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An investigation of higher education in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon

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An investigation of higher education in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon

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Content AN INVESTIGATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN IRAN, IRAQ, AND LEBANON A Dissertation Presented to the Facility of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education by Thomas Sinclair Geraty January 1958 1 UMI Number: DP26037 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI DP26037 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 D 'SZ G 35^ Coo* | A This dissertation, w ritten under the direction of the C hairm an o f the candidate’s Guidance Comm ittee and approved by a ll members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the F acu lty of the School of E ducation in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of D o c to r of Education. D a te... 0 . c tab e r . .21 * . . 12.£7 Dean Guidance Committke Chairman ACKNOWLEDGMENT Sincere appreciation is tendered for the many help ful suggestions of his Committee on Doctoral Studies# and especially to Professor Myron S. Olson# Chairman# for his patience# constructive criticism, and continued encourage* meat during the course of the study. For their enthusiastic endorsement of the invest!* gation and for their excellent co-operation# acknowledgment of Indebtedness is given to contributors and friends in the Middle East* hast# but certainly not least# the researcher is warmly indebted to his wife# Hazel# for her continual encouragement and support# and to their children for their constant understanding and co-operation in keeping their home abnormally quiet during the long effort devoted to their husband * s and father *s study "for the Doctorate*" m m of contents CHAPTER PART ONE BACKGROUND AND SETTING I* THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE* ****** ♦ * * - * Background of the problem. * * * . . . * * . * Statement of the problem The problem* * » * *. *.********** * Purpose of the Investigation .*......* The purpose* ♦ ..******♦**♦**• Statement of assumptions * * * * * * ....... Importance of the study* . * . * ♦ ......... Delimitations of the study *+»»•*»**• Countries. *.**.********* * * * Level* «*•**•*****»*«**•*# Definitions of terms ♦ **********.* The last and the Nest* * .......... . . . The Near and Middle East * * * * * * * * * * The Middle last. . . . * . * * • . ....... Higher education Issue* **»**• + #«»«»*•»»"*»» Problem* or difficulty .*.**.**.** University *.♦*.***.*#*.***. Curriculum...................... Educational program adequacy ******** CHAPTER PAGE The procedure. ......... * * * * * * * 13 Research design. *,»****»«,**«* 13 Literature as a frame of reference * . * * * 14 : j • Literature as a source of data * . * * * * . 14 Use of instruments ****** * # * * * * * 14 Research procedure ***.****♦**** IS Tabulation of the data « * . . ......... 1? The organisation of the study* * * . ***** 17 II. LITERATURE AS FRAME OF REFERENCE ******** 20"" Internationalism .*♦♦*.********# 20 Comparative education* * * * * * # * * * * * * 28 The United States and the world order. * * . • 32 Higher education and its Issues and problems......... 41 Summary of the chapter * * * * * * 48 III* BACKGROUNDS IN THE MIDDLE EAST . . . ****** 49 Introduction ***•.*•***.♦**... 49 Religious life ••*•*•«*« ........... 51 folitieo-eeonamic life **»**•«*•*•* 57 Socio-eultural life* ************* 80 Educational life ••*.*•*•«*•*.•• 90 Iran ..................... 103 J Background and structure of education* . * * 104 The educational ladder ****** * « * . * 111 V CHAPTER PACE Higher education * • * 113 Iraq • 114 Background and structure of education# . * # 114 The educational ladder ♦ . . • * 118 Higher education * .**..*«. . > > • . 132 Lebanon. ................... 123 Background and structure of education# . * . 123 The educational ladder * * # ........ 126 Higher education * * . , * . . « . * . * * * 129 Summary of the chapter ....... f ... . 129 PART TOO ISSUES AND RESOLUTION PROCEDURES IP* ISSUES, PROBLEMS, AM DIFFICULTIES OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN TOE MIDDLE EAST ........ * 134 Introduction . . * . ......... ...... 134 Issues, problems, difficulties found in the selected countries . * ...... . . * 135 Higher education in Iran * .... . .... 135 Control...................... . . . 137 Organisation ............... 139 Philosophy and objectives. ........ 141 Administration * .............* • . . • 144 Instruction and curricula. ........ 146 Methodology. ............... 149 CHAPTER page Faculty and staff........... * * * * * * ISO Student personnel* .... * * * * . . . . 151 Higher education to Iraqi . * * * * * * ♦ * * 155 Control* . * * * * * * * * ♦ .*****. 159 Organisation *,**•*,. . * . * * * * 164 Philosophy and objectives. * * * . * . . , 165 Administration ,****>**♦**,*• 168 Instruction and curricula. *..***.* 170 Methodology. ......... ....... * 175 Faculty and staff* ******.***#** 176 Student personnel* .^* . * ........ 179 " Higher education to Lebanon. .... . * * ♦ 181 Control.........* * * * 182 Organisation ............... 186 Philosophy and objectives* .............. 188 | Administration # * * * ******** * 192 Instruction and curricula* ******** 194 Methodology, * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * 200 Faculty and staff*.............* , * • 201 \^Student personnel* ******* * * * * * 204 Issues, problems* difficulties possessed in common to the Middle East* * * * * . * * * * 208 Introduction ................ 208 General observations **♦**•*. * ♦ , . 210 Control* ................. 216 vii chapter m m Organisation **♦'**#********* 216 Philosophy and objectives, * * « * * * • * 217 Administration * * * * ♦ 220 Ins time t ion and curricula, * . # * * * * * 221 Methodology * * . * * ■ * * * « ■ # * ♦ * * * 222 Faculty and staff* *********** * 223 Student personnel* * * * * * * * * * * * * 224 Implications for other countries in the Middle East* • + «.» *»*.»* + »*« * * * 226 Distributed Institutions * • * * * * * * * * 226 limited facilities * * * * . * * « * * * * * * 226 Byzantine influence* * * * * * * * * # * * * 227 free-to-all policy * * * * * » . * * * * * * ■ * 227 Technical curricula* * * , * * > . * * * * * 228 Teacher migration* « * * * * * * * * * * * * 228 Teacher education* * * * * * * * * . * * * * 229 Summary of the chapter * * * . * * * * * * * * 229 V, CURRENT RESEARCH AMD RESOURCES FOR THE UW®m EAST* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 231 Past and contemporary research * * . * * * * * 231 Typical research studies *****.♦*♦*. 239 Administration, organization, and control* * 239 Curriculum • * . * * * . . . . * * * * * * * * * . * 241 Educational measurement, . . « * * * . * * * 242 Educational psychology * * * * * * * * * * * 243 viii CHAPTER PA® Educational sociology, .*..** . . , » . 243 / l/ Guidance and counseling*............ * , . 244 Mental and physical development,.......... 245 Philosophy and history of education* * * * * 245 Special programs .............. 24? Teacher education* ......... **....* 248 Resources for research # * * * * * * * * * * * 249 Primary sources* * * * * * * * * ****** 250 International sources* • * * * ...... 252 Regional sources * * * * * * * * * * . * * 254 Secondary sources* ............. 255 Clearing houses and documentation centers* * * 258 International institutions * * * * * * * * . 259 Education Clearing House (UNESCO)* * . ■ * * 259 International Bureau of Education. .... 260 Regional institutions* . . ...... . * * 261 Mathaf ath-Thaqafath al-f Aribiyah* .... 261 National institutions* * ******** * . 262 Egypt. **,♦..******♦* * * * * 262 Lebanon. * * * . * ................ , , 263. Local institutions ••«.** * * * . * . 264 Other Institutions.......... * 264 Summary of the chapter * * * . * . * « * * * * 266 002 * * ♦ * * * ♦ * • * * * ♦ ♦ * 0§1 3 ®I|O5C @ xaqoaa:* pm saatoqas X3xs;taATim-:i:a:*ui 992 ********'******** S3TSTA pmi>%mvmtpx% -[auoxam iiqisui £92: *«*.♦** * * • v ♦ • * •' * *$&w* pm A^jnv&j %o§ mmzSoxd bvjaz&q+ui 992 • * * * * *sdnoz% uorssnosjp pws Apnis Jfojnmjf pm sjjvmxoo bajivxzsxuTtapy 902 * * * * * * * uoxxarassux: ao| dTqsaapBaq £ 8 2 * * * * * * * * * * * * * **x0xsfA£Bdt«it puts w p^a^siuxm pB p©Aoa<fetj £92 **************** *B£®Azn$ Z2Z ******* *Strjuu©x^ punos w$ms Stioq 292 ***************** trpzsmso® 1 9 2 * * * * * ♦ * * sruiauirmstn: aAj^toag&a 50 asfl 6£2 • * * * * * * * ‘ttox^xuSoaaa faBO|^auciaa«ii BIZ *********** uoxsftsHoaa;* HZ * * * * * * * # ' ‘TOf^fuiaaaa x^«°TW^T^sui SIZ * * * * • # * *..*.* aoi^piiSoaajt-jx^S %LZ * * * 'vloujxsSoo&z pagpaiAouqoa 30 uoTssmpy ZIZ * * * * * f * *snoox laoxx^lHtne trj uojsuaxsy 992 * * .......... . * Qd&%$ %wamp®m%& xBaauao 89 Z *•**•***• ; ......... m m i i u a /* qkv 'swsrisoaa ‘sanssi m Koumosara *ia seva ratavHO X CHAPTER PAGE Missions and seminars* ♦ »**♦♦** * 288 Cultural activities of the Arab league «*,«»*»*••»»••** 289 Regional seminars* * * * * * ****** 290 Audio-visual materials * * • * * * * * • 291 Resource persons ............ 291 Multi'* form approach* ♦ ********. 291 Aid of specialists ******** * * * 293 Abroad ............ 295 Bursary students and students who study abroad **.**•*«.**.♦ 296 Readjustment of returned students* * * > 296 Continuous .and free international communication* *********** * 298 World-Wide survey* ******** * * * 299 Inter-university scholars* ******* 299 Visits by foreign professors and students ............... 300 Teacher exchange programs* * * * * . * * 301 International educational partner-* ships* * * ***** * . * * * * * * * 301 International conferences. * * * * # . * 302 Research ***************** 305 Employment of evaluation and appraisal measures ***************** 312 xi u l l f t l t i£rn. fnw Specific procedural steps* ****** * * * * 313 Issues# problems, difficulties found in the selected countries * ******** * 313 / J Higher education in Iran * * * * * * * * * 314 Control. **************** 314 Organisation ******** * ***** 314 Philosophy and objectives* ******* 315 Administration «***»*«*♦*♦»* 315 Instruction and curricula. * * ***** 315 Methodology? ****..**♦.***. 316 Faculty and staff* * ****** * * * * 316 Student personnel* * * * * * * ***** 317 Higher education in Iraq * * * * * * . * * 317 Control# ................ 317 Organisation * * * * * * ******** 318 Philosophy and objectives* ******* 318 Administration * * * * . « * * * * * * * 318 Instruction and curricula* * * * • « * * 319 Methodology* * » * * * * * * . * * * * * 319 Faculty and staff* 320 Student personnel. ****#*•»*.» 320 Higher education in Lebanon. * * * . * * * 320 Control* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 320 Organization * * * * * * *•••**** 321 xii CHAPTER PACE Philosophy and objectives. , . * * * * * 321 Administration ********** * * * 321 Ins tame tion and curricula. * * * . . . . 321 • Methodology. * * * * . * . * ...... 322 Faculty and staff* * * « 322 Student personnel* *********** 323_ Issues# problems* difficulties possessed in common in the Middle East * * * • * * * 323 Implementation of procedures * * * * * . . . « 325 Decisions for solution * * * * * * ****** 325 Summary of the chapter .......... * * 326 PART THREE SUMMARY# FINDINGS# AND CONCLUSIONS vii* smmm$ findings, conclusions* and RECOMMENDATIONS* . * * . * * * . * * * * . * * 330 Hie summary* ***************** 330 Hie problem* * « . . . . • * . . . . * * * * 330 The purpose* **************** 330 The assumptions. *.****.**..*.* 331 Hie procedures * * . « . * . * * * . * * « * 332 Hie data, * ***************** 332 The findings ................ » 333 Literature and research* ***** * . . * * 333 Issues and problems* **■****,. * * * » 337 t * ? Z * . « . * «0a|^ano9 parjoaias aq:* 0 3 o^^Dads sucrfsni 01103 % * ? £ * • * sa^aunoa aqa Snow uomraoo suo^sntouoa a H* Hi I? af & © ft »§ © U U u 4> 4* 4> © © © U CO 4 > * 4> to to 9 I I * & I I § § © © § & a a © S’ I 40 CO j£ 4> co co co co £ » £ * £ » £ * o o o o $ o 1 1 I* © © - f t H* § c t * * CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 4> Co co co co co co co OM>vov£)\£iooa>co f St i J O * H* |d > CHAPTER PACE ^ Iran * * * * . * * * * « * * * * ■ t * * * * ■ ♦ . 347 Iraq *..*.♦***.** ............ 348 Lebanon* ............ . * * * ♦ 348 The recommendations * ........ 349 r Specific recommendations for the three i selected countries * * * * * * * * ♦ * * * 349 L Iran * * * * * . * ***** * ****** 349 Control* *'*************** 349 Organisation ************** 349 Philosophy and objectives* ******* 330 Administration *♦.*******#■**. 330 Ihstmctlon and curricula* * * * * * * * 351 Methodology. *»**.**,•**«*•« 351 Faculty and staff* *********** 351 Student personnel* * 352 Iraq ***,**************.** 352 Control* **************** 352 Organisation .............. 353 Philosophy and objectives* * * * * # » * 354 Administration ************* 354 Instruction and curricula* * * * « * * * 354 Methodology. ***** * * * * * * * * * 355 Faculty and staff* * ****** * * * * 355 Student personnel..* * * * * * * < * ■ * * ■ * • * 356 K V CHAPTER PAGE | tobiuion* ^ » 336 Control* 356 0^3|ti^3tlon - . * *, » ■ m # * * * * # - # • * * • ■ ? 356 Philosophy and objectives. * * * * * f * 336 I Administration • *,.* » * * *,.*.■* * * * 357 I Instruction, and curricula. * * »-• * * * 357 Methodology* * * « , * * * f * * * . 338 Faenlty and.staff* * * * * * * * * * * * 358 Student personnel# * * * * * * * * * * « 358 ■■General recommendations for Che .countries. of the Middle East *»**«*«*»»** 358 Hie suggestions for further study. , « . * * . 367 MtBtmmmm * «* »»»' * * * - »* + + < * * « ' * * * 370 A / . n o A * iTWwJJvwl) * * * . ■ * _ * . * * % * # * # * . m 0 9 9 € 41/6 A* better from 0# S. Commissioner of .Education# * * 403 1# Maps of countries .of the Middle .East ■ * ■ . * * * * 406 C. institutional Map-of Irani. Iraq, and Lebanon * « 411 0# Institutional Sunmary* **♦»*♦** * *- * * 413 At? *PA Uf I ? Q TABLE PA® I* United States Institutions with the Largest Foreign Student Enrollments, 1934*53* * * * 37 II* Areas and Populations of Middle Bast Countries • »*****#«*♦#♦**■«■* 50 III* Selected Sovereign Countries in the Middle Bast * * • * * • * » * * * * # * * * 52 IV. Estimates of Area in three Selected Countries *****.,*..**».**.**** 67 V. Refineries in Middle East Countries (1953)* 69 VI* Distribution of International Bask Loans in the Middle last (1936*1957).* * * * * . * . 72 VII* Publications in Middle East Countries (1957)* *.*****,********** aa VIII*. Daily Newspapers in Middle East Countries: Number and Estimated Circulation (1956) * ♦ 84 IX. Radio Receiving Sets in Middle East Countries (1955*56.) ♦ , * , * * *, *. * * * * * 86 I. Illiteracy in Middle last Countries * * * * * 95 XI* Current School Enrollments in Iran* Iraqi* and Lebanon in Various Educational Levels (1956)* ............. * • 97 XII* Decade Expansion of Iraqi State Education * * 98 xvii TABLE MCE XIII* Public Expenditures on Education in Middle- East Countries*..* * . * * * * * * * * « * * 100 XX?* Currencies and Official Rates ,of Exchange, , May* .1957-* * , * * * * * . * * * * * * 101 XV, UNESCO Members in MiddleEast Countries * , * , * 102.-. \J XVI* Universities, and Colleges, in, Iran ****** 140 J XVII* Student Enrollment by Faculties and Colleges, University of Teheran, 1954’ *55. * 152 XVIII* Educational Budget Increases in Iraqi* * * * * 158 XIX* Miscellany of Iraqi Colleges and their Sponsors, 1956-57. School Year * * * . . * * , 162 XX* University in Iraq* * » * * . * * * * * * * * 186 XXI* Student Enrollment by Iraqi Colleges*. 1951* * 1S0 XXII* Universities of Lebanon. * , * * * * * ♦ * * * 187 XXIII* Effect of LebaneseNational Examinations , ■on the Public School System* 1954.* * , *,: * * 206 XXIV* Student Enrollment by .Schools* American .University of Beirut* 1955-56 * , ****** 207 XXV* Student Enrollment by faculties* Jesuit University of Saint Joseph -(Beirut)* 1956-57 * * * * ******** * * • , * * 209 XXVI* University Student Enrollment in the Middle East * *...*•**** . * * * * * * 214 XXVII, Enrollment of Higher Education in Relation t to total Population * * . * * * * * * * * * 215 TABLE XXVIII, xxxx, mr xwwv* XXXI, XXXI It xviii pace Time Span of Doctoral Dissertations on Education in. Countries of the Middle East# 1921-56 »*»* + +'*»»*«»*«**» 233 Decade Span of Doctoral Dissertations on Education in Countries of the Middle East, 1921-56 ****»*******«»*«.».• 234 Distribution by Countries of Doctoral Dissertations on Education, 1921-36 * • » « 237 Topical Distribution of Doctoral Disserta tions on Education in Countries of the Middle last, 1921-56* . * ..............* 23S International Educational Exchange program Fiscal fear 1955* * * * * * * * * * * * * * 303 USf m FIGURES FIGUKE PAGE 1* Educational ladder and System of Iran * * • » > * 112 2# Educational tedder and System of Iraq * # * * * ♦ 119 3#- Educational tedder and System of tebanon* * . * * ■ * 127 4* Comparative Educational tedders of the Middle East * # . * * * * * # * *****■*'* * ISO 5. Higher Education levels in Iran . * ♦ « # * * * * 136 6* Secondary and Higher Education levels in Iraq * , 160 7* Secondary and Higher Education levels in Lebanon; Lebanese and French System ****** *183 8* Higher Education levels in Lebanon: American and British System* * # * * * * * * * * * * * * 184 PART ONE BACKGROUND AND SETTING CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AMD PROCEDURE The Middle East* like a smoldering powder keg in the arsenal among the nations of the world, is an area of international focus* Through past millennia military cam*" paigns and political intrigues of the Middle East have arrested the attention of both historians and statesmen. Currently# the horizons of the Middle East are some* what befogged by coolly calculated pacts# military juntas# social unrest# economic grumblings# and the rising heat of nationalism and ir redent ism. Much attention has been given# apparently# to the physio-political complex and to the socio-economic factors of the Middle East; but less focus# possibly# has been made on the educational patterns# issues# challenges# and problems in the same geographical area of the world. This is especially true of higher education in the Middle East* The East knows more about the universities and higher education of the West than the West knows about the universities and higher education of the East* Each year scores of young people in the East leave their national boundaries to study elsewhere in fields of higher education. What have they left behind# and why do they 3 study to countries other than their own? I* BACKGROUND Of THE PROBLEM Like many other countries of the world, the nations of the Middle East are seeking as quickly as possible status and participation to a new political and techno* logical era* Near and Middle East countries want national* ism, patriotism, sovereignty, and independence* Socio economic pressures are pushing the countries forward, and there is movement to the direction of advancement and prog ress* The countries desire to take their place among the respected members of the family of nations* Numerous issues and problems of government, society, industry, education, economics, transportation, and com munications have arisen in the rapid and explosive develop ments. Since World War II, particularly, a few countries in the Middle East have become republics or have become independent of foreign domination, and still more countries are nationalizing many of their industries, resources, and much of their commerce* More important than the development of any other of the resources is the development of human resource* In the Middle East man as an individual has assumed a new dignity and a new consciousness of responsibility* Manpower and 4 qualified leadership are at a premium* Populations in different countries of the Middle East are thirsting for literacy and education, Basic or fundamental education is being stressed# centralized agen cies are studying the issues# and efforts are being made to solve difficulties# Among the countries of the Middle East# because of ethnic relations# language facilities# and traditional mores, many similarities exist and numerous issues and problems are possessed in common* On the other hand, each country has also its individual and special con cerns and burdens* Some countries in the Middle East are concerned mostly with their fundamental and primary (elementary) school education* Other countries are committed to the development of government-sponsored secondary schools and the training of qualified secondary-schoo1 teachers* All of the countries must consider functional literacy and post-secondary school education for their citizens* Some of the countries do not have existing facilities for higher education* What should they do? How may they prepare their teachers# lawyers, doctors# government officials# and other professional personnel? What does the West know about the East in these respects? May anything be done to assist the countries of the Middle Bast with their burdens? 5 II. STATEMENT OW THE PROBLEM The Problem •The problem- of this inves tigation was to identify in Iran.# Iraq#: and Lebanon the issues .and problems- of higher education#, to isolate and categorize them# and to explore procedural- steps toward their - solution* III. PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION The Purpose The investigation was twofold in function: (1) to help interpret with documentation higher education of the Middle East for the Nest# and (2) to help the universities and Ministries of Education of the Middle East understand better their issues and problems of higher education and to explore procedures which educators may pursue for possible solutions to the issues and problems* Specifically# the purpose of the study was to answer the following questions concerning higher education in Iran# Iraq# and in Lebanon: 1. What literature and research are available cur rently on education in general and on higher education in particular about the Middle East? 6 2. What issues arid problems of higher education are identified and can be isolated especially in the three selected countries? a) Issues and problems found in each country; and b) Issues and problems possessed in common. 3* What resources and instruments are available in the' resolving of the issues# ■ problems# and difficulties? 4. What recommended procedural steps may be offered ^ to improve academic offerings and to solve the problems of higher education a) In each of the three countries? : b)' In:the Middle last? iv. smm m m of assumptions In this investigation the following assumptions were basic; 1 . , Each country in the Middle East wants ■ college* and university ^educated men and women* 2* Some countries have limited post-* secondary school educational offerings. 3* There is-need for curricular expansion and development in existing universities. 7 V. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY Frequently, when comparative education is considered and educational developments in various sections or coun tries of the world are reported# little or nothing is given on the Middle East in general or on individual countries in the Middle East in particular* An illustration in point concerns the research dur ing the period of 1950 to 1956* The editor of the Review of Educational Research stated that Educational research in. the United States was re viewed in the dime# 1956 Review (Vol. 26# Mo* 3) entitled ‘ 'Twenty-Five YearsoF”Educational Research." That issue and this one ("Educational Research in Countries Other than the 0*S*A*"> provide a survey of the current status and most important developments in educational research on the world scene* It is hoped that this issue will prove of interest and value to menders of the American Educational 1 Research Association and their colleagues abroad*1 Conspicuous by its absence is any mention of the Middle East* Mot one country of the Arab world is included in the otherwise broad coverage of educational research around the world. Has the Middle East not engaged in my research? Tom A. Lamke* Foreword to "Educational Research in Countries Other than the U. S.A.," Review of Educational Research* 27:4# February# 1957* Or if some research has been made on education in the Middle East, to what extent is it available? In his "Introduction** to the same issue of the Review* the chairman of the Committee on Educational Re search in Countries Outside the United States of America observed that * • ♦ experience with this international issue of the Review serves to give renewed emphasis to the need for some thorough study of educational terminology in dif ferent countries and the production of an international dictionary in this field* Finally# it should be said that while differences exist# substantial similarities and agreements are also evident in these reports * Among these are concern with much the same educational problems and needs in all the countries* * ' ■ ■ * .... .T' 7 l ’ . Because of residence for a number of years in the Middle East and because of educational service which en abled travel and visitation both of government and private schools in all the countries of the Arab States and Iran# it was desired to make an investigation of the issues of higher education in Iran# Iraq, and in Lebanon with two main objectives in mind: (1) to help interpret for the West higher education of the Middle East with documentation# and ^Victor H* Moll# Introduction to "Educational Research in Countries Other than the U.S.A*#” Review of Educational Research* 27:6* February#. 1957*' (Italics not in original*) (2) to help the educators of the Middle East understand better their issues# problems# and difficulties of higher education and their resources with the hope of discovering# if possible# effective procedures toward the solutions of the issues# problems# .and difficulties# v i. o r th e study ■ r Countries The investigation of issues# problems# and diffi culties of higher education was limited to three selected countries of the Middle East# each different in area# population# religion# and form of government: Iran# Iraq# and Lebanon, Level The level of higher education comprised only the university# or the four-year colleges connected with the universities# in the selected countries of the Middle East* VII* DEFIMITI0ME OF TEEMS For the purposes of this study these terms# or ex* pressions# me defined in the' following senses The East and the West Those countries and peoples pro-Asiatic# or sympathetic or susceptible, to the oriental philosophies, ideologies, mores# and the cultures of the Near, Middle, and Far East fashioned largely by m ancient# written tradition as opposed to the countries and peoples who lean toward# or with# the occidental# European# or Anglo- American ideals and traditions# are identified as the East and the Meat# the Hear and Middle East the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire# the his toric evolution of the Balkan States# and the impact of two World Wars have given various meanings ♦ In this study# however# the Hear and Middle East* henceforth called the Middle East, means roughly the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea— Turkey, Lebanon# Syria# Israel# Egypt# Libya--and eastward on the continent of Asia# including Iraq (Mesopotamia)# Iran (Fersia)# Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan (Jordan)# Saudi Arabia# and smaller nations* The Middle East The "Middle East” is a political rather than a geo graphical term and came into general use as a conse quence of the establishment of the British Middle East Command and corresponding civilian organisations during the Second World War. The strict geographical rule was formerly to distinguish between the Hear East# compris- * ing Greece, Bulgaria# Turkey# the Levant# and Egypt# 11 and the Middle East, Arabia, Mesopotamia, fersia* and Afghanistan* ♦ . .3 fhe states and territories presented in this in vestigation and henceforth known as the Middle East com prise fhe following countries or nations: Egypt, Iran (fersia)* Iraq (Mesopotamia), Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan (Jordan)* Lebanon, Saudi Arabia* Syria* and Turkey. Higher Education Higher education as used iti this study is post* secondary school education and instruction* It includes all education above the level of the secondary school given in universities* colleges* professional schools* and teachers colleges* Issue A point on which affirmative and negative* or vary ing* views -are held is known as an issue. Problem, or Difficulty A combined definition is used in this study* A problem* or' difficulty* ■ is • • * any significant* perplexing* and challenging situation* real or artificial* the solution of which %oyal Institute of International Affairs* The Middle .East: A Political and Economic Survey (London; <)xforS University Press* U54)*, r i p*"r " w r 17 u requires reflective thinking; a question lor which the answer must be sought by securing additional experience*4 University The university is an institution of higher education (and higher learning* with research and investigation)* consisting generally of a college of liberal arts* letters* and science* offering a program of graduate study* and having two or more professional faculties* schools* or colleges* and is empowered legally to confer academic degrees in various fields and disciplines of study* Curriculum A curriculum is a , * * body of prescribed educative experiences under school supervision* designed to provide an individual with the best possible training and experience to fit him for the society of which he is a part or to qualify him for a trade or profession** Educational Program Adequacy That sufficiency needed in the overfall planned principles and activities* theory and practice* of both the Instructional and co^curricular programs* both of which are ^Carter V. Good* Dictionary of Education (New Yorks McGraw-Hill Book Company* Inc., 19437# pp. 309-’ 10. 5Ibid., p. 113. 13 co-operatively planned, sponsored# and supervised by the school# may be known as educational program adequacy. VIII* THE PROCEDURE Research Design This Investigation pursued the documentary and Integrative method of research* Documents# research studies# and literature of higher education in the Middle last were studied in the following nine libraries; Claremont College and Claremont Graduate School*** The Honnold library; bos Angeles Public library; Stanford University--Cubberley library of Education# and in The University library# University of California (Berkeley)--Bureau of International Relations library# and in the lange library of Education; University of California (ios Angeles)— Education library; University of Southern California— Education library# and in 1he Von KleinSmid library of World Affairs. 14 Literature as £ frame pf Reference the fields of international and comparative education were searched and the literature was used to derive basic principles in studying various foreign and indigenous systems and levels of education* and various phases of reli gious, politico-economic, socio-cultural, and educational life of the Middle last* fhe educational systems of Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon were reviewed especially as a background frame of reference* Literature as a Source of Data Research studies, monographs* articles, periodicals, books, university bulletins, and dissertations on education and higher education in the Middle East as cited in Chap ters XV to VI were studied to ascertain issues, needs, and problems of higher education and to explore procedures toward possible solutions* Consult letter in Appendix A. Use of Instruments Inasmuch as it would be undesirable to interpret education through foreign lenses, it was thought that the identification of problems of higher education in countries of the Middle East by nationals would be appropriate* Pilot letters to each of the Ministries of Education in eight countries and to the United States Office of Education 15 brought poor response* Although the original plan was to prepare questionnaires and opinionnaires# it was felt in appropriate to utilise such instruments unless they could he prepared adequately and he duly sponsored through diplo matic channels which would yield favorable returns# 'fee plan to use such instruments was abandoned* Contemporary research studies and professional literature of the politico-socio-economic activities of the Middle East were the real instruments employed to identify the issues# problems# difficulties# and needs of higher education in that part of the world* Using such sources it was possible to keep the locale indigenous for observation and study* the local identification of the issues# problems# and difficulties were fully documented* these were categorized and classi fied* then procedures and methodology were studied with further documentation toward possible solutions for issues# problems, and difficulties that were cited* fee main pro cedure in securing data and information was the documentary search in the libraries as was noted* Spelled out crisply the procedures employed in the study were as follows s 1. The problem of the study was defined* 2. Extensive and intensive reading was done in nine libraries* 3* A frame of reference was sought first on inter* nationalism* comparative education* the United States and the world order* and some issues and problems of’ higher education generally* 4* The re 1 igio-politico-economic~cultural life of the Middle East was studied as a background for the study. 5* Concentration was made on higher education in Iran* Iraq* and Lebanon. 6* Data with pertinent bibliographical references were recorded on large author and content cards* 7* issues* problems* difficulties* and needs of higher education in Iran* Iraq* and Lebanon were identified and classified from research studies* governmental reports# and professional literature* 8. An outline of organisation for the study was developed from the documented study* 9. Procedural steps toward the resolution of issues and problems were evolved step by step with documentary statements as each issue* problem# or difficulty was con sidered. 10. The findings of the study suggested and supported conclusions, and recommendations and suggestions for fur ther study were made* Tabulation of the Data- Data and information were arranged in text, table# and figure for the clearest presentation possible# As -regards data from documentary literature# it might appear that the quotations have been numerous and heavy# It has been realized# however# that much of the data on the Middle Bast has not been of ready access to most educators and students of comparative education# This study# therefore# places documentation on higher education and its related problems of the Middle East for ready reference as may be needed# The most reliable, and. best available sources for the foreign data that -were consulted were government reports, official statements- of professional organizations and mis sions# and international publications* Such# consequently# have given the greatest validity possible for the data and findings* IX# TOE ORGANIZATION OF TOE STOTT This study was divided into three divisions# Part One consisted of Chapters I through III on the Background and -Setting; Fart Two composed of Chapters IV through VI was concerned with the Issues and Resolution Procedures; and Fart three# Chapter VII which dealt only with the Sum mary# Findings# and Conclusions* Because of the nature of the problem# Chapter I pro vided some background material which was intended to make the statement and importance of the problem -and the purpose of the study more meaningful* procedures involved in this study were presented* To gain some understanding of what has been accom plished in this area of research and the values to educa tion at large# a review in broad sweeping principles of international and comparative education# the relationships of higher education in the United States with the world order# together with some of its basic issues and problems# constituted Chapter II. material of the .Middle East*-the religious# politico- economic# socio-cultural# and educational life--and a brief picture of educational systems in Iran, Iraq# and in Lebanon. Chapter IV presented the findings specifically of issues# problems# and difficulties of higher education in the Middle last disclosed and isolated in the literature Chapter III presented some, pertinent background If and as identified through the instruments used in the investigation.. Chapter V tabulated and epitomised past and current research, on .education in countries of the. Middle last and presented resources available for continuing, research for the countries of 'that part of the world, Chapter VI dealt with the recognition and method* ology of handling the issues# .problems* and difficulties# the procedural steps toward possible issue solutions# in the light of the setting and backgrounds of the East# The final chapter# Chapter VII# presented the sum mary of the study# the findings# the conclusions based on the findings# as well as some recommendations which grew out of the findings. Some suggestions for further study were also included* The bibliography followed as a comprehensive cumula tive body of documentation on education and educational research for the Middle East. CHAPTER II LITERATURE AS FRAME OF REFERENCE Before a focus is made on the issues, problems, and difficulties of higher education in selected countries of the Middle East, attention should be given to some basic concepts of internationalism* comparative education# the influence of the United States in education# and some issues and problems of higher education generally. x* mmmmtmmMm In spite of ethnoeentrism* cultural heritage# and cultural diffusion* peoples living in the twentieth century have become increasingly aware of interdependencies and of the importance of human ecology# Hatlons look across their borders and find that there exists an interrelatedness# Communication, eduea- * tion, transportation* travel* and wars have broken down some of the rigidities and barriers of the past* and the concept of isolationism has become more historical than realistic with the passing of time# The classic work on the role of the school cur-* riculum in fostering internationalism, International Under standing: Through the Public-School Curriculum# justifies the concept in each nation# Kandel considers that nationalism and internationalism are compatible: * * * International understanding is not a denial of nationalism; rather does it emphasize the part that nations have played and may play in the progress of the world* While it recognizes that there is room for differences of race and character# it stresses not the differences that divide# hut those efforts which link the nations of the world, together in the common cause of human progress* * * *1 The thesis of the volume-*-a key to all school situ ations in all countries— could he summarized in one brief statement: * * . the promotion of international understanding does not require the introduction of a new subject# hut that all subjects can.be so organized as to leave with the pupils a sense of the international cooperation which has made them possible* * » * The end to be achieved is, an understanding of civilization and culture as a col lective achievement — the common heritage and the joint' responsibility of all nations— and patriotism will be no less as each pupil leams the part_that his own nation has played in its achievement.^ On the eve of this mid-century the American Council on Education in the Estes Park Conference in Colorado recognized the role of acculturation in higher education when it declared that * * * the area of education for international under standing is a fundamental responsibility of higher I* L. Kandel and G* M. Whipple (eds.), Inter national Understanding Through the Public-School Curricu lum, Thirty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part XI (Bloomington# Illinois; public School Publishing Company# 193?)# p* 37. %bid* # pp. 41-42. 22 education— a responsibility that touches,.every aspect of the college and the university. J * * * * Some maintain the concept that internationalism 1$ a philosophy of education# Pith an understanding of edu cation in other countries* peoples will be known better* Where there is little known* misunderstandings may occur. This principle is definitely implied in the proverbial opening paragraph of the Constitution of the United nations Educational* Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): "* * * since wars begin in the minds of men, it » y is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be n4 International education tries to determine and con trol the instruction and educational forces causing inter- X national misunderstanding and ill will. The international . ' ' . / efforts of student- and teacher-exchange, international scholarships, co-operative programs for underdeveloped countries, rehabilitation services in backward cultural y areas, the teaching and study of foreign cultures in the social sciences, dissemination techniques, and the H . T Mnat'T'nnr! flnH P _ T. Rrnun. Hi. Rnla nf r.l — p. 11 ^C. M. Thomson, "The Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization of the United Nations— With Text of Constitution," Foreign folicv Reports* 21:310-20, 1946. methodology of open discussion or indoctrination are facets in international education* Various international expositions have given due place to education* the first being at farls in 1867.“ * By the end of the nineteenth century almost every field of learning had some type of international organization. Although the library of Congress began to exchange published materials with foreign libraries as far back as 1840 and although the United States Office of Education initiated ^international educational relations** as early as 1870* yet the United States Government had no agency for the co-ordination of this type of activity until the cre ation of the Interdepartmental Committee on Scientific and Cultural Co-operation in 1938. Relative to the program since activated in this area* the Committee recently reported that the exchange between the United States and other countries of information about the work of scientists* doctors* engineers* teachers* lawyers* architects* labor specialists* scholars* musicians* and artists is plainly a basis for sensible and satisfactory relations between this country and others* The necessity for developing effective means to implement such exchange is widely recogaized*® 5 H. J* Rogers, ’ ’ Expositions, International, and Education, ” in Paul Monroe (ed.), A Cyclopedia of Education (Mew York: The Macmillan Company, 1911)* 11* 555-59. 6U. S. Department of State* Activities of the Inter departmental Committee on Sclent if ic Sid" Cultural Co- operation (Washington. D. C.: United States Department of State* June 30, 1946)* p. 30* f Among factors enumerated for consideration on educational horizon a well known dean included the inter* national aspect: A third factor is the need for establishing inter* cultural communication as a basis for building a world community. There was a time when acquaintance with the elements entering Into Western Civilization would entitle one to qualify as an educated citizen of the United States* This is no longer true* The responsi bilities of citizenship in our closely knit world demand some knowledge of many cultures* For our own interests# as well as for the sake of our obligations to mankind# we need citizens who can understand how the peoples of other lands have come to terms with their own environment and# in so doing# have developed institutions and systems of value different from ours* Educational agencies in the United States must set themselves a goal of giving our adult citizens and the young people now growing up an understanding of the peoples of Africa# Korea# the Middle East* and other undeveloped lands that will" enable bur people to help others achieve their own proper aspirations and to choose membership in the free world through the pro* cesses of enlightenment and social advance* 7 \ The secretary of the Educational Policies Coramis- ■ ; sion, Dr. loward E. Wilson# in the twenty-fourth annual Sir John Adams Lecture on March 27# 1957 at the University \ \ . i I of California at Los Angeles stated that with the ’ ’ leader ship in world needs** America has an "expanded financial and cultural. inf luenee around the world. ” He averred that in the future "the line between foreign and domestic affairs will become obscured," that we must "increase on all educe* , ' / tional levels our study of all peoples of the world* * 1 / \ ^Francis S* Chase# "Hew Conditions Confront Educa tion, ” The School Review* 65?4*5# Spring# 1957* (Italics not in original*; One of the most influential agencies in the world \ today for international education and internationalism is \ the United nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) * Of that body# then Secretary of State James F. Byrnes on October 29, 1946 issued a state $ E t G $ ! S l £ » which said in parti UNESCO— the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organiz at ion- -is an important agency of the United Nations* Its task is to lay the foundations of future world peace in the minds and hearts of men. A major duty of modem statesmanship is to establish conditions of mutual understanding among the peoples of the world* This can only be achieved if the peoples of j the world themselves turn their thoughts toward this i goal#8 At the same time of Mr* Byrnes* statement, Assistant\ Secretary of State William Benton, chairman of the United 1 States delegation to the General Conference of UNESCO, said: 1 know of no task more challenging, more difficult, or more hopeful than the task of UNESCO: to advance the cause of peace through understanding among peoples* UNESCO is both a symbol and an instrument of our deter* mination to construct the defenses of peace in the minds and hearts of men*9 Near the end of 1951 UNESCO organized an inter national discussion at New Delhi on the theme, "The concept ^Charles A* Quattlebaum, Educational and Cultural Relations of the United States i^hyoiel^ Countries* Pub iicAff ai rs Bulletin' No* 51 ([Washihgton, BTcTT^Se library of Congress, legislative Reference Service, March, 1947), pp. 52*53# %. S. Department of State, Press Release No. 763* October 29* 1946* 26 of mam and the philosophy of education in Bast and West*" A volume containing the proceedings of the New Delhi meet ing was published in English and french in 1953 entitled, Humanism and Education in East and West# The primary purpose of the discussion was to define the concepts of man in East and West, respectively* It was a matter of stressing the points of convergence, identi fying the fundamental disparities, assessing the reciprocal influences and cultural exchanges, and measuring the his torical and ideological indebtedness# Through the influence of traditional culture and \ * through the picture which it gives of extraneous cultures, education plays its part in the molding of men* / Writing of the sphere of the humanities d#Ormesson raises the challenge: Hardly is the problem of better mutual acquaintance between the civilisations of the last and West out lined, than we find ourselves faced with the further urgent question, of the place and role of the humani ties as a whole in the education and civilisation of today* Once the cultures of the last and West have learnt to know each other better, they will still have to make a common stand against the invader— technology, the machine— whose looming bulk and prestige threaten them all alike* * * ^%ean d'Ormesson, f , fhe Diversity of Cultures and the World Community, * * Unesco Chronicle* 1; 15, September, 1955* 27 Continuing the inquiries between East anil West may have greater value* if there is a shift of emphasis in consideration and study from the cultures themselves to the possibilities of exchanges between them. Recognizing the effectiveness of the use of educa- tional media in international political relations* MacLeish observed that the world1® hope for peace* which is another way of referring to the world*® hope for survival* is di rectly dependent upon the mutual understanding of peoples* * * « Whether Governments like it or not* their people will learn of the principal problems which face them in international affairs* * • « What is im portant to all Governments— and even more important to the people of the world who hope for peace— is that the nature of the communication should be such that under standing and not misunderstanding will result; that comprehension and not prejudice or hatred will be dis seminated throughout the world*H Stoddard sensed a glorified function of accultura tion when he asserted that International education is a new and, we trust* " \ superior form of mission* It is an exchange of the fruits of life and thought among equals; investing in/ youth* inevitably it points to the future *12 j •^Archibald MacLeish, Introduction to Ruth E« McMurray and Muna lee* "The Cultural Approach: Another Way in International Relations* (Washington* D* C*: U. S. Department of State* 1945)* pp. 1-3* (Typewritten.) t George Stoddard* ’ ’ Recent Trends in American Higher Education," Institute of International Education News 32:25* October* it. Qtmhwmm m m t m m 28 Many people nee the terns or expressions "interna tional education” and "comparative education" synonymously# Eekelberry presents the meaning of comparative edu cation in a very lucid statement? Comparative education means the study and comparison of educational theory and practice in different coun tries for the purpose of broadening and deepening one’s understanding of educational problems* It is not a specific phase or aspect of educational practice or an element in educational theory* In a sense it is a technique for attacking educational problems but a much more general technique than statistics, for instance* In another sense It is not a technique but an important approach to the study of educational problems and to the development of educational philosophy, which may utilize a variety of specific t e c h n i q u e s * * ^ Unfortunateiy, very few students who major or minor in education study appreciably In this field* too few courses# perhaps, are offered for world coverage* A well known educator expressed his conviction for opportunities in these words: "In no field of professional instruction is there a greater practical need for well prepared graduates than in comparative education. Delving into the educational environment of the past brings to light Interesting lore. Other nations during H. Eekelberry# "Comparative Education#" in Walter S. Monroe (ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Re search (rev. ed.; New YorkTTheMacimiTlm Company, 1956)* pTaSJ* ■^Harold R. Hi Benjamin, "Growth in Comparative Edu* cation," ghi Delta KaBBfln. 37:165, January, 1956. ancient, medieval, and modern history have had similar struggles with forging a practical and workable system of education* Thinking hack some decades# one finds that In the nineteenth century the major issues in educa tion were to establish, develop, and enrich systems of compulsory elementary education and to make school attendance compulsory up to a prescribed age— twelve# thirteen# or fourteen* * * * Comenius was three centuries ahead of his time when he urged the provision of'equality of educational opportunities regardless of sex# place of residence (urban or rural)# or social class (nobleor common)* the demand for the provision of equality of educational opportunity required a social and political awakening to a realisation of the worth and dignity of the indi vidual as a citizen and a recognition of the economic value of a worker educated beyond the mere stage of literacy*15 Plutarch* Herbert, Locke, Pestalozzi, Bacon# Kant, Huxley, Rousseau, Froebel, Hegel# Spencer, William James# to oeotioo ooly « £o», and others »ith tholr ooootrto, ond( educational systems and philosophies bespeak an emphasis worthy of study and reflection# The proper education should be available in each country for its citizens# or as one of authority put it: "The distribution of the right education to the right L. Kandel, "Equalizing Educational Opportuni ties and Its Problems#f * International Review on Education, III: 1*12* 1957* (In English# German, French #7 . 16Merritt M. Thompson, An (Higline of the History of Education (Hew York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1934)# f*p7TD0F56» 30 pupils under the right teachers should be one of the main 17 functions of educational organization. * . # * • 7 The doyen of comparative education in the United States, Kandel, quoted Sir Michael Adler in an address pub lished in 1900 on "How Cm We learn Anything of Value from the Study of Foreign Systems of Education?” In studying foreign systems of education me should V not forget that the things outside the schools- matter \ even more than the things Inside the schools* * * ♦ A \ national system of education is a living thing* the ; outcome of foreign struggles and difficulties and of i battles long ago# It has in it some of the secret j workings of national life# It reflects* while seeking to remedy# the failings of national character* * * .1S Students of comparative education should remember the thesis that educational systems and problems have their etiology and roots sunk deep in societal Interests and national culture patterns*. Kandel continued! The principle of adapting education to the culture of those who are to be educated began to replace the practice of assimilating colonial dependents to the educational processes of the sovereign country. * • * The day has. passed when uniform patterns of education can be fitted on to new environments. For better student understanding* Cramer and Browne discuss among the basic factors in a comparative study of llgande!* loc. cit. ^®X# I. Kandel* ’ "Problems of Comparative Education# M International Review of Education. 2$3* 1956* 19Ibid., p. 4. 31 national systems, the influences affecting the character and development of the national educational systems as constituting a sense of national unity, the general eco nomic situation, fundamental beliefs and traditions, the status of progressive educational thought, language prob lems, the political backgrounds, and the attitude toward OA international co-operation* v Comparative education is really a contemporary study as compared or contrasted with the history of education* lotiee how Kandel clarified the thought and enlarged upon the cleaning of the comparative phase: ^ * * * while the history of education concerns itself V with the past# comparative education devotes itself tot understanding the contemporary development of education under different politicly,# social# economic, and cul- \ tural conditions* Basically the question of method- ! ology involves the question already mentioned# that is# "What do we compare? * * the answer should he that the % comparison is of ideas# ideals# and "form. It can be i assumed that all children as human beings are horn with the same central tendencies— physiological and mental. J Under what conditions do they become Germans# Italians^ French# English# Americans, or any other national 7 persons* how is the educational system designed to ■ * produce such differences?*! mT l£> With keen discernment the educator, teacher# or student should not go beyond the pale of comparison. A warning or danger has been flaunted with conviction: 20John Francis Cramer and George Stephenson Browne# Contemporary Education: 4 Comparative" Study of national Systems Sew F’ liarcour17.Brace "and Company, 1956)# ©KpTX: 21Kandel, op* cit.■ » pp. 6-7. One thing comparative education does not and ought not try to do ana that is to show how much hotter one system of education is than another* ivory nation or national group has the education that it wants# There are no comparable standards by which to measure the quality of an educational system, although it is pos sible to measure the more tangible results of an educational system in relation to the aims set for it* * * .22 ■ ■ Thus one sees that the value of comparative educa tion lies not merely in the study of how nations and nationals think, act, and live, but also in developing an understanding of the factors and forces which help to give each nation it® personality and particular characteristics and also an appreciation of the waning of education for national interests and welfare* 111* THE UWITED STATES AND THE WORLD ORDER The United states has been interested through the decades in enhancing the educational programs of other lands, in assisting especially underdeveloped countries, and in desiring all peoples to secure a fundamental and practical education* The contributions of the United States Government to the development of education in different parts of the world cannot be measured merely by the national and bi- national programs * Support has been rendered the United **Xbid» Nations and UNESCO, and in addition the United States makes substantial appropriations to international governmental agencies that work in international education* Although the primary concern of UNESCO la not di rectly with higher education* yet higher education has had an important place in the program. Staff members for various educational missions and projects have been drawn largely from institutions of higher education, and UNESCO works frequently through universities as the most expedi tious means of developing certain international programs. Non-governmental programs in North America that have and do support International education Include, to name a limited number: Carnegie Corporation of New fork, the Doris Duke Foundation, Edward N* Hazen Foundation, The W. K. Kellogg Foundation, religious organizations, and many pro fessional and service foundations and associations* Two legal and fiscal bases which have aided the United States Government to participate on a wider level of international educational exchange have been the following two acts: The Smith-Mundt Act* The United States Information andTducatibnai Excii^g^ Act of 1948 (Public haw 402, 80th Cong*), popularly known as the Smith-Mundt Act, was passed to ^enable the Government of the United States to promote a better understanding of the United States in other countries, and to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries. " The act specifies "an educational exchange service to cooperate with other nations in** (a) the Interchange of persons,* 34 ■ knowledge, and skills; (b) the rendering of technical and other services; (c) the interchange of developments in the field of education, the arts, and sciences*" * • * * ■ The Fulhright Act. the Surplus property Act of 1944 provided for the disposition of totted States Govern ment property that would become surplus at the end of the war* . * . An act of Gongress approved August 1, 1946 (Public haw 384, 79th Gong.), commonly known as the Fulhright Act* made it possible for the tolted States Government to utilize foreign currencies and credits* within specific limits* arising from the sale of surplus property abroad for educational and cultural activities* 23 Of the second listed Act* one report mention# some \ \ accomplishments in the field of higher education; \ The Fulhright program is two-way: it assists foreign \ persons to corns to the toited States and Americans to go abroad* In the first ten years of its operation* the program enabled over 5,500 I I * S. college students to do graduate study abroad* over 1*000 U* 8* citizens to engage in advanced research abroad, over 1*500 I f * S* elementary and secondary school teachers to teach in foreign schools* and over 1*100 0# 8* professor# to lecture in foreign universities* In exchange, Fulbright travel grants have been made to over 8*000 j foreign students to help them to come to U. S* colleges « for study* to more than 2,000 foreign scholars who have done advanced research here* to over 1* 600 foreign teachers for teaching or training in the States* and to approximately 500 foreign professors to come to 0* 8* colleges and universities as guest lecturers.*# As regards other programs in which the tolted States „,23p?i?1 s\ Bodenman, American C_^ergtlw with Higher Education Abroad, 0 . * S* Department or Wilth* Education* and Welfare* Bulletin 1957* H6» 8 (Washington* D* C«: W# S. Government Printing Office* 1957), pp. 39-40, 2^"The fulhright Program: Swords into Plowshares* * * Institute of International Education News Bulletin. 32:2-3, 'February, 1957. 35 Government has participated, the following legal instru ments should not he overlooked; the foreign Assistance Act of 1948 (Public Law 472, 80tb Gong*) l Foreign Economic Assistance Act of 1950 (Public Law 53S> 81st Gong* ) * and The Mutual Security Act of 1951 (public Law 165, 82d Gong*)*^ A number of area study programs, including some on the Middle East, are now available in American universi ties* Research institutions, universities, governmental and non-governmental agencies and business firms engaged in overseas operations should find such services helpful. ^6 The United States Office of Education plays an important role for the American people and for foreign educators and students*, It *\ * * has two major areas of international educational responsibility; Statutory and transferred responsibilities*1,27 Tabulated, the two major areas with breakdown may be listed as follows; 25Bodenman, op* cit., pp* 44-48. External Research Staffs Office of Intelligence Research, Area Study Programs' in American diversities (Washington,. 0* C.: U. S. Bepartmeht' of ~St ate," February, 1956)* 2701iver J. Caldwell, "International Education Activities of The Office of Education, M Higher Education* lii4-6, September, 1955* I, Statutory responsibilities A« Activities financed by direct appropriation of Congress Bt Comparative education C* Evaluation of foreign academic credentials D. Consultation on curriculum changes 1* Recommendation on educational policies 11* Transferred responsibilities A* Veterans education abroad B , * Clearinghouse of information C* Educational materials laboratory B. Educators for technical assistance S* American teachers for foreign assignment F* teacher exchanges G» training for1 visiting, teachers^ Annually the student and teacher exchange programs i4^U w**vl v A A . ell flf.i m w l l t r i f f y ii>Mi a * A# j B H * t a X X v i implementation* Many are the opportunities* ^ fable I shows a distribution of foreign students in selected educational institutions In the United States# a8$Mi* 29Cora 0u Bois, Foreign Students and Maher Educa tion In the United States cWaihlSiion'# B# "C#: American' Council on Education7 l956) * See also U* S# Department of Health* Education, ■ and Welfare#- 1957*1958 Teacher Ex “ Opportunities and Summer Semtoars Iwashingtoii# B. c7 U. S. Government frintiag office# 1956)* 37 TABIE 1 UNITED STATES INSTITUTIONS WITH IRE U&G8ST FOREI® STUDENT ENROLMENTS, 195U-55 Hank in number of students enrolled in' United States lame of Institution Total number of foreign' students 1 Columbia University 1*2$* 2 University of California 1,238 3 Hew fork University 9h6 i k University of Michigan 810 ! $ Harvard University 721 6 Massachusetts Institute of technology 602 i 7 University of Illinois &k ; a University of Southern. California 569 9 University of Minnesota. 530 ; 10 Cornell University 1 * 8 8 i 16 University of Chicago 287 / &- Stanford University 2$6 1 3 1 Los Angeles City College 173 l& Bm Francisco. State College 158 5 1 City College of San Francisco 131 6 r Colorado School of Mines 103 6 8 University of Tulsa 202 SOURCE: Adapted from Mary Irwin (ed«)# American Universities Mad Colleges (Washington, D.C.j American Council on' Education, 1<?S>6), p. 9h* Both Columbia University and the University of California are the leading institutions on their respective coasts* related to foreign students from abroad in general and from the Middle East in particulars In 1954-1955 the United States was the country receiving the largest number of scholars from abroad, / . reporting 34,232 foreignstudents studying at its col**/ leges and universities*^ / • * , * * 13 per cent of 1954*55 foreign students in the United States' came from the Hear and Middle East# Reporting more of a breakdown* the author continued: * * * Iranians comprised the only bloc of students from the Hear and Middle last in the top ten {nationality \ groups) # Other principal nationality groups were \ Greeks* Israelis* Germans, Cubans, British, Iraqi, \ Jordanians, Thais, Jamaicans, and Brazilians, each com* \ posed of more than 500 students* / \ * * * Relatively few women came from the Arab coun tries of Jordan, Iraq, and 'Iran <7 per-cent, 9 per / cent, and 10 per cent respectively), or from African / countries, where they represented 14 per cent of the / i ' r t f ' j s t u J - « # 1 * % # lo do* ■ # ■ t the curricula or fields of study should be noted: \ The fields of study most popular with foreign stu dents in 1954-55 were engineering and the various • branches of the humanities# There were more than 7,000 f students in each of these fields* the social sciences, ■ natural mud physical sciences, medical science, busi- , ness administration, education, and .agriculture, / 3%ary Irwin (ed*>, American Universities and Col leges (7th ed.; Washington, B* €*: American’ n Couhcif on location, 1956), p* 90* 3^IMd*, p* 91* 32Ibid* tA w in H* a 8* © H* 0* a S o ft ft ft p* f IT n * a w r » * r r i s ® * ■ © . . £ ft ¥* m r & ft ft H ft ft Hi Q 8 a i i i a m * ^IPi 0 1 n ft ft mm «*£?> _ OH w r * mm m lifsl < f t I f t tr» i? as s m ft m o+ft ft H» n ft ft ft 0 £&}»»* i L I n a P t I |*£88 » * m n, * ^ r s s # 1 I “1 ® a s m * . rt f t H i m M ft- ft S ft H*: 0 1 ? f t o H H»0 • rtO P*H H* O P H* £3'ftlttM|tt * f e ISS&p* D It ft *-**0 + * m ft 0 fiu© o f ^ B V l © f t . mum ig;55^ 8*88 *«*a & % i i *? r « 0 CU0 © f t H g g _ ft m Hm ♦ *0 g H H. ft % S “8* * 8 * Sog0*^ 1 8 o IST* I H*P P I t 40 V 1* American institutions are unique "in the demo- cratio character and emphasis of our institutions.n In | V their form of government and relationship to the state and to society* they differ from most institutions abroad* hay i boards of trustees govern Institutions and are responsible , to alumni* to church organizations* or to the people at * large* In tax-supported colleges and universities* most of , the functions performed elsewhere by centralized national i ministries of education are carried out by each individual j $ diversity with its administration and management in co operation with its teaching faculty* Autonomy* variety* and local control are thus assumed* \/ \ 2. American institutions ate unique "for their \ special relationships with their' -alumni and former stu- \ dents ♦ ” The alumni are encouraged to maintain a permanent association with their Alma Mater* to render service to the r college or university, and to help the university meet the ! I needs of society* i 3* "American institutions are unique because of the j * wide range of curricula.” in recognition of the equality of : ! all work performed in the professional spirit* American j institutions offer in addition to the traditional and j / classical subjects of letters* arts* and sciences* cur- / t rietila in physical education* public administration* musi cology* teleconHmmications, and a host of other fields# 4# American institutions are unique *in their methods of teaching and canpua life.” Class seminars* p“ °is- “ * in« » * * * -4 emphasised* Co^curricular activities supplement lecture ; room, classroom, and laboratory experience to give balance and to develop the character and personality of the stu** dent. . . . ' \ 5* American institutions *are unique in their. v ■ ■ ■ ■ . . - . . . ■ - i social function.w Since they are open to all with many \ I self-help opportunities and scholarship grants, the insti- i ... . .... . . . , j tutions tend toward a classless society, to break 4mm | ... , . * social rigidity, and to give all youth the opportunity to test their intellectual talent and strength in free aea** domic competition and to develop their powers individually to their optimum. ^ T t t ‘ E,TWTf*Al T f T A K ! AWT\ 1TV>C f C C t f V C A M T l B O A IttT T7MC iv» £iUUun x iwH ami lid iaaUuu ami * KUuiw»b Most of the nations have a three**level system of education— primary {elementary}, secondary, and higher—-yet as far as commonality is concerned, **&t the level of higher education there is a greater degree of universality, of similarity between countries, than in any other parts of ^Berman B* Wells, "American Education'and the lising fide,* Delta Eapoan. 3?:443 -46, June, 1956* 42 the educational system* " Higher education holds m influential position in all the systems# and of the institutions * * * the free university i© the citadel of civilise** Cion* There, if anywhere, the deepest secular values are guarded? the dispassionate search for rational truth; the preservation of the hard-won knowledge and insights from the past; and the transmission of this information# these beliefs, and this method of free7 inquiry to all who care or who can he led to care*47 Although higher education should have free inquiry and academic freedom# issues and problems do exist* In hie installation address as president of the University of Illinois on September 24, 1956# Henry observed that there is no pat formula for the solution of the many problems confronting colleges and universities today* There is even disagreement as to the priorities among the issues which are being debated.33 few should argue that the people of the Halted States can support financially institutions of higher learning# although finance is a knotty problem. The presi dent of Yale tfaiverslty paid tribute to American ability 4 ^Luther Ivans# "The Demand for Higher Education in the World Today, ” Institute of International Education Hews Bulletin* 32f3-6# October# 1956* ^UNESCO, "Problems in Education#m Universities in Adult Education (Paris? UNESCO, 1952)# I¥, ""97 i : ' - l , r ' 3%avid Dodds Henry# "Higher Education in Transi tion# M School and Society* 85:84# March 16# 1957* Consult also the W$'5~W57^ voltfies of Association for Higher Edu cation, Current Issues in Higher Education (Washington# D* C.: AM7HationailducaH*roAssocIatImi» 1955# 1956# 43 when he stated that Another cementation shows current outlays on educa tion, not Including capital expenditures, in which category it compares with certain other selected items as follows* ‘ . Item Billion Dollars Education 12*0 (Elementary and secondary educa tion, 9*4; higher education, 2.6) tobacco products and alcoholic beverages 14*5 Hew and used cars 14.4 Recreation 13«0 the cold light of these figures, which could he amplified by our expenditures on such items as radio and television sets, cosmetics, toys and sporting goods# what becomes of the argument that we cannot afford to do better by our educational system? There is nothing left of it# * * .39 Stoddard^ wrote of the tremendous financial invest* meats in institutions of higher education and went on to tell of the stimuli provided private and tax-supported institutions by various philanthropic gestures and grants from foundations# which all but staggered the fondest imagination of educators in the country* Me further A* Whitney Griswold, "The Cost of freedoms An Academic View, ” Association of American Colleges Bulletin* 43 s 11# March# ^George Stoddard, ^Recent trends in American Higher Education," Institute of International Education Bulletin* 31? 6-8, 23-35# October, 1956# enumerated with appropriate explanation some issues anil problems in higher education# which merely listed would include the following* 1. - Small proportion of secondary school graduates ^ entering college 2* high rate of attrition for students in some yf institutions 3* Laxness of admission requiremants for college « , / 4. Differences in standards of passing, promoting, and degree - granting 5f Enormous difference in quality, program, and specialization among the public Institutions of higher learning 6. Over-all shortage of. teachers, laboratories, classrooms, and libraries 7t Heeds of building more facilities and securing greater operating budgets $4 Burden of racial Integration f * Adequacy for the increasing college and univer sity populations Bolman struck head-on at the last listed problem with the implications for the future $ In the last decade enrollments in colleges rose from 1,3 million students to nearly 2#3 million now* * , , American college education may soon witness the most radical change in its three-hundred-year history, . , , 45 The new enrollment problem which is about to con* front American colleges and universities is that of the rising birth rate* * * * for colleges the facts are single* By 1970 there will be approximately twice as many young people of college age as there are today* figures for the various states based on birth rates in 1936 and In 1953 range all the way from m increase of 15 per cent in Oklahoma to 330 per cent in Cali fornia.^1 Humorous questions are thrust at the perse® con* sidertng higher education as to possible solutions to meet the impending emergencies, and then the writer sobers with the challenge that Since colleges and universities have grown up in response to popular demand, with few federal controls, it is likely that they will enlarge their capacity In some way as the need arises* How much expansion will take place* and what will happen to the educational ? recess itself* however* should be of concern* Care- ess handling of the problems may bankrupt half our colleges and force us to nationalize some If not all institutions of higher education* * * *42 Warning the proponents of expansion in institu tions of higher education* Margaret Clapp* president of Wellesley* declared that "The danger may emerge., of a mass] education movement * * * Which caters to mediocrity and A / confuses this With democracy."^ / Surely admission and academic standards will stiffen and be raised* Quality of performance and scholarship ^Frederick 0eW* Bolman* Jt*, "Signs of Change in Higher Education* M ■ Journal of Maher Education. 2b: 249-53, 285-86* May* 1955* - ^%bid» ^Xbid. should he maintained and increased* Conscientious respon sibility mould not savor mimed standards or a watered** down curriculum* It will certainly pay greater dividends to invest even at higher costs for higher education* Somewhat axiomatic is the trend that training becomes progressively more expensive as students advance into their major fields and areas of concentration * Expenditures and investments after all are not for materials* equipment* and buildings* hut for people# Although he dealt with things material and monetary* ^ Hungate had a proper sense of values when he stated that The greatest resources of a nation are its people-** their characters and their abilities* These resources are maximized only when each individual is afforded ,, opportunity to develop his talents through education*^ / lestor was never more justified to his position than when he wrote that problems of the American university must be solved within the framework which history has wrought* History, however* provides explanations not mandates* It does not prescribe a slavish acceptance of the limitations inherited from the past* It is capable# instead* of gotottog out possible avenues to improve* meat* * * Hr* U Hungate, "The Heed for Reappraisal of Fiscal Policies for Higher Education* " Teachers College Record* 58? 19# October# 1956* ^Arthur Besfcor, "The American diversity: A His torical Interpretation of Current Issues#" College and University, 31?175-88# Winter# 1957* De Yotmg^ listed some of the issues and problems of higher education in the three following Questions! 1* Shall higher education be characterized by more intellectually?' 2* Hho should go to college? 3* Is the admission of students to college on demo** eratie bases? * — tm a special issue of 'the fhi Delta Kansan demoted to "Problems of Higher Education in a Period -of Rapid Growth,n the editorial included a significant statement by S. 6* Gould, president of Antioch College: I am convinced that the tremendous and terrifying problems which suddenly face higher education in America are fortunate*- They make it ■■mandatory for us to examine what we are doing^-to reassess our educa tional philosophy; to adopt new methods and adapt old ones; to find new resources in teachers, facilities, and financing; and in general to raise hob with the status quo* * * * It seems to me that this is the time £or experi mentation, for practical research* * * The Issues are sharp, the problems large, and the difficulties challenging for higher education; "but with courage the democratic processes are making bold strokes to resolve the apparent enigmas* ■ A'A Chris &* De Young, Introduction to American Public Education (Hew York! < HcGraw*MIT, looE^mr|>eiy,' Inc*-," T555T7 ppTooF-SS.* ^Stanley Elam, "Raising Hob with the Status Quo" teditorial^* Phi Delta Kappan, 38:161, February, 1957* saA-posfqo pus XqdosoiTMd *T3q:» sssss&ax & a i t i l n 11 i t ( 0 0 - ca *o « t 0 m ft -9 8 0 M ft 0 n. $ g » rt H m » Ml 1 1 % S • g. § 3 t » fr S ft y p u s 'aStaqoxa 'uox^B^instioa t » * $ Xfappi pasadTaxsaBd m% *uoj%ovms jpMjg p r o t©3at X q *%ummxm®2 aq& -qaoddns aqmiad png axxqnd qSnoaqs p t r e smaaScad I B rjuaomaaAoS-uou pue qSnoaq:* sax^xAjsaB vtojzvo m rt i 03 ft ft 0 0 sr g 1 ft * * » • I? 0 y it 0 I & | - u I ft 0 P * - C 1 I 1 y t i l Hi y s o < a 0 ft ti < O F* 0 PCJ 0 fL *1 S’ 8 ft ft ft tf 3 F* 0 ' H . I M t “ * 0 H* ft ft # 0 3 3 0 ft ft p ¥* n 2 • ' P _ & p H* Hi H * 1 | .ft F* 0 0 * g 3 y * f t ft H * ^ I < * m 4 > 0 0 CHAPTER III HArB'rPOTTranC TUI »pt3t? MT TYTYT f t?Af2*P p a lilv u K U U E iiJa J L m A lilS £ tA b l t t nnTV'FT akt i « J L W if tU ilu u X J*U « History, at times, lias bees likened to geography in motion, flie geographical and geostrategic heritage of the Middle last has been shared by almost every nation of that area*' Strategically located* the Middle last serves as the middle land*, or land bridge, where three continents meet and merge, along the Mediterranean,- the middle sea, which connects or separates Important bodies of water* the peoples and territory comprising the Middle East are of no mean concern* fable IX gives the areas and populations of a number of the countries, and one cm see that there is little correlation between the sire of the 'territory and the number of .Inhabitants* As one studies a world map and focuses attention on this 'area, he readily sees how the Straits and the Sties Canal give the Hear East geographical unity and military Importance* In fact, sore individuals have viewed the territory with geopolitical eyes* Interestingly enough, the Middle last exhibits a variety of governments both in form and longevity* Empires have given way to republics, and monarchic rule toward Country Square miles : i " 1 "'Square^" kilometers Population Egypt 386,101 1,000,000 22,931**000 Iran* 629,310 1,630,000 21,11*6,000 Iraq 168t l l l | 1 * 3 5 , 1 * 1 5 5,200,000 Jordan* Lebanon 37,26!* I * , 0 l 5 96,513 10,1*00 1,1*00,000 1,1*25,000 Saudi Arabia 927,026 2,1(01,000 6,000,000 Syria* Turkey 72,331 296,185 187,337 767,119 3,756,000 2 1 * , 110,000 The figures ere estimates#: S0UBGE i Middle lest gconomist» 11:66, May> 195?. democratic processes* fable III preseats the current status of some political divisions* With great difficulty can one find for Islamic countries continuous concrete information relative to edu cational activities in the past* Muslim historians have dealt more with military and political activities, giving little attention to social and cultural areas* Various strains of warp and woof, however# have cmm down through the centuries to form the present educational fabric displayed in the modem day Hear and Middle last* these should have limited consideration, at least, for they have provided a significant milieu* *T 13|?T T/5TATIC t ItWSf rt*' k&LIvarxUUo Juir& toe sturdy thread, if not the strongest, in the countries of the Middle last is the primary place of reli gion. The Holy Hook for the Moslem gives him no alterna tive and expects him to he a follower of truth, even as was Abraham# Such typical passages may be cited; ‘ ‘ Verily the ■ 1 true religion in the sight of God, is Islam# * Abraham was neither a Jew, nor a Christian; but he was of the true religion, t one resigned unto tod* and was not of the number of the idolaters. Verily the men who are the nearest of Kin unto Abraham, are they who %he Koran, trsns* George Sale (London; Frederick Wame and Company, Ltd*, |u*d* ]), Chap* III, p* 44* Polit ical division Present statue Year status attained Capital Egypt Republic %9$3 Cairo Iran Monarchy 1906 Teheran Iraq Constitutional 1932 Baghdad Jordan Constitutional Monarchy 1S%6 Amman Lebanon Republic 19hh Beirut Saudi Arabia Monarchy 1932 Ryadh $yr£a Republic 19l*X Damascus Turkey Republic 1923 Ankara follow him, and this prophet, and they who believe on him: God is the patron of the faithful*2 Islam .might be said to be more than, a religion; it has been a distinct civilization* Though split into rival seets— and widely split at that— Islam was given an malted role by Hisati • The Prophet Muhammad taught that the Islamic religion is nothing other than the continuation of all previous revealed religions* which had the aim of ameliorating human beings and rendering them happy * * * * ** The place of their religion is more than m occa sional value* It has ranked among themes and Ideas as the first and foremost motif and design to art, literature, politics, and society* One who cm speak with much experi ence behind him to the Middle last has described this reli gious frame of reference which is true to all the Moslem lands: ltou cannot deal with Iraq or Palestine or Egypt or \ Saudi Arabia without dealing with Allah* he is present ' in every battle, as an ally, and sits at every confer ence table as champion. Me witnesses every bargain to the bazaar* He, not the doctor, heals every disease, or He sends death to spite of the doctor* Allah*s name is breathed into the ear of every new born infant and is the last word on the lips of the greybeard as Azrael takes his soul* And to all the j intervening years, Allah’s name is uttered every waking / hour and is muttered to every dream* And all this, not / simply out of habit, but because Allah is a great and, / 2Ibid.. p. 53. %ohamed Bisar, "The Islamic Center in Washington#" The Arab World (Hew fork dity), 3j3# July, 1957* 54 indeed, desperate reality which the Arab cannot escape# Be he salat or sinner* monarch or minion, prince or pauper, to an Arab Allah is always right there, 4 ^ The spiritual influence of the puritan reformers* the Wahhabis, has spread long and wide in the Islamic world# A case in point shows the devotion of one of their ■ . ■ ■ . j i • , progenitors who was pious* persecuted* and rigidly believ ing; So ibn~Taymiyah, who had succeeded his father as teacher in Damascus in 1282, also became suspect of heresy as the result of an answer to a question put to him from Hama: he contradicted the Shaf i *ite doctrine and was removed from office* The Shaft'ites summoned him in 1305 before their tribunal in Cairo and sen tenced him to prison. When his former patron, the sultan al-Malik an-Nasir, came to the throne for the third time, he gave him the office of Banball teacher in the madrasah founded by him and took him along with him to Damascus in 1313* But in 1318 ibn-Tayraiyah aroused new irritation by a fatwa concerning divorce, and now even his patron could no longer protect him, although after five months he was released from the imprisonment he had been sentenced to and could resume his teaching* In July of 1326, however, his enemies secured his arrest once again on the basis of an opinion he had handed down as early as 1310 concerning visits to prophets* and saints* burial places* In the citadel of Damascus he was able to keep up his literary activity, at least in the beginning, but when paper and pen were denied him he died of grief at the insult, on September 29, 1329* While his contemporaries had attempted to use force in suppressing his doctrine, it lived on nevertheless in the restricted milieu of his school, and four hundred years later gave an impetus to the Wahhabi movement and so to the Islamic modernism of the present day.3 ^John Van las, Meet the Arab (Hew York: The John Day Company, 1943), p# 29* c . ''Carl Brockelmann, History of the Islamic Peoples (London: Boutledge and Eagan Paul, Ltd,, 1952),pp.237-38. 55 Roaming in his writings through thirteen centuries of rich and colorful life, von Grunebaum brings together in £ L one volume the story of the main religious festivals* All the drama and beauty of Islam* s celebrations and ceremonies and the strands of world civilisation are brought together to show how the pilgrimage to the the Black Stone, in Mecca is a spiritualized form of a pagan Arab spring festival comparable to Passover, how the fast during the month of Ramadan is reminiscent of the Christian lenten period, and how wildly emotional ceremonies in which the Shi a worship Hussain, the prophet * s grandson, culminate in the public performance ©f passion plays* As a background to educational thought in these religious lands, it would not be out of the way to state that all concede Islam may be divided into two parts, faith and practice, listed briefly as follows: Faith in the religion consists of the six articles of belief: 1* The Unity of God; 2* the Angels; 3* The Inspired Books; 4. The Inspired prophets; E. von Grunebaum, Muhamnaadan Festivals (Hew York: Henry Schuman, Inc., 1951), 107 pp* 5* The Day of Judgment; 6. The Decrees of God* Practice in the religion consists in the observance of the five duties: . 1. Recital of the Creed, concept of the shahada* a public testimony that there is no God but Allah / “ d eh*e M°h" “ 4 p r o , , h e t i / 2. Ablutions and prayers five times eachday; 3. Almsgiving to the poor; 4. Fasting and full observance of the month of fasting, Ramadan; 5* The pilgrimage* al hall» to Mecca* Islam is the latest of all the great world reli gions, and the devotees are very zealous and faithful* It is well worthwhile to study a volume on the religion that today holds such loyalty for some three hundred million 7 adherents* An occidental writer, though featuring Islam, ob served: People of the West will meet numerous problems in the Muslim world* Hut many of them will be softened by 7 See such books as Erich W. Bethmann, Bridge to Islam (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd,, 1953), 240 pp.; Edmund D* Soper, The Philosophy of the Christian World Mission (Mew York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1943), 314 pp*; Edmund D* Soper, The Religions of Mankind (rev* ed.; New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, :T934), 364 pp* a remark that a Muslim made to his followers: "You will find your most affectionate friends will be those who say, *We are Christians*I* * 8 Coincidentally, the Middle East gave birth to three of the great world religions, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam* Although the three monotheistic religions have en joyed a common Semitic cultural heritage which has served to produce unity in divergence, significantly enough there is much divergence in unity* 1X1* PCWflCC-ECCilCMXC LlfE progress, advance, and modernity are quickening the leaders and masses in the Middle East* Though in spite of marked improvement one, probing beneath the exterior, ex claimed: All the evidence suggests that behind this glittering facade lies a maelstrom of conflicting political and economic currents; of national and individual powers; of personal greed and perpetual internal struggles for power* • • *" Justifiably, perhaps, the last could retort that there is a misunderstanding of the spirit* The nature of the thread in the fabric has not been seen necessarily by the West in its true light* In his "Preface," Nuseibeh o uJames A* Michener, "Islam--The Misunderstood Reli gion, " The Reader1 1 s Digest* 66:75, May, 1955* %** 6* Cameron, "The disunited Arab World," Con temporary Review (London), No* 1096, April, 1957, p* 205* 58 expressed candidly: Apart from George Antonius * the Arab Awakening** written almost twenty years ago--there has been no serious attempt at a systematic study of the ideas of Arab nationalism* Western scholars well versed in the problems of the Arab and Muslim worlds are seemingly reluctant to recognise this movement as a viable* durable* and creative force. They deal with it**if at all--either as an aberration or as a European virus* transient* ephemeral* and erasable. Izzeddin has presented a clear summary of the assumptions and aims of moderate Arab nationalists. To give it due consideration* a professional organ!* ration for better understanding Middle East Affairs chose for its Sixth Annual Conference the subject of "nationalism in the Middle East." Four sessions considered the various aspects and viewpoints in specific countries and in gener al* Schorger put it this way as one participant at the Conference: . . . it is in cultural terms that we must finally approach nationalism* nationalistic behavior is not discrete nor divorceable from other aspects of ordinary life* nor can it be understood when wrenched out of context* Where a sense of nationhood exists outside the framework of a normal state* and it most assuredly cast* it is preserved in the way of life of a people; and when a state exists whose population does not unite as a nation* the limes of fragmentation are found to follow cultural lines* The critical misuse of the word •^Hazem Zaki Nuselbeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca* New York: Cornell University Press^ T^by, p. vi. ^Nejla Izzeddin* "The Arab World: Fast* Present* and Future* * Middle East Journal* 8:211-12, Spring* 1954* "nationalism," in referring to political phenomena in the Middle East, la a consequence of our assumption, derived from our Western experience, that when you have a state you have a nation, and thereto re when you are dealing with a states you are dealing with a national consciousness* * * i 1 > * leadership in the countries of the Middle last is developing among the middle class with lawyers and military personnel in key positions* Beyond the concepts of colonialism and national self-determination the nationals of these countries, laying aside personal strivings, ulterior seekings, and class Interests, may create action for the common good* Unfortunately, up through the years of the mid- century there has been , ♦ ? a definite impression that the Hear and Middle last, with Horth Africa, is an underdeveloped area which has not yet been sufficiently integrated into the political and economic structure of the modern world*13 Early in 1957, however# the Middle last Institute took a close# fresher look at this part of the world when it announced and studied for its annual conference held April 12 and 13# 1937# "The Hew look in the Middle East*" ^William 0. Schorger, "Nationalism in the Arab World# " in nationalism in the Middle East (Washington, 0* ■€*.: The Middle' last Institute#1 P* 31* tor another definition of "nationalism, ” consult UNESCO, "Six Trial Definitions, ” International Social Science Bulletin* 8:132-50# 1956* ' 1 i3Harry W* Hazard, "Statistical Highlights#" in Ernest Jackh (ed.), Background of the Middle East (Ithaca# New York: Cornell University Pres s, 1952), Chap * II# p. 10* It studied Idle responsibilities and opportunities of the area. The Director of Education and Research for the Middle East Institute, who concurrently is professor of Middle East Studies at the School of Advanced International Studies at The Johns Hopkins University, gave a penetrating appraisal of the regional security problem when he stated* in part: The Balkanization of the Middle East is at the root of the regional security problems* ♦ * * For centuries medieval Muslim unity had been under going a process of decentralisation which resulted in the separation of Persia* Central Asia and other peri pheral portions of the Muslim world* During the latter part of the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth there were attempts at separation from Muslim unity in certain parts of the Arab world* If was the importation of nationalism from the west* how ever* which became the dynamic factor in accelerating this breaking-up process* ♦ * *1& After explaining a type of neutralism in most of the Arab countries of the Middle East* Khadduri then gave an eastern view of nationalism: What is the Middle Eastern conception of national ism? In the narrow sense of patriotism* the Middle Eastern peonies were patriotic before Westerners were* But patriotism was not territorial; it was* as Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406)* an Arab sociologist and philoso pher of history* keenly observed* an attachment to the ethnic structure of the group* Islam superseded this 2*4||ajid khadduri, "The Problem of Regional Security in the Middle East: An Appraisal*1 1 The Middle East Journal* 11:12-22, Winter* 1957* - 61 feeling by shifting the loyalty of the believers to the Caliph, or the supreme authority in Islam# When the Caliphate declined and the sultans (secular rulers) usurped these powers# local particularism asserted it self and nascent territorial patriotism began to develop* W h e n the Middle Eastern peoples came into more intimate contact with the West they began to learn the significance of a European type of patriotism in the form of the cult of the nation-state* They were impressed with its effects on the rise of Germany, Italy# and Japan during the nineteenth century* With the political developments im the nineteenth century and on into the twentieth# the question arises concerning the religious influence# Irvine wrote of the contemporary scene when he wrote in similar vein; Returning# however# to our stereotyped view of the Muslim world as seen through the Western window# the question which rises unbidden to our minds# engendered by our ancient traditions of conflict and misunder standing, is: ^What is the nature of the relationship between Islam and modern Arab nationalism?n Could it not be that Arab nationalism is# in fact# a continu ance of the Holy War against the West in modem form? # * * The waning influence of salvation through Islam merely# as a rallying power for unity# could not be relied upon* Khadduri implied a death rattle; In the twentieth century nationalism delivered the final blow to Muslim unity and aimed at transforming the Islamic state (or states) into modem constitu tional states* * > *l7 l5IMd. ^Keith Irvine, "Religion in the Middle East," Current History. 32:327-31, June, 1957. 17Khadduri, toe, cit. 62 Writing of the peoples of the Middle East, Femau stated that They are demanding not only political and economic independence but the right to order their own lives, the right to settle for themselves what they choose to do or not to do# That is the great common eluent#18 Speaking at the final session of the International Relations Conference of February-March, 1957# sponsored by the University of Southern California# the Consul of Lebanon for the eleven western states# hr# Wadih if Mb, averred that "Lebanon exists today as a nation where troubled countries can meet on neutral ground in the Middle Bast,"19 Mb stated further that Lebanon*s role as a "middle man" between last and West has caused an exchange of cul tures as well as of goods# To stand on middle ground# somewhat as a neutral or non-interventionist, or to champion the side of East or West is not easy. Defending the position of his country as a member of the Baghdad fact# the Shah of Iran made himself quite well understood when he said at a Kremlin banquet: We have always opposed colonialism# We are not a new country; we have been sovereign for twenty-five IB * W# Femau, Moslems on the Marchs People and Politics in the World of Islam ’ |§ew Yorkf: Alfred K' Knopf# Inc * # 1955), p. vi# ^University of Southern California# Daily Troian. March 4# 1957# p* 1# centuries* If the Persian Government has undertaken measures for defence, they have been dictated by the needs of the State on the basis of past experience and the general international situation*20 The Afro-Asian front, Asian~Arab blot, the Baghdad fact, Northern Tier (Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Pakistan), Southern Tier (Arab World* excluding Iraq)* the Arab League, and other alignments--*all are consonant with the established fact that the Middle last must be included when world affairs receive consideration# Resurgence among the Middle last powers may be characterised by Janus-like viewpoints: Arabs have a nostalgic longing for their past tory, and are keenly interested in playing the role of an equal partner In international relations, rather than being a pawn in the game of power polities among giant Powers# As a result, the idea of a "third Forcet # appeals to them, due to the role that the Arabs--led by Egypt— might play among equal partners# whether to the Afro-Asian front at the United Nations or in the Arab League# • * « Both doctrinaire and opportunistic sides have arisen she Middle last to regard to a neutralist philosophy# Theoretically, it implies a scrupulous stogie standard of behavior toward both last and West# although the popular attitude which has prevailed has been somewhat negative# a non-alignment* Am observer presents the viewpoint quit© well: 20a Monthly Survey of Foreign Affairs (london)# 88:5, July, 1956 (7th year. ^Khadduri, loc. clt. The growth of a neutralist attitude in the Middle last# based on the natural desire of newly independent and weak countries to escape involvement in the Cold War# has appeared as an inevitable by-product of last- West tensions* To the peoples of the countries between Suet and the Indian Ocean their domestic troubles with the economic exigencies of independence have been a primary postwar pre-occupation* In foreign affairs the . Arab states have been unwilling to see beyond the Palestine issue and unwilling to accept Western warn ings and alliances which might enlist them in an East- West contest. Parochial quarrels# moral arguments# and opportunism have generally prevailed in many of the Middle East states* The loss of the moral imperatives of Islam in modem Arab states may have encouraged a kind of moral neutralism* Be that as it may# there have been some rallying points# Stevens continued with a fulcrum: For the Arabs as a group there was comfort in the fact that they had enlisted solid support for their position vis-a~yis Israel." On this one Issue they could close" racks and. repeat success at home* # ♦ * On the issue of collective security versus non- alignment it became evident at Bandung that a polariza tion of attitudes had taken place in the Middle East* Iran and Iraq# discreetly supported in principle if not in fact by Lebanon# would remain within the Western allied defense system* Egypt# Saudi Arabia and Syria# in company with their new-found friends# were moving toward the neutralist doctrine* Like an echo from Qurfanic dogma# a new Zone of Peace was to be added to the classic Zone of War and Zone of Islam* Bandung thus served to catalyze an existing trend in these countries and to furnish a positive sanction for it*z^ 22< 2 eorgiana g# gtevans# 'Arab neutralism mad Bandung*1 1 The Middle last Journal* 11$ 139-5.2# Spring# 1957* 23Ibid. In the international situation anil in the interests of all concerned m urgent appeal is given: the overriding need is for a political settlement to remove the running sore of conflict, and to clear up the tragic situation by which millions of refugees live on the margin of survival# their misery exploited by Communism and nationalism alike* In the economic sense it is less easy .to- present a clear picture of the Middle last# This was brought out in a statement recently? Periods of intensive economic activity and flourishing external trade have given way to periods of devasta tion, neglect# and isolation* Vet, under all ruling systems and in spite of great diversity in climate# natural resources# and population in the component parts# the area has retained a basic economic frame work* Some economies can beapproached through statistics# but# for the Arab World# these are often not available, and# when they are# frequently inconsistent. Worse# even when correct# they can be misleading* *$ account arid conditions# deserts# mountains, limited ra fall# and little water* Agriculture holds an important place in the lives of millions of people* However# the yields and levels of production are comparatively low due to complex reasons * £%illiam R. folk and William 0* Thweatt, "The Changing Economic Scene," in Perspective of the Arab World* An Atlantic Monthly Suppleraent (Hew York: Interculturai Publications# Inc*, 1956), pp. 30-34* Man-land and man-usable land ratios must take in * * twuwit x 86:2, May7 tMf ( Monthly Survey of Affairs (London), 1956 (7th year). m Some could be cited as IJ^ t e d water* extreme beat# aridity* soils lacking humus* saline and sterile soils* pests and diseases, methods of land holding and forms of tenancy* It would be only fair in this regard to see what proportion of land is under cultivation, fable IV presents the three selected countries of this investigation* showing 10 per cent cultivated land for Iran* 5 per cent for Iraf# said 28 per cent for Lebanon. Chief food crops are wheat* barley* oats* millet, maize, and rice* Cotton, tobacco* and dates comprise cash crops* fruits* nuts* narcotics are produced in Middle East markets. Sheep* goats* and camels are found in sizable numbers# Metallic minerals are also found in many areas* \ though individual deposits are generally small# The ! chromium and manganese from the Middle last may be better j / known than the iron and soluble salts# One spectacular resource* however, is oil* Mot only to estimated reserves of petroleum and oil* but also to actual production the Middle last has become important* from producing 3*3 per cent of the world pro~ duct ion in 1930, for Instance* the Middle East produced 24 per cent to 1955* Shwadran disclosed the financial importance of such business when he wrote: m tmm nr e s t i m a t e s or a b m m *mm s E S & r a s D c o t m m m (000 square miles) Country Tear Total Cultivated Irrigated Propor tion of cultivated to total area (Per cent) Tran ■ ' 1950 #8*0 6£uS 6.0 10 Iraq 1951 in* 1 9*0 5.0 5 lebanon 1950 3*9 1.1 0.2 28 SOUBOlSt FAD* Yearbook of foe# and A^tcuI tural Statistics^ 1952 1 United Nations 0©plrt^l£|, W n S66i^iSe, x 'i^ in the Middle Sastj 195l-*52| laddie .last Economictj Jum^lpgj* m royalties paid to the Middle East governments and rulers for the oil produced have been mounting steadily and have become m important factor in the re gion as a whole, but more particularly decisive in each of the countries involved* Thus, in 1951, Bahrein re ceived $3,800,000, Iran $23,300,000, Iran $38,360,000, Kuwait $30,000,000, Qatar $3,800,000, and Saudi Arabia $155,000,000, making a total of $254,260,000. four years later, in 1955, it was estimated that Bahrein re ceived $8,050,000, Iran $98,409,000, Iraq $214,000,000, Kuwait $299,000,000, Qatar $27,000,000, tod Saudi >,000,000, a total of $916,459,000.25 Arabia though these figures on royalties from the oil Industry are impressive, yet they heighten in importance \ ■ , \ when one bears in mind the population of each country and \ also the ratio of the oil royalties to the national in comes* Considering the percentage of income, a short statement was made: ! While in Iran oil revenues amount to about 20 to 25 / per cent of the total source of governmental income, / in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait they may reach as high as 90 to 100 per cent* Although non-producing countries of the area, Syria, lebanon, and Jordan from pipelines running through their territories, and Egypt from Sues Canal tolls, have also derived appreciable revenue from the oil industry* Table V reveals ■ some of the activities of ■ oil- re* fineries, showing further great capacities in some of the countries, particularly in Iran and Saudi Arabia* ^Benjamin Shwadran, "Oil in the Middle East Crisis,** Middle Eastern Affairs* 8:127, April, 1957* 'iMd. urnm f repiuebiis bi mrnm iasi m m m m (Completed at the end of 1953) Current Bats 1951 crude capacity commenced tlnrouglhoub Counta^ location Company (000 b/d)# _ j i^2S£s~ (000 b/d)* Bahrain Abnali Bahrain Petroleum Company 19Q& 1936 180.2 Egypt sues Government 9S 1921 6.2 tan Suez togloHSgyptlan Oilfields !&.o im 1 39.9 Abadan AnglG-Iranian Oil Company 550.0 ' 1913 2&.0 Kermanshah Kemanshah Petroleum Company 2.0 • 1*5 Iraq Ataiid Khanagin Oil Company (Oorezment) 8.0 wm 8.8 Haditha Iraq Petroleum Compeny 6.5 "&$L * » * * * » llrknk Iraq Petroleum Company 2.5 1936 2.1 South of Basra Khanagin 011 Company (Government) 1 * * 0 wm — Bunaib Una al^Ahmadi Kvmt% 011 Company 30*0 im 23.3 Lebanon Tripoli Iraq Petroleum Company 10.0 11.2 Saudi Arabia Saa tanura -Arabian American HI. Company 160.0 ms W . 2 turkey Batman W£k Enstitusu 1.0 19W 0.2 ^Thousand barrels daily* 808101* Royal Institute of .Inierniryboi^ Affairs, fhe Middle East. p. 5f0* . the editor of Middle Eastern Affairs mentions oil as both a key and a talisman: Whether stated overtly# as was done recently by former Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden# or covertly by other spokesmen involved in the entreat crisis, it is obvious that behind the more limited and immediate Suez Canal issue, as well as behind the general East-West crisis in the Middle East# there lurks the question of the fabulous oil reserves of the region* The oil is frequently given as both a cause and a reason for the crisis# and the oil is raised like a talisman to silence any discussion and to answer any criticism against given policies and practices# * * * In short# oil has become the key to all issues# as well as the answer to all arguments, although it is not the only factor in the Middle last c r i s i s *28 Simpson^ considers from one point of view that the discovery of oil has brought an unmixed blessing with the sudden wealth granted to hitherto impoverished lands: (1) an attitude of the nationals to the foreigners who dis covered and developed oil interests# (2) an oversupply of money for which no immediate productive use can be found# (3) sudden thrusts of penurious persons into the ranks of the wealthy# (4) immediate contacts with higher material standards of living# and (5) the new social and political responsibilities which have grown out of changed material / / conditions# Z0Benj amin Shwadran, *011 in the Middle East Crisis#*1 International Journal (Canada)# 12:13*23# Winter# 1956*57• ^Dwight J# Simpson, "Impaet of the 0il Industry on the Middle East#** World Affairs Quarterly* 28:36*61, April# 1957* Of the impact of the oil industry on the Middle last the observer continues: The material benefits to be gained from an adoption of a more *Tfestera* outlook on life are manifestly superior, What is not so clear to the perplexed Iraqi or Kuwaiti is the spiritual worth of a Western way of life* Thus the questioning Middle Easterner is caught in a dilemma; and it is true to say that the major crisis in the Middle last* the crisis from which all other crises stem, is in essence a spiritual crisis of the Middle Eastern mentality* It would not be accurate to blame this crisis solely upon the impact of the oil Industry; the so-called "Arab Awakening’ 1 antedated the mass invasion of the oil technicians. But the oil industry has had the effect of both deepening .and in tensifying the crisis which in the mid-twentieth cen tury bids fair to produce a genuine social# political# and cultural revolution.30 The editor of the. Middle East Economist, who' has had many years of experience in the Middle East* observed that * * the oil-producing countries of the region# with their huge oil revenues# are not in need of development loans. He qualified lranfs position# however# with the financial setback of the oil nationalisation crisis* He listed as those countries needing special development assistance- -non-oil producing countries they are— Turkey# Egypt, Lebanon# and Jordan* Table VI, compiled from Michaelis1 information# presents the distribution of loans granted as of 1956 by the International Bank, The only ^Alfred Michaelis# ^International Bank Activities In the Middle Bast# , f Middle Eastern Affairs* 8:180-85# May# 1957* 72 t ? T V. J j * , mswxmnm of sank: ldais xi urn mb)« basi D e e e n f t > e K * i ■ . Country March, 199tm \ ttumbef' .of loans ...Amount in. United States dollars Clumber of loans Amount in.. United States dollars trm 1 i 75, 000,000 1 | 12,800,000 Iraq 1 6*293,9116 X 27*000,000 Lebanon 1 27, 000,000 6 63,ii.00,000 furkey 6 60*822,383 mal 8 1103,200,000 9 1169*116,329 #S0t3ROBs Adapted Alfred Michaelis, ^International Bank Activities in the Middle Bast*1 1 Middle Eastern .Affairs, 8*l80*»8$t . May, ^SOURCE* Adapted from International Bank for Reconstruction and Development* loans at Work (WasMngton, B.C. * World Bank* March 31* w m ) M pp* ^ 0 30* 8 1 effective loans that are presently operative are the loans .Afe - s o - -1^ "W |f ^ V-,1 r t f c - j t i to Turkey ant* x«eDanon* fhe International lank welcomed evidence of the growing financial strength of Iraq and with alacrity released a press statement on the Iraqi loan: fhe World Bank announced today that the Government of Iraq had cancelled the unused balance, $6*5 million# of the fifteen-year loan of $12.8 million made by the lank in dime# If50* lank funds amounting to $6.3 million have already been spent or obligated in carry ing through the Wadi Tharthar flood control project for which the loan was made* fhe remainder of the foreign exchange required for completion of the project will not be provided from Iraq*# own. resources*3* She changing economic scene augurs well for Iraq# and polk and fhweatt consider that the country is unique £ inane i al ly: Iraq# with 5*1 million people# Is the most fortunate of fhe Arab states# Its problem is not where to find money but how to use what it has without causing run away inflation* for several years* Iraq*a Development Board has been spending oil royalties sc the rate of $70 million annually on irrigation, new industry and mining, building roads and bridges* and other ^social overhead** projects* Under a new five-year plan begun last year the annual Investment will rise to $170 million yearly* let even at this Iraq will still have a large investable surplus* * * *33 the Development Board of Iraq is to be commended on the constructive, progressive# and well-planned flood ^International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop ment (World BankV* Press Release i o V January 771955V 33Poik and fhweatt# op* cit.* p* 34* control. Irrigation, and drainage projects, totaling some *14 twenty-one, with a proposed five year program, 1956*1960. With material^ trade, and economic projects tinder way# more attention can he given to projects other than physical* Iran, also, has done well toward improving and effecting physical improvements for hatter living* In its Annual Report for 1955*1956 the World Bank told of recruiting foreign specialists to serve with fhe Plan Organisation, and reported Thus far, specialists in transport, municipal develop* meat, agriculture, and industry have been selected. • * * The President of the Bam visited Iran in June, 1956, to discuss the possibility of Bank participation in financing the Government's second Seven-Year Plan for development* * « ♦ the same statement reported that by fhe end of the fiscal year, 1955*1956, agreement had not been reached on the proposal to assist the Egyptian Government concerning possible financing of the High Aswan Dam up to $200 million of the foreign exchange costs of the project# Everyone ^Read Development Board (Iraq), Major Irrigation Projects (Baghdad, Iraq: Government of Iraq, Development Board and ’ Ministry of Development, 1956), 28 pp.; John Shearman, "The Mikity Tigris is Diverted, * ' Iraq Petroleum, 5:8*11, f ebruary, 1955, John Shearman, "Momentous " Bays' "for Iraq," Iraq Petroleum# 5:5*16, July, 1956| and John Shearman, Over— the lesser 2an,1 * Iraq Petrole um, 5:11*13, May, 1936* ^International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop ment, Eleventh Annual Report# 1935*1956 (Washington, D* C«: IhternitiSnal^^ Baik* 1956), 75 pp*' 75 knows* of course* of the subsequent provocative develop* meats and the international repercussions, the possibilities' of m iron, industry in Iran, were discussed with German representatives, A happy day occurred for iran. when railroad, lines were extended from the capital city to a holy city: Hie. railroad connection, linking feheraa -with, the city of Meshed in the northeast corner of the country close to the Russian and Afghan border has been inaugu rated on May 2 by the Shah* t * *06 'fhe Seven^faar flan that I ran has embarked on In* eludes a long list of projects, consisting of new highways* dams.# irrigation facilities* airports* schools# hospitals* and industries* Twenty** five centuries ago* fhe Ehusestan region supported the wealthy center of a great civilisation* the Medo-Persian empire* Susa* the capital of the emperor Darius, was surrounded by many thousands of intensively cultivated acres of land* fhe rich surrounding lowlands produced quantities of grain for the Archaememid rulers* Ruins of m extensive canal and irrigation system can be seen today* Clapp wrote that In recent years*- the region has been, marked by Iranians* M* 0* Point IV experts* and United States ^"Iran, * Middle East Economist and financial Service* 11:72* Mi^* WS/t technical assistance missions as a place of great promise for diversified agriculture and industry* fhe full development of the Khuzestan region, now the center of Iran’s established oil industry, will go. a long ^ y toward strengthening the economy of all Iran* This area of southeastern Iran, where five rivers flow in the broad, plain north of the Persian.,.gulf and the vast oil fields ■ can virtually develop socio-economically into a vast XVA program-**a project of unified development of land and water resources* Lebanon, likewise* although a country of some 1.3 million people. and depending largely upon, tourism and light industries* has launched on construction projects for economic and living improvements* Writing of the Litani liver plan which could largely and materially affect the economy of the country*, co authors stated that The one-hundred " “ mile-* long Litani, small by world stand ards*. but with a drop of over half- a mile in its last sixty miles* is tailor-made for power generation* Since the whole river lies inside Lebanon, • this will, dispense with the sort of political friction involved in development plans for the Mile (between Egypt and the fudan)* the Euphrates (shared by turkey* Syria* and Iraq), and the Jordan* It is hoped that the Litani might .add ■ as 'much as 40 per cent to 'Lebanese irrigated farm land, it would also quadruple the now insuffi cient electric supply, and thereby stimulate light industry. * * *3o ^Gordon r# Clapp, "Iran: A TVA for the Khuzestan legion.H The Middle East journal* 11:1-11* ffinter* 1957. ^%olk and fhweatt* loo* cit. The agricultural products of the fertile Raka*a have long supplied the coastal markets and mountain villages. With water supplies on the slopes of the Lebanon and Anti** Lebanon ranges, scores of villages have maintained their handicrafts and home shops# Interestingly enough* recently a writer in the Los Angeles Times of March 15* 1957 eulogised the old Phoeni cian stronghold of today: Lebanon is the smallest but also the most advanced of the Arabic speaking countries* It is a narrow strip of land which at no point exceeds thirty-*five miles In width* and by tradition* commerce, and outlook is oriented toward the sea and hence to the West* But for its trade and its political survival, it also depends on the Arabic hinterland whose ideas and outlook it shares in modified form* * * *39 For its size Lebanon has become one of the most industrialized countries in the Middle Bast* Approximately 50,000 persons are engaged in industry and more than half of that number are employed as factory workers* Concerning labor codes, a summarizing statement could be given: In Lebanon, too, the promulgation of a labor code in 1946 created more favorable conditions for working men and women* * * * The law provides for equal pay Robert 6* Neuman, "Problems of Our Friend Lebanon," Middle Bast Press Review* 6:2-3, February-March, 1957. 73 for equal work by both sexes, with employment rights protected for women during maternity leave# . * AO It continues with the code in the country between the two rivers: Iraq1® labor code was amended in 1942 to provide greater safeguards in urban labor conditions* Iraqi law now covers trade union organization, the establish** ment of labor exchanges, housing and welfare projects* and plans for social security* . . « fay in industry* like many other countries in the world* is frequently higher than in government* and working conditions in large factories are governed by legal regulations about light* water and toilet facilities* medical safeguards* dust prevention, and so forth* Women* who provide ten per cent of the industrial labor force* are entitled to equal payA& from a glance at a world map* obviously* the Arab League States occupy a position which bears to the Middle last as a whole the same relations of the Middle East to the rest of the world# In terms of communication and transportation* the Middle last maintains a nodal function* as described by one observer: Both sea and air lanes converge at the Arab center; the position of the Suez Canal Is paralleled In commercial aviation by. the significance of Cairo* Beirut* Damas cus* Basra* and Dhahran on the great air routes between Europe and populous fringeland Asia, Air lanes stretching from all points between Copenhagen and Lisbon* to the West, and fokyo and Australia* to the East* collect themselves at the hour-glass waist of the Arab States* * # A* "Labor and Social Welfare in the Arab World**1 The Arab World# 3:11*14* May^June* 1957* 4lIMd. ^Keith Williams* "Comnercial Aviation in the Arab States: Pattern of Control*H The Middle Bast Journal. 11:123-38, Spring, 1957, r1 # - s I S m r t £ **K II? # H |* ft ff® s fiir & & * sr f t 0 Hi# # H*< < H*0 ft#M ft ft# M * R % I" 9UB „. t*o e*g b d o «< m | i ? 8 § 4 &g,®i **$91 QH9dlt9 0 .** # jjl ® ^ rt*0 cls g p a » d g p OS i i 0 O H #* ft g < P * C O 8 H i H i M # » g C L C L g * j| O -ft ft- ft © * ft h I# a § 2 f| 0 m m -o . * i t l i i*h*p f c S j | £ g 9* ?*?»** •Blr ® fr'fcL*® - * fit?IMS S S o * i.erlif»ll ft H * » 0 C O a ®»§g «»* as s » f!?a8S?ffP* 4 r . i * « l : r * Om *FfII f *it:i& '■SSH-’l O r t m „ p § M ^ r f t # < 0 ♦ f c f * j§ O ^ 0 ^ flub W f t . . . f t g j | n t l & a a*| m g t f ^ l m § H § I ll^ft m # H*ft 0 0 tlTlf 3£t? 3^ P*Sii H I £ 0 2 F I III ' w S 0 H* ft h » mm ft 0 0* 0 M ft » H a O H g H H H $ g n Meo0 •■M> ©* H i s s H 4 ■ ■ " 0 $ a * u ^ * *4 . #* f t p l o 5 t “^ s W Hi*f 0*0 # ■ 0 0*# j n o*< t * r S*o |g g a 8 ' H i H£& Hi* # 9 9 * I * ft cLo h a 0 . * & * * £ o a ISS» g -0***3 ft % o C O 0*H e » * t a * a * # § Jt|| | | H ft H & r : S°*nJ WigB £ H ^t# o 5 # * ® i* ^ 0 * 0 * 0 # £ S « P I ! 8 6 - - s a 3 * S ’ L a. *j i O *si . _ . ft H ■ * ■ * 0 # H * 8 f ® 0 * 0 # . 0* 0 H» H ! 0 # f f f t * 0 #*# H i H I ' ® ft . , H 0 H» # $ 0 .O P H* *1 *# m ft# h hh# ■ a r s « ® i r ® 1 0 rt crH g ©ho S B 8BHTt*T© pw© ssofsasd j o sasqsmu sossst ^eq *tiBai # OTiaqoi puB rbBii ‘pepqSBg qjog »3seg ©IPPTW ®q3 « T astJlB sstrjijajB 2Bp3Bj pue qtmaj j t o j 318H83J U f qods ujem ©qj S B ©paosp 3S©d ©qq u j p©3x©m© seq ‘uouBqsq 'jwxfog 80 It is already difficult to find subsistence and livelihood for some existing populations in the Middle East# though much can be done to improve animal and plant husbandry* Considerable sums of money will be necessary to finance projects, accompanied by a readiness of the in habitants to respond to new conditions* Low*spending power and lack of technical skill will have to be studied as I relevant problems* iv* life The cultural heritage of the Middle Easterner harks back through the centuries and millennia to the Phoeni cians, the Abbasids, and to the Medes and Persians, The rich threads have been woven in and out* Occupying in the world a unique position geographi cally and lying between and linking the three continents of the Old World, the Middle Eastern countries naturally are inf luenced by interactive cultures * There have been characteristics present in some of the countries by seclu sion on one hand and openness on the other. This, in part, may explain why some peoples are extremely mixed in racial origin, whereas others, like the Bedouin Arabs or Armenians are racially pure* In some areas there are appearances of little change, like walking through the ancient past, while in 8 1 Cairo, Beirut^ Damascus, Amman, Baghdad, and Teheran there are boulevards of modernity# Contrasts in transportation of camels said donkeys of Biblical times are found just outside some of the Middle Eastern airports# Towns and cities have long dominated Middle Eastern political life* Urban Inhabitants are more accustomed to reading the publications, although small toms also enjoy facilities through the postal services# Table VII shows that there is a fair distribution of publications among the countries* Turkey and Egypt have the bulk of publications* Apparently* the lures in cities of greater wealth*, more convenient facilities, and easier jobs attract the ^ dissatisfied* energetic* and sometimes restless elements I t j from the countrysides, mountain villages* or desert wastes* / In some cities crowded hovels* slum districts* and tene~ / ments lift their distressing sights* and immigrants and refugees can be found generally in large numbers* As in many other parts of the world* disease said \ malnutrition carry their burdens* Many a workman because \ n of poor living conditions possesses a minimum of strength to perform the dayfs labor# Even a moderate day of labor ; / lowers resistance when illness and pestilence stalk the land# Riverine districts have been notorious for their PUBLICATIONS IN KBWUS EAST COUNTRIES 1957 Country Humber of dailies lumber of lumber o f weeklies periodicals Egypt 3k 26 m Iran m 10 10 tm% 2h 9 6 Jordan $ 2 1 Mbmm. n 19 k Saudi Arabia % 3 $ Syria u 7 9 Turkey 3$ \ / 3k S3 SO0I0II The Middle Bait* w m (Xmsta* Europa Publishers, Ltd., 1957), cases of malaria, plague, eye diseases, parasitic infesta tions, cholera, and smallpox. Urban centers, especially, have had incidence of venereal diseases, tuberculosis, and malnutrition* Health authorities and government welfare agencies are gaining and developing programs to Improve conditions * Much has been accomplished; however, there is muchyet to 6e done# Quaint song, exotic dance, graceful art, and embel lished architecture are /characteristically different" in each country. Mother picture, happily, also is seen to advantage in each country with cheerful, robust, healthy workmen or athletic, bronsed shepherds. Many follow with keen inter est the news of the day# In proportion, nevertheless, the great bulk of the population are non-readers* table fill presents the number of newspapers and circulation figures for the various countries* Even, among the countries which have been selected for special study there are sharp dif ferences* It; can be said that the Middle last has almost skipped the newspaper age# for mass communic at ion has ushered' in other media* With surprising rapidity wireless and radio receiv ing sets are finding their way into every country# with m TkWM VIII DAILY WSPiOTES IN MIDDLE EAST COUNmXESf NUMBER AND MSnmtBB CIRCULATION Country fear Number of newspapers Circulation 15 ' T ' Per 1,000 copies population Egypt 1952 50 515 25 Iran 0952 20 12© 6 Iraq 1952 5k 1©8 21 Jordan 195k k 12 9 Lebanon 1952 k© 100 11 Saudi Arabia 1952 1 10 2 Syria 1952 33 150 I d l furkey 3952 116 m 32 SOURCES United Nations Statistical Yearbook,. 19$6§ pp* 606- * dot* ■ incredible increase in Hinder each year* Any person net \ deaf may hear, so the hearers are many* Host of the large I cities have their own government broadcasting facilities* ) Private or commercial radio stations are not known in the countries within the purview of this investigation* In some cities* towns* and villages public ly-ewned or government-owned loud speakers and receivers are: in* stalled in public, squares or parks or stadiums for listen* lag pleasure*. She aired programs and newscasts* naturally, are controlled.* The radio stations and receivers have thus brought , in rapid communication and nationwide coverage for govern*! The short-wave facilities, as Table IK shows, are almost exclusive to the Kiddie last* The king’s birthday for Iraq brought a great innova tion for the Kiddle East: World interest to the development of Iraq quickened with the news* on 2nd May (1956), that H* M« King Faisal had formally opened the Middle East *s first Television Service to Baghdad* * * * Television was first introduced .to Baghdad during the British Trade fair to September, 1954* * * * Speaking before the opening ceremony* Sayid Khalil Ibrahim, Direc tor-General of guidance and Broadcasting* said that television had become an important instrument to the life of nations* and television to Iraq would be of great assistance to raising educational# social* and cultural standards* * * * * * * * 44«xelevision Comes to Iraq*" Iran Petroleum* 6:5*9* August*, 1956* 86 fABBS IX RADIO HSOBITOO- SET $ H BUDDIE DAS! mwmmB (In order of largest number) Short Wave Date of Country Receivers (percentage) licensed receivers fcrlsesr 1*198*1*00 9? October, 1956 SgyPt 716,000 90 December* 1955 Iran $90*000 9? dam* 1956 %ria 2g0*000 95 October* 1956 Irat 12$*00O 9? June* 1955 lebanon 110*000 100 dul^* 1956 Jordan. 17*000 95 December* 1955 SOURCE? Middle East Economist j lit£2* April* 19??# Besides having the only television station between Rome and Bangkok# Iraq makes a further claim in that Iraq now has the most powerful broadcasting station in the Middle East and one of the strongest and most up to date in the world* * # * . Built and equipped by Marconi’s for the Iraq Govern ment *s Posts and Telegraphs Department at a cost of 1500# 000 (British Pounds), the station has two 100- kilowatt medium-wave transmitters# operating in paral lel# and two 100-kilowatt high frequency transmitters* * , * *45. The nation has virtually taken to the air# Un doubtedly, with such advancements Iraq— and other countries In the Middle last— will develop both radio and television facilities for broader coverage* Considering cultural life in the Middle East# reli gion cannot be discounted. In a doctoral dissertation a researcher of Islam wrote: \ It must not be overlooked, moreover# that an attack \ on Islam is an attack not simply upon a religious I system# but upon deep-seated national mad community \ loyalties* It is a challenge taken up with enthusiasm# \ sometimes by men of no particular religious interest or * f spiritual experience, because it is an attack upon many j beloved elements in Muslim culture that are respected / as the source of all that is good and noble in national/ life* Islam is not a theocracy in theory only# it is / a cultural organisation in which religion* social life/ and national life have been closely bound together for thirteen centuries. « * ^"A Mew Voice for Iraq#** Iraq Petroleum. 6:10, April-May, 1957* ^Harry Gaylord Dorman, dr.# Toward Understanding Islam. Contributions to Education# Mo. 94o (j^ 'York: Teachers College* Columbia University* 1948)* p. 117. as Although not a Moslem country* "Lebanese political life Is organised on a sectarian basis*f f ^7 A balance of power, more or less* is constitution ally guaranteed in the Eepublie of Lebanon# In the order of their greatest number of adherents between Moslem and A S t non-Moslem religious bodies* a recent survey listed the / following: Maronites Sunnis Shi*as Greek Orthodox hruses Through the centuries men of letters# philosophers* astronomers* and scientists in countries of the Middle last have stood upon the eastern skyline of knowledge and wis dom* To catch some of the beauties of pen and brush* UMESCO would revive the legacies of the past and would restore 'them for contemporary appreciation.^ ^7"Lebanon, " The Middle East,* Igg? (5th ed.; London: Europa Publications, LtdT* 19o7)7p* 2587 48Ibld. 4*See "TheTreasures of Iran’s Imperial Library,” the UHESCO Courier. 106h tear* January, 1957, pp. 36-45; M* Arrhe, "Great Literature of East and West, " The UMESCO Courier,: ' 10th Tear* June* if 57* pp. 4-6; also in' the same issue* "Complete List of UHESCO ’ s Literature Series*" pp. 22-25, and Georges Fradier, "The Wisdom of Al-Gahiz Crosses the Frontier," pp* 12-13. 89 The glory of former civilizations and empires in the lands of the East is relived in recent works.50 Art* music* architecture* and sculpture are enjoyed, much re- fleeting that of the past* Culture and societyvary, of course, not only with time 'hut also with-piace* 1edeuim peoples prefer.their nomadie way of lining to that of peoples who -are .settled or tied down to some dwelling or land holding* The culture, freedom,''and- enjoyments' of such life are interesting■ to follow, In northern Iraq there are a number of homogeneous communities, For example, ■ islands of Kurds, that must he accounted' £or la the nation* > One*fifth of the population of Iraq is Kurdish* In Sulaimani and Arbii especially, not only is Kurdish the official' tongue hut the. whole atmos phere is Kurdish* In a recent publication a lecturer to Kurdish at the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of 'C* W« Ceram, Gods, Graves, and Scholars (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, htoT, 1954), 433ppTjKoSert tayne. tey to Persia (Londons William Heinemann, Ltd*, 1951), mb pp.: and Arthur Uphara tope, "Persepolis as a Ritual City, * * Archaeology* 10:123-30, Summer, 195?, me repre- sent at iwsHectims* ‘ See such as * * 8edouin Wedding, * Arabweek. 1:20*33, Hovember 15, 1954; S* V. 0* Sodley fork: Creative Age tress, Inc., 1044), 224pp.; and Carl R. Reswan, Black tents of Arabia (Mv Life Among the Be" (Hew forEF^reatlve Age tress, rnc. 7- '194^7 20$pp. m London described some peoples whom he knew from first hand; Iraqi Kurdistan is hounded on the north and east by the Turkish and Persian frontiers# where the papula-* tion on both sides is almost entirely Kurdish* V * * The majority of the Kurds are thus concentrated in the four liwas which in Ottoman times constituted the vilayet of Mosul; Mosul (35 per cent of the total population), Arbil (91 per cent), Kirkuk (52 per cent)# and Sulaimani (100 per cent)# Kurds also have a majority in the two adjacent gadhas of Khanaqin and Mandali. Other than the Kurds there are Chaldean Christians near Mosul city to the north and east# and about 10# 000 Assyrians compactly settled in the Amadiya region: there are also colonies of Turkomans in a string of towns# large and small# along the great high way leading from Mosul through Arbil Alton Kopru, Kirkuk# and Eifri towards Baghdad# * * *52 The presence of such peoples has implications upon educational systems, and effectual provisions must be made* Youth from these peoples have studied on all levels and many have entered both the trades and professions# to say nothing of government or public service* ?* EDUCATIONAL LIFE The intellectual heritage of the Arabs and Persians has its roots in two divergent ways of life# the desert nomadic tradition# and the culture of a settled society j which is hoary with age* Civilisations and entires succeeded one another on the crowded eastern scenes# with Egyptian and Sumerian; / " * 2C* j* Edmonds# r , The Kurds of Iraq#t # The Middle East Journal* 11:52-62* Hinter# 1957* Babylonian, Mede, and Assyrian; the Hittite and the For- sian. Finally Hellenistic culture and education came and brought together the achievements and genius of Greece and Rome, all these being accepted and preserved by Middle last scholars, enriched and passed on to Europe and the West. In his Doctoral dissertation at Cambridge University an Egyptian scholar traced in detail the history of Muslim education from the beginning of Islam (early seventh cen tury A. D.) until the fall of the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt at 648-A*H* (1250 A«D*)3 The year 459 A*H. (1066*1067 A. D.) should be remem bered as marking mi epoch in the history of Muslim education* It is the year in which schools began to flourish in the Islamic world#" In that year the first school in Hiram al*Mulkfs system was started in Baghdad, although before that time, education was conducted in the following various places; 1* Kuttab for the teaching of reading and writing; 2. Kuttab for teaching the Qurvan and elementary religious knowledge and subjects; 3. Elementary education in the palaces; 4. Bookshops; 5. Houses of learned men; ■ Ahmed Shalaby, History of Muslim Education (Doctoral dissertation# Pembroke College#1 ' daiabriago Univer- sity; Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al-Kashshaf, 1954), p* 15. 6* Literary salons; 7* The desertl 8* Mosques*^ After 459 A.H* (1066-1067 A.D.)* education left the mosques in a marked manner* although teachers were appointed in mosques and callers for prayer were engaged in schools* Shalaby cites the main reason for the shift from the mosque to the regular school: Since the rise of Islam the number of students had gradually been increasing* and consequently the number of circles Increased* too* It is believed that the numerous circles and the necessary disturbance caused by study# prevented worship from being conducted properly. Thus we find that a mosque like al-Azhar was* with the exception of the Friday prayers* almost abandoned to the promotion of learning* But this was not a satisfactory solution of the problem as mosques / were mainly built for worship* and worship could not be / curtailed in any way* Moreover* studies developed and I new subjects such as discussions and debates came into . being* These subjects could not be adequately con* / ducted in the mosque where everyone should be reverent i and quiet* Under these circumstances the removal from the mosque to the Madrasah was natural* * * „ * *5 From the beginning of Islam the people were encour aged to increase knowledge and wisdom* Their writings stimulated them* such as from the Qur*an: "Allah will exalt^ those who believe among you and those who have knowledge* ^ to high degrees* "Are those who know equal with those 54Ibid.. pp. 1-54. 55Ibid.. p. 55. 56QUr»aa. surah 58* verse 11, , 93 who know not?"57 "Ask learned people if you do not J know*”58 From the traditions people were further admonished: "Learned men and warriors constitute the next class to the prophets**1 ^ "Seek knowledge from cradle to grave, said search for it even if you are bound to go to China*" "Valueless is the Muslim who is not a teacher or stu dent* Education in each of the countries of the Middle East has been centrally controlled by the government, al though in some countries private and/or foreign schools have existed* Because of foreign political and trade interests, colonialism, protectorates, and missions, for eign influences have permeated some educational systems* i French, American, British, Italian, Russian, and German / ■ ' / educational influences have been quite marked at one time - : ' ■ ■ / or another in different places* in spite of much moral encouragement to learning and government-sponsored education, illiteracy drags heavily on the wheel of progress* It is somewhat futile to attempt to S7lbid*, 39:9* 58Ibid,, 16:43* 8%i-Ghatalis al-Ihya I, p» 5* 8®Haji Khaiifah: Kashf al-Eunun I, p* 13* 61Al~Is£ahani: Muhadarat al-Udaba I, p* 25* 94 give figures or exact percentages of literacy and illiter acy in countries of the Middle East, because one hardly has at his disposal reliable data for forming such a judgment. But it may not be hazardous, nevertheless, to assert that only the minority is literate* fable X discloses the great challenge- for literacy in each of the countries of. the Middle East* The educational network of Intricate patterns forms a huge crajsyquilt of design throughout the Middle East* Writing of the contemporary setting, m Iraqi edu cator told of some diversities and flux: The Arab countries represent various stages of development. Some of them, such as Lebanon, Syria, Egypt * sod Iraq, have made considerable progress and are planning for the acceleration of this progress* Others, such as Yemen and Saudi Arabia, are still lagging behind* Whatever their present status the Arab countries are undergoing fundamental political, eco nomic, and social changes* Education is looked upon by the statesmen and leaders of the Arab world as a prime factor in bringing about and controlling these changes* At the same time political, economic, and social de velopments leave their imprints on education*®2 Turkey and Iran, likewise, have been re-thinking the scope and role of education and have been affecting changes* The latter country has felt the need for greater moral appeal as is evidenced by an official report: ^Mohammed Nasir, ^Secondary Education in the Arab World,1 1 California Journal of Secondary Education* 31:436- 39, November, 1956* T A B T J I X ILLITERACY IS MIDDLE EAST GOUITOIES Country Census year* Per cent illiterate of population 15 years old and over lOTt 1 9 1 ) 7 75-80 Iran 1950 85-90 trmtt 1 9 1 ) 9 85-90 Jordan 1950 80-85 Lebanon 3 9 1 ) 3 50-55 Saudi Arabia 1 9 . 5 3 95-99 Syria 3 9 1 ) 3 60-85 Turkey 1950 65-70 Data are estixsates ■ for 1950 and later,, prepared by the .Statistical Division of tJWESCO, based on census returns whenever possible^ DMESCO* World Gofflmunications (Baris t 0NESCO, 1996) * 96 Religious education has been reinforced la both primary and secondary curricula# While showing respect for religious traditions, children should believe in the existence of God, keep the commandments of the fro* phet, and maintain close contact with the Creator# j School enrollments, as evidenced by fable XX, show disparities even in the three selected countries of the Middle Bast# Increased development predicates certain growing pains, as the following statement admits: fhe rapid expansion of education in Arab countries since World War XX has placed a heavy burden on those responsible for teacher training# Concrete evidence of this expansion is seen not only in the large number of schools being built but also in the tripling of ex penditures for education by the governments of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria since 1945.64 The Increase in numbers of schools and students in Middle last countries, however, has been very encouraging* Typical of rapid development. Table XXX, compiled from Iraqi Ministry of Education statistics* shows fhe expansion of Iraqi public education in terms of decades* The numbers of schools, teachers, and students have increased, particu larly on the secondary level, and 1960*1961 will have a great figure, according to contemporary trends# The spirit of nationalism has definitely affected the educational program# A case in point is quite 63"Iran, t t Bulletin of the _Iaternatioaal Bureau of Education (Geneva), 30; 155, Fourth Quarter, 19561 ^ ’ ’ Government Budgets of Middle East Countries,9 9 Quarterly Bulletin of Economic Development. Wo* 13 (Beirut: SwiSS, -It3$),r ' pp* ii, soot* SCHOOL EffiiOLLMENTS I H IRAK, IRAQ, A ® IEBAHOH I B VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL LEVELS 97 CO t ' - O J _ r > ’ o tan po \ f \ ia <n<M c r \ r -t H\ H r*? OQ f * > S 3 rH „ J % y H H H . C ? O 0\ tn c v r # > ¥ * vO <K * - * 3 r §s # » ■ « * co € v t H i H I O 0 3 1 ^8? OJ Os oo cn <M 1TN * * . « i \ A H SB f *l *3 m A v r \ n i UN a g o O ft m I $ a f m m x i i wo mm mpmsim of xraqi state ebugatot fear lumber of schools Humber of teachers Humber of students Elementary m <wsa Education SS liM 8,001 1930-31 3X6 1,325 3M13 w 3,^25 90,?9ti 1950-51 1#101 6,36? 180,??9 Secondary I 1920-21 Education 3 3k 110 1930**31 19 $29 2,082 iPfcHtl 56 k?2 13,969 1950-51 121 999 22,70? SOUBGSt Compiled from annual reports of the Minis try of EM* cation, Iraqi Government# Bagdad#- Iraq. n symptomatic throughout the various countries. According to a recent survey* the most important \ change in the elementary curriculum of Iraq has been the shift from world history and geography to Arab his* tory and national geography* This trend has also been followed in other Arab countries* Although it is con sidered a sound principle of learning to begin with the childfs more immediate environment* this shift is very / likely due to the demands of the nationalists* fhe S same influence is seen in the practice of restricting the school singing in Iraq almost entirely to national songs,65 fhe national governments in the Middle East have labored with heavy economic and financial burdens* As has been noted* many physical improvements have been made, the building of dams* barrages* irrigation canals* power { > plants* Industries* hospitals* and schools should improve living conditions* It has been encouraging to see greater sums of money invested in public education* fhe various Ministries of Education* conscious of their responsibili ties, have been investing in their youth* as fables XIII and XIV show* More* however* percentage-wise will have to be expended on education if the educational levels are to be strengthened materially* All the countries in the purview of this investiga tion have supported UNESCO and are interested in the inter national projects# See fable XV for dates of membership. 65Arthur Henry Moehiman and Joseph S, Roucek, Com parative Education (Hew York: fhe Dryden Press* 1953), p, q6i» ■ ' 100 I H f x j a A Q f f l a r t i u o a * -i ■ * i t o + » ! £ % $ 2 . *0 o S <H 1& ‘ 8 tn < & t is f t * - P I O , «rt # 5 ? *& * | J ? * r 4 m m m P * 4 C D < B <0 p O H > » j a j H Q rtf *H • * # ! & J O rH £# P 0 S.**' & » ■ t > B O P H f ^ * I ti\o o cneota • t ****•# CM I CM CM * * ■ > £? H ■ ^ 1 I f * * * I * * " ! f * * f f H I Os CM CM t— CM t*» * 9 * - • • ' • - • • c * \ <n < ■ * * * *n pj cm. . » a f \ a .rt\O(A'0OV\MO . 9 * 9 • * ■ * 0 0 rt4HOQi>* Q M 3 O' < - * ' ' " ' Hi # * * ! CKU\*0 H PJ1A t"~CM CM \A F** Pt cn r - i < n • * CM C O a t ’ c a 03 1 ^ 1 - m m 0 *H < £ $ • 0 » r j 0 0* i P - 5 f S t f ~ * J ( ! « * C D f t * 2> Sv 2> 2> § > ■ 0> §> f H I | M i p * % # * N I . f * * l Rf Otj 8 1 r t 3 K S h l 3 0 « * W HNn> Ml CD •8 2 * ^ P S f ♦ s <? «P p < 3 o $3 © M RU J p * # ■a a .p © p H 101 TABLE XIV CURRENCIES AMD OFFICIAL RAIES OF EXCHANGE May, 1957 Country national standard denomination Standard equiva lent limited States currency United States $1.00 equivalent in national standard Iran*’ Eial (100 Iranian Dinara) U* S* $0403 Rs. 75 Iraq** Ira# Binar’ (1,000 Fils) s* s; #2.60 ID 0.357 Iebanon Lebanese Found (100 Piastres) 0. S* $0.1*563 Ii 2.19 ■"■Buy i ng rate. *#Iraql Dinar is equal to the British Pound. SOURCE* Adapted from Middle East Economist, 11*80, May, 1957* f p A t i f t J * V t f i i V X > i « u V AV UNESCO MEMBERS a MIDDLE EASf COUNIR1ES Country Date* Order of Membership for Biddle last Egypt July 16, 19li6 3 Iran September 6, X9U8 6 Iraq October 2X| 1 9 1 * 6 7 Jordan June lhf 1950 8 Lebanon October 28* 19i* 6 J i Saudi Arabia April 30, 191*6 ’ 1 Syria November 16, 19h6 5 Turkey July 6, X9k6 2 # ' The date of deposit of the instrument of acceptance for membership in UMESCO* mmOEi Arranged from Bulletin, 6;235, ■December* 19$r* January* 1955* ■ 103 Saadi Arabia, with an inadequate educational system, was the first Middle last country to join# If one had both time and opportunity a glimpse at the educational program of each nation in the Middle last £L£i would prove of more than passing Interest* A recent work is recommended for further study of educational systems in other countries of the Meat and Middle last* / Inasmuch as the purview of this study was higher education in three countries**Iran, Iraq# and Lebanon-**the following educational frame of reference for these specific countries was taken largely from the aforementioned recent work of educational systems, in which the research stated *• *“ -— *■ . \ . \ Significantly, three sets of waves have sent their \ repercussions throughout the netions of the Middle \ last, and the ebb and flow effects of the tides have \ been appreciable in the human masses of the various lands, fhe sets of waves have occurred in the follow* i lug sequence: first, the political; second# the eco* I comical and social; and third, the Intellectual and / moral*®/ VI* IMAM What is Iran, and why not Persia? An explanation, perhaps, suffices: ^Thomas Sinclair Geraty, **A Comparative Investiga tion of the Mid-'Century Status of Educational Ladders in the Middle East** (unpublished Masterfs thesis, the Univer sity of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1956), 121 pp. 67Ibid.. p. 102. IDA Hie term "Iran, " having always been used by native Persians to designate their indefinitely hounded coun try, became current in western usage after 1927 as the name of the kingdom proper in recognition of its re invigorated life and newly asserted independence* Background and Structure of Education As Mt. Demavend pushes up its crown 18,600 feet beyond Teheran * s northeastern skyline and as the numerous underground conduits and qanats burrow from the snow-capped mountain ranges to the dusty little villages bringing cool waters, so Iran has ever stood out quite prominently in her cultural and educational contributions in the Middle East, Persian poets like Mafia and Omar Khayyam have been famous, and besides such literary personages there have been artists, painters, and other intellectuals* * * * al~ Khwarizmi, Persian by nationality, produced (c* 830) a book in mathematics, entitled al-Jabr, which was the first of its kind* Another Moslemscholar of Persian origin, al-Eazi flat* Rhazes, 863*925) dis* tinguished for the first time in the history of medi- . cine between measles and smallpox* Ibn-Sina flat, Avicenna, 980*1037), son of an Assassin from Bukhara, produced a medical work al-Qanun (The Cmon) in which he regognized the contagious nature or tuberculosis * With her Anglo-Iranian oil concessions measuring some 100,000 square miles, Iran has been the focus of "Iran, " Encvclopedia Britarmica (1956 eel*)} XXX> 585. ^Philip K* Eitti, "The Arab Caliphate: Its Else and Decline*” in Ernest Jackh (ed*), Background of the Middle East* p» 100* attention for many years* __ Unfortunately, however, tier school systems have not kept pace in the same proportion with certain technological developments* 'this, is not to minimise the sincere attempts to ameliorate the health and education conditions* Migra tions, population pressures# and wars have made for con siderable instability* Persia (Iran) became a battleground for Turkish, Russian* and British forces.* Persia during World War 1 emerged from the war in a state of chaos# Since then there have been political and diplomatic prob lems--both foreign and domestic--which have kept the constitutional monarchy on edge* The Ministry of Education, with its centralised eon* trol on the schools throughout the empire, -is doing its best to educate a better, more informed, literate citi zenry* On December 24, 1953, it was announced that the government * * . * . had embarked on a seven-year school con* struct ion program under which 400 primary and secondary 70 schools would be erected. This has been particularly gratifying, since'the two main obstacles to the achievement of the aim of compulsory universal education--a law passed in 1943--have been the shortage of buildings and teachers* A cross-section of educational activities is well Middle East Journal* 8; 192, Spring, 1954. presented in one reports Private schools have to follow the official course of studies and use official textbooks, and permits to open such schools have to be obtained from the Ministry of Education* the'Ministry of Education runs a number of Teachers * training colleges and schools of music and dramatic art*- The ministry is also in charge of public monuments, museums, and archaeological works * Educational and public'health'projects'are in part financed by the pro* ceeds of religious endowments (wagfs). The Ministries of national Economy, of Posts, Telegraphs and 'Tale* phones, of Roads, of Finance, mi of Agriculture# run technical schools; the Ministry of Health runs a school of nursing;* The Ministry- of Defense runs secondary schools, m Officers* Training College, and a Staff College* The University of Teheran, founded in 1935, has faculties of Art, Medicine, 'law, Engineering, Agri culture, and Theology* It is independent of the Ministry of Education* In 1948 the University of Tabriz was founded, with faculties of Arts and Medi cine, and a medical college was opened in Shiraz in 1952* There is also a national library in Teheran* French influence in the educational system is con siderable, -and until'recently French was taught as a second language in most schools* Since 1941* however, the teaching of English has increased* * * .71 Many Western people are surprised to learn that Arabic is not the language of Iran (Persia)* 'The 'Persian language is known as Farsee* To appreciate some of the problems in Iran, one must realize that there'are some 40,008 villages scattered' across the endless stretches of .mountain ranges,'barren land, and salt deserts* In many of the mud-hut villages Eoyal Institute of International Affairs, the rixaQi.e oasts A Political and Economic Survey (London: Oxford University Press, i954y,r , " p ' 7^395 * established hundreds of years ago there have been no schools established* This is a major reason why approxi- mately ninety-five per cent of the countrymen are illiter ate* A foreign educator serving in Iran for, the Paired States co-operative organisation with that country has written of the current educational situation; Respite political turmoil and economic instability there is concern for better educational facilities throughout the country* Iran is a potentially rich nation* Its people are highly intelligent* Its natural resources are plenti ful and have hardly been tapped* Its agriculture can be abundantly productive* Its industries can be ex- f anded from their present infancy to full maturity* hese potentials can only be reached by a people that are healthy# well fed# well clothed and well housed* They must have the advantages of a full life to be happy and productive* Only with education is this pos sible* There is an awakening to the fact that education can be the solution to disease# poverty# unrest and the other social problems that have gripped Iran for cen turies* This growing awareness of the need for better edu cation for all the people of Iran has been apparent for the past twenty-five years* Since 1950 there has been \ a further push given to the willingness of the central- \ I zed Iranian Government to establish more and better \ schools* In that year Point Four came to Iran. As in \ all Point Four programs# education is one of the prin- divisions. C" There' are two major programs directed toward the^ goal of improving the education in this country* In one# more and better school buildings are worked for* In the other# more and better-prepared teachers are being trained* forking with# and for the Ministry of im Education, the American foint Four educational techni- clans have given assistance that has resulted in im proved schools mad a brighter prospect. . * .72 Of particular interest is an. outstanding experiment with nomadic tribespeople in southern Iran# In Teheran, Iran* during September, 1954, Hoyt J# B. turner, Chief of the Education Section, United States operations Mission to Iran* gave a copy of the seven-page report from which merely the introductory paragraphs are quoted.* hater in the report details of the. techniques of organization and methods of instruction were presented# . The road and countryside were crowded with Iranian tribesmen on horseback dressed in their native, color ful costumes# Herds of cattle, sheep and goats were moving slowly in clouds of dust, stopping from time to time to nibble at sprigs of grass# Following the entourage were pack animals buried under bundles of tents, . supplies and- family belongings# The nomadic Qashqae tribes of Shiraz were on the move again# They were going from their southern winter valleys to their summer grazrng tnountaii% lands. For centuries, these people have fought the prevail ing conditions— drought, floods, disease and death— in search of a meager living from the natural habitat. Through migrations they nave avoided extreme heat and cold and found the best pastures for their hundreds' of sheep and goats# This year, there is something differ ent, in the entourage# It is a large number of pack animals carrying to their summer camping ground a few school supplies and. a red tent, symbolic of the "little red schoolhouse#" This is one of the portable schools that the United States Operations Mission to Iran has helped the tribes organise in the Fare Ostan* ^Stewart B# Hamblen, "Schools for Better living in Iran,f t Institute of International Education Hews Bulletin# 29:5 ££#> February, 1954* Children of these tribesmen, more than one thousand them* can now read and write as a result of having attended the tribal schools during the past year# mis program of. tribal education was initiated almost a year ago as a pilot demonstration project in an effort to assist the Iranian Government to raise the social and economic standard of living of their nomadic people# At present# there are approximately two million nomadic people in Iran, comprising six major tribes# similar m many respects# but each with its own cus toms* dress and habits of living# The Kurds ere in the northwestern area of Iran in the Kermanshah-Rezaieh Ostans; the Arabs are in the southwestern part of the country in the Khuzistan province; the Qashqae are in the south central part along the Persian Gulf ; the Baluchis are in the southwestern part also along the Persian Gulf;'the Bakhtiaris are located in the eastern: central part of the country; and the Turkomans live in the northeastern section# These tribesmen are lovers of the outdoors# They are great horsemen, sportsmen and hunters. They live* for the. most part in tents made from, the hides and hair of animals# Their chief source of income is their livestock, which they grate In low valleys during the winter mad return to the upper hill country in hot summer months where they live in more or less permanent villages# Their life is simple* The children leam from their parents how to make goat hair tents# to tend the flocks* to make mast (yogurt), to hunt* and to assist to the chores around the camp#73 The nationwide school building program initiated by the Ministry of Education has sought to capture the co operation of the local constituencies* compulsory education act contains regulations concerning school buildings* In the towns the muni cipality is required to include credits for school 73Hoyt j* i. turner* "Portable Schools for the tribes of Iran, * * A Report Prepared for the United States Operations Mission to Iran (Teheran* Iran: USQM-Iran, 1934), pp* 1* 2* (Typewritten.) for the 1956 increase nomad schools* see fne UNESCO Courier (New York), 9;33* September* 1956* no / building in its budget* and the inhabitants are invited to form themselves into committees for the purpose of collecting money for school building* lit the villages the landowners are required to build a school or to place a part of their income at the disposal of the Ministry of Education (which pays half the cost of building)* through their bank# The problem is one which' is far from being solved* as the delating regulations have been so far applied only here did there* * * * The public certainly does not lack good will in the matter* but in view of high building costs and the large number of schools required* goodwill has proved inadequate* Some years ago in Teheran* for example* in order to provide 100 of the 300 primary schools that the town needed* the Ministry of Education divided the town into 100 districts* and in each one formed a com mittee of the inhabitants to collect the funds neces sary to build a school, the required land having been granted by the government, -or the municipality* Despite the goodwill- with which these, committees went to work* only one of them managed to get a school completely built* A few finally made over an unfinished building to the Ministry of Education# The majority of the committees were unable to collect enough money even to begin construction* Given the general level of income in Persia* the System of voluntary contributions to school building will not vox^Zj',,,, r * uV*' Teaeheir'stiortage, it is repeated* has been an acute problem*. Roughly* the ratio has been two- to'one* as far as men and women teachers, respectively* are concerned in the primary schools *^ ^International Bureau of Education, International yearbook t of Education 1953. Publication No. lS3 {GSevai ’ Internat ionaTWmiu ofE3ucat ion, 1953), pp* 284, 285* 75Ibid.. p. 286. fersia possesses twenty-six primary normal schools and one higher normal school* in order to encourage young persons to take up teaching, the Ministry of Education offers free hoard at the primary normal schools# and makes a special grant to students attend ing the higher normal school*/© fearly and summer in-service training courses and scholarships have subsequently been instituted and intensi fied to help qualify stronger teachers* Headmasters, inspectors# and .further training courses are upgrading teaching personnel at the local level. 2bft Mdder * — Figure 1 graphically presents the system* Primary education consists of sis years of schooling with emphasis on the fundamental subjects of reading* national language* and arithmetic# Vocational education given in rural and vocational schools has been given much consideration of late. A plan has been arranged so that classes in the upper grades of primary school in rural areas will be transformed into classes giving instruction in agriculture* Three-year regional agricultural schools# moreover# are to be set up* at which the best pupils from the 6th~year agricultural classes may receive more advanced instruction# enabling them to pass the competitive 76Ibld. 112 10 and BnjCAUQHAt XADBER AND STSTEM OP IRAN enfcrance^examnations into the agricultural normal schools.ft Secondary education is a six-year program divided into three stages: three years of lower secondary, two years of intermediate secondary, and one year of specialty in literary, mathematical* or scientific lines*,- ..It is quite largely built on a spiral system in geography, his tory, mathematics, and science. Much emphasis is given to these courses, the first government secondary examination is given at the end of the fifth year. A diploma is issued to stu dents who do not intend to continue their education* In the final year of the secondary school program students may specialise in the natural sciences, physics- mathematics, literature, or commerce, and qualifying examinations will then be given in the field of their spe cialisation * Higher Education The minimum entrance requirements are the completion of the six-year secondary school program and a presentation of the diploma of Secondary School Studies* The University of Teheran (1934) and the University of Tabriz (1947) have prescribed courses in their cur ricula* 77Ibid.. Yearbook . , , 1954. p. 257* A detailed description of higher education in Iran follows in Chapter IV# VII# IRAQ Background and Structure of Education The land "Between the rivers#" as Mesopotamia, the old name for Iraq, means, flourished during the golden years of the Assyrian* Babylonian* and Medo-Persian dynas ties# But now for a new country, Iran# or al~flran* an independent kingdom formed out of the three Turkish provinces (vilayets) of Basra# Baghdad* and Mosul after World War I# * * * Geographi cally, Iraq may be divided into three regions: the southern and western deserts ending at the Euphrates escarpment; the central lowland* comprising the delta lands south of Baghdad and the Jazirah (i,e*, Island) between the Euphrates and Tigris north of Baghdad* with the northeastern plain and foothills; and the mountain ous region of Iraqi Kurdistan. Al~’Iraq (the cliff or shore), the name adopted for the modern kingdom, properly belongs only to the southern region* which was so styled by the early Moslem Arabs* to whom the northern region between the two rivers was the Jazirah, as it is still to the Arabs of both Iraq and Syria*7® Iraq is a nation rightly boasting a rich heritage of \ ^ , charm and traditions of ancient and highly organised civi-/ ! > i ■ 1 lizations# Archaeological excavations and mighty ruins bear noble evidence# + This country encloses within its boundaries what is believed to be the cradle of civilization,--the place where history may have dawned. Many people hold that ^"Iraq*" Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 ed#)* XII* 587-91# 1X5 \ it is what was once the harden of Eden, even if some authorities do dispute the enact location of that utopian place# the capital of the kingdom is Baghdad, the foremost city of old Mesopotamia, This was the home* particularly in the, ninth, century, of great scholars and rich merchants* It was the canter of Islam when that religion represented a high civilian* tion; the great city of the celebrated Arabian Mights; the ancient gateway to Persia, Turkey, and Arabia; the most important point of the old route from the last to fc JTlfS ,** 1 * ^ £#V C i l U v W X « ■ > X ® X. u o v A t i o W X U ^ * ' * * / $■ l # w l i X l * retains nothing of the old pomp and magnificence of which it boasted centuries ago* Today its.glory, as does that of Peking* belongs to the past, ** Standards of living have changed throughout the ter* ritory between the Tigris and the Euphrates Elvers# Wealth and poverty, health and sickness, fertility of land and barren soil may be seen not too far apart in Iraq* Socio economic factors# vicious arrangements of agricultural tenancy, disease, superstition, and illiteracy have played havoc throughout the country*^ Some of these conditions are old and stubborn; some result from Ottoman rule, which was viewed by competent observers as unsuitable to Mesopotamia. The Turks had held that country for centuries prior to the World War, but even the Turks themselves must have known that their system of administration was a failure there* * * * ■ * " " Conditions prevailing in Iraq for many years prior to the World War were therefore chaotic and full of evils* * * * ^Edgar V* Knight, Twenty Centuries of Education (Boston: Ginn add Ck®pany, Wmj* ¥* *¥%* ^Royal Institute of International Affairs, op* cit** Chap. V. Under a joint declaration of the French and British governments to the occupied Arab territories* before the armistice, in November, 1918* Iraq was liberated* • • * Then, in April* 1920* England accepted the responsi bility of a mandatory for Iraq, under the Covenant of the League of Nations* fhia provided that certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish empire had reached a stage of development where they could be provisionally recognised as independent nations* sub* ject to advice and assistance* until they were able to make their way alone.*. In 1931 England reported to the League on the prog* ress of Iraq as a mandate during the decade* * * In this constitutional hereditary monarchy with a representative government, there are a number of minis* tries. Among these ministries is education* The^ Minister ofEduc at ion, a cabinet member# is the supreme head, and he is responsible for the administration of the Ministry of Education and of all the schools through his Director- General of Education and other associate officers* lie is president of the Advisory Cornell on Education* The Director-General of Education, however, is the real administrative head of the Iraqi government - schoo 1 system* He is eKpected to be a man of experience in edu cational administration and classroom instruction* He is responsible to the Minister for the proper administration and supervision of all the schools in the country* 81Knight, op. cit* * pp. 569, 570* Ill Educational legislation fur the nation may be summed up thus: In general, education in Iraq is governed by the ^ f rovisions of the Public Education law of 1940# The m defines the functions of the Ministry of Education as the founding and maintenance of government schools of all types and levels; the supervision of private and foreign schools to direct them toward the general goals of the government schools; the organisation of youth# particularly through military training# scouting# and physical education; and finally# the fostering of scientific and literary movements, the spread of gener al culture# end the liquidation of illiteracy# The law classifies the schools into primary# secondary# and higher institutions; according to purpose into schools of general culture and professional or vocational schools; and according to control into government# private# and foreign schools. The law sets forth in a general way the conditions for admission of students to the various kinds of schools and of their promotion from one school level to another* it authorises the Ministry of Education to declare attendance compulsory in those localities where adequate primary-school facilities exist* It defines the level of training required for teachers in each type of school# makes provisions for sending students abroad for study# and lays down rather careful stipulations for the supervi sion of private and foreign schools#®* Iraq has developed to such an extent that it has passed a law of universal and compulsory primary education where facilities permit# The services of the educational program have been limited by a shortage of schools and trained teachers# especially in many villages# Much credit should be given the oil companies. They have conducted for a number of years major training and ^^Eoderic D. Matthews and Matta Akrawi, Education in Arab Countries of the Near East (Washington# 0* c# s Ameri- can Council on fducation# 19491, pp# 128-29. 118 educational programs including general education to reduce and eliminate illiteracy and have offered technical and vocational education. the Educational ladder Usually the kindergartens are private or foreign. Souse are connected with "junior schools.H See figure 2 for the Iraqi system* The primary school program is the same throughout the nation. Although there are many separate schools for hoys and girls# coeducation is becoming an accepted prin ciple and practice. A certificate is issued upon the satisfactory passing of the primary school government examination • the hoys and girls are taught in separate secondary schools* The five-year course is given in two parts# the three years of the intermediate and the remaining two of the preparatory. Arabic language and literature# mathematics# his tory, and the sciences are stressed* Of the educational structure of the country# an Iraq spokesman has offered the following statement: iraqf$ educational system has three stages* The first is the primary stage, with a duration of six years* The second is the secondary stage# with a dura tion of five years# divided into a three-year inter mediate section and a two-year preparatory section* The third is the higher education stage# According to 119 CO m < x t ■Q cO g H f i u 0 C O 0 4 . * F 5 ^ ? yl ' h s p *3 S i P 5 O < r J P their aims, the country's educational establishments are of two kinds: those offering general education and those offering specialized education* Private and foreign schools in Iraq, in accordance with Education tern Ho. 5? of 1940# are subject to the supervision of the Ministry of Education. primary and secondary education is free to ail Iraqis, irrespective of Bm$ race, or religion* For higher education, students are usually required to pay a modest fee each year* 411 teacher*training estab* lishments, including the two trMning colleges, provide free training, and maintain boarding students at the expense of the govenstent*^ In^the preparatory section on the secondary level students may elect either a literary curriculum or a scien~ tific curriculum* State vocational training on a secondary level may be divided as industrial, commercial, nursing and domestic science* Among other vocational establishments are the Iraq State Railways workshop training school in Baghdad and the Iraq Petroleum Corporation technical training center in Kirkuk* An Institute of Fine Arts in Baghdad gives Instruction in drama, music, painting, and sculpture for both general students and prospective art teachers* fhe government examinations at the different levels on the educational ladder is a tremendous task* In about fhe middle of the school year subject cost 1 ^ mittees, composed of inspectors, specialised inspec- / tors, and teachers— usually of schools of a higher 1 ^International Yearbook of Education If SI, p* 157# level than that lot which questions ate being set# and of the teachers colleges— are formed to devise ques tions for the various levels* final sets of questions are sent in sufficient number and In sealed packages to each examination center to be opened only by the di rector of the center and on the day of die particular examination* fhe number of examination centers for each level is determined on the basis of statistics provided by the provincial directors of education* Bet ails of arrangements -for staff teg the centers are usually left to the provincial directors* fhe spe cialist marking committees are appointed usually on the basis of two committees for each subject on each level per center— though some subjects, Arabic -and English for instance* occasionally, need more* fhe directors of education or of the examination centers give each stu dent a number which corresponds with the number of a seat in the examination hall* The examination in a specific subject takes place simultaneously in all centers. The examinations are timed, usually two to three hours being allowed for six or seven questions* tee director of the center col lects and counts the books and sends them in sealed packages to the correction center* Correction centers for intermediate and preparatory levels are in Baghdad* Correction of the primary examinations is decentral ised, each province having its mm center*®^ The public school system is entirely supported by the central government • tee provincial and municipal authorities do not contribute to the school fund, except for occasional assistance to poor students or for expan sion and repair of school facilities made possible by limited solicitations from private citizens of a locality* With the 1951-1952 school year UWESCO offered to undertake a fundamental education campaign in the rural ^Matthews and Akrawi, op* cit*> p. 136 1 2 2 districts of Iraq. * * 5 After thorough study of the princi pies and program involved, the Ministry of Education approved it* Hie teams working on the projects have suc cessfully trained Iraqi teachers in fundamental-edueation programs as well as bringing to the rural areas the offer- ings— the teaching of reading and writing and the improve* ment of the hygienic# social# and economic conditions of the life of the local populace* fhe school medical service is a development which is a worthwhile contribution with its staff of doctors# den* Cists# pharmaceutical chemists, hygiene teachers# and nurses* Each llwa (a district division of the nation) has its own clinic# with some liwas having more* Hie World Health Organisation has cooperated with these special services.^ fhe higher educational institutions# some of them being coeducational# are all under government control* 1 a number of years there has been a study in process of developing and combining a number of colleges in Baghdad into a worthwhile university* Iraq has had some worthwhile H ig h e r ^International yearbook of Education 1953* p» 213* 86Ibid.. 1952, p. 169. teacher training institutions: the Elementary feathers training College for Women* the Queen ‘ Aliyah College* and the higher teachers College* Although there is no strong university .as yet in Iraq, yet higher education is possible in separate colleges of university level* a minimum en trance requirement feeing the possession of a Secondary ■School- Certificate*. ■ A detailed description of higher education in Iraq follows in Chapter IV* Vill* LiB^» Background and Structure of Education Lebanon-“land of ancient wooded hills* glinting ski slopes* warn sandy beaches, gateway to the East and spring board for the West* crossroads for tourists--offers some thing to all people* Its emblem is the lovely cedar* a symbol of the splendor of the past and one of life and growth. ' Ancient monuments, pagan temples, and medieval castles reflect the., past; bazaars* markets* and farms, are busy with the present; and schools* colleges* and univer sities prepare for the future* Two writers vividly present the singular position of Lebanon in its educational status: ■Two unique features of education, in Lebanon dis tinguish it from education in the rest of the Arab 124 world* Lebanon baa the highest rate of literacy among the Arab states. It is estimated that between m and 75 per cent of the children of primary* school age are attending school-* a considerably higher rate than in the neighboring countries# this rate would have been higher had it not been for the addition to Lebanon after World Wat 1 of some regions which were much less advanced educationally than the original Mount Lebanon# Many village communities in Lebanon have what amounts to or approximates universal literacy* the second remarkable fact is that this compara tively advanced stage has been accomplished largely through the efforts of private and foreign schools R7 rather than through publicly supported schools. * # . there are almost as many private schools in Lebanon as government schools# and the foreign schools operate Without difficulty.88 Of the types of schools# two observers have written 5 Higher education is conducted entirely in foreign institutions# Secondary education is shared between private and foreign schools# the Lebanese Ministry of national Education having no complete secondary schools# Primary education is conducted in all three types of schools-^public# private# and foreign--with y the public schools in the third place in enrollments. Of itself the Lebanese government educational system is incomplete# but with the complementary systems of private and foreign schools- -mostly French and American- British types— it becomes a complete# but diversified# program. thews and Akrawl# op. cit.. p. 407# s%oy al Institute of International Affairs# on. cit.* p. 483# 8%atthews and Akrawi, loc. cit# Following World War $ and the assumption by France of the mandatory over Lebanon, education in the eclat ing schools which had until then followed their own curricula and organisation tended to follow the French system. Public education during the years of the mandate was limited largely to the primary level* State responsibility for public education has, however* increased since the declaration of independence in 1944 and now reaches the university level# Article 10 of the Lebanese Constitution of May 23* 1926* guarantees freedom of teaching* provided it does not transgress upon public order or morals and is not disrespectful of my ■religion-or sect* It -also guar antees the rights of the religious denominations to establish their own schools provided they are estab lished in conformity with the regulations laid down by the State#5® A general re-organisation of the Lebanese Ministry of Education and Fine Arts was undertaken at the beginning of 1953* fhe Minister of national Education and Fine Arts is the administrative head for the government educational system and is thereby a.member of the Council of Ministers* which is responsible to Parliament* fhe Director General of the Ministry ably assists the Minister and articulates with the directors of various departments in the Ministry* Relative to finance for the public. structure* the statement, has held true for a, number of year si "fhe support of public education comes' almost entirely from, the central 90UNBSC0, World Survey of Education. Handbook of Educational Organization andStatistics (Paris;'lea Petits- fils deidonard QANEL, 1953), pp. 416, 417. 126 Q1 budget of the government. # * *n More recently-- She mew decrees lay down, however, that where future primary schools are involved the local authorities and the community shall participate by providing the school building acid equipment while the central administration provides the teaching staff and pays its salaries*^2 The Educational ladder figure 3 shows clearly the system in Lebanon, the ladder provides lor a kindergarten of two years which is followed by a primary school of five years, ending with the primary studies certificate examination. after successfully passing that examination the pupils may then proceed to the seven-year secondary school or to the four-year higher primary school and then into the technical or vocational schools* Arabic is the teaching medium in the primary schools in which pupils study Arabic, object lessons, arithmetic, history, geography, religion, drawing, singing, physical education, and a foreign language, English or French* there is coeducation in the early years* In fact, if no girls1 schools are available, girls up to twelve years of age may enroll in the school for boys* ^Matthews and Akrawi, op. cit** p* 411. 92unesco, lac. cit. C M CO XfS CO Spiral systems exist in Lebanon* The higher primary schools cover the same subjects as in the primary school at a more advanced stage* with the addition of biology, chemistry, physics# and mathematics* A government examin ation is administered at the end of the fourth year* Secondary education is entirely private* except for the model school which the Ministry of Motional Education started in 1949 to serve as an institution of the latest teaching methods* On the secondary level* teaching is in Arabic* except possibly for mathematics* science, and the foreign languages, fhe first four years of secondary are general; the fifth and sixth years* divided into two streams: literature or science; the seventh year* into philosophy or mathematics* Government examinations are administered to termin ate the secondary education level* Some revisions in the examination schedules and content are being made. However# in the decade of this investigation the examination program was a public or government examination# both oral and written— the baccalaureate examination# fart I— adminis tered at the end of the sixth year* secondary* fhe bac calaureate examination* fart It# was administered at the end of the seventh year* secondary* Students who success fully passed the examination were awarded the secondary education baccalaureate* 129 Higher Education She Lebanese Ministry of National Education and fine Arts is sponsoring a new institution* the Lebanese Univer sity, founded in 1951. It has a higher teachers * Institute in three sectionsr artistic* literary* and scientific. In 1952 m institute of statistics was started with an eeo* noraic section of sericulture* commerce, finance* industry* and a social section of demography* health* and labor. the other two well known universities are the Ameri can University of Beirut (founded in 1866) with its facul ties of arts and sciences# engineering* agriculture* medi cine, pharmacy, nursing! its institute of music; and its primary and secondary sections--and the Universitd St. Joseph (founded in 1875) with Its faculties of den tistry, medicine* law* engineering* oriental literature* philosophy* and theology. A detailed description of higher education in Lebanon follows in Chapter IV. figure 4* in conclusion* presents a graphic summary of the various levels of education throughout the Middle last* Including other countries as well as Iran* Iraq* and Lebanon* T V C TIM 'M A P V AS? V t t V A U A tJ'F P O wUilMAK.X % i ¥ .um vliti* JLuK The Hear and Middle last* forming a land bridge Tears of Study Egypt Iran Iraq Jordan Lebanon Syria Turkey 12 Orien tation Higher Sec* Orien tation Pre 11 Inter medi ate Pre para tory Higher pare—' tery Upper Second 10 Second secona- ary Second ary Educa tion ary 9 ary toer Inter Inter 8 Sec* medi ate mediate • . Second inter medi ? . ary a t e . later- ; mediate 6 5. Primary Primary Primary Primary General Primary k Primary Primary 3 2 1 6-5—1 6-3-2-1 K—6-3—2—1 6-3—2 K K 5-U-3 5-3-li KOSEi Bib double lines represent divisions of educational levels* FEWRE m w m e r i 8 % a *sapamo3 300$' aqa i o asaa aao^aq 300 steof eae uoirseonpa f 00110® o p tin g pm' ^00*031*1 * ^ e ^adeds&ais eqa ae&o pa^tnde^aa uaaq : j s a u r [ e seq no^f^aiaa pue oypex jo ®%pmn aq3 qgfi* Chapter III disclosed the 'fact that the Kiddle East $ § 0 0 e" controlled through central agencies of the respective governments. Each has a highly organized Ministry of Edu* cation* Higher education is highly desired mid maintains a status of prestige in the Middle last* though there are many issues* problems, mid difficulties* These are to be studied in Chapter PART TWO ISSUES AND RESOLUTION PROCEDURES CHAPTER IV ISSUES# PROBLEMS, AMD DIFFICULTIES OF HIGHER EDUCATION TW nVtp MTfint 1 7 I? A C*T* 1« I n c * W XU U L E i i S a o * tm. mrnmmcmm Dealing with educational programs other than one’s own, a sound principle which has been emphasized by Eckelberry should be home in mind: A student interested in the comparative study of some particular phase or aspect of education should be come reasonably familiar with the educational system as a whole of each country which he considers* * * * the worker will tender his best service if he gives a large place to a consideration of problems of educa tion rather than if he deals merely with Institutions or procedures* institutions in different countries are often not analogous# and particular practices con sidered apart from their basic philosophies and their social milieux are abstractions* but the problems with which different countries deal are analogous if no f c identical* * * * * As a rather comprehensive background# the educa tional systems and social milieus presented in Chapter 111 constitute a preface for the consideration of actual issues and problems of higher education in Iran# Iraq# and Lebanon, fhese three countries of the Middle last were %* H. Eckelberry, "Comparative Education#" in Walter S* Monroe (ed*)# Encyclopedia of Educational Re search <rev. ed*; New 'fork* .the Macmillan Company, 1956)# pp*2S4-a5* 135 selected for investigation, not because they necessarily have the oldest# best# most, or largest universities--for Egypt and Turkey also should then be included in the . . i . 1 study**-but because of their geographical location# the dif ference in population of the country, and because of the kind of national government under which they operate* Each is different from the other in these respects# as was noted in Chapter III* The treatment of this chapter had to be made asser tive rather than polemic# and dogmatic rather than apolo getic* is* issues, w m m i M S * m m i m m i m w m m m m m € m m m m Higher Education in Iran Traditionally# university education in Iran extends back some eight hundred years.^ In the middle of the nine teenth century# however# higher education was remodelled on the french system# the influence extending to the present time* Even the medical school started a century ago by the french# has been admirably equipped* figure 5 shows the present educational levels for ^The Middle East (4th ed*; London: Europe Publica tions# 'Ltl:, JSSSf, p. 267* * Chronological Age ■ £ 3 * Grade Placement 18 1? ■ a s k M 0 A Medieine • i 'Theology B Pharmacy f t Public Health ■ C BeatIstry L Engineering 0 Literature I I School of Arts 1 Philosophy i f Veterinary College F Science 0 national teachers College 0 Law P Teacher Training H Economies Q Higher teachers training 1 Political Science E Agricultural College piote 5 HX0ggB EDUCATION LEVELS IN IRAN 137 higher education in Iran, with the longest period of time being devoted to medical and dental study* For convenience# a natural breakdown follows for issues# problems, and difficulties of higher education in Iran# Control, In 1934 the University of Teheran was established as the national university for Iran and twenty five normal schools were opened# Of this experimental period when different subjects were taught and various methods were tried# difficulties arose* "It was also# how ever, a period of extreme nationalism# and this had the unfortunate effect of cutting off from cultural relations with other countries. ”* * With the abdication of Riza Shah Pahlavi in 1941# the succession of his son initiated a more democratic regime. Cultural relations were established with many powers# and the university was freed from polities# The Ministry of Idueafion (Vezarate Farhingue> is responsible for the university# and the medical colleges elsewhere# such as Isfahan# Meshed# and Shiraz# are di rectly administered by the Ministry of national Education* Is such control too centralized? 138 Mention should he made of the fact that through the passing of a special law the University of Teheran became financially independent, and thus achieved autonomy in all fields* * . . Sums allocated in the budget for the University, and approved by parliament, will henceforth be. placed at the disposal of a com* raittee unhampered by the customary formalities.4 Of the autonomy and control of the institutions a further observation is cited: Higher education is provided by the University of Teheran, five provincial t , five provincial universities# and a number institutes or"colleges*"' The University of Teheran is an autonomous Institution; it is organized in facul- ties, the deans of which are elected-by the staff# and is run by the university council, which elects the rector* Although the main part of the budget is derived from the Ministry of Education# the Ministry ^ exercises no control over the university * The provin- cisl universities have a similar organization but are more dependent on the Ministry* * A number of specialized institutes are maintained by ministries other than education for training higher level technical staff* Courses vary from two to three years.3 The University of Teheran has been limited in its | ... . , , . ■ . : . . . . ■ .. ... . . . . . building and equipment programs, to say nothing of provin- J cial faculties in need of improvement.6 Although much of the national income - - * Approximately 80 per cent of the oil receipts are allotted to the ^International Bureau of Education# International yearbook of Education* I9S3* Publication No. ’153 (Geneva: IntematlonalBureau of Education, 1953), pp. 288-89. ^UNESCO, World Survey of Education (Paris: UNESCO, > P* ^International Bureau of Education, loc. cit, development budget"'7’ --is derived from the oil industry, yet the 1956-1957 current ordinary budget expenditures total 19,865 million rials, with a deficit of 4,000 million too high on the priority list of national development pro- Organization* the universities and colleges of Iran are listed in table Hft* the reader will notice that 1956 is an important year for higher education- Dual roles of rectors in provinces sets reported by an Iranian national in his research study: the educational activities of each province are under the direct responsibility of a rector chosen by the Minister# It is economically and politically wise that these rectors should be the head of the state universities— incorporated higher institutions— of these provinces, if such institution is there found. Hence, the rector will be the head of higher institu tions as well as the representative of the central admini s t rat ion. He is assisted by a High Council# , # yh , Is the provincial rector forced to limit his own initiative because of financial and policy curtailment of %hmad Ali-Abadi, "Higher Education in Iran— Its Evolution, Its frauds and Flans for Its Improvement" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Hew fork University, Hew fork €ifcy, 1939), p# 66# rials#® What is the inclination for education, an item not Jeers? 8Ibtd East (London: Europa Publications, Ltd., TABIB Ml rmxmsrms abb 0011a ® in iran year of founding or incor Institution . . . .... Faculties and d o :lieges poration . University of Teheran 193& Faculty of Arts, Philosophy, and Education Faculty of Medicine, Pharmaceutics, and Dentistry .Faculty of taw, Political. Science, ’ and Economics Faculty of Science and Mathematics Faculty of Theology Faculty of Engineering Higher Teachers College Faculty of Fine Arts ' ' Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Faculty of Agriculture College of Midwifery College of Nursing College of Hygiene . a n d Public Health Booar^Sarays All Faculty of Chemical Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Mechanical Engineering University of Tabriz Faculty of Arts Faculty of Medicine' Colleges t Aherns Agricultural. College Isfahan Medical College Meshed College of literature Meshed Medical. College Shir as Agricultural College Shir as College of literature Shir as Medical. College Tabriz Agricultural College 1 9 5 6 191*9 1956 ms 1956 19.56 1956 141 which he is aware? Can he expand and contract simultane ously playing the Janus-role? Iran recognises that with a population scattered in different parts of the country, decentralisation of insti tutions of higher education is needed to neat adequately the student needs. Gould it he that too tnuch formerly or presently is centered in Teheran? Recent population figures show a spread in ten of the important cities? Teheran * * 1*200*000 Shiraz * * . .129,023 Abadan. ♦ . * 256,500 lasht. . * * .121,625 Tabriz, * * . 241* 790 Hamadan. . . .103,074 Isfahm . . . 210,000 l^«anshah * * 88,622 Meshed. • « . 176,471 Ahwaz• . * . • 45,528 With the provincial institutions of higher education there exists the problem of differentiation to meet the regional needs of Iran. The faculties mid colleges are quite highly depart* mentalized. In the University of Teheran the Faculty of Arts, Philosophy, and Education is quite an unwieldly organization. Fhilosonhy and obi actives. AXl~Abadi portrays the procedure and pattern of the education in his country? ^International Bureau of Education, ■ International yearbook of Education. 1954. Publication No. 161 (Geneva: International Bureau of Education, 1954), p* 257. 142 The political doctrine, by and large, forms the educational system of Iran# not the philosophical con cepts of the nation* * » * In a state such as Iran# which leans toward state socialism# the national needs are discerned and defined by the existing cabinet for the whole nation*!! He states the basic objectives of higher education in these words: The establishment of the university and the expan sion of higher education were to train leaders and to promote the national welfare* The institutions of higher learning ought to satisfy national needs* This applies to professional training and cultural educa tion alike*!2 Higher institutions should have wa common obligation to society," although they do not directly influence society* They must decidedly avoid superficiality in attempting to influence directly societal ways* However# they should * * * answer the intellectual need of the current time and are the places for thinkers to explore the phenom ena of social life* * * * The higher institution ought to be sensitive to contemporary life. *4* The Ministry of national Education reported that in 1955 there was a budget increase of over 50 per cent for the University of Teheran# thus disclosing a brooked issue: This increase in financial resources was paralleled a reform in depth# the aim of which is to induce the ^Aii-Abadi# op* cit*» p* 79* 12Ibid.. p. 80. 13Ibid.. p. 90. 14Ibid.. p. 91. various faculties of the University to regard them* selves* not as mere prolongations of secondary educa tion and simple purveyors of training for officials* hut as true centres of study and research*3 ' 5 Huxley aired the religious or secular interest issue* as he observed: Meanwhile* thoughtful people were worried over the exceedingly rapid growth of the University (and the even more rapid growth of the capital to which the growth of the University has contributed)* and the government has just started a second university in Tabriz. The University was set up on a purely secular j basis* but there is a religious reaction against Reza / Shah’s vigorously secularist policies* and orthodox Islam is growing more powerful again* How far should free education extend for the peoples of Iran? What does class status think of local and domes* tic education? The democratic regime in education was thus reported: Education is now almost free at all levels * * * \ the majority of the middle class educate their child- ■ ten* The upper classes still prefer to send their children,to high schools and colleges in Europe or / America. 1? Axiomaticaliy accepted* the truism runs— the future citizens and the future nation are in the hands of the youth of today* Will foreign or domestic education better ^International Bureau of Education* International yearbook of Education* 1955* Publication No*T59iGinevar International Bureau of Education, 1955), XVII, 44* 289* ^Julian Huxley, From an Antique hand: Ancient and Modern in the Middle East (London: Max" Parrish* 1954), p* 218* l7The Middle East (1957), p. 149. prepare the youth for Iran? Hill ail students going abroad return to serve in their country? Administration* School administration in Iran has' been confronted with two alternatives* or could there be a happy the two reipirements seem to conflict or, at least* are difficult to reconcile; tinder pressure from m increasing population* the country has continually to increase the number of its schools* in many cases with whatever means happen to be available, and at the same time to improve' the education provided in these schools* !® the administration of the University of Teheran has an administration independent of the other schools* It is headed by a president* nominated by the Ministry and appointed by royal decree ffarman>. according to Article 3 of the University Act* The president and directors of the colleges are appointed, for a three-year term, at the expiration of which they may be reappointed* As to personnel selection* note the procedures According to Article 14 of the University Foundation Act* the president of the university will* upon the approval of the University Senate# be nominated from among the directors of the faculties. The deans and directors of the schools* affiliated institutes* vice* presidents and vice-directors will be nominated from among the full professors* * * ^International yearbook of Education* It53* p* 287 ^%ii~Abadi* op. cit.* p* 67. Although there 1$ desirability for continuity end convenience for tenure, is there a weakness from Inbreeding practices? From his research study and personal observations of i 20 higher education in Iran* Ali-Abadi m m led to Hat among other deficient tea in higher schools four basic needs for careful considerationi 1* Lack of coordination* The schools which const!*'j tute the University of Teheran lack eoordina- f tion. Each school functions independently. j , j 2? Lack of cooperation. Each school and college, j not working together to attain collectively j certain ends, seems to work separately to pro* duce certain skillful individuals. ; 3* Lack of specialisation» frequently, individuals! with no practical or theoretical knowledge about; educational administration have been engaged in ^ such positions. A* Lack of advisement> Some directors of schools i have deemed it below their dignity* apparently* to consult with faculty and seek advice of col* ; 'leagues* Students mad teachers-have had insuf ficient counsel at times* 2°Ibid.. pp. 75-77, Ins t rue t 3,01 % -and CUffi cicula* A study of, university and college bulletins will impress mm with the fact that curricula are bounded by prescribed and required courses tn ■teacher education there seems to be a sliding scale* Should difference in duration and content prepare one kind of teacher against another? Prospective elementary teachers can take the three- year training course after either three or five years’ secondary education. To teach in a secondary school the student must take a university degree simultaneously with his pedagogic training at the University Institute of Education*22 ‘ In the training, of teachers for the nomadic tribes man, of which there are thousands in Iran, "Students idio Intend to teach in the schools for nomads now undergo special preparatory 'courses, as training Colleges have been 23 established for the purpose*# # for many years foreign concerns and foreign person nel have exploited and manned many positions in industry* de Tehran* Fublication No. 313 (Tehran, Iran: I’Universitd da- Tehran,. 193#), 298 pp.; also Annuafre de h’IMiversitd de fdhlran* Annie Scolaire I955~3£i*PraSSiran.'^ xramilr primerxe de l’ feiversite, iS56)$ &$ pp. . (Both in french.) : Middle . last. (1^55), p. 2#?* ^Bulletin of the International Bureau of Education. 31tlO# , first Quarter, 19577" 21 and with few or no electives. Sen Universifcv of Teheran. Guide de With nationalisation and modernisation and technological \ advance* there has come an eiaphaals on technological and scientific training* How can nationals hast he educated / and trained for industry? the United States International Cooperation Adminis tration and the University of - Southern 'California., estab lished an Institute for Administrative Affair# "in the University of Teheran, at Teheran*, Iran*- In its fourth, semiannual report, covering the period from March 1, 1956, through August 31, 1956* on-campus and Institute programs, institute plans, objectives,' and recomaeadationa were set forth to help Iran in carrying on proper administrative reform* It asserted that The Tehran Institute is the only University- affiliated Institute of Administration in the Middle or far East which is sponsored under a technical, assist* ance program and which Is a subsidiary part of m established faculty* This ha# raised' special problems for' the. Tehran Institute, which . . i s organisationally responsible to the faculty of law and.physically located' in the haw faculty' Building*^*' The space problem was 'Couched in these* wordsi The Institute has .substantially outgrown the space originally allocated by the law faculty* .Faculty- and administrative offices' are overcrowded,' the library is inadequate to met the needs it should serve,- and the ^University of Southern California, ^fourth Semi annual Report of the institute for Administrative' Affairs, March 1* 1956-August 51, 1956” (Los Angeles: university of Southern California, 1956), p* IS* (Mimeographed*) . y 148 lack of classrooms has hampered soma course develop** ment* the Personnel Management and Research Center must still he housed off^esmpue* *5 Mother problem more deeply academic and ■ instruc tional has persisted: A continuing problem was the h m faculty*# insist ence that while graduates of faculties other than law were eligible to participate in the Institute's gradu ate program* only Law Faculty graduates are eligible to receive the degree* ether licence holders may be awarded only a . certificate* the Institute feels 'that this requirement restricts its usefulness in improving the level of administrative competence in Iran**® Undoubtedly* the foregoing requirement influenced student reemitasent during the period under review and Jeopardised much of the full-time graduate program* In his October 25* 1956 report*^ Dean Henry Reining* Jar* * project head* elaborated upon some other problems* which briefly listed includes 1* The preparation of teaching ■materials (a Persian literature in administration and management) was an immediate problem because of the scarcity of such literature in the Persian language* 2* the problems of relationship with university and governmental bodies# Including, administrative detail* 25lbM* 26ifeid. 27Henry Reining, Jr., "The Institute for Adminis- trative Affairs: Hie Future* * * October 25* 1956 (hoa Angeles: The diversity of Southern California* 1956)* 17 pp* (Mimeographed.) 149 3. The problem of transference of the Institute into Iranian hands. I 4# the problem of securing permanent Iranian faculty members* 5* Many Iranians have considered tbe Master of j Science in Administration as an inferior degree. 6* The record of utilisation of Institute student^ and. graduates in administrative, posts in the ; Covemment and enterprises of Iran hm been less than satisfactory* A study of curricula and courses shows a lack in degrees of articulation and Integration and a mnimum of general education* Staid and classical content have too much attention* Methodology, Instruction and methodology follow the rigid- in-nature curricula set up by the Council of the d i v e r s i t y * 28 Administrators and teachers give, inadequate guidance to students, and the personnel work should definitely con sist of guidance in the following .areas: <X) vocational# (2> educational# <3) social# and (4) physical* Academic guidance has been one* sided in too many cases as a student admitted: ^Aii-Abadi, op* elt* * pp* 100-104* 150 College education In Iran takes for granted ability for self-guidance and adjustment to find cur ricula* The students parents frequently dictate what course lie should pursue* faculty liberties and academic freedom are more 'J theory than practice* Examinations set the pace in much of the study, and test© and examinations are so revered that their results definitely serve as criteria for entrance and status* *ia practice, the demand for higher education is so great that most faculties hold m additional entrance examination. Boys and girls have separate schools on the second- ary level# Coeducational facilities exist in higher edu cation# faculty and staff* 4s has been noted already, teacher education curricula vary for the different teaching levels and teaching districts, urban and rural* Some qualifications for university teachers are listed in Sections 1 and 2 of Article 10 of the # *Acts and Regulations of the University of Teheran,f t Khordad 1314, Rowshanai, translated from the Farsee (Persian) language ; •• * Ali-Abadi: / 29lfeM- 3QThe Middle East fl957>, loc, cit. 151 Professors and associate professors * * • * trnst be as old as thirty (in the case of a professor) and at least twenty** five years old (in the case of an associ* ate); they must have a doctor*s degree^or its equi valent in the field which they teach*31 Separate "faculties were grafted financial autono my, 1 1 greatly' aiding them ’ ^to eliminate useless formalities* * « . * Bomsstic aid overseas ordering of materials sad supplies was facilitated* Student personnels : ‘ Hie enrollments in higher edu- cation have continued to rise through the years to such an extent that student stations have' been limited# In one annual, 'report the Ministry of' national Education clearly described the situation; ' Enrollments at the University of Teheran at the close of the period under review totalled 6,067, of \ whom 1,081 completed their studies, in 1951 there were \ over 5,000 candidates for admission, but the limited number of places available made it impossible, unfor tunately, to accept §11 of them, particularly in the faculty of mdie£2ie*33 • J * ♦ Available enrollment distributions as shown in. fable KVXI witness to the strength, of the legal, literary, and medical arts* The medical school generally, enrolls more than twice the number of pharmacy and dentistry 33AXi-Abadi, op* cit., p* 70# ^^International yearbook of Education* MSI, pp* 289-90* ' ? International yearbook of Education* 1953* PP* 288-89* m tmm x m smmm nmoimm m aw votmms, mmmum of ishsran • • -wsk * * mm Faculty/feolXe ge Humber of students Percentage of enrollment Faculty of letters X&k l l*.5 Faculty of Medicine * fharmaoyi and Dentistry faculty of law* Bolitieai Setenee, and 2,hlk 28.1* 28.1* Bodiwsdcs 2*1*7I * Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. 1 1 * 6 1.6 Higher teacher a College (Sciences a n d , letters) 3 1 * 8 3.8 faculty of Sciences 589 6.5 faculty of Engineering; 1 * 2 1 1 * . ? faculty of Apiculture 1?0, 1.8 Faculty of fheologf 2 1 * 2 2.6 Faculty of Fine Arts 283 3.1 Medical School (Isfahan) 1$1 1.7 Medical School (Shiraz) 98 1.0 Medical School {Meshed) 101* 1.1 Others' 76 0.8 fetal 8,870 100.0 SOOEOB j t*DnIwrsibe de Tehran, Quids de 1*0nfyersfte de Tehran, Publication Ha# 323 (Teheran, Irani l^'SniimriStl^' 7 1 (In French) students combined* Iranian students during the 1952-1953 academic year in various countries in Europe and America numbered seme 2,600.^ ’ ’ In addition, as the result of a law passed to 1928, many students receive scholarships to study abroad, mainly to franco# Is there a practice or trend , for the upper classes to consider foreign education preferable? An observation is relevant, it would seem: "The upper classes Still prefer to send their children to hi#! schools and colleges to Europe or America# "^6 Another observation implies a danger for returned students: At the end of 1952 it was believed that there were about 1,400 Persian students to universities to the United States and that nine-tenths of these did not wish to return to Persia*37 In M s dissertation Ali-Abadi cites a weakness to Iran which, although corrected somewhat through the years, remains a challenge* In the current organisation of higher education to \ Iran there exists no consideration for the other phases of student life that are so totertwined with the i 34lbid- 35lh§ Middle East (1955), p. 267, 36IMd. (1957), loc. c££- ^^Eoyal Institute of National Affairs, ‘ The Middle East: A Political and Economic Survey (bondon: totrotoBito varsity Freas7l955J7 ppT^P»^9S# 154 / training of the mlmd»N\ > the neglect to regard the 1 'per sort- as - a-whole n causes non-training In certa areas of his life with real waste to society* Student life activities and a co-currlcular program are very limited. If they assist at all, in some institu* tions of higher education* • N The main purpose of the student in seeking higher \ education has been blurred, ■ at times, as some students have] sought higher' education as. an escape from practical labor, I as a means to status, or as a lusury to be enjoyed*^ / As to the education of women and program of coeduca tion, the Shah of Iran himself has challenged young women to study home arts and £amily living* In si appealing address, he said in, part i I am extremely glad to see that the women have, through education* become aware. of their condition and claimed their rights and privileges* Formerly the women of this country, since they were outside society* could not show forth their ability and worth* and t must even say that they were even unable to do their part for their country and render the sacrifice and service that they should, but now they have reached m position, where* in addition to the outstanding privi leges of motherhood* they can also benefit by their social ■privileges* It is mot too much to say that formerly, half of the population of our country was mot counted. There was no census taken of women, as If women were another species* You women must consider today a great day and make use of the uppertunities you now have for the progress of the country* Our land needs deed and work. My sisters and daughters, now that you have entered society, know your duty that you 3%ii*Abadl, op* ait*, p* 92. ^%bid,, $u 97. 155 must work for your native land* The happiness of the future is in your hands, fou will he the trainers of the coming generation. Higher Education in Iraq He who is considered the Charlemagne of the East# Harun Al-Rashid (786-809 A.D*), "encouraged learning and patronised its men greatly* As a result Baghdad became they ■41 cultural shrine of the Moslem world. ” It has not been strange# therefore# that the capital city on the Tigris, should develop through the centuries schools for more learning# and particularly in the twen tieth century. Interestingly enough# while this investigator was searching through Middle last literature in the Cubberley Library of Education at Stanford University* he found among the open stacks a gift copy from Raul Monroe of the Survey Team Report for the national university in Iraq. During the preliminary planning stages for the institutions of higher education in the country* the fol lowing observations were made by the Illustrious team* com* prised of Raul Monroe (director!* William €« lagley and ^°H. I* M. Reza Shah Pahlavi• s speech* translated and quoted by The Board of foreign Missions of the Pres byterian Church in the U.S.A.* Iran Mission 1937. Centen nial Series (Mew York: The Board, 1937)7 l ‘ " p7 557" A. Hicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge: Cambridge Uhiversity Press* l9^3) * p. 261. Edgar W. Knight (associates), Mohammed Fadhil Jsmall (attache), and Jeannette Monroe (secretary): Every culture has come to fruition in the creation \ of universities. Through universities a society per petuates and expands its own culture as well as comes in contact with other cultures. So the ambition to create a university is a laudable one* In Iraq several conditions affect and modify these general statements* Universities* in the provisions which they make for modern subjects# are very expensive ; enterprises. The essentially modern subjects are / medicine in its recent scientific form# the various / phases of engineering, agricultural, and the natural / sciences* These require equipment* laboratories# elaborate staff* buildings and plant* all of which involve the investment of very large sums of money. Only economically strong societies can indulge to them. ^“ 2 toe Educational inquiry Comission maneuvering diplomatically complimented the Government of Iraq but carefully placed the problems and difficulties before the Ministry of Education for serious consideration# toe report continued: It would seem that a population of three millions# \ the vast majority of whom are yet illiterate and un- \ productive* could not be expected to support such an \ Institution. Considered solely from the economic point] of view* the present plan of sending educational mis* / sions abroad is far more advantageous* tod there may / be other considerations of importance in addition to / that of cost.4 *3 / ^%aul Monroe (ed.), Report of toe Educational inquiry Commission (Baghdad* Iraq: ‘ Hie Government Press* p." 57* 43Ibid. 157 The Commission also warned that it could be possible soon to prepare so many intellectually trained personnel that the small country could not employ gainfully all of the graduates* which would lead ultimately to discontent. ing quickly. In population she jumped from 3*000,000 to* habitants at the time of the Educational Inquiry Commission to over 5,000,000 in 1937* and her school populations and f national economy soared* too# Table XVIII is evidence of Increased financial support for developing national needs in the Ministry of Education* an almost incredible increase in educational budget. Review Table XII* page 98, on the decade expansion of Iraqi public education* With a few schools or faculties of higher education extant, Iraq was interested to see what other countries were doing to administer higher education and learning* The Ministry of Education recommended in 1948 that the Iraqi Government . * ♦ send at least two persons for direct observation of universities (in England* France* Germany* and in the United States)* their organisation* finance* methods of teaching* and selection of faculty members * * * for the purpose of presenting a comprehensive report about this matter* together with proposals for the founding of the university (in Iraq) *44 44ffinistry of Mutation (Iraq), The Ten fear Com- mitte Iraq* however* restive and organic has been develop ment TABIE XVIII EBOCATIONAt BUD®T IROREASES IN IRAQ Sear Educational budget* Percentage of educa tional budget to total state budget 1920 - 21 I 365,008 2.3 1930 - 31 823,931* 7*3 m o - U. 2,371*,870 11.8 1950 - 51 lQ,127,8i»T lli.O 1956 * 5? 29,568,672 16,3 1957 - 58 36,082,872 18.3 ' Budgets of other rainis tries which support educational institu- Horn are not included* SOUBGBs Office of the Cultural Attache.* Embassy of Iraq, Educa tion in Iraq (Washington* 0*0*$ Embassy of Iraq* iud.) t p* 2* * — 159 TheMinistry of Education considered touch help from counsellors, colleagues, and specialists, numerous reports 45 and recommendations were forthcoming. ^ More help from abroad fallowed m given in an official statements At the invitation of the Ministry of Education, which was anxious to raise the standard of study in Iraqi colleges to that of the colleges and universities elsewhere, a group of British university professors spent some time in Iraq during the year under review <1951-1953) studying the level of education in the higher colleges* * > * * * * * figure 6 shows the present educational levels for higher education in Iraq, with the relation to the second ary levels of intermediate and preparatory. for convenience a natural breakdown follows for issues, problems# and difficulties of higher education in Iraq* Control. Institutions of higher education and learning have developed independently of one another* An office of the cultural attache expressed the relationship in this manners ^See such works as Sir Charles Darwin and Arthur Morgan, Report on University Education in Iraq. Submitted to the Ministry of Education, Baghdaa, Iraq, 1948. (typewritten*) And also Salahuddin Mahi, The Awaited Iraqi University and the Future of Higher Culture in Iraq... ^International yearbook of Education* 1953* p* 212* Chronological Age & Q » o O' to o C O FIGURE 6 SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION IEFEIS IH IRAQ 161 Thirteen colleges comprise the network of higher education* and more than 5#000 hoys and girls were en rolled in the 1956-57 academia year# Six colleges are attached to the Ministry of Education# three to the Ministry of Health# two to the Ministry of Agriculture# and one to the Ministry of Internal Affairs# and the Directorate General of Wakf*47 One of the major issues facing Iraqi higher educa tion is the subject of the currently operating independent faculties and colleges* Should they remain independent and he supported by the respective Ministries of the Govern ment of Iraq# or should they function under the aegis of a national or state university? Should there be Independent ©r unified control? Under the present system of higher education there has been no single body in Iraq to control or coordinate all the schools of higher education* Table XIX displays the miscellany of colleges and sponsors* for a number of years# however# the Ministry of Education has desired coordination# and among her own institutions the Ministry has endeavored to support her plants* A report will give evidence of financial Interests During 1952-53 the Ministry of Education appropri ated I*D* 309#969 (US $867#745) out of its total appropriations of 1*0. 4#946#731 (US fl3»850#847> for § ost~secondary education* this was about 14 per cent* he total appropriations of the Ministry of Education ^-Office of the Cultural Attachd# Education in Iran (Washington# D* c.t Embassy of Iraq# £»*dTiyTppT^Sg-tiS?^ 162 t m m xix m B r n t M M m xbaqi co&bgbs a» these sponsors i 9$6 %9 $? mmot, mm Sponsor Student Institution enrollment Ministry of Education taw College tog Higher Teachers Training College 923 College of Engineering 391 College of Arts and Sciences f&1 Queen Ally&h College (for girls) 39U College- of Commerce and Economics 6)[? j Ministry of Health. Hoyal College of Medicine 656 College of Pharmacy and Chemistry 181 Colic ge^of Dentistry 307 Ministry of Agriculture College of Agriculture 203 Veterinary College 20 Ministry of Internal Affairs Police College Directorate General of wakf ■ ■ ' ; . - ■ ■ College of Theology 193 SODBCE i Office of .Cultural Attache, Embassy of Iraq,, Educa** tion . I n Iraq (Washington, B*C*s Embassy of Iraq, xud*), p. ho* 163 for the same year amounted to about 11 per cent of those for the entire government--I.D. 44,480,289 (IJS #129,544,809>,4S Mustafa Sadek Sufi translated from Arabic for this investigator some material concerning higher education developments from a standard work* ^ In 1951 an action was taken to establish a univer* sity in Iraq, mad soon there was appointed a committee, called the Council on higher Education to supervise the following colleges for the Ministry of Education! (I) Col* lege of law, (2) Queen Aliyah College, (3) College of Engineering, (4) College of Commerce and Economics, (5) College of Arts and Sciences, and (6) higher feathers Col* the Council consisted of the; Minister of Education, deans of the faculties or colleges, and a member elected by each faculty or college from among the college profes- 5 1 sors.^ Among their duties would be the following: ^ ^Ministry of Education (Iraq), Annual Report on Education* 1952*1953 (Baghdad* Iraqi SM&I Fress,195?), pp. 3-4, (In Arabic.) ^%bu fChaldun and iatie Al-Husri, Hawlivet al* t :afa al-Arab!ah (“Condition of Arabic Education*1 ! ' 517;' Cairo, Egypt! hear al Rlad, 1950*51), pp. 219-21. Arabic.) ' 50Ibid. 51Ibid. 52Ibid. 164 1* fo survey the financial and economic status of the colleges before transferring the financial responsibility to the special committees in the ✓ respective colleges; 2» fo appoint the college staff# transferring or promoting personnel as may be needed; $# fo establish new colleges; 4* fo set regulations and assist in their imple mentation; 5. fo adopt common standards for admission and boarding regulations in the various colleges; 6. fo establish rules to improve and enhance the academic status of the colleges and to establish a cooperation among the different institutions (Article VI); 7. fo meet in committee by a call from the chair or by vote of four of its members (Article VIII); 8* fo accept decisions of the Council by majority vote, which will become effective and supersede any action taken by the local committee of the respective college (Article XX); 9. fo appoint the local committee of the respective colleges (Article VII). Organization* the proposed organization of the Uni versity of Baghdad, Iraq’s first national or state 165 university* is presented in fable XX. By Act of Parliament l»m Sixty of June* 1956# becomes the legal instrument to fie the parts together* Each Ministry presently supporting an institution will have to relinquish its rights to the common cause of all the colleges and faculties# or the Ministries in common will have to organize by some com* patible means* Such organization virtually means an absence of over*all policy# a lack of coordination* and a discouragement for long-range planning* the establishment of the new university will demand in its reorganization of contemporary faculties and colleges resolution of issues in external* internal, and fiscal control* Philosophy and objectives. Regardless of 'the kind > of institution of higher education and learning, it should become indigenous and adapt to the changing and growing s needs of its society* In fact* the institution must be created and founded with such concepts in mind if it is to be successful* Iraq *s approach to education at all three levels may be characterized as democratic* nationalistic* and progress sive* An impartial statement placed the problems and needs of higher education in Iraq to this manner; Although possessing a number of higher institutions* Iraq has as yet no university* Besides various plans laid down to the country* a universities commission was m s m m ©OTIRSITf IH IRAQ Institution faculties and Colleges Year of founding or incor poration University of B s ighdai 1956 College- of Arts and Science i 9 i i9 Institute of Fire Arts 1936 Boyal faculty of Medicine 1927 A1 Shari*a College College of Agriculture College of Commerce and Economics The College of Engineering Higher Teachers 1 Training College Department of Scientific and Industrial Research law College Queen Aliy&h College Royal Veterinary College convened early in 1948, and suggested a scheme for constituting the university, based on a plan developed in 1943- Owing to administrative and financial diffi culties, the scheme has not yet been put into execu tion, The need for a university# however, is keenly felt, mainly for purposes of advanced research directed towards the problems of the country, for producing a better type of leadership,, and for recognition of Iraqi higher education a b r o a d *33 4 graduate student from Iraq framed the basic phi losophy and objectives of higher education for his country in clear terras when he observed that The economic, social, and political conditions of present-day Iraq must remind us always of the functions which should be undertaken by institutions of higher education# There are numerous problems that higher education cannot, and should not, evade, by trying to be detached from the real problems that the Iraqi society is facing* In short, higher education In Iraq finds itself amidst political, economic, agricultural, and even moral conditions that need to be reformed and recon structed*^ The concept which underlies the proposed program of the Iraqi university, Nasir stated: * * * the Iraqi University must be a university to serve the people not only in one way— seeking truth alone— but in many ways • « - • a national University for Iraq must keep the needs and problems of a changing Iraq in mind* The national University, therefore, must -^UNESCO, World Survey of Education (Paris: UNESCO, 1955), p* 357# ^^Hohararaed Nasir, ^Proposals for the Reorganization of Post-Secondary Education in Iraq in the bight of Recent Trends and Practices in Higher Education1 * (unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia Univer sity, New York, 1955), p* 20- 168 aim at: (I) education of the young for life and lining in a democratic society, (2) preservation and dis semination of knowledge ,c (3) search for truth, and (4) service to society*^5 Inasmuch as higher education should serve students from both urban and rural populations, the responsibility does not fall lightly* Principal .cities to' be served: in clude Amara, Baghdad, Basra# Kirkuk, and Mosul. fo help solve some local needs Mosul fs new educational unit, incorporating tech nical and agricultural schools and a training college for teachers, will be accommodating 350 students within two y e a r s ,5v Administration* The economy of the nation has been improving through each passing year# thanks to the oil industry* However# the administrations nationally and institutionally are concerned with problems of finance# subsidy, and student aid# Mow much should be subsidised? Mow large should grants-in-aid be? The financial structure has been described on recog nised authority! Higher education in Iraq is the responsibility of the state* Mot only is tuition free# but the Govern* ment also provides students with partial or complete support. Frantically every college has its own dormi tories for boys and girls where students get not only 55» , P- 228, S^Don Scott”Reid, "The Changing Pace of Mosul, ' * Iraq Petroleum, 6rl2*15, December, 1956* 169 their rooms, but their meals, laundry, and other facilities free* The income of the colleges comes entirely from the Government; the budget lor higher education excluding Ministries other than the Ministry of Education) for the fiscal year 1957-58 is m $ 4, 136, 10475/ Until the University of Baghdad becomes truly func tional, the separate administrations of the various facul* ties and colleges depend upon their respective deans, assistants, secretaries, directors, registrars, treasurers, and clerks* In fact, there has been some autonomy present in the higher schools since Every college has its own miles of administration, and the deans are regarded as the heads of their insti tutions. In some colleges the deans are elected; in^ others they are appointed by the Minister concerned*5® The dean of each faculty or college has been respon sible virtually for all administrative, financial, and academic matters pertaining fo his institution* The dean has been chosen usually from among the faculty members of his faculty o r * c C 5 He * Summarising this section, m observation is in order: "Finally, mention must be made of the problem of administrative instability, due fo frecpeaf changes in government. 1,39 570ffice of the Cultural Attach^, 2E* cit.. pp. 40-41. 58Ibid. 39UNESCO, loc. cit. Instruction and curricula* Law Ho# 57, 1940 of The Law of Education define# higher education In Section XV, Article 15: "The study that follows secondary education shall he considered a higher study.** Nasir introduces an issue that requires solution: Article 16. limits its preceding article by asserting diplomas shall not be considered higher diplomas unless their holders have passed a higher study of at least three years* duration. This implies that a graduate of a two-year college beyond secondary school might not be considered a holder of a higher education diploma, despite the fact that his study is considered a higher study according to Article IS. This seems, rather contradictory and steps should be taken to correct this situation* 60 Most of the curricula range in length from four to Bim years, with an additional year of internship for medi cine. Course work varies from fifteen to twenty-four clock-hours per week* Lecture periods and laboratory work are prescribed by the respective councils or boards in the various faculties or schools* \ Queen Aliyah College, the only college in Iraq for \ Of late, however, there has been m emphasis in the home women, originally was slated as a women*s teachers college* / arts and in social service* There still persists much duplication of course work in the different colleges* 6%asir, op* cit*. p* 23. Teacher education is offered on three levels; the intermediate* upper secondary# and the higher, There are rural training schools for hoys and elementary training schools for girls# At the Higher Teachers Training College there are five fields of specialised curricula for students who passed their secondary public examination; 1. Arabic literature; 2* Chemistry and biology; 3# Mathematics andphysics; 4* Social sciences; 3# Education and psychology# The rural training schools for hoys and the ele** mentary training school for girls* four year curricula* on the upper and lower secondary levels* draw their students mainly from the rural areas and also from small towns and villages. Besides academic instruction, special emphasis is given to agriculture* hygiene* home arts* and child welfare.62 In her research study* Sued Khalil Ismail* thinking in terms of desirable changes which should be introduced into the process of curriculum development in Iraq on the 61"Notes on Education in the Middle East*Foreign Education Digest. 21:27-30, July-September, 1956; and April-June* 1957. 62The Middle Seat (1957), p. 180. 172 one hand, and in terms of social conditions in general and of current theories and practices in the national educa tional system on the other# presented for consideration Issues and problems likely to be faced# true at all I * ' lock of cooperation. Resistance to change; peamdssiveaSospEtere; dangerous reaction on the part of some educators as a defense mechanism reveal inadequacies* ■ financial responsibilities with difficulty meet local needs; needs md problems are likely to | differ from one community to another* j 3. Heed for functional school organization, Poor / ccmsmmlcationamong a$5I5IstratEEs^Ka staffs; , emphasis on inspection of instruction rather / than supervision; lack of available time for / faculty participation; needed instructional / among the restraining force© in Iraq# Ismail in cluded the following: 1. A high degree of centralisation and bureaucratic red-tape in educational administration; 2. Authoritative leadership; 3. Educators lacking attitudes and ©kill© required in scientific inquiry; 63Suad Khalil Ismail, "A Study of Basic factor© in Curriculum development in the Public School© of Iraq” (unpublished Doctoral dissertation# University of Cali* fomia, Berkeley# 1935)# pp, 189 ff* levels: 4* Too heavy a teaching load; 5* Inadequate preparation of teachers; 6, Conservative groups; 7. Insufficient inservice education; g* Almost complete lack of continuous research, ~ membership in professional organizations, and, .SfV reading of professional literature*®** From correspondence with an experienced and ranking Iraqi educator, who has held also government posts, the following is gleaned as regards instruction and curricula of higher education! . \ 1. The Faculty Council*at-large delegates the \ matter of curriculum development and instruc tional improvement to the respective depart- meats. 2. Excluding the Arts and Sciences, curricula in higher education is almost entirely profes- 3. Graduate studies hardly exist* 4* There is a strong concentration on professional preparation and practice, with a reputable coordination of offerings* 5* There is a lack of policy for general education, 6* Too many courses are offered* 7, Students lack time for independent study* ^ f/ Methodology* Some factors must be taken into con sideration for effective educational plannings "Ibid*, p* 65Personal correspondence with an Iraqi professor in the Higher Teachers Training College, May 19, 1937* Identity withheld by request* m 1* About 50 per cent of the population of Iraq Is under the age of twenty* 2* Roughly one-third of the population of Iraq live in sons© kind of urban c o m m u n i t y . 6 6 How best should instruction be adapted to meet the needs of so many youth from rural and urban environments? \ Other than some special training in the oil in dustry, ”Wo private or foreign technical* teacher* training or higher educational institutions exist**1 ^ ^ Were such institutions to exist would there be wholesome competition with government institutions and up grading of academic, faculty* and student standards in Iraq? Iraqi Arabic is supported by a second language in the nation* Kurdish* but when it comes to the medium of instruction on the college and university level, what language should be used? This is forcibly brought to light for consideration by Hasirs- When compulsory education is enforced in the Kurdish areas and the number of students in the secondary schools* and eventually those who are planning to go to college increases* new problems regarding secondary md higher education will arise* One will be whether the language of teaching shall be Arabic or be changed to ^International Bank for Eecoas traction and Develop ment* The Economic Development of Iraq (Baltimore* Mary land; Johns^Hopcins' r tMiversity Press* 1952)* pp. 126-27. 67UNESCO, oj>. cit.. p. 353. Kurdish, and the effects of such policy on higher edu cation* At the same time institutions of higher education in Iraq will 'find a . rich field of research in the study of the folklore and folkways of its ethnic groups* Finally, institutions of higher education will face the sensitive problem of whether they are going to accept English as well as Arabic as a teaching language or insist on the use- of Arabic only. Methods of lay citizens- and conmuinity-group planning are hardly known or utilised in Iraq.* .Evidence for this gap .In public relations is cited as follows t \6 People from outside the ministries are seldom in- X vited to participate In formulating policies for their schools or institutions of higher education* This lack of participation by people representing the profes sions, agriculture, industry, and leaders in the com munity in such matters as education is a weakness to Iraqi educational planning that has led to toe creation of a gap between education and society to general*^ Prerequisite courses, curricula previously studied, studying almost merely to pass examinations--these are determining and pace-setting factors to further study* Admissions procedures and continuance are thus interpreted s . Students are drawn from the graduates of the second ary schools, and their background determines their > field of specialisation to college* A graduate of toe literary section of toe secondary school may study toe humanities or social sciences or' any other relevant subject, but he cannot enter any department of toe exact sciences* this procedure differs basically from the American methods of college specialization. Students take prescribed programs .and are required to pass to all subjects* there -are 'two official examina tions during the year, one to February and toe other to ^%asir, cit** p. 12* ^%bid*» p* 39* 176 May* tee latter la of greater importance and the etu^ dents usually start preparing themselves for it well in advance.70 Faculty and staff# She members of the faculty md staff are classified in a manner stellar to that of Ameri* c m universities# although the ranks are from a reader (lecturer) who mast' hold a Fh*0* degree up to a tell pro* feasor# Nasir lists the ranks and teaching loads# giving a reason for the differentiation of the latter# which might he open to question: tee teaching loads for the various ranks of the faculty are- based on the assumption that the members are going to he engaged solely in teaching* However# the teaching load of the higher ranks is less than that of the lower ranks# In tee Higher teachers College# for instance# tee teaching loads are as follows: professors Between 6 and 8 hours per week Associate Professors Between $ and 10 hours per week Instructors Between 10 and 12 hours per week Headers Not less than 14 hours per week However this differentiation in the teaching load is more a privilege for seniority than a means of provid* ing time for work on research' projects#7* tee Iraqi researcher asserted teat- * ■ faculty mem* j hers of all Iraqi colleges are considered civil serv^nts^ J and therefore are affected by tee general conditions of 700ffice of tee Cultural Attache# op* cit*, p. 42* ?£lbitf** n* 41. 7%asir# op* cit*# p* 82* 177 employment# promotion* dismissal# and retirement stipu~ lacad” in The law of Civil Service*. Ho* 64* 1939.73 There are# naturally* other regulations and rulings for teaching personnel which this investigation will not consider* External control of Institutions by various Mtois- tries and teaching efficiency have a low correlation* This diversification of control is a hindrance to the necessary coordination of* and cooperation amongst* the various colleges* It tends to fill the colleges under the control of ministries other than the Ministry of Education* with part-time lecturers*' . Such faculty members* ! recruited, mostly £ com high officials ■ to • 'the various ministries concerned* are not always the best instructors# although they may have the necessary teaching qualifications # Bducational policies to these colleges are not coordinated* Because of a lack of .academic coordination' there follow also differing qualifications for faculty members from, one faculty or 'college to another* thus creating dis satisfaction among some faculty members* national faculty members seem to be inadequate for some of the teaching stations on the college and university level# because Practically all the colleges to Iraq employ professors and experts from foreign countries* ' 'There is a large number of American m d British teachers attached to " the departments of languages, sciences, and agri culture* 7§ 73Ibid.. p. 51* 74Ibjd.. p, 25. 730ffice of the Cultural Attach^, op. .cit*. p, 43. 178 In this regard reference should he made to the Edu cational Exchange Grants and cooperative exchange programs in which it is possible to secure appointments abroad for Iraqi teachers and to secure appointments in Iraq for teachers from abroad in secondary and professional schools and colleges.76 Iraq* fortunately* hm sponsored strongly and for years its teacher education program to such m extent that Iraq k m tmm teachers available than a number of her neighboring countries. The following substantiates the possibilities for educational service within tfyb Middle Easts Iraq* taking practical steps to strengthen her cul tural ties with the other Arab ..countries* has lent the sheikdoms of Kuwait, Bahrein, Qatar* and Sharjah a number of Iraqi teachers for their schools* * ' * * Under the inter-Arab cultural agreement, Iraq also exchanges Lebanese* Egyptian, Syrian and Arab Pales- t Ini an lecturers*. professors and teachers in her schools* colleges*, and universities*77 It has been a historical .fact that education has been highly regarded in Iraq* and teachers have been respected*. ullISEQ* Study Abroad; International Handbook. Fellowships* SchoIarshipST'™ E<^ Vol. Fill* l9'3fi-B57 <Parl8 i uiisdo; i§^=f?J; 71*“pp7 ‘ " 7*MIraq landing Teachers to neighbors* * * Los Angeles Times* February 10, 1957,' part I, p. 33, 179 fo emphasise the important role which teachers were destined to play in the new state# the King (King Faisal X) placed his own royal neme on the list of Staff members of a Baghdad primary school*7® Student personnel, Already noted elsewhere# student guidance and counseling is Important* With college and university study largely determined by the selection and pursue! of secondary school curricula# it is -imperetive that the youth early receive adequate advisement and counsel* Increasing enrollments have brought in their wake# difficulties for the higher schools s One of the major issues which the University will face is that of the scope of the educational program. If the ratio of graduates- of secondary schools entering Iraqi colleges is going to he as high as that of 1952- 1953# namely 60 per cent, the University will face a very M g problem* * * *7* Available enrollment distributions as shown in fable XXX witness io the popularity' in. Iraq, of the law College# higher teachers training College.#, and the College of Commerce and Economics* Foreign study has its appeal and meets the needs lor many Iraqi students# as m annual report reveals* During the year under review 106 students completed their studies abroad (76 in the U.S.A*# IS in England# 78”The King Mho Taught School," 2he Arab World. 2:4, July, 1956. 79Naair, SB., cit.. p. 229. ISO TAS22. XXI sr«w memmm m imqx mimm ‘ W$k Institution lumber of students Percentage of enrollment tm College 1,967 38.9 Higher leathers Training College 718 llul College of Engineering 31? 6.2 College of Arts and Sciences 186 3.6 College of Fine Arts 285 S.? Queen Aliyah College 330 6.5 ' College of 0mrnmrm and Economies 681 33.5 Royal College of Medicine S i ll 8.2 College of Pharmacy and Ohemistry* Pharmacy 9$ Chemistry ?1 166 3.3 fbtal 5 * 0 6! !. 100.0 SOURCE* Arranged by irsrestigator trm available Information in Abu Khaldum send Satie al^Husri, Bawliyet al^fhatefa al^Arabiah (Baghdad, Iraq* Daar aH&Iad* 1 9 % 0 ~ * 5 l ) * p * " T ' 2 5 $ * " { In Arabic) “ ~™ isi Z in Egypt, i in turkey, and 0 in trance) and returned to Iraq; in addition, 29 students who had studied abroad came to Iraq, to complete their studies*- Hie Council of Ministers decided to send 114 students abroad during the same period in order to meet the needs of the Ministry of Education -and other Minis* tries*®® Higher Education in Lebanon 'for'almost three centuries the most frequented school of higher 'education in the Roman Empire was the famous Academy of Law at Berytns (Beirut) in Phoenicia. fbday the RepuWlc of Lebanon has three, institutions of university rank, the first' two being, established by foreign initiative--the American University of' Beirut mad the french Jesuit University St* Joseph* Each has done much for the country* After visiting Lebanon for only a short while, m educator of no mean reputation wrote of an issue which he observed; C m the Lebanon dispense with a national university, and be content with foreign institutions of higher edu- cation, however admirable? I do not know, C m pos sible solution might be to convert the handsome build* logs erected for the Unesco Conference into a govern* ment College of some sort, and then affiliate this with the existing universities into a university of the Lebanon, somewhat after the pattern of the University of London— a loose federation bound together by a common title and a common degree* But whether such an ^International yearbook of Education*' 1955* p, 211* 182 illogical arrangement would mmt commend itself out** side Britain* t am not at all sure*8! Figures 7 and 8 show the present educational levels for higher education in Lebanon as influenced by the American# British* and French systems of education* for convenience* a natural breakdown follows for issues* problems* and difficulties of higher education in Lebanon* Control. ' In 1362* the American missionaries in Syria asked one of their number to withdraw from evangeli cal endeavors of the mission to found a school of higher education and learning* an Institution which would include medical training* ft was felt that for the beat interests of all* it should be administered independently from the mission* and it should be maintained by its own funds* Thus the new school of higher learning developed# On April 24* 1863* the State of Hew York granted a charter to the new institution* originally known as the Syrian Frac astaut College. Instruction started with a preparatory class in 1865 and university work for a class of sixteen students in the autumn of 1866* On November 18* 1920 the Board of Sagents of the University of the State of New York changed the name of the aiHuxley, op* cit* . * p. 78*. H \ k > \rt <h H - 3 CN o> VD H O H j - j J O Secondary Education I a 'O O f * * v > i V * • I r * 1 0 \ f V t-i VA { ~ 4 • ' ■ < 1 I I c s > VO Higher Education t# t ? 3 f c l M ? d O 1 * 1 > s a £ t t < 5 t f p ¥ * H* S5 d* £ © 0 3 O J ' © H * S r m © *f © § ® p o © tr o S 3 * u Q m o © © 0 1 0 m M | « © B if ** 1 o p a % h d C s * i a u» M ■ H H © # * T J * s W 0 o o 1 © « * ■ A J © * 1 h i a a m m & d* « * • H H I Prep.* Medicine lursing Midwifery Prac. ; Pharmacy Dentistry Phil. Theology Studies for Higher Certificates for Licence es Sciences Engineering Law M ca a s m m * £ * . { * * > tf § i Bacc Medicine Prac', Pharmacy Nursing Institute of Music Farm Man.. school from Syrian Protestant College to the American Uni* versity of Beirut# the elementary and secondary sections at the university constitute International College* with both the College and the University maintaining separate Boards Of trustees* although the College and University operate as a single administrative unit* functioning tinder ' ' \ Che Hear East College Association. The Association oper- \ ■ v aces also a number of other schools in Greece* Syria* and in Turkey. Although they served earlier in Ctsaair (Lebanon) or Syria* yet it was not until January* 1881* that the Jesuit missionaries received papal confirmation in Rome with their lector present that their College-Seminaire of Beyrouth (Beirut) would be known henceforth as L’Universifce Saint- Joseph# With rapid development through subsequent decades the University of Saint Joseph has bsen strongly supported# Both universities have promoted ably scholarship and humanistic research* and they have trained personnel for professional and government service*. Since the hectic years of 1940-1945 when Lebanon was gaining her independence as a republic* the nation has desired to develop a national educational program on the elementary* secondary* and higher levels* Ihe words spoken by Hurley* previously quoted* were not idle thoughts* because thinking educators of the * t o S 1 pm pm psho^^od * * i ! § * p 3 a © £ ^ i|fl©§0|* * % $ g o Jbjm®Apm P™® § o xmojasm? a q s qSnoqrjtv *W |3 W p ® S ^ r*rt S !f5 £ j^O P**p P* ® § 8 P m m m p p m ® © E® If h* g*to © %© t o t o ©* i t ' i s n» m & ° ! i ® s m t o STg*to t o @*S P MS © a* it© Otto . < ft O *© to to*© « n i t mt**m i w ** t o © 1 1 * Writ? t o t o < b « * s g i* t o c i * }4g» | « t K j - t o |* mi ft t o H v ft t o . Q I* t o f* { - * o © § * • * * © r r t o i to ft a ' “ r $ §§ p . §* r * a 8. & OS ON TABfiS XXII wsiRsmBs or t s H M t o M Institution . Faculties* Colleges* and Schools fear of ' founding or incor poration IJi^^si1 # S iexrul J .........' ' Faculty of Arts and Sciences^ mmr~- School, of Arts and sciences 1B66 Faculty of Medical sciences School of Medicine 1 8 6 1 School of Pharmacy 1 8 7 1 School of Mursing School of Public Health 19$h Faculty of Engineering School of Engineering- 1 9 5 1 Faculty of Agriculture School o f ' Agriculture 2952 L*t7niversite Saiat-doseph 1 8 8 1 Faculty of Theology 1 8 1 * 6 french Faculty of Medicine md Pharmacy 1883 Faculty of l a s ? 1 9 1 3 Higher School of Engineering 1 9 1 3 Oriental Institute 1 9 3 3 Ksara Observatory 1907 Lebanese aniyersityi H f ' Higher Teachers* College Institute of Administration and Finance Institute of Social Science 19$3 Academe Llbanaise ■School of letters School o f ' Architecture School of Music (including Dramatic Art) School of Painting School of Political Sciences School of Law 3937 ftm program of Graduate Studies is being developed and expanded* The school of Dentistry existed between 1910 and Who* International. College (founded i n . 1891) for pre^university work includes t h e - Ele mentary School (primaiy)* Preparatory School (secondary) $ and Section Secondaire (French section) • A L A L . Faculties of letters and History have been established and there are plans for ihe establishment of Faculties of Medicine and .Engineer^ 188 Two great problems which Lebanon has are* How much higher education should the Government of Lebanon sponsor with foreign universities so well established and sup* ported? What academic offerings and fields should the Government offer?. Although the three universities have been introduced and■ described* the picture of higher education in Lebanon would be incomplete without due mention of mother indi genous institution* as subsequently described: * * * the Lebanese Academy is Lebanon*s first national institution of higher learning# Although the Academy now includes six different schools Which grant diplomas in the Fine Arts* Liberal Arts# Political Science and Laws* it was originally founded in 1937 by private citizens as an association for the development of classical music *83 Expanding its academic scope frim the original orbit of fine arts to include courses for the developing national needs of the country* which had no other native or indi* genous institution of higher education* the Lebanese Academy is now recognised by the Republic of Lebanon as a national institution and “receives an annual subsidy from gA the government fs Ministry of Education# “ Philosophy and objectives, for the two so-called 83 * "Lebanese Academy--National Art Center." The Arab World. 2:5, August. 1956. 84Ibld. 189 foreign institutions of higher education and learning, their school bulletins or annuals concisely state their philosophy and objects, first for the Asuerican University: The strategic location of the American University X to Beirut,, the meeting place Of Western and Hear \ Eastern civilisations, creates an opportunity and a \ responsibility for totegrattog the positive values of both civilizations and for analyzing and nullifying the. negative values# The University aims”re"produce' in. each student the.- perception and' the objectivity which will enable him to create a worthy personal syn- / thesis for today and the future***-* j In many regards- the American University of 'Beirut is m comprehensive in its educational philosophy, academic offerings, activities, and varied faculty and student body m almost any other university to the world# In its mom general respects, however. The American University of Beirut Is American both to its democratic spirit and to its educational philosophy. However, it builds on the foundation laid by the educational systems of the national governments of the Hear East# It makes every effort to harmonize the values of these governmental systems with the values which have bean derived from American experi ence, avoiding both absorption to any national educa tional system and an attitude of indifference toward them.8C> Writing of the same university and its responsi bility, an Arab expressed the thought that 'the main task of the University is to present the finest traditions and 8^The American University of Beirut, Catalogue of All Schools* 1956-195? (Beirut, lebanon: The University, IS56)7p~9* ^%bid*, p. 10# tm ideals of the Meat which the Arabs mat assimilate, if they are to advance their own civilization. ^ With, perhaps* a more narrow concentration, the second higher institution in order of mention, the Jesuit University of Saint Joseph, endeavors in the Wear East **to serve with frankness tod initiative for the progress of the French and Arab literature and for the greatest dis~ 88 semination of the Catholic religion." For some time the French university had more stu dents than the American institution, but the latter seems now to have the larger number of students* In this regard of quantity it was observed that l # tn spite of its larger numbers, the University of St. Joseph has had less influ ence on the Arab world than the American university* An official declaration from the Ministry of Educa tion clarified the position and function of the University of Lebanon; The new university aims at meeting deficiencies rather than competing with already existing facili ties • * . • ^Burhani Dajani, "The American University of Beirut and the Arab World, " al-Abhlth. 7:17-27, March, 1954* (In Arabic.) ’Universite Saint* 1 Joseph, Annuaire 1956-1957 (Beirut, Lebanon: The Catholic Fress,i95$), pT18*"^In French*) ^"Lebanon,° Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 ed.), XIII, 853. the two major factors determining the choice of _ branches for the new university have been (a) the > desire to meet the country’s need for highly qualified j personnel in the various fields of national activity, / and (b) the wish to Insure remunerative employment on completion of the courses*^ fhe philosophical relationship between the tlniver* sity of Lebanon and the American and french universities was Interpreted by the fice-fresident of the University of Lebanon, who holds a Poorer of Philosophy degree from the Sorbonne: fhe Lebanese University tries to make up for any need of the country, which need is not met by the two sister universities* It is not in the planning or interest of the Lebanese University to compete with the other two universities* fhe University is rather grateful that they are helping the country in their schools of different professions# He are, in this University* trying to do our part in serving., our coun try as much as the two sister universities*^1 Upon the first observation of French, British, American* and Lebanese amalgamated influences in the systems of Lebanese education* the scene might appear ana chronistic* until the observer upon second thought appreci ates the fact that Beirut culturally* intellectually, and socially lives half in the Orient and half in the inter** national Western world# the capital of Lebanon is an important seat in a twilight tone of thought and life# ^International yearbook of Education# 19S1* loo# ^Statement by Or* Abbas Alam-ed-Dln in possession of the investigator* translated from Arabic by Selim Houj aim. 192 Administration, The American University of Beirut la administered locally by executive officers--*president, provost* vice-presidents* comptroller, mid registrar- appointed by an American Board of Trustees* Educational policies are established by an academic Faculty Senate* Each faculty or division has Its own Dean who in turn is responsible to the President* The French University of St* Joseph is subsidized by the French Government and is administered locally by the Jesuit Society of Jesus* with its rector* secretary* and deans and chancellors of the respective faculties and institutes* The University of Lebanon likewise through its exe cutive officers, headed by a president* administer the university activities* The university* however* has a direct relationship with the General Birector under the Minister of the Ministry of Education* The Lebanese Academy also now operates in close relation to the Ministry of Education with its president* vice-president* secretary-general* and six directors of schools in the institution* Considering the administration of public education on lower levels* though related indirectly to the univer sity and college especially in teacher education* an official pronouncement stated that A national educational service has been set up in s each province as a step towards administrative de centralization . Such service is in direct contact with all the schools in the province*92 As regards administration in higher education# all the universities are located in Beirut# the capital* Coincidentally# the Government of Lebanon reported also more administrators of its own schools in the Lebanese capital; The highest percentage of administrators in the public schools was found in Beirut where it was nearly three times the national average* The schools in Beirut are larger schools# requiring full-time adminis trators* cohered to the smaller schools which are served by technicians performing both professional and administrative duties.®3 The annual cost per student in the public school QA system of education in Lebanon is as follows; Academic elementary and secondary schools Lh 100 Vocational schools Lb 200 The Teacher Training College IM 1575 University of Lebanon Lb 1075 Secondary and higher education in the national system* however# need more support# morally and financially: ^International yearbook of Education. 1953* Pub lication So* TSSJ p; 243. 9%inistry of Education and fine Arts (Lebanon)# The 185£.rl|}.54 Annual Report of the Schools* Teachers, and Stu- " dents In Lebanon (Beirut* Lebanon: The Government of Lebanon# January 31* 1955)* p* 42* (Mimeographed.) 94lfeM., p. 113. m the report also evidences need for additional legis lative provisions, for no school system is making adequate provision for its posterity when it utilises 95 per cent of its effort and funds in the first five years of school experience.9- * Although the report has been circulated that The Lebanese Planning and Development Council is preparing a new 5-year developmental program 1957*1951 for the execution of the big projects in the fields of agriculture, industry# communication# urban develop* ment, and health * * ., yet private foundations and governmental missions sponsor* ing cultural and educational programs are endeavoring to have the Government of Lebanon expand the needed develop ment and programs to include teacher education# profes sional training# and other interests of higher education# instruction and curricula# A bald and unadorned statement was reported as to the educational program in general throughout Lebanon, a theme for higher education to * A consider as it builds on lower levels; As cultural interchange develops through the media of tele-communications, roads# air transportation# and as the donkey and carol have given way to motorised transportation# the population is left with an educa tion program of an obsolete and abstract nature* This system is inadequate in physical facilities and has a program largely unrelated to Lebanon9s environment. The great cultural heritage of past civilisations has ossified and crumbled into the dust with the ruins of 95Ibid. 96"Lebanon, ” Middle East Economist;. 11:74, May, 195 a bygone ego# An education system which, for the most \ part* does not convey the culture of the past nor j relates to the present, has been fostered in Lebanon, / and has threaded its way into all areas. the educa- / tional emphases have been upon literature* philosophy* / , geography* and classical languages* having little / meaning to Lebanon youth of the present day,9/ I fhe reactions to such an instructional program in dubitably followed, and the report continued with serious resultsi Lebanon1 s students have had little opportunity to prepare for a better life in the present school pattern to prepare themselves for occupational opportunities in other sections of their own country# or to take ad vantage of vocational opportunities which might exist abroad* tee result of such a situation has been a mass exodus from the village to the city* and eventually / from Lebanon itself* 9o emigration produced a twofold effect; villages that actually had potential for economic development have been abandoned and neglected! urban areas have become over- populated with young people who haw experienced little vocational opportunity! and some of the best human enter prise and leadership have been removed from the Eepobiicfs social and human resources# Such is the challenge for tr higher education* In addition to the numerous professional fields and ^United States Operations Mission (Lebanon), Report of Education Division* United States Operations Mission to I S I l j g S ^ USOM/L, 1 9 5 & ) 7 ~ p* 11*"' (Mimeographed.) 98Ibid. degree curricula which it offers* the American University of Beirut confers the Master of Arts degree in all depart ments except conferee, because in that field the degree of Master in Business Administration is given, the graduate study program at the university is being enlarged and strengthened to meet more of'the needs for the Republic„ A Ministry of Education report in 1955 brought the happy announcement for national institutions i ”A new teacher training school was established at Beirut* Plans were made to establish a rural and a technical-and- vocational teacher training school. Students who have passed the secondary education baccalaureate are eligible to enroll at the higher teachers institute of the Lebanese diversity* After a course of three years sad a year of speci alization, successful graduates are awarded a secondary teaching certificate which allows them to teach in the secondary schools*130 Elementary and secondary education curricula with teaching in mind may be pursued at the American University of Beirut for those students who present a secondary school graduation diploma and meet the admissions requirements. Unfortunately, for strong educational' centers 99international Yearbook off Education* 1955* p.' 49. World Survey of Education, p. 419. 197 throughout Lebanon, through expediency Teacher training is given at various levels* A two-year course which follows the upper primary school trains primary school teachers and this can be followed by a further two-year course training teachers for the upper primary school* Secondary school teachers are trained at the Higher Teachers College at the Lebanese University* A rural teacher^training school offers a\ five-year course for pupils holding the primary studies] y certificate and trains teachers for rural schools in villages having less than a thousand inhabitants* / Should so-called educational duplicity be foisted upon rural and mountain areas? Must the academic and teaching standards be less outside urban areas? With such provisions is there wonder that students gravitate toward the urban areas, and particularly toward Beirut for the reputedly highest standards for elementary, secondary, and higher education? The Ministry of Education, working with the Univer sity of Lebanon, has tried to extend national facilities using the vernacular to met national manpower needs* There has been inadequacies in the preparing of nationals to understand and serve in the Arab economy, to practice Arab law, and to teach the Arabic language* Such pro nouncements evidence difficulties that are extant for those interested in careers in government or public service: "in the year under review a new chair was established at the l0l$!£ Middle East (1957), p. 262 Lebanese University in the economics of Arab countries* "*02 In all these schools (dramatic art, painting, sculpture, architecture, etc*), special emphasis is laid on training in Arabic language and culture* . . . Courses taught in Arable fill a void for well trained Arabic teachers in the country’s secondary The training of lawyers has been a groat proles* sional need, as opposed to the excellent American mad French schools of medicine in Beirut* The Lebanese Academy has come to the rescue, but still has much to accomplish: Lebanon *s greatest professional needthe need for well-trained Arabic Iawyers-~was met by the establish ment of the academy’s School of Law in December, 1953* Prior to this date, the only law courses available in Lebanon were taught in French at the Universite Saint* s Joseph* An Arab student with no French background was! unable to train for the legal profession unless he had , the means to study outside his native country* Aware f of this unhappy situation, the Ministry of Education / approved the creation of the* Law, School with a four* / year program taught in Arabic* IvA Home arts and home economics on both the secondary and higher education levels present a great challenge* This, naturally, Is related also to the o finance, instructional materials, and time in the program and women* there Is need for additional facilities. 3*®%ntemational yearbook of Education, • 1954* 1 0 3 Academy- -National Arts Center, M loc bit* l04Ibld. 199 already crowded* There has persisted a general attitude that home arts and heme economics is not an integral part of the formal school curriculum hut that# if possible, it may he arranged# although it has been considered as a luxury which may easily fee dispensed with* A 1956 observation encourages coeducation* It is believed that# slowly but surely# .the idea of an educational program especially organised around the needs and desires of girls and„women is establishing itself in the Lebanon. * * *lv5 In dune# 1957 a mimeographed copy in french of the currently offered curricula of the "Universitd Libanaise” was received from Lebanon. The higher Teachers College offers both literary and science major fields* Students may major and may become licensed to teach in the follow ings I * , . Literary ■ or. Literature Section s A* Arabic language and literature B. french language and literature C. English language and literature a J>* Philosophy and social sciences II* Scientific or Science Section: A* Mathematics and physics B* Physics and chemistry 105United States Operations Mission (Lebanon), on* cit.» p. SO* 200 . €• Natural sciences 1. Physics, chemistry, geology c * * 2* Botany 3* Ecology 4. Physiology and human anatomy in addition* as formerly stated, students may study in other fields and curricula--economics, law, political sciences, architecture, and others* Interestingly enough, although the Lebanese Univer sity has the secondary education curriculum, only three government-sponsored secondary schools operate in Lebanon as compared with the ninety-five privately-sponsored secondary schools* Ninety-eight per cent of the public schools in Lebanon offer only an academic and preparatory^ scholastic curriculum.^ With the splendid resources in the adequately equipped modem library of the American University of Beirut, no course in iibrary science is offered*^ % Methodology. As in comprehensive programs of other universities,"the American■ University of Beirut offers a wide variety of classroom, laboratory, and field work. Eactra-currieular activities, wholesome recreation, partici pation in athletics, and community service are encouraged. \ IQ6Ibid.. pp. 5, 16 f - 4 ' 0 O 42 M U fix m i U O m m 4J q > m CO m o _ . - jg f t 130 O O < j w t , fiii < 3 O OfH 0* « ■ « S * 0 W £ f * H f o *§J§ 0H'4»4i 4*0 14 < M* i 4 0 **4 p O ‘ ‘ m 0 U « J 0 0 O 0 0 $ 44 0 ■ * ■ ' 0 * r f d3 0 § P • # 0»0 U § .•■mm 1 * t l * t l 1 1 3 t i 0 1 5 ■s « r 4 4 4 methodology* Categorically stated, the teaching medium for instruction i n the American. University o f Beirut i s English and Arabic; i n the Jesuit Universitd Saint-Joseph, French; n4 o 0 *rl u 45 w h o 1 3 •S Plb^ public school system reveals inadequacy; there were nearly 3,000 teachers reported in the public schools during the 1952-53 school year* More than half of these teachers taught in a one-room school* In the public schools# the average teacher is a graduate of the Brevet level (9 th year) * Nearly 5 per cent have less than § years of training# 35*7 per cent have 9 years; 32*2 per cent have 11 years; and 20*7 per cent have completed the 12th year* less than 7 per/ cent have college training; 2*5 per cent have college graduation or better.Ivo teacher-school ratio is interesting and should studied especially for multiple-class training in laboratory schools of teacher education: number of teachers assigned to a school in s Lebanon varies with urban and rural administrations. \ In Beirut not a single school is a one- teacher school# < while in North Lebanon there. are 216 schools each with J one teacher* * * * By far the majority of schools in / Lebanon are one-teacher schools* The bulk of the remaining have from 2-5 teachers* * * *109 ^ Statistically the official report of the following school year was hardly improved, showing somewhat of a chronic situation that should be ameliorated; ■i - * There were 9271 Instructional staff members in the schools of Lebanon reported in 1953-1954* Of them 2932 constitute the public school staff, and 6339 form the private school staff* Eighty per cent of the female staff were employed in the private schools* There were ^%inistry of Education (Lebanon), The Armual Report of the. Ntolstrvjof Education for The Republic ' ' ton cSalrnt*1 hebmont The Ministry of '"Education,... 1# 1934), pp* 58-59* (Mimeographed.) 109Ibid., p. 36. more than twice as many main instructional staff in the public schools m female* Of the 962 public schools in Lebanon, 772 had 1 to 3-room schools* There were 518 one-teacher schools in the public school system of Lebanon. The typical school in Lebanon was a one-room, one**teacher school. In a summary paragraph on the teachers of Lebanon the official report concludes with some obvious implies- > • tions: Briefly it may be said that staff members in Lebanon in 1953-1954 had a high elementary education, taught in one-room schools# received a relatively minimum salary (LL1800-3600 a year), were citizens of Lebanon# were bilingual, were not prolific writers# and in the public schools proportionately represented the various reli gious sect preferences in the country# in the private / schools the staff members were predominantly Chris tian* 111 ♦ She number and quality of the instructional staff of the universities are representative of standard institu tions of higher education and learning elsewhere. Their professional training# experience# and qualifications are e^emp1cry* full-time employment, part-time service# tenure# seniority# and finance may be open to question at the national institutions, the University of Lebanon and the Lebanese Academy, they appear to be too much of a i i 7 •^^Ministry of Education (Lebanon)# the 1953-1954 Annual Report of the Schools* teachers* and Students In ' Lebanon (Beirut* Lebanon; The Ministry of EdtSatioh and Fine Arts# January 31# 1955)# p. 87. (Mimeographed#) 204 lYijrt* « f * 4 nu9i r%r*o oram * » # £ $ * * > v » v 4ili> ^ J*•• w^4* C U U . Student personnel* the population figures in Lebanon advanced from 925#000 in 1957 to 1,450,000 in 1956* With such a marked increase student enrollments also have had considerable increments* The Ministry of Education reported the upswing for education with the facts that In ten year© the number of public schools in Lebanon has increased 300 per cent* That this growth is to continue is evidenced by continued increase In budget appropriation for Lebanon and by plans now in progress to create a provident fund for the building and equip* ping of additional new schools. H3 Student populations varied with the ©esc# type of school# and location as the report continued? there were 251# 419 students reported in the schools of Lebanon in 1953*1954* Of these 247# 559 (97*7 per cent) were studying in the academic schools; 2,591 (1*0 per cent) in the vocational schools; 2,426 (1.0 per cent) in the special curricula schools; and 843 (0*3 per cost) in the teachers training schools* Sixty per cent of the students in the academic schools were boys* H4 A serious trend was noted after comparing academic grades# school levels# and school years~~the drop-out: Special studies made at the Ministry of Education concerning over~ageness of students adds to the ^^International Monetary fund# International Elnan* cial Statistics* 10:158, June# 1957* ' * ^1%inistry of Education (Lebanon)# op. cite* * p. 83* 114Ibid.. p, 104- " f a l l - o u t " i u t h e c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . A d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s are n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e wherein the c u r r i c u l u m , the teachers, and e x a m i n a t i o n c o n t r i - b u t e to this devastation of the educational process in the schools of L e b anon. H 5 C o n s i d e r i n g g o v e r n m e n t laminations an d student attrition* O r a p h X I X in the Ministry report showed the 1 9 5 4 results* which* briefly tabulated in fable X X 1 X X of this investigation* shows that out of m original s t u d e n t popu lation of 14*071 in the fifth grade in the e l e m e n t a r y school* only 228 students, by the process of elimination, are eligible for a d m i s s i o n to c o l lege, M o nation can afford to continue the e x p e r i e n c e as indicated in fable X X I I I with the heavy losses of untrained m a n p o w e r , fhe reasons for these failures and successes re<|uire careful a n d interpretative research.. Solutions are" needed# Among the student population w h o have survived as the intellectually fittest a n d who d o not study abroad, m a n y attend the higher schools of learning in Lebanon. fhe largest n u m b e r of students at the American U n i v e r s i t y of B e i r u t (see fable X X I V arr^aged from a school catalogue)**16 enroll in the Schools of Arts and Sciences, Engineering, and M e d i c i n e . p* 176# lb |§ * , p. 102# ■ *• ( 116The American University of Beirut# op* eft*. H i M *$3 t e & . - s f ' * ■ to W\ o Hv CM . M oo HI n * oo . * \ A ■ £ « » o ' A & J 3 xts CM . ■ jH' . Hi . ♦ • ■•' # & y> Hi iH CM £ $ .fc* CO CO \A CM * 4 . 3 cm t H CO CM CD . ** H f Os ■ f i cn **3 * * D \ . o o tt** - “ #* CM V \ CM * JK 43 r*f 43 ,3 » H t D \ $ CM f H i - n i P © ■ C l f f i t i 4 2 . 3 . , 4 £ * 0 8 M 3 m I s * !fll m * H ( C j O A * m m © * H B > * * . £ £ * *d § i 2G7 TABIE XXI? mam® wboismm by schools, -mmmm mmmsin of bbirut 1955 * 1956 Humber Percentage of of School students enrollment Arts- . a n d Sciences! Under graduates 1*050 Special business programs 1 1 | 2 Graduate students 77 1*2 69 62*7 Medicine 175 8*7 Pharmacy m 2.1 lursing 86 h.2 Public Health 6? 3.3 Engineering 292 lli*U Agriculture 93 k*6 Total 2,023 100*0 SOURCE s Arranged from American University of Beirut, The Catalogue of AH. Schools., 1956^1957 (Beirut, lebanons American Univer sity' o f 1 ^BeiiutiJ : hid*3 r the largest faculties, or schools, of the Jesuit University Saint-Joseph are those of Law and Medicine# as table XXV gives evidence.3 - 3 *^ the capital of Lebanon is not only a cosmopolitan city, but both the American and french universities reflect also the varied locale with an average student body of some 50 nationalities and 20 religious groups represented in the American University of Beirut and some 20 nationalities and 16 religious groups In the Jesuit University of St* Joseph* the University of Lebanon mid the Lebanese Academy, in / contrast*"''are national institutions with most of the stu dents being Lebanese of Christian and Moslem persuasion* III, ISSUES* PROBLEMS, MFFICULflES POSSESSE0 in mmm m toe mmm mat Historically, the developments of higher education in the Middle last may be traced through three rather dis tinct periods, or etas— the era of Ottoman Empire, the era of British and french domination or protection (as the British in Egypt, Iraq* and Jordan! and the french in Iran and Lebanon}, and the era of independence* Higher mimeographed, one-page student roster by the University Saint-Joseph in the possession of the investi gator, from which fable XXV was arranged* zm m m tm smmm m tm m m m Tmrnms> m m m m ism sxn OF BkWT J031FH (BBIROT) • 1956 - 195? Humber Percentage of of Faculty students enrollment ft*eology 6? ' 1**2 Medicine 1*61 29.3 630 39.7 Political Science 11*2 8.8 Engineering 155 9.6 betters 131* 8.1* 'Octal 1,589 100.0 SOUBOB s Adapted from one«*page student statistics: prepared by the J esm.it B'tmirersite Saint ^Joseph* 1956. (miraeo graphed) aw education, as a consequence, may differ in purpose and objective in a dependent country, protectorate* or in an independent nation* , Be that m it may* a number of issues, problems, and difficulties of higher education have been possessed in common in the Middle East, and these are to be considered in brief in the present chapter-* Writing of the new universities being established in largest numbers in Asia,- the Middle East# 'and in Africa*-* with no two institutions alike-* a recent article described higher education with commonalities: In many cases, the problems they face are similar: \ too many students and too few teachers# poor prepara* tion of the entering students by the lower schools in the country, language roadblocks where large segments of the population speak a different tongue from the one used in the textbooks* In some countries, social customs place barriers in the way of women obtaining a higher education* * * * Yet one theme runs throughout the stories behind these new institutions, and that is a faith In the power of education and a belief that men must be educated if they are to solve the problems that press t h e m * Hu fhe rectors, chancellors# presidents, and other administrators of these new universities stress not only . * * the need for education in technology; they believe it la vitally important 'for their student# to ll8t * | j | ew universities,f * Institute of International Education Mews Bulletin* 32:22*31, December, 1956. 211 study the arts and the sciences. In particular# they want the students to come to appreciate their own cul tural heritage and the cultural heritage of other nations*!!^ In 1955 a travel fellowship was awarded to an ad visor to foreign students in an American university# and after his return from a nine-weeks tour of the Middle East he enumerated among others the following problems of higher education in the Middle East? 1. Undesirable rigidity and stifling of initiative \ as a result of complete control centralized in l , a national Ministry of Education*. 2. Inadequate emphasis upon practical aspects of education in various fields* 3* Small and inadequate libraries (with the excep tion of the new Jafet Memorial library at the American University of Beirut)* 4* Objective of many students of higher education is to qualify for a good Job with the govern ment# to live pleasantly In the capital city# or the right to earn a desk Job in a principal ■ city* 5* Student activities and student programs are practically non-existent in the Middle East# except for some foreign schools* 6. For most students the school to which admission is finally obtained determines largely the voca tional choice* 7* teacher training Is a major 'problem* 8. With the expansion of education come the usual ^ %bld* - 212 problems of equipment, spate, staff# and sup- p l i e s I B o H r A woman scholar3 * 21 in the original Arab tradition contrasts the paucity and inadequacy of the present by adulating the glories of the Arab past--lavish endowments for the support of the students m well as for their educa tion; scores of madaris '.(schools of higher learning and equivalent in some respects to the> later medieval and early modem European university) all over the Moslem world; libraries that in numbers and services rendered kept pace with the universities; and people who traveled widely and continuously in search of teachers rather than institu tions* One of the most recent of educational conferences conducted in the Middle Bast, crystalized in a volume its work and symposia, including educational problems that were common to countries of the Middle Bast* the conference agreed on seven basic difficulties$ 1, lack of finance for widespread education* I 2. Vague objectives and aims of education, thus resulting in a poor response* ^%van futaam, Jr.*, Educational Observations in the Middle Bast* Minaret Series, Mo* II (Mew Vork: American 'frfends ol the Middle Bast, (n.d. j), pp.* 24-26* ^2%ejla laaaddin* The Arab World: fast* Present* and Future (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company,1953), pp. 26- 3* Stress on the theoretical phase and neglecting the practical phase*. 4* insufficient emphasis on the moral aspects of education* 5* too much emphasis on diplomas and degrees as if they were the ultimate goal* 6. large numbers of students in classes as though they were homogeneous or of common ability* 7. lack of individual attention and small group selections? Although recent student populations and university enrollments have been cited previously for the three selected countries of the Middle East* yet a . arraagemettt from 1949 to 1931 statistics* fable XXVI# shews great differences in university student enrollments for all the Middle last* fhls can be accounted for largely by the availability of facilities in higher education* fe appreciate the university enrollments in a better perspective* the population of the respective countries should be considered* as in fable XXVII* strengths' and weaknesses* though relative* are readily evident as a * V result of comparing enrollments in higher education with ' 100,000 population* with a low of 0*4 for Saudi Arabia and ■ %abib XUraai* jg£ jpl* * , Falsafat larbawiah Mata j adidah Lee~Alam±n Arablven Yataiadad r "Educational Wvelopmints ■and’ IBenis IS^Aiw lountrlei; A Mew Philosophy of Education for a Modernizing Arab World*1 ) fBeirut* Lebanon: Daar al-Kasha£, 1936)* pp* 40-60. f in Arabic* translated for the investigator by Mustafa Sadek Sufi*) TABLE XXVI UNIVERSITY STUDENT ENROLMENT IN THE MIDDLE EAST 214 ) Country year Enrollment Egypt 1951 39,100 Tran. 1950 5,624 Iraq 1951 4,957 Jordan 1951 30* hebanon 1950 3,125 Saudi Arabia 1949 25 Syria 1951 2,1(04 Turkey 1 9 1 ) 9 25,091 '^Teacher education only. College of Mohammedan low only# To this may he added some 600 students i n . higher institutions abroad* SOURCE* Compiled from various sections of The Middle Eastj 19gg and fhe Middle Bast, 19!?7_ (London; Europe Pubiishingy ltd 19S$ and l95? ?^andr frdm UHESCo* world Survey of Education (Paris s les Petits-Fils de Leonard MMEL* ip555'V'vpp. ' ~~ " *S56X wpq-sonpg jo jCsaj^s pi-iom *suo-rsm per™G uo posea * a O E t t O S (aS h& x& A e) ' sox 9S€*08 I0X c 9 i tB^oa 8SX t60*$Z CS9*6X 6*161 a tjo T e X62*C TS6T T o 000*9 6*161 9^q&«xy W®®S 6 < T 2 Ssx*e iS 3*1 0$6X ummq&t 2 o€ 6s£*X I$ 6 I mpaof a6 oox*S X£6f t)B v C X oc T 9 *S saa*8x 0$6T t m j 681 OOI*6£ 6sa*Q3 IS 61 uoaiBfwiwi O O O 'O O X -rod X .U 8M X X O -W 3 ticrp'j.soTipa up (sp^srioq^) tiO T:^BX^dQ d pa^mrp*).se ot? © £ Moiavmaoa m o a ca hoxwish kz ttoiavonaa aaaoiH so mshtiohi© iiaxx axava 216 a high of 249 for Lebanon, Would one consider the high even a low? Some of the issues* problems* and difficulties com- moti to most or all of the countries in the Middle East are categorized and .grouped for convenience of presentation as follows? Control* Centralized control stemming from the Ministries of national Education is the dominant practice in the Middle last* although the Ministries have less direct influence on higher education, than on the primary and secondary education levels* More attention may he given centrally to higher education when* as in the case of 123 ■ Irma* in the Ministry of Education there is a special department for higher education* appointments of major personnel, major fiscal policies* annual operating budgets In national universities are related to the Ministries of Education* Organization* M l the national universities of Egypt*, with the exception of the American University at Cairo, being government universities are headed by Hie Higher Board of Egyptian Universities* all educational and personnel and operating policies centering in that Board, 123UNESCO, op, ci£„, p, 349. Hie whole organization of the universities is described by law, making provision for the rector, vice-rector, secretary-general of each university and the respective countries runs from the rigidly prescribed as in Egyp through the loose .aggregate of faculties and colleges Iraq# to the more autonomously organized universityi Iran# the privately- organized and operated universities of Lebanon have been introduced previously# Philosophy and objectives# In a greater or lead degree national universities and government-sponsored institutions of higher education seem to have Imbibed a kindred spirit# characterized accordingly by comparative educationists at the mid-century: "There is a twofold revolt going on today in the Arab countries of the Hea last: a revolt against the West and against the status faculties, each with a dean, vice-dean, mad regtstrar.^^ The organization of the universities in the different Waves of nationalism with their secuiaristie ^^Ministry of Education (Egypt), Government Law Ho# 345 (1956), In possession- of 'the Investigator' (in ^%rchtar Henry Moehlman and Joseph S# Eoucek# itiva Education (New York: The Bryden Press, 1951), 218 influences have swept through institutions far and wide. Opposing concepts in higher education were presented clearly by Roucek in a late issue of Phi Belfca Kappa when he averred that the university level, the Arab-Moslem world has two utterly opposed conceptions of higher institutions* American and the Egyptian universities represent western conception, the aI*Azhar stands unyieldingly for the supremacy o f . , IslaHeoegSa* < .Mae. Catholic Uhi~ .ty halts between the two, dog? logical faculty, -western in its medical and legal varsity halts between the two, dogmatic in its logical schools* tfhiversity eduction is becoming more the oppor tunity for all* though once more limited to a few# it is now being made available to all classes# Characteristic of such availability are the universities in futkey* the roots of the past in some universities are dlf- \ i f ictslt to pull out I in some departments they are deeply J imbedded* Ihe glory of the Muslim education was its universityX system, which fed the higher learning and did not serve } every-day needs* * * * All Muslim university education, / like all Muslim science, revolved round theology**2^ / * - 26The Middle East Institute# nationalism in the Middle Bast* Sixth Annual Conference oh Middle East Affairs, March 21-22, 1952 (Washington, W* C. $ the Middle Bast Institute, 1952)*. ^^Joseph S* Roucek, ’ ’ Education in the Middle Bast,w ail Mim Emm* 37*44*, dune, itss* 12^”I slam--Education, ' * * Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 ed*>, Kll, 214* Illustrating the difficulty of a devotee of Islam to adapt himself to modernism and to current reality* the president emeritus of the American University of Beirut told of a visitor to his campus: Borne years ago an astronomer came up from Mecca to Beirut* He was an old-timer* with a long heard, flow ing robes, and a turban* As he Calked with Julius Arthur Brown, professor of astronomy, he mentioned that there were no satellites around the planet Jupiter, In the evening after he had looked at. various stars through the telescope, Professor Brown turned the instrument on Jupiter, He turned very sadly to Pro fessor Brown and said, "All my studies of thirty years in Mecca have been destroyed by that one look?"!29 Ia his .doctoral dissertation, m Arab described che\ chief defects of Arab education, which briefly summarized j include the followingi 1, The Arab education was controlled by dogma, looking backward more than forward, 2, the Arabic curriculum contained elements of weakness in that theology was too controlling an interest* It lacked freshness and variety. 3* the Arabic method of teaching was formal and dogmatic* 4, the Arabic system of education was superimposed, coming from without* 3, The Arabic financial support came almost always from an external source. ^%ayard Bodge, "Comments on Spiritual and Moral Aspects of Current Trends in Islam,*1 in Dorothea Seelye Fsenefc (<*»•>; Islag in the Mgdggn Horld,, Fifth AnnuaX^Con ferance on Middle Bast Affairs, March 9-10, 1931 Clashing ton, B. C.; Middle last Institute, 1931), p* 10. 220 6* It is questionable if Arable education at its best had aver thoroughly permeated the masses* \ In short, education in the Middle East by many has been "looked upon as a spiritual function and treated withy reverence as befits religion*** Administration* ; l&fferestt but equivalent expras- sions and terminology are employed for the administrative officers of the universities and for the schools and col* leges? president, vice-presidents, provost, registrar; rector, vice-rector, secretary-general# registrars; deans of faculties# schools# and colleges* As In some countries elsewhere in the world, finance will long remain in the Middle last one of the basic diffi culties of education# with the related low national income, inabilities for effective taxation# and limited funds for , _ / education* A press release from Unesco, Mo* 1050# on August 3, 1956# summarized some perennial administrative problems to ^%halil Abdullah Totah, the Contributions p£ the Arabs to Education* feathers College# CoTiSEIa^miiversTEy, Contributions to Education, So. 231 (Mew fork: Bureau of Publications# feathers College# Columbia University, 1926), pp. 92-95. I31Ibid., p. 97* l32Erne5t jgf.^ (ed*)f Background of the Middle East (Ithaca, Hew fork: Cornell University Press, 1§52), pp. 160-62. 221 trite Middle last; Historical, cultural, social, and economic factors have influenced the development of education in the Arab world. Despite the expansion in education, much Still remains to be accomplished. Among the problems are those-, facing all nations which have recently gained independence; a shortage of school buildings and quali fied teachers; lack of modem textbooks and equipment; the need for: long-term planning*. * * #133 Instruction ;and curricula* Highly prescribed and rigid the instruction and curricula of higher education has tended toward intel Xec tualism. Enquired courses have been the rule, with little choice of electives* Professional and specialised curricula have been emphasised in the different countries; but general educa tion, as such, has been minimized. Specialties has been a popular term in higher education* "The Arab tradition of \ learning, coming down from the Early Middle Ages# also em- j phasizes the bookish type of learning. / Writing of the national and international problems, true also in the Middle last, linesco placed the responsi bilities of the curriculum and curricular reform where they belong; " C o m p u l s o r y Education In Arab States, " Foreign Digest. 21:204-205, January-March, 1957. ^^^Mohammed Wasir, "Secondary Education in the Arab World," California Journal of Secondary Education* 311437, November,If So 222 School curricula are essentially a national concern and curriculum problems are the concern of the indi~ vidual States# schools# and teachers* Some of these, however, may he common to large areas or may be of world^wide importance* Certain problems may derive from the influence of one culture upon another. * - * Conversely# other curriculum problems are faced by the newly independent States of the Middle East and South Asia seeking a form of education to fit' their tradi* tional cultures# their national aspirations including their role in the world# andt their national economic, social# and political needs*135 Methodology* Mutch of the didactic methodology in the .Middle East may be constituted by five veMs*^ lecture# study# memoriae# recite# mad test* Arab professors tend to- have a flair for the dra~ mafic# and they are easily articulate with floeat speech. In higher education as well as on the primary and secondary education levels# Arabic as a language presents its problems because of the dichotomy of usage between the classical and colloquial forms of language# and between th< J written and the oral*. Variation of language# not only as between written and spoken forms of the. sane dialect but also as between families of languages, presents a serious problem as an important factor in the isolation., and retarded cultural# economic# and social levels in some Middle Eastern areas* " S c h o o l Curriculum Reform,H UNESCO Chronicle 21361# December, 1956* In education, the problem is more complicated, because practically all modern scientific and tech nological works are written it* English* French, Oemusktt* or Russian, and higher teaching is often it* the hands of foreigners* To the complication of several indi genous languages within one country can thus he added the difficulty of higher instruction carried on by foreigners in their own tongue; and so school and uni versity teaching is frequently enmeshed to the toils of language* and time-tables are heavily weighted towards the linguistic side* as an essential prelimi nary to any other work* *3® to institutions of higher education to the Middle last* various teaching media are employed for instruction ranging from Arabic sad Farsee (Fersfan) to English and French* Hhere foreign personnel are employed the indi viduals may teach to their mother tongue or they may use oral translators to the classrooms* laboratories* and offices* Faculty and staff* to general, toe faculty and staff to institutions of higher education in toe Middle last are personnel with experience* skill* and professional train- lug* Requirements and standards vary with the country and with the institution, although the academic ranks of toe * instructional faculty are generally based on experience* scholarship, and productivity. Teacher education* however# presents its difficul ties. In a recent very revealing article the "Issues and 136HJS Middle East (1955)# pp. 3, 4, Trends In Arab Teacher Education” were described# These included: (1) teacher shortage; (2) limited teacher train*\ ing facilities; (3) a limited number of woman who have completed secondary schools to qualify for teacher train* ing; (4) refugee teacher education; (5) teacher certifies* tion standards; and (6) need for guiding principles# Rugh disclosed the concomitant results of teacher shortage whan he stated! Meanwhile, the increasing lack of trained teachers^ mans an increase in substandard emergency appoint* menfcs, an increase in class sire and teaching load,, and a consequent drop in the quality of teaching# In the Hear last the personal relationship between teacher and pupil is even more necessary for learning than in the West# The trend toward mass education reduces the possibility of this friendly relationship# Attended by delegates from all the Arab states* the UNESCO*sponsored Conference on free and Compulsory Iduca* tion in Arab Countries of the Middle last conducted at Cairo, Egypt, in January of 1955, listed lit recommenda tions for improving Arab education, and significantly enough 55 of those recommendations were in teacher educa tion. Pile credit must be given to the 13%* Douglas Hugh, ^Issues and Trends in Arab Teacher Education,n the Journal of Teacher Education* ?$3X6*22* December, 138lMd., p. 317, 225 many students who enter schools, colleges, and universities with a sincere and honest desire to study; but It Is unfortunate, though, that so many of Olio young people in the Middle Best should went to go to schools of higher learning for extraneous reasons* In the Muslim world, caste divisions are not hard and fast# and they vanish at the sight of the proper diploma* University credentials open the door to the fellah offspring into the exalted company of the effeadie* that alone would not he reprehensible. However, very often graduates believe that by spending a few years at school of higher learning they have bought themselves, of their Jives *^£9 immunity from work for the'rest _ Studying seems to be a negligible factor in some \ universities in the Middle last where "students seem to on strike more often than in their classrooms. Roucek wrote similarly in principle: Interestingly enough# all' student a here are active leaders in the nationalistic struggles* Living in countries where a larger proportion of the population is illiterate# they feel# as m educated minority# that they have the right to participate in all political movements; they lead strikes* .demonstrations* and even organise political murders*1^*1 . Women students in domestic education and in going abroad for study are in the minority* Student personnel services and student activities* as organised co-curricular activities, are very limited in ^Imll Lengyel# World Without End: the Middle East (New fork: The John Say 6o^any, ff53) * pp# 3f*wT 140Ibid. i4iRoueek, loc» cit. the Middle Beet* f t # iPi/ifc#? T rA V T A M Q p a r A f u p o fA IR J T B T I? C MM* Cvtv v«i l C i i \ u U U u J l n l . M O T M fwit? l / T A m 1? P A G T Xit FlMJJUXdi* Ea\t> i One principle of Egypt to endeavoring to make higher education available to many more students is a problem of distribution tor other countries to which all institutions of higher education are concentrated to the capital city; Certain higher institutes already existing in Cairo will form the nucleus of the Ibrahim University, the Mohammed all University will place higher education within easy reach of students of Upper Egypt, without the need of travelling to Cairo or Alexandria. _ Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Jordan have had limited\ opportunities tor students who wanted to receive higher j education*. In fact, these countries have sponsored mis* / stons abroad and have granted scholarships tor return^/ students* A College of Mohammedan law was established to Saudi Arabia, and it is hoped that wi th additional col leges the Saudi Arabian University may he established. ^ ^International Yearbook of Education. If50* fub** 1 ic at loo Mo^'1 l ^ l ^ ' 1 ' 1 " p . # f I # . 143UNESC0, World Survey M Education, p. 555. 227 Saudi Arabia lias some college* and university-* preparatory schools which ♦ ’ prepare students from the of 12 to IB for advanced education in Eastern and Western universities* throughout most of the countries of the Middle East Educational institutions, whether supported by the State or by the church* seem to have been intended only^ for boys* Since the sources nowhere mention schools for girls* it must be supposed that the learned womett of Byzantium received instruction from private / tutors Coeducational institutions are in the minority on the secondary level* but now most collegeSj schools* and facul ties of higher education permit women attendance. Iree~to*ail Policy the soundness of the financial policy and the natural um structure for the support of education could be studied with great profit for each country in the Middle .last* Could the following description of Saudi Arabian 144|hi Ittflgte Ii&£ <1957), p* ^^Charles Luther Gormley, "The Development of Byzantine Higher Education* (unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, Stanford University* Palo Alto* California* 1950; Abstracts of Dissertations. 1949-50. &3£f# 257*59; Stanford yblvei^ Series* Ho* 51* November 30. 1950), p* 3517“ 228 finance be illustrative of strength or weakness in long*" range planning for higher education? What values are found in grants and loans? Education is free for all the people at .all levels* Ho fees are levied and no specific Cassation for educa* tion is levied# The government, therefore* bears all the expense of educ at ion- - indeed, in order to encourage students to enter schools* especially poor students* the government has carried gratuity to the maximum by granting some students monthly. stipends, especially to j students of the Saudi Institute and the 'College of 1 Mohammedan Law, in order to ensure a supply of gradu- / ates from these two Institutions to meet the areafc need within country for tei technical curricula need to be more closely related to industry and there has been a trend toward differenti ating secondary education to include technical* agricul- upom the secondary and higher schools for coordination and articulation# Countries in the Middle East can hardly afford to spare their teachers for service in other countries* and teacher exchange is almost prohibitive* The following quotation is m illustration of national dependence: Judges* 147 rural* and commercial education. .This imposes a problem 146UNESCG, op. cit.. pp. 5S2»S3. l47Ibid.. p. 357. 229 The oil-rich Kingdoms and Emirates of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Bahrein have practically no teacher train ing program. They must impart teachers from the more developed. Arab States which are in turn under staffed. IAS Up w - Most of the teachers in Saudi Arabia are Egyptian# as the country has made no provision for teacher educa* Until recently Jordan has had no facilities for teacher education* but three., training schools have'new been established which prepare teachers with different types of .instruction s * 4 « two provide twa~yaar courses at 'the post*** matriculation level; ■the third is a rural'teacher* training school for men* giving a two ~year course following the intermediate cycle* 15® Syria* also* has. had very limited facilities for a teacher education program* v* smmm of mm chapter This chapter presented issues and problems off higher education in the Middle Bast based on the premise that a consideration off the problems and issues should be reward* ing iff considered in the light off their social milieux, ^®Rught loc, cifc, 1 4 9 on ideation in the Middle Bast*w Foreign Education Digest, 21:29* July**September, 1956, l$0m m m imj* mm, p. 23a. aso The chapter dealt first with higher education in the three specially selected countries of the Middle East— Iran, Iraqi# and bebanon. For convenience, the considera* tions were organised around the following problem themes: control, organisation, philosophy and objectives, adminis tration, instruction and curricula, methodology, faculty and staff, and student personnel. Many of the problems and issues were analogous, and each country had also its prob lems and issues that were unique. The educational levels of higher education and the faculties# schools, and col* leges of higher education in the respective countries were described* - Following the same organization of problem themes, issues, problems, and difficulties possessed in common in countries of the Middle last were considered. Although there has been considerable advance in higher education, yet the Middle last has much to do to strengthen existing programs and to open new ones# Implications for countries other than, the three specially selected were considered, geographical distribu tion of institutions for student populations, more prac tical curricula, and exemplary teacher education programs were considered vital * CHAPTER V CURRENT RESEARCH AND RESOURCES FOR ♦pm? MfnBf I E ? t? A - © ' * * * I, PASS AND RESEARCH A study of research in c<m3 parat£ve, foreign, and international education is moat revealing.,- national aims and state progress are largely Intertwined with subject matter, A number of indexes, surveys, and compilations of i master*© theses and doctoral dissertations were consulted, and many original and microfilmed dissertations were studied* ^Arnold H. Xrotier and Marian Harman (eds.), Doctor al Dissertations Accented bv American Universities, 25 votsTnO^wWrEi'Wrwr Wilson ; Walter Crosby Eelle# 'American Doctoral Dissertations on Foreign. Education, * * Higher Education* 12:19-22, October, 19555 "Walter Crosby Wits* Serlc^Doctoral Dissertations on Education in Countries of/the1 Midale Sijt/paiHLi^tdn, 1 D* C*rlltej^3dle. last Institute, 1953J; X# A* Lamke acid Herbert M, Silvey (eds,), Masterys theses in Education* Nos. 1-5 (Cedar Falls# Iowa: Iowa Slate1 Xeachers Coilege, 1951-1956); Mary Louise Lyda and Stanley Brown (comps,), Research Studies in Education: 4 Subject Index (Boulder, WTorMot Univarsaty M Wlorado, 1941-1951# ' 195S); Stanley B, Brown# Mary Louise Lyda, and Carter V. Good (comps,), Research Studies in Education: 4 - Subject.. Index (Homewood, Illinois;^lElTSelta Kappa, Inc*.# '195PlS52#r r 1955); Stanley B* Brown#' Mary Louise Lyda# and Carter V* Good# Research, Studlesln Education: A Subject Index, 2 vols. (Blpomxng- ton# iSdima: Phi Delta Kappa, Inc## 1954 and 1955); University .Microfilms# Dissertation Abstracts (Ann Arbor.#" Michigan; University 232 \ ft*# tmnttBtb century has witnessed over one thous* and doctoral dissertations in universities of the United States on various phases of foreign and international adu* cation, and about o**e*fif£h of these have been related to education or to educators in countries of 0110 Middle East*^ After World War I, according to fable XXVIII, studies were begun on problems in the Middle last* Both Egypt aad fhrkay led the field in subject areas until the WM*e* Undoubtedly, the rise and fall in figures for' re search studies on the Middle last are due concomitantly to the number of returned students from countries of 'the Middle last* formerly, it seemed, many students from for* eign countries wrestled with toetieaa problems of research for convenience of obtaining data and for studying American methodology and techniques by way of comparison. j It is true now, however, that more overseas students j are engaged in research on problems of their respective j countries, and post-war international developments and tr.ee! boa, erete^w, teener Internet in the Mitnj* East. Hence, as Table XXIX gives evidence by decades, there has been a significant increase in the volume of research from 4.1 per cent to 56.7 per cent of the total 2BelIs, 2£. cit.. p. 2. 233 TABLE nsUB TIME SPAN OF DOCTCBAL DISSERTATIONS OH BBOCATIQN IN COUNTRIES OF TOE MtDBLE EAST 1921 - 1956 Year completed Egypt Iran Iraq Isbamn Syria turkey fatal 1921 1 1 1922 1923 1 . 1 l92Jt 1925 1926 192? 1928 1929 1 1 1930 1931 1 1 1932 1933 2 2 193!t 3 1 1 * 1935 1936 2 2 193? 1936 1 1 1939 3 3 m o 1 , 1 2 19 ! * ! 1 1 m 2 1 2 1 k 191 * 3 1 . 1 mi* m 5 m 6 1 1 191*? 1 2 3 m a 1 9 1 * 9 3 1 I * 1950 2 1 2 1 6 1951 1 * 2 6 1952 1 1 2 1953 1 * 2 1 ? 1951* 5 1 k 2 12 1955 3 2 . 5 1956 1 . 3 h Totals 30 13 19 1 i t 7 Tit cn CN <rmt I t c i i msi 235 volume of research to date* Hie last sin years alone have given more than twice Hie volume of educational research for the preceding decade* ft* studying the comparable statistics of the past with 1954* a banner year of 12 studies for the Middle East, it was noted that dissertations on education, in countries of the Middle last increased from approximately e*te*fiffch to over one-* third of all foreign research* India, that had led first place for the countries of the so-called Middle last (in the broad use of the term, not used as such in this investigation), with Egypt in second position, still held the same ordinal place; but her ratio of studies to the rest of the Middle last for 1954 as compared with that previously, fell from one-half to approximately one- third**^ As figured from a survey of master #s theses written on education in 1954, 24 per cent of the foreign and inter national sub j act-content; theses were prepared on India aid about 15 per cent on the Middle East proper* Although no doctoral dissertations were found for the Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan in studying the surveys and indexes for edu cation, yet one master’s thesis was written in 19S4 on. ■ a •'Brown, Lyda, and Good, op. cit. <1954), pp. 2-4. education for that country*^ Table XXX verifies the fact that the research studies by countries have been distributed in volume from the greatest number to 'the least in the following sequences (1) Egypt* (2) Iraq# Iran, (4) Tuidsay, (5> Syria* <&> Lebanon, and (?) Jordan. Review Table XXIX, page 234, for the percentages for the various countries* These data present a challenge especially for gfadu- ate students who .are nationals of the respective nations * Although much has been accomplished, yet much more may be done to understand and to advance the educational programs in the Middle last# Educationists must be encouraged to see foreign, returned# and overseas graduate students grappling in re* search with problem© of their own countrles***re^evaluation of aims and objectives# reorganisation of administration and control, improvement of instruction and supervision, functional is at ion of curricula, upgrading of personnel, and others* Table XXXI graphically displays the topical dis- tributien of the doctoral dissertation© on the Middle last from Administration and Supervision to Teacher Education. Curriculum and Teaching Methods lead the topics for re search with Administration and Supervision and History and ^hmSm and Silvey, op* cit* (No* 4), pp* 100-102* 237 TABLE XXX DISTRIBUTION BY COUNTRIES OF DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS ON EDUCATION 1521 - 1956 Country Complete or major portion Partial* fetal number Egypt 30 1 31 Iran 13 1 Ik Iraq IP 1 m lebanon % 1 2 Syria k 0 h fur&ey 7 2 9 fetal 7k 6 80 • Several, dissertations cover two or mons countries# For example, there are thir%r-dm dissertations on education in' Egypt* thirty devoting all or a major part ot their treatment to Egypt* and one other which deals with the country only partially*, fhese partial ones are shown in the second column* i s m z m m m i $ o siiwiod h i ioiwsws h o smsvshsssiei tooiooc m fWuoaistsKt wom® I *3 a 8 g 3 it I u a H C M H f H CM cm I i <n ♦ | |. ,-4 | | | h i till (Hit lift It* ^ <0 I CM HUA ..4.1 4 N CM I CM H*CM CO H & \ CM 4 3 i «g I 3 k g |j i I f 11 ti J j < « j g 1 5 . ® * d S 3 .9 6 « S 5 2 ^ | j j m q t o ^ 4 I sins alSOOK B. C * * * Os O p £ - * 23§ Philosophy of Education following in second and third place, respectively# If such a trend in volume of research continues, undoubtedly graduate students from most of the countries in the Middle East will be encouraged to pursue significant and practical problems for research# Sponsorships for re search projects should be easier to obtain from the respec tive Ministries of Education# The trend also discloses an interest and an awareness of problems for solution, both of which are increasing* ii# ttpicae research studies Insufficient research has been conducted in any one special area of education among countries of the Middle East to note certain trends; nevertheless# several signi ficant investigations have been made. Typical of the research studies on problems and dif ficulties of education in countries of the Middle East, are the following abridged citing of dissertations and theses which have been grouped in a comparable organisation of material as utilised by the Review of Educational Research# Administration. Organization, and Control Sassani saw that the development of centralized ^Abul-Hassan Khan, "The Development of the Control of Education in Iran" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia, 1940)* 240 control in Iron has been a steady growth and natural result current practices in American public education that might have appreciable significance for improving the educational programs in the public schools of Iraq* Among his seventy** two recommendations to enhance the tragi system he included decentralized educational administration* community**school cooperation* functional reconstruction* supervisory func tions instead of inspectorial* guidance services* and others* Galt^ studied the advantages and disadvantages of centralised control on education in changing Egypt, and g Tantawi endeavored with upgrading prineipalships to to- 9 prove instruction* Abadi thought that through higher standards of student admittance* more functional curricular 6Abdul iUisMak Al-Jalili, "A Study of Public Educa- tlon in Iraq* With Suggestions for Its Reorganization” (unpublished Doctoral dissertation* the University of Southern California, Los Angeles* 1955). ^Russell Galt* "The Effects of Centralization on Education in Modem Egypt1 * (unpublished Doctoral disserta- teachers College, Columbia University* Mew fork City* ^Ahmed Mahmoud Osman Tantawi* "Upgrading the Egyptian primary School Priacipalships, t (unpublished Doctoral dissertation* Teachers College* Columbia Univer sity, Mew York City, 1950)* ^Abroad Ali-Abadi* "Higher Education in Iran--Its Evolution* Its Trends and Plans for Its Improvement” (unpublished Doctoral dissertation* Teachers College* Columbia University* Mew York, 1939)* 241 instruction, and improved cooperation among the faculties and colleges, Iran could better meet the need for training I rt national leaders. Nasir v concluded that through consci entious study and proper coordination of committees and commissions the reorganisation of the colleges and facul ties in Iraq, the government could establish properly the national university. Curriculum Abdalla3 * 1 , showed that some American practices in the teaching of the social studies could be well adapted for the improvement of Egyptian instruction in the same ■ » o courses* The study by Ibrahim** may have been a spring board factor for Abdalla, as the study involved not only the program of social studies in Egypt but also the proper preparation of teachers within a two-decade span. One of ^^lohamraed Nasir, ’ ’ Proposals for the Re - organi zat ion of Post-Secondary Education in Iraq in the light of Recent Trends and Practices** (unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University, New fork, 1955). •^Abdel U. E. Abdalla, "Improving the Teaching of Social Studies in E^ptian Secondary Schools: possible Adaptations of Practices in the I f . S." (unpublished Doctor al dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1955). ^Abdel-Latif Fouad Ibrahim, "Social Studies in Egyptian Secondary Schools and the Professxonal Preparation of Teachers of These Studies (During the Period 1930-1947)" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1950). the best studies in the curriculum field found by this in- 13 vestigator was that by Ismail on curriculum development in Iraqi schools, much of which could be done by local participation with initiative and by a functional inservice training# Educational Measurement 14 Alzobaie took a practical study, particularly because of the fact that the Arab lands lack standardised tests in the vernacular* Be offered suggestions for the construction of an intelligence test to be employed in Iraq# In the preparation of such an instrument the test1 0 maker should bear In mind the difficulties of the language, puli 1 1 "firi 'I1 1 1 n i w t r w * » n i w n x w * sampling, validity, mad the principles Involved in adapting any test from one culture to another* Alzobaie subjected two well known Intelligence tests- -Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and the Stanford-Binet— to a committee of five Iraqi graduate students for individual and col lective evaluations# •^Suad Ismail, * f A Study of Basic factors in Cur riculum Development in the Public Schools of Iraq” (unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1955}* •^Abdul Jalil Alzobaie, ^Intelligence Test Develop* ment With Special Reference to a Test for Use in Iraq*’ (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University Southern California, Los Angeles, 1954)# 243 Educational Psychology Hooshemand5 *^ investigated the child and youth wel fare and training in the Persian culture recognising that the full and balanced development of the whole individual should be included in the proper training* Educational Sociology /Society and education cannot be separated# and * v-/ Sadiq described the sociological relationships between 17 Iran and her educational system* Boktar analyzed a IS similar situation in Egypt. El-Ramawi emphasized that education should be practically related to the lifework, particularly with the stimulus of industrialization* Based |Q on documentary research Fargo explored the cultural ^Fatoollah Amir Hooshemand, "An Analysis of Child Welfare and training in Iran with Proposals for fheir Development" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation# the Uni versity of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh# 1938)* 1 Issa Khan Sadiq, Modern Persia and Her School System** (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, teachers Col* lege, Columbia University, Hew Fork City, 1931) * ^Amir Boktar, "School and Society in the Valley of the Nile" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, teachers College, Columbia University, New fork, 1936)* ^Quasim M. El-Ramawi, "Education and the Challenge of Industrialization in Egypt** (unpublished Doctoral die* sertafcion, teachers College, Columbia diversity. New York, 1955)* 19Adeeb f * Fargo, "Compatibility of the Cultural Heritage and Education of Iraq" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, the University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 1956). 244 heritage and the place of the Individual in the social organization of Iraq, described evaluatively the current educational conditions and practices in the country, and analyzed the appropriateness of existing education in the light of the cultural heritage and existing social condi tions* the basic recommendation of the Fargo study con* cerned the reorientation of Iraqi education to conform the educational practice with the stated educational objectives in harmony with the socio-cultural backgrounds* Guidance and Counseling Of all students and ages the adolescent requires ^ understanding* Shehab20 investigated both the personal and social problems of Egyptian youth in their adolescent years with the endeavor to meet their needs more acceptably* Educational and social guidance and counseling are insuf- 21 ficient, and Takla advocated early vocational guidance for secondary school youth# thus articulating well with further professional study in higher education* She - 20Ibrahim Khalil Shehab# "Personal and Social Prob lems as Identified by Egyptian Adolescents1 1 (unpublished Doctoral dissertation# Teachers College# Columbia Univer sity, New York, 1953)* 23Aida 1* Takla, "An Analysis of Vocational Guidance with Implications for the Secondary Schools of Egypt" (unpublished Master*s thesis# The University of California, los Angeles# 1955)* 245 mentioned further that the Ibrahim University is the only institution of higher learning to offer a course in educa tion, which course is not coeducational. Mental and Physical Development 52 Sarhan compared the psychosomatic influences and results and relationships of interests and culture of youth in the last and in the West, reflecting their development and maturity# Similarities assisted, although each culture had its unique relationships. Philosophy and History of Education Historically, Reed dealt with American educational institutions in the old Ottoman Empire of 1900, including the American University of Beirut (in Lebanon) and other institutions in the present Turkey. Little has been known of educational levels in Armenia, hut Sarafian^ traced the ^^El-Oemerdash Abdel-Meguid Sarhan, "Interests and Culture; A Comparative Study of Interests, Concerns, Wishes, Likes, Dislikes, and Happiest Days of Egyptian and American Children* 1 (unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University, Mew Turk, 1951). ^%ass Arthur Reed, "Problems of American Education in the Wear last** (unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Harvard University, Cambridge, 1921), ^^Kevork Avedls Saraflan, ♦History of Education in Armenia** (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1929. Lexeme, California: Press of the LaVeme Leader, 1930). history of educational development* Totah in M s study \ showed the indebtedness of the West for the preservation J of Hellenistic arts# letters# science# and culture and / enrichment through Arab scholars. Borman26 with prodigious detail explained the phi* losophy of Islam as it permeated life# culture# and educa- 97 Cion in Arab countries* Sayli described the development of institutions of learning in letters and the sciences in the world o£ Islam* NaKhosteen prepared a study on the history of education in Persia, while the reconstruction of Persian education absorbed Kani* Ali-Abadi went into ^Khalil Abdullah Totah# 1 1 The Contributions of the Arabs to Education#” Doctoral dissertation# Teachers Col* lege# Contributions to Education# Ha* 231 (Hew York: Columbia University# 1926). 2%arry Gaylord Dorman# dr.# "Toward Understanding Islam: Contemporary Apologetic of Islam and Missionary Policy,” Doctoral dissertation# Teachers College# Contri* buttons to Education# Ho* 940 (Hew Yorks Columbia Univer sity# 1948). 2?Aydin Mehmet Sayli, ”The Institutions of Science and Learning in the Moslem World” (unpublished Doctoral dissertation# Harvard University, Cambridge, 1942)* 2%ehdi NaKhosteen, ”The Development of Persian Iducation and Learning” (unpublished Doctoral dissertation# Cornell University, Ithaca# Hew York# 1933)* 2%li Kant# ”The Reconstruction of Persian Educa tion” (unpublished Doctoral dissertation# university of North Carolina# Chapel Hill# 1939)* 30 Ahmed Khan Ali-Abadi, "Higher Education in Iran: Its Evolution# Its Trend# and Plans for Improvement” (unpublished Doctoral dissertation# Hew York University# Hew York# 1939). 247 the fast* present, and future of higher education in Iran (Persia) seeking for improvement. The correlation of edu cational policy with the surge of nationalism in Iran has 31 been investigated by Vafa. Mast3^ investigated the problems of teaching the English language Co Arab-speaking peoples. Finley33 gave attention to the factors influencing nursing education in the Near East* Edwards took up the study of facilitating national officials of underdeveloped countries with tech nological programs. After spending two years as a con* suitant and Assistant Director of the Baghdad Technical 3 Javid Vafa, "Educational Policy and Nationalism in Iran** (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Indiana, Bloomington Jin process, 1957]). 32Raja Tewfik Nasr, ‘ ’ The Phonological problems Involved in the Teaching of American English to Native Speakers of Lebanese Arabic** (unpublished Doctoral dis sertation, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1955). ^Esther H* finlay, ^factors Influencing Education for Nursing in the Near East** (unpublished Doctoral dis sertation, Teachers Collage, Columbia University, New York tin process, 19561)* 3%IIlard H. M. Edwards, “A Concentrated Educational program to Facilitate the Transition of Technology for Officials of an Underdeveloped Country** (unpublished Doc toral dissertation. The University of Colorado, Boulder, 1955)* School, Struck" made a survey of the needs of vocational industrial education in Baghdad,. Iraq, to be sponsored by the Iraqi government, the trade school that St ruck planned for would accommodate 600. day students plus evening trade classes* Teacher Education Both Kadhim^ and Majid‘ S sought for an improved teacher education program in Iraq* for the same country Toma‘ S and el-Hashimi3^ considered the Arab-Muslim culture as related to teacher education programs, the latter study describing the three chief elements or constituents of the 3^John Warren Struck, **A Survey of the Vocational Industrial Education Heeds of Baghdad, Iraq, and Its Service Area1 1 (unpublished Doctoral dissertation. The Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia, 1956). ^Abdul Hamid Kadhim, "A Plan for the Reconstruetion of Teacher Education in Iraq1 * (unpublished Doctoral dis sertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, Hew fork, 194?)* ^Hamraoudi Maj id, "Guide for the Improvement of Teacher Education in Iraq" (unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 19S3)# ^Stephen Toma, ^Cultural Challenge to Education in the Arab World, with Special Reference to Teacher Education In Iraq1 * (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, the Ohio State University, Columbus, 1940)* ^Khalid Mahmood el-Hashimi, nA Reconstruction of Teacher Education in Iraq, with Special Reference to Arab* Muslim Culture1 * (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1942)* culture— the otherworldly, the classical, and the demo cratic * Salem*® compared the training and attitudes of At Egyptian and American science teachers# and Metaweh sought for improved rural teacher education in Egypt. Afzal^ investigated teacher education problems In their A3 cultural framework. Harding^ recommended an improved in- service education program for teachers in Iran# while Mafias** did the same for teachers in Iraq. III. RESOURCES FOR RESEARCH With the challenge, need, and opportunities of re search for educational issues, problems, and difficulties ^%ohamed Mokhliss Salem, "the training and Atti tudes of Egyptian Biology teachers and American Science teachers** (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, teachers College, Columbia University, Hew York City, 1953). ^Ibrahim Esmet Metaweh, "Improvement of Rural teacher Education in Egypt** (unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1954) . ^%anuchehr Afsal, “The Cultural Setting of Problems of teacher training in Iran** (unpublished Doctoral dis sertation, teachers College, Columbia University, Hew York fin process, 1956]). ^%arvin Khalatbari Harding, **A fIsa for In-Service Education of teachers in Iran* (unpublished Doctoral dis sertation, teachers College, Columbia University, Hew York, 1949). ^Nuri Abdul Eelam Hafia, "A Plan for the In-Service Education of teachers in Iraq" (unpublished Doctoral dis sertation, teachers College, Columbia University, Hew York, 250 in the Middle Seat# available resources should be con sidered* These resources have been divided into three divisions: (1) primary sources# <2> secondary sources# and (3) clearing houses and documentation centers* Although the function of an official report on edu cation is not primarily to inform people outside the coun try of its origin# since reports are addressed to local and/or national government officials* ministers* governing and controlling bodies# yet * . * official reports may be considered as potenti ally useful sources for the comparative educationist* . * * It is not possible for a country to produce com prehensive surveys of its education system very fre quently; despite the fact that countries produce studies regularly dealing with individual aspects of their system, the best means of keeping abreast of over-all developments are the official reports*^ Such official reports may be mimeographed or printed* may be published by the respective Ministries or Depart ments of Iducation in separate publications# circulars* or monographs, or they may be included in the International Yearbook of Iducation or in the fully documented World Handbook of Educational Organization and Statistics, * A guide for sources of educational publications of ^OHESCO. Official Reports on Education* Education Clearing House* Mit^on^trlcti* TSlf' Ittil* Mo, 1*' " January* 1056 {Paris r IIMESCO* 1956)* p, 3, 253. m official nature ’ were listed by another Unesco document, one which should he consulted by comparative educationists for each country or system or level of education that he studies or investigates* 1* Bibliography or list of official publications, when such lists exist; 2. National bibliography with indication of class!* fied section devoted to education; 3# Specialised bibliography on education which may serve as a basic list; 4. Cither bibliography which may list official and semi-official publications on education; and 5. Official or semi-official joumal--pre£erably published by the Ministry or department of Edu cation— which regularly contains bibliographical notices and book reviews. One generally has little trouble in locating official documents in the countries well equipped with bibliography tools, but considerable difficulty may be ex perienced in those countries where few or no lists are available or where bibliographies and lists of government publications are incomplete. To add to the complexity in soma situations, systems of cataloguing and indexing may * vary* ^UNESCO, Sources of Educational Publications of An Official Nature* Education AtetiacfcsT*to!* vlll,8b* jpQ* Oecember, 195S (Paris: UNESCO, 1936), p* Z* . . . 1+ Bulletin erg the International Bureau of Educa tion* Geneva, 1927* Quarterly* Separate English and french editions* Hews items of educational developments in all countries and an extensive annotated biblio graphy of new boohs on education received from all countries by the International Bureau of Education# 2. Education - aba tracts (former tit lei Fundamental education abstracts)* Paris, Uneseo, 1940* Monthly e&eept July and August# Separate edi tions in English, French and Spanish* Each issue Is devoted to a particular aspect of education selected from a wide variety of educational subjects* An Introductory essay is followed by abstracts of books and documents selected from various countries which deal with the topic under consideration* 3* Educational studies and documents (former titles. * Occasional papers in education)* faris, Uneseo, if SO* irregular* Separate editions 'in English, French 'and sometimes Spanish. ^Adapted from ibid** p. 3, and elsewhere* 253 Each issue is devoted to one particular aspect of education and consists of a descriptive article* occasionally illustrated* followed by a bibliography of books and documentation from many countries* 4* Institute of International Education* Hews Bui* lefclru Hew, fork City* Institute of Inter national Education* Incorporated, 1926* Monthly* In picture and articles education is described for the different countries, with much material on the Middle last* 5# International Bureau of Iducation* inter* national fearbook of Iducation* Geneva# Inter** national Bureau of Education* Annual. Gives reports# statistics# and educational developments for almost every country* Hie respective Ministries of Education submit annual reports and educational data* 6. Internationa^ Review pf Education / Inter national e Eeitsehrift fffr irriehuj^awiasao- schaft / Revue Internationale de nedagoaie* Hamburg# Uneseo Institute for Education# 19$S* Quarterly* Articles in English# French or German with summaries to the other two languages. Includes book reviews , 7* Ubesco* World survey of education# Handbook of educational organization and statistics# Paris9 1955# 943 pp* Also published to french# Gives descriptions and statistics for the edu cational systems of nearly two hundred countries and territories* supplemented fey a bibliography for each entry* with basic works or reference on education# 8# United Nations * Trusteeship Department# Bibliography of Education in non-se 1 £~ governing territories# lake Success* N. If#* 1949* 11 pp* Processed# May serve as a basic list by giving informa tion about official bodies to non-self-governing territories and their publications* Regional sources* For expediency the items used for research from regional or area sources are tabulated to includei 1# Official publications by schools* Institutions* the Government* and Ministries 2# Professional Journals 3, Collection of courses of study 4# Textbooks and syllabi ass 5# Animal educational bibliography 6* School m institutional surveys Ministry of Education and university research# papers# and sinographs S* Educational and institutional annuals 9* Ismtiiutioaal bulletins, calendars#' catalogues# and regulations 10* Original surveys# questionnaires# and instm- manta for and appraisal 11* Surveys of foreign conintisslons, governmental agencies# and professional missions It*, statistical abstracts 13. theses and dissertations Secondary Sources. Secondary materials may vary somewhat with the pur pose and intent of the investigation or research; however# commonly used materials are articles; hooks; ■ local# ■domes tic# and foreign newspapers; magazines; m & other periodi cals * 'Exemplary journals# periodicals and publications -- professional and semi-professional— which contain educa tional information and data of countries in the Middle last may he consulted* the investigator considers the following list of educational value# with the place of publication and frequency given in some eases for further recognition 256 and identification: Amuzesh va Farvaresh (Iran~ -monthly) The Arab Teacher (Serial Ministry of Education) Arabweek (weekly) Cahiers de ifMient eontemoorain (Paris) Commerce do Levant {Beirut) ■ M & I§i£ des Islam, s (Leyden) Iraq Petroleum (bimonthly) The Isl^aic Review (monthly) The Journal of Education (Cairo? Teachers Committee) The Journal of Modem Education (Cairo: American University) Journal of the loyal Central Asian Society (London) London Times Educational Supplement (weekly) the Message of the Teacher (Amman, Jordan) The Middle Bast Institute Newsletter (Washington, . f t * C*) Middle Bast Journal (quarterly) M M I e East leport (Meekly) M Ambe (farts) Al~Mu*allim Al-Jadid (# , ft*e Modem Teacher***- bimonthly) Thff Mew Teacher (Iraq? Ministry of Education)' Oriente Moderno (Rome) Sira-el-^aviran. ("Light aid Hope for the Arab World-- Paris)' Iti addition there are some scholarly periodicals of a specialty nature published in different countries# the investigator of necessityselecting only a few as repre sentative:: Annales de lflecle franc else' de Btoir de Beyrouth Bulletin Seistnologiaue Frovisoire . ' 1st Facultd (monthly)j La Revue Mddicale du Movea Orient (quarterly) M m fhe Journal of the Royal faculty of Medicine .{Arabic and toglislr^-biirionthly) Sumer ■ ■ fMreetorate-C&nefal of Antiquities^-quarterly) Occasionally surveys aiid selected and annotated bibliographies are printed which invaluably assist the ; 1 " Ag ‘ researcher# Two such volumes are . typical* ^Richard Ettlnghausen (ed.), k Selected pad Anno tated Bibliography of Books and Periodicals in Western l £ a m C T i ^ S e S 1 , SSI W<8Sl¥lSas^ ' Medievai' S ^ ■ Modern l!imgs‘ "TWashinixton# BT^TvfEeiH33Ie laic TSalftote* " " X3/.r pp*j: and Frances £* Mattison (ed,)* ,4 Survey of toeric.an Interests in the Middle East (Washington,' D. 0*: m e Middle' East lasticuti# 19S3^>' 120 pp. Ihis survey includes the name# address* aud factions of various organisations and con- tains a bibliography of directories# publications#, in assisting "graduate students plan careers in modem Middle Eastern affairs” (p* iil>* w* m M m m houses anu centers Such well known organizations ag the following; American Council on Education American Friends of the Middle East, Incorporated institute of international Education, Incorporated International Bureau of Education International institute of feathers College, Columbia University Middle East Institute Royal Institute of International Affairs United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have been Interested and concerned with all levels of Middle East education and their related issues, problems, and difficulties# Analytical surveys, case studies, and summary data and information, together with favorable usage, have given rise to the creation and location of educational bodies or organizations for mutual benefit. These function m libraries— to store, to conserve, and to make available at- all times data, information,- documents, and statistics on education# The clearing house has definite services to perform# The Unesco Chronicle mentions bilateral functions as minimal; 359 fliis clearing house has the task of collecting and disseminating information on the use of mass communica tion media and of studying specific problems in this field as well as stimulating the international exchange of educational* scientific* md cultural material for information purposes.^9 50 An international survey on educational clearing houses md documentation centers was studied by this Investigator* who adapted the subsequent organization from * ' < f the survey for higher educational interests m regards the countries of the Middle East# fhere are two principal ones for the Middle Basts Education Clearing House (UHESCO> Mame: Education Clearing House* Department of Education* Unesco Addresss If avenue Kldber, Paris 16e* 'France Directors l. R* Feraig (Head) legal Etatusi As part of the Department of Unesco, it is controlled by the 80 member states of Unesco Staff! 34 (18 professional* 16 clerical) all full*time Date of Founding: 1949 ^ ’ ’ Clearing-House Services, * * Unesco 3:36-37, January-February, 1937. 50unesco, Education Clearing Houses and Documenta tion Centres; A Preliminary International Survey, Educa-. tionai Studies and Documents, No. 22 (PatiS: UNESCO, 1957), 65 pp. 260 ft&lieetiens: Periodical publications: Education Abstracts (10 issues per year) Fundamental and Adult Education (quarterly) Series s . . Educational Series ■and. Documents (ca* 8 per year) Monographs on Fundamental Education Studies on Compulsory Education Horld Survey of Education library: 350# 800 books# pamphlets, and documents in all languages! and 325 educational journals# coming from all over the world Eame: International Bureau of Education Address: Palais Wilson, Geneva, Switzerland Director: Jean Piaget legal Status: founded December# 1925 as an international non-governmental organization!' became m inter* governmental organization on 25 July# 1929* Govern** ing bodies are a Council (meeting once a year) on which are represented all the member Governments and an Executive Committee# meeting in the intervals between sessions of the Council and at least three times a year Pate of Founding: 1925 Staff; 14 full-time; 3 part-time Public ations; International Education Card Indes Service International Yearbook of Education (published jointly with Unesco) Publications on comparative education library; 100,000 books; and 600 periodicals & Institutions there is only one mate institution for the Arab States; Hathaf ath-Tha&a£ah al- ^ribiyah X\ x l/ Name: Mathaf ath-lhagafah al- ’ Aribiyah (Arab Cultural Husetaa) Address: cultural Department, League of Arab States, Cairo Director: Hadjmir Abdel-Had! Legal Status: As part of 'the League ■ of Arab States, it is financed and controlled by eight governments; vis*, Egypt, Iraq, the Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen Pate of Founding: 1949 functions and Purpose; To help in studies on the evolution of education to the Arab States through 262 {1) collection, of information on education in the Arab world* and (2) making available such information for research workers and for providing displays Staff: 2 full-time* with clerical assistance Annual Budget: 250 Egyptian pounds* or IIS $750 (1955)* exclusive of staff salaries National Institutions the Middle last has two such institutions* one in Egypt and one in Lebanon: &HB1 Name: Markaz al-Watha feJ£ wal-Buhuth at-Tarbawiyah X (Documentation md Research Centre for Education) Address: Department of technical Research* Ministry of Education* Sh. el-Falaki, Cairo Directors Mohamad Khairy Harby Legal Status:. One of the divisions of the Department of Technical Research at the Ministry of Education Date of Foundings 1956 Functions and purposes. To collect and disseminate informa tion on education; and to conduct studies and re search on education Staff s 6 full* time Library: Being established 263 Lebanon Name: Centre do Documentation Pddagogique Address: Halson de l#Uhesco, Beyrouth Director: Khalil Georr Legal Statusi Parc of unesco*s Technical Assistance Mission* Lebanon Date of Founding: 1952 Functions md Purpose: to collect data on education in general; to maintain m educational library service; to undertake studies and research on Lebanese edu- . cation* particularly with regard, to administration ■and teacher-training; to organise seminars md con ferences on education; to publish an educational journal Staff: 4 (2 fell-time) Publication: An educational Journal yet to be published Library: 2,000 books; 25 periodicals; 100 pamphlets Hie National Commissions for UNESCO among the UNESCO members of the Middle East could also channel educational informatics and documentation as they so desire# One recent appointment gives evidence of such m organisation in the Middle East: **E. E. Khalil Kenna has been named president of the National Commission (in Iraq) for Unesco# t»51 ♦ * # > ■ ^"National Commissions,f * Uheaco Chronicle. 3:63, March, 1957, 264 jt w § % ■ % § * 4 0 «d 0 *0 1 s 4 > M 0 OS s 4 ) v» d 0 < 3 M « r l r* i 0 0 * 1 * 1 0 1 3 1 w w * *4 <9 1 #* w 4> § 0* * r f # t I M « 0 M I 0 1 4 Q J 04 JS f i 1 0 ft 41 $ % m m P m i £ o ft 4 J 0 H f t 1 4 1 a u f t u 0 H ■9 M| I o 1 m m i f ® u 1 §s & j? 1 Is * ^ 265 (6) economics, (7) government, and (8) Near and Middle East literature* Students of research and comparative educationists would do well to familiar themselves with bulletins of the 52 various universities or with a volume for an overfall survey of the programs* with pertinent information for each program as regards (1) the title of the program* (2) name of the director* (3) countries studied* (4) languages taught* (5) fields covered* (6) faculty available* (?) degrees conferred* (8) library facilities available* and (9) special features* if any* of the respective program* The area study programs in survey are to assist definitely anyone desiring information* and in the area of this investigator* specifically for countries of the Middle last: Area Study Programs is compiled and published by the ExternalBeseareh Staff of the Bepartment of State* primarily for the use of United States Government agencies engaged in foreign affairs* overseas opera** cions* and the research study of foreign areas* Ameri* can universities* research institutions* and business firms engaged in overseas ..operations should also find this publication useful* ” Since the information compiled in the survey is 5%Ktemal Research Staff* Office of Intellii ;mme Research* Area Study Programs in African tMiversities (Washington* B, G*: tinlteaStates Bepar trasht'"of' State*' February* 1956)* 58 pp. ^^lbid>» p* vii* 266 based on data mad# available by the directors of the various programs, the cumulative information is as compre hensive and as reliable as may be obtained* Specialised coimnunic a tion- - the acquisition, correla tion, e las si f ic ation, indexing, and abstracting of graphic records— and the processes involving recourse to recorded information, are a science* for best results and improve* ment, study of latest literature^ is possible* Developing facilities provide for initial and con* tinning research, for the Middle East* f * mrnmm of m i cmavsbr This chapter investigated past md contemporary research on educational issues, problems, and difficulties in countries of the Middle East* About one-fifth of all dissertations on foreign education have concentrated on I areas of the Middle last* By table and test it was shown that the volume of research on topics related to education In the Middle East has increased progressively through each succeeding decade* the year 1954 has been the banner year to date with twelve studies for the Middle last* Egypt, Iraq,, and Iran in that order have led the countries for S^Jesse H* Shore, Allan lent# and James M* ferry, Documentation in Action (New York; Eeinhold fublishing W r p o t S B M T l ^ l T ^ n pp* 26 7 focused problems, Typical research studies on the Middle East were presented as representative under topical headings of. (1) administration^ organisation* and control, <2) curriculum, (3) educational measurement, <4) educational psychology, (5) educational sociology, (6) guidance and counseling, <7) mental and physical development* (8) philosophy and history of education* (9) special programs, and <10) teacher education* This was a wide distribution. The resources of research available for countries of the Middle East ware divided Into both the primary and secondary sources* The clearing houses and documentation centers for data and research information are available for countries of the Middle last under the institutions pre sented: (1) international, (2) regional, (3) national* (4) local, and (5) other* there are* therefore, facilities in the Middle East for continuing research* mmtm vi w m m j m m of issues, problems* and oifficui^ies Would that there were a magic carpet equipped with a three-dimensional viewer— or a Cinerama--*by which an individual could look and hear beyond the sights md sounds to sense the Issues* problems,, and difficulties of higher education in countries of the Middle East; to witness the metamorphosis from an archaic to a modern Hear and Middle Eastern society; or to feel the cultural and social revolu tion that has been moving over most of the valleys, deserts# plateaus# mountains# and peninsulas during the past few decades* How best should the issues# problems* and difficul ties of higher education be resolved? -r D O f V P n i t O A T C W O C * • wiSwiSKAJU J tK U i^ U U w iA * d l u * 5 The call and challenge of today are for thoughtful solutions to the problems^ which were Identified* categor ized* and explained in detail in Chapter IV. In like manner the call and challenge of higher education in the Middle last for the future hinge largely upon the position ^Arthur S. Adams* "The President’s Annual Report— October 12# 1956*f t The Educational Record (American Council on Education)* So121# JwnSSyi 1957* 269 educators take and the methodology they pursue at the present time# la fact* the mold of the future depends upon the comprehension of today: Shaping the future of education is one of today's me significant problems# those called upon to meet the f roblems facing- their own national system will benel y a fundamental knowledge of educational practices and an awareness of existing problems throughout the world.2 A knowledge of other national systems and educa tional problems will not solve necessarily the local prob- meet the domestic needs; however# there are impli cations of value* Kandel believed that the consideration of other educational programs helped one * s own: Educational systems cannot be transferred from one country to another* but ideas* practices, devices, developed under one set of conditions, can always prove suggestive for improvement even where the conditions are somewhat different#** Education and culture share a mutual brunt, which undoubtedly obtains in almost every other country of the world as well as in the countries of the Middle Easts "Edu cation, in common with other social sciences* suffers from $ Idly von Klemperer, in a book review in column, "leeent Publications, " Institute of International Education Mews Bulletin# 32:44r April, 1957. %♦ 3U Kandel (ed.), Educational Yearbooks 1924. International' Institute, feachers Coll age# r ^uoIU8 EiBbla t^niver** sity {Mew York: Hie Macmillan Company, 1925), p* ix# WHa t H Vrt* H0 . . . « , 0 © O ( t > 0 H i 9 "f " 9 I f # o n n c ? S* ^ c srn 0 ll ^11 n n j t 1 0 s*4~2 #»0.# F*ft !r§ © h I 0 0 If 0 - t f *0 0 © H ft H - © © 0*© 0*0 0*0 0 © HI* ft 0 to m h 0*0 h o Hi % H G* 0* 0 m t » p P3 CD s s » 3 I »! & & & * * 0 0 0 n 0 r * ? £ § *s§8sr ia88l m n h O vs I i J? M 0 H* I * 0 0* 0 & I ft H P 0 Hi 0 0 0 *0 n m 0. F* CO n t u f t n if 0 1 H 8 H % H # © 0 ft H 0 < H H 0 CO * « 1 1 1 I 0 * ♦ m H 0 © > * Hi *0 H I eu so a a & i o light*, In the nature of the ease# this effort would require that they pursue these problems to their tils* torieal origins-, and trace ell their earlier ramifica tions* this would inevitably lead to a continuity7in the study of history which now is notably lacking* 7 the present situation is largely what hm followed in the wake of events in history# as some have observed: Middle East is profouadly conscious of history# partly# no doubt# because history has treated it roughly* In many ways the present is mortgaged to the greed, and carelessness of the past#? Many principles should be borne in mind when various peoples# cultures# md educational systems are studied* Customs# mores# philosophies# and psychologies enter in to methodology employed. Different peoples have different ways of doing the same thing. the research student or comparative educationist * * . will be likely to get most out of his comparative study if he centers it around the ways in which dif ferent peoples* with different histories# different cultures* mi different relations to-other'cultures attempt to solve their problems of distribution of edu cation* of curriculum* of provision of an adequate teaching staff* etc#® 7Nabih Amin Paris# ’ ’ the Arabs and their history* * 1 the Middle East Journal* 8:161, Spring* 1954* %llliam E. Polk and William 0. Xhweatt# * ’ fhe Chang ing Economic Scene# ” in Perspective of the Arab World. An Atlantic Monthly Supplement (Mew York: Intereultural Pub* IlcSfions* Inc * * I9M>* p. 31* E. H. Eckelberry# "Comparative Education*1 * in Walter S. Monroe (ed*)* Encyclopedia of Educational Ee- search (rev* ed*; New yom: 'ihe MaciidXIan Company, 1956) # p.* 284# Appreciating the prodigious tasks before them, some of the countries in the Middle East share the problem of adjusting 19 th century educational systems of the West to 20th century needs of the last# they wish to build a public school# college# acid university program directly upon the culture of the people* they aim 'at effective in telligence, not literacy alone, 'as: the hallmark of ''their modem educational systems, to aid them in rationalising for'effective solutions* One observer of Middle East affairs wrote that Hie Arab East doesn't need a paraphrased curriculum \ of the "Great Books" of Western culture as a basis for 'literacy*' It needs a core of educational teaching built around the problems inherent in the 20th century Arab world' .md it" needs' to build up public intelligence to face such problems* * * * What Is desperately needed is a program of education# adapted to Arab eapabili- j t ies# which will solve basic problems * 1$ / Working through a framework of stable and progres sive education, the countries of the Middle last may find the development imperceptible through the underpinning stages#. Based upon such a foundation, however, the super structure of higher education could accomplish appreciable leadership* -With.proposals for a.program of educational experi mentation and action designated in terms of the cultural ^Frederick J* Cox, f , fhe Perennial Wear Eastern B astion* * * World Affairs Interpreter* 25t165* Summer u!y># 19571 273 challenge and the present human need© of the Middle East, a national would recommend some basic concepts that should be maintained* Basic to any program looking toward a development of an indigenous culture and national respect are the following fundamental values* (1) the respect for human life and welfare; (2) the faith in human Intelligence and action in terms of that faith;■ (3) the recognition of the social, cooperative * nature of the good life; and (4) the utilisation of indigenous cultural,, resources / for the solution of the Arab problems*1 '! ^ Attention in analytical focus, admission of acknowl edged recognition, use of effective instruments, and em ployment of evaluation and appraisal measures*-the four constitute general procedural steps in working toward satisfactory solutions to the issues, problems, and diffi culties of higher education in countries of the Middle East* M Analytical Focus One of the early steps--if not the first*-in seeking solutions to the problems of higher education in the Middle It ‘■••Stephen Toma, "Cultural Challenge to Education in the Arab World, With Special Reference to Teacher Education in Iraq" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 1940. Ohio State University, Abstracts of Dissertations. Summer Quarter, 1939-40), pp. 333-34. " 1 asc is a conscientious study of the aims and objectives of the over-ail educational program for the country; for the institution; for the faculty# college* or school; for the curriculum; for the course; and for each activity* the study should penetrate deeply# for a superficial view might result in misunderstanding* Kandel believed in depth analysis: the student of comparative education must look beyond the official statement of aims and the system of schools to discover the fundamental principles and forces that have inspired them* It Is by such analysis that he can acquire a clearer understanding of the y problems of education*!* ^ National systems of education may be complex in origin* development* and structure* apparent simplicity may cover intermeshed loyalties and organic relationships* The possible complexities have been described somewhat: An educational system not only has its roots em bedded in a traditional cultural pattern which is constantly being modified by influences that are at one time spiritual* at another political# and at still / another socio-economic* but it also reflects the hopes of a nation for the future* 13 Using methods* techniques, and curriculum-making* national systems work out their philosophies; hence* their methodology and solutions vary* md as Kandel earlier stated about variety* 1*1* 1* Kandel* "Problems of Comparative Education*" International Review of Education* 2:5# 1956.* 275 ♦ . . the solutions vary because nations differ each from each, not because of innate conflict of interests* but because each* as the result of different tradi tions, seeks to express and through education to trans mit and develop a culture characteristic of itself; as within each national system* so what matters most for the development and progress of humanity as a whole is color and variety of life* * * Sustained attention, or concentration, on a re stricted area or limited field will emerge into an aware ness and perception* Reality, comparison, contrast, and logic will awaken thought as to relationships between theory and practice, object and shadow, blueprint and structure, aim and realisation* Analysis, weighing, appraisal will follow in natural sequence. Perception does not preclude thinking* Admission of Acknowledged Recognition If something is known, and change and improvement are desired, admission, expression, and acknowledgment will hasten the process* There should be recognition of needs and inadequacies* Self-recognition* The ideal order of steps in such problem solving is best when it is motivated from within, although at times external stimuli are necessary or ex pedient for maturation of thought. The method of problem 14I. L. Kandel, Comparative Education (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1933), p* ‘ "ioT 276 solving through the problems-approach emphasizes the self- realization of the individual "by having him deal with felt-problems in a systematic way." In helping to explain the problems-*approach, many y ■ expositors lean toward the five steps of Deweyt in the \ process of a complete thought: 1. A felt'need -x \ 2. Identification and definition 3. Hypothesis for solution 4* development by reasoning 5* Verification S In a country of the Middle Bast the analytical focus on some problem of education will be made by personnel, individually or collectively--the Minister, official, administrator, dean, teacher, or student* Self-realization with felt-needs will follow defi nite steps, such as expressed by Dewey, of more recently by 17 Hanna: 1* Recognizing and defining the problem •^Charles f t * Avery, "The problem in Problem Solv ing* * * Social Education. 21:165-66, April, 1957. ^John Pewey, How We Think (Boston: B. C. Heath and Company, It10), 224 pp. •^Lavone A. Hanna, Pacing lifers Problems (Chicago: Rand, McNally and Company, 1955), pp. 2-3* 3. 4* S* Institutional recognition* Administrators, teach* era* faculty, and staff will he conscious of needs and, problems* Because of the conscientious efforts of faculty and staff through cooperative planning, discussion, and service to guide and instruct students# conditioned by educational resources* there will he an awareness among the school family of achievement or the degree of it* a recog* mition of strengths and weaknesses, and a desire for to* proved quality* ' the uniqueness-* and awareness of it--must fee de finitely known fey' institutional personnel for further development and growth* _jta authority on higher education wrote 'that recognition was imperative for proper service: Every educational institution, is unique in some way* It is always unique for its own students* since it does for them what no other institution does* It may also fee unique in its geographical setting and, even more importantly, in the peculiar purposes If is equipped to serve* These factors of uniqueness must fee clearly conceived* since upon such clarity depends the direc tion of institutional activities.!8 !%lelvin .1* Haggerty* The Educational Program (Pol* 111 of The Evaluation of" Higher ' ' Chicago: Hie linJ^rSlty' of "Chicago Press* : It3/)*r " p . * ?# 277 Analyzing the problem and forming a definite \ hypothesis Collecting* evaluating# and organising data Brewing and verifying conclusions Applying conclusions / zn Faculty and staff conferences, discussions# and brain**storming will facilitate institutional recognition# particularly as they benefit from logical and sound reason* Regional recognition* Each country--and especially Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon in this investigation-* * in the Middle last must recognize the educational needs and status in the fields of higher education* Specifically for Iraq# but time also of the other countries in the Middle East, a principle has been enunci ated: "Improvements begin with an citizens whose needs and problems 19 responsibility of each and all*" the Arabs with their tradition in common of living together# in spite of political and religious feuds, could accomplish much in higher education* Regionally# the \ hUou e„.< concentrate - — 1 *— • • * . difficulties* ' presenting a paper on "Evolution in Education," a university professor of Lebanese nationality with Middle last ken summarized the regional problems of education and the most urgent tasks by mentioning three $ awareness on the part of are communal and are the ^Office of the Cultural Attachd, Education in Iraq (Washington# D# C.: Embassy of Iraq [n.d*7), p* 33* 279 First, education must create in Arab society an \ awareness# a clear awareness# of its problems and of \ the means by which education can solve them. Second# education must imbue the youth with an understanding of science and the scientific method and must give the youth a skill in using technology for the solution of society’s problems*' . * * third# education must imbue the youth with a fuller appreciation of the 'worth and dignity of the individual# of every individual# and of his right to an opportunity for life and happiness* It must imbue our youth with the fullest sense of social responsibility# responsibility not for himself alone# t or his family* but for his community at large# respon- / sibility for world p e a c e * / International recognition, from the more purely historical point of view* it might be reasoned that the obstacles to a mutual appreciation and a proper understand-* ing of Eastern and Western cultural values have been due to the economic and political expansion since the fifteenth century* the technological developments' since the beginning of the nineteenth century* and the absence of cultural reciprocity between them and the rest of the world* The psychological implications of this situation have been changed somewhat b y the recent accession of some Middle Eastern countries to political independence* the part that they now play in the United nations Organisation and in other international relations* md their swift 2%abib Kurani* "Evolution in Education*" in Sydney Mettleton fisher (ed.), Evolution in the Middle East: Reform. Revolt and Change, Seventh Annual Cohference on Middle East Affairs* March 6-7, 19S3 (Washington* 0* C.: The Middle East Institute* 1953)* pp* 11-12. advance and progress in oil, science, and technology, The countries of the Middle last are coming into their own. A recent issue of the Unesco Chronicle emphasized the need of the international recognition of Middle Bast problems* In fact.# the needs present a two-way understand* Ing for mutual appreciation of Eastern and Western cul tures. Two results of a one-way cultural diffusion* prin cipally in the form of scientific and technical knowledge and ideas* which must be counteracted* may be expressed as: first* the Orient is not being presented suffi ciently to the Occident; secondly* the nations of Asia and certain other regions are apt to receive a very distorted picture of Western civilization* . _ ■ * ■ The problem was further explained in the inter national publication: ■The problem is not merely that of increasing knowl edge and' understanding., in/ the West of .Eastern cultural values* The Western nations themselves must examine more closely the Influence of their civilization upon the Orient in order to strengthen elements weakly represented and to offer practical steps to make the Orient more aware of their history* the origins of their cultures* their intellectual works* their cre ations* and their inventions *22 A noble major project that UNESCO plans to sponsor which would include some of the ^practical steps* calls for the preparation of' monumental reference works— * f aa Asian ^ ’ Mutual Appreciation of Eastern and Western Cul tural Values* u Unesco Chronicle, $517-18* January-February, 1 0S 7*; Encyclopedia, a guide to Oriental research institutes and collections, a History of Islamic Art* and a directory. of% world literature* * ♦ . Additional activities and projects in the program in •' which institutions of higher education, should play a pro* iainent role would consist of , * international meetings on problems raised by cultural exchanges between East and West; sociological studies on the interaction of Eastern ted Western social and economic systems; the sending of research workers into foreign universities or institutes; ted the exchange of scholars ted prominent lecturers*^ fwo great rones of civilization, commonly called the Orient ted the Occident* should he better understood reci procally after the proposed ten-year period for the major projects.2* * In the international recognition of the life and culture of different peoples* the universities and other institutions of higher education, ted learning in . Iran* Iraq* ted Lebanon— and in the other countries of tee Middle East--should participate in active roles for sub stantial contributions ted satisfactory solutions* Use of Effective Instruments Implementing the'processes of thinking' and planning* 23rbid. 24JMd. 25f Mutual Appreciation of Eastern ted Western. Cul tural Values; Some Questions of Concept* * * Unesco Chronicle* 3$123* May# 1957. 282 . methodology employe various instruments that are available for the working out of solutions to issues# problems, and difficulties of higher education in the Middle last, this investigator, for convenience of arrangement# classified the ifistruments^^potentially' effective to the extent that they are utilised and exploited-~ according to two areas of availability, domestic and abroad, then he classified the third type of instrument, research,, common to either. Most of the instruments listed are supported by some manner of documentation. Domestic, Although among the instruments used for solving problems and meeting needs in the Middle last there are some cases of overlapping and slippage in availability, yet in the main the following enumerated instruments may be utilised within each. country, ■ or in the region, of the Middle last: 1. Long-range sound planning. Every faculty, school, college# university, and Ministry of Education should have projected oversell plans for development and progress, which can be im* plamented in stages as personnel* facilities* finance, and initiative permit. One vital prin ciple of centralised control was mentioned that deserves attention, this is m instrument in deed: One of the most needed developments in the countries of the Middle East is the securing of stable governments to fee in office long enough to develop sound plans for education* 2* Surveys* A systematic study* check* and survey of status and needs will prove of value to any faculty* group* or responsible feody who sin cerely are alert to development and progress* there is no'fear for appraisal and 'evaluation*. Personnel from without may make a survey; ear* ternal observation may fee desirable; however* great satisfaction and growth accrue in the internal participation of a self-survey. In each country* the Ministry of Education* univer sity (or universities)* and other institutions of higher education and learning* and profes sional organizations may conduct simultaneously surveys on appropriate projects* with consequent follow-up programs. 3* Improved administration and supervision, The entire program of administration should fee for the facility of instruction and supervision* for 2^Roderic D. Matthews* ^Educational Partnership With the Countries of the Middle East*1 1 in Helen A. Kitchen (3d*)* Americans and the Middle Basts Partners in the Haast Decade. Fourth Annual 'Conference' on Middle East Affairs,' March l7-lS* 1950 (Washington* p. 0.: The Middle last Institute* 1950), p. 4. 284 the improvement of instruction. In efforts to improve college teaching an educator wrote of some observations of instruction in higher edu~ 2?' cation;- (a) College teachers want to be known as good teachers.; (b) College teaching is generally good; (c) There is no antagonism between research and teaching; (d) faculties can plan and carry on improvement ; in teaching if the administration will give them help and encouragement; (e) The student has a conspicuous place in the Improvement process; (f> 411 teaching is capable of improvement, ^ English then listed some unresolved problems that administration and supervision can work on and seek to unravel sooner or later: {a) How to evaluate is an unresolved problem* <b> How to reward good teaching is an unsolved problem, Francis English, ^Efforts to Improve College Teaching,1 1 in G* Kerry Smith (ed»)» Current Issues in Higher Education: 1955 {Washington, S* €*1 Association for Hxgher Education, national Education Association of the United States, 1955), pp* 95**9§« 285 <e) How to keep teachers aware of the problems of teaching is a troublesome problem* (d) the older faculty member is often a problem* Mother university official summarised his methodology for improvement of instruction for institutions of higher education and learnings (a) Programs of evaluation and improvement of Instruction will be more necessary than in the past; * ) (b) Programs should be established on the basis of carefully conceived conceptions of what good teaching is; (e> Such programs should be built into tbe institutional structure; they ought not to be jd hoc undertakings; Programs should be the responsibility of all who are involved in instruction# not the province of. a special committee# bureau# or office; the institutional, .mores determine the character and quality of any program; (f) Hie "expert” probably has a role to G. bestar Anderson# "Improvement of Instruction: Effective Practices; Evaluation#" in Smith# on* cit, (195b) # p* 166. See also the 1957 issue of Current Issues *‘ * * . 'for further development and methodology. 286 any program. Who lie is and what his role is need to be considered further. Principals# presidents# rectors# and other administrators should sense a responsibility of educational leadership* 4. Leadership .for instruction* Colleges and uni* \ varsities in-the Middle last must change the thinking first# and then the curriculum. Al though some administrators and officials may disagree on their roles# yet When they clarify their functions# they should arrange for the following basic processes and procedures^ to improve the instructioni (a) Determine the objectives; (by Select appropriate learning experiences.;. <e) Organise learning experiences; and (d) Evaluate instruction* Discussion groups* the grass-roots approach of local administrative and faculty personnel studying# discussing# and cooperatively arrang ing for solutions to their problems and. en deavoring to meet their needs# means improvement ^Kenneth j. Behage# "leadership for Instruction#** School Executive* 73:106*187# March# 19S4* 28? of morale and program* The team spirit and mutual understanding areenhanced. In reply to the opiniotmaire used in this investigation* a Lebanese wrote for the Univer sity of Lebanon; The committee made up of the president* f eneral secretary, and professors of the dif- erent departments meets regularly to study the needs of the students and the country. They study the necessary steps to be taken in order to maintain high standards of learning* This committee has been trying during the last four years to reform and adapt ways and tnAfiyiti 4 inrriWAVD«u2ii, l t * - «3U J f c W j I b i V V l S h i W U b * ■ Jn-SSiaiSS programs Jor faulty jm£ staff. Eegardless of what the professional educa tion, training* and experience have been a con tinuous program arranged for professional growth is; most effectual and necessary* -toe who made an extensive survey throughout the Middle East wrote of some suggestive procedures for in** service; teachers in all countries are less well \ <|ualifled than is considered desirable by \ those responsible for education in those coun- tries* Very little attention is given* how- 1 ever* to in-service programs which would esc- I tend the preparation in either professional or I ^Statement was made by Ur. Abbas Alam-ed-Din, General Secretary of the University of Lebanon* with the opinionnaire used for this investigation; translated from Arabic by Selim Woujaim* subject matter fields. Institutes, faculty workshop activities, summer schools, part-time study opportunities, correspondence courses, or similar provisions for up-grading teachers are practically unknown in the Middle £asi. Ji 7. Institutional and international visits. Visits by officials, educators, professors in other universities aid institutions of higher education at home or abroad help those who observe, the University of Teheran,32 as well as other institutions, has profited by visits and guests# Ideas, suggestions, new methods are carried back to institutions# 8. Inter-university scholars and teacher exchange. Teachers from one institution of higher edu cation and learning on leave of absence for one or two school years may teach in another insti tution elsewhere, or teachers may exchange their teaching and research posts for a similar period, 9. Missions .and seminars. An explanation of function was stated re cently: 3%atthews, op. cit., p. 5, 3%*«niversitd de Tdhdrao, Annuaire: Armee Scolaire. 1956, Publication Ho* 336 (Teheran* IraKFlEf : Uhiver-' Tf56), pp, 19-21* (In French.) 289 If* the Arab World, however# this period of industrial, economic, and social development has been telescoped into a few decades* * * * Specialised university institutions were set up in some Arab States to carry out these studies (in the cultural background, the social history, and ethnography of the Arabs)* . . * Missions and seminars were and are or* ganited to survey many of the problems con* nected with the changing patterns of social structure, in the Arab World*’ *# 10* -Cultural activities, of the Arab League* the program of higher education in the Middle East has been improved subsequent to the acceptance of "The Cultural Treaty of the League of Arab States" by the League Council on Novem ber 20, 1946 at Cairo, Egypt (translated by the Arab Office, London)* 34 In brief# the Cultural Treaty^ advanced education through Article Is Cultural cooperation* Article lls Exchange teachers and professors between their educational institutions* Article Ills Agree to the exchange of students- and scholars between their educational institutions— work toward harmoni&ing their 33"Arab Social Involution,f f The Arab World* 3:18-19, May** June# 1957. 3^xhe Middle East (Londons Eurooa Publications* Ltd*, 195157 ppflO+TST educational syllabi and certificates* Article IV: Encourage cultural visits between- Arab countries and bolding of cultural and educational meetings for students." Article Vt the states of the Arab 'league agree on the reciprocal establishment of edoea* tiooai and scientific institutions in their various countries*■ Article VI: the states of the Arab league will cooperate in the revival of the intellectual and artistic legacy of the Arabs* Article VII: the states will encourage and X organise the translation of all foreign masterpieces, classical or modem; encourage all intellectual output in the Arab c w tries by such means m the opening of insti tutes for scientific, and literary research* 11. Regional seminars. fhe regional seminar plan^ would be for the Middle last countries to conduct seminars on a number of topics and studies among the countries of the Middle last* fhe seminar sites could be rotated or decided as desirable* Plan, w Unesco Chronicle* 2:361, December, 12* A u d i o - v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s * A u d i o - v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s may be m a n u f a c t u r e d l o c a l l y a n d m a y b e d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g t h e i n s t i - tutioos* f t o d u c t i o n locally e v e n of i n s t r u c t t i o n a l films c m bring s o u n d film w i t h i n easy reach' o f e d u c a t o r s * ^ 13* Smmmm matm&* Joetitotfeiis m a y find w i t h i n # or in nearly* c o m m u n i t i e s personnel to. qualify as resource persona in various fields, areas#, and programs* lists of n a m e s and addresses of s u c h individuals f a c i l i t a t e faculties and staffs* 1 4 * iBltirisi mmmk* S i m u l t a n e o u s l y various procedures m a d methods are e m p l o y e d to work out profitable programs: for administrative a n d teaching per* sonnel. Although such techniques may be applied on any level of education, yet an example of a multi^fom approach is cited from lebanon* fhe is providing training for teacher e d u c a t i o n cooperatively with the G o v e r n m e n t of ^^”Kew Process to Speed how-Cost Production of Educational films# * * l&teaeo Chronicle* 3; 103*104, -April# 1957. 292 Lebanon of four kinds X* training at the American diversity of Beirut 2. training abroad 4# Training through conferences and atwmw sessions. fhe total number assisted in all fields at the end of' 'the period' of the report was tabu lated:^^ fear ■ So. fi£ ftainees 52 2195 1 9 5 5 2 0 24 1 9 5 0 19 51 Counterpart ■ training 10 five-year feriod (bsaadP fetal' ' ^United States Operations Mission to Lebanon* p » M 0 m iiieifo A Go-operative frogr^with the Ministry of 41 fairs* Lebanon,* for -the lears 1952-1956, Projected Program 1951*1950 (Beirut, Lebanon: USOM/L, December, 1956), p. 17* (Mimeographed.) 38IMit-» P- 39, 293 The breakdown of training presented a clearer picture of the activities:^ S£nd/£tES oi Training fi£. of Trainees Countarpart training (to edaea* tion and social, affairs) [ Training abroad' (in education \ .sad social affairs. / 56 Training .at the .American 0ni~ varsity- of Beirut (in education) 58 ■local training to horn economics 650 local ■ training to education 1045 local itatotog to togliah teach* tog 6165 Grand total If 84 15 s M d of Advisory missions, technical assistance^ educational surveys* detailed projects* pooling of e&pert knowledge may retire aid of available national or foreign specialists* One program to !ra<| may he cited as an illustrations Bade* a contract with Bradley University* iotot “ * ‘ ~ ^ ‘ parts 3%frtd». » p* 40% Arranged' from a graph* as& of'Education* these men, with wide arperi* anas'in various technical fields# are assist*: ing the Ministry in developing a modem technical' education program*4 ^ . ■ for Americans who serve .in the Middle last as ..specialists some pitfalls or dangers should he avoided* Briefly tabulated they include 1. Probably the most comtaon and natural blunder is to appraise a foreign education system against American standards#. Z» A tendency to concentrate on the weak points* in educational practices is another common pitfall and probably derives directly from the ethnocentric viewpoint* 3. She pitfall, of providing temporary personal leadership rather than training local leaders is a tempting one* 4* fhe danger in equipment and visual aids of not using that which can he locally made# simply operated#, and within the limits of . national education budgets, ■ ^international Co-operation Administration (Iraq), Iran Progresses (Baghdad* Irani International Co-operation W m n M m m r n z osS); p* 62* ^Douglas Rugh, ^Pitfalls for Our Educational Spe cialists Abroad, " teacher Education Quarterly (Connecticut .State Department of EchSation),: 14:S*8# Fall#. ltS6* 5. Headline# and the consequent abnormal pace set for changes in ■educational, systems is a common factor in project# abroad# 6#' Specialists abroad find it .difficult t o - . acknowledge forces of religious or national, bias in educational matters# A positive restatement of the foregoing principles suggested would be: 1# See the education problem in its native ' setting and cultural perspective; 2* fry to discover the positive values in native educational practices as a base for building, a better program; 3# fake time to develop local leadership to carry on after you leave; 4. Aim at production of locally made- equipment and supplies; $ , * . Suit the pace of change to the normal rate of social processes involved; 6. 01ve due weight to political and religious factors as part of the culture- complex#*** ' ; Abroad# Some instruments employed to help solve problems and meet needs in higher education among countries of the- Middle East have relationshipsf or come - from, out-* side the respective country receiving help# Such possible instruments include: V !• Bursary students and 3j£udent§ gbo studs abroad- Iraq serves as an illustration of such pos sibilities: Iraq is tasking serious attempts to prepare experts# scholars,' and technicians for her various ministries# Hundreds of students have been sent to the United States# the United ICingdom# franca# Italy# Austria# Switzerland* and Oerraany# as well as to 'some'universities in the Arab'' world* these students# chosen from among the hast, graduates of the secondary and technical schools and colleges# are sup ported by the government* There are more than 1,100 Iraqi hoys and girls#- about a-third of them bursary students in the U. S . * A* alone* Host of the bursary students study agricul ture# engineering; and technical subjects*^ The Iraqi toveroment recognizes the value of selecting students to upgrade future leaders according to the needs of the nation: , During lf$!**>§6# the Ministry of Education , accepted 120 bursary students to study abroad for higher degrees * They will study mainly different types of engineering# chemistry# and home economics* These young men and women# with others studying in- the Iraqi institutions of higher education* are the future leaders of their country* ^ A careful plan for conserving and using the valuable resources of .returned students for the ^Office of the Cultural Attache (Iraq)# op* eit» * development of the country has been suggested by Iran,^ which could be applicable to any of the i | countries in the Middle last* She proposal calls for- the organisation of a high*level* ^asi^governiaental cwpdlssion made up of offi* cials • of the. Minister of ' tediioation 'and other * government agencies#' representatives of busi* ness and the professions# and representative of families of the students* fhe commission would have# perhaps, three major functions: (a) Counseling students who go abroad* (b) Keeping regular contact with the students while they ar^e to ad, (c) Making advance plans for the reorientation and employment of students who are finish! their studies abroad and'returning home* ■fhe same author in two other publications suggested what should be accomplished for the students abroad: A major contribution of American education to Middle Eastern development, and the one in which we as staff members of educational institutions play an important part, is in educating Middle Eastern, students to- return ^%vaa Putnam, dr*, Educational Observations in thel . die last* Minaret Series# Mo* if (New fork: American ' | ^rlends'^oF the Middle East# Inc*, [n.d. ]>, pp. 14*16. * zn for professional service in their own coun tries. According tothe 1955~56 censes of . foreign students in united States colleges and universities# 4662 Middle Eastern students were studying on our campuses in the United States*55 ' the second article' disclosed''the- fact 'that to aiinlsdee or elimtaate foreign criticisms for the failure of' some institutions to maintain 'adequate standards' and for 'the' unfortunate “double standard, “ one of the most important contributions that American- 'educators can make * . . toward' achievement of the long-range .objectives of student ■ exchange is to. maintain high standards of admission and academic per* . fomanee for both foreign and .native stu* dental? Continuous and free' international coggminicatloa ♦ . fhe educational problems and' differences which may cause misunderstanding and impede progress among the different countries of the world , * , should certainly be brought out in the open# examined, and discussed* If this is done, most of them wilt, probably either be 55Ivsa Putnam, dr., “Eyes on the Middle last. College and diversity, 32:324,- Spring, 195? * Ivan Putnam, dr., “The Prestige of II, S. Education in the Middle East,n institute of International Education Hews Bulletin. 32:12*13 if*, 'October, 1956* See also Eeglnald M. Phelps, “Issues in Graduate Education,** 1* 3U- News Bulletin,* 32:22*24, January, 195-7* zn resolved or gradually disappear. To accom plish this* ^.continuous and mom coiBasmieation is needed*^ 4* W o r l d - W i d e s u r v e y * there might he foe many layers to one country, -net enough agricultural workers in another, and an overabundance of medical stu dents to a third country* Stoddard suggests a procedure toward solutions "What is needed is a world-wide survey of fhe. training facilities and needs to all the main disciplines and profes sions* 5* Inter-universitv scholars* Grants and fellowships can make possible special overseas, assignments for college a n d university teaching and research personnel* Some organisations encourage such a service* 4 recent announcement, disclosed opportunities for scholarss ^ A grant of $800,000 has been''made by the \ ford Foundation to bring approximately forty \ scholars# scientists# and totellectualleadera ^Victor H. Noll, "Educational Research to Countries Other than the t£«.S*&*#** Review of Educational Research* 27*6# February# 195?*^. ^George Stoddard# "Recent trends to teerican Higher Education#1 * Institute of International Education Hews Bulletin* 32:23* October# 1956* from Asia mi the Meat East to American uni- \ varsities in the aeat five years for study and 1 direst experience with American scholarship and culture. The four universities partial** pat tag in the program are Columbia, Harvard, the University of California {Berkeley), ana the. University of Chicago;, each of the univet- slides will select two visiting scholars each, year. The program will Bring to the United / States intellectual leaders from Asia and the/ Hear East who- are currently active md who / ..otherwise, might not find time 'tar a period fit study bere#30 Visits By foreign professors and students. . Iraq"--and other countries in the Middle last can develop such .a practice*--with a view to developing cultural relations with neighboring countries and to fostering her mm intellectual forces has- invited delegations from outside the country to visit her institutions of higher edu cation. delegations 'of teachers and students of Both eases have visited ira<i from- colleges and universities' in Egypt, France, hebanon, Syria, Turkey, and elsewhere. Some visits 'may last over a period, of .a school years ^^”lnter^|jnlversity . Scholars, * # institute of Inter national Education Hews Bulletin, Ms'30, May, 1957* ^^International Bureau of Education, International ^earhook of Education. 1932. Publication Ho. 145 {Seneva, Switsefla53s’ ’ 'tateSattanal"Bureau of Education,. 1952), p. 170. 301 During the academic year of 1954-55, Iraq accepted 45 students from Jordan, 25 from Morocco, 20 from Tunisia, and 15 from Algeria, More than 50 other students from several other Arab and Islamic countries were accepted.52 7. Teacher gxchsmge progress.' Opportunities for teachers to"serve in dif ferent countries for various lengths of time seem .to he on. the increase,' Publications in quantity are available explaining programs. Special services operate for the purpose of bringing university professors and lecturers, Wishing to take up teaching posts abroad, into touch with the appropriate institutions. 8t Hath m m he dene nations. and educa* tionai institutions to encourage Eastern and ffestern specialists, scholars, and students to work together# feasibilities and practices have ®%f£iea o£ the Cultural .AttachA loe# eit# 53**_ Harlsrli®£§G§r ■ S # ttefciirt* gnt of, ^alth# ; |docation|^end. teacher Exchange 'siates^&^rnment' ''Printing wlice, 19sf>,''. 3$ If*, ■ Bducation Abroad, ° Unesco llhronlele (£*«£*)*. U*lM~27*. July# « S6* 302 been outlined end are available. In addition to publications previously introduced, mention should be wade of others.55 fable m i l shows die extensive partnership program for the 1955 fiscal feet sponsored by the international Edu cational Exchange Service of the United States Pepartraenf of State* 9* international conferences# One advantage of attendance and participa tion of educational representatives at inter national conferences from different regions and from various countries of the world is to hear and see the issues* problems* . mi difficulties of other places,as well as one’s own. ft shows them southing of the problems- of world educa tion* culture* and science it* actuality instead of merely on paper . Various international- conferences and meet- .iiigs have brought -practical counsel, recommenda tions* and scholarships for Iran* mi in Proposed Programme of UNESCO for 1957-58, ” Dneseo Chronicle. Zi327-14* November* 1956; 0, S. ©apart ment of'""lealS^""'Education, and Welfare, American Coopera tion with Higher Education Abroad. WlletmrfW, «b7o^ Wmi^gion^ W' 'U.Y'lJ*' 'Isf7~"tovemment Printing Office# I9S7), ail pp*i and U. S* Apartment of State* .the Inter national Education Exchange Program* 1955. Bepartoentol State Public at ion1 63aSiWashrng t<m, tfTcT: - I l « S# Government Printing Office* 1956).,. 56 pp* ’ "Wn r ’ “ , T ISS To ' from ¥ H To • frm personnel O c m l t e r > U.S. ! I » S , f l . S , g.S*______ U » 8 » g#S# U » S * U.S. U.S. l i m l sm d i g yp t 2 5 1 0 9' — i i i? r? 2 — 91 Iran 15 • * * * ■ 4 , * “* , * p * * ' . , * * * * ' 35 1 — 35 Ira<j 9 * * • - 3 3 10 5 * * • * ■ •*" 30 j ^ w ■ *■ > * »• iWluM- ■ '***-■- mimm. wmm letaaen 1 1 3 ’ * * * 5 S^iTia - * * ■ ■ —* • —* 3 — 2 2 1 ■ 8 Turke^r «**<«*. l ~~ U h 5 3£ t>ts& 51 10 11*6 3931* W 6 — 188 SOfl&OE: to arrangement for countries of the Middle last from the United States department of State, The Ii^ernational EduLcational Exchange Program 1955* department IhMication 6233, 1956*. addition resource persons and advisers: r l fhe international organisations have provided the MIMstry with specialists and technicians* Iraq also has been participating in almost every cultural conference and seminar held by UNESCO or any other specialised agency# Dele gations, and experts 'have bean sent by Iraq to attend these conferences and to return to their home country to apply the decisions and recom mendations relating to cultural m d educational benefit as far .as practicable# Between the years 1953 and 1955 Iraq par ticipated In forty-four such conferences and seminars Lebanon and Egypt represent the Middle last as members of the Unesco Executive Board for 195? and 1958# and Iran is honored to have her representative serve as one of the two vice- chairmen. 56; lie at ion ] Office of the Cultural Attach^ (Iraq), oj s. cit., p. 46.. "Membership of the UNESCO Executive Board for 1957 end 1958,” ttaesco Chronicle. 3j43* January-Pebruary, 1957. ' 305 Egypt and Iran ate members of the Advisory Ootmnittee on the Major Project for Mutual Appre* ciation of Eastern .and Western Cultural Values and J^banon#s delegate was appointed one of the two vice~ehaiOTen# ^ Research, fhe third large type, of effective inetru* maot for solving problems and meeting needs of higher edu cation for the'Middle last is a tremendous potential**- research.#. In the -educational world there are .many educationists who * * are devoted to research m a method of attacking educational problems and achieving progress* the president of the American Educational Research Association in a prepaid paper before the first Interna* tional Conference on Educational Research, who elaborated upon a literal definition of research,, finally brought some basic concepts before his internationally representative .audience: Hence, by literal definition, the collection of data\ concerning a vast array of subjects about education may i be considered' educational research* Educational re* search is an spoiled research and may be taken for the purpose of solvlng in immediate concrete problem or satisfying an ■action taken, or of converting people to ^ 59Uneaco Chronicle.' 3:124-25, May, 1,57. ®%oll, op. cit.. p. 5. \jr \ 306 r a point of view. It may also fee undertaken sickly for the purpose of the doing it* On the other hand# if it f ossesses characteristics of the methods of science. t may fee as basic and fundamental as the subject • matter of educational research can fee basic# * * *tlhe educational arena is certainly Interdisciplinary. Available methods of research which have been found suitable for major areas of educational research needed to resolve urgent problems of national -and international con cern were listed at the aforementioned international, re* search conferences 1* fact-finding surveys covering a number of geo graphic areas or countries; 2* Case study techniques applied to selected areas' or countries; 3. Comparative analyses of data gathered from a number of countries; 4. Carefully designed erperimants for use in a selected number of countries; and' 5* Compilation, and analysis of research findings from various sources.#, both national and inter* national. the committee that discussed and compiled the available research methods went ■ on record, further to state that as members they were greatly impressed ^Francis 0. Cornell# ”Besearch sand Science in Edu cation# * * in BNSSfiCb Resort of the First International Con ference on MwsSte^B^E^sST^tlmiticCE^r'IiB^Iersey# FebruaryTft -21# IMS # Bduclttonai Studies and documents# Ho* XX <Fasiai UHRSG0* ISM)* p* 27. , * , with the urgent need of a general study to he undertaken at an early date of the methods# concepts and processes, and essential terminology related to educational research# to pave the way lor more effete* rive co-operative studies of specific problems *w Procedures^ for extending and improving interna* tioitai educational research were .introduced at the research conference# each applicable for higher education lit Iran# Ira% and lebanon** and In the other countries of the Middle East: 1. for each country what is needed first'is the main key or keys which would give access to research originating in that country# 2. .preparation and publication of abstracts of the more important studies in certain fields of research selected because- they are considered to be of international concern.# 3# Compilation, and publication of sources of to* formation about research methods. 4 - . Clarification of technical terminology. 5* Compilation and publication of a list for all countries of sources of information about agencies of educational research# especially those which produce or publish the various types 63IMd. ®*aadM v p * u-i5. 308 of instruments required for evaluation and me asuremenfc • 6». Greater international utilisation of aviating, national periodicals carrying reports of re** search* ?* Development and re*examination of national centers for the collection# dissemination# and coordination, of information about educational -it--— , ..*■■ j M t A Sdfe researc n * 8. Expansion of the- personal mailing list of indi vidual research workers* 9. Widening the coverage of related studies that are reviewed before a piece of contemplated research is undertaken* 10* Use of ephemeral publications to reduce the time* lag in cormaunication, such as mimeographed reports and titles mid contents translated into a second language* it* More frequent movement of research workers from one country to another# such as (a) Short formal conferences (b) draining conferences# courses# and seminars with international staffs and trainees ■(e) Visiting staff mashers participating in on going research at a given center (d) lesaarch projects with m international staff 12. greater recognition by research workers of their , professional responsibility for improving the utilisation'•of the results of research. Principles of research may easily be applied to the issues# problems# and difficulties in. seeking solutions for the Middle East* Challenges for- research may rest in the areas of administrative policies and procedures# .curricu lum* .classroom mthodolegy* finance* staff morale and effectiveness# outside resources* and-educational ebjee~ Soma years ago the great comparative educationist, Kandel, recognised - the need of obtdning reliable informa** tion from objective sources* he expressed himself by siting of/the f * . * . .need pi a clearing-te tion* a medium through idiich experiences mill .be pooled* standards set up or suggested* ideals and philosophies dls~ cussed.”^ IHESC0 and other national and international bodies have given strong promotion .pad leadership in educational ^William W., Savage ■ fed*!*.- Applying Research M Edu~ catJ^nalj^dministratl^ni, (Ghicagot :$H3wit MministraHbn Center# fhe EnivSrsity bf Chicago, 1954)* 42 pp. ■ (Mimeo graphed.) / . . ^ICandel* Educational Yearbook: ■ 19%4* loc. cit. centers and research Information. Co-authors who surveyed educational institutions among the Arab countries wrote of suggestive procedures needed in the Middle East: , , , there is need for establishing research centers \ in education and psychology which will study specific ) . problems facing each country. Such research mil make / it possible to base educational policy on scientific / studies and to adapt education to the needs of the I countries*®7 Pour1 additional resource centers for the Middle East may he mentioned as possible centers for promoting research in higher education* or on other levels: (1) the Arab States fundamental Education Center^® in Cairo* Egypt* with students in training from six or more other countries of the Middle East; (2) the institute for Advanced Archie Studies* with its main purposes stated as follows:' (a) Provide youth with hitter education; (b) Spread Arab culture; (c) Build Arab nationalism on truly scientific basis; (d) Adjust the foundations of Arab culture to modem civilization; 67Roderic D. Matthews and Matta Akrawi, Education ja A.gab .feffilisigfi agtfeg Mp«t iMt Washington* D, C.: American Cornell on Education* 1949)* p. 542. (Arabic and English editions are available.) "Fundamental Education, "Uijagco Bulletin. 6:263- 71, December, 1954 - January, 1955. 6®Sati Al-Hussri, Al-Hawlyyeh Al-Yhaauafiah. Fourth Year, Cultural Administration (Cairo: League of Arab States, 1954), p. 394. 311 (3) The ArAb league Manuscript Institute, In Cairo# for a better preservation and utilisation of taanuscript, eel* lections makingthem more accessible to competent research workers and for .iidcrof timings .end/|A> the traneo* JTL Iranian Institute# in feheraiv Iran# • with.-similar. function as the institution in Egypt* ■ Evaluation* as a ferticulwi^ed 'form of ' research# must always be against criteria* for the detailed# order* ly, and progressive steps of procedure up through the proper' inteiqiretation ol data aitsi 'evaluation# % researcher should seek counsel of standard works on research# volumes too numerous to mention here*1 Share is no allusion'or limitation for research possibilities in the Middle East, in either subject# pro* jeef* area of research or in organiEatioh#- body# inatitu^ tioa* Share may he' Institutional# Ministry ■ ' of • Education* and regional research conducted sim^ltmebusly without conflict* Action# on-going# and continuous research may in* volve few . or many personnel# govertmient or "private organ* is at ions # ^ net ional or ''fbieipi.ataff*''and little or much 7€5ttiegional Science io*operation Offices#M Dnesco j|u^nicle* 2$306# -October# .1936|-and .fisting.-and ■■freserva* tion of Middle. Eastern Manuscripts,, r Unesco Chronicle, 2:343# November* '1956* . - 312 finance* Hell planned* well coordinated* and mil executed reaearch will prove of value* Mm inverse relationship may exist between the size of the institution end the extent and quality of the functional research. Kegional and international participation in research for countries of the Middle last could include arrangements with the following; 1. league of Arab- States 2. UNESCO 3. International Surest of Education 4. Regional Professional Association 5* International Research Association Planning and appraisal should be part of the same process, not separate functions* Evaluation and appraisal* which should be continuous with the other steps toward the solution of issues* problems* and difficulties* should he m integral part of the program* In focusing on the oh* jectives and aims* in recognising difficulties and admit ting inadequacies* and 'in using the many and varied .instruments* at home and abroad* and including research tools and techniques* evaluation and appraisal measures must assess the validity* reliability* and effectiveness of procedures and materials* Evaluation and appraisal are not functions to be “tacked on, “ or separate from the program itself; bat as a joint enterprise for all personnel concerned, evaluation and appraisal in forms needed should render judgment and test results against established criteria* it* $mmm tmmmm* mmu The solutions to the issues, problems# and difficult ties and the meeting of the needs of higher education must be met specifically by the *iinistries of Education, con trolling bodies# and institutional officers# faculties# and staffs of the institutions of higher education and learn4 * ing. Additional resources are available as were noted In the 'first section of this chapter; hoover# the primary study and; procedural steps toward the resolution of prob lems and the meeting of needs should be made and encouraged largely by the local educational personnel* Development, improvement# and progress should be a continual process* Issues* Problems* Difficulties Found in the Selected Countries* Specific procedural steps toward the. resolution of issues# problems# and difficulties of higher education . i n . Iran# Iraq# and iebanon should be discussed# framed# planned, and executed in each of the three countries, respectively* Some of the specific areas may he considered under each country * Higher education to Iran* Issues* problems*, diffi culties* and needs cluster around central areas* : Control* In harmony with the educational regulations of Iran* the Utoiacty of idueation with offto clals of the University of Teheran and other institutions of higher education can sit down together to discuss and plan for mutual understanding and coordination of control** legally* financially* and administratively#, toe under standing and position should he clear regarding the degree of autonomy and independence* Fiscal opportunities and responsibilities to. higher education would be an appro* priate discussion among several Ministries of toe Imperial Iranian Government. W 3* ^ v I 2 # 3 C 3* 3**5 j f fiv? Uglily Mlmyr D6 effected with eij^^t;ioa_ofjto^icated.^^5tototrative and clerical responsibilities* toe making and following of organizational charts would facilitate clearer conception® of each faculty and. college with, related functions* toe faculties and colleges can study locally toe advantages and disadvantages of a divisisioaal organization over a departmental. Philosophy and objectives. 'Hie. national aims and obj ectives may be studied and reviewed by the Ministry of Education in cooperation with representatives from the higher faculties and colleges'# the place of religious and secular interests may fee understood, the depth and breadth of higher education through discussion, collaboration, and counsel could follow the same procedure for resolution# Adminl s tr at ion, the faculties and colleges may coordinate their activities and interests as they willingly discuss and submerge Individual Interests for the good of all concerned* OT S°°d of the university and iasti* tutions as a whole. ^operation Is learned in action, not in theory# Practice is a daily, constant effort# frdnimg and hiring specialised personnel will improve the adminis trative offices and functions. Coordination and coopera* tioa may be instinctively, spontaneously, and Intelligently directed#. Councils and staff meetings with free discussion may bring, desired results for improved relationships, morale, efficiency* Instruction and curricula# facuity groups, divisional and departmental discussions, with full par* tieipation will raise morale, clarify goals, and help to arrange functional curricula# In-service programs, method ology seminars, and discussions with resource persons will 316 improve instruction* the divisions and departments should study how they may heat help each teaching individual to see how his course and program helps the goals and objee* tlves of the institution to be attained* liistructiotial faculties in groups may study how best the curriculum, may care for the local needs of students and the curricular iraplications of general education* Methodology. Each faculty and college in group and private may seek counsel and advisement* Deans and chairmen and heads do not lower their dignity with such conferences and eommunic at ion. for those instructors arid teaching personnel who employ translators* both should consult mid preview notes, outlines* and terminology for / class presentations*. Panel* group discussion* and seminar methods may well be studied by teaching personnel for use in classroom instruction* faculty and staff* faculty mad staff meetings may be held periodically in which there it study for pro* feaslooal growth m well m caring for administrative and curricular routines* Administrative and instructional officials# with Ministry of Education representatives# would do well to counsel how to secure permanent Iranian faculty members and «dtafc inducements should be made* the same personnel with faculty representation may plan 317 practical in~service programs. Student personnel. Individual .and group study by educators on examination procedures and content;, m * eruitmant* selection* aid advisement of students; and what student personnel services may be. extended to students^ these are better understood by discussion in fell faculty meetings or in faculty committees. Study of geographical distribution of school populations may help determine where Institutions of higher education should be located* .faculties and instructional end administrative personnel in committee discussion may arrive at workable programs for the educational* physical, social* and vocational guidance of students* higher education in Iraq* Central areas form a natural basis for the consideration of procedural steps toward solutions, of issues* problems* .and difficulties of hi gher educ at ion in Iraq. Control. Inasmuch as- a number of Ministries in the Government of Iraq have had control and sponsorship of institutions of higher education and learning* they indi vidually and collectively by representative councils and committees by give*and*take may be able to implement the law Sixty of June, 1956 thus legally authorizing the first 318 national or state university. Coordination first worked out on the national level will establish a pragmatic precedent for coordination on the institutional level, the establishment of a national council on higher education will aid materially the university* Although Iraq is an oil-producing country, yet the Government should study what financial interests are best for the. students and citizens* Organisation* Unification and simplification will follow, as implied, after the general plans of co ordination have been worked out first on the Ministry level* The centralization of administration for the over all university organization will eliminate the decentral ized administration which presently exists in the various colleges and institutions* Study should be given as to what organization is best for the university as a whole* * Philosophy and objectives. The aims and objec tives of the proposed university must be studied in the light of the evolving society in a changing, modernizing Iraq* On the national level the Ministry of Education especially will seek to develop curricula and work with the University of Baghdad to meet the needs of both the urban and rural youth* Administration* The Government of Iraq should study how more stability may obtain on all levels of 319 education, the advantages of tenure, the desirability of single*track programs in teacher education* and provisions for in* service programs for administrators, functional organization and communication should he studied in local faculties and colleges* instruction and curricula* Representatives' of the Ministry of Education, government secondary schools# and the school or college of education in the newly pro* posed University of Baghdad would fee a logical feedy to study and recommend solutions in the articulation of in* struction and curricula between the levels of secondary and higher education* Continuous curriculum development programs may fee set up in each faculty and college* Facul ties in committees, and as colleges# would find profit in studying their contributions toward general education* lbe scope of the university program should fee studied fey the faculties and colleges* Methodology* The teaching medium, problem of Kurdish should fee worked on from the Ministry down, through the University faculties and colleges# to the lower schools* The implications for each level can fee discussed# and decisions may fee reached* the Ministry could well con* alder the utilization of more eommuni t y - group planning and staff* The colleges may seek aca demic coordination first and then work toward more unani mity in qualifications for faculty members. She government should seek qualified nationals for the university posts, although a cosmopolitan faculty does have its advantages as well. Each faculty or college should seek to maintain arrangements for an in-service professional program. Student personnel* Academic offerings, the range of curricula# md the number of student stations may determine whether a ■ student desires to study at home or abroad* Research tools will come in handy for working on student personnel programs of academic, social# and voca tional guidance, lamination md admission practice may be studied and improved by faculty and college consideration* Higher education in Lebanon, the study of resolving issues# problems# difficulties# and needs cluster. around central areas* ; Control* • The ■ Ministry of Education will have to decide the e&tent of the control of national higher educa tion, inasmuch as most of the higher education is being provided currently by so-called foreign institutions* The Ministries and Government el Lebanon will study and adapt their budgets in harmony with the national needs* Organization, Both the Ministry of Education and the University personnel are the logical personnel to consider the full organization of the University of Lebanon, unless a Commission on Higher Education is appointed* The latter could he a representative body functioning with merit* the organization of the University Should meet the local needs of the country md should not necessarily ape a foreign institution of higher learning oer se* Philosophy and objectives* The aims md object tives of the national university and other national insti- tutions of higher education and learning may he compared with the foreign universities* The Government of Lebanon and the University should work closely to see that national alms md needs are cared for* Administration. In the administration of £1** nance in school administration several Ministries would do well to discuss md plan on economy# efficiency, and util ization to the best advantage* in-service education for school administrators would facilitate school operations* Consultative services would improve the programs* Instruction mad curricula. Adaptation and arrangement of courses# curricula# and instruction to the social and economic environment of Lebanon la no easy task* Hie influences of the French, British* and American ay atmm in Lebanon have been felt for year#. Representative governmental and professional group# will have to work out agreeable and adaptable programs In the best interests of the youth in Lebanon* the Ministry of Education with close scrutiny and with the aid of specialists would do well to study md improve the national examination programs, fhe advisability of one-level instruction for teacher education should be studied by Lebanese educationists, Educational program adequacy should be discussed and studied by respective institutions, >o % o v, _ „ c Methodology* Universities and faculties work out their language or teaching medium* Adaptation of methodology to the soeio^eeenomXe culture# throughout Lebanon may be studied to advantage in Ministry of Eduea** tie** circles* Both the Ministry and universities could coordinate programs md activities# at least in principle for understanding, if representative meetings or committees were called periodically* teacher education in the Univer sity of Lebanon should consider inclusion of multiple**grade methodology* Faculty and staff* In-service programs for faculty and staff is an encouraging medium for professional 323 & I Procedural steps toward the solution o f Issues# blems, difficulties# and other needs o f higher education oughout the Middle East may b e taken i f solution goals *0 rH m. m f * 4 0 1 J § 2 2 O* m £ t - 4 0 0 43 I 3 3 •g g 5 r4 * 324 community resource persons and environment. 3» Combine practice with theory in administration and instruction* 4* Appoint iaymen-professional pluming and study groups to improve institutions end programs# 5* Encourage the problem-approach in the resolving of problems and difficulties* 6# foster and promote research in all educational institution aspects# 7. Budget finance, personnel, and time for the Solution of issues.#, problems, and difficulties# / 8. <*« ». « « , « * * * » program with off-campus and community interests and needs by life-centered teaching and experience-centered instruction* 9. Be clear on directions# functions# mid purposes for educational program adequacy* 10# Communicate, discuss# plan# and share with col-, leagues# 11# Know clearly and use appropriately the channels of communication• 12* Consider conscientiously the welfare and inter ests of the individual student# the institution itself# and the nation at large# Knowing the aims and objectives and understanding the direction* administrators* faculty* and staff should proceed forward with fried and proven instruments to accomplish desired results* Action research* however* may be on unknown ground* the use of scientific and objective procedures are of great importance. Care and selection should be made in the choice of proper instruments, then implementation may pro? ceed with assurance* Olive Schreiner was quoted as sayings A train is better than an oxwagon only when it car- I ries better men* rapid movement is an advantage only / when we move towards beauty and truths all motion is / not advance* all change hot development.72 / Action and implementation are import ant* but only as they move on well selected instruments as sound procedure* Instruments and procedures vary; some are better than others* The best choices should be made* then imple mented* iv* wmtmms foe solution the decisions for solution must be made by the responsible body, which in some cases may be the Ministry 1. Van Lohuizen-de Leeuw* ”The Heating Between East and West*" East and West (Rome), 7:6* April, 1956. 326 of Education, the University Council, the rector, the dean, the department head, the controlling committee, or the faculty member, Organisational channels should he fol~ j f lowed* ' I | Proper appraisal and evaluation should he estab- ' lished upon the accepted criteria. Decisions for solution will take into account politico-socio-economic backgrounds. ^ As to when some solutions may he expected and when some decisions may he made to problems and Issues of edu cation in the Middle last# one key may unlock the door to higher educations Problems and Issues in Arab teacher education have been accentuated by this development (of expansion of education. Increase in number of schools, multiplying of expenditures). These problems are just beginning to be identified and brought into clear focus. Their solutions lie in the years and decades ahead. The problems themselves are not unique except that they arej set in a social milieu characterised by radical chang|j|, abnormal tensions, and political instability^ •* # * V. SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER This chapter dealt with the resolution of Issues, George Kirk (ed.), The Middle Easts 1945*1950. Survey of International Affairs (londbn: Royal Institute of International Affairs, Oxford University Press, 1954), 338 pp. ^A. Douglas Rugh, "Issues and Trends in Arab Teacher Education,” The Journal of Teacher Education. 7:316, December, 1936. 327 problems, m < I difficulties of higher education in the Middle last* Although three countries were studied in particu lar— Iran, Iracj# and Lebanon--yet there were some problems and issues in common among all the countries of the Middle East* the consideration of educational problems of another country has value for onefs own* Three general procedural steps toward the resolution of problems and issues were <i> Attention in analytical focus# (2) Admission of acknowledged recognition# and (3) Use of effective instruments. Recognition was divided into self*# institutional# regional# mad international recogni tion. For convenience of arrangement, the instruments were classified into i l domestie, , and ^abroad" for availability and into "research. " Fifteen Instruments were enumerated under domestic instruments usable for solution of problems and Issues# and nine instruments that have relationships# or come from# outside the respective country of the Middle East* The research instrument for solution was emphasized with its applied and scientific meanings* Available methods of research are as applicable in countries of the Middle last as elsewhere* Facilities for educational re* search range the whole gamut from the local institution to 328 international research* Specific procedural, steps in brief were enumerated under the three selected countries of Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon, and then procedural steps were listed which could apply toward the issues* problems, and difficulties which have been possessed in common among countries of the Middle Bast* After instruments have been selected carefully, the imp lemen t at ion of procedures follows, until the decisions are made finally for solution* Organisation and organisa tional channels determine the personnel who make the deci sions* JV CHAFfEE VIE $wmm» nmvsm* conclusions, and eeconmendations e. tm summary A preliminary survey of the literature of ..interna* tional and comparative education and the Middle leaf clearly indicated that there is a growing importance of education in general and higher education in particular for the maintaining of national and international interests; i that there is a dearth of information concerning some parts of the world and its cultural and educational patterns; that the countries of the Middle East jplay an important role in world affairs;, and that higher education* though it has its needs* largely determines the future of each nation. the Problem Ihe problem of this study was to identify in se lected countries of the Middle Bast— Iran* Iraq# and Lebanon— the issues and problems of higher education* to isolate and categorise them, and to explore procedural steps toward their solution# I tm Smm& Functionally, the purpose of this study was a two- way objective of (1) helping interpret with documentation higher education of the Kiddie East for the West# and (2) helping the Kiddle last understand better their issues and problems of higher education and exploring procedures which the countries might pursue for their possible solutions. Specifically, the purpose of the study was to answer questions of higher education in Iran, Iraq# and Lebanon as regards (1) availability of literature and research on edu cation aid higher education for the Kiddie last# (2) iden tification and isolation of issues and problems that were both singular and common in the countries of the region# (3) availability of resources and instruments for the resolution of the issues# problems and difficulties# and (4) recommended procedural steps offered to improve aca demic offerings acid to help solve the problems of higher education in Iran# Iraq# Lebanon, and in the other coun tries of the Kiddle last* The Assumptions Basic assumptions for the investigation were three in number i I* Each country in the Middle last wants college-* and university— educated men and women* 2. Some countries have limited post-secondary school educational offerings* ' 3. There is need for curricular expansion and development in existing universities* j 332 The results of the investigation supported the basic .With the documentary end integrative method of re* search, data .were sought in, nine different libraries* Research studies# monographs, articles# boohs# university bulletins# dissertations# government and professional pub* licatlons on education and higher education in countries of the Kiddle East were studied to ascertain issues# needs# and problems of higher education and to explore procedures toward possible solutions* Statements were quoted as well as references cited for convenience of documentation and availability of material* Some translation was made from \ Arabic and French into English for this investigation* J The data# information# and documentation were de~ rived principally from library sources and were . arranged In text# tables# and figures for facility of investigation and interpretation* The latest data available were sought, although some government information is difficult to obtain* In some countries censuses and surveys are rarely# if ever# administered. Statistics may be difficult of access# or reliability at times may be questionable* The most reliable sources for the foreign data were government assumptions made before the study began the Data 333 reports, official statements of professional organisations and missions, and international publications. Such, conse quently, have given the greatest validity possible for the data and findings. ttf THE w i m m o s Answers to the problems raised in Chapter 1 may be gained from an analysis or interpretation of the findings* It is well at this point because of the many detailed find ings resulting from the investigation to restate each major question listed under the purpose of the investigation and attempt to answer it in terns of the most significant data, utilizing the findings as the chief source of information* for purposes of clarity and convenience# the questions are given here m originally stated* 1* What literature and research are available cur rently on education in general and higher educa tion in particular for the Middle East! Chapter 111 in detail cited literature and research as background information on the Middle East. They re vealed the following: Religion is a sturdy thread in the V* warp and woof of Middle East society and life* Most of the peoples are devotees of Islam# and they subscribe in thought and conduct in daily activities with the Moslem / 334 creed and ritual* Nationalism is a dominant factor in the politico** economic life of the Middle last* Independence* neutral ism, secularism, and modernisation are developing influ ences felt widely in the region* Iconomically, oil has made some countries of the Middle last rich, and others richer, 0ome countries, however, non-oil producing nations, have found their finances limited* Although in dustrialisation is increasing, the countries of the Middle last have largely an agricultural economy. Mater and power and machinery, if in abundance, could bring greater pros perity* Man-l and and man-us able land ratios mus t take into account arid conditions, deserts, mountains, limited rain fall, and little water* fields and levels of production are comparatively low* fabulous royalties come from the oil production. Oil is the key and talisman in many crises, Issues, and problems for the Middle last* linking three continents the socio-cultural life of the Middle last has been enriched by the glorious heritage of the past and the interactive cultures of the present* foreign and neighboring influences have been bringing in transition and change. With the impact of Inventions, com munication, and travel the Middle last has almost skipped t^ newspaper era for the radio and television. furkey, Egypt, Lebanon, and Iraq have led the Middle last in the 335 number of publications; Turkey, Egypt* Iran, and Syria have led in radio receiving seta; andLIraq baa introduced tele- vision to the fiddle East# Education in the Moslem lands has left the mosque and moved into special buildings and institutions* - the schools, colleges, and universities. The educational net*, work ■ of intricate, patterns . forms, a. huge eraayquilt ■ of . design throughout the Middle East# . illiteracy figures range from 50 * ■ 55 per. Lebanon to 95 * 99 per cent in Saudi Arabia* There has been a rapid expansion of education in the Middle East in post^World War II years and a tripling of expenditures for education by the governments of Egypt* Iraq, Iordan, Lebanon, and Syria# Elementary and higher education generally have coeducational facilities; but secondary education, separate facilities for the sexes* / Foreign educational influences have been felt* , The countries of the Middle East have been active members of UNESCO, and they in turn have received much help from the international organisation. Education on all levels in countries of the Middle last is a national interest, a national function, and a national responsibility. The educational levels in Iran conduct their system in the Farsee (Persian) language, although French is used 336 also as a teaching medium In the University of Teheran. Iran has a 6~3~2~1 educational ladder* Students in Iran who have completed six years of secondary education and present a diploma from the second* ary school may sit for entrance examinations in the insti tutions of higher education in Iran. Iraq operates on a K-6-3-2-X plan for college* or university-entrance. Both private and foreign schools are subject to the regulations of the Ministry of Education, The higher educational institutions# some coeduca tional# are all under Iraqi government control# sponsored by various Ministries * Lebanon has a K-5-4-3 educational ladder* There are almost as many private schools in Lebanon as government schools# and foreign schools operate freely. Spiral systems are the practice in the curricula* Like the other countries# Lebanon also administers government examinations. foreign education and systems developed higher edu cation in Lebanon# although a national university to meet better the needs of the country has been developing during the current decade. Foreign and private institutions of higher education and learning in Lebanon have provided some services which the Lebanese national Government has been unable to render* 33? Higher education is highly desired and maintains a status of prestige In the Middle East, though there are many issues, problems, and difficulties, such as effective external control, internal administration, adequate fi nance, and functional Instructional program* Government reports; monographs; articles! university bulletins; professional organizations, missions, and inter* national publications were cited in Chapters III and IV, Research studies and sources# too numerous to in* elude in this chapter# were cited in Chapter f * Hie typical research studies were arranged in an order or se quence common with the American Educational Research Association. Primary and secondary sources of research for higher education in the Middle last and clearing houses and docu mentation centers available for the region were described in Chapter V. Public or national junior and community colleges do not exist as such in Iran, Iraq# and Lebanon. Issues and Problems 2, What issues and problems of higher education are Identified and can be isolated especially in the three selected countries: a) Issues and problems found in each country; and 338 t>) Issues and problems possessed In common. Chapter IV identified and isolated the issues and problems of higher education with documented statements. a) Issues and problems found in each country: Iran* Some of the Issues and problems of higher education in Iran have been nationalistic and political control! excessive autonomy; limited finance! centralised institutions; desire for foreign education to exclusion of domestic; lack of institutional coordination, cooperation, and specialisation; Insufficient advisement among col leagues, and for students; sliding scales in curricula; rivalry among faculties; inadequacies to instructional materials; restricted university entrance; limited facili ties; and inadequate student personnel services# Iraq. Issues, problems, and dlfficulties"of higher education to Iraq have included excessive national control and support' of higher educational institutions for a com paratively Small population; independent development of institutions by various Ministries; lack of institutional coordination; growing pains of founding a national univer sity; administrative burdens; varytog standards for facul ties and curricula; balance between centralization mid decentralization; need for functional organizations; authoritarianism; insufficient to-serviee education of personnel; lack of continuous research; lack of time for student independent study; need for graduate study pro* grans; and student personnel problems* Lebanon# Some of the issues* problems* and diffi* unities of higher education in Lebanon have been the ab sence of strong national institutions of higher education; the growing pains of a national university; complexity of educational structure due to Lebanese* french* British* and American systems of education; extent of offerings in the University of Lebanon; coordination of national institu tions ; conflicting philosophies acid objectives; insuffi cient funds and financial difficulties; need for vocation* al* academic, social guidance; relationship between govern ment examinations and college entrance matriculants; f instructional dichotomy in urban and rural schools; training of professional personnel in the culture and with the language of the Middle last; teaching medium difficulties; and teacher education needs* b) Issues and problems possessed in commons Control# Centralised control by the Ministry of education* yet appreciable autonomy for the national insti tutions; financial and budgetary structure and control# Organization* Rigid prescription by law; difficulty 340 of efficient and functional arrangements; limited fa®ill** ties#. fcilosophy and objectives* Opposing concepts and philosophies^-national and foreign, Moslem and non-Moslera, -classical and pragmatic, .and spiritual and material# Adminis trat ion * f Heed, for professional training.; cases of inefficiency; poor communication; administrative burdens# Instruction and curricula# Bigidity; prescribed curricula; feu electives; undue emphasis on intellectual* ism; need for functional instruction# Methodology* Mas toward lecture'method; teaching medium problems; need for in-service education# . faculty and staff# disparity of academic and' pro fessional qualifications; difficulties of teacher educa tion; low salaries i limited fringe benefits; teacher short* ages;, certification needs# Student personnel. Extraneous reasons for educa tion; lack of student personnel services; limited "Student activities; weak, student financial bases;' inadequate place* ment and utilisation of all college and university gradu* ates* Resources and Instruments 3* What resources and instruments are available in the resolving of the issues* problems* and dif ficulties? The Middle last has available for the working on, and the resolution of* the issues* problems* and difficul ties of higher education effective instruments which were introduced and explained under "domestic” and "abroad" categories as well as ^research** in Chapter VI* a) Domestic Instruments: (I) Long-range sound planning <2) Surveys (3) Improved administration and supervision (4) Leadership for instruction (5) Adminis tr at ive councils* faculty study* and discussion groups (6) in-service programs for faculty and staff (7) Institutional and international visits (8) Inter-university scholars and teacher exchange (f > Missions and seminars <10) Cultural activities of the Arab League (11) Regional seminars (12) Audio-visual materials (13) Resource persons (14) Multi-fora approach (15) A M of specialists b) Instruments abroad: (1) Bursary students and students who study abroad (2) Readjustment of returned students (3) Continuous and free international com munication (4) llorM-wide surveys (5) Inter-university scholars (6) Visits by foreign professors and students (7) Teacher eKchange programs (8) International educational partnerships (f) International conferences c) Research: Educational research is an applied research and one of the most effective instruments availa ble for use in the countries of the Middle East* Research uses different media and methodology as needed for the respective is sues* problems* difficulties* and needs * Chapter v introduced the primary and secondary re sources that are available for Iran* Iraq* iebanon, and the other countries of the region. It introduced also and described the location* organization, function* and facili ties of the clearing houses and documentation centers available for the countries of the Middle East on the 343 following levels: (X) international institutions, (2) .re* gional institutions# (3) national institutions# (4) local institutions# and (5) other institutions# Procedural Steps 4* ttfhat recommended procedural steps may he offered to improve academic offerings and to solve the problems of higher education a) In each of the three countries? b) to the Middle East? the procedural steps offered to improve academic offerings and to help toward the resolution of the issues# problems# difficulties# and needs of Iran# Iraq, and Lebanon were divided into two divisions- -general and speci fic# as explained in Chapter VI* ' a) fhe specific procedural steps were introduced for Irma# Iraq# and Lebanon, respectively# under the logi- cal consideration of (1) control# <2) organisation# (3) philosophy and objectives# (4) administration, (3) instruc tion and curricula, (6) methodology# (?) faculty and staff# and (8) student personnel* b> Hie constituents of the general procedural steps warei (1) Attention in analytical focus ^ (2) Admission of acknowledged recognition (a) Self-recognition <b) Institutional recognition (e) Regional recognition (d) International recognition (3) V&e of effective Instruments ! (a) Domestic instruments (I?) Instruments abroad Co) Research* at: home or abroad I ' ' ’ / (4) Employment of evaluation and appraisal . 1 1 , He? ct O i f t C SHfijr Procedural steps toward the solution of the issues* problems, difficulties* and other needs of higher education possessed in common in the Middle East were each listed as a continuum. implementation and decision followed in due course the selection of instruments# procedures* and procedural steps# f r f »wi | 7 f AMPT ttCTAMC • in& vU«wljUaiUwb Hie findings of this study definitely supported the following common and specific conclusions: Conclusions Common Among the Countries I* Each problem* if well delimited and studied with the proper procedure and technique, can have a rewarding solution for each of the Ministries of Education and for each of the universities in Iran* Iraq* Lebanon, and in the other countries of the Middle last. 2* The most effective unit of organization for the solution of local# specific problems in countries of the Middle Bast is the faculty of the local school# college# and university# or the personnel and staff of the respec tive Ministry of Education* 3, A study together of problems in the Middle East on a regional# national# and international basis will give all an understanding of educational problems in common, will suggest concepts for procedure and techniques toward solution# and will foster an appreciation that others also possess difficulties# problems# and issues* 4* Each educational problem in a country of the Middle East should have its legitimate and official organ* ization or body in which to deliberate the problem at hand* 5* The Middle East countries do not have aj*onr^ governmental professional organization in which to discuss# probe# and solve their educational problems* The Arab States have their cultural interests in their league* UNESCO and the International Bureau of Education# though eminently qualified and interested# have their functions and activities so diffusive and world-wide that a regional professional organization for education--or higher educa tion--in the Middle East without government control or political ideology# could obtain appreciable focus and 346 solutions with academic freedom. 6. Because of undue emphasis to classical instruct ^ tion and foreign influence, educational Institutions and curricula of higher education and learning in Iran* Iraq* / and Lebanon, and in the other countries of the Middle last / must adapt more effectually their organisation and instruct/ tion to the religious, politico-economic, and socle* / cultural Hues ■ of their peoples'* Tf Highereduc at ion in its policy and polity with clear vision and conscious responsibilities will help advance materially the future leadership of the countries in the Middle last. 3. the national universities* though possessing some autonomy, are financially dependent upon the Ministry of Education or national government* respectively* 9. Many of the university issues and problems in \ i countries of the Middle East gravitate around the categor ised or classified problems of internal administration* finance, and instructional program, which* J if solved* would minimize other difficulties. / 10. Hie countries of the Middle East through their personnel and material in institutions of higher education and higher learning, their clearing houses* and their re source centers have available effective instruments for the resolution of educational Issues* problems* and difficul ties. 347 11# Because of xnutual functions in their respective countries and because of returned students and teacher exchanges, the countries of the last and West may under stand better their systems of higher education and may enjoy increasingly fraternal and professional fellowship# 12. Each university in Iran* Iraq, and Lebanon has a responsibility for organizing and conducting graduate studies in addition to the professional curricula which now are offered# 13# Lay citizen and community planning for educa tion and higher education constitutes both a challenge and an opportunity in each country of the Middle last with the centralized government control# 14# General education in institutions of higher education in the Middle East will not become a part of the functional program of studies until it receives enthusi astic endorsement from the national educators# C o n c l u s i o n s S p e c i f i c t o t h e S e l e c t e d C o u n t r i e s ■ M m 15. In its national system of higher education* Iran has in the University of teheran a strong central core and in rapidly developing faculties and colleges elsewhere the beginnings of another national university# 16. fhe greatest issues and problems of the Univer sity of leheran seem to be within the institution— a d v i s e m e n t * c o o r d i n a t i o n , cooperation, and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . M m 17. 011 r o y a l t i e s h a v e given to Iraq a n enviable position a m o n g the c o u n t r i e s o f the M i d d l e Bast for the financing of higher education and learning, as far as t h e fiscal centralized c o n t r o l is concerned, but the proper relationship o f the Iraqi G o v e r n m e n t toward the i n d i v i d u a l student a n d c o m m u n i t y toward educational finance requires further study# 10. t h e effectual e s t a b l i s h m e n t and success of the U n i v e r s i t y of Baghdad will be c o m m e n s u r a t e largely to the degree of cooperation, u nity, and initiative a m o n g the various Ministries .of the Iraqi G o v e r n m e n t in supporting one national institution. If, the c o m p l e x i t y of educational structure In L e b a n o n due to the influences of the French, British, and A m e r i c a n systems of education should be reconciled and made compatible to the national needs of the country, 20. the national U n i v e r s i t y of Lebanon can ill afford to dispense with the complementary functions of the desuit Universitd Saint*Joseph a n d the American University o f Beirut, Ttr «fU t r 34$ A number of recommendations are suggested by the findings of this investigation* For convenience and clarity the recommendations follow the structural arrange* meats used previously* Specific Recommendations ' for the fhree Selected Countries Iran* Specific reccmsraendations suggested by the findings for Iran are arranged in the areas: I. the Ministry of Education and officers of the institutions of higher education should study and discuss a mutually satisfactory pattern for administrative* fiscal* and academic control# 2# the Ministry of Education should consider further the advisability of establishing branches or divisions of the national uni* i * ■ . . % varsity in relationship with the geographi cal needs of the student population* 3* Autonomy limits should be mutually under* stood by the Ministry* university officials* and faculty and college deans# Organization 4# The governing bodies of the institutions of higher education would do well to re- evaluate the organization for functional efficiency and economy. Philosophy and objectIves 5* A proper understanding should be reached as to the aims, objectives, and goals of higher education and learning in Iran* 6. The role of religious and secular interests should he understood clearly# 7* The Hints try of Education should study the function of local and domestic education in the light of class status# 8. School administration Should endeavor to reconcile the quantity and quality needs of higher education* 9# School administration should consider seriously longer terms of service and ad* vantages of tenure for continuity of pro* gram# 10* Educational administration should he im proved by in-service education* 11. Coordination, cooperation, advisement, and specialisation should he implemented from theory to practice* 351 Instruction mil curricula 12* The advisability of differentiated curricu lar and instructional programs should he discussed, planned, and arranged to maot student and societal needs in urban and rural areas* 13. Teacher education should be reorganized with the possibility of upgrading all teaching levels* 14. Admission, graduation# and examination standards of different curricula should be arranged In the light of instructional levels for the mutual interests of the .institution rather than for certain cur ricula or faculties* 15* In-service education, seminars, and demon strations might improve the rigidity of classical methodology* 15*. Examination programs, and schedules should be de-emphasized for better learning ob jectives. Fj&uZM Staff 17. Administrations should consider faculty extra-curricular activities and services 35 2 for improving morale. 18. in-service programs would assure better ■ , . * ■ . i professional growth of faculty and staff* 19* Coordination of teaching personnel recruit* menfc, selection, and professional standards should be improved. 20. Research and teaching services should arranged equitably. Adequate facilities and student entrance requirements should correlate with student needs* 22* More extensive student activities should be provided* 23. Student personnel services should Include more adequate personal# social# academic# and vocational counseling and guidance* Iraq* Specific recommendations suggested by the findings for Iraq are arranged in the areas: 24* An ad hoc planning commission to study# plan and assist all the faculties and col* leges in the re-organization period for the satisfactory establishment of the Univer sity of Baghdad would be profitable* 353 25. to inclement the give-and-take among the various Ministries sponsoring higher insti tutions of education and learning, an inter-Ministry representation would facili tate understanding and transfer to the University organisation* 26# At the Iraqi Government level the degree of University autonomy in fiscal, polity, and policy matters should he determined* 21 * Implementation of the duties and functions of the Council on Higher Education will im prove higher education until the University of Baghdad satisfactorily functions, there after a similar council with the University administration could be a boon to coordina tion of higher education for Iraq* Organization 28* Implementation of %&w Si&ty of June, 1958 should be effected as completely as pos sible for the needs of higher education in Iraq* 29. Complete re-organization for the University of Baghdad should be adapted satisfactorily for function in practice as well as on paper* P h i l o s o p h y a n d o b j e c t i v e s 30. Democratic, national, and progressive approaches of education for Iraq should he synchronized for the welfare of the stu dents and nation. 31. With the fluid and transitory state of Iraqi society education cannot rematotoo^ | ^la§s,ic.ai^oru.rigid.. 32. The aims and objectives and function of higher education and learning to Iraq should he studied and clarified at the initiatory consideration by the Ministry. Adminl s t ration 33. Coordination should he emphasized and to* plemanted among all the colleges and faoul- ties, to administrative, instructional, and other services* 34. Orientation programs and in-service educa tion will be appropriate and effectual for all the faculty and staff personnel of the colleges and the University of Baghdad. Instruction and curricula 35. Integration and coordination of courses and curricula will facilitate instruction* 36. length of curricula and graduation 355 requirements should he studied to the Uni versity frame of reference. 37. toe needs of urban and rural youth should be considered by curriculum development and improvement programs. 38. There should be continuous research and study on' resolution of problems to office# classroom# laboratory, and campus. 39. library facilities should be utilised move to instructional fields* 40. Faculties' and colleges could study with profit the contributions of their fields to general education* and vice versa. 41* functional adaptation should be a key con cept to all university instruction and : practice. ' faculty and staff' 42* to-service education and professional growth programs should be set up* 43. toe professional status of teaching faculty should be clarified* 44*. Fringe benefits for faculty and staff may ’help stabilise teaching service,> 45. Student personnel service# should he studied thoroughly for improvement in the light of accepted criteria. 46# orientation for returned students is worthy of consideration* Lebanon* .Specific recommendations suggested by the finding for Lebanon are arranged in the. areas: 47. The degree of control of the Ministry of Idoeation over the University of Lebanon could be studied in the light of inetitu* tional development* 48. The Lebanese Government should consider the proportion of its public expenditure budget to be devoted to higher education and learning in Lebanon. 4$. The national institutions of higher educa tion In Lebanon should be streamlined in organisation for economy and efficiency. Philosophy and obiectIves 50. In the environment of various cultures and foreign influences the aims, objectives# and functions of national education should be clarified for all national educators* 51. The relationships In principle of the Uni* \ v e r s i t y of Irebanon with the f o r e i g n w a i v e r * I s i t i e s should be understood m u t u a l l y by the I Ministry of Education and the officers of / the national university* / Administration 52. Centralized control and decentralized ad* ministration relationships between the Ministry of Education and the national uni* versity should be studied for efficiency. 53. the national institutions should partial* pate freely in their budget and fiscal e on s i d e r a t i o n s . Instruction and -curricula 54* With the close proximity and educational services of the foreign universities the Ministry and national university should study further the academic offerings for Lebanese student .and societal needs* 55* the advisability of upgrading teacher edu* \ cation for the elimination of urban and rural, school disparities is worthy'of con* sideration. 56. The Ministry of Education should consider 358 what academic program and environment are host adapted for the preparation of person- nel for professional service in Lebanon, 57- gxtra-eurricular activities for students and extra-curricular responsibilities for faculty and staff may improve the morale both* 53* Higher education and learning should study how to utilise mom of the community and field out-of-class opportunities. and staff In-service education and professional growth programs should be made available for all faculty and staff*' Student personnel 80. Student personnel services should be rounded out to include more than at pres ent* 61, Slimination of drop-outs is an imperative must to assure more human potential, for university-trained national leadership* ftemml Sm. <&§ countries of madie ISS£ General recommendations in common suggested by the findings for countries of the Middle East: are arranged accordingly, somewhat supplemental to the details of €hap~ ter l¥i 1* Proposals and recommendations for the .Middle East must take Into consideration the following factors i ' a) Hie' cultural heritage of the" past' b) the • socio-economic: conditions of' the present day e> fhe major trends and practices of higher edu cation d) the investigator1# own point of view based upon his philosophy of education and experi ence#. 2* Coordination, cooperation, unification# central isation# and communication seem to be needed concepts translated into practice* ■ 3* Adequacy of educational program# in educational institutions of higher learning should include variety of academic offerings# elective courses# .and differentiation of curricula* 4* Counseling and 'guidance services for students Should be preventive as well as curative* S* Universities could well consider establishing or re-establishing their campuses in rural areas-.# or out of urban centers and capital cities* 360 6* Housing and boarding facilities for students could be better arranged and administered for student and societal needs# 7# Domestic education should be improved and ,up- graded by professionally trained* well educated# and experienced national faculty and staff# 8. In-service education and professional growth pro-ams should be well planned and continuously adminis tered# 9* functional design and purpose should be a basic principle for the streamlining of administration mid administrative procedures* 10. intimate dependence of the national institutions of higher education and learning must fee based not upon the > material economy of the nationbut upon^the human re- A- m r ...... ----- ■ -» / sources. / 11. Research programs should be set in continuous operation, and educational research should be given greater CinW»!h bqi & . clupuao X ♦ 12. Solutions to Issues# problems, end difficulties are expressed in time* effort* mad communication* and should thus be provided for# 13. the Ministries of Education should consider the advisability of establishing public Junior and community colleges to meet the demands of student populations* 361 14# Through various frameworks* solutions may be found for the different problems, many of which may he mutually studied together m the countries have many prob lems in common: a) At the Conference table* (1) through UNESCO with government sanction; and/or (2) through a professional association to which the respective Ministries of Edu cation and respective universities and colleges subscribe, sharing' financial costs by membership. A representative jd hoc Conference on higher Educa tion could convene with representatives from each country ■ : ■ 1 ' ' ' 1 4 ! ■ ■ 1 1 ; ! 1 * in the Middle last and from each national and private institution of higher learning; and if the Conference were found to be of appreciable value, the desirability could be considered of establishing and maintaining Association, of Higher Education for Che Middle last# Both a temporary Conference and a permanent 'organisation with an annual Conference in the investigator# s humble opinion would be highly worthwhile and imperative for professional growth and educational program adequacy* b) action research. By l^lvidnally-- or collec tively- - sponsored experiments and projects. 362 educational research on various problems should be carried on continuously* with the assumption that each problem if ^j isolated and defined can be solved* or a solution found / for* if concentration, proper delimitation* and focusing are made* Evaluation and appraisal of education should be a continuum study in the various countries of the Middle last* 13* Conference on higher education* Inquiries could be made first with each Ministry of Education and* if with approval* then with each nationally*-and privately*** sponsored institution of higher education and higher learn ing in the Middle East* a temporary Secretariat could be established* say in Beirut* Lebanon, and the Ministry of Education of the Lebanese National Government could serve m the host Ministry and Lebanon as the host country for the First Regional or International Conference on higher Education in the Middle last* & Planning Commission for the Conference could be appointed by nomination* Each Ministry of Education could nominate, one or more representatives from each country to serve on the initial Planning Commission. Upon meeting the Planning Commission could elect its own of fleers--chairman, vice-ehairman, secretary* and treasurer* ■ the planning Commission and Secretariat would plan 363 and work together* the Secretariat having ex-officio membership in the Commission* The Planning Commission would prepare for the first Regional or international Conference on Higher Education in the Middle East* comprising the following: a) Membership of the Conference (with approval* or recommendation* of the respective Ministries) b) Arrangement of delegations c) Preparation of the meeting place (1) Availability of large and smaller assembly chambers (2) Seating (3) Simultaneous translation with appropri ate equipment (4) Maintenance and operational services d) Accommodations for the delegations (1) lodging (2) Boarding (3) Transportational (4) Clerical e) preparation of the tentative agenda f) Preparation of a suggestive schedule of Con ference sessions* meetings* end activities g) Organisation and appointment of committees 364 and sob-com0dtCees as needed by the Confer* ence Planning Commission, such as: (1) Conference nominating Committee (2) fNsmfereoea. Credentials Committee (3) Conference Budget and finance Committee (4) Conference flans Committee (3> Conference Resolutions Committee (6) Conference Public. Relations Committee: tress _ Radio * ft (?) Conference flaming Consultants (8) Conference Constitution Committee, if the Conference is interested in a stand ing, or permanent, professional organ** ization, Ihe Association of Higher Education for the Middle last# ftte opening general session of the Conference on Higher Education would include a keynote address,, based upon the theme of the ■Conference, delivered by a prominent government personality, a successful educator, or a re source person# Panel discussions on some salient aspects • t . * ... of Conference problems could be conducted# Servic.eS'' of fhe Association of Mistier Education for the Middle last# , A functional regional professional organization could provide the following services: a) Study of solutions to problems of mutual concern among the countries of the Middle East* b) Identification of basic professional objec tives* c) Use as a soundingboard for tlie educational profession* d) Upgrading of better teachers for the differ** eat countries* a) Issuance of a polylingual professional Journal of education in the Middle East* by the Middle last, and for the Middle East* f) Encouragement to teacher education programs in preparation of teachers and for in* service education of teachers* g) Coordination* integration# and articulation of educational activities throughout the Middle East* h) Stimulation for* and development of# educa tional research studies and projects* i) Evaluation and appraisal of educational theories and practices in countries of the Middle last* j ) Accreditations of educational programs and institutions for countries of the Middle East* k) Serve m m oversell clearing and exchange off ice for education la the Middle East* 1) Act as a public relations medium for educa tion in the Middle last, interpreting educa tion among the Middle East countries and throughout the rest of the world, IT*. An alternative* An ^International Education Association*1 could he organised with geographical, or regional, grouping of countries as sections; e.g*, with the Middle last m m section; or m "International Education Association of the Middle East** could he established* These would operate in a non-governmental framework for the educational profession, as a professional organization* They should be supported, however, by the respective Ministries of Education. UNESCO and the International Bureau of Education, in contrast, serve more as government- sponsored organisations with interests and concerns that are world-wide* the purpose of such a professional organiaation— a regional one— would be specific to the countries consti tuting the Middle last, and it could serve as a complement to both UNESCO aid the International Bureau of Education for things educational to the Middle East* IS* Institutions of higher education acid the Minis tries of Education in countries of the Middle last should seek possible solutions to their Issues# problems# end dif ficulties through the four procedural steps: (1) attention In analytical focus; (1) admission of acknowledged recog nition; (3) use of effective instruments, including educa tional research; and (4) employment of evaluation and appraisal measures. tr * F H l? < 2 1 1 / 2 /2 $ ? C'PTAIir'Q Q T ’ IflW V • InJC* oUbinlia JL JLUfta f Utt f U l l i i w K alUill As a result of making this study, it appeared that meticulous investigations would lie worthwhile in helping to solve the following curricular and ins true tional problems of higher education and learning in the- .Middle East: Dealing with fiM M llS a f 1* What are the primary and secondary objectives of the university in the Arab States? 2* to what extent is the eurrieoluoi in the Arab States meeting the social# academic, and life- work needs of the students? iiiUaii s u b sigilaMHba S. In the instructional areas which is a better organizational arrangement 1m the Middle last# divisional or departmental? Why? 4* In the. Middle East colleges and universities how# and in what proportion to other expenses* are the curricular mad Instructional areas of 368 the institution financed? Pealing with administration 5* to what extent is supervision of instruction related to the administrator * s time and effort? Pealing with teaching personnel 6* Should the religion of the teacher be a quali firing factor in the selection of teachers of the Arable language and literature? 7. » « . i. U M . « .feM* «. .Ml*. -« > university teachers for the national university/ of a respective country in the Middle East? 8# What provisions in the Middle last are made for university teacher .in-service education? MMMm j&jfo ^ghgjalBM ft Worn should the concepts of nationalism and demo* cracy be taught most effectually in a . national university of the Middle East? IP. What attitude and use should be given by the Middle East college or university to foreign** printed textbooks? jfe illlg M£h library 11. Mow are university governments in the Middle East providing for library services in the uni versity library? 12. to what extent do university courses in the Middie last utilize the university library? Peking yttii teaching 13* Whet effect upon student learning does the use of an English-printed textbook have in a uni versity classroom where' Arabic*, farsee* or french is used as the teaching medium of in* strnctlcmf 14* Mow extensive is the employing of audio-visual materials in diversities of the different countries? 15* To what extent should college and university students in the Middle last* while attending school# participate in politics and political demons trations? 16* What student personnel services exist in the universities of the Hear and Middle Bast? BIBLIOGRAPHY A# BOOKS Bethmann* Brich W. Bridge to Islam# Bon don t George Allen and Tjnwin# Ltd., 1953 Bodley* K. V. C. Wind in the Sahara. Mew York: Creative Age Press* Inc., I9IP1V Brooke lman, Carl. History el the Islamic Peoples.. London: Routledge and Kegan PauT, Lt'd7*^ Cekam, C. W. Gods, Graves# and Scholars. London: Sidgwiek anSnjackson# Ltd* #“ 19W*.. Chambers# M. E. Universities of the World Outside tJ..S.A. Washington, D.C.Y' American- 0ouneil Cramer, John ■'Francis# and George Stephenson Browne. Con temporary Educationt A Comparative Study of National Systems. Sew York: Barcourt, Brace 6 s Co., Dewey, John. Bow We Think. Boston: P« Cf Heath and Company# I9I0. De Young# Chris A. ■ Introduction to American Public Educa tion. New YorkT : McGraw-Hill Book Co., IHcT^lS^ST* • s J i 9 Femau, F.W. Moslems on the March: People and Politics in the World of Islam. New York: Alfred A. Knopf# IncTT*19§t. , T ‘ ’ Good, Carter V. Dictionary of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company# IncV# 19^5* von Grunebaum, E. Muhammadan Festivals. New Yorki Henry Schuman# Inc.# 1951* Hall, Robert King# and J. A. Lauwerys (eds.). Education and Economic3: The Year Book of E^aoatim7^955T~' Ifonkers-on-Hudson#' New " ’ York: ' World Book Company, 1956. 372 Hanna, Lav one A* Pacing Life *s Problems ♦ Chicago: Hand, McNally and Company, 19557 Hans, Nicholas# Comparative Education. London: Boutledge and Kegan- Paul, T95'i'7 Hitti, Philip* History of the Arabs. New York: St# Martin* s Press * 19557*.. . The Arabs# Princeton: Princeton University Pre s s,l9lf3# - Huxley, Julian* "From An Antique Land, Ancient and Modern * in the Middle East. London: Max Parrf sh& Co., Ltd., 195m Xzzeddin, He3la. The Arab World; Past, Present, and Future. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co.,19537 Jaekh, Ernest (ed.)• Background of the Middle Bast. Ithaca, New York:"* Cornel'l' University Press, 1952# Kandel, I. L* Comparative Education. Bostons Houghton Mifflin Co., 1933. . In telle c tual Ooope ration t National and Xnterna- ~tTona.il Hew York: Teachers Coliege, Columhia Univer- Knight, Edgar W. -Twenty Centuries of Education* Boston: Ginn and C o m p m ^ T l ^ ------------1 ------ The Koran, brans. George Sale. * London: Frederick Warns and Company, Ltd., n.d. Kurani, Habib, et al. Falsafat Tarbawiah Mutajadidah Lea- Alamin AraSXyen Yata jada<7n (S&u'c'atioiiaX' ‘ Developrnents’ and Trends' "In' Arab ' Countriea; A New Philosophy of Education for a Modernizing Arab World). Beirut, Lebanon: X>aar al-Kashaf, 1956. (In Arabic) Lenczows'ki, George. The Middle East in World Affairs Second edition; iTKaca, New York: CorneTS'Uni’ versity Press. Lengyel, Emil. World Without End: The Middle Bast. New York; The Jbhn "Day Company, 19557 Longrlgg, 3* H* Iraq, X9Q0 to 1950 » London: Oxford University Press* 1953" Maclean, Malcolm S*, and Edwin A* L@e*. Change and Process in Education, Hew York: The Dryden P r © ss*7"^l955T~ Matthews* Boderic D,, and Matt a Akrawi* Education in Arab Countries of the; Hear Bast. WasMngtonrr , : '5.0* I Arneri'can1 Council on Education, 19^9* Second Printing, 1951# ______ • al^Tarblyah f il*»shark al*-sweat al«**arabi (Bduca** tlon in Arab' Countries M "bF"t he Near'1 'EastTH Cairo: Modem Press,' 1950# (In Arabic) The Middle Bast# 1955. Fourth edition; London: Europe Pu¥I!e a£Ton s^Ltd., 1955# The Middle East, 195?. Fifth edition; London: Buropa " ” ¥uSXi*catIons, Ltd#, 1957* Moehlman, .Arthur Henry, and Joseph C* Roucek. Comparative Education, Hew York: The Dryden Press, 1953* * T ~ - Hahi, Salahuddin* The Awaited Iraqi University and the Future of High©~r " ’ Oultuih in Iraq (Arabic), BaghSaSs RasHTE Fress/ Nicholson* R, A, A Literary History of the Arabs* Cambridge: Cambridge Unlversity Preaa, 1953*........ > Huseibeh, Haz & m 2akl* The Ideas, of Arab nationalism, Ithaca, Hew York: r r "S5r5eiX^KTvers11y Press, 1956* Preston, Ralph C* Teaching World Understanding* Hew York: ^ m 1 ■ * ,'i" 1 II warn/m . . . .!<■■■. . -n . i m m m ■ n > ' W . P rent ice **Hail, 1955* *> Pritchard, lames B* The Ancient Hear Bast in Pictures.» Helating to the UXct Testame^t, Princeton," Hew jersey: FrincetQn~n3rverIIty', , T presa", T9B h * Raswan* Carl R. Black Tents of Arabia* (My Life Among the Bedouins,) W e T T T or¥1 G r © a tTve^Xge Press, Inc., % 9 t f T * Rouoek* loseph 3* Trends in Comparative Educational History of the^' ^ MlddXe^as'i1 * Lrldgeporb," "dohnee 11 cut s University of Bridgeport," 1956* 3anger, Richard H» The Arabian Peninsula* Ithaca, Mew York; Cornell Univeralty~Press♦ Sasnett, Martena femey, Educational Systems of the MorM* Interpretations for Pse' 'in'WaSuation of Foreign ' Credentials1 * Los Angela si University of Southern California Press, 1952* Shara,' Jesse H*, Allen Kent, and James W. Perry* pocu* mentation' In Action* Mew York: Be Inhold Publishing Corp., 1956*7 Soper, Edmund Davison* The Philosophy of the Christian World Mission* Hew York* ‘ ‘ Abingad^Ookesbury' Tress, T953T * . . * . The Religions of Mankind* Hew York: Abingdon** ' Cokes¥ury Press,": '1935* Revised edition*- Thompson, Merritt M * An Outline of the History of Educa tion. Hew York * n S t u S S T m t t o ' B R , Tn?7, X ^ S k Z— Tritten, A* S* Muslim Education in the Middle Ages* London! University ofLohdon, Van Bss, John* Meet the Arab* Hew Yorki John Day Co-., 19^3 • --- ----------------- Washburns, Carle ton* The World* s - Good: Education for World-mindedness. Ne^ IoS’ : ”n r John Day'0§♦, Welker, Edith F* Friends With All the World * Hew York; Friendship Press, ’ T95$» The World, of Learning* 1953* 'Sixth edition; London: Europe. Publications, Ltd*, 1955* The World of Learning, 1956* Seventh edition; London: Europe Publi ca11on a,' Ltd*, 1956. Wrenn, C* Gilbert* Student Personnel Work in Hew York; . The Ronald PresaleoT7 195X. Young, ft Cuyler (ed.), Hear Eastern Culture and Society. Princeton, Hew Jerseys Prlnc'eton University Press, 1951, 375 Bv BOOKS - PARTS OF SERIES Blattner, Barnes * ’ * ForewordWho* a Who in Egypt and the gear East* Iwenty-s©con&~~'edTtion; Sew York:’ ~W* H. Hei'nman , 1956 • The Board of Foreign Missions, of the Presbyterian Church in the H*S*A* Iran Mission, 1937* Centennial Series; Hew Yorks The Board;"!^?* Brown, Stanley 3», Mary Louis© Lyda, and Carter Y* Good (compilers}* Research Studies In Educations A .Sub* ject Index# Armualvolumes* Homewood, XllinoTsj Phi Delta Kappa, Inc., 1951-1952, 1953* ♦ Research Studies in Education; A Subject Index* 'Annual volumes ' Blodmlngton, IndianaT Phi Delta Kappa, Inc*, 195^* Haggerty, Melvin B* The Evaluation of Higher Institutions ?ol* III* The Bducatldhai FrdSram* Chl'cagoHhlver- sity of Chicago Press, 1937* Irwin, Mary, (ed*} * American tlniversities and College a* Washingion, D*C.: American Council orTTfducation' 1956* Seventh edition. Lamke, T* A*, and Herbert M. Silvey (eds.). Master is Theses in Education* Has * 1 Cedar Fail's, Iowat idWa state Teachers College, 1951 **1955* * Master* 3 Theses in Bduc at Ion* 1955*56, Ho* 5* Cedar F all A/"I owa: ' Iowa State Teacher1 's College,. 1956, Lyda, Mary Louise, and Stanley B* Brown (compilers)* Research Studies in Education; A Subject Index* Periodic volumes* Boulder, ' OoloraddT 'hniverslty of Colorado, 19l^l*, 195l, 1953* Putnam, Ivan, Jr*, Educational Observations in the Middle East* MinaretS©rl©s, ' Humber "Twelve* Hew Yorkt 'American Friends of the Middle East, Inc*, n.d. 376 Trotier, Arnold M*, and Marian'Harman (eds*)* Doctoral Pi,asertat 1 one Accepted by American Hni vers'iffes, , ^ 22# Ho'w York; H. ErWTsorTCompany, 19557' : University Microfilms* Dissertation Abstracts.* Ann Arbor * Michigan, 19^7^01 * SfX *1-12 * ' The yearbook of Education* Annual volumes* London; Tfvans' 1 Brother s ' , Ltd*", 1931* 0* PUBLICATIONS OF THE 0OVEHMENT, LEARNED SOCIETIES, AMD OTHER OBGAJflZATXOTS Adams, Arthur S* nThe President * s Annual Report * • October 12, 1956, l* The; Educational Record (American Council on EducationJ7 3F7^amiaiy? 7 1957* American Association of School Administrators* The Expand* ing Role - of Education* Tw©nfy**Sixth YearbooST Washington, D*C* 2 The Association, 19lfB* American University at Cairo* Bulletin of the American University at • Cairo* Catalbgu©1 Issue, CalrbT"" SocleteOrlentale de Publicite, 1§56* American Universify of Beirut* Catalogue of All Schools» . Beirut, Lebanonl American UnJversifyr ? of , n *d* Association for Higher Education* Current Issues in Higher Education* Annual volumes* Wa^fhgton7"'l)'*0* s Mat I o h a 1 "Educ a t ion Association, 1 9 5 5 ^ 1 9 5 7 * Blegen, Theodore C*, et al* Counseling Foreign Students* A*0*1* Studies, Series VX’ 7 " H * Washington, D.C American Council on Education, 1950* * * Bodenman, Paul S. American Cooperation With Higher Educa tion Abroad* Bulletin 1957, Mo. " 8* Washington, ' B*U*i U*'S* Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Brickman, W# W# The Role of Comparative Education in the Education of Teachers# New York's School of'Eciuc a - tion, Ne, w YorlTlIEIversit^, 195S* Browni Francis J# University and World Understanding. A* C*B# Studies, Series 1, Ho, 58*" Washlngton,D#C. : American Council on Education, 195^* Clark, Victor# Compulsory Education in Iraq# . Studies on Compulsory Education, UNESCO, Parisi UNESCO, 1951* Cornell, Francis G# "Research and Science in Education," in UNESCO* Report of the• First Intemat!on al Confer- * ance on Educational Re search# Educational Stu$I ea and Documents, No. 207 'Paris i UNESCO, 1956 # Department of Public Administration, American University of Beirut (compiler). Studies on the Government of Lebanon# Beiruti American Ifniversity of BeTrut, 1956. Development Board (Iraq)# ■ Major Irrigation Projects* Baghdad, Iraqi Government of Iraq, Development Board and Minis try of Be ve lopmen t, 1956 • Dorman, Harry Gaylord, Jr. Toward Understanding Islam# New York: Teachers 0oliege7 0olumb1a University, Contribution to Education, No. 9^0, 19^6# Du Beis, Cora, Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States# Washington, B.C.: American Coun cil . on Education,' 1956. EelIs, Walter Crosby (compiler)# American Poetoral Dis sertations on Education in Countries of the Middle East* Washington, P♦ G.: The'5 "Middle East 'Institute, 1955# • ' ‘ 'Egypt* Permanent Council of Public Services* Al-uih*dah al-mu j amma * ah. Rural- Social 'Welfare Services Unit * * Cairo:' Germanent Council of Public Services, 19SU* Bttinghausen, Richard (ed.)* A Selected and Annotated Bibliography of Books an;d^PeMo'dicals r 'ln Western ' languages ' r i>eaX^g' , Wlth the"" Near and MiHHle EaatWith Specla'x EmphasIs on ' Medievaf and Modem1 Times* Washington, D*C.: Tiie' Middle "East Institute," 195i|* External Research Staff, Office of Intelligence Research. Area Study Programs in American Universities* Wash ington, D. C*:U#S# Department of" Stat e, ' February, 1956* Franck, Dorothea See lye (ed*). Islam in the Modem World* Fifth Annual Conference on Middle Bast ' Affairs* March 9-12* 1951. Washington* D.C.; Middle Bast Institute* 1951* ’ Government Budgets of Middle Bast Countries**1 Quarterly, Bulletin of Economic Developments No* 13* Beiruti OTRWA, 19BE* Ball, Harvey* and Ann W* Noyes (eds*)* Current Res©arch on the Middle Bast# 1955. Washington* ' 0*0Vi" r 'TO HTddTe East'"Ths tTtut e, a956» Al-Bussrl Sati* AI-Bawlyyeh A I - T haqu af i ah (The Institute for Advan c ©d' Arable Studies) . Cairo* Egyptt ■ Cul tural Administration* league of Arab States* 195^* (In Arabic) Index to American Doctoral pisser tatione * Vol* X¥XX, ' * ' Issue"T ' l: 3. Ann Arbor, Michigan;"' University Micro films* 1957* Institute of Arab- American Affairs* Pamphlets, No* 1, 19E5. New Yorks The Institute, 1995. Institute of International Education* Annual Census of Foreign Students in Universities* New York: The Ins 11 tut e, I9E8T * Annual Heport of the Director*. New York: The XuswlvUw6 ^ 19^9* * Handbook on International Study* New York: The Institute, 1955*" ' . . * - Open Doors: A Heport on Three Surveys 1 Foreign 'Students'In U.S* Instltutlons oFT&gfibrEducation; Foreign Faculty Members at XI*3* Colleges and Univer sities; Foreign Doctors Training at XJ.S* Hospitals, 195E-55* New Yorki Institute of International Educa tion, 1955. International Bank for Hecanstmcilon and Development* The Economic Development of I rap* Baltimore: Johns . Hopkins University ' Pres s, ~1952* » Eleventh- Annual Heport , 1955-1956* Washington, - " " 'DTC. ; * lh¥erha tTohal Bank, 195b. " * Loans at Work* . Washington, D*C.: World Bank, March 31, • 1%?. 379 International© Blbliographie Der Yeitsehriftenliteratur* B1 bI1ogr aphis, Per Fremdspraehlgsn Z.ei.tsehrlften literature " Heue. ' Poige, BanS 38, 195^~1955* * Gsnabmek: Verlag Felix Bletrleh, X95&* International Bureau, of Education# Into mat I onal Yearbook of. 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"Education in a Lebanese T o w n , * * History of Education journal, 6:192-98, Winter, 1955* Benjamin, Harold,H* W* "Growth in Comparative Education,." Phi Delta Kappan, 3 7 January, 1958, Bestor, Arthur. "The American University: A Historical interpretation of Current Issues," College and University, - 3£fl?5-B8: , Winter, 19.57* Bisar, Mohamad. "The Islamic Center In Washington," The Arab World (Mew York City), 3:3, July, 1957* Bo&rdman, G. C. "Provincialism in Education," Wisconsin Journa.I o.f Education, 89:15-16, September, 1958* Bolman, Jr. Frederick DeW. "Signs of Change in Higher Education,Journal of Higher Education, May, 1955, pp. 2 1 4 . 9 -53 , 285-88. Brickman, V# W*. "Beseareh in Comparative Teacher Educa tion," History of Education Journal, : IZ 42-I 4 . 3, Summer, 1953* Brickman, William, "The Study of Problems of Teacher Edu- — "cation in Foreign Countries," The Journal of Teacher Education, 7?329-31* December, 19557 ' ‘ Burack, Benjamin, and Donald Moos. "Effectiveness of Knowing the Principle Basic to Solution of a . Problem,1 1 Journal of Educational Hesearch, 50:203-08, November, 1956. ' Burack, B. "Methodological Aspects of Problem Solving," Fr ogr e s s 1 ve Educ a t i on, 30 ?13if--38* March, 1953* Galdwell, Oliver J. "International Education Activities of the Office of Education," Higher Education, 12st|,- 6, September, 1955* Oameron, L# 0# “The Disunited Arab World," Contemporary Re,view (Bondon) , Ho# 1096, pp# 205-209*""Apr 13-, 19.57'* Oar ter, W# D* "UHBSCO * s Exchange of Persons Program,” Hews Bulletin, 32I10*13, Hovember, 1956# Chase, Francis S* "Mew Conditions Confront Education,1 1 The School Beylew, 65? 3**11, Spring, 195?* Clapp, Cordon R# ‘ ’Iran: A TVA for the Khuzestan Region#” The ' Middle- Bast Journal,- lltl»ll* Winter, • 195?* ' “Clearinghouse Services#1 1 PHBSCO Chronicle, 3:36*3?, Jan||§"p^Fehruary, 195?* ^Comjplste List of IffiBSOO*s literature Series,” The UNESCO ' Courier, Tenth Tear, pp* 22-25, June, 195?*' “Compuls cry Edueati on 1n Arab"S tates #” Foreign Education Digest, 21 i20ip*05#' Canuary-Mar ch# 1957* “Construction in Iran,1 1 The Middle East Journal, 8*192# Spring, 1 9 .5 1| -* Cox, Frederick J# “The Perennial Hear Eastern Question,” World Affairs Interpreter (Dos Angeles), 25*152-68, Summer, July, I95If*" " " ' “Currencies and Official Bates of Exchange,s * Middle East Economist# lit80, May, 1957* Dajanl# Burhani* - “The American University of Beirut and the Arab World,” al-Abhgth, ??17-27* (In Arabic) Dorochenko, E*A* "i*Instruction en Iran,” Sovetskala Pedagogika (Moscow), 20*97-110, 1956# Ten Russe) Edmonds, C* J* "The Kurds of Iran," The Middle East Journal, 11s53*62* Winter, 1957* ~ "Educational Besearch in Countries Other Than the U.S#A*," Beview of Educational .Research# 2?:complete issue, February, 1957* Beils, Walter Crosby# "American Doctoral Dissertations' on Foreign Education#” Higher Education, "12119-22, October, 1955* 387 Bells, Walter Crosby* f t American Doctoral Dissertations on Teacher Education in Foreign Countries, * * The, journal of Teacher Education, 6:301-04, December# 1955*” " . ’ ’Communism in Educational Institutions in Coun tries of the Middle East,1 1 The Educational Record, January, .1953* PP* 68-76* Elam, Stanley. ’ ’ Raising Hob With the Status Quo,*1 ' Phi Delta Kappan, 381161, February, 1957* (An Editorial) J ’ ’ Estimates of total Population,’ 1 United Rations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics (Hew York)* 11:2-5, January, l957f also^l:a: -5>'" ^uly, 1957* Evans, Luther* ’ ’ fhe Demand for Higher Education in the World Today,” III Hews Bulletin, 32?3-6, October# ‘ ‘ Exchange Hates,**' Internatlonal Financial Statistics, 10s92 f f , S e p te E S e rT T W fT ' ’ ’ Facts and Figures, Education and Culture in the Middle East,1 * Middle Eastern Affairs, 81252*53# June-July, 1957# ' ' Far is, Mabih Amin. ’ ’ The Arabs and Their History,** The Middle last Journal, 8s155*62, Spring# 1954* ’ ’ Foreign Schools and Egyptian Standards#** Economist, 179:1272, June 30, 1956. Fradier# Georges* ’ ’ The Wisdom of Al-Oahla Crosses the Frontier,*1 The DHBSCO Courier, Tenth Year, pp. 12-13, June, 1957 • ' ' ~ ’ ’ The Fulbright Program: Swords into Plowshares,” HE Hews Bulletin, 32:2-3# February, 1957* ’ ’ Fundamental Education,” DHLS CO Bulletin, 6*263-71# Decem ber, I954~*y&nuary, 1955* Griswold# A* Whitney* "The Cost of Freedoms An Academic View,” Association of American Ocllegea Bulletin, 43* 7-13, March, 1957* Hamblen, Stewart B. ’ ’ Schools for Better Living in Iran,” III Hews Bulletin, 29*5 ff# February, 1954* 388 Hani, M* "Higher Education in Iraq*" Middle Eastern Affairs, 7:129*32, April, 1956* Harris, Christina Phelps* "Egyptian nationalism and the ' Revolution of 1952," World Affairs Quarterly (Eos Angeles), 26:358**77, January 1956*' Hazard, Harry W* "Statistical Highlights,", in Ernest tTackh (ed*)> Background of the Middle East* Ithaca, Hew York; ' Cornell 0hiveraIty Press, 1952* ' Henry, David Dodds* "Higher Education in Transition*'1 9 ' School and Society, - 85i8lp*86* March 16* 1957* "Higher Education Abroad," ITMBSO0 Chronicle, 11:226*27, July, 1956*. ’ 1 Horn, Francis H* "Problems Facing Higher Education,". Teachers College Record, 5?2360-70, March, 1956. Howard, 0* Worth* "American Role in Higher Education in the Middle East,1 1 Institute of International Educa tion Hews Bulletin, 31:11*15,' 23* May, 1956* Hulae, C* R* "Other Side of the Coin," Institute of -Inter* national Hews Bulletin, 31:6*10, May, 1956. Hungate, T. L* "The Heed for Reappraisal of Fiscal Policies for Higher Education," Teachers College Record, 58:19 ff, October, 1956*' "Increase in Homad Schools," The TOES00 Courier (Hew fork), 9:33* September, 1956* "Inber*tJniversity Scholars," HE Hews Bulletin, 32:50, May, 1957* "Iran," A Monthly Survey of Foreign Affairs (London), Sev’ enlBTYear,~"p*r 5, -July'r™if55. ..... "Iran," Bulletin of the .International Bureau, of Education. , . 3.1:10, First Quarter7T957* *....... ^ * "Iran," International Monetary Fund, faternatlonal Finan cial Statistics, 10:250, June, 1957* "Iran," Middle last Economist and Financial Service, 11:72, 389 " Iran: Wo mad Schools," The TOES CO Courier (Mew York), 9 03# September, 1958* ' 1 1 1 ran - Motes on 'Education In the Middle Bast,1 * Foreign Education Digest, SI: 2?-JO# July-September, '^'Iran," Pakistan Review, J: 19-23, July# 1955* "Iraq," International Monetary Fund# International. Fi.nan- cial Statistics# 10:253, dune, Irvine, Keith.* "Religion in the Middle East," Current History, 32:327-31# June, 195?.* X&geddln# Wella* "The Arab-World: Past# Present, and Future, Middle East Journal, 8:211-12, Spring, 195^* Johnson# A* "Rationalism ■in the Middle Bast,1 * School and Society, Blplll, September 29, 1958* Ka&del, I. 1. "Equalising Educational Opportunities and Its Problems," International. Heylew on Education, 3:1 -12, 19 5? * (inEngl 1 s & ,r" derma n, French) ~ "Problems of Comparative Education," Interna- "'"flnna’ I Review of Education, 2:3-5, 1958* Ehaddurl, Majid* "The Problem of Regional Security in Middle last: An Appraisal,1 1 The Middle Bast Journal* 11:12-19, Winter, 1957* ' " * : ' ’ ! "™ "The King Who . Taught School," The Arab World., 2:lf, July, "labor and Social Welfare in. the Arab World," The Arab World, 3*11-14* May-June, L&mke, Tom'A* Foreword to "Educational Research in Coun tries Other Than the U.S.A*,1 1 Review of Educational Research, 2?:%, February, 1957*' "Lebanese Academy - Rational Arts Center," The Arab World, 2:5, August, "Lebanon,",Middle East Economist, 11:?lp, May, 1957* de Leeuw, J* B* Van Lohulsen* "The Meeting Between East 390 and West*** last and Heat (Roma)# ?:5*X1, April, 1956* Lewis, Bernard* "Nationalism and Patriotism in the Middle East," World Affairs Interpreter., 25:208*12* Summer, July, "Listing and Preservation of Middle Eastern Manuscripts,1 1 UNESCO Chronicle, 2:3W, Hovember# 1956* "Membership of the UNESCO Executive Board," UNESCO Chronicle, 3 * h 3 » January-February, 1957* Miehaelis, Alfred* "International Bank Activities in the Middle last," Middle Eastern Affairs, 8:180-85, May, 1957* ~ ' Miehener, James A* "1 slam-he Misunderstood Religion,*1 fhe Header* a Digest* 66:67*75* May, 1955* "Ihe Middle East: An Economic Appraisal," United Nations Review, 2j.:19-23* July, 1957* ' ' A Monthly Survey of Foreign Affairs (London), 88:5, July, ~ T % 5 ,“ T57entF*Yii“ r ~ -----~---- Morphet, E. L* "Our World Neighbors Compare Educational Values," School Executive, 76:19*20, October, 1956* "Mutual Appreciation of Eastern and Western Cultural Values: Some Questions of Concept," UNESCO Chronicle, 3:17*18; and 3:125*27, May, 1957* Nasir, Mohammed, "Secondary Education in the Arab World," California Journal of Secondary Education, 3l:i|36~39> November, 1956* "National Commissions," UNESCO Chronicle, 3:63, March, 1957* " Neuman, Robert G* "Problems of Our Friend Lebanon," Middle Hast. Press. Review, 6:2*3, Febr uar y-!4arch, 1957* "New Process to Speed Low-Cost Production of Educational Films," UNESCO Chronicle* 32103-Gi*, April, 1957- "A New Voice for Iraq," Iraq Petroleum, 6:10, April-May* 1957 * " ~ "New Universities," US News Bulletin* 32:22-31, December, 1956-. ' * ~ Boll* Victor H* Introduction to "Educational Research in Countries Other than the U*S#A*,” Review off Educa tional Research, 27:6, February, 1957. "Rotes on Education in the Middle East#*1 Foreign Education Mgest, 21:27*30# July-Saptember, l s S £ f 'and 21:272-73# April-June# 1957• d’Ormes&on* jean# "The Diversity of Cultures and the World Community#1 * UNESCO Chronicle# 1:9*15# September, 1955* Phelps, Reginald H* "Issues in Graduate Education** * IIS Hews Bulletin# 32:22*2^# January, 1957* "Political Settlement," A Monthly Survey of Foreign Affairs (London), 86:2, May#* 1956# . Pope, Arthur Upham. "Persepolis As A Ritual City," Archaeology, 10:123*30# Summer, 1957# "The Proposed Programme of Uneseo for 1957*58," TOESCO Chronicle, 2:327-3^# November, 1956# Putnam, Jr., Ivan. "Eyes on the Middle East," College and University* 32*32&-35, Spring, 1957# . "Prestige of O.S* Education in the Middle East," ira lews Bulletin, 32:12 ff., October, 1956- "Regional Science Co-operation Offices," UNESCO Chronicle, 25306, October, 1956* Rehage, Kenneth J., "Leadership for Instruction," School Executive» 73 5106-07, March, 1954# Roucek, Joseph S. "Education in the Middle East#” Phi Delta Kappan, 37* 1^-39*1|4# June, 1956* Rugh* A* Douglas. "Ran&icrafis Education Program for Jordan," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education* k 5 * 255~567~October, T55F. ' ' « "Issues and Trends In Arab Teacher Education," The Journal of Teacher Education, 7:316-22, December, . . .. . : > "Pitfalls for Our Educational Specialists Abroad," Teacher Education Quarterly (Connecticut State Department of EducatlohT,^llf:5-8, Fall, 1956* 392 Sassani, Abul H. K* "American Institutions of Higher learning in the Hear East,” Higher Education, 6;13* 18, September 15, 19%9* * "Recent trends in Turkish Education,” School and Society* . 8M5l**3# August 18, 1956#. "School Curriculum Reform,” UHBSQO Chronicle* 2:359-6.2# December, 1956* Seobt-Reid* Don# "The Changing Face of Mosul#” Iraq Petroleum# 6 * . 12-15# December# 1956# Shearman# .John# "The Mighty Tigris is Diverted#” Iraq Petrol sum# 5*8-11# February# 1955* * "Momentous Days for Iraq,” Iraq Petroleum, 5:5- m, July# 1956# " " . "Under- and Over- the Lesser Sab#1 1 Iraq Petroleum# 5211-13# May#. 1956. Stoddard# George D. "Recent trends in American Higher Education#” IIE Hews Bulletin, 32:6-8* 23-25# October, 1956* ~ Shwadran, Benjamin* ”011 in the Middle East Crisis#” International Journal (Canada), 12:13-23, Winter, ' * ”011 In the Middle Bast Crisis#** Middle Eastern ~l Affairs, 81126-34# April# 195?* Simpson# Dwight J# "Impact of the Oil Industry on the Middle Bast#” World Affairs.. Quarterly, 28:36-61* April# 195?* Stevens# Georgians G. "Arab neutralism and Bandung#” The Middle Bast Journal# 11:139-52# Spring# 195?* Stoddard# George* "Recent Trends in American Higher Edu cation#” institute of International Education Hews . Bulletin# 32:25# October, 1956. ! "television Gomes to Iraq,” Iraq Petroleum* 6t5**9, August, 1956.' - Thompson, 0* M# "The Educational# Scientific and Cultural Organization of the United Hations— With Text of Constitution*” Foreign Policy Reports, 21 *31®**20, I9i|i>. "The treasures of Iran* s Imperial Library,’ * The TOES GO Courier, Tenth Tear, pp. 36*4j5, January, x9fiST7' "Unesco* s Plan,1 1 UNESCO Chronicle, 2:361, December, 1956* UNESCO, "Six Trial Definitions , * * In ternational Social Science Bulletin, 8s 132*56, 1956*....... . Von Klemperer, lily* In book review in column, "Recent Publications, HE News Bulletin, 3 Z - k k * April, 1957- Ward, D. S. "American Students and World Affairs,M School Executive, 75*53-55# February, 1956* Wells, Herman B* "American Education and the Hi sing fid© , 1m Phi Delta Kappan, 37:£|iA*%8* June, 1956* Williams, Keith* Commercial Aviation in Arab States: Pattern of Control#* The Middle East Journal, 11:123- 38, Spring, 1957* Taain, A* H* "Teacher Training in Jordan," institute of International Education News Bulletin, 3l'':EE-E57 May* 19567 E. ESSAYS AND ANTIODES IN OOliLBGTXONS Brim, T. K. "The University of Turkey," in Edward Bradby {ed.)* The University Outside Europe* New York: Oxford University Prass’ 7T 1 l9*f^7 Oibb, H* A* "The University in the Arab-Moslem World,!1 in Edward Bradby (ed*)* The University Outside Europe* New York: Oxford"Univers 1 tyPress, 1939* Hamblen, Stewart B. 1 1 The Education of Nomads and Migrants," in UNESCO, Education Abstracts, The Education of Nomads and Migrants, 8:3-7, November " J I956* Hitti, Philip K* "The Arab Caliphate 1 Its Rise and Decline,” in Ernest Jackh (ed*)* Background of the Middle East* Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1952* Pp* 100 ff. Al-Xsfah&ni: Muhadarat al Udaba I, p* 25* Kandel, I. L. Essays in Comparative Education* . New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930. Khallfah, Ha jl: Kashi* al~Zunun I, p. 13* • ’ Lebanon, ” fhe Middle Bast, 1957« Fifth edition; Londons Kuropa Publications, Ltd*, 1957- Polk, William R., and William 0# fhweatt* nThe Changing Economic Scene,1 1 in Perspective of the Arab World, an Atlantic Monthly Supplement# MeSTYerk: Inters cultural' PubIdeations, Inc., 1956. Schorger, William 0. ^Nationalism in the Arab World,” in HatIona1 i a m l n the Middle Bast* Washington, D.C#: ttie Mid d 1e East 1nsIitute, 1952. UNESCO. • * Problems in Education,1 1 Universities in Adult Education* Paris: UNESCO, 19521 IV,9. ~ ' F. ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLES nal-Azhar,1 1 Encyclopedia of Islam, I, 532-39• Leyden, 1913* ~ Eckelberry, R. H* • ’ A Comparative Education#1 1 in Walter S. Monroe (ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research (Revised edit 1 on), 284-85* Cibb, H. A, R*, and I* H. Kramers (eds*), .Shorter Encyelo* * f edia of Islam* Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 9 5 3 7 -------- ------- • ’ Iran,” Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 edition), XII, 585* f , Xraq,1 1 Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 edition), XI1, 587-91. • ’ Islam-Bdueation, H Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 edition), XII, ? ! ! * . . ' ~~ ••Lebanon, ”• Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 edition), XIII, 852-51m Monroe, Walter S. Encyclopedia of Educational Research. Hew York: The Macmillan Co., 19557 • ’ Persia1 * (Iran), Encyclopedia Britannica (1956 edition), XVII, 5^3-595* ' Rogers, H* J * "Expositions, International, and Educa tion,1 1 in Paul Monroe (ed.). A Cyclopedia of Educa tion* Hew York: The Macmillan'Company, 19IX. II, 555=59. Schneider, Friedrich* "Internationale Padagoglk, Aus- landspadogogik, Verglelehende Er zIehungswi ss ens chaft: Ceschichte, Wesen, Methoden, Aufgaben and Ergebnisse,” Internationale Eeltschrift fHr Eras lehungswis sense ha ft, it 15-39, 2k3-§7, 392-p7; 1931-32^ 2i79~89?1932-33* (Carman encyclopedia) C. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Abdalla, Abdel H* B# "Improving the Teaching of Social Studies in Egyptian Secondary Schools? Possible Adaptations of Practices in the U.S." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, Teachers College, Hew York, 1955* Afzal? Manuehehr. "The Cultural Setting of Problems of Teacher Training in Iran." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, Hew York, 1955- Ali-Abadi, Ahmed Khan* "Higher Education in Iran? Its Evolution, Its Trend, and Place for Its Improvement * * * Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Hew York University, 1939. Attallah, Fahmy* "Education in Egypt." Unpublished Master1 a thesis, The University of Southern CalifornS% Los Angeles, 1956. Bailey, Ewing Maeready* "Problems in the Education of Teachers with Special Reference to the American Mission. * * Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 193U* Baroody, Wadad B* "Planning for the Blind in Lebanon." Unpublished Master’s thesis, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 1956* Boktar, Amir* "School and Society in the Valley of the Nile*" Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1936* Cairo: Ellas Modern Press, 1936. 396 Darwin* Sir Charles and Arthur Morgan* “Report on Univer sity Education in Iraq*1 1 Baghdad* Iraq: Submitted to the Ministry of Education, 19ljB- (typewritten) Edwards, Willard M* K. f , A Concentrated Educational Pro gram to Facilitate the Transition of Technology for Officials of an Underdeveloped Country**1 Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. The University of Colorado, Boulder, 1955* el Brian, Mohammed All* ”A Suggested Plan to Democratise the Educational Enterprise In Egypt*.1 1 Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, Mew fork City, 1953* Fargo, Adeeb P. “Compatibility of the Cultural Heritage and Education of Iraq*1 1 Unpublished Doctoral disser tation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1956* Finley, Esther M. “Factors Influencing Education for Nursing in the Hear Bast*” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University, Mew York City (In process, 1956)* Galt, Bussell* “The Effects of Centralization on Educa tion in Modern Egypt*” Doctoral dissertation Teach ers College, Columbia University, Mew York City, 1936* Geraty, Thomas Sinclair* ”A Comparative Investigation of the Mid-Century Status of Educational ladders In the Middle East*1 1 Unpublished Master1 a thesis, the University of Southern California# Dos Angeles, 1956* Gorraley, Chao* Luther. “The Development of Byzantine Higher Education** Unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, Stanford University, 1950. Hafiz, Nuri Abdul Selam* ”A Plan for the Xn-Serviee Edu cation of Teachers in Iraq*” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York, 1951* ^ Harding, Parvin Ehalatbarl. ”A Plan for In-Service Edu cation of Teachers in Iran*1 1 Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, Mew York City, 1949* ©1-HashimI, Khalid Mahmood* ”A Reconstruction of Teacher Education in Iraqi With Special Reference to Arab- Muslim Culture*** Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, 397 Ohio State University, Columbus, 194£* A1-Hassun# Abdur-Hahman Isa* t r The Social Studies Programs in The Iraqi Public Secondary Schools** Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1956* Hooahemand, Fatoollah Amir* n A n Analysis of Child Welfare and draining in Iran With Proposals for Their Devel opment *, f Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Univer sity of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1938* Howard, C. Worth* ’ ’ literature in English for an American Institution in the Middle Bast#1 1 Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Hew York University, 1947* Ibrahim, Abdel-Bat if Fouad* ’ ’ Social Studies in Egyptian Secondary Schools and the Professional Preparation of Teachers of These Studies (During the Period 1930- 1947) * n Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers .College# Columbia University, Hew York City, 1950. Ismail, Suad. WA Study of Basic Factors in Curriculum Development in the Public Schools of Iraq.** Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, University of California* Berkeley, 1955* Al-Jalill, Abdul Bazzak, 1 1 A Study of Public Education in Iraq, With Suggestions for Its Reorganization.* Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California, Dos Angeles, 1955* Kadhim, Abdul Hamid. ’ ’ A Plan for the Reconstruction of Teacher Education in Iraq. , f Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, Hew York, 1947* Rani, All. ’ ’ The Heconstruotion of Persian Education.1 1 Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Dniversith of Horth Carolina, 1939* Khan, Abul-Hassan. f , The Development of the Control of Education in Iran.1 * Unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 1940* MacLelsh, Archibald. n Introduction’ 4 to Huth E. McMurray and Muna Dee. The Cultural Approach: Another Way in 1 nternationa 1 Relations. Washington, D.C. : ■ U.S. Department of State, 1945* (Typescript) Majid, Baramott&l# ”<2ulde for the Improvement of Teacher Education In Iraq#** Unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, Columbia University, Mew York, 1953* Metaweh, Ibrahim Barnet* ^Improvement of Rural Teacher Education In Egypt*f t Unpublished Doctoral disserta- tion, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1 9 5 i | . * Ministry of Education and Fine Arts (Lebanon)* The 1952- 1953 Annual Be port of the Ministry of Education for the Republic of Lebanon, Beirut, Xebanons 'ihe Government of^YTebanoh* Ministry of Education and Fine Arts, Movember 1, 1954* {Mimeographed} } . The 1953-195U Annual Report of the Schools, Teachers, ' ' TmaW'tuqents'' In Bob anon» ' Beirut, Lebanon: The Government' of Lebanon, Ministry of Education and Fine Arts, January 3 1 , 1955* (Mimeographed) Hakhosteen, Mehdl* "The Development of Persian Education and Learning*” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, Hew York, 1933* Hasir, Mohammed* *Proposals for the Re-organization of Post-Secondary Education in Iraq in the Light of Recent Trends and Practices In Higher Education., f Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University, Hew York City, 1955* Nasr, Raja Tewfik* ”The Phonological Problems Involved in the Teaching of American English to Mative Speakers of Lebanese Arabic.” University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1955* El-Ramawi, Quasim M* f f Education and the Challenge of Industrialization in Egypt.” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation under way, Teachers College, Columbia University, Hew York, 1955* Reed, Cass Arthur* ■'Problems of American Education in the Hear East.” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, 1921. Reining, Jr., Henry, and Harry A* Marlow* ”The Institute for Administrative Affairs: The Future.” Tehran, Iran: Faculty of Law, University of Tehran, October 25# 1956* (Mimeographed) 399 Sadig, lasa.Khan* “Modern Persia and He** School-System.** Unpublished Doctoral dissertation# teachers College# Columbia University# Hew York City# 1931* Salem, Mohamad Mokhliss* “The draining and Attitudes or Egyptian Biology Teachers and American Science Teach- srs** - Unpublished Doctoral dissertation# Columbia University# 1953* Sarhan# Bl-Demerdash Abdel-Meguid* “Interests and Culture* A Comparative Study of Interests# Concerns# Wishes# likes# Dislikes, and Happiest Days of Egyptian and American Children** Unpublished Doctoral disserts* tion# Teachers College# Columbia University# Hew York City# 1951* Sassani# Abul-Haasan Khan* “The Development of the Control of.Education in Iran.* Unpublished Doctoral disser tation# University of Missouri# Columbia#Missouri# 1940* Savage# William W* (ed.)* Applying Research in Education* al Admlnistra11 on* Chicago: Midwest Administration Center#"'The University of Chicago# 1954* (Mimeo* graphed) Sayli, Aydln Mehmet* “The Institutions of Science and teaming In the Moslem World. * Unpublished Doctoral dissertation# Harvard University# Cambridge# 1942* Shehab# Ibrahim Khalil* “Personal and Social Problems as identified by Egyptian Adolescents*t f Unpublished Doctoral dissertation# Teachers College, Columbia University# Hew York City# 1953* Struck# John Warren* “A Survey of the Vocational Indus*- trial Education Heeds of Baghdad# Iraq, and its Service Area.“ Unpublished Doctoral dissertation# The Pennsylvania State University# Philadelphia# 1956* Takla# Aida 1. “An Analysis of Vocational Guidance with Implications for the Secondary Schools of Egypt*” Unpublished Muster1 a thesis# The University of Call** fornia, Dos Angeles# 1955* Tantawl# Ahmed Mahmoud Osman* “Upgrading The Egyptian Primary School Principalships**, Unpublished Doctoral dissertation* Teachers College* Columbia University* lew York City* 1950* Toma, Stephen# "Cultural Challenge to Education in the Arab World'with Special Reference to Teacher Iduca- tion in Iraq." Unpublished .Doctoral dissertation.* Ohio State University* 19t|D* Turner* Hoyt J# B. "Portable Schools for the Tribes of Iran.*1 Teheran* Iran; United States Operations Mission to Iran* 195%* (Typewritten) United States Operation Mission to Lebanon. Report of Education Division* USOM/L* Years 195k-19gbl Beirut* Lebanon: " ^ USOM/L* 1956'.' ' TMImeographed) United States Operations Mission to Lebanon# Training Program Report* A Cooperative Program with the MInistrybfWati onal Education and Fine Arts and the Ministry of Social Affairs* Lebanon* for the Years 1953*1956* Projected Program 1957-1958. Beirut* Lebanon: USOM/L* December* 1956. (Mimeographed) Uni vers ite Libanaiae "Curricula.1 * (Mimeographed in French) L*Universite Saint-Joseph. "1956-1957 Student Roster." (Mimeographed) University of Southern California* "Fourth Semiannual Report of the Institute for Administrative Affairs* March 1* 1956-August 31» 1956." Los Angeles: University of Southern California* 1956* (Mimeo graphed) University of Tehran* Institute for Administrative Affairs* Faculty of Law* Fourth Semiannual Report* March 1-August 31, 1956. Tehran, Iran: University of Tehran, 1956# (Mimeographed) Vafa* Javid* "Educational Policy and nationalism in Iran*1 1 Unpublished Doetoral dissertation* The Univer sity of Indiana, Bloomington (in process* 1957)* Al-Eobaie* Abdul Jalil. "Intelligence Test Development With Special'Reference to a Test for Use-in Iraq." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation* The University of ‘ Southern California* Los Angeles* 1955* 401 International Bank for Bacons true tIon and Development (World Bank). Press Belease Ho* 384* January 7, 1955. Washington* !>«<?. “Iraq Lending teachers to neighbors,f * Lob Angeles ffimes, , February 10, 1957# Part 1* p. 33* U*S* Department of State# Press Belease Ho* ?63# October 29# 19M>. University of Southern California* Daily fro .Ian# March lu 1957# P. 1* 1* PEBSOHAL 00BRBSP0BDBHCB Alam**©d-Bin# Abbas* Vice-*President of the University of Lebanon* Hay 10, 1957* translated from Arabic by Selim Moujaimu Author's identity withheld by request* Professor of Education at the Higher feachers fraining College* Baghdad* Iraq, May 19, 1957* Derthick# Lawrence 0*# United States Commissioner of Educa tion* February 25* 1957* J * LEOfDBl Wilson* Howard E* t t fhe Hext Education*w fhe fwenty-Fourth Annual Sir John Adams Lecture# fhe University of California at Log Angeles* March 27# 1957* Ilnvesti- gator*s notes from the lecture.) APPENDIX A LETTER FROM U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 404 (Letter from United States Commissioner of Education) OlFMMff Of HEALTH* BDtlOATIGH, A ® WBIFME Office of Education Washington D.C. Air Mail Febiraary 2$* apgjf Mr. T.S. Oerat^r 3938 Platt Avenue Lynwood, California Dear Mr. Gsratyf Thank you so much for your letter of February 1 2 in which you send me congratulations and best 'wishes as I undertake this complex new position. 1 m indeed encouraged to know that 1 can call on you. for assistance as the future ■coups* It is good to know that you are working on your doctoral dissertation in the field of higher educatioir^-particularly with refer** ©nee to curricula in countries of the Wear and Middle East* Tip Office of Education recently launched a major research study on Ministries of Education* Their Functions and Organization for our 19£8 Yearbook in the field1 of iHtSnaSonaST December* after months of negotiation -with and clearance by other interests ed parts of the United States' Government* a dispatch prepared by the Office of Education was sent through diplomatic channels to the major United States foreign post in each country with which the United States has diplomatic relations* contained .among other detailed papers a questionnaire on the place in government of the Ministry of Education (or other official body or bodies concerned with education) . $ organise** tion of the ministry! authority, responsibility* and functions of the ministry! and administration. ' A United .States foreign service officer in turn, visited the appropriate Ministry in each -country to explain the project and elicit support.* The Ministries are now in the process of supplying the data to us through diplomatic channels. The basic policy of the United States Government in dealing with foreign governments coupled with the very sizable burden placed by our questionnaire on Ministries in other countries* unfortunately makes it impossible for the Office of Education to comply with your request for a letter which you mi#it send with your questionnaire to the Ministries of Education in. countries of the Hear and Middle Bast* Such a letter together with a detailed pirn of your project would require Government**wide clearance similar to that'Obtained for our research project. In view of the United States 'request presented in the Decern* ber dispatch* that clearance would not be forthcoming* 1 trust that you will be able to develop your' research project in such a my that you will be able to obtain tbs basic data which you need* 1 am sorry indeed that it is not possible lor Hie Office of Education to provide, the specific type of assistance which you request* ' Sincerely yours* /$/ t* Q* Qerthick 1. G. Oarthick Commissioner of Education € mmmm tj © m m os/t 408 ft 410 Cai O ammm x c 412 m . <» » r 4 &»**» 6 9 O O i * * * C D APPENDIX D INSTITUTIONAL, SUMMARY 424 bisxxotionai* mmmi Political division Present status Institution Faculties3 Colleges, Schools Iran Monarchy Teheran University of Teheran Faculty of Arts* Philosophy* .and Education Faculty of Medicine* Pharma ceutics, and Dentistry Faculty of law* Political Science, and Economics Faculty of Science and Mathe matics Faculty of theology Faculty of Engineering airier Teachers College Faculty of Fine Arts Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Faculty of Agriculture ■ College of Midwifery College of Hursing College of Hygiene and Public Health Honar-Saraye All. Faculty of Chemical Engineer ing Facility of Electrical Engi neering Faculty of Mechanical Engi neering University of Tabriz Faculty of Arts Faculty of Medicine Colleges: Ahwaz Isfahan. Meshed Meshed Shiraz Shiraz Tabriz Agricultural -College Medical College College of literature Medical: College Agricultural College College of 'literature' Medical ■ College Agricultural College 415 INSTITUTIONAL SUMMARY (Continued) Polltical Present division status Capital Institution Faculties^ Colleges t Schools Iraq Constitu- Baghdad University of tional Baghdad* Law College Monarchy (Ministry of Higher Teacher Vs Training Education) College* College of Engineering College of Arts and Sciences* Queen Aliyah College* (for girls) College of Commerce and Economics* (Ministry of Health) Royal College of Medicine* College of Pharmacy and Chemistry College of Dentistry (Ministry of Agriculture) College of Agriculture* Veterinary College* (Ministry of Internal Affairs) Police College (Directorate General of Wekf) College of Theology (Other) Institute of Pine Arts* Ai~SharIa College* Department of Scientific and Industrial Research* Lebanon Republic Beirut American University of Beirut Faculty of Arts and Sciences School of Arts and Sciences Faculty of Medical Sciences School of Medicine ■ ■ School of Pharmacy School of Nursing School of-'Public Health Incorporation, in University of Baghdad % XHSTXTOflONAL SWAHf (Continued) Political Present division status . Capital institution Faculties* Colleges* Schools Lebanon Republic Beirut American University of Beirut faculty of Engineering School of Engineering Faculty of Agriculture School of Agriculture B*Uirtvarsite Saint** Joseph Faculty of Theology French faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy faculty of law Higher School of Engineering Oriental institute Ksara Observatory Lebanese University Higher Teachers * College Institute of AdiJi.inistra.tion and finance Institute of Social Science faculty of Letters and History Academic Libanaise School of Letters School of Architecture School of Music (including Bramatic Art) School of Painting' School of Political Science School of Law OaJversitv of Southern California

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Asset Metadata

Creator Geraty, Thomas Sinclair (author)

Core Title An investigation of higher education in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, higher,Middle Eastern Studies,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c29-180474

Unique identifier UC11217925

Identifier DP26037.pdf (filename),usctheses-c29-180474 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP26037.pdf

Dmrecord 180474

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Geraty, Thomas Sinclair

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA