information, which I just think is
totally absurd. On the other hand, what we’re
not getting from the program as a parent is,
’’tell me what you think, and I’m really going to
encourage you to think.’’
AB2; They talk about vulnerability but you don’t see
any. And they talk about exposure but you don’t
see any, in them, teachers and T.A.’s. The only
people who are vulnerable are the students, and
a lot of times they get crushed, with that
vulnerability. That’s why they don’t take risks
in the first place.
Int: What do you mean by risks?
AB2: A lot of times in classes they will ask, in
critique or whatever, ’’well, tell me what you
saw,’’ or, ’’what did you think was going on in
the session.’’ After you see a little dyad or
whatever. And they tell you, ’’feel free to say
what you have to say.’’ But you don’t feel like
what you have to say will be accepted, it will
be criticized, and not only what you have to say
will be criticized, but it will be turned on you
in such a way that your vulnerabilities are
exposed. All right, when you’re a question in
class, I think it should be your option about
how vulnerable you want to be, and how much
221
exposed you want to be. And I think in the
department sometimes, teachers or T.A.’s try to
get at your vulnerabilities for teaching
purposes, for self esteem, for exposure, or for
whatever purpose, I don’t know. What they do is
they cut below one step, they see the
vulnerability and they expose it instead of
helping or allowing you the freedom to expose it
yourself.
Sexuality
Obviously in the department, the issue of sexuality
impacts students. This issue crosses boundaries to
pervade and influence many of the activities of student
matriculation. Glaser and Thorpe (1986) discuss the
evaluation of sexual intimacy as becoming more negative
over time. They propose that some of these sexual
contacts may be tolerated when the contact is with
consenting adults, but they warn about the differences
between naive and gonadal (erotic) versus informed and
cortical (rational) consent. This researcher would argue
two points against tolerating any sexual contact between
students and educators. The inequality of role and
position of the teacher places pressure upon the student
making the likelihood of a true "cortical" consent
difficult, if not impossible. Secondly, as Glaser and
Thorpe (1986) aver, the dual relationships may "easily be
resolved simply by the educator’s quitting the educator’s
role" (p. 49). Within the Department of Counseling the
multifaceted roles required for an instructor makes
222
avoiding some dual relationships almost impossible.
Instructors are usually in all three professional roles
(teacher, academic-research advisers, and clinical
supervisors) some at the same time. The implications of
sexuality on the varieties of student experience must be
left to further research, but the importance of these
issues in training and for the maturation and development
of students requires prompt clarification. To best
explicate and overview the influence sexuality has on the
varieties of student experience, two extended dialogues
with students are presented.
AB3: We haven’t touched on the sexuality of the
department, which was a major issue I think,
critically for some people. When I was in, it
was a much more sexual department than it is
now. It almost seems asexual now. Um, almost
reactionary, in some of those, last year [1984]
I think we were ethically reactionary. Um, it
seems to be cooling out a little bit, but when I
came it was ethically wide open. Um, which is
very exciting, but also very dangerous,
unfortunately danger won so we had to become
reactionary, or did become reactionary. That it
was much, there was sex in the air. You know,
some of it acted on, some of it not acted on,
but it was, it was, there was a lot more sexual
energy, and part of that was passion mixed in.
It was a much more passionate department also,
much more passionate. And that’s not there, and
that was exciting and valuable, because it gave
you some reason to go through all that shit.
You know, it’s almost like, um, if you can at
least structure your life, it’s almost a
Reichian, it’s almost Reichian in some ways. So
you’re going to restructure your life, you
restructure it from primal basis, and, that was
real apparent to me, that that seemed real
present to me, I fell in love a lot.
Int: Appropriately or inappropriately present?
223
AB3: Both, both. Unfortunately it um, boundaries
were crossed that shouldn't have been crossed.
It takes a great deal of. I ’m not sure what it
takes a great deal of. It takes a great deal of
something, in order to be able to stay at that
level without crossing over. And no one quite
knew where the boundary was between being
aggressively intimate and honest, and going too
far, and it went too far often.
Int: Are you talking about between students or
between instructors?
AB3: No this means instructors.
Int: Does that include T.A.’s?
AB3: Somewhat, it can and it can’t. It’s aaa, it’s a
power issue, it’s that there was no appreciation
that there is an inevitable power differential
between a student and a teacher. And no matter
what, that’s going to be present, and it can’t
be transcended in the context of the department.
As long as the student is in the department
there is an inequality, as long as that
inequality is available, is present, it’s
active. Sex is inappropriate, direct sex,
acting out sex is inappropriate.
Int: Between student and teacher?
AB3: Between students it doesn’t matter, no, it’s
only a power difference, and that’s where with
the T.A.’s it can or can’t be, because some
T.A.’s are powerful and some aren’t. Because a
T .A . can be just another student in the class or
a T.A. can be a powerful person. And if they
are a powerful person and there can’t help but
then be an inequality, and inequality is
inappropriate. It’s child abuse. And there was
child abuse that happened, and it’s too bad
because that’s what happens when you press the
edges, and the department pressed the edges.
And good things came out of that , and
exploitation, and I don’t think it happens any
more. Unfortunately, a lot of the passion has
been given up in that reactionary phase. We'll
have to see if the department can regain it’s
passion, with clear boundaries, with more
appropriate boundaries.
AB5: The major difficulty of having the sexuality
issues come up is that, it’s not as though it’s
not real life. It’s when it’s becomes part of
the structure where it can be used against you.
And it is to some extent, and my experience was
224
that it did enter in later, places and times,
with that person, And um, after I made ray
decision clear, it still came up, and so, and
later, a year later, I was accused by that
person of not having dealt with it. And aaa, I
had a lot of difficulty with that person in [a
class]. Which was in some ways connected to
that, I can't say it was all. And then when the
difficulties in [a class] came out, I was
privately accused of never having dealt with
that. And my response was that I had dealt with
it, I had just come up with the wrong answer, I
left that course getting through it, but feeling
like um, [s/he] may not have fucked me the way
[s/he] intended, but [s/he] did find a way. And
aaa, and the fact that it was all very much
thrown on me. And as though it should have been
okay, and I should have just let it, it should
have just rolled off my back. And, that that is
a person who is in a position to teach practicum
and yet doesn’t, has very little to no sense of
how [he/she] participates in any of it, or will
not have any sense, will not have any sense with
you.
Int: Is the mood pervasive, is that, is that dynamic
pervasive throughout the program?
AB5: I don’t, you know what there is? I don’t even
know if it’s entirely a sexuality issue, except
maybe that’s a manifestation of it. There is a
narcissism issue that's pervasive in that
department, maybe it's pervasive in therapists.
Int: What do you mean?
AB5: I mean, in terms of, students start looking like
instruments for professors, only it, um what
would that be, you know there are some people I
would absolutely leave out of that, so I don't,
not, not only a few.
Int; You said it’s a narcissism issue, what do you
mean
7
AB5: I mean in terms of, "the other" becomes an
instrument, for some kind of self satisfaction.
Maybe that's not how it’s listed in the DSM-III,
but that’s what it means for me. Um, it's that
there is always aaa, anything that goes on there
is a back, a self reference, you know, "How does
this glorify me, how does this give me power,
how does this give me what I want. Like I said,
it’s not an issue of people not having desires
and needs, and that it's not that it’s real
life. It’s the way it’s handled. It’s the way
225
it's handled afterward, too.
Int; What do you mean, give me an example of both.
AB5; Um, I have had this happen in other places too,
and I've had it handled very differently. In
one of my placements um, I had, I was accused at
a certain point of being too sexual. And when
push came to shove, and I confronted, and said,
"This has something to do with the two of us,"
my supervisor and I, everything came clean, that
it was both. It wasn't just me, there was
attraction there, it was actually dealt with, I
didn't feel like there was a shared denial that,
or a power being used to imply I was the one who
hadn't handled it right, because I think things
like that come up. And I didn't walk out of
that, took me a lot of nerve to get up, it took
a lot for me to get up enough nerve to confront
it. Um, I wasn't happy about, about having to
be the one having to do that. Um, but I felt
that things came pretty clean, and that, that
was also a position I felt like I could be
solid, and I could be um, honest, I didn't have
to much lose there. There is something about it
being an academic setting with people who are
going to evaluate you, in interviews, are going
to grade you in practicurns, or are going to
either keep you going through this program or
throw some stumbling blocks in your way. Um, it
does effect how much um, straight forwardness
you go in there with, because it feels sheer
folly to just walk in and say, "You're being
totally fucked up about this, and how dare you,
and how could you." Or to even threaten a
sexual harassment charge, you know, to be in the
middle of that. And I know there is a lot of
feeling, you should just go ahead and do it,
well, I think that's a lot easier said than
done, because it has a lot of ramifications, and
it comes at a time when there is enough stress
anyway.
Int: It seems like the issue's tied to power, and the
misuse of power.
AB5: It's a narcissism. I mean that's what it is for
me, as far as I'm concerned.
Int; And also an issue of boundaries, that your
boundaries and their boundaries someow get
confused.
AB5; It's the unidirectionality of the boundaries
that becomes a problem. People are going to
cross each other's boundaries all the time, it's
226
what's done with that,
Int: And what seems to be done with that?
AB5: There seems to be an implication that I’m
allowed to cross yours, you're not allowed to
cross mine.
Int: And when you say that you mean that teachers are
allowed to cross students boundaries, but not
the other way around?
AB5: Right.
Int: And so when it comes to grading, "I’m going to
keep the ball in my court," but when it comes to
this stuff "I'm going to get my way,"
AB5; And it becomes a cheap kind of existentialism.
Like I can tell you what I think about you, and
it's your problem, and it's the way you walk
around in the world, and aa, it becomes a kind
of an abused form of existentialism, where
responsibility and choice and freedom get thrown
in your lap. As though you live in a, as though
you live in a vaccuura. As though the "other"
has not participated in that.
Recommendations for Further Study
Qualitative and ethnographic research aims at
grounding research in the data, developing and analyzing
the "natives" and the observed information so that
formulations can take the reader into the setting. This
kind of research is the first step in the development of
ideas which have validity and reliability gained from both
qualitative and quantitiative means. Reporting data
supported from both sources lends a great depth and
meaning to results. To give the research presented here
this kind of depth, almost all the data should be
investigated using quantitative methods. This is not to
imply nothing was revealed by doing this research, rather
the material presented here seems to describe and
227
acknowledge the variables and issues of importance,
leaving to the next step elucidation of the etiology,
hypothethical verification, consequential implications,
making judgements, and assigning value to what has been
analyzed.
Two particular areas are discussed, reflecting
possible long term implications for students involved with
the program. These areas have distinct importance when
inferring to post graduate professional behavior.
Self-Confidence or Narcissism?
In the section on group dynamics, the development of
self-confidence was traced, primarily being caused by the
continuous changes of class requirements and learning to
deal with new groups. A difficulty and confounding factor
occurred when interviewing some of the students and
graduates. It was difficult to discriminate between
students who were self-confident and others who might be
described as narcissitic.
Narcissism is where there is "a grandiose sense of
self-importance or uniqueness; preoccupation with
fantasies of unlimited success; exhibitionistic need for
constant attention and admiration; characteristic
responses to threats to self-esteem; and charateristic
disturbances in interpersonal relationships, such as
feelings of entitlement, interpersonal exploitativeness.
228
relationships that alternate between the extremes of
overidealization and devaluation, and lack of empathy"
(American Psychiatric Association, 1980, p. 315). If a
graduate of the Department of Counseling, because of
enrollment, becomes narcissistic, a reorientation of
training would clearly be indicated. By no means is it
proper to diagnose pathology through interviews of the
nature used in this research, nor is the information
presented in this section, implicitly or explicitly,
at tempting to suggest graduates were observed as
narcissistic personality types. The possibility that what
students are learning is presumed here as self-confidence,
but clarification whether it is truly self-confidence or
narcissism needs final explication. One student talked
about the pitfall of self importance which students must
go through to overcome narcissism:
S18; I saw that respect for myself doesn’t come from
realizing how wonderful I am, it comes from not
thinking about whether I ’m wonderful or not.
And I think I had to go through that period of
thinking I was wonderful and legitimate and
everything, to even go into not giving it a
thought, too much, one way or another.
Boundary Confusion
Many of the program participants, faculty and students
alike, form strong, valuable, and lasting personal and
social relationships in the Department of Counseling. The
experiential class format, the multiple roles staff and
229
students take, and the highly personal nature of the
educational material demands intimacy from students. This
nature and format of the program increases the potential
for conflicts among participants, and almost without
exception, the students interviewed recollected situations
in which conflicts and violations of boundaries with their
inherent and potential violations occurred. As a standard
from which students learn about the proper and ethical
roles for counselors, the program becomes an example of
what occurs when boundaries are distorted and clouded.
There are no clear or absolute roles, and the long-term
effects this boundary confusion has on students takes on
particular significance if these effects continue when
graduates become counselors. Clarity about whether there
is indeed a correlation between the roles observed in the
program and those taken on by counselors who have
graduated from the program could help contribute to the
much needed literature on proper ethical conduct of
counselors.
S20: Even the whole concept of existentialism, and
um, where the equal relationship, um, between
professor/student, between therapist and client,
um, I think looking at it from where I am right
now, um, the kind of intimacy, that is
permitted, it led me into difficulty later with
clients, also, because um, I ’ve learned that
those boundaries have a real purpose. That they
need to be there.
Int: What boundaries in particular, give me an
example ?
S20: An example would be, um, with a client and a
230
therapist. I would no longer go out with to
lunch, or go out to dinner with a client, or in
any way attempt to maintain a friendship with a
person while I'm seeing them. But I think that
whole program gave you the illusion that you
could. In the end, I think I learned the hard
way. I think I hurt a client, and I hurt myself
very badly. Um, maybe even two that I can think
of, and, it's funny, now as a teacher I stress
the importance of those boundaries, I think they
are there for a very good reason. And I think
they should.have been there as, you know, the
professor/student, which is just one more
example of where they were abused. And I guess
I resent the fact that I, I wasn't prepared for
going out in the real world. Um, I felt that
was a failure in terms of the program.
Int: And, how were you not prepared?
S20: I thought that I could continue to be a
therapist, and maintain a friendship with a
client.
There are positive (inverse) results of this confusion
as well. The students must matriculate through the
program, which can be seen as a maze of confusion and a
place of diffuse rules and roles. Students who attempt to
successfully navigate this environment, and then do so,
have to acquire some very positive skills and attributes.
They become surviviors, and as the following student
mentions, these skills help the individual student, with
clients, and as a therapist.
Int
GR3
Int
GR3
Are you a good therapist?
Yeah .
Why, given the nature of your opinion ?
Well, in some ways it probably prepared me to
have a better sense of what my patients go
through in their, if it was their families that
were screwed up, it was their marriage
relationships, whatever. The kind of pain and
craziness that they're facing in their real
lives is a lot of what I had to go through there
231
at U.S.C. And so, it gives me an ability to
empathize with them. I think it helps me, it's
funny, S.C. said there are no absolutes, but
there were absolutes. The problem was each
professor had their own absolutes, they were
saying they had none, but they had them, and you
had to figure out what they were. And so, to me
that, what a powerful place to learn to find out
where is sanity, and where is craziness, and
affirm my own sanity, in a craziness. And then
when people come to me, helping them to figure
out where sanity is, where they're right on, and
where they are not.
Summary
An extensive review of literature detailing the
historical development of existential psychology and
psychotherapy, the components of existential education,
and graduate training, a qualititative and ethnographic
investigation of a humanistic and existential!y oriented
graduate training program began. Initially, the re
searcher began participant observation in four of the
central theoretical and practical classes in the program.
Field notes, first collected and then organized, forms the
basis for a structured but open-ended interview schedule.
Data from the open-ended interviews is described, analyzed
and interpreted using Michael Quinn Patton's (1980)
definitions of description, analysis, and interpretation,
to organize the process.
The descriptive portion of this research elucidates
the activities of the program. The actual theoretical
orientation of the Department of Counseling centers on a
232
group of core classes which ascend in sophistication and
difficulty. The educational style and method of these
classes reveals a very practical, highly structured and
existentially oriented training. The actual practice of
psychotherapy is taught to students through the tripartite
model of; learning by dydactic integration; learning by
observing models of the existential orientation; and
finally, the proven integration of these ideas through the
demonstration of psychotherapeutic skill by participation
within observed and supervised counseling sessions.
The theory of student matriculation is proffered to
explicate the changes students go through when integrating
existential information. The theory is described in four
phases. The first phase is fear and within this phase two
issues arise. A situational confrontation requires
students to reconcile issues they have with the practical
and methodological parameters of the Department, and a
personal confrontation demanding the personal inolvement
of students. Phase two, power, is the consequence
students face when asserting and presenting themselves.
The second phase gives students a sense of integrity that
prompts the reformulation of relationships. The third
phase is loneliness and occurs as students start to commit
to their beliefs. The issue of personal identity emerges
from concerns about acting separately and independently
233
from the Department, The final phase is death,
representing students terminating their attachment to the
Department of Counseling. Inherent in the fourth phase is
the issue of professional identity, the concern of
students as they present themselves as professional in the
world* The process is described as consisting of four
phases in which a series of issues emerge that students
need to reconcile as they progress.
The final chapter of this research interprets and
makes conclusions about the data. The limitations of the
philosophical orientation, as taught within the program is
detailed, which specifies the theoretical conflicts in
students caused by a lack of clarity in the philosophic
material presented to them. Issues of violation and
abuse, whether real or imagined, are described by students
in areas where violations in evaluation or role boundaries
occur. Finally, a continuum of the varieties of student
experience is presented. The continuum formulates the
program as a parent, and describes the possible
relationships, whether with people or activities, and
delineates a range of negative and positive interactions
dependent upon the degree of violation or support students
receive. The categorical labels are; good and supportive
parents, benign parents, absentee parents, critical or
judgemental parents, and incestuous parents.
234
This research is best identified as the very first
step in attempting to formulate a grounded theory of
existential education. When reviewing the literature on
existential education some propose theoretical recom
mendations, but very little research has actually
investigated the actual activities and effects of
existential education. If this research is used to verify
the etiology, consequences, or correlations of the
variables noted here without further supportive research
it will have failed. The attempt is to delineate,
elucidate, and present the qualitative analysis and
description of the University of Southern California
Department of Counseling. The possible foundation of
ideas, which range from the delineation of an existential
learning theory to the long-term personality changes
occurring to people who integrate existential ideas
hopefully has just been initiated.
235
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Alexander, F. (1961), The scope of psychoanalysis: 1921-
1961. New York; Basic Books.
American Psychological Association, Committee on Training
in Clinical Psychology (1947). Recommended training
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APPENDIX A
OPEN ENDED INTERVIEW FORMS
#1. Student interview form
#2. Faculty interview form
250
Appendix A # 1
Student Interview Outline
Introduction
1. Explain purpose and nature of the study.
Explain how they were chosen.
Explain and assure anonymity.
2. Clarify the interview process.
No right or wrong answers.
License to ask questions or offer suggestions
3. Explain my investments and interests in the study
4. Request permission to record.
Fact Sheet (Students)
1, Name.
2, Number of Interview.
3, Date .
4, Place of Interview,
5, Sex.
6, Age,
7, Level in the Program,
8, Race or Ethnicity,
9, Occupation or Present Position.
10, Religious Affiliation.
11, Place of Residence.
12, Therapy:
When did you first begin therapy?
How much total therapy have you had?
Are you presently in therapy?
13, Experience as a therapist or counselor.
Total experience as a therapist now?
At the time of enrollment?
When was the first time you were a therapist?
14, What modality do you use, or label you would give
yourself ?
15, Do you have any questions of me?
251
Appendix A # 1
Student Interview Outline
Historical
1. I ’d like to get a sense of what it was like for you as
a student at USC. Try to give me, in your own
words, a sense of what it was like as you first
started the program. Tell me what happened to you
of importance along the way, include any critical
events or changes that occured in your life, and
whatever else you think might be of interest.
Prompt s
What’s it like to be a student at USC?
What have you learned along the way?
What was the relationship of staff/students,
staff/staff, and students/students?
What were the teachers like? As role models?
Why did you choose the program?
What do you do now that you didn’t do before
starting the program?
2. What was the most salient part of the program?
Prompts
Describe the features that most attracted you
and/or made you want to avoid the program.
What were the critical classes you like and
disliked?
3. What impact did the program have on your life?
Prompts
Social- Who and what ? (relatives, friends, gender,
acquaintances)
Personal- Who are your peers? What kinds of
relationships are these?
Vocational- Do these include school peers?
4. What part do relationships with the people in the
program play in your life?
Prompts
Inside the program?
Outside the program?
How do students and teachers relate?
252
Appendix A # 1
5. Describe the learning process as you’ve been taught it
at USC.
Prompts
What was the role of the student?
What was the nature of the learning relationship?
(faculty, student)
What changes have occurred to you because of your
education in the program?
What did you need to learn at USC?
What was the role of the teacher?
Present
1. What is your present work status?
Prompt s
Describe what your schedule and normal work
activities is like.
What style of treatment do you use? (The modality)
What portion of this is accounted for by your
experience in the program?
Did the program prepare you for your present work?
2. What changes or recommendations would you make now if
you could change your education at USC?
Prompts
Include anything to do with staff, classes,
educational focus, students, and style of
education.
Future
1. What are your plans for the future, include any goals
or objectives that you have for yourself?
Prompts
Ambitions or aspirations?
253
Appendix A # 2
Faculty Interview Outline
1. Explain purpose and nature of the study.
Explain how they were chosen.
Explain and assure anonymity.
2. Clarify the interview process.
No right or wrong answers.
License to ask questions or offer suggestions
3. Explain my investments arid interests in the study
4. Request permission to record.
Fact Sheet (Faculty)
1. Name.
2. Number of Interview.
3. Date.
4. Place of Interview.
5. Sex.
6. Age.
7. Level or Function in the Program.
8. Race or Ethnicity.
9. Mailing Address.
10. Religious Affiliation.
11. Place of Residence.
12. Work experience:
Vocational ?
Educational ?
Personal?
14. What label you would give yourself?
As an educator?
As a psychologist?
Mode or orientation?
What licenses do you possess?
15. Do you have any questions of me?
254
Appendix A # 2
Historical
1. I ’d like to get a sense of what it is like for you to
be a teacher here at USC. Specifically as a teacher in
this department. Try to give me a sense of what it was
like as you first started working here, and describe what
has happened to you along the way. Include any critical
events or changes that occurred and whatever else you
think would be of interest or importance. It might be
easier to start with how you first heard of this program
and why you wnated to teach here.
Prompts
What attracted you?
What had you heard about the people here?
What were your first impressions'^
Present
Programmatic Issues
1. What are your areas of specialization?
Prompt s
What classes do you each?
What is your philosophical orientation?
2. What is your present schedule like, and please
describe your main work activities?
Prompts
What is your role as a teacher?
To what extent does your title reflect your
activities ?
How do you measure your own success at USC?
3. How would you describe this program, include all the
elements you believe are important?
Prompts
What are some of the major problems?
What are the salient and valuable parts ?
Do you find this program effective? If so, to
what end?
What plans (goals and objectives) do you see for
this program in the future?
255
Appendix A # 2
4. What is the process of education in this department?
Prompts
When do you find that this process best occurs?
What are the elements of this process?
What areas does the program focus on in developing
and helping students?
How do you know when students are integrating the
information taught in the department?
5. What courses are valuable or critical? Why and how?
Prompts
What is the value of practicum? Please describe
it.
What is the difference between this program and
others you have been involved in or are
aware of?
Student Issues
1. Describe what kind of student comas here.
Prompts
What kind stay?
What kind leave?
What kind does well here?
What are the overall strengths and weaknesses of
the students here?
2. Describe the pattern or process that students go
through as they matriculate through the program.
Prompts
Describe the characteristics they gain, lose, or
change when they are enrolled?
What skills do they acquire while enrolled ?
What are the critical elements in student changes?
What does achievement and instruction revolve
around at USC?
3. What are the critical points of the program?
Prompts
What makes a student stay or leave?
What kinds of skill acquisition do you find
students are rewarded for?
256
Appendix A # 2
What attributes do you find is helpful for
students to have who wnat to succeed at
use?
4, How do students reflect mastery given that practicum
is evaluated so subjectively?
Future
1. What do you see happening to this program in the
future ?
Prompts
What goals and objectives do you have for the
program?
257
APPENDIX B
PROGRAM INFORMATION
#1. Intentions
#2. General Information
258
Appendix B # 1
APPENDIX B
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING
INTENTIONS
"You wanted a real life. And that’s an
expensive thing; it costs.”
Arthur Miller
We believe that the most important variables in helping and human
relations are the awareness, integrity, sensitivity, openness,
and authenticity of the helper. These demonstrate themselves as
the freedom to experience one’s feeling; awareness of the games
and maneuvers one uses with the payoff of distance, duplicity and
manipulation; and the ability to be open and transparent,
facilitate the healing partnership that is the therapeutie event
{in counseling.
bur program represents an attempt to create conditions wherein
the student can have the opportunity to experience and explore
himself, to actualize those tendencies which will in turn help
others. But we can only provide the opportunity. (To this end a
series of laboratory, practicum and fieldwork experiences have
been organized). The responsibility for making use of the
opportunity remains with the student. The student’s willingness
and openness to self-encounter, self-evaluation, and feedback
{from the staff and fellow students are essential; the student
must bring to the program a great deal of courage, openness to
{experience, ability to tolerate ambiguity, and a personal
'committment to becoming all that he can become.
iWe hold that, just as a teacher of teachers needed to have been a
jstudent and a teacher himself, so a counselor needs to have
'experienced being a counselee. We believe counseling to be an
intensely human interaction wherein one person, by his empathy
and understanding, by his responsiveness to the other,creates the
'ground upon which the helpee can come into reality, authenticity,
jand responsibility. The development of those facilitative
characteristics and an understanding of the nature of the process
grow out of the experience of such interactions. The helper must
have experienced the process himself. He must have been a
counselee.
As a faculty, we believe the process of becoming a counselor, of
[becoming a person, to be on-going. We continue to struggle with
pur own humanness, to search for renewal, to experience the
anguish of fear, the temptation to hide. We hope to share with
you our struggles. Together, hopefully, we may grow.
259
Appendix B # 2
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING
GENERAL INFORMATION
The Department of Counseling provides programs leading to the
Master of Science degree and to either the Doctor of Education or
the Doctor of Philosophy degrees with a specialization in
counseling. The student body consists of individuals preparing
for such careers as secondary school or college counselors,
vocational rehabilitation counselors, college student personnel
workers, counselors in public or private agencies, marriage,
family and child counselors, or counseling psychologists.
Applications for admission are accepted throughout the year, and
students may begin coursework at the beginning of any semester
following their admission to the graduate program.
The orientation of the department is generally humanistic,
experiential, and existential in nature, although the staff
members differ among themselves within this broad framework. The
program is designed to encourage in each student the development
of a personal style of counseling which is congruent with his
personality and philosophic orientation (see Intentions).
The primary objective of the master’s program is the development
of an effective counselor, i.e., an individual who demonstrates
facilitative interpersonal and therapeutic behaviors. To that
end the program consists of a selected body of knowledge and
theory, integrated with a sequence of supervised interpersonal
experiences which culminate in a counseling practicum and a field
work experience (see Laboratory— Practicum— Field Work Exper
iences ) .
Individuals wishing to pursue the doctoral program must
demonstrate possession of the background knowledge and skills
required of master's degree candidates. Beyond that, the
doctoral programs have as their objectives : 1) greater
effectiveness in general therapeutic and specific counseling
practice, as well as in the supervision of others; 2) a thorough
theoretical grounding in the traditional areas of counseling
psychology (including psycholmetrics and vocational theory), as
well as knowledge of emerging trends; and 3) research
competencies of a high order, ultimately demonstrated through the
independent preparation of a doctoral dissertation.
260
APPENDIX C
STUDENT ADVISEMENT NOTES
#1. Master’s Degree Advisement Notes
#2. Doctoral Program Advisement Notes
#3. The Preliminary Review Process
#4. Preliminary Review Worksheet
#5. Departmental Notes on the Qualifying Examination
#6. Supplementary Fields
261
Appendix C # 1
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
MASTER'S DEGREE ADVISEMEiNT NOTES
The Department of Counseling and Special Education’s Counseling
Psychology Program has as its goal the preparation of persons choosing
to enter the applied psychological professions which are concerned with
helping persons in their relationships with themsleves and with others.
The master’s degree program is primarily practitioner-oriented, and
trains counselors for services in schools, colleges, community mental
health agencies, and private practice. The master’s program may also
serve as a foundation for subsequent doctoral study.
I. ADMISSION TO GRADUATE STANDING
A. Based on the Graudate Record Examination, Aptitude Section (a
minimum combined Verbal and Quantitative score of 850 is required)
and an undergraduate grade point minimum average of 2.75. Please
note that different criteria are used for admission to the doctoral
program,
B. Make application through the USC Admissions Office, with tiie
objective of M.S. in Education. List your intended major as
Counseling. Forms are available in the Admissions Office
(Student Administrative Services Building) as well as in our
Departmental Office (IVaite Phillips Hall 500),
II. PROGRAM OPTIONS
A. Master’s degree work sheets entitled ’’Student’s Program for the
Master of Science in Education," are available from the graduate
degree technician, IVaite Phillips Hall, Room 1103, for students
with graduate standing. The form must be filled in and approved
by an adviser in the Department of Counseling and Special Education,
and a copy filed in WPH 1103 BEFORE THE FIRST 12 UNITS ARE
COMPLETED.
B. A minimum of 36 units is required for the M.S.Ed. in Counseling.
No more than 8 units of acceptable graduate work in other
institutions will be counted for transfer. A minimum of 6
semester units must be taken in at least one semester or summer
term.
C. Several different specialized options are available for a
Master's Degree from the Department of Counseling and Special
Education’s Counseling Psychology Program, depending on the
career objective of the candidate.
Page 1
262
Appendix C # 1
1. All candidates must complete the following required core
sequence in counseling:
2 .
EDCO 500
EDCO 505
EDCO 541
EDCO 54 2
EDCO 544
EDCO 54 8
EDCO 560
EDCO 561
(3)
(23
(4)
(43
(3)
(3)
(33
(33
EDPT 502 (33 -
EDPT 550 (33 -
or
EDPT"651 (3) -
EDCO S90ab(2-2) -
or
EDC(J”594ab(2-2)
The Counseling Process
Seminar: Ethical and Legal Issues in
Counseling
Theories in Counseling Psychology I
Group Counseling: Theory and Process
Measurement Procedures in the Helping
Procès s
Career Development: Theory and Process
Practicum in Counseling
Field Work in Counseling (also see
Option D)
Contemporary Psychology in Education
Education Statistics
Statistical Analysis I
Master's Seminar
- Master's Thesis
33 units
In addition, all candidates must select one of the following
options. Students are required to consult with an option
advisor during the first semester of attendance and prior
to selecting an option.
Option A____Pupil Personnel Services (Advisor: Dr. Walker)
EDPT 502 (3) - Contemporary Psychology in Education
ÊDPA 508 (33 - Sociology of Education
EDCO 539 (3) - Management of School Guidance Systems
9 units
Option B
EDCO 528
PSYC 461
or
GERÜ~522
or
S0CT“6 78
Marriage, Family and Child Counseling
(Advisor: Dr. Carnes)
(4) - Counseling Laboratory in the Helping
Professions (Human Sexuality and Theories
and Perspectives of Marriage, Family 8
Child Counseling)
(4) - Seminar in Abnormal Psychology
(4) - Counseling Older Adults and their Families
(2) - Medical Aspects of Relationship Therapy
6 or 8 units
f For those students intending to pursue a doctoral program, EDPT 651
is the appropriate course.
Page 2
Appendix C # 1
Option C College Counseling (Advisor: Dr. Bloland)
EDCO 563
* EDCO 564
EDCO 565
(3) - Student Personnel Work in College
(3) - Field Work in College Student Personnel
Services
(2) - Intervention Strategies in College
Student Development
Option D
8 units
Genera 1 (Advisor: All Faculty)
III
This option is designed for students whose primary objective
is admission to the doctoral program. Nine units of
electives are required, to be approved by the student's
advisor. Suggested electives include courses which will
satisfy doctoral requirements for the supplementary field,
for the outside units, or for psychological foundations
(see doctoral advisement notes).
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS
A. A minimum of four semesters is required for completion of the
degree. Following is the suggested sequence of courses:
Semester 1
EDCO 500 (3)
EDPT 550 (3)
EDCO 503 (2)
Semester 3
EDCO 542 (4)
EDCO 560 (3)
EDCO 590a (2)
Semester 2
EDCO 541 (4)
EDCO 544 (3)
EDCO 548 (3)
Semester 4
EDCO 561 (3)
EDCO 590b (2)
The remainder of the courses may be fitted in at the convenience
of the student.
B. Students must demonstrate an acceptable level of counseling
skill in EDCO 560 before being permitted to complete the
master's degree (see hand-out: Laboratory - Practicum -
Field Work Experiences). Two registrations and one audit are
permitted in EDCO 560. Students with little counseling
experience are advised to audit the course the first time.
C. Students eligible and interested in continuing with the doctoral
program may take the Preliminary Review in the semester following
the completion of EDCO 560 with a doctoral level pass. (See
doctoral advisement notes).
* May be substituted for EDCO 561 with permission of advisor.
Page 3
264
Appendix C # 1
IV. OTHER COUNSELING DEPARTMENT PROGRAMS
A. College Student Personnel Services (M.S.Ed.)
.Jointly sponsored by the Departments of Counseling and Special
Education and of Higher and Post-Secondary Education, the major
in College Student Personnel Services emphasizes the delivery
of services to college students, the administration of student
affairs, and counseling based approaches to student development.
(Advisor: Dr. Bloland)
B. Certificate Programs
Two certificate programs are offered for the working professional
who wishes to develop these specialized competencies:
(1) Management of College Student Services
(2) College Student Development
(Advisor: Dr. Bloland)
C. Standard Pupil Personnel Credential
The P.P.S. state credential may be obtained by non-degree
candidates who have appropriate course work.
(Advisor: Dr. Walker)
D. Counseling Psychology (Ed.D. and Ph.D.)
The department offers a doctoral program leading to the doctorate
with a major in counseling psychology. The program is grounded
in psychology and bears upon the philosophy, theory, research,
and principles of authentic relating as a basis for therapeutic
human interaction. The thrust of the doctoral major is humanistic
and existential in flavor.
Page 4
4/83
265
Appendix C # 2
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
DOCTORAL PROGRAM ADVISEMENT NOTES
(Counseling Psychology)
I. ADMISSION TO GRADUATE STANDING
A. Admission criteria include the Graduate Record Examination,
Aptitude Section (a minimum of 500 on the verbal and 1000
combined), a grade point average of 3.0 in the upper divi
sion undergraduate work, and a 3.4 in graduate work.
B. Make application through the Admissions Office, with the
objective of Ed.D. or Ph.D. in Education, and Counseling
Psychology as the intended major. Those who completed the
M.S. in Education at USC must reapply for the doctoral ob
jective. Graduate School application forms are available
in the Admissions Office.
C. Read the department advisement materials, including Inten
tions and General Information. Secure an appointment with
any member of the Counseling faculty for advisement pur
poses. Bring along pertinent information, such as tran
scripts or admissions evaluation forms.
II. PRELIMINARY PROGRAM
After a doctoral student with a Master's degree in Counseling
from USC or its equivalent, has been admitted to graduate stand
ing, and has completed at least nine but no more than twenty one
credit hours at USC, including Ed Co 550, he or she is required
to request a preliminary review. The review is conducted by the
Department in order to form a judgement concerning a doctoral
student's ability to: 1) perform adequately at the doctoral level:
2) develop a specialty area for themselves and identify a faculty
member and/or members who are willing to support them and advise
them in their research and studies; and 3) show evidence that they
are capable of scholarly research. The preliminary program is in
tended to assist the doctoral student to prepare for the prelimi
nary review.
A. Preliminary Advisement
An Ed Co professor is assigned as a faculty advisor to each
candidate and will guide the candidate through the preliminary
review. The advisor may or may not become the chairperson of
the candidate's Committee on Studies. A form for recording
this assignment is available in WPH 1103.
.266
Appendix C # 2
2 of 10
B. Preliminary Studies (Counseling Core Preparation)
1) Required core preparation for one entering the program
through a USC master’s degree in Counseling:
Course No. Units
The Counseling Process
Theories in Counseling Psychology i
Group Counseling: Theory and Process
Measurement Procedures in the Helping
Process
Career Development: Theory and Process
Practlcum in Counseling
2) Required core preparation for one entering the program
with a master's degree in Counseling from another insti
tution which has included course work in testing and ca
reer development.
CO 500 3
CO 541 4
CO 542 4
CO 544 3
CO 548 3
CO 560 3
20
Theories in Counseling Psychology CO 541 4
Group Counseling: Theory and Process CO 54 2 4
Practicum in Counseling CO 560 3
(Reminder: CO 544 6 CO 548 at USC or
equivalent course work on transfer is
prerequisite to CO 560)
3) The departmental comprehensive examination is designed to
ascertain the scope and depth of your preparation for doc
toral work in Counseling Psychology. It will cover the
broad areas of individual, group, career counseling, and
measurement as represented in the required core prepara
tion outlined above.
C. The Preliminary Review
1) After the required core course preparation has been com
pleted, you should request a preliminary review by follow
ing these steps:
a. File application for admission to the doctoral program
in Education approximately two months in advance of
the date requested for preliminary review. Materials
are available in WPH 1103. Request the Counseling
Psychology Program hand-out describing the procedure
for the review.
b. At least six weeks prior to the date you intend to
take the preliminary review file a request for the re
view with the Department. It must have your advisor's
signature. You must have passed CO 560 at the doctoral
level before permission to take the preliminary review
will be granted. 1
____________^ 7 j
Appendix C # 2
3 of .10
D. The Comprehensive Examination (Counseling Psychology)
Take the two comprehensive examinations (Counseling Psych
ology) as scheduled. One examination will be composed of
brief essay items which will test the candidates factual
knowledge of terms, concepts, theory, principles, etc. The
other examination will consist of essay questions designed
to test the candidates ability to write clearly and cogently
on broad areas of counseling psychology, to incorporate rele
vant research in the field, and to synthesize course work,
research, and practice in framing responses. These examina
tions will be based upon the content areas represented in
the required core course work taken prior to the preliminary
review.
E. The Portfolio
The candidate is expected to provide a carefully compiled
portfolio which should include the following items as a mini
mum:
1 1
1) A current professional resume.
2) A copy of the GRE test scores (minimum of 500 verbal
and 1000 total)
3) Copies of all trascripts on all post-secondary academic
work including the work of the last semester. The candi
date should have at least a 3.0 GPA in the last 50% of
undergraduate work; the GPA for all graduate work is ex
pected to be at least 3.4.
4) A copy of a current credit evaluation summary which is
available upon request from the Admissions Office (SAS).
5) Evidence that the candidate's writing skills are of the
scholarly quality expected of a doctoral student. This
evidence may include a major course paper, master's the
sis, research report, a publication, an Ed Co 590b paper,
etc. At least one submitted paper must have been produced
while the candidate was at USC.
6) A final Ed Co 560 evaluation of counseling skills at a
level deemed to be of doctoral quality.
7) Evidence that the candidate has completed the equivalent
of 750 hours of experience relevant to this program. Per
sonal therapy may be counted toward these hours.
8) A written description of the student's professional and
scholarly interests and a statement of the role doctoral
study is expected to play in the advancement of those
interests. Included in this statement should be a de
scription of completed and proposed course work for the
doctoral program (including transfer courses). The stu-
268
Appendix C # 2
4 of 10
dent should, of course, have indicated an area of re
search interest of which the program of studies will
be supportive and have identified faculty members whose
scholarly expertise and interests make them appropriate
choices for membership on the student's Guidance Commit
tee. It is particularly helpful to relate your special
ty area to your area of research interests.
F, The Oral Interview
When you have taken the comprehensive examination, have as
sembled your portfolio, and have the approval of your ad
visor, you should arrange for the oral interview, ordinarily
during a time period designated for that purpose.
The candidate's portfolio and the results of the comprehen
sive examination will then be reviewed by members of the de
partment at a regularly scheduled faculty meeting prior to
the preliminary review and will provide the background for
the oral interview to be conducted. The interview may delve
into any aspect of a candidate's preparation or fitness for
advanced graduate work. Immediately following the interview
the candidate will be notified of the recommendation to be
made to the School of Education. The decision to continue a
student beyond the preliminary review will be a conservative
one.
It is anticipated that few students who have successfully
completed the preliminary review will fail to complete their
doctoral program.
G. Organizing Your Guidance Committee
The Guidance Committee for the Ed.D. consists of a chairper
son from the Department of Counseling, a member from the sup
plementary field, and one other member of the faculty of the
School of Education. For the Ph.D., two more members are
added, one of whom is chosen to represent the student's in
terests and field of study outside the School of Education.
1. Within 60 days after the preliminary review you Should
form the Guidance Committee for department approval. You
are expected to support the inclusion of each member of
your Committee by specifying the contribution the member
will make by virtue of his/her scholarly expertise or in
terests. The Department will then approve, revise, or
reject the proposed Committee.
2. The departmentally approved Guidance Committee is then
listed on the Guidance Committee Recommendation and Ap
proval form obtained in WPH 1103 and then returned to that
same office. Ph.D. candidates, in addition, must obtain
committee appointment forms from the Graduate School and
secure the signature of the Committee members on that form.
One member of your Committee must be from outside of the
269
Appendix C # 2
5 of 10
School of Education. Ph.D. aspirants have one month
from the date of the preliminary review to file the
completed form.
3) The remaining course work should be planned with the
chairperson of your Guidance Committee. A form for
recording this Program of Studies, which required the
signatures of the members of the Guidance Committee
is available in WPH 1103.
III. PROGRAM OF STUDIES
A. General Program Requirements
1) Prior to the awarding of the degree, the candidate must
have completed at least two years of counseling work or
equivalent experience.
2) Residence requirements must be completed before the Qual
ifying Examinations are permitted (see the School of Edu
cation Bulletin under "Residence Requirement").
Ph.D. candidates are required to complete the degree with
in five years of the date upon which graduate work at USC
was begun. All credits submitted for an Ed.D. are out
lawed after 10 years from the semester in which you start
ed graduate work at USC. If it is necessary to miss a
semester or more of course work, apply for a formal leave
of absence in WPH 1103.
3) General requirements (Ph.D. and Ed.D.)
A minimum of 66 graduate semester units, including a maxi
mum of 20 units of acceptable transfer work related to
your designated doctoral program.
At least 42 units in graduate course work in Education.
At least 25 units in residence at USC after the preliminary
review which may not include ED PT 550 or 651. Courses
taken during the semester in which the review is success
fully completed will apply toward the 25 units.
At least 12 units in the four psychological foundations
areas. In addition, these 12 units may not be counted
toward the post preliminary review minimum of 25 units.
270
Appendix C # 2
6 of 10
B. Major Field: Counseling Psychology
Required Courses Units
CO 641 Theories in Counseling Psychology II 4
CO 660 Advanced Practicum in Counseling 3
CO 663 Internship in Counseling 5
CO 741 Humanistic Existential Counseling Psychology 3
15 units
Specialty Area (Area of concentration)
A specialty area consists of nine units organized in an in
tegrated course of study designed for an in-depth examina
tion of a specialized phase or topic within the broader field
of Counseling Psychology. Usually it is related to or under-
girds your doctoral research interests. One of the three
qualifying examinations-will cover the Specialty Area.
1) Assessment in Counseling
CO 644 - Seminar: Psychological Tests in Coun- 3
seling
Electives - 6
9
2) Career Development
CO 648 - Theories of Vocational Development and 3
Counseling
Electives - 6
9
3) Group Procedures
CO 642 - Seminar in the Group Counseling Process 3
Electives - 6
9
4) Vocational Assessment in Rehabilitation
CO 601 - Seminar on Vocational Rehabilitation 3
Electives - 6
9
5) Family Therapy
CO 528 - Theories and Perspectives of Marriage, 3
Family, 5 The Child
Electives - 6
9
271
Appendix C # 2
7 of 10
6) Elective Specialty - You may design, with the guid-
ance and approval of your Guidance Committee, a nine-
unit specialization within the field of Counseling
Psychology.
9
D. Supplementary Field
Twelve units are required in a School of Education depart
ment other than Counseling. At least six units must be
taken after the preliminary review. Educational Psychology
or Special Education are the usual choices, but other pos
sibilities are available. For advisement in the supplement
ary field, see appropriate department.
6-12
E. Research Methodology
Required of both Ph.D. and Ed.D. candidates in the Depart
ment of Counseling.
A foreign language or languages may be required by the Guid
ance Committee if the proposed research requires a language
for research or a review of the literature on the topic.
Required Courses: Units
CO 790 Research (Dissertation proposal prépara- 1
tion)
CO 792 Critique of Research in Counseling 3
Psychology
PT 652 Educational Statistics II 3
PT 655 Research Design in Education 3
Elective in research methodology 3
13
F. Psychological Foundations
You are required to demonstrate competence in each of the
following psychological foundational areas:
(a) Biological bases of behavior (e.g., physiological psy
chology, comparative psychology, neuropsychology, sensation,
psychopharmacology),
(b) Cognitive-affective bases of behavior (e.g., learning,
memory, perception, cognition, thinking, motivation, emotion),
27:2
Appendix C # 2
8 of 10
(c) Social bases of behavior (e.g., social psychology, cul
tural, ethnic, and group processes, sex roles, organization
al and systems theory), and
(d) Individual behavior (e.g., personality theory, human
development, individual differences, abnormal psychology).
For our purposes, competence is demonstrated by successful
completion of at least three or more graduate semester hours
(or equivalent quarter hours) in each of the four areas.
These foundation courses may be transfer units or may be
taken as part of your course work. If taken out of the
School of Education, they may be applied to the outside
studies requirement for the Ph.D. This requirement must
have been met before taking the qualifying examination.
G. Outside Studies (Ph.D. only):
Complete at least 12 units of graduate course work outside
the School of Education and in a field complementary to
Counseling. They may come at any time during the graduate
program, or they may be transfer units.
H. Dissertation Proposal Supervision
Enrollment for at least one (1) units of Ed Co 790 (Disserta
tion Proposal Preparation) before applying to take the Qual
ifying Examination. Enrollment in 790, once initiated, will
be continuous until the end of the semester in which the
qualifying examination is completed.
IV. QUALIFYING EXAMINATION
A. General Procedures
1) ED PT 655 must be completed prior to taking the qualify
ing examinations. Otherwise the qualifying examinations
may be taken during the last semester of course work.
2) A dissertation proposal must have the preliminary ap
proval of the candidate's chairperson, and must be sub
mitted to the members of the Guidance Committee at least
six weeks before permission to take the qualifying exam
inations may be granted.
3) See the School of Education Bulletin for dates of the
qualifying examinations. The application to take the
examinations must be submitted at least six weeks prior
to the scheduled date. Ph.D. candidates must apply to
both the School of Education and the Graduate School.
273
___: ______ 1
Appendix C # 2
9 of 10
B. The Written Qualifying Examinations
The written qualifying examinations are four-hour essay
examinations in each of the following areas:
1) The major field examination: Counseling Psychology
2) The specialty examination: One from among Assessment in
Counseling, Career Development in Counseling, Group Pro
cedures in Counseling, Vocational Assessment in Rehabil
itation, Family Therapy, or an elective specialty.
3) The supplementary field examination; The Department of
Educational Psychology provides an advisement sheet for
students taking the examination in that area.
C. The Oral Qualifying Examination
Following the written qualifying examination, a qualifying
oral examination is conducted by the Guidance Committee.
Two actions may be taken:
1) Performance on the qualifying examinations is assessed
and an oral examination conducted. If the results are
satisfactory the student is admitted to candidacy.
2) If the qualifying examination is not passed it may be
repeated with the approval of the chairperson and the
Guidance Committee.
3) The Dissertation Proposal Oral. The dissertation pro-
■ posai developed in Ed Co 790 will be reviewed by the
Guidance Committee in conjunction with the oral quali
fying examination or proceed or follow it. The pro
posal may be approved, modified, or disapproved.
4) The Dissertation Committee. When the qualifying exam-
ihation has been passed, the Guidance Committee becomes
the Dissertation Committee and consists of three mem
bers. For Ph.D. candidates the five person committee
is reduced to three members always including the chair
person and the outside member.
V. THE DISSERTATION
A. Candidates must enroll in Ed Co 794a in the semester follow
ing admission to candidacy, and in each succeeding semester
(excluding summers) in b, c, etc., until the final oral exam
ination is completed. A minimum of two enrollments is re
quired. Co 794a and b may be taken concurrently. Registra
tion in 794 before admission to candidacy is invalid.
B. The candidate is allowed three years from the date of admis
sion to candidacy to complete the dissertation.
274
Appendix C # 2
10 of 10
C. The chairperson is available for advisement on the disser
tation .
D. Dissertation Defense Oral Examination. Upon completion of
the dissertation manuscript, and with the approval of the
Chairperson of your Dissertation Committee, you should
schedule a dissertation defense oral examination with that
Committee. You should not proceed to final typing until
after the defense oral. Permission to proceed to final
typing is contingent upon completing the revisions (if
specified) and obtaining the signatures of each member of
the Committee.
E. Following approval of the dissertation the candidate pre
pares an abstract which becomes a part of the printed pro
gram for the dissertation defense oral examination (see
Graduate Degree Technician, WPH 1103),
F. Submit final, corrected, and approved dissertation, together
with abstract, to the' University Publications Editor, at
least three weeks prior to the final oral examination.
Final Oral Examination. After the candidate has made what-
ever revisions and corrections mandated by the Dissertation
Committee at the dissertation defense oral examination, the
Committee may require that a final oral examination be con
ducted. This step, however, may be eliminated at the Com
mittee’s discretion.
January, 1982
275
Appendix C # 3
University of Southern California
School of Education
Counseling Psychology Program
THE PRELIMINARY REVIEW
These notes are Intended to help you accept, cope with, reduce, and in general,
affirm the "Angst" which accompanies the arrival of the preliminary review. As
existentially oriented therapists and researchers in training you already know
that it is impossible to eliminate all anxiety form the prelim process. If you
attempt such an Impossible— and insane— task, it will probably render you
immobile (at best!). We hope these notes will help, therefore, to mobilize you.
The prelims are part of a traditional "rite—of-passage" into the world of
academic scholarship and professionsl credibility. It is a ritual and, as such,
an essential aspect of the collective human spirit. Over the years the content
and structure of the USC Department of Counseling and Special Education prelim
ritual might have changed, but its essential purpose has remained: You will be
reviewed by the senior members of the"tribe" before you are officially permitted
to use the "tribe's" name as your own. So, with that historically global
perspective as a background let’s look at the specifics of the comprehensive
exam and oral review.
THE COMPREHENSIVE EXAM
The comprehensive exam is currently in two parts written on two separate days.
You have about two hours to write each part. In one part there is a series of
essay type questions which call for a rather lengthy response and in the other
part a series of essay type questions which are intended to elicit shorter focused
responses. The purpose of the written exam is to review your ability to communicate
your knowledge and thought processes using the written word as the medium. The
faculty use several criteria for evaluating each part of the exam since each part
is meant to assess different aspects of your knowledge and ability to communicate
it in a scholarly way.
The short essay responses are most concerned with information that is accurate
and current (current information is from the present time not from "major work"
completed in 1842, 1940 or 1970). For example, in response to a short essay
question on research design and clinical material it is accurate to say that clinical
research is difficult to accomplish because of the demands of controlled studies
and subsequent statistical analysis'.' However it is current to also add that "trends
in the direction of time series analysis and single case design Are creating
innovative ways to document clinical change more obectively, for example...
faculty are looking for accurate responses which do not have cobwebs around them.
The long essay responses call for a broader view of the material and therefore
the faculty uses more extensive evaluation criteria when they read your answers.
The criteria include: informational accuracy, current knowledge of the subject
matter; documentation of opinions using well structured arguments and evidence
from current research literature; the ability to integrate concepts from related
areas; the ability to synthesize material relevant to the discipline and practice
276
Appendix C # 3
2.
of counseling psychology and your ability to communicate all of the material you
present at a grammatical and prose level appropriate to advanced graduate study.
The long essay responses call for a broad view of the material. The questions
cannot be answered by a simple regurgitation of disparate facts. They call for
thinking and thoughtful integration of facts.
Sometimes students approach the comprehensive with the attitude: "If I just
state the 'party line’ I’ll be OK." You won’t. There are few things more
Irritating to the sensibilities of an academic scholar than the "ranting and
ravings" of the polemicist— whether it’s ’party line* or not. In an academic
community "ranting and ravings"are statements or opinions delivered without
the accompanying documentation and argument. For example: "Testing is a
violation of the human spirit", is an opinion only. If that opinion is not
supported by some argument based on clear reasoning and/or support from
literature it is "ranting and ravings". Your opinion is only as good as the
reasoned support you present for it. in other words, your perception of "the
party line" without the reasoned support.for your perception is useless in
terms of the comprehensive exam. It is not a scholarly approach to the material
and will be judged accordingly. '
In responding to the exam questions you are encouraged to site data from current
research and clinical material to support your opinions. You are primarily
encouraged to express your opinions with creativity and scholarship.
THE ORAL REVIEW
The oral review gives the faculty, as a group, an opportunity to review all your
work in the Department in its entirity. It is probably the first time the entire
faculty, as a worxing group, have had this opportunity. By the time the orals
arrive you have met the faculty individually. As a group, the faculty will be
interested in "getting to know you" in a different way. The faculty may review
your comprehensive exam with you briefly, ask you about your clinical and research
goals in the department, ask you about the ability of the program to meet your needs,
and any other questions which may occur to them. The oral review is very open-ended,
Depending upon the situation it could turn toward your research interests and what
and why your interest moves in that particular direction. It could involve a
scholarly discussion about the latest material in your particular area of interest.
It could become a provocative dialogue about the goals and curriculum of Che
program. It could be "anything". In general it is helpful to think of the oral
review as the verbal side of the comprehensive exams. It is you speaking as a
professional colleague rather than you writing as one.
THE READING LIST
First of all there is NO comprehensive reading list. There is a list of readings
which the department recommends as quality material for all students in the program.
The list is updated periodically. Since the exam is broader than the booklist it is
possible to read every book on the list and not pass the exam^ The exam questions
are designed to pull forth responses that depend on material from the literature,
material from courses, personal experiences, and creative thinking about all of it!
Use the reading list as a guide, not a crutch.
GOOD LUCK
277
Appendix C # 4
NAME:
PRELIMINARY REVIEW ADVISEMENT WORKSHEET
Counseling Psychology
___________________ Degree Objective: Ph.D. Ed.D.
ADDRESS ;
TELEPHONE: (work) ( ) (home) ( >
Zip Code
A. Preliminary Studies (complete at least 9 but no more than 21 units at USC).
Plan 1: MS. Ed, in Counseling from USC (must take 9 additional units).
Course Title Course No. Units
3
3
3
Completed
or: 9
Plan 2: Non-USC Master's degree or no prior course work in Counseling.
Course Title Course No. Units
** The Counseling Process EdCo 500 3
* SeToinar: Ethical & Legal Issues
In Counseling EdCo 503 2
Theories in Counseling Psychology I EdCo 541 4
Group Counseling; Theory & Process EdCo 542 4
* Meas. Procedures in the Helping Process EdCo 544 3
* Career Development: Theory & Process EdCo 548 3
Practicum in Counseling EdCo 560 3
*** Statistical Analysis I EdPt 651 3
Waived or
Completed
25
■ * May be waived for equivalent course work.
** May be waived by Instructor via testing.
*** May be waived by EdPt Department via testing.
B, Additional course work which may be taken before preliminary review
Psychological Foundation Course No. Unit
a. Biological bases oI behavior __________ ____
b. Cognitive-affective bases of behavior __________ ____
c. Individual behavior
Completed
Supplementary field (may take 6 out of 12 required units before preliminary review).
Course Title Course No. Units Completed
a. ____________________________________ _________________ ____________ _________
b.
Faculty Adviser D a t e
Appendix C # 5
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION .
Department of Counseling and Special Education
Departmental Notes on the Qualifying Examination in Counseling Psychology
These notes have been prepared by the Department of Counseling to assist you
in your preparation for the Qualifying Examination -- the examination which, when
successfully cong^leted, admits you to Candidacy for the Doctorate. The Qualify
ing Examination is t^en during, or following the last semester of course work.
We will recognize that the qualifying examination can be a trying experience
as well as a gratifying one, and it is our hope that the following suggestions will
provide some gui.dance for the way in which you organize your preparation.
A. The Format
The examination will be conducted on three successive days with four hours of
examination each day. The first two days will be devoted to your major field and
will be founded upon the counseling psychology curriculum. It may include any topic
or subject in your graduate program. However, it will not be limited to that pro
gram but may also sample from the broad field of the helping profession.
]. First day: The Major Field Examination: Counseling Psychology.
.This examination will be prepared by the department. It will usually consist
of four broadly stated questions which will be drawn from individual and group coun
seling and psychotherapy.
2. Second day: The Specialty Examination.
This will also be prepared by the department and will also consist of four
broadly stated questions draivn from the specialty area you have designated in your
application to take the qualifying examination.
One question will always call upon you to pose a research question in comsel-
ing psycholog)' and devise a study to deal with it -- it may, in some instances, ask
for your dissertation study and its rationale.
3. Third day: _ The Supplementary Field Examination.
ITie nature and content of this examination is determined by the department in
which you are taking your supplementary field. You are urged to consult that de
partment soon after your Preliminary Review to identify those courses upon which it
bases its examination. The)' may also provide you with sample questions, or with a
listing of content areas and/or expectations.
B. Writing the Essay Examinations
Read all the questions, underlining each element of each question and mmibering
the elements so thiit you do not inadvertently omit any. It may be helpful to make
a brief outline of the essay you intend to write, including an introductory and a
279
Appendix C # 5
Quai Notes
concluding paragraph. This should inform the reader of what you will be writing,
how you ivill structure your essay, and then remind the reader of what you lia\e
written.
The body of the essay should include the development of your response to each
element of the question. Pace yourself so that you allow about an hour for each
question.
N.B. Illegible examinations will not be read, so be sure that your writing
is legible, or better still, type. It will be appreciated by your faculty readers.
The questions will be broad and should call upon your ability to synthesize
and integrate your academic and practical knowledge. You may be asked to apply your
knowledge to the solution of practical or theoretical issues or problems. It will .
be assumed that you know the specific technical tools and terminology of your field,
and so you will not be expected to memorize definitions.
The examination is designed to allow you to demonstrate that you know your
field as a professional and as a scholar knows it. The recent research literature,
philosophical orientations, classic and basic studies, major theoretical positions
and controversies, current issues, trends and directions, major contributors and
their contributions will be among the topics sampled.
The emphasis in our qualifying examinations will be to permit you the opportunity
of exhibiting breadth and depth, and, again, this is paramount -- scholarship. You
will need to have a grasp of the central issues in the philosophy of science as it
applies to psychology and to the therapeutic enterprise; of the issues surrounding
various views of the nature of the philosophic and scientific endeavor from which
current thinking about Counseling groivs, as well as the broader field of therapeutic
psychology id.th its various "schools" and, importantly, their paradigmatic underpin
nings .
It should be underscored that a reliance on texts and course material is in it
self necessary but not sufficient. A broadly based education in the discipline is
that which is required.
In sum, you will be asked to exhibit competence as (a) a broadly based scholar,
(b) a theoretician, (c) a psychologist, and (d) as a counseling practitioner.
Typical Issues. Some broad issues which will be addressed in the Counseling
Psychology examination may be represente ’ by the following:
1. Psychoanalysis and its metapsydiological foundations.
2. The psychoanalytic view of human nature as contrasted to other views: the
behavior science view, the humanistic view, the neo-analytic view, the existential
view.
3. Tlie nature and structure of science, its relevance to the science of humans,
to psychology; the meaning of normal, paradigmatic science, and of revolutions in
science.
4. Tlie assumptions underlying the various schools of psychotlierapy.
5. The aims and goals of psychotherapy.
6. Communication, symbolization, and synptomatology.
7. Patient and therapist needs and expectations, ethical and professional
issues and concerns.
280
Appendix C # 5
Quai Notes
8. Constructs such as: limits, memory, recall, free-association, interven
tion, interpretation, resistance, transference, countertransference, insight, ter
mination, identity, acceptance, change, dyadic circuit, authenticity, bad faith,
self-deception, and mutual process, among others.
9. Existentialism, Humanistic Existentialism, Heidegger!an Existentialism,
Humanism, "Third Force", phenomenology.
10. Professional and theoretical contact-points with psychiatr>', medicine, and
social work.
11. The theoretical and experimental foundations of the group process in coun
seling and psychotherapy.
12. The role of assessment, diagnosis, and the controversies surrounding these
areas.
13. Career development, its background, relevant theoiy, current issues and
practices relating to counseling, the world of work, and life planning.
Sample questions. We now offer sample questions for your consideration:
1. Discuss the Cartesian doctrine and its influence in the study of human be
havior. How does Humanistic Existentialist thought intend to "correct" the Neifto-
nian-Cartesian view as it relates to the human sciences?
2. The concept of the transference is a key concept in psychotherapy. Discuss
the development, the meaning of this concept and evaluate it as a viable description
of vhat talves place inside the therapeutic hour.
3. Carl Rogers explores the nature and structure of the encounter group. Dis
cuss the encounter group, whether and how it differs from a therapy group, and the
negative and positive aspects of such a procedure in counseling asid psychotherapy.
4. Tliere are many theoretical approaches to group counseling and group therapy:
Adlerian, Jungian, Freudian, Neo-analytic, Gestalt, Assertiveness, etc. Choose three
approaches (not limited to the examples above) contrast and compare them, and choose
the approach or approaches which you would utilize, explaining why you would do so.
5. The issue of assessment or psychological testing is surrounded with contro
versy. It is taken for granted by some, while "taken to task" by others. Wliat are
the issues involved here, and what is the nature of the controversy? Finally, how
have you resolved this issue for yourself?
6. The question of doing research in counseling and psychotherapy is fraught
with difficulty. Uhat are the central control issues involved, (i.e., the issue of
motivational control) and how may they be or how are they dealt with in current re
search practice?
7. There are many ethical and professional issues involved in counseling psy
chology: confidentiality; the proper use of human subjects; sexual abuse: coercion;
among many others. Qioose two central ethical issues . discuss them, and state your
view on them.
281
Appendix C # 5
Quai Notes
4
8. Career development has been a traditional focus in counseling. In your
view what is the nature, function, and utility of career development, vocational
information, and career counseling in the helping professions?
N.B. In answering questions on examinations or on papers in the Department
of Counseling, familiarity with and adherence to the Guidelines of the American
Psychological Association for nonsexist language, is required.
If you have kept up \-dth the literature of your areas of concentration and
specialization, and have read widely and deeply, you will have a rich background
upon vdiich to draw in answering questions such as tJae above.
Evaluation. In answering the questions, there are no right or wong answers
per se. It is anticipated by the readers that the way in which you bring your pro
fessional knowledge and background to bear on each question will be unique to you,
but set in a scholarly frame.
The readers will evaluate each essay on its overall organization, quality,
scholarly approach, the breadth and depth of your knowledge, and the manner in
which you support your points with appropriate authority. In short, your answers
should read much like a research paper or a scholarly review of a concept in a
major joumal.
Each examination booklet (or typed paper) is assigned a code number by the
School of Education to assure your anon>'mity. Your paper will be read and evaluated
by at least two members of the Department. It may also be read by other members of
the Department and by members of your Guidance Committee.
Your supplementary department will read and evaluate your supplementary' field
examination.
The overall examination is rated on the form reproduced below. Comments for
the possible use of the Guidance Committee in the conduct of the oral examination
are made in the space provided on the fomi.
REPORT ON QUALIFYING EXAMINTIONS
Candidate’s Code No.
Student's Major Field Student’s SuppI Fleld_
Field of Examination: Major______________ Specialty Supp.
Compared to all of the qualifying exam essays you have read in this area, check the
relative position of this paper.
0 » M
I I
w
«) w
v>
4 > 4 )
•o u:
•o U> to
V*
S
» as
Suggestions For Oral Examination:
Signature;________________________ Date:
282
Appendix C # 5
Quai Notes
C. The Oral Qualifying Examination
You should assemble your Guidance Committee about a month after taking the
written examination. The oral will be about an hour long and will be conducted
by your chairperson. You have the responsibility for arranging with each member
for a time and place three to five weeks after the written portion of the examina
tion. Be sure to confirm the time, date, and place witli each member several days
before the meeting. Allow one hour for the oral examination.
The oral examination begins ivith an executive session during which your chair
person reviews your file, your work, and the results of the written examination.
You will then be asked to join the committee and informed of the quality of your
exams. The members of the committee \\dll initiate a discussion, perhaps with ques
tions based on the comments forwarded to the committee by the readers or as suggested
by your relative strengths and weaknesses as revealed by the written examination.
Usually, you will have an opportunity to demonstrate your ability to discuss your
field.
IVhen the committee members are satisfied with the oral examination, the chair
person will ask you to describe the nature of your dissertation problem. The commit
tee, having been given a copy of your dissertation proposal five weeks prior to the
oral examination, will critique the proposal, offering suggestions and comments
about the design, the problem itself, and the procedure involved. T?)e intent is
to help you towards a successful dissertation (However, at the discretion of your
Guidance Committee, your proposal may be discussed at a subsequent meeting, which
is called the "Dissertation Proposal Oral").
Note, at this point, that the Department of Counseling does not consider a sim
ple research study or an experiment to be a dissertation. A dissertation is distin
guished from those two in that it may contain a study or an experiment, but it must
also be a scholarly contribution to, and bear upon, a major theoretical or philo
sophical issue in the discipline.
The committee will then excuse you and enter into an executive session, delib
erating about your admission to candidacy for the doctorate. You wdll be notified
immediately of the results as you are invited to re-enter the committee room.
At this point, you should be prepared to reduce your guidance committee to three
members. This three-member committee (consisting of your chairperson, the outside
member, and a third member who has agreed to remain on this final committee) is now
called the Dissertation Committee and it will directly supervise your dissertation.
Your chairperson will see to it that the proper forms are signed and the file
returned to the Dean’s office.
Take an hour or two to relax before beginning work on the dissertation. You’ve
earned it.
Good luck!
March, 1982
^ 6 0
Appendix C # 6
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
Supplementary Fields
The Department of Counseling and Special Education offers
two doctoral level supplementary (minor) fields: (1) Counseling
Psychology and (2) Special Education,
While it is mandatory that a doctoral student expecting to
do a supplementary field in either Special Education or Counseling,
consult with a departmental adviser concerning the appropriate
standardized supplmentary
departments who have had
course preparation, both areas utilize a
curriculum for those students from other
no previous course work in Counseling or
both fields the Supplementary Qualifying
this course work:
in Special Education. In
Examination is based upon
Counseling Psychology (EDCO) - Supplementary Field
The supplementary field in counseling psychology is designed
to provide a comprehensive overview of four areas basic to
the field of counseling: individual and group counseling,
tests and measurements, and career development. The student
will be examined in all four areas.
EDCO 500 - The Counseling Process (3)
(Prerequisite to all other counseling courses but
may be waived if the student has taken a similar
course.)
EDCO 541 - Theories in Counseling Psychology I (4)
EDCO 542.- Group Counseling: Theory and Process (4)
EDCO 544 - Measurement Procedures in the Helping Process (3)
EDCO 548 - Career Development: Theory 8 Process (3)
Special Education (EDEX) - Supplementary Field
The supplementary field in Special Education covers two
distinct bodies of knowledge. The first relates to the
etiology and characteristics of exceptional populations.
Emphasis is on research and theory in four areas: biology,
psychology, sociology, and education. The second area
covers major developments in the delivery of services to
exceptional populations. These include educational treatment,
school programs, curricula, and the administrative issues
involved in mainstreaming, legal issues, and interagency
relationships.
284
Appendix C # 6
The student will be examined in both areas and therefore
should take two classes in each of the two areas listed
below:
Area I: The Nature of Exceptionality
EDEX 600 - (revised EDEX 552) Etiology and Characteristics
of Variant Populations (3)
EDEX 671 - Theoretical Foundations of Learning Deficits
Disabilities (3)
EDEX 672 - Advanced Theory in Behavior Disorders (3)
Area II: Administration and Curriculum
EDEX 645 - (revised) Seminar in Development and Management
of Special Education Programs (3)
EDEX 649 - Organization and Direction of Programs for
Exceptional Populations (3)
EDEX 650 - Curricular and Instructional Systems in Special
Education (3)
Note :
1. If the doctoral student has already had extensive work in those
areas covered by the above courses, a departmental adviser
should be consulted concerning an alternative and individualized
course of study for the twelve-unit supplementary field.
Under rare circumstances a readings course (EDEX 690 or EDCO
690) or a directed research course (EDEX 790 or EDCO 790) may
be included as part of the supplementary field. However, the
student will still be examined in the stipulated areas whatever
exceptions may be authorized by the adviser.
2. Course work at the 400 and 500 level which is part of the
teacher certification sequence is not recommended as part of
a doctoral supplementary field in Special Education.
285
APPENDIX D
DEPARTMENTAL NOTES ON PRACTICUM
#1. Laboratory-Practicum-Fieldwork Experience
#2. Course Description
#3. Counseling 560 Semester Evaluation
286
Appendix D # 1
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING
- P R ^ C irH C (L U % A - IFnElLO'WC'OFRHC E X f P E m E E IM C E S
Master's degree candidates and doctoral candidates who transfer into this
department from another institution are required to participate in a series
of courses which contain a planned sequence of experiences designed to
enhance the personal growth and therapeutic skills of the student. This
series of courses consists of CO 500, The Counseling Process; CO 541,
Counseling Theories and Procedures; CO 542, Foundations of Group Pro
cess; CO 560, Practicum in Counseling; and CO 561, Field Work in Coun
seling.
In CO 500, the student is required to participate as a counselee in a semester-
long series of conferences with a counselor who is an advanced graduate student.
This and other laboratory experiences provided in that course have as their dual
objectives, increased self-awareness on the part of the student, and a fuller
understanding of the nature of the counseling process.
The laboratory for CO 5 41 is organized as a mini-practicum. Students meet
in small groups with a teaching assistant for the purpose of practicing counseling
am ong themselves. Members work in rotating pairs, alternately acting as
counselor and as counselee, under observation by supervisors and other members
of the group . Critique sessions provide ample opportunity for feedback.
In CO 542, the laboratory consists of weekly encounter group sessions. The
classes are divided into small groups and meet with a teaching assistant as a
group leader. Leaders are instructed to maximize group participation in order
that each member may practice and develop his skills in the interaction process.
The continuing focus is upon helping each group member to become increasingly
aware of his ow n interpersonal behavior and hopefully to encounter himself and
become more facilitative,
The staff is convinced of the importance cf openness, awareness, and authen
ticity for the counselor (see Intentions). It is also painfully aware that such
behavior may be inhibited by the threat of evaluation, such as grading or
screening out of the program. Therefore formal evaluation such as reports by
the leader to the staff is not a part of the labs in the foregoing courses. However,
there is a continuing effort on the part of the leader to provide feedback to each
group member and to encourage such feedback among the members. Hopefully
at the conclusion of these experiences all sutdents will be more aware of their
own interpersonal characteristics. Some may decide that counseling, as
viewed by this department, is not an appropriate endeavor for them.
287
Appendix D # 1
CO 560, Practicum in Counseling, provides a supervised experience in
counseling with individuals who come to the counseling center for help as
well as with CO 500 students in the program. The facilities permit observa
tion of counseling through one-way mirrors by supervisors, and video-tape
recording is routinely used as well. In addition, all students are required to
possess a tape recorder and to record all interviews. Group critiques,
including viewing of video-tapes and discussion of observations, follow the
counseling sessions.
During the course of the practicum, systematic feedback on his counseling
behavior and his progress is provided each member of the group, by the
supervisors. All participants are rated on counseling effectiveness at the
conclusion of the semester. The ratings are used for the following admin
istrative decisions: 1) high-rated students who are otherwise qualified are
permitted to continue into the doctoral program; 2) students whose ratings
are not at doctoral level quality but are still considered satisfactory are
permitted to complete the master's degree; and 3) students whose rating is
not satisfactory are not permitted to complete the master's degree. Students
in groups 2 and 3 may be granted permission to reregister in the practicum
in an effort to improve their ratings.
CO 561 , Fieldwork in Counseling, completes the series of experiences required
at the Master's level. It requires a minimum of ten hours a week of work in a
counseling setting for a period of a semester. The setting, which must be
approved by the Instructor, is required to have appropriately— licensed on-site
supervision available and the students must also meet in a weekly supervision
seminar on campus.
Post-master's level experiences include CO 660, Advanced Practicum in Coun
seling, CO 663, Internship in Counseling, and CO 760, Practicum in Supervision
of Counseling.
28b
Appendix D # 2
University of Southern California
Department of Counseling
Practicum in Counseling Pall, 1979
Course Description; Graduate Bulletin
Supervised practice in individual counseling with children,
adolescents and families. Rated + or -.
Course Description: Instructor
This course is designed to give each student an opportunity to
enpsR^ in counseling under supervised conditions. It is recog
nised that for many îtudents this will be the first opportunity
to function as a counselor in the counseling relationship.
Th^r^^ore, the following format has been developed to help
mnv'Tni-o the learning experience.
Forma t
The class will be conducted in two segments:
1. The first individual counseling segment will consist of
individual counseling sessions. These sessions may be
with: 1) beginning counseling students, 2) clients who
hove contacted the department for counseling, or 3) indi
vidual class members who will be assigned the task of being
a client. The counseling sessions will be forty-five minutes
long and will start at l4.:l5 p.m,, 5^00 p.m., and S^hS p.m.
Each counselor will be responsible for all aspects of the
counseling relationship.
2. The second large group segment will concentrate on critiqu
ing the counseling sessions and also on increasing counseling
skills. To this end, various methodologies will be employed
for increasing counseling abilitites, i.e.:
a. mini-lectures on issues of importance
b. review of student tapes
c. use of video-tape
d. role-playing and other structured learning experiences
e. student-to-stude^t critiques
f. individual feedback sessions with the instructors
Expectations
1, Erch counseling session is to be taped for supervision
purposes. These tapes will be reviewed in a laboratory
setting with the emphasis on counselor growth.
2, It is expected that all students will be actively involved
in the laboratory settings, i.e., giving feedback, role-
playing, offering- growth support, etc.
3, Because of the intensive nature of the course, regular atten
dance is mandatory.
289
— — — Appendix D # 2
Page 2
it- P ’TCh student will watch counseling sessions when not coun-
p»*ling. Written critiques will be given on the sessions.
Agein, the emphasis is on constructive and growth focused
f>edbeck.
A FACTLITATIVE LEVEL OF COUNSELOR EFFECTIVENESS MUST BE DEMON
STRATED BOTH WITH CLIENTS AND IN CLASS.
As nesrrnent
As re srTTients. will occur weekly end oral feedback will be supplied
by th^ instructor on a continuing basis. Additionally, written
ferdh'Ck (see attached form) will be given at the mid-term and
finri class meeting. Assessment will be made along the following
d i S’ r n s i on s :
I. E-pathy - the counselor’s ability to allow himself/herself
experience or merge in the experience of the client, reflect
uron this experience while suspending his own Judgments,
tclerating his own anxiety, and communicating this under
standing to the client. * -
R. Respect - there is evidence to indicate that it is the
counselor’s effort to understand that which communicates
respect and is the major tie between counselor and client.
0%her aspects of respect may be seen in the counselor’s
commitment and his spontaneity.
3. Genuineness - the degree to which one person is functionally
integrated in the context of his relationship with another,
r'’oh that there is an absence of conflict or inconsistency
'-^'tween his total experience, his awareness and his overt
C' fmunication.
R. Concreteness - the counselor’s concreteness ensures that
hi "1 response does not become too far removed, emotionally,
f'^om the client’s feelings and experiences; it encourages
tle counselor to be more accurate in his understanding of the
c'lent, and thus misunderstandings can be clarified and
c rrections made; it influences the client to directly attend
r-^ecifically to problem areas and emotional conflicts.
h. :j'^lf-disc3osure - facilitative self-disclosure involves an
"wireness of the client’s immediate needs and a realization
th'xt sharing of self may offer support or insight for the
cl ,ent. Facilitative self-disclosure is almost always brief.
6. Confrontation - direct confrontation is an act, not a reaction.
It is initiated by the counselor, based on his core under-
rtnnding of the client. It brings the client into more
dj-ect contact with himself, his strengths and resources, as
wo 1 ar his self-destructive behavior.
290
Appendix D # 2
Page 3
7* Creativity - the ability to utilize different methodologies
or theoretical models to facilitate client growth. Creative
interventions are characterized by appropriateness to the
moment, by flexibility, by the ability to modify existing
techniques, all with the goal of increasing client growth.
6. Modeling - counselor behavior is congruent with the theo
retical model or models of counseling being utilized,
Additionally, an assessment will be made under the general areaa
of I
1. Ability to articulate a personal theory and philosophy of
counseling.
2. Ability to implement a personal theory ard philosophy of
counseling with clients.
3« Ability to give facilitative feedback to peers in critique
and evaluation seminars.
1 * . . Ability to hear and use feedback from supervisors and peers
to improve one’s counseling.
Level of understanding of client’s process and psychodynamics
6. Demonstration of case management skills, i.e., scheduling,
case notes, etc.
291
Appendix D # 3
COUNSELING 560 SEMESTER EVALUATION
Name#
Evaluators# Grade#
low 1 2 3 4 5 high
Emoa thv
Respect
Genuineness
Concreteness
Self-disclosure
Confrontation
Creativity
Modeling
Articulation of theory and philosophy
Implementation of theory and philosophy
Facilitative feedback
Utilization of feedback
Understanding of client process and
Dsvchodvnamics
Case management skills
Notes#
Signed: (instructor).
Signed: (T.A.)
date
date
Signed# (student).
date
292
APPENDIX E
STUDENT CENSUS REPORTS, DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING
EDUCATION
#1 . Student Census, July 26, 1976
#2. Student Census, December 21, 19
#3 . Student Census, October 19, 198
#4. Follow-
1984
up Survey of Doct oral G r
293
Appendix E # 1
CAMPUS
MEMO ! |
FKOM
■ l A T t
All Concerned
Paul A. Bloland, Chairman, Dep’t. of Counselor Education
July 26, 1 9 7 6
s i’ iO E O : student Census, Department of Counselor Education,
Summer Session, 1976.
During the Summer Session, 1976, the Department of C ounselor-
Education conducted a follow— u p census survey of those students
registered in all classes. Copies of the census form were supplied
to all full-time an d part-time instructors and they were asked to
distribute and collect them from their classes. Although som e
students, particularly those registered for 794 credit, may n o t have
been surveyed, it is felt that these data represent a reasonably com
plete and accurate description of the students w ho were enrolled in
Counselor Education this Summer Session.
TABLE I
Degree Objective and Sex of Counselor Education Students
MSEd _ % Doctorate _ % T Ota I
Female 27 60 18 40 45
Male 16 46 19 5 4 35
T Ota I 43 54 37 46 80
Eighy students com pleted the census cards. Fifty-six percent of the
students in the department are female and 44% are male, which is the
sam e ratio we found in the Spring Semester 1976 Census Survey.
There was a decline in the percentage of students w ho indicated that
they h ad a disability, from 6% to .03%. Of the eighty students, 20 or
25% checked o n e of the five n o n — white categories, a slight percentage
increase over the Spring survey.
Most of our Summer Session students (45% ) are b etvyeen the ages of
25 and 30, while 1 5 % are below 25 and 38% are above 30 years of age.
The range is from 2 1 years to 58 years of age. The age distribution
remained fairly consistent with our Spring survey finding, with a
slight curtailment of those students under 25 years of age.
29 4 i
Appendix E # 1
While 17 of our students listed their occupation as teachers, 9 as
counselors or rehabilitation counselors, and 5 as engaged in private
practice, the largest number, 25 or 31%, apparently are full-time
students. These statistics demonstrate the largest contrast in data
when compared to the Spring Survey figures. There was a 9%
increase in the number of teachers attending Summer Session classes
with a 6% decrease in the number of counselors.
The response to the question regarding career objective indicated the
same top four categories (counselors, psychologist, clinical psycho
logist, and private practice) when compared with the Spring Semester
data although these categories represent 64% of our students, a reduc
tion from the Spring Semester percentage of 73%. The only other
significant change concerning career objectives, was the rise in rank
of those whose career preference was teaching, from 7th to 5th.
A more differentiated picture is presented when we look at the data on
certification objectives: 46 specified an interest in the Psychology
license, 39 in the MFC license, 22 in the Pupil Personnel Services
Credential, 17 in the'Community College Credential, 2 in the Rehab
ilitation license. Many students, of course, have an interest in two
or more of these credential objectives. Surprisingly, the same per
centage of Summer students (57%) showed ah interest in the Psychology
license as did the Spring Semester students. There was an increase
of 15% of Summer Session students interested in the MFC license when
compared to the 35% interest shown during the Spring term. There
was a drastic decline of interest in the Rehabilitation license when
compared to Spring Semester statistics. The percentage of students
interested in the Community College Credential and Pupil Personnel
Services Credential were exactly reversed from the Spring Semester
with the Pupil Personnel Services Credential being selected by more
students, 28%, though insignificantly so.
Table II presents data on the most frequently cited major fields
in the highest degree held. As expected most stuaents present a solid
background in Psychology at both the bachelors and masters levels.
These figures are very similiar to the figures from the Spring Semester.
We also were interested in the institutions which have been the principal *
feeders to our program. Table III indicates the colleges and universities
from which we have drawn most of our students.
295
Appendix E # 1
TABLE II
Major Field of Study in Highest Degree Held *
Psychology
Counselor Education
Educational Psychology
Rehabilitation Counseling
Clinical Psychology
Sociology
Philosophy
Home Economics
Education
History
English
BA/BS Degree
11
MA/MS Degree
12
10
4
2
2
5
4
3
2
2
2
TABLE III
Institutions from Which Counselor Education Students
Hâve Obtained their Highest Degree *
University of Southern California
CSU - Northridge
CSU - Los Angeles
UCLA
CSU - San Diego
Chapman College
CONY
CSU - Dominguez Hills
BA/BS
Degree
3
4
3
4
2
MA/MS
Degree
15
4
5
2
3
2
Total
18
8
8
4
4
3
2
2
* see Appendix for complete list
2961
Appendix E # 1
The largest proportion of our Summer Session students come from
u se itself, with most of these earning the Masters’ degree here.
This appears to be in accord with our Spring Semester findings. The
student body is primarily from the Southern California area although
students come from other colleges and universities including the
University of Chicago, University of Arizona, University of Wisconsin,
CSU-Fresno, and City College of New York.
The Department of Counselor Education will conduct another Census
Survey this coming Fall Semester, 1976. While many of our Summer
Session students did not attend classes during the past Spring Semester,
as evidenced by the significant increase in the career preference choice
of teaching, they are nonetheless continuing students. The population
of new incoming students to the department this summer was under ten.
The accumulation of data from a Fall Semester survey (with an expected
enrollment of new students of 60) can be used to compare and contrast
the incoming students with continuing students , with special attention
being paid to career goal choices. In view of the departmental changes
soon to be undertaken by the Department of Counselor Education, the
significance of pin-pointing trends, such as those mentioned above, can
be important.
297j
Appendix E # 1
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELOR EDUCATION
STUDENT CENSUS - SUMMER, 1976
Compiled by Kathy Karpeles
8/2/76
298|
Appendix E # 1
STATISTICS ON STUDENT CENSUS CARDS
Ethnic Background of Counselor Education Students
Other:
Black:
Spanish surname:
Asian:
Foreign students:
Indian:
60
7
5
5
3
O
Age of Counselor Education Students
25-26 1 8 students 41-45 5 students
23-24 11 students 37-38 3 students
29-30 10 students 35-36 2 students
27-28 8 students 21-22 1 student
31-32 8 students 39-40 1 student
33-34 5 students 46-50 1 student
50 5 students
Counselor Education Students with Disabilities
Yes:
No:
2
78
Certification Objective
license already obtained
Psychologist license: 46
MFC license: 39 5
PPS credential: 22
CCC credential: 17 4
Rehabilitation license: 2 1
Others
School Psychologist: 1
299
Appendix E # 1
(2)
STATISTICS ON STUDENT CENSUS CARDS
Present Occupations of Counselor Education Students
Students:
T eachers:
Counselors:
Private Practice:
School Psychologist:
Rehabilitation Counselor:
Psychological Assistant:
Director of Housing:
Assistant Director of Housing:
Intern:
Consultant:
Therapeutic aid:
Medical Transcriber:
Admissions officer:
Peer— counselor trainer:
Dialysis technican;
Elementary school teacher:
registered Nurse:
Psychiatric research associate:
25
17
6
5
4
3
2
Career Objectives of Counselor Education Students
Psychologists: 17
Counselors: 12
Clinical Psychologists: 12
Teachers: 7
School counselors: 6
MFC: 5
Private practice: 5
Undecided: 3
College professors: 2
Educational psychologists: 2
Therapists;
Student Personnel Work:
Director of Housing Services:
Vocational counselor:
Educator:
Professor:
Systems communication
facilitator:
300
Appendix E # 1
( 3)
STATISTICS ON STUDENT CENSUS CARDS
Doctoral Students:
USC:
CSULA:
CSUN:
Chapman College:
CCNY:
Doctoral Students:
UCLA:
USC:
CSULA:
Pomona College:
Brooklyn College:
Colleges and Universities from which they received
the M.S. Degree
15
5
4
3
2
Colleges and Universities from which they received
the B.A. Degree
5
4
4
2
2
Doctoral Students: M.A./M.S. Degree Majors
Psychology:
Counselor Education:
Educational Psychology:
Clinical Psychology:
Rehabilitation Counseling:
Education:
Special Education:
Secondary Education:
Human Development:
MFC:
School Psychology:
Public Administration:
Counseling Psychology:
School Counseling:
Nursing:
12
10
4
2
2
2
301
Appendix E # 1
(4)
STATISTICS ON STUDENT CENSUS CARDS
Doctoral Students: B.A./B.S. Degree Majors
Psychology:
English;
Philosophy:
History:
Music:
Spanish:
Political Science:
French Literature:
Sociology:
21
2
Biology.
Business Managernent
Social Welfare:
Geography:
Physical Education:
Nursing:
Economics:
Religion:
Social Science;
Masters’ Students: Colleges and Universities from which they received
the B.A. Degree
UCLA: 4
CSUN: 4
USC: 3
CSULA: 3
UCSD: 2
CSUDH: 2
Masters' Students: B. A ./B ,S. Degree Majors
Psychology: 1 1 Performing Arts:
Sociology: 5 Spanish:
Philosophy: 4 Social Science:
Home Economics: 3 Anthropology:
History: 2 Mathematics:
English: 2 Art:
Elementary Education: 2 Behavioral Science:
Music: 2 Biology:
Political Science: 1 Industrial
Physical Education: 1 Management :
302
Appendix E # 1
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303
Appendix E # 2
TO: All Concerned
FROM: Paul A. Bloland, Department of Counseling
DATE: December 21, 1976
I SUBJECT; Student Census, Department ur Counseling
Fall Semester, 1976
During the Fall Semester, 1976, the Department of Counseling conducted Its
third* census survey of those students registered in all classes. Copies of
the census form were supplied to all full-time and part-time instructors and
they were asked to distribute and collect them from their classes. Although
some students, particularly those registered for 794 credit, may not have
been surveyed, it is felt that these data represent a reasonably complete
and accurate description of the students who were enrolled in the Department
of Counseling this Fall Semester.
TABLE 1
Degree Objective and Sex of Counseling Students
MSED % Doctorate % Total
Female 75 6 1 28 53 1 0 3
Male 48 39 25 47 73
Total 123 70 53 30 1 7 6
One hundred and seventy six students completed the census cards. Sixty— one
percent of the students in the department with an MSED objective and 53%
with a doctoral objective are female while 39% with the MSED objective and
47% with the doctoral objective are male. Eight students or 4 l^ % indicated
that they had a disability. Of the 1 7 6 students, 46, or 26% checked one of the
five non-white categories. •
Most of our students (73%)are between the ages of twenty one and thirty tw o
and (21% ) are above thirty two. Six percent of the students did not fill out their
age on the census card. The range of student ages is from 2 1 to 5 1 years.
While 32 of our students listed their occupation as counselor and 26 as teacher,
the largest number (48 or 27% ) apparently are full time students.
*see also ; Student Census, Department of Counselor Education, Fall Semester
1976 dated, April 23, 1976.
Student Census, Department of Counselor Education, Summer Sess
1976, dated July 26, 1976
304
Appendix E # 2
We asked the respondents to indicate their career objectives. The top four
categories of Counselor, Student Personnel Work, Psychologist, and
Clinical Psychologist accounted for 52% of the total.
A better differentiated picture is presented when we look at the data on
certification objectives: 36 specified interest in the Psychology license,
43 in the MFC, 1 8 in the Community College Credential, 1 8 in the
Rehabilitation credential, and 28 in the Pupil Personnel Services Credential.
The table below presents data on the most frequently cited major field in
the highest degree held. As expected, most students present a solid back
ground in Psychology at both the Bachelor’s and the Master's level.
TABLE II
Major Field of Study in Highest Degree Held*
BA/BS MA/r
Education - 4
History . 4 -
Gerontology - 4
Political Science 4 -
Psychology 39 1 9
Social Work 4 -
Sociology 1 2 -
Special Education - 4
We were also interested in the institutions which have been the principal
feeders to our programs. The table below indicates the colleges and
universities from which we have drawn most of our students.
TABLE III
Institutions from which Counseling Students
have obtained their Highest Degree*
BA/BS MA/MS TOTAL
Gal State Dominquez Hills 5 I 6
Gal State Los Angeles 3 8 1 1
Gal State Long Beach 4 2 6
Gal State Northridge 8 1 2 20
University of California, Los Angeles 1 6 2 1 8
University Southern California 1 4 1 3 27
*See appendix for complete listing.
3Ü5
Appendix E # 2
The largest proportion of our students come from USC itself, with many
of them earning Masters degrees here. The student body is primarily
from the Southern California area although students come from other
universities including University of California at Berkeley, Arizona State
University, Boston College, City College of New York, and Witchita
State University.
A comparison of the totals for Spring Semester, 1976 and this term
reveals that Fall Semester is down by 84 students. There are 1 3 fewer
students in the MSED program and 7 1 fewer students reporting enrollment
in the doctoral program. Until these two semesters can be compared by
total units taught we will not know if this deficit represents a real loss
of enrollment or an insufficient return of census cards by doctoral students.
Appendix.
30p
Appendix E # 2
APPENDIX
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING
STUDENT CENSUS
Compiled by Este I la Sepulveda
December 21, 1976
3Ü
Appendix E # 2
O')
STATISTICS ON STUDENT CENSUS CARDS
Ethnic Background of Counseling Students
Blacks : 1 5
Asian ; 5
Spanish surname : 1 5
American Indian : I
Foreign : 7
Other : 126
no ethnicity Usted:8
Age of Counseling Students
21-22:
23-24:
25-26:
27-28:
29-30:
31-32:
33-34:
1 5
27
29
22
1 5
20
6
35-36:
37-38:
39-40:
41-45:
y 50:
8
9
3
8
3
no age listed: 1 1
Counselor Education Students with Disabilities
Yes: 8
No: 168
Certification Objective
Psychologist license: 36
Marriage/Family/
Counseling License: 43
Community College
Credential: 26
Pupil Personnel Services
Credential: 28
Rehabilitation license: 1 8
Others:
Public Health Nurse: I
School Psychologist: 1
Special Education: 2
Genetic Advisor: I
License already obtained
2
2
3
308
(2)
Appendix E # 2
Masters’ Students; Colleges and Universities from which they received the
BA degree
University of Southern California 1 4
Am bassador College 2
California State University, Los Angeles 3
University of California, Los Angeles 1 6
California State University, L o n g Beach 4
Arizona State University 1
California State University,
Dominguez Hills 5
Northeastern University I
California State University, Northridge 8
University of California, San Diego 2
W adham s College I
Miami University of Ohio I
W ashington State University I
Antioch College I
Agricultural and Technical College
of North Carolina I
California State University, Hayward 1
University of Wisconsin 1
Pahlavi University, Israel I
St. John Fisher College I
Stanford University 2
University of California, Santa Barbara I
California State University, Chico I
Yale University 2
Boston College I
University of Pennsylvania 1
Pepperdine College I
Ashland College I
State University, New York I
Manhattan College
California State University,
San Diego
University of Puget S ound
Gettysburg College
California State Technical
University, Pom ona
Syracuse Univers ity
Macalester College
Humanities
University of Minnesota
Occidental College
University of California,
Irvine
Scripps College
Mercy College, Detroit
Southern Connecticut
State College
California State University,
Sonom a
Barnard College
Spelman College
Webster College
University of Kentuckey
Margrove College
California State University,
Fullerton
Bowling Green University
Masters’ Students: BA/BS Degree Majors
none listed 3 American Studies
Physical Education/Recreation 2 Spanish
Education I Urban Affairs
German I Asian Studies
Music 4 Art History
Sociology 1 2 Elementary Education
English 2 Behavioral Science
Social Work 4 Child/Family Studies
Philo sophy 2 Hom e Econom ics
Political Science 4 Art
Biology 2 Social Sciences
Liberal Arts I Black Studies
Education Psychology I Anthropology
History 4 MathemiUics
Psychology 39 Journalism
Counseling I Theater Arts
Biological Science I Early Childhood Education
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
1
I
I
1
1
2
I
309
Appendix E # 2
(3)
Doctoral Students: Colleges and Universities from which they received
the BA degree
University of California, San Diego
Uni/ersity of California, Berkeley
University of California, Los Angeles
Mount Saint Mary's
California State University,
Los Angeles
California State University, Fullerton
Southern Illinois University
Wisconsin State University
Carroll College
Point Lane College
San Diego State University
University of Michigan
University of Minnesota
California State University, Northridge
City College, New York !
Doctoral Students: MA/MS Degree majors
Marriage/Family Counseling
Psychology
Special Education
Educational Psychology
Social Work
Rehabilitation Counseling
Counseling
Gerontology
Education
Teacher Education
Biology
Behavioral Science
N o major field listed
Doctoral Students; BA/BS degree majors
Political Science
Sociology
Psychology
Business Education
French
English
Recreation
Astronomy
Hum an Development
Chemistry/Biology
Social Welfare
History
Education
Nursing
Speech
N one listed
Mulligan College, Tennessee
University of California,
Riverside
University of Detroit
Sacramento State College
Linfield College
Brooklyn College
Pom ona C allege
University of Missouri
Jackson University
University of Arizona
San Jose State College
Dartmouth College
Haigazian
Boston College
none listed
I
1 9
4
1
2
2
3
I
4
I
I
1
2
4
2
24
2
1
2
Appendix E # 2
(4)
STATISTICS ON STUDENT CENSUS CARDS
Present Occupations of Counselor Education Students
Student 48
Counselor 22
Teacher 28
School Psychologist 5
Marrtage/Family Counselor 5
Therapist 3
Probation Officer 2
Truck Driver 2
Clerk 2
Personnel 2
Musician
Tennis Professional
Dean of Students
Ombudsman
Operations Coordinator
School Administrator
Underwriter Trainee
Student Community
Coordinator
Stewardess
Director Student
Travel Service I
Research Assistant 2
Pharmacy Technician 1
Psychological Testing 1
Book seller I
Medical and Science
Writer I
Administrative Aide I
Technician
Supervisor
SPS Assistant
Director, Housing
Dialysis Technician
Reading Specialist
Deputy Public Guardian
Marketing Researcher
Psychological Assistant
Peer Counselor Trainer
Peer Counselor
Mental Health Worker
Administrator
Case Worker
Gerontolog ist
Chauffeur
Research Consultant
Director, Scholarship Fund
Hi-fi salesman
Director, Mental Health Center
Classroom Assistant
Director Activities .Housing
School Nurse
Director, Rehabilitation Facility
None listed
311
Appendix E # 2
(5)
STATISTICS ON STUDENT CENSUS CARDS
Career objectives of Counseling Students
Counselor 53
Ph.D. 1 8
1
Student Personnel Work 1 4 1
Clinical Proficiency I
Rehabilitation Counselor I
Marriage/Family Counselor 5
School Psychologist I
Private Practice 7
Master’s degree 1 0
Pediatrician I
T eaching 3
Clinical Psychologist 1 4
Psychologist 1 3
Organizational Development
Specialist I
Psychotherapist 4
i
Child Psychologist I
i
Clinical Assessment I
1
Undecided 8 ;
None Listed 1 2
Doctoral Students: Colleges and Universities from which they received
the MS degree
Azusa Pacific I Chapman College I
California State University, Linfield College I
Northridge 1 3 California State University,
California State University, Long Beach 2
Los Angeles I Witchita State University 1
California State University, Arizona State University I
San Diego 2 Cornell University 1
Wayne State University 2 American University,
University of Southern Beirut I
California 6 University of California,
California State University, Santa Barbara I
San Jose I University of California,
City College, New York I San Diego I
Eastern Tennessee State Southern Illinois
University I University 1
California State University, California State University,
San Bernadino I Dominguez Hills I
.31
Appendix E # 3
TO: All Concerned
FROM:. Paul A, El.oland, Chair, Dex>artment of Counseliricj and
Special Education
DATE: October 19, 1983
SUBJECT: Student Censtrs,- Counseling I'rach, Fall Semester, 1982
During the Fall Semester, 1982, the Department of Counseling and
Special Education conducted its fourth* census survey of those students
enrolled in all of the counseling (Ed Co) classes. After enrollment
had stabilized in the Fall, copies of the census report form (see appen
dix F) were distributed to all full-time and part-time instructors who
were asked to collect the data from each of the students enrolled in
their classes. Although some students, particularly doctoral students
registered for 794 credit, may not have been surveyed, it is felt that
these data represent a reasonably complete and accurate description of
the students enrolled in counseling classes at that time regardless of
major or department of origin.
Who Takes Counseling Classes?
Wliile most of the students in counseling classes are students
admitted to this department, they come from thirteen majors ahd/or
departments as shown in Table 1. Eighty percent of the enrolled
students were majoring in counseling psychology, with college person
nel services adding another 7% and special education students 5%. The
bulk of the non-counseling psychology' students v;ere master's candidates,
again in college student personnel services and special education.
Degree Objective and Gender
Because data were available from 1976, Table 2 presents and
compares the students enrolled in 1976 with those enrolled in 1982
on the variables of degree objective and gender.
*See also: Student Census, Department of Counselor Education,
Spring Semester, 1976 (April 23, 1976)
Student Census, Department of Counselor Education,
Summer Session, 1976 (July 26, 1976)
Student Census, Department of Counseling, Fall Semester,
1976 (December 21, 1976)
313
Tabic 1
Current Major of Students Attending Counseling Classes
During the Fall Semester, 1982
Degree Objective
Master's
candidates
Doctoral
candidates
Total
candidates
Major
Counseling Psychology
College Student
I Personnel Services
Special Education
Psychology
Teacher Education
Educational
j Administration
Higher and
I Postsecondary Education
Elementary Education
Educational Psychology
Education
Social Work
Gerontology
Exercise Science
Appendix E # 3
Tablo 2
Degree Objective ur.d Gencicr of Students
Enrolled During the- Fal3 Semester, 1982
______MSEd____________ Doctoral____ ___________ Total______
1976 1982 1976 1982 1976 1982
# % # % # % # % # % %
Female 75 61 57 75 28 53 66 60 103 58.5 133 67
Male
48 39 22 25 25 47 44 40 73 41.5 66 33
Total
123 70 89 45 53 30 110 55 176 100 153 100
One hundred seventy six students were enrolled in counseling classes
in 1976 while 199 were enrolled in 1982. Sixty seven percent were feiuale
in 1982 compared with 58.5 female in 1976. While the ratio of females
to males in 1982 was 60:40 at the doctoral level, the disproportion was
even greater at the master's level with females constituting 75% of the
enrolled students. These ratios represent a decided shift in the ratio
of men to women in favor of women students during the six-year interval
between surveys. In this same period, the number of enrolled students
went from 176 in 1976 to 199 in 1982, a gain of 11.5%.
The single shift occurring between 1976 and 1982 occurred in the
number and percentage of students who were in the doctoral program: the
number of doctoral students doubled, from 53 to 110, while the percentage
rose from 30% to 55%, or over half of the enrolled students.
Although not shown on Table 2, the survey showed that of the 110
doctoral students, 101 were PhD students while 9 were interested in the
Doctor of Education degree.
Ethnic and National Origin
Another set. of survey items asked the respondents to indicate the.ir
ethnic or national origin. Table 3 presents these data for both the
master's and doctoral degree candidates.
315
Table 3
Ethnie and/or National Origin of Enrolled Students
Degree Objective
Ma î i te r ' s
candidates
Doctoral
candidates
Total
candidates
Ethnic and/or
National Origin # % # % # %
Caucasian 65 73 04 86 159 80
Hispanic 11 12 1 12 6
Asian 9 10 4 4 13 7
Black 2 2 3 3 5 3
Native American 0 0 1 1 1 .5
Iranian 2 2 3 3 5 3
Iraqi 0 0 1 1 1 .5
South African 0 0 1 1 1 .5
Other origins
(unspecified)
0 0 2 2 2 1
Total 89 100 110 100 199 100
While the overwhelming proportion of the students at both the master'
and doctoral level are Caucasian, most of the non-Caucasian students are
■Hispanic or Asian and enrolled for the master's degree objective. Most
of the international students are in the doctoral program. i
I
Ages of Enrolled Students I
I
Another interesting set of demographic data concerns the age of
master's and doctoral students (Table 4). The bulk of our students are ■
between 26 and 35 years old (54%) while 17% or 33 are younger and 18% (37) |
kre older than 35. As might be expected doctoral students tend to be j
somewhat older than the master's students. i
31,6
Appendix E # 3
Table 4
Ages of Enrolled Students
Degree Objective
Master's Doctoral Total
candidates candid a tes candidates
Age
# % # % # %
20-25 27 30 6 6 33 17
26-30 25 28 34 31 59 30
31-35 10 11 37 34 47 24 1
36-40 6 7 18 17 24 12 1
41-45 5 6 4 4 9 4 j
46-50 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
Over 50; 1 1 1 1 2
1 i
No age
listed : 14 16 9 8 23
1
Total 89 100 110 100 199 100
Pre-Enrollment Academic Majors
We are interested in the nature of the academic work that our
students took before becoming candidates for degrees at USC or in the
counseling track. Predictably, psychology was far and away the most
popular undergraduate major for counseling students, but surprisingly.
English/literature was second, ahead of education and sociology. Of
those students vdio came in with a master's degree, most (62) had taken
their graduate degree in counseling psychology with the next greatest
number (18) from psychology. VThen we combine the baccalaureate
and master’s degree majors we find that psychology, counseling psych
ology, English/literature, education, and sociology constitute 88% of
■the ten most cited academic majors. A complete listing of the wide
variety of academic majors brought to their USC studies by our students
can be found in Appendix A.
31 7
Appendix E # 3
Tab 3 e 5
The Ten Pre-Enrollment Acadoii.c Majors Most Cited
by Enrolled Students During I‘ a11 Semester, 1982
Baccalaureate Degree Majors # Mastar's Degree Majors
1. Psychology 90 1. Counseling Psych 62
2. English/Literature 20 2* Psychology 18
3- Education 17 3. Clinical Psych 9
4. Sociology 14 4. Education 4
5- Political Science 5 5. Educational Psych 3
6- Speech/Drama/Theater 5 6. Educational Admin 3
7- Physical Education 5 7- English/Literature 2
8. Social Work 4 8. Speech/Dr am a/Th eater 2
9. Biology 4 9. Business Admin 2
10. Social Science 4 10. Elementary Ed 2
11. Human Development 2
Total 168 12. Intl. Education 2
13. Recreation & Leisure 2
Total ÎÏ3
Combined Baccalaureate and Master's
Degree Majors : #
1. Psychology 108
2- Counseling Psych 63
3. English/Literature 22
4. Education 21
5.- Sociology 15
6. Clinical Psych 9
7. Speech/Drama/Theater 7
8. Political Science 5
9. Business Admin 5
10. Physical Education 5
Total 260
Note; students with master's degrees also listed their baccalaureate
degree majors.
318!
Appendix E # 3
Feeder Colj.eqc n and Un i ver. si tes
Of particular interest from a recruitment and admission; prospective
is an examination of those colleges and universities from which the
department draws the hulk of its students. Table 6 presents a listing
of the institutions from whi.ch our graduate students received their
previous degree or degrees.
Table 6
The Ten Collegiate Institutions From Which Most
of Enrolled Students Have Taken Prior Degrees
Baccalaureate Degrees No, Master's Degrees No.
1. U. of'S. California 31 1. U. of S. California 42
2. UC-Los Angeles 24 2. CSU-Northridge 13
3. CSU-Northridge 15 3. CSU-Los Angeles 9
4. CSU-Los Angeles 7 4. CSU-Fullerton 5
5. CSU-Dominguez Hills 7 5. Loyola/Marymount 5
6. CSU-Fullerton 6 6. San Diego State U. 5
7. CSU-Long Beach 6 7. Pepperdine 4
8. San Diego State U. 4 8. UC-Los Angeles 3
9. UC-Berkeley 3 9. CSU-Bakcrsfield 2
10. UC-Santa Barbara 3 10. Antioch 2
11. Loyo1a/Marymount 3 11. Cal Lutheran 2
12. C.S.P.P.-Los Angeles 2
13. U. of Wisconsin 2
All Degrees No.
1. U. of S. California 73
2. CSU-Northridge 28
3. UC-Los Angeles 27
4. CSU-Los Angeles 16
5. CSU-Fullerton 11
6. San Diego State U. 9
7. Loy o1a/MA rymoun t 8
8. CSU-Long Beach 7
9. CSU-DoTTiinguez Hills 7
10. Pepperdine 6
319
Appendix E # 3
Mort of the students enrolled in counseling classes Fall Semester
had t,-i];en prior degrees at the UnJversity of Southern California as one
might expect. However, the two most prominent feeder institutions were
the California State University at Northridge (CSUN) and the University
of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Counseling students arc drawn almost
entirely from California institutions. Only 19 master's students took
their baccalaureate degrees in another state. Of the doctoral students,
32 took their baccalaureate degrees and 11 their master's degree outside
of California (Appendix C).
Within California, our students took 50 baccalaureate degrees and
37 master's degrees from the California State University system. The
University of California provided 34 baccalaureate degrees and only three
master's degrees. Private institutions in California awarded our students
67 baccalaureate degrees and 39 master's degrees (Appendix B). Fourteen
baccalaureate degrees were obtained abroad but only two master's degrees;
both figures are probably underestimates (Appendix D).
Career Objectives
The enrolled graduate students were asked about their long-term caree
objectives (Table 7) . It is j.nteresting to note that 86 doctoral students
listed "clinical psychologist" as their primary objective although they
were enrolled in a counseling psychology program. "Clinical psychologist"
may well be viewed by them as a generic career title for the type of
professional work they would like to do.
In summary, it appears that most of our students aspire to be clinics
psychologists; teachers; marriage and family counselors; or academic ad
ministrators .
License and Credential Objective
Table 8 lists the license and credential objectives of students
enrolled last Fall Semester.
It seems clear that most expect to be licensed by the state of
California as psychologists or as marriage, family, and child counselors
or bo th.
Current Occupations
We were interested in what our students do to earn a living while
going to graduate school.. Surprisingly, the largest single group ident
ified themselves as students while most of the others indicated that they
performed some sort of helping function utilizing their counseling
training (Appendix E).
320
Table 7
Career Objectives of Enrolled Students
Appendix E # 3
Master's
candidates
Doctoral
candidates
Clinical psychologist
Licensed M.F.C.C.
Teacher
Academic Administrator
Writer
School psychologist
Academic advisor/counselor
Rehabilitation counselor
Lecturer
Researcher
Clinical administrator
Clinical consultant
College student personnel
services
Pupil personnel services
Career counselor
Sex therapist
No career objective listed
21
25
9
7
0
4
4
3
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
13
86
3
31
3
7
1
0
0
2
3
2
2
1
0
0
1
13
Total
candidates
107
28
40
10
7
5
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
26
Summary
From these data one can draw a composite portrait of the typical
student who responded to our survey in the Fall Semester, 1982.
Our typical student is female and working for a PhD in counseling
psychology. A Caucasian, and between 26-30 years of age, she has a
baccalaureate degree in psychology and a master's degree in counseling
psychology, both from USC. She intends to become a clinical psychologisi
has the MFCC license already, and is expecting to obtain her psychology
license after graduation. She is currently working as a therapist or
counselor while pursuing her graduate studies.
321
Appendix E # 3
Table 8
License and Credential Object.ive of Enrolled Students
Master * s
candidates
Doctoral
candidates
Total
candidates
License/Credential
# % # % # %
Psychology 24 27 90 82 114 57
Marriage, Family, and 50 56 41 37 91 46
Child Counselors
College Student Personnel 14 16 3 3 17 9
Services
Community College 2 2 8 7 10 5
Pupil Personnel Services 5 6 3 3 8 4
Communication Handicapped 6 7 0 0 6 3
Rehabilitation 4 5 0 0 4 2
Learning Handicapped 3 3 0 0 3 2
School Psychologist 1 1 0 0 1 1
No objective listed 4 5 11 10 15 8
Note: Many students have listed multiple objectives
Although this profile represents a "typical" student, there really
is no typical student as a review of the tables and data upon which this
profile was based will quickly indicate. Nevertheless, it is instructive
to keep in mind the nature and composition of our graduate student body
as we plan for the future.
Appendix
APPENDIX
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING
STUDENT CENSUS
FALL, 1982
Compiled by Robert Hails
April, 1983
323
Appendix E # 3
Appendix A
Prior Degrees Earned by Enrolled Students
Master's Candidates Doctoral Candidates
Degree
Bachelor's
Degree
Master's
Degree
Bachelor's
Degree
Master ’
Degree
Psychology 36 1 54 17
Education 15 1 2 3
Sociology 6 0 8 1
Counseling Psychology
0 3 1 59
English/Literature 8 1 12 1
Political Science 1 0 4 0
Speech/Drama/Theater 1 0 4 2
Social Work/VJelfare 1 0 3 0
Biology 1 0 3 0
Business Administration 3 0 0 2
Music 0 0 3 0
Physical Education/Exercise 2 0 3 0
Science
Philosophy 1 0 2 0
Social Science 2 0 2 0
General Studies 3 0 0 0
History 1 0 2 0
Humanities 1 0 1 0
Math 0 0 2 0
Economics 1 0 1. 0
Nursing 1 0 1 0
Spanish 3 0 0 0
French 1 0 1 0
Elementary Education 2 1 0 1
Psychobiology 0 0 2 0
Zoology 2 0 0 0
Communications 2 0 0 0
Marriage, Family, & 0 0 0 1
Child Counseling
Human Sciences 1 0 0 0
Chemistry 0 0 1 0
Child Study 0 0 1 0
Special Education 1 0 0 0
Secondary Education 0 0 1 0
Speech Pathology 0 0 1 0
Speech Communication 1 0 0 0
(Cent) A \i r d on t o x t page)
3 24
Appendix E # 3
Appendix A (Continued)
Prior Degrees Earned by Enrolled Student:
Master's Candidates Doctoral Candidate;
Bachelor's Master's Bachelor * s Master
Degree Degree Degree Degree De g
Art 0 0 1 0
Art History 0 0 1 0
Journalism 0 0 1 0
American Studies . 0 0 1 0
Liberal Studies 1 0 0 0
Anthropology 1 0 0 0
Jewish Studies 0 0 1 0
Geography 1 0 0 0
Design 0 0 1 0
Fashion Design 1 0 0 0
Theology 1 0 1 0
Physical Science 0 0 1 0
Clinical Psychology 0 0 0 9
Educational Psychology 0 0 0 3
Human Development 0 0 0 2
Educational Administration 0 1 0 2
International Education 0 1 0 1
Recreation & Leisure 0 1 0 1
Adult Education 0 0 0 1
Family Studies 0 0 0 1
Health Science 0 0 0 1
Industrial Psychology 0 0 0 1
Dance Therapy 0 0 0 1
Guidance 0 0 0 1
Institutional Technology 0 0 0 1
325
Appendix B
Calzjiornin Colleges and Universities From Which
Enrolled .Students Earned Prior Degrees
Appendix
School
Master's Candidates Doctoral Candidates
Bachelor *
Degree
s Master's
Degree
Bachelor'c
Degree
Master'
Degree
U. of Southern California 21 5 10 37
Calif. State Univ. (total) 12 2 38 35
Los Angeles 0 1 7 8
Northridge 2 1 13 12
Long Beach 3 0 3 1
Fullerton 1 0 5 5
Fresno 0 0 0 1
Bakersfield 0 0 1 2
Sacramento 0 0 0 1
San Diego State Univ. 1 D 3 5
San Francisco State Univ. 0 0 1 0
Sonoma State University 0 0 1 0
Dominguez Hills 4 0 3 0
Cal Poly Pomona 1 0 0 0
San Bernadino 0 0 1 0
Univ. of California (total) 15 1 19 2
Los Angeles 11 1 13 2
Berkeley 2 0 1 0
Santa Barbara 0 0 3 0
San Diego 1 0 0 0
Riverside 0 0 2 0
Irvine 1 0 0 0
Private Institutions (total) 31 3 36 36
Antioch University West 2 0 0 2
Pepperdine University 1 0 1 4
Loyola Marymount Univ. 2 1 1 4
University of Redlands 1 0 1 0
Chapman College 1 0 1 1
Occidental College 1 0 0 0
Point Lome College 1 0 0 0
Cal Lutheran College 0 0 0 2
California School of 0 0 0 2
Professional Psychology
(Los Angeles)
(Continued on next page)
326
Appendix E # 3
Appendix B (Continued)
California Colleges and Universities From Which
Enrolled Students Earned Prior Degrees
Master's Candidates Doctoral Candidate:
School
Bachelor'
Decree
s Master's
Decree
Bachelor * s
Degree
Master
Degrei
Private institutions (Cont'd)
Claremont Graduate School 0 0 0 1
University of San Diego 0 0 0 1
Pacific Oaks College 0 0 0 1
Biola University 1 0 0 0
Pomona College 1 0 0 0
Oakland University 1 0 0 0
Azusa Pacific University 0 0 0 1
Woodbury University 1 0 0 0
327
Appendix E # 3
Appendix C
K'on*-Califorriia Colleges and Universities From
Which Enrolled Students Earned Prior Degrees
Master's Candidates Doctoral Candidates
School
Bachelor'
Degree
s Master's
Degree
Bachelor's
Degree
Master' .
Degree
Wheaton College 1 0 1 0
Villanova University 0 0 1 0
Seattle Pacific University 1 0 0 0
University of Nev; Hampshire 0 0 1 0
Northern Illinois University 0 0 1 1
University of Florida 0 0 1 0
University of Kentucky 0 0 1 1
University of Wisconsin 0 0 1 2
Carnegie Tech 0 0 1 0
Wells College 1 0 0 0
University of Missouri 0 0 1 Ü
Syracuse University 0 0 1 1
University of Kansas 1 0 0 0
University of Hawaii 1 0 0 0
Concordia University 0 0 1 0
Evergreen State College 1 0 0 0
Edgewood College 0 0 1 0
George Mason University 0 0 1 0
University of Nevada at
Las Vegas
1 0 0 0
College of Wooster 0 0 1 0
University of Tulsa 1 0 0 0
Goddard College 0 0 1 0
Rutgers University 1 0 0 0
Rice University 0 0 1 0
Trinity 0 0 •1 0
The Colorado College 0 0 1 0
Grace College 1 0 0 0
Colby College 1 0 0 0
Lebanon valley College 0 0 1 0
Portland State University 0 0 1 1
Tufts University 0 0 1 0
Wayne State University 0 0 1 0
Seattle University 1 0 0 0
(Continued on next page)
328!
Appendix E # 3
Appendix C (Continued)
Non-California Colleges and Universities From
Which Enrolled Students Earned Prior Degrees
Master's Candi dates Doctoral Candidates
Bachelor'
School Degree
s Master's
Degree
Bachelor's
Degree
Master'
Degree
Brigham Young University 1 0 0 0
University of New Mexico 1 0 0 0
Whitman College 1 0 0 0
La Salle College 0 0 1 0
Arizona State University 0 0 1 0
Allegheny College 0 0 1 0
Saint Mary's College,
Notre Dame
0 0 1 0
University of Vermont 1 0 0 0
George Washington University 0 0 0 1
Auburn University 0 0 0 1
Saint Mary's of the Woods 1 0 0 0
College
University of Dayton 0 0 1 0
University of Texas . 0 0 1 0
Northern Michigan University 0 0 1 0
Knox College 0 0 1 0
State University of New York, 0 0 1 0
Oswego
Springfield College 0 0 0 1
Harvard University 0 0 0 1
Wichita State University 0 0 0 1
Lesley College 0 1 0 0
Marquette University 0 0 0 1
University of Chicago 0 0 0 1
Northern Arizona University 0 0 0 1
Temple University 0 0 0 1
Lewis and Clark 0 0 0 1
Barry International University 0 0 0 1
State University of New York 0 1 0 0
329
Appendix E # 3
Appendix D
Foreign Colleges and Univcrsities Form Which
Enrolled Students Earned Prior Degrees
Master's Candidates Doctoral Candidates
Bachelor's Master's Bachelor's Master'r
School Degree Degree Degree Degree
National University of Iran 0 0 2 0
University of Tehran 0 0 1 0
Soochow University of Taiwan 1 0 0 0
Caracus-Venezuela 1 0 0 0
Universidad de las Americas 1 0 0 0
The Chinese University of 1 0 0 0
Hong Kong
University of Puerto Rico 1 0 0 0
University of Dublin,
VJestville
0 0 1 1 1
1
National Cheng-Chi University 0 0 1
1 !
Quebec University 0 0 1
0 1
Baghdad University 0 0 1
0 1
Universidad Central de 1 0 0 0 !
Venezuela
National University of 1 0 0 0
Malaysia 1 0 0 0
Wilfred Laurier University 0 0 1 0
Saint Clat College 1 0 0 0
Antillian College 1 0 0 0
330
Appendix E # 3
Appendix E
Current Occupations of Enrolled Students
Current occupation
No. of
Master's
candidates
No. of
Doctoral
candidates
No. of
Total
candidates
student 31 20 51
Therapist/counselor 5 24 29
Academic administrator 11 5 16
Licensed M.F.C.C. 1 14 15
Academic advisor/counselor 5 5 10
Therapist/M.F.C.C. intern 3 7 10
Psychological assistant 0 6 6
Teaching assistant/clinical 3 6 9
associate
Teacher 8 10 18
Rehabilitation counselor 3 3 6
School psychologist 2 3 5
Psychologist 0 2 2
Research assistant 1 3 4
Mental health/social service 0 5 5
administrator
College student personnel 4 0 4
services
Waitress/walter 4 0 4
Secretary/word processor 1 2 3
Psychometrist 0 2 2
Nurse 1 2 3
Recreational therapist 1 1 2
Psychiatric technician 0 1 1
Medical case worker 1 0 1
Psychiatric intake interviewer 0 1 1
Group facilitator 1 0 1
Child care worker 1 0 1
Licensed clinical social worker 0 1 1
Marketing coordinator 0 1 1
Cardio-pulmonary technician 0 1 1
Grocery clerk 1 0 1
Janitor 1 0 1
Apartment manager 0 1 1
Salesperson 1 0 1
Real estate agent 1 0 1
Advertising writer 0 1 2.
Library assistant 1 0 1
33^1
Appendix F
Connus Report Form
Appendix E # 3
(Front)
Social Security First Name
Local rasiling address _____________
Print last nane ai>ove in capitals
/
Zip Code
Sex: F M ; Age ; Disability? No Yes___
Telephone: (Home)( )
(Day phone)( )
Ethnic Origin: Black ; Hispanic ; Asian ; Native American ; Caucasian ; Other
International Student? No Yes ; Citizen of __________________
Immediate degree objective: f-EEd ; Adv. lEEd ; EdD ; PhD ; Kon-degree_
Major field_______________________ Siçpl field (Doctoral) __________________
Current Occupation
Career Objective
E-VBS Degree: 19___, Institution
Master's Degree: 19___, Institution
Major
Major
(Please turn this card over and complété the requested information)
(Back)
Licensing adjective: MFC___; Psycholog)'___. Certification Objective: Rehabilitation ;
College Student Personnel Svcs Credentialing Cfojocti\-e: Communication Handicatmed ;
Learning Handicapped ; Severely Handicapped ; Community College ; School Psydi ;
Pupil Personnel Svcs . Other_____________________________________________
Please give us your permanent home mailing address if different from the local ms il in:
address:
Street
/
Telephone ( )
Notes:
. Today's Date
Zip Code
19 Thank you.
332
C'
Appendix E # 4
SCHOOL
of
1
. 1
T o
FROM.
w i
DATE:
SUBJECT
All Concerned
Paul Bloland, Chairperson
March 12, 1984
Follow-up Survey of Doctoj
Spring of I983
DEPARTMENT OF
COUNSELING AND
SPECIAL EDUCATION
In the Spring of I983, the Department of Counseling and
Special Education mailed a survey .questionnaire to former
students who have graduated from the doctoral program in
counselor education or counseling psychology between 1974 and
1983. Out of the approximately 125 people for whom addresses
could be obtained, ninety-nine responded, a response rate which
would Indicate that the data in this report are reasonably
comprehensive.
The study was designed by Dr. Paul Bloland, chairperson of
the department, assisted by two graduate students: Robert Hails
who handled the data collection from start to finish, and Nancy
Parks who tabulated the responses and wrote the initial draft of
this report.
The report itself is organized around the items as they
appeared in the questionnaire and presents the first follow-up
study of our doctoral graduates. Hopefully, the next such study
will have access to an even more extensive and complete list of
doctoral graduates.
Sex, Ethnic Origin, and Current Location
Of the ninety-nine graduates who responded to the
questionnaire, sixty-eight were men and thirty-one were women.
The predominant ethnic background of the respondents was white,
non-Hispanic, and they accounted for ninety-three percent of the
responses. The remaining seven percent was equally divided
among Asian, American Indian, Black, and Hispanic ethnic origins.
The USC graduates tend not to leave Southern California with
seventy-eight percent reporting addresses varying from San Diego
to Bakersfield. Nine percent live in Northern California, twelve
percent are out-of-state, and only one reported a foreign address.
Degree and Dissertation
Almost all of the graddaces vfho completed the questionnaire
had been awarded the doctorate within the past ten years. Ninety-
five percent of them received the Ph. D. and five percent received
the Ed. D.
3331
Appendix E # 4
The dissertation titles were categorized and v/e found that
over half (fifty-one percent) of the dissertation topics included
a humanistic-existential orientation (violation, denial, self-
awareness, etc.) or variables related to psychotherapy relation
ships, outcomes, and training. The type of therapy, either group
or individual, frequently appeared in the titles of the
aforementioned topics. Other prominent topics, equaling thirty-
one percent of the dissertations, included physiological and
psychological illness (seven percent) androgeny (five percent)
assertiveness training (five percent) educational counseling
(five percent) drug and alcohol abuse (five percent) and family
relationships (four percent). The remaining eighteen percent of
the dissertations named by the respondents dealt with specific
subjects such as sexist attitudes, foreign students, aging,
research and measurement, and career guidance. Thirteen individuals
did not list a dissertation topic on the questionnaire.
Professional Memberships and Licenses
Two survey items asked the respondents to indicate their
participation in professional associations and the licenses they
held. While twenty-one different organizations were named by
Department of Counseling doctoral graduates,, over half of the
respondents are members of the American Psychological Association
or are in the process of applying. Approximately ten percent of
the respondents participate in each of the following organizations:
1. American Personnel and Guidance Association (twelve percent)
2. California Personnel and Guidance Association (ten percent)
3. California State Psychological Association (thirteen percent and
4. California Association of Marriage and Family Therapists
(nine percent).
Questions concerning the California Marriage, Family and Child
Counseling (M.F.C.C.) license and the California Psychology license
revealed that seventy-five percent of the respondents hold the
M.F.C.C. license and thirty-six percent hold the California
Psychology license. It appears from these data that most of the
department's graduates aspire to be marriage, family, and child
counselors and/or clinical psychologists.
Pre and Postdoctoral Internships
Two items on the questionnaire focused on internships
obtained both before and after receiving the doctorate. Internship
experience was extremely varied although the majority of internships
took place in one of four settings. Appendix A outlines the
percentage of pre and postdoctoral internships in each of four
major employment settings. Out of approximately one hundred
obtained predoctoral internships, thirty percent were in community
or county mental health centers; twenty-eight percent in private,
state, V.A., or county hospitals; sixteen percent at university
counseling centers; and eleven percent in private practice settings.
334
Appendix E # 4
Postdoctoral internships were reported less frequently
(seventy-two responses) but the general pattern is similar to
predoctoral internships with two exceptions. First, there was
a significant increase in the private practice setting (thirty-
four percent) with numerous psychological assistantships emerging.
Second, although postdoctoral internships in the hospitals (twenty-
six percent) and in community mental health centers (seventeen
percent) continued to be significant after graduation, there was
a notable decrease in community mental health experience.
In summary, internships were obtained primarily in four major
settings - the community mental health centers, state and county
hospitals, educational settings, and private practice. Predoctoral
experience focused primarily on community mental health, whereas
post-doctoral experience showed a marked shift towards private
practice.
Employment Trends
Graduates responding to the questionnaire gave us an
indication of employment trends and career mobility by listing
their first job placement after receiving their degrees and then
their current position.
Following the same general classification of employment
settings as in the previous section (Appendix A), thirty-five
percent of the respondents listed private practice and thirty
percent cited educational positions as their first job placement.
Educational positions ranged from working in a university counseling
center to university teacher or administrator. The remaining
thirty-five percent of the responses were equally divided among
community mental health centers, hospitals, and specific "other"
job settings such as the armed forces, recreational agencies, and
law enforcement agencies. One hundred and eleven job titles were
listed by the ninety-nine respondents, indicating that some graduates
had held more than one position after completing the doctoral
program.
In answering the question, "What is your current position'’",
one hundred and thirty responses were tabulated from the
questionnaire indicating that the largest percentage of graduates
currently hold more than one position. Private practice claimed
forty-six percent of the responses; whereas the education sector
(twenty-five percent), hospitals (thirteen percent), and community
mental health centers (seven percent) accounted for much smaller
percentages of the total. From the current position data we can
conclude that almost one half of all doctoral graduates have
established a private practice solely or in conjunction with
another position. Educational and hospital positions do not
increase or decrease significantly in frequency from first
employment to current position, although there is a marked jump
from internship to first employment.
335
Appendix E # 4
As might be expected, job titles reflect, a higher
professional status as career development progresses over the
year from internship to current career. For example,
professional positions such as dean, school psychologist, and
hospital consultant become more prevalent in the current job
status items. Finally, there is a continual decline in
community mental health work from internship to first position
to current employment.
An optional item asked graduates to approximate their
annual salaries for current position (s). The mode, or most
frequent salary category, was "over $60,000"; it should be
added that this was largely accounted for by individuals
reporting two or more income-producing activities, one almost
invariably being private practice. If the "over $60,000"
category is eliminated, the responses are normally distributed
around the median or central salary category, i.e., the
$35,001 - 40,000 range.
Summary
From these data one can draw a composite sketch of a
typical doctoral graduate who responded to our survey in the
Spring, 1983. Our respondent is a white male who was awarded the
doctorate in the last ten years and still lives in Southern
California. As a doctoral student he wrote his dissertation in
an area appropriate to the humanistic-existential orientation
of the Department and conducted his predoctoral internship in
a community mental health center or hospital. Upon graduation he
found an internship in a private practice setting and became
a member of the American Psychological Association. His first
employment position was in a private practice setting as is
his current position but it tends to be held in conjunction with
an educational or hospital Job position. Our graduate currently
holds a California Marriage, Family and Child Counseling
license and intends to become a clinical psychologist.
336

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Asset Metadata

Creator Golden, Richard Lee (author)

Core Title An analysis of a humanistic and existential oriented doctoral counselor training program

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c30-302339

Unique identifier UC11226276

Identifier DP25159.pdf (filename),usctheses-c30-302339 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP25159.pdf

Dmrecord 302339

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Golden, Richard Lee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA