University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A critique of the philosophy and techniques of indoctrination of the Mexican socialist school

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A critique of the philosophy and techniques of indoctrination of the Mexican socialist school

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Content A CRITIQUE OF THE PHILOSOPHY AND TECHNIQUES OF INDOCTRINATION OF THE MEXICAN SOCIALIST SCHOOL A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o th e F a c u lt y o f t h e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n ia In P a r t i a l F u l f il l m e n t o f th e R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r th e D eg ree D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y i n E d u c a tio n Dy G eorge C. B ooth June 1939 UMI Number: DP23451 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissension P tb i.& h sn g UMI DP23451 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 This dissertation, written by ................................QEpRaE.O....BOO!IH........................................... under the guidance of hi.s . . . . Faculty Committee on Studies, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research, in partial ful fillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O F P H I L O S O P H Y D ean Secretary D a te....... Com m ittee on Studies Chairman TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I . THE PROBIEM AND METHODS OP APPROACH......................... ...... 1 The p r o b l e m ................................................ . 1 O r g a n iz a tio n and p r e s e n t a t io n o f m a t e r i a l . . . 4 C u lt u r a l h i s t o r y o f M e x ic o . ..................... 5 The R e v o lu tio n o f 1 9 1 0 ........................................... 9 The P h ilo s o p h y o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a tio n . . . . 11 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f M ex ica n e d u c a t io n ....... IE T e c h n iq u e s o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n ........................... 13 M ethod s o f s t u d y ................................................... 17 V a l i d i t y o f s t u d y .......................................................... 20 S u m m a ry ........................................ 23 I I . CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEXICO. .................................... 25 The Nahua and Maya b a c k g r o u n d ............................ 25 The C o n q u is ta d o r e s o v e rth r o w th e em p ire . . . . 32 The h ey d a y o f c r o s s and s w o r d ........................................ . 35 B e n ito J u a r e z r e fo r m s c o n s t i t u t i o n and c o u n tr y . 44 Bon F o r f i r i o D ia z r e s t o r e s c o n s e r v a tis m . . . . 47 Summary: p r e p a r a tio n f o r r e v o l u t i o n .......................... 54 I I I . THE REVOLUTION OF 1 9 1 0 ..................................................... 61 M eaning o f th e R e v o l u t i o n ...................................... 62 C a u ses o f t h e s t r u g g l e ............................................... 64 P o l i t i c a l and s o o i a l r e s u l t s o f th e ^ R e v o lu tio n . 74 ( \ i i i CHAPTER PAGE The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 9 X 7 .................................................... 77 R e s u lt s o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n on e d u c a t io n . . . 80 Summary................................................... 8 2 IV . THE PHIXiOSOPHT OF SOCIALIST EDUCATION.......................... 8 4 S o c ia lis m b ecom es c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n M ex ico • • 85 M eaning o f M e x ic a n , o r s c i e n t i f i c s o c i a l i s m . • 88 The s t a t e and th e s c h o o l ............................................... 90 The e q u a l i z a t i o n o f man. ................................ 94 E t h e n ie e q u a l i z a t i o n .................................................... 95 P s y c h o lo g ic e q u a l i z a t i o n . 95 E conom ic e q u a l i z a t i o n .............................. 98 P r e m is e s o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n a l t h e o r y . . . 100 R ig h t s and d u t i e s o f t h e c h i l d ............................... 101 D u t ie s o f t h e t e a c h e r . .................................... 106 V . CHARACTERISTICS OF MEXICAN EDUCATION.......................... 110 M exican S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n ............................................... I l l M ex ica n e d u c a t io n i s f u n c t i o n a l , p r o g r e s s i v e , and i s b a se d on w o r k .............................................. 119 Im provem ent o f l i v i n g c o n d it io n s ..................... 1 2 1 Im provem ent o f eco n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s ..................... 123 Im provem ent o f h o u s i n g ........................................ 124 Cam paign a g a i n s t a l c o h o li s m .......................................... 128 M ex ica n e d u c a t io n i s f r e e , o b l i g a t o r y , i n t e g r a l and i s d e s ig n e d t o o r i e n t .............................. 1 3 4 iv CHAPTER PAGE S c h o o l o r g a n iz a t io n .............................................................. 139 The R e g io n a l R u r a l S c h o o l............................................... 141 T e c h n ic a l and v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t io n ..................... 144 The se c o n d a r y s c h o o l ......................................................... 145 Summary............................................................................................. 151 i M exican s c h o o ls a r e c o e d u c a t io n a l............................... 152 M exican e d u c a t io n i s c o o p e r a t iv e and e m a n c ip a t o r y .............................................. 154 IV . CHARACTERISTICS OF MEXICAN EDUCATION (CONTINUED) 158 M exican e d u c a t io n i s s c i e n t i f i c and r a t i o n a l i s t i c ............................................................................. 160 P agan o r i g i n o f t h e , C a t h o lic C hurch i n M ex ico 161 M ir a c le s and s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f th e C a t h o lic Church . . . . . . . .................................................... 169 P o ly th e is m i n t h e M exican C a t h o lic C hurch. '. 173 The s m o r a lit y o f t h e M ex ica n C h u rch ..................... 175 The p la c e o f s c i e n c e and r a t i o n a li s m in M e x ic o 's s c h o o l s ........................................................ 185 V I I . REVOLUTIONARY ART IN SCHOOL AND SOCIETY..................... 194 B ir t h o f M exican p o p u la r a r t .......................................... 195 R is e o f t h e s c h o o l o f m onum ental a r t . . . . . 199 I d e o l o g i c a l b a s e s o f r e v o lu t io n a r y a r t . . . . 204 The i n f lu e n c e o f D ie g o R iv e r a ......................... 207 The m u ra ls o f R i v e r a ........................................................ . 213 V CHAPTER PAGE The c o n t r ib u t io n o f J o s e C lem en te O rozco . . . 219 F u n c t io n a l a r c h it e c t u r e in M e x ic o ............................... 226 A r t in t h e s c h o o l s ................................................................... 230 Summary...................................................................................... . . 233 V I I I . REVOLUTIONARY MUSIC AND DANCING......................................... 234 Aims o f r e v o lu t io n a r y m u sic and d a n c in g . . . . 234 A cco rd o f r e v o lu t io n a r y m u sic w it h s o c i a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y ............................................................................. 236 I n d ig e n o u s M ex ica n m u sic . .................................... 239 M e s tiz o m u s ic ......................... 242 The t e a c h in g o f r e v o lu t io n a r y m u s ic .......................... 248 M a te r ia ls o f r e v o lu t io n a r y m u s i c ............................... 251 IX . CARRYING SOCIALISM TO THE PEO PLE.................................... 267 The C u lt u r a l M is s i o n s .............................................................. 267 F u n c t io n a l b a s e s o f t h e C u ltu r a l M is s io n s . . 271 P r e p a r a tio n o f th e c u l t u r a l m is s io n e r s . . . 278 The C u lt u r a l M is s io n i n o p e r a t io n .......................... 281 C e n tr o s de E d u ca o io n I n d ig e n a ......................................... 288 H ouse o f th e n a t iv e s t u d e n t . . .................................... 289 E s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e I n d ia n c e n t e r s ..................... 291 P la n o f a c t i o n o f th e I n d ia n c e n t e r s . . . . 293 X . SUM MARY....................................................................................................... 298 The g e n e s i s o f s o c i a l t h e o r y .......................................... 298 G rowth o f e d u c a t io n ................................................................... 303 vi CHAPTER PAGE S o c i a l em p h a sis i n S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n . • . 304 I n d i v i d u a l grow th in S o c i a l i s t e d u c a tio n . . 306 A c co m p lish m en ts o f t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l . • • • 308 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . 313 APPENDIX.............................................................................................. 3S6 # CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND M ETHODS OF APPROACH C i t i z e n s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s a r e b ecom in g more and more c o n s c io u s o f t h e i r n e ig h b o r s o u th o f th e R io B r a v o . They a r e w a tc h in g t h e s o c i a l and econ om ic m oves t h a t a r e b e in g made in M e x ico , and t h e y a r e k e e n ly i n t e r e s t e d in u n d e r s ta n d in g t h e u n d e r ly in g t h e o r i e s t h a t m o tiv a te t h e s e c h a n g e s , M exico i s e x p la in e d and d en ou n ced and p r a is e d in a c o n s t a n t ly augm en ted str e a m o f b o o k s , p a m p h le ts , and m agazin e a r t i c l e s . D a ily n ew sp a p ers c o n t a in d is p a t c h e s t h a t le a v e th e r e a d e r c o n fu s e d a s t o th e aim s o f th e s i s t e r r e p u b l i c , In th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n th e same a v id i n t e r e s t i s shown by t e a c h e r s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . J o u r n a ls o f a l l th e le a d in g e d u c a t io n a l s o c i e t i e s o f th e c o u n tr y h ave c a r r ie d a c c o u n ts o f w hat i s b e in g done in M exico and o f how i t i s b e in g c a r r ie d o u t . L i t t l e h as b een w r i t t e n , h o w ev e r, a b o u t why M exico h as shown su c h a su d d en i n t e r e s t in e d u c a t i o n and what sh e e x p e c ts to a c c o m p lis h by i t . To f in d th e f,whyH o f th e M exican s c h o o l w i l l be th e aim o f t h i s m onograph. I . THE PROBLEM The p u rp ose o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e n , i s to f i n d th e e x a c t p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o ls o f M ex ico , and th e means b y w h ich t h i s p h ilo s o p h y i s t o be t r a n s l a t e d in t o a c t i o n . 2 More th a n t h a t , an a tte m p t w i l l he made t o show how and why t h i s p h ilo s o p h y d e v e lo p e d . The name “S o c i a l i s t ” , a s a p p lie d to th e s c h o o ls o f M exico and t o th e sy ste m a s a w h o le , i s p a r t o f t h e o f f i c i a l n o m e n c la tu r e ; i t i s n o t a d e s c r i p t i v e a d j e c t i v e a r b i t r a r i l y u s e d b y th e a u th o r . Once th e u n d e r l y i n g b a s e s o f M exican S c i e n t i f i c S o c ia lis m h ave b een made c l e a r , t h e more s p e c i f i c p h ilo s o p h y o f th e s c h o o l sy ste m w i l l be show n. When th e p h ilo s o p h y h a s b e e n exp ou n d ed , h i s t o r i c a l l y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y , th e v a r io u s te c h n iq u e s o f th e s c h o o ls w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d in an e f f o r t t o show what th e M exican s a r e d o in g t o a t t a i n th e g o a ls th e y h a v e s e t f o r t h e m s e lv e s . The a u th o r h as n e i t h e r t h e i n t e n t i o n t o p r a is e th e M exican s c h o o l sy s te m n o r t h e d e s i r e to i n v e ig h a g a in s t i t . He o n ly h op es t o g iv e an o b j e c t i v e p o r t r a y a l o f a sy ste m t h a t fr a n k ly a d m its u s in g e d u c a tio n t o ch an ge t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l o r d e r . That s u c h a s tu d y i s t im e ly i s in d ic a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t s c h o la r s t h e w o rld o v e r a r e t u r n in g t h e i r s c r u t i n y more and more upon t h e u lt im a t e g o a ls o f e d u c a t io n . C o n s ta n tly th e q u e s t io n i s a sk e d : S h o u ld e d u c a tio n p r e p a r e f o r b u i ld in g a new s o c i a l o r d e r ? W hether th e f u n c t io n o f e d u c a tio n i s t o k© l a i s s e z - f a i r e o r d i r e c t i o n a l i s u n i v e r s a l l y d e b a te d . From th e s ta n d p o in t o f th e e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h e r i t i s w e ll to h a v e o b j e c t i v e e v id e n c e sh o w in g t h e b a s i c p h ilo s o p h y and th e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f a sy ste m t h a t i s fr a n k ly d i r e c t i o n a l and a g g r e s s i v e . V iew ed s o c i o l o g i c a l l y " t h e problem i s v i t a l , 3 aa i t g i v e s an in t im a t e g lim p s e a t th e f u t u r e i n t e n t i o n s o f A m erica ’ s n e x t - d o o r n e ig h b o r * M exico i s a n a t io n o f some 1 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s . T h ese p e r s o n s a r e com in g in t o c l o s e r and c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w it h N o rth A m erican s d a i l y , a s im p ro v ed and exp an d ed m eth od s o f t r a n s p o r t a t io n and com m unica t i o n a r e p r o v id e d . T housands o f A m erican s a r e p e a c e f u l l y in v a d in g th e H isp a n ic -A m e r ic a n r e p u b lic y e a r l y , in a u to m o b ile s and by t r a i n , ste a & s h ip and a i r p l a n e . M exican s in l i k e th o u sa n d s c r o s s th e b o r d e r t o v i s i t , s t u d y , o r w ork , and th e n r e t u r n , h a v in g l e f t t h e i r im p r ess# A n e ig h b o r ’ s a c t i v i t i e s i n e v i t a b l y le a d to s u s p ic i o n o r sy m p a th y , d e p e n d in g upon o n e ’ s u n d e r s ta n d in g o f them . The p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e n , h as th e added p u rp o se o f g i v i n g a c l e a r e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w hat M exico i s d o in g . T here i s a c o n s t a n t ly g ro w in g body o f e d u c a t io n a l l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t o f M exican e d u c a t io n . S in c e J o s e V a s c o n c e lo s to o k o v e r th e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n in 1921 and g a v e th e i n i t i a l im p etu s t o e d u c a tio n in a t r a d i t i o n a l l y backw ard c o u n t r y , i n t e r e s t in M ex ico ’ s p ro b lem s h a s grow n. In a lm o s t e v e r y in s t a n c e t h a t a s tu d y h as b een m ade, h o w ev e r, i t h a s b een p a r t i a l o r s p e c i f i c . S e v e r a l t h e s e s and d i s s e r t a t i o n s h ave b een w r it t e n on th e o r g a n iz a t io n o f th e F e d e r a l s y s te m . A r t i c l e s h ave a p p ea r e d t h a t c o v e r se c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n , r u r a l e d u c a t io n , o r t h e t e a c h in g o f s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t s . T hought f u l b ook s h ave d e v o te d o n e , tw o , o r ev en t h r e e c h a p te r s t o th e 4 s u b j e c t o f e d u c a t io n . I s o l a t e d p h a se s o f th e M exican p h i l o s o p h y , su c h a s t h e r e l i g i o u s s t r u g g l e o r t h e a g r a r ia n p r o b lem , h ave b een p r e s e n t e d . A d e a l o f b ia s e d m a t e r ia l— prop agan d a r e l e a s e d b y p r e s s u r e g r o u p s— h a s p r e s e n t e d h a l f - t r u t h s and g a r b le d m is in fo r m a tio n . But now here, i t s e e m s , h as an e f f o r t b een made t o p r e s e n t th e p h ilo s o p h y in t o t o . Such w i l l be th e aim o f t h i s s tu d y . I I . ORGANIZATION AND PRESENTATION OF MATERIAL M e x ic o ’ s p h ilo s o p h y , s a y i t s f o r m u la to r s , i s t h e r e s u l t o f econ om ic d e te r m in is m . Her s u c c e s s i v e c u l t u r e s h ave c o n t a in e d s e e d s o f th e c u l t u r e t h a t i s now com in g in t o f lo w e r . T here h a s b e e n th e t h e s i s , a n t i t h e s i s , and f i n a l l y th e s y n t h e s i s o f S o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y . To u n d e r s ta n d t h i s v ie w p o in t one r e q u ir e s an o v e r v ie w o f M exican h i s t o r i c a l d ev elo p m en t from th e d ays o f t h e p r e -H ls p a n ic r a c e s u n t i l th e p r e s e n t . The p r e s e n t a t io n o f M exican h i s t o r y w i l l b e d iv id e d I n to tw o s e c t i o n s : a g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l s u r v e y up t o th e tim e o f th e R e v o lu tio n o f 1 9 1 0 , and a resum e o f th e R e v o lu tio n . F o llo w in g th e g ro w th o f r e v o lu t io n a r y dogma d u r in g th e d eca d e o f s t r u g g l e cam e, th e more c l e a r l y fo r m u la te d body o f S o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e . F o r th e r e a s o n t h a t th e R e v o lu t i o n and S o c ia lis m a r e c o n c o m ita n t phenom ena, t h e s e c t i o n d e a lin g w it h th e p h ilo s o p h y o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a tio n f o llo w s th e c h a p te r d e a lin g w ith t h e R e v o lu t io n . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 5 o f M exican e d u c a t io n a r e n e x t a n a ly z e d , and a n a ly s e s o f M exican a r t e d u c a t io n , and m u sic and d a n c in g f o l l o w . F i n a l l y a c h a p te r i s d e v o te d t o tw o s p e c i a l t y p e s o f e d u c a tio n in M exico: th e C u ltu r a l M is s io n an d th e C e n te r s o f In d ia n Edu c a t i o n . I t I s e a s i l y s e e n , from t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h a t th e f i r s t tw o c h a p te r s s e t th e s t a g e f o r th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f th e p h ilo s o p h y . The g e n e r a l and s p e c i f i c p h a se s o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y a r e shown in t h e n e x t tw o c h a p te r s w h ile th e r e m a in d er o f t h e s tu d y i s d e v o te d t o te c h n iq u e s o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . A . CULTURAL HISTORY OF MEXICO A h i s t o r i c a l a p p ro a c h i s u s e d s im p ly t o e x p la in t h e s ta n d o f modern M exican s c h o o l l e a d e r s . T h e ir m ajor p r e m ise i s t h a t th e p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e govern m en t and o f th e s c h o o ls i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y . M exican h i s t o r y sh o w s, t h e y d e c l a r e , t h a t t h e u n s o lv e d p rob lem s o f to d a y a r e t h e same t h a t e x i s t e d when Cuahtem oc r u le d and t h a t w ere n e v e r s e t t l e d by th e S p a n is h c i v i l govern m en t o r by t h e C a t h o lic c h u r c h . L a t e r , a f t e r M exico had o b ta in e d h e r in d e p e n d e n c e , t h e M exican govern m en t u n s u c c e s s f u l l y a s s a i l e d th e same p r o b le m s. H i s t o r i c a l m a t e r ia lis m p r o v e s , c o n tin u e t h e s e t h i n k e r s , t h a t th e r e a so n M exico a lw a y s f a i l e d t o work o u t h e r s a l v a t i o n was th e e x p l o i t a t i v e n a tu r e o f a l l h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s : c i v i l , m i l i t a r y , and e c c l e s i a s t i c . A n o th e r r e a so n 6 f o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l a p p ro a ch i s an e f f o r t t o g iv e a c l e a r e r p ic t u r e o f t h e p r e s e n t day M exican s c e n e w it h i t s many e t h n ic g ro u p s and v a r y in g c u l t u r e s . In M exico we d e a l n o t m e r e ly w it h many r a c e s h u t o f many e p o c h s , w it h many s t a g e s o f human p r o g r e s s , and m e r e ly t o a s s e r t o r a s s e n t t o t h i s p r o p o s it io n f a l l s . ' f a r s h o r t o f d r iv in g h o#e I t s f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e . W e l e a r n , in f i n e , t h a t many o f M e x ic o 's t r o u b le s a r e r o o te d in a p a s t w h ie h in p o in t o f y e a r s seem s v e r y d i s t a n t , h u t in f a c t i s e x tr e m e ly r e c e n t and o f t e n £ m erges in t o t h e p r e s e n t . In M e x ic o , a s o c i e t y t h a t In p a r t i s p r i m i t i v e , and v a r y in g ly r e p r e s e n t s s u c c e s s i v e s t a g e s o f t h e ad van cem en t th r o u g h w h ich o t h e r p e o p le s o f th e w o r ld h a v e p a s s e d , i s In v a d ed h y m odern i n d u s t r i a li s m and many u ltr a -m o d e m s o c i a l t h e o r i e s . 3 - Much h a s h e e n s a i d and w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e t r a g i c p l i g h t o f M exico f o r t h e l a s t fo u r h u nd red y e a r s . The d ia g n o s e s h ave b een v a r i e d , som e w r it e r s m a in ta in in g t h a t M e x ic o 's i l l s came from th e n a tu r e o f th e p e o p le who w ere p o p u la r ly su p p o se d t o b e l a z y , t r e a c h e r o u s , and I n c lin e d t o f i g h t a t t h e . s l i g h t e s t e x c u s e . M a t e r i a l i s t h i s t o r y b a s e s i t s f in d in g s on t h e r e s u l t s o f s c i e n t i f i c s tu d y in th e f i e l d s o f s o c i o l o g y , a n th r o p o lo g y , and e t h n o lo g y .2 As a r e s u l t o f s t u d i e s made by M exican and f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s o v e r a lo n g p e r io d o f t im e , d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n a b l e . The n a t i v e o f M e x ico , b o th t h e in d ig e n o u s and th e m e s t iz o , i s fo u n d t o b e a h a r d 1 H erb ert Q -ruenlng, M exico and I t s H e r it a g e . 7 8 6 p p . 2 R ob ert R e d f ie ld , T e p o z t la n ; A M exican V i l l a g e . p . 11. ~ w o rk in g I n d iv id u a l w it h an e q u a b le te m p e r . E x te r n a l i n f l u e n c e s h ave te n d e d t o d e g r a d e h i s s o c i a l l e v e l s o t h a t to d a y h e i s n o t a b le to im prove h i s c u l t u r a l l e v e l w ith o u t th e rem o v a l o f c e r t a i n a r t i f i c i a l i n h i b i t i o n s . T h ese i n h i b i t i o n s , m ost o f w h ich h a v e a p p ea r e d s i n c e th e a r r i v a l o f th e S p a n ia r d , a r e l a r g e l y econ om ic i n n a t u r e . The M exican h a s b e e n e x p l o it e d by s m a l l , h ig h ly o r g a n iz e d g ro u p s to su c h an e x t e n t t h a t h e h a s l i t t l e l e f t in t h e n a tu r e o f econ om ic w e a lt h , p h y s ic a l h e a l t h , o r m oral f i b e r . M exico c a n n o t be r e m e d ie d , d e c la r e t h e s e m a t e r i a l i s t s , b y m aking s p e e c h e s t o th e p e o p le o r by t e a c h in g t h e c h ild r e n t h e o r e t i c a l s u b j e c t m a tte r i n t h e s c h o o l s . The o n ly ch a n g e w i l l com e from a l t e r in g t h e c o u n t r y ’ s econ om ic s t r u c t u r e and t r a i n i n g th e p o p u la tio n ', b o th J u v e n ile and a d u l t , t o a d a p t i t s e l f t o th e new c o n d i t i o n s . En o t r o s te r m in o s , l a v id a e s p i r i t u a l de l a s o c ie d a d d e p e n d s— y no p u ed e s in o d e p e n d e r --d e l a s c o n d ic io n e s de l a p r o d u c o io n m a t e r ia l y d e l grado de d e s a r r o l l o que hayan a lc a n z a d o l a s f u e r z a s p r o d u c tiv a s en l a s o c ie d a d hum ana.3 C o n tin u e d r e f e r e n c e i s made in a l l f i e l d s o f M exican e d u c a t i o n t o th e p rim ary o b j e c t i v e : econ om ic b e tte r m e n t th r o u g h an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e t e c h n i c s o f p r o d u c tio n . C a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r ie s a r e f o llo w e d i n t h e i r h i g h ly e f f i c i e n t m ethods o f 3 N i c o la s .B u j a r in , E l M & terla llsm o H i s t o r l c o . P* TO. p r o d u c tio n . They a r e n o t t o be f o l lo w e d , h o w ev er, in su b o r d in a t in g t h e i n d iv i d u a l t o th e m a c h in e . U pperm ost in M exican id e o lo g y i s t h e c o n c e p t t h a t Im proved p r o d u c tio n i s f o r t h e p u rp o se o f l i b e r a t i n g t h e c i t i z e n from h i s s la v e r y t o p r i m it i v e m eth o d s. The w o rk er th u s becom es th e h i g h e s t f a c t o r in s o c i e t y ; he i s p r o t e c t e d from e x p l o i t a t i o n b y g u i l d s and u n io n s and s t r i c t la b o r la w s . Thus t h e g o v e r n ment h o p es t o k eep t h e F r a n k e n s te in m o n ste r o f p r o d u c tio n c h a in e d , s o t h a t he w i l l work f o r th e new M exican s o c i e t y . S o c i a l l i f e , and a l l t h a t h an gs th e r e fr o m , d ep en d s on m a t e r ia l c o n d i t i o n s ; i f t h e s e c h a n g e , s o c i a l l i f e c h a n g e s t o o . A n d te c h n ic a l a l t e r a t i o n s c o u n t o r d i n a r i l y f o r m o s t.4 A n o th e r p r e m ise o f M exican e d u c a t io n a l p h ilo s o p h y t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e h i s t o r i c a l s k e t c h i s t h a t c e r t a i n h i g h ly d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p e o p le h a v e rem ain ed im m inent i n t h e r a c e . T h ese c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ere b u r le d u n d e r im p o r ted cu sto m s w h ic h d id n o t f i t in t o th e p a t t e r n o f M exican l i f e b u t w ere f o r c e d o n to t h e p e o p le by th e c o n q u is t a d o r e s , H is to r y w i l l show t h a t S p a rta n s ta n d a r d s o f s o b r i e t y , t r u t h f u l n e s s , and s o c i a l m o r a lit y w ere c o r r u p te d by E uropean im p a c t. The r a th e r i d e a l i s t i c aim o f th e p r e s e n t reg im e i s t o s a lv a g e t h e b e s t from t h e p r e -C o n q u e st h e r it a g e o f M exico and w e ld i t i n t o t h e b e s t t h a t modern c i v i l i z a t i o n h a s t o ^ F , R. S a l t e r . K arl Marx and M odem S o c ia lis m . p . 112, o f f e r . From t h i s f u s io n a new s t r u c t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t y i s e x p e c te d t o b e fo r g e d . B. THE REVOLUTION OF 1910 The R e v o lu tio n o f 1 9 1 0 i s s t u d ie d s e p a r a t e l y b e c a u s e o f i t s im p o r ta n c e in th e fo r m u la tio n o f M e x ic o ’ s r e v o lu t io n a r y id e o lo g y . The f i r s t p la n n e d s o c i e t y o f th e n a t io n came a s a r e s u l t o f t e n y e a r s o f a lm o s t c o n tin u o u s f i g h t i n g , t h a t saw th e r i s e and f a l l o f c o u n t l e s s b a n d it and r e v o lu t io n a r y l e a d e r s . M adero’ s cou p d ’ e t a t , in 1 9 1 0 , was f o r t h e p u rp o se o f m aking p o l i t i c a l ch a n g es and f o l lo w in g t h e s e c h a n g e s w it h c e r t a i n s o c i a l Im p rovem en ts. A f t e r th e o v e r th r o w o f D ia z , h o w ev er, th e tem p er o f th e n a t io n demanded r a d i c a l im p r o v em e n ts, and one l e a d e r f o llo w e d a n o th e r w it h “p la n 's1 1 t h a t w ere l i t t l e more th a n s h i b b o le t h s . As t h e f i g h t i n g c o n tin u e d and t h e s c e n e o f b a t t l e ch a n g ed from one end o f th e n a t io n t o a n o t h e r , i t becam e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e p e o p le w ould n o t be c o n te n t w ith a s e r i e s o f m o u t h - f i l l i n g s l o g a n s . No lo n g e r was th e c r y ’’l l b e r t a d ” en ou gh t o s a t i s f y th e p e o n e s ; t h e y demanded th e m a t e r ia l f r u i t s o f l i b e r t y , and when t h e s e w ere n o t fo r th c o m in g t h e y la s h e d o u t o n ce m ore, d e s t r o y in g th e v e r y le a d e r s th e y had f o llo w e d th e p r e v io u s day* To o b t a in f o l l o w e r s , r e v o lu t io n a r y s t a f f s had to fo r m u la te p ia n a s t h a t w ere s p e c i f i c en ou gh t o a t t r a c t H l o s de aba.1o> > . th e d ow n trod d en . The p e o p le c a r r ie d t h e i r new u n r e a so n t o g r e a t e r l e n g t h s ; th e y demanded 10 t h a t term s o f t h e " p la n ” h e c a r r ie d o u t when v i c t o r y was a t t a i n e d . G e n e r a ls now had t o add p r o p a g a n d is ts t o t h e i r e n to u r a g e and t h e s e g e n tle m e n w en t f a r a f i e l d in t h e i r s e a r c h f o r new id e a s and t h e o r ie s * Many o f them s t u d ie d in Europe and t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , and b r o u g h t hack: l i b e r a l id e a s t h a t had b een e x c lu d e d from M exico by an a u t o c r a t i c S t a t e and C h u rch . P e o p le b eg a n t o t a l k g l i b l y o f C o n d o rcet and R o u ssea u , o f Marx and E n g e ls , o f S y n d ic a lis m and B o lsh e v ism and th e T h ird I n t e r n a t i o n a l e . L ik e Adam, a f t e r e a t i n g o f th e T ree o f L i f e , th e M exican lo o k e d a b o u t and saw a c o n d i t i o n he had n e v e r b een c o n s c io u s o f b e f o r e . He saw an e n t i r e p e o p le w it h human r i g h t s who had h a r d ly b e e n c o n s id e r e d a s human b e in g s b e fo r e and who had c e r t a i n l y h ad no r i g h t s , e i t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l o r a c t u a l . The v e r y v o c a b u la r y o f th e c o u n tr y was an in d e x t o t h i s o ld e r a t t i t u d e . In e v e r y com m unity t h e members w ere c o r r e c t o s o r t o n t o s ; p r o p e r p e o p le o r f o o l s ; g e n te de r a z o n . p e r s o n s w ith r e a s o n , w h ich c l a s s i f i c a t i o n su p p o se d t h a t a l l o t h e r s w ere w ith o u t r e a s o n ; o r g e n t e d e c e n te l i v i n g i n a w o rld in w h ich n i n e t y - f i v e p e r c e n t w ere a p p a r e n tly in d e c e n t . One o f th e m ost t e l l i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s f o r th e commoner was p e la d o . l i t e r a l l y a s k in n e d o n e . T h is c h a n g in g a t t i t u d e f i n a l l y c u lm in a te d i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1917# in w h ic h th e r i g h t s o f t h e n a t io n and i t s p e o p le w ere c o d i f i e d . The l a t t e r p a r t o f th e R e v o lu tio n was 11 a s t r u g g l e t o g i v e m eaning t o t h i s in s tr u m e n t, C arran za and th e l e a d e r s who f o llo w e d him a tte m p te d t o ig n o r e th e C o n s t i t u t i o n , b u t u n d e r t h e w hip o f th e r e a l r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s th e n a t io n c o n tin u e d t o f i g h t f o r th e e n fo r c e m e n t o f th e docum ent* By 1 9 2 0 le a d e r s w ere in pow er who s e t a b o u t b u i ld in g a new . M exico a c c o r d in g t o th e d i c t a t e s l a i d down b y la w , A v a s t s c h o o l b u i ld in g program was s t a r t e d t h a t was t o g a in momentum w it h th e y e a r s . Each y e a r th e p h ilo s o p h y o f t h a t program was s c r u t i n i z e d and ch a n g ed t o come in t o g r e a t e r a c c o r d w ith r e v o l u t i o n a r y dogm a. F i n a l l y , in 1 9 3 3 , t h e t i t l e was o f f i c i a l l y ch a n g ed t o th e S o c i a l i s t S c h o o ls o f M ex ico . 0 . THE PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIALIST EDUCATION The s e c t i o n d e v o te d t o th e p h ilo s o p h y o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n i s o f n e c e s s i t y h i g h ly a b s t r a c t . I t aim s t o show th e t w o - f o ld n a tu r e o f t h e program : an e d u c a t io n t h a t w i l l f i t th e f i n a l S o c i a l i s t s t a t e when t h e means o f p r o d u c tio n and d i s t r i b u t i o n h ave b een s o c i a l i z e d and an e d u c a t io n t h a t w i l l le a d th e way th r o u g h th e t r a n s i t i o n a l y e a r s u n t i l t h a t s t a t e I s r e a c h e d . I t p o s t u l a t e s th e f i n a l g o a ls o f S o c ia lis m : w o r ld b r o th e r h o o d , t h e r i g h t o f e a c h i n d iv i d u a l t o th e f u l l e s t l i f e p o s s i b l e , and a t o t a l a b s e n c e o f human e x p l o i t a t i o n . A t tim e s i t w i l l seem t h a t t h i s s tu d y i s p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r th a n e d u c a t i o n a l . T h is im p r e s s io n can b e s t b e d i s s i p a t e d b y s a y in g t h a t i n t h e S o c i a l i s t id e o lo g y o f M e x ic o , e d u c a tio n i s 12 n o t an i s o l a t e d phenom enon a s i t i s in A n g lo -S a x o n c o u n t r i e s ; i t i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e e n t i r e s o c i a l m a c h in e r y . The s c h o o l i s an a c t i v e t r a i n i n g a g e n t f o r a new s o c i a l o r d e r . More th a n t h a t , th e s c h o o l le a d s in com m unity and s o c i a l w ork, a c t u a l l y c h a n g in g i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t e x i s t and s e t t i n g up o t h e r s t h a t a r e i n a c c o r d w ith t h e s o c i a l p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e g o v e r n m en t. A n o th e r prob lem w h ich w i l l b e e l u c i d a t e d in t h i s c h a p te r i s t h e p h i lo s o p h ic a l a n sw er to t h e q u e s t io n : How can e d u c a t i o n c a l l i t s e l f by t h a t name when i t i s en g a g ed in avow ed i n d o c t r in a t io n ? D. CHARACTERISTICS OF MEXICAN EDUCATION W hereas t h e M exican S o c i a l i s t p h ilo s o p h y g i v e s t h e b a s e s and t e n e t s t h a t w ou ld f i t S o c i a l i s t e d u c a tio n in an y c o u n tr y , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f M exican e d u c a tio n show i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o M exico w it h h e r u n iq u e p ro b lem s an d s i t u a t i o n s . M exico h a s many e t h n ic and l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s s p e a k in g d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t s . I t i s e s t im a t e d t h a t more th a n tw o m i l l i o n In d ia n s in M exico sp e a k no S p a n is h a t a l l , w h ile a n o th e r tw o m i l l i o n sp e a k S p a n is h , b u t u s e a d i a l e c t by p r e f e r e n c e . The c o u n tr y i s d iv id e d in t o g e o g r a p h ic a l s e c t i o n s t h a t a r e a s d i s t i n c t a s th o u g h th e y w ere th o u sa n d s o f m ile s a p a r t . T h is s e c t i o n o f th e s tu d y w i l l show how t h e M exican s h ave a d a p te d S o c i a l i s t p h ilo s o p h y t o t h e i r c o u n t r y . They a r e r e s p e c t i n g t h e c u l t u r a l autonom y o f e a c h g r o u p , s a v in g t h e b e s t t h in g s in th e f i e l d 1 3 o f a r t , m u s ic , d a n c in g , h a n d i c r a f t s , and c h a r a c t e r w h ile th e c u l t u r e i s e x p a n d ed . The backw ard p e o p le s a r e ta u g h t S p a n ish and t r a in e d t o l i v e b e t t e r and t o m a in ta in more s a n i t a r y con d i t i o n s . They a r e b e t t e r e d p h y s i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y , and e co n o m i c a l l y . The s c h o o l b e a r s t h e b r u n t o f t h i s w ork, n o t o n ly b y e d u c a tin g t h e c h i l d r e n , b u t a l s o b y t e a c h in g t h e a d u lt s in a fte r n o o n and e v e n in g s c h o o l s . Many o f t h e p rob lem s t h e s c h o o ls a r e m e e tin g a r e e x p la in e d in some d e t a i l . F r e q u e n tly th e h i s t o r i c a l b a ck grou n d i s t r a c e d and t h e m ethod t h e s c h o o ls a r e u s in g i s b e t t e r u n d er s t o o d a f t e r t h i s b r i e f c a s e h i s t o r y . In e a c h in s t a n c e an a t tem p t i s made t o show m in u te ly how e a c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s in k e e p in g w ith t h e u n d e r ly in g p h ilo s o p h y and how i t i s c a r r ie d o u t p r a c t i c a l l y . A s e p a r a t e c h a p t e r i s d e v o te d t o th e r a t i o n a l i s t i c and s c i e n t i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f M exican e d u c a t io n . The r e a s o n s t h i s m a t e r ia l was n o t in c lu d e d i n t h e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r a r e t w o - f o l d . In th e f i r s t p la c e i t w ou ld h a v e drawn o u t t h e c h a p te r to undue l e n g t h s ; in th e se c o n d p la c e t h i s m a t t e r , d e a lin g a s i t d o e s w ith th e r e l i g i o u s q u e s t io n , i s im p o r ta n t en ou gh to w a r ra n t s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t . E . TECHNIQUES OF INDOCTRINATION J u s t a s t h e word " e d u c a tio n ” In M exico ta k e s on a d e f i n i t i o n d i f f e r i n g from th e t r a d i t i o n a l o n e , so d o es t h e word ’' in d o c t r i n a t i o n ” a t tim e s v a r y from th e c o n c e p t s e t up in th e 14 U n ite d S t a t e s * N o r th A m erican s a r e i n c l i n e d t o t h in k o f in d o c t r in a t io n a s so m e th in g t h a t i s p r e s e n t e d hy one p e r so n t o a n o t h e r . I n d o c t r in a t io n i s th o u g h t o f a s a m a tte r o f a c t i v e t r a n s f e r from a p r o p a g a n d is t t o a p a s s i v e v i c t i m . I t seem s t o p a r ta k e o f th e n a tu r e o f s e r m o n iz in g , so m e th in g to " b e p r e s e n t e d in l e c t u r e s an d s u b v e r s iv e l i t e r a t u r e . T h is c o n n o t a t io n m ust b e f o r g o t t e n in s t u d y in g th e M exican p ro b lem . The S o c i a l i s t s c o n s id e r t h a t many o f th e w o r ld ’ s c u sto m s and t r a d i t i o n s a r e im m o ra l.a n d u n n a tu r a l b e c a u se t h e y m ust be f o r c e f u l l y ta u g h t i n o r d e r t o in s u r e t h e i r c o n t in u a n c e , o f t e n a t th e e x p e n se o f an o p e n , t h in k in g .m in d , t o e a c h g e n e r a t io n . A c c o r d in g t o t h e i r own d e f i n i t i o n , t h e d o c t r in e s o f S o c ia lis m a r e in k e e p in g w ith t h e la w s o f n a t u r e . T h e r e fo r e t o make a S o c i a l i s t o f a c h i l d i t i s o n ly n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p h i s m ind open and t e a c h him t h e t r u t h , and he w i l l l o g i c a l l y and n a t u r a l l y becom e a S o c i a l i s t . F or t h i s r e a s o n , S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t i o n i s n o t s t r o n g l y c o n c e r n e d w ith t h e m ere d e l i v e r y o f s p e e c h e s and th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h o r t a t o r y p a m p h le ts . I t i s c o n c e r n e d w ith s e t t i n g up a h e a lt h y e n v iro n m en t i n w h ich th e p u p il ca n s tu d y and le a r n t h e tr u th * A t no p o in t w i l l h e b e r e f u s e d th e t r u t h in h i s s e a r c h f o r k n o w le d g e . He w i l l l i v e in a S o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y w h ile he i s in s c h o o l . T h e r e fo r e , i t may b e s a i d t h a t t h e c h i l d i n d o c t r in a t e s h i m s e l f , f o r i t i s n o t a lw a y s a r e s u l t o f w hat t h e t e a c h e r s a r e d o in g . A r t , m u sic and d a n c in g a r e p r e s e n te d a s im p o r ta n t 15 t e c h n iq u e s in t h e S o c i a l i s t program . A r t i s a d o u b le -e d g e d t o o l . The p e r s o n who s e e s m odem M exican a r t i s e x p o se d t o new i d e a s , and th u s i s b e in g in d o c t r in a t e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e o f t h e w ord. On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e a c t u a l p a in t in g o f p i c t u r e s i s an exam p le o f th e form o f s e l f - i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . O nly d u r in g th e p e r io d o f t r a n s i t i o n w i l l P r o le t a r ia n a r t p a r ta k e o f th e n a tu r e o f p ro p a g a n d a . Once th e c o m p le te S o c i a l i s t s t a t e i s a c h ie v e d , a r t w i l l be p u r e ly a m a tte r o f s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n . I t w i l l n o t r e tu r n t o em pty fo r m a lism , sa y i t s f o r m u la to r s , b u t w i l l be a p o r t r a y a l o f s o c i a l l y im p o r ta n t th e m e s, n o t t o p ro v e a n y t h in g , b u t f o r t h e en jo y m en t o f th e p a i n t e r . M usic f o llo w s t h e same p a t t e r n s a s d o e s a r t in i t s u s e in th e s c h o o l s . The aim o f m u sic e d u c a t io n i s n o t s o much to c o n v e y Id e a s th r o u g h propagan da so n g s a s i t i s t o c o n d it io n th e s i n g e r to be a S o c i a l i s t . D an cin g i s th e p u r e s t exam p le o f t h e ty p e o f I n d o c t r in a t i o n th r o u g h l i v i n g an e x p e r ie n c e . The d a n c in g i s b o th a means and an e n d . D an cin g b r in g s t o th e d a n c e r a jo y t h a t makes h i s l i f e f u l l e r . I t i s a c o o p e r a t iv e a r t in w h ich th e d a n c e r s a r e b r o u g h t in t o c l o s e r harmony w ith e a c h o t h e r th r o u g h th e rhythm o f t h e d a n c e . G-roup s in g in g b u i ld s up an e s p r i t de c o r p s t h a t i s p a r t o f t h e S o c i a l i s t com m u nity. F or one m ust rem ember t h a t S o c ia lis m p o s t u l a t e s s p i r i t u a l a s w e l l a s m a t e r ia l p h a s e s . S o c ia lis m d o e s n o t in te n d m e r e ly t o g iv e e v e r y one a b e t t e r home and a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n and a more 16 h e a lt h y e n v ir o n m e n t. I t aim s t o b r in g s p i r i t u a l and c u l t u r a l v a lu e s t o e v e r y o n e . W ith t h i s aim in m ind i t w i l l h e e a s i e r t o s e e t h a t c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s a r e form s o f S o c i a l i s t in d o c t r i n a t i o n . C h a p te rs d e a l in g w ith a r t and a r c h i t e c t u r e , w it h m usic and d a n c in g , and w ith th e C u lt u r a l M is s io n s and C e n te r s o f In d ia n E d u c a tio n f o l l o w . The f i r s t two ta k e up a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h a r e fo u n d in e v e r y s c h o o l in M ex ico . The l a s t c h a p te r s t u d i e s two form s o f e d u c a t io n u n iq u e ly M ex ica n . I n s t e a d o f s e t t i n g up a form o f c e n t r a l i z e d e d u c a tio n t o w h ich t h e p u p ils com e, te c h n iq u e s o f c a r r y in g e d u c a tio n in t o th e d a r k e s t c o m e r s o f t h e r e p u b lic h ave b e e n d e v e lo p e d . M exico h a s r e a c h e d th e p o in t w here h e r c o n f id e n c e in e d u c a tio n e q u a ls t h a t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s when th e s t a t e s y s te m s o f e d u c a t io n w ere b e g u n . Today h e r s lo g a n i s E ducar e s r e d im ir : t o e d u c a te i s t o r ed eem . A few d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en t h e l a i s s e z f a i r e p o l i c y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s and th e d i r e c t i o n a l p o l i c y o f M exico e x i s t . I f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e c le a r e d up and t h e fu n d a m en ta l p r e m is e s e s t a b l i s h e d , i t i s much e a s i e r t o u n d e r s ta n d th e M exican t o u t e n s e m b le . F i r s t o f a l l , th e f a i t h o f N o rth A m erican e d u c a to r s h a s a lw a y s b een in r e a d in g and in a ca d em ic form s o f k n o w le d g e . The c h i e f aim h a s b een to make a l i t e r a t e n a t io n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . M exican s m a in ta in t h a t t h i s aim i s n o t en ou gh ; th e f a c t t h a t a p e r so n can r e a d i s n o t prim a f a c i e e v id e n c e t h a t he t h i n k s , th e y 17 d e c l a r e . T h e r e fo r e , th e y a r e o n ly i n t e r e s t e d in t e a c h in g th e M exican t o r e a d a s a b y -p r o d u c t o f t e a c h in g him t o t h in k and t o m eet p r o b le m s. In th e n e x t p l a c e , A m erican e d u c a t io n h a s a lw a y s b e e n t h e o r e t i c a l . I t h as b e e n ‘’b o o k - le a r n in g " . The M exican s to o k John Dew ey! s p h ilo s o p h y a s a c o m e r s t o n e and b u i l t from i t . E d u c a tio n in M exico i s , t h e r e f o r e , ed u c a t i o n by d o in g , M exican e d u c a tio n h a s a tte m p te d t o f i n d w here i t w an ts to g o , and i s u s in g th e s c h o o ls a s a g u id e t o le a d th e n a t io n t o i t s d e s t i n a t i o n . I I I . METHODS OF STUDY D ata f o r t h i s c r i t i q u e w ere g a th e r e d from fo u r m ain s o u r c e s : h i s t o r i c a l w ork s; m a t e r ia ls d e a l in g w it h t h e o f f i c i a l p h ilo s o p h y o f M exico w h ic h came from p u b lis h e d s o u r c e s is s u e d by t h o s e c l o s e to th e S e c r e ta r y o f E d u c a tio n ; from c o n f e r e n c e s w it h D epartm ent C h ie f in th e S e c r e t a r i a t ; and from v i s i t i n g and o b s e r v in g s c h o o ls i n v a r io u s p a r t s o f t h e r ep u b l i c . H i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h was c a r r ie d on l a r g e l y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , a lth o u g h th e B i b l i o t e c a N a c io n a l o f M exico C it y was th e s t o r e h o u s e o f in v a lu a b le m a t e r ia l u s e d . T h is in fo r m a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f a few m a n u s c r ip ts , b u t more p a r t i c u l a r l y o f c e r t a i n l i t t l e - k n o w n b o o k s , b o th S p a n ish and M ex ica n , w h ich a r e a lm o s t I m p o s s ib le to o b t a in i n o t h e r p l a c e s . S e v e r a l b ook s w ere r e a d in th e B i b l i o t e c a N a c io n a l t h a t h a v e h a d , and a r e 18 h a v in g , a s t r o n g in f lu e n c e upon th e t h in k e r s o f M ex ico . T h ese b o o k s a r e t r a n s l a t i o n s from th e R u ssia n and a r e com in g to M exico c o n s t a n t l y . The d i r e c t o r s o f th e H enry E . H u n tin g to n L ib r a r y k in d ly a llo w e d th e a u th o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r v a lu a b le c o l l e c t i o n o f e a r l y M exican m a n u s c r ip ts . In o r d e r t o g e t an e x a c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e o f f i c i a l p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e F e d e r a l S c h o o ls t h e a u th o r s p e n t two summers in M exico C it y c o l l e c t i n g a l l th e p r in t e d m a tte r a v a i l a b l e . T h is m a t e r ia l c o n s i s t e d o f som e d ozen b ook s p u b lis h e d w it h in t h e p a s t t h r e e y e a r s , in n u m era b le b r o c h u r e s , o r o g r a m a s. o u t - < l i n e s , p a m p h le ts , and p e r i o d i c a l s . He s u b s c r ib e d t o c e r t a i n m a g a zin es and h a s had E l M aestro R u r a l. S im ie n t e . and La R e v ls t a de E d u ca cio n s i n c e t h e i r i n c e p t i o n . C o n fe r e n c e s w ere h e l f in M exico C it y w it h C h ie f s and S u b -C h ie fs o f a l l th e d e p a r tm e n ts c o n c e r n e d in t h i s s t u d y . The men a t th e h ead o f M e x ic o ’ s e d u c a t io n a l d e s t i n i e s h a v e p ro v ed th e m s e lv e s t o be c o u r t e o u s , p o l i s h e d , and w e l l - t r a i n e d . E s p e c i a l l y v a lu a b le w ere a s e r i e s o f d i s c u s s i o n s w ith D r. M anuel R. P a l a c i o s , C h ie f o f t h e D epartm ent o f S o c i a l i s t O r ie n t a t io n . D r. P a la c io s was a l s o P r e s id e n t o f t h e T h ir d In te r -A m e r ic a n C o n fe r e n c e o f E d u c a tio n h e ld in M exico C it y from th e tw e n ty -s e c o n d t o th e t w e n t y - n in t h o f A u g u s t, 1937# T h is c o n fe r e n c e p r o v e d t o b e h ig h ly v a lu a b le in d e m o n s tr a tin g th e m ethods by w h ich th e M exican s e s t a b l i s h t h e i r program s th r o u g h th e c o o p e r a t iv e t h in k in g o f t h e i r l e a d e r s . H ere a l s o th e a u th o r had th e p r i v i l e g e 19 and p le a s u r e o f m e e tin g many r e g io n a l and s t a t e d i r e c t o r s o f e d u c a t io n . V i s i t s to o t h e r p a r ts o f M exico h e lp e d t o sh a p e th e c o n c e p t o f th e many com p on en ts o f M exican e d u c a tio n in t o a more h arm on iou s w h o le . In H e r m o s illo , S o n o r a , th e a u th o r was i n v i t e d to a t t e n d s e s s i o n s o f an i n s t i t u t e s t a g e d b y th e F e d e r a c io n de M a estro s S o c i a l i s t a s . T h e ir s u c c e s s f u l h u e lg a — s t r i k e - - o f t w e n t y - f o u r h o u rs a l s o p r e s e n t e d a v ie w o f t h a t l i t t l e - u s e d w eapon . S i t t i n g w ith th e members o f th e C u ltu r a l M is s io n s a t t h e i r t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s g a v e th e a u th o r an i n s i g h t in t o t h e p rob lem s o f t h e s e r em a rk a b le m odern m is s io n a r ie s who c a r r y th e t o r c h o f le a r n in g t o th e lo w e s t c u l t u r a l l e v e l s in t h e c o u n tr y : th e T arahum are, S e r i , Y a q u i, Cora and o t h e r I n d ia n s in th e m ost i n a c c e s s i b l e p a r t s . The f o u r t h im p o r ta n t s o u r c e o f in fo r m a tio n came from t o u r s o f s c h o o ls in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f th e n a t i o n . As tim e l i m i t a t i o n fo r b a d e v i s i t s t o a l l t h e s t a t e s o f th e r e p u b lic th e a u th o r a tte m p te d t o s tu d y th e s c h o o ls in a c t i o n in p a r t s t h a t w ou ld be t y p i c a l o f A l l M ex ico .. P a r t o f t h e n a t i o n a l p la n i s to a d a p t e d u c a tio n t o th e l o c a l e . S tu d e n ts a r e ta u g h t to a d a p t th e m s e lv e s t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r e n v ir o n m e n t. W h ile M exico i s a la n d o f many c li m a t e s and many d i s t i n c t l o c a l c u l t u r e s , i t may be d iv id e d i n t o b ro a d g e o g r a p h ic a l s e c t o r s t h a t h ave common p r o b le m s. The t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i s i o n i s to s e p a r a t e th e c o u n tr y in t o t h e t i e r r a c a l i e n t e . th e h o t c o u n tr y ; t i e r r a te m p la d a , th e te m p e r a te c o u n tr y ; and th e t i e r r a f r i a . 20 c o ld c o u n tr y . I f t h e eco n o m ic f a c t o r i s c o n s id e r e d , I t I s more c o n v e n ie n t t o s tu d y th e la n d a s d iv id e d I n to o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s . The n o r th e r n s t a t e s , S o n o r a , C h ih u ah u a, C o a h u ila , and p a r t s o f T am au lip as and Nueva Leon a r e e x t e n s i v e p l a i n s w h ich a r e p a r t i a l l y d e s e r t . Here c a t t l e r a i s i n g and m in in g a r e t h e c h i e f i n d u s t r i e s , w ith l i t t l e h a n d ic r a f t in e v id e n c e . The c e n t r a l p la t e a u r e g io n i s t h e p a r t t h a t i s c o n s id e r e d a s M exico t i p i c o . w it h c o l o r f u l h a n d i c r a f t s , a g r i c u l t u r e and m in in g p r e d o m in a n t. The lo w - l y in g c o a s t a l p l a i n s and s o u th e r n M exico a r e a f f l i c t e d w ith I n t e n s e h e a t and m a la r ia l swamps and a t th e same tim e a r e r i c h in tim b e r , c o f f e e , v a n i l l a , and o t h e r t r o p i c a l p r o d u c ts . In h i s t r a v e l s th e a u th o r h as a t tem p ted t o s tu d y e a c h l o c a l e a s th o r o u g h ly a s p o s s i b l e t o s e e w h eth er t h e s c h o o ls a r e a c t u a l l y c a r r y in g o u t t h e program s o f th e S e c r e t a r i a t and to s e e w h eth er th e program- i s a c t u a l l y a p p l ic a b l e t o th e s i t u a t i o n i f f o llo w e d . IV . VALIDITY OF STUDY I t may seem p resu m p tu ou s f o r an A m erican t o a tte m p t an o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s o f M e x ic o ’ s p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a t io n . How e v e r , th e t a s k i s n o t so c o m p lic a te d a s i t w ou ld be In th e U n ite d S t a t e s , o r C anada, o r E n g la n d , l e t u s s a y . T h is i s b e c a u s e th e S o c i a l i s t S c h o o ls o f M exico a r e new , d a t in g from 1 9 3 3 , and b e c a u s e th e M exican l e a d e r s h ave fo r m u la te d t h e i r p o l i c i e s s u c c i n c t l y a t a n n u a l c o n f e r e n c e s . A nd, t h e i r sy ste m 21 I s d i s t i n c t l y n a t i o n a l . I t i s n o t c o m p lic a te d b y s t a t e c o n t r o l o r l o c a l d i s t r i c t c o n t r o l a s i s th e sy s te m o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s * They h a v e , i t i s t r u e , a rem nant o f s t a t e s c h o o l s , b u t t h e s e a r e b e in g a b so r b e d by th e F e d e r a l s y s te m . .One i s , t h e n , a b le t o f i n d m a t e r ia l on an y p h a se o f M e x ic o f s s c h o o ls n e a t l y and c l e a r l y o u t l i n e d and o r g a n iz e d . The p rob lem o f t h e w r i t e r h a s b e e n t o s e a r c h f o r u n d e r ly in g r e a s o n s f o r th e a d o p tio n o f t h e s e program s an d t o f o l lo w up a c t u a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e o r e t i c a l program s in th e r u r a l and c i t y s c h o o l s . T r a c in g h i s t o r i c a l an d i d e o l o g i c a l b a ck g ro u n d s i s a t a s k c o n s id e r a b ly more c o m p lex and te n u o u s th a n i s t h e m ere t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t p la n and p h ilo s o p h y . One m ust n e v e r l o s e s i g h t o f th e f a c t t h a t M exico i s more o f a m e lt in g p o t th a n i s e v e n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . T r a c in g c u l t u r a l im p a c ts i n M exico d o e s n o t r e s o l v e i t s e l f i n t o l i s t i n g A z te c and S p a n is h o r e v e n in d ig e n o u s and S p a n is h c u l t u r e . T here a r e a p p r o x im a te ly f o r t y d i a l e c t s sp o k en in M ex ico , I f one c l a s s i f i e s a l l p r i m it i v e c u l t u r e s u n d e r th e g e n e r a l h ea d o f i n d i g e n o u s , t h e r e s t i l l rem ain s a v a s t s u r g e o f f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e s w h ich c o n t in u e s u n d im in is h e d to d a y . F i r s t o f a l l came th e S p a n is h . F ren ch id e o lo g y f o llo w e d t h e S p a n is h and p la y e d an im p o r ta n t p a r t in M e x ic o f s h i s t o r y lo n g b e f o r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m ent o f M a x im ilia n and G a r lo ta on th e M exican th r o n e . A m erican in f l u e n c e h a s b e e n p o t e n t , b u t l a r g e l y r e s t r i c t e d 22 to m a te r ia l te c h n iq u e s . I t i s s ig n if ic a n t th a t today Mexico s t i l l lo o k s to S p a in , France and R ussia f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l le a d e r s h ip , b u t to th e U n ited S ta te s f o r e f f i c i e n t ways o f d oin g t h in g s . They r e c e iv e much m ental s tim u la tio n from R u ssia , most o f which comes through French t r a n s la t io n . The problem o f stu d y in g th e s it u a t io n a t f i r s t hand i s much more d e c e p tiv e th an th a t o f stu d y in g th e academ ic m a te r ia l. I t i s ex trem ely d i f f i c u l t to g e t a c r o s s - s e c t io n o f M exico, to d is t in g u is h th e c r o s s c u rr en ts from th e main c u r r e n t. In th e f in a l a n a ly s is one i s l i k e l y to s y n th e s iz e th e s it u a t io n in term s o f h is own p r e ju d ic e s . Long-tim e r e s id e n ts o f Mexico warn th e v i s i t o r to w ith h o ld Judgment as lo n g as p o s s ib le and to be chary o f th e en thusiasm o f th e c i t y le a d e r s . The au th or has h e ld t h i s a d v ic e upperm ost in h is mind and has attem p ted to s e e th e sc h o o ls where he was n ot e x p e c te d , a s w e ll a s th e show p la c e s in th e c i t i e s and p a r t ic u la r ly in th e F ed era l D i s t r i c t . Over a p erio d o f th r ee y ea rs he has made f iv e t r i p s to Mexico by a u to m o b ile, co v erin g a d is ta n c e o f more than 1 3 ,0 0 0 m ile s . Mexico has 28 s t a t e s , two t e r r i t o r i e s : Baja C a lifo r n ia and Quintana Roo; and th e F ed era l d i s t r i c t in which th e c a p it a l i s lo c a te d . The au th or has v i s i t e d fo u r te e n o f th e s e s t a t e s , one t e r r i t o r y , and th e F ed era l D i s t r i c t . In h is th in k in g , th e Mexican has changed from an econom ic u n it cap ab le o f b ein g in d o c tr in a te d in to a l i v i n g f r ie n d ly human b e in g , fa c e d w ith 23 problem s com parable t o .t h o s e o f th e U nited S ta te s* The Mexican i s m eetin g h is problem s w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e , co u ra g e, and humor. He has d e f i n i t e l y proved n o t to be a f ir e - b r e a t h in g r a d ic a l,.h u n tin g down p r ie s t s and nuns and d e s e c r a tin g ch u rch es. F o r tu n a te ly , or u n fo r tu n a te ly , th e au th or does n o t th in k o f th e Mexican te a c h e r as a sym bolic f ig u r e , but as a com posite o f a myriad o f l i v i n g in d iv id u a ls . One ch a ra c t e r i s t i c , th a t each te a c h e r has i s a s m ile . Perhaps th a t sm ile has d is t o r t e d th e s c h o la r ly v ie w p o in t, but th e au th or be l i e v e s th a t i t has n o t. V. SU M M A R Y The rea d er w i l l be shown how Mexico hopes to "redeem” h er p eo p le by u sin g ed u ca tio n as a s o c ia l M essiah. Primary em phasis in S o c i a l i s t ed u ca tio n i s upon s o c i a l i z a t i o n , making each in d iv id u a l a member o f th e fu tu r e S o c i a l i s t s t a t e . The a p o lo g ia fo r t h i s ed u ca tio n i s found, in th e h is to r y o f M exico, w hich shows th a t th e Mexican i s p o t e n t ia lly th e eq u al o f o th e r r a c e s . That th e Mexican i s today c la s s e d as a back ward in d iv id u a l, c u lt u r a lly , i s b ecau se o f th e n a tu re o f h is s o c ie t y in th e p a s t, w hich was based on f o r c e , e x p lo it a t io n , and s u p e r s t it io n . To remedy, t h i s n a tio n a l i l l , th e M exican government i s working toward a S o c i a l i s t s t a t e and i s p re p arin g th e p eo p le fo r th e s o c ie t y o f th e fu tu r e by i t s edu c a t io n a l program. The S o c i a l i s t sc h o o l w i l l aim to fr e e th e 24 Mexican eco n o m ica lly by te a c h in g him to make u se o f s c ie n c e and th e machine in h is v o c a tio n a l l i f e . The sc h o o l p la n s to f r e e the Mexican s o c i a l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y by b u ild in g in him a n a tio n a l c o n sc io u sn e ss and te a c h in g him a s c i e n t i f i c and m a t e r ia lis t con cep t o f th e u n iv e r s e . Thus i t i s hoped th e Mexican w i l l se e h im s e lf in h is tr u e r e la t io n s h ip to th e w orld and th e u n iv e r s e , and th a t he w i l l c o n sid e r h im s e lf th e eq u al and th e b ro th e r o f men in a l l p a rts o f th e w orld. CHAPTER I I CULTURAL HISTORY OF M EXICO For th e purposes o f t h i s stu d y i t w i l l he n e c e ssa r y to examine b r i e f l y th e developm ent o f c u ltu r e in Mexico* The more form al phases o f h is to r y w i l l n o t he to u ch ed , a s th e s e r ie s o f c o n q u e sts, w ars, and p o l i t i c a l changes a re c o n sid e r e d on ly as th e y e f f e c t th e econom ic, r e l i g i o u s , and id e o lo g ic a l l i f e o f th e co u n try . In ch o o sin g a b eg in n in g i t would be p o in t le s s to name th e s c o r e s o f e th n ic and l i n g u i s t i c groups th a t were in Hew Spain when C ortes began th e C onquest. On th e o th e r hand, one must q u a lif y sta te m e n ts reg a rd in g th e o r ig in a l groups o r be charged w ith c a r e le s s n e s s . I . THE N A H U A AND M A Y A BA C K G R O U N D Most s i g n i f i c a n t o f th e c o n tr ib u to r s to th e pre-C onquest c i v i l i z a t i o n were th e M aya-Quiches and th e Nahuas o r T o lte c a s . One o r d in a r ily speaks o f th e A ztec c i v i l i z a t i o n a s th e dominant one in e a r ly M exico. However, th e A ztecs were but one o f th e sev en t r ib e s making up th e Nahua g ro u p .1 M oreover, th ey were o n ly conquerors and a s s im ila to r s o f th e groups th a t d ev elo p ed th e h ig h d egree o f c i v i l i z a t i o n found by th e S p a n ia rd s. The M Sayas had been broken some tim e p r e v io u s ly and were p r a c t ic a lly 1 A lfo n so T eja Zabre, Breve H is to r ia de M exico. 263 pp. a l l under th e dom ination o f th e A ztec em pire when C ortes lan ded in 1519* The N ahuatl lan guage was u sed by th e sev en Nahua t r ib e s : th e X o eh lm ilca s, C h a lca s, A co lh u a s, T la h u ie a s, T la x c a lt e c a s , T ecp anecas, and T enocheas. The Tenocheas were more commonly known a s A z te c s . C ortes th u s found h im s e lf c o n fr o n te d , In 1 5 1 9 , w ith th e o b s ta c le th a t I s s t i l l one o f th e c h ie f stu m b lin g b lo ck s in th e way o f th e e d u c a tio n a l program: la c k o f a u n if ie d la n g u a g e, but he was fo r tu n a te enough to a c q u ire th e f a i t h f u l M alinche a s m is tr e s s and t r a n s la t o r . M alinche was an A ztec who had been s o ld in to s la v e r y among th e Mayas, so sh e spoke b o th lan gu ages w e ll. P erh ap s t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t i n s t i t u t i o n among t h e N ahuas was t h e i r communal o r g a n iz a t io n an d p r o p e r ty h o l d in g .2 G roups o f c o m m u n ities w ere c l o s e l y k n i t i n t o t h e c a l p u l l i . Ea©h o a l p u l l l h e l d i t s e l i d o o r la n d p l o t in common. F a m ilie s w ere g iv e n p l o t s t o w ork , t h e s i z e o f t h e f i e l d d e p e n d in g on t h e s i z e and n e e d o f th e f a m i ly . From e a r l i e s t tim e t h e Nahuas s e e m in g ly o b s e r v e d th e c u sto m o f l i v i n g i n t h e v i l l a g e an d w o r k in g t h e communal h o ld in g i n th e c o u n tr y . As lo n g a s th e fa m ily e x i s t e d i t h e l d t h e home i n tow n and i t s m ilp a . o r f i e l d t o g e t h e r , n e i t h e r o f w h ic h c o u ld b e r e a l l o c a t e d w ith o u t t h e 2 Frans Blom, The C onquest o f Y ucatan,p l0 4 ; E. L. Hewett A n cien t L ife in Mexico and C en tra l A m erica. p . 291; J . E ric Thompson, C l v i f l z a i l o n o f th e Mayas . p . 7 5 ; A lfo n so Te ja Zabre, Op. c i t . oth er* I f members o f a fa m ily f a i l e d to work th e m llpa f o r two y ea r s th ey were asked f o r a rea so n by th e c h ie f s o f f a m ilie s o f th e c a l p u l l i . Then i f th e y f a i l e d to work th e f i e l d th e th ir d y e a r i t was tak en from them and d iv id e d among th e f a m ilie s show ing th e g r e a t e s t n eed . The e l id e i s o f such im portance in th e h is t o r y o f Mexico th a t a f u l l u n d ersta n d in g o f i t s w orking i s n e c e s s a r y . I t w i l l be shown l a t e r th a t th e European C o o p e ra tiv e, becom ing so prom inent in Mexico and h o ld in g an Im portant p la c e in th e sc h o o l sy stem , i s a lm o st th e same i n s t i t u t i o n as th e a n c ie n t e j id o . I t i s a ls o im portant to know th a t th e e lid o has f lo u r is h e d , a g a in s t trem endous o p p o s itio n , i t i s tr u e , u n t i l th e p r e s e n t tim e ? The f i g h t to save th e e.1ldo was behind th e u p r is in g o f th e z a p a tis ta s in 1911 w ith t h e i r r a lly in g ovy o f t ie r r a y llb e r t a d ; la n d and lib e r t y .^ Among t h e Nahuas t h e e l l d o was t h e one r i g h t o f t h e com m oners w h ic h was r e s p e c t e d by t h e n o b l e s , a lth o u g h f o r c e n t u r i e s t h e s e communal h o ld in g s h a v e b e e n t h e c a u s e o f b ou n d ary t r o u b le s b e tw e en v i l l a g e s . The e .lld o f r e q u e n t l y c o n t a in e d p a s t a l e s . g r a z in g l a n d , and c a r r l l e s . o r wood l a n d s . A g r ic u ltu r e was th e fundam ental a c t i v i t y o f th e Nahuas and th e Mayas, w ith m aize form ing th e b u lk o f t h e i r d ie t th en 3 F ran k Tannenbaum , P e a c e b y R e v o lu t io n . p . 2 2 3 . 4 B ertram W o lfe , P o r t r a i t o f M e x ic o . 159 f f . 2 8 a s i t d o e s now* F a v o r it e r e g i o n a l d is h e s s u c h a s t h e t a m a l. e n c h i la d a , p i n o l e , and p o z o l e « a r e m ix tu r e s made up l a r g e l y o f c o m m eal* A dded t o m a ize w ere b ea n s and sq u a s h a s t h e l a r g e p r o d u c tio n c r o p s . 5 T h is h i s t o r i c econom y h a s c o n d it io n e d t h e M exican t o h e w hat h e I s to d a y * L ack o f a b a la n c e d d i e t h a s b e e n a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r in g i v in g M exico o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t d e a th r a t e s i n t h e w orld * The I n d ia n o r m e s t iz o o f t h e p a s t becam e a s l a v e t o c o r n .? W ith h i s p r i m it i v e m eth od s ^ o f g r o w in g t h e c e r e a l h e was d e p e n d e n t on t h e f a v o r o f n a t u r e , and when n a tu r e was u n f r i e n d ly h e s u f f e r e d . As t h e N ahuas d id n o t m ine i r o n , t h e y h a d n o m e t a l t o o l s a n d d id n o t c u l t i v a t e t h e i r c r o p s . 2&iz@ was grow n u n d e r t h e A z te c e m p ir e , a s i t i s s t i l l grown i n many p a r t s o f M e x ic o , b y t h e s im p le d e v ic e o f p o k in g a sh a r p s t i c k in th e grou n d and d r o p p in g i n t h e s e e d .® When t h e r a in s w ere go o d t h e c r o p s p r o s p e r e d , b u t s o d id t h e w e e d s. The f o l l o w i n g y e a r , o r , a t t h e m o s t, tw o y e a r s l a t e r , t h e f i e l d t h a t had grown a c r o p was ab an d on ed and more la n d was c l e a r e d . T h is w a s t e f u l an d i n e f f i c i e n t m ethod o f fa r m in g made c o n s t a n t , e x h a u s t in g demands on t h e c o u n t r y s id e , 5 j . E r ic Thom pson, M exico B e fo r e C o r t e z . C h a p te r I I . 6 c . M. F la n d r a u , V iv a M e x ic o . p . 4 4 ; R ic h a r d H a k lu y t, The E n g lis h V o y a g e s . V o l. V I , p . 5 £ o . ? S y lv a n u s G r isw o ld M o r le y , " Y u catan , Home o f t h e G if t e d M aya,” N a t io n a l G eo g ra p h ic M a g a zin e . N ovem ber, 1 9 3 6 ; F ran s HLom, The C o n q u est o f Y u c a ta n , p . 1 2 1 ; R ob ert M cLean, T h at M ex ica n . p . 3 8 . 8 J . E r ic Thom pson, M exico B e fo r e C o r t e z , p . 6 2 . 29 and th e I n d i v i d u a l. E q u a lly b r u t a l i z i n g w as t h e e f f e c t on t h e women o f t h e f a m ily , a s th e m e t a t e . a p r i m it i v e g r in d in g h ow l f o r m aking c o r n m e a l, becam e t h e i r t a s k m a s t e r . F o r a s lo n g a s s i x t e e n h o u r s a d ay c o n s t a n t g r in d in g o f t h e c e r e a l was n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p up w it h t h e n e e d s o f t h e f a m i ly . Today a v a s t p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e p o p u la t io n i s l i v i n g t h e sam e l i f e o f s l a v e r y t o t h e m a iz e . 9 In a d d i t io n t o th e e f f e c t on t h e i n d i v i d u a l , m a ize h a s fo r m u la te d c e r t a i n n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s . I t h a s c a u s e d t h e d e f i n i t e c o n c e n t r a t io n o f t h e p o p u la t io n o n t h e c e n t r a l p l a t e a u . I t c a u s e d t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e g r e a t Maya e m p ir e , a c c o r d in g t o l e a d in g a u t h o r i t i e s on t h e p e r io d . The h o t , l o w - l y i n g la n d s o f Y u c a ta n , w h ere th r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s s e m i-J u n g le la n d was c l e a r e d and p la n te d t o m a iz e , w ere s lo w ly le a c h e d o u t th r o u g h t h e c h e m ic a l a c t i o n o f t r o p i c a l r a in an d b u r n in g s u n . T h u s, a s t h e Mayas c o n t in u e d m ovin g t o new s e c t i o n s , t h e tim e came when no a r a b le la n d was l e f t f o r th e g r e a t p op u l a t i o n . 1 0 I n p o l i t i c a l an d r e l i g i o u s s t r u c t u r e a l l t h e in d ig e n o u s p o p u la t io n o f t h e la n d t h a t i s to d a y M exico sh ow ed an u n r e l i e v e d a b s o lu t is m . P ow er a n d b lo o d s h e d w ere t h e g u id in g 9 O f. an y c o n tem p o ra r y b o o k on M e x ico . P a r t i c u l a r l y a p r o p o s i s R o b ert R e d f ie ld , T e p o z t la n : A M exican V i l l a g e . 1 0 S . G -. M p rley , Op. P i t : T . E . Gann an d J . E r ie Thom pson, The H is t o r y o f t h e Maya. p . l 6 § . p r i n c i p l e s f o r r e l a t i o n s tooth w it h in and w it h o u t t h e c o u n tr y * The r o y a l t y and n o t o l l it y o f t h e em p ire m a in ta in e d a h ig h d e g r e e o f r e f in e m e n t an d lu x u r y a t t h e e x p e n s e o f i n c r e a s i n g l y h ig h t a x e s an d t r i b u t e s . When c o n q u e s t s w ere c o m p le te d t h e c o n q u e r e d r a c e s w ere n o t a s s i m i l a t e d a s t h e y w ere toy t h e co n tem p o ra r y P e r u v ia n s * They r e m in e d i n v a s s a l a g e an d w ere c o n s t a n t l y r e m ind ed t h a t t h e y w ere c o n q u e r e d p e o p le an d t h e common man among t h e A z t e c s was l i t t l e , i f a n y , b e t t e r o f f th a n t h e s u b j e c t r a c e s * He l i v e d a h a r s h l i f e , s t r u g g l i n g f o r a l i v e l i h o o d a n d c o n t r i b u t in g e t e r n a l l y t o t h e p r ie s t h o o d and r o y a l t y . ^ F o r c e and p u n ish m en t r a n th r o u g h t h e e n t i r e M exican f a b r i c , w it h an y form o f r e s i s t a n c e t o r o y a l o r n o b le w i l l p u n is h a b le b y d e a t h . P r is o n e r s b r o u g h t b a c k from t h e more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t w ars w ere u s e d i n t h e r e l i g i o u s s a c r i f i c e s . P r e s c o t t l i s t s h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s t h a t r e p o r t from a fe w th o u sa n d t o a s h ig h a s 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 human s a c r i f i c e s y e a r l y , i n t h e Y u ca ta n p e n in s u la human s a c r i f i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y you n g g i r l s , w ere th row n I n t o t h e o p en lim e s t o n e w e l l s o r cem o tea t h a t d o t t h e c o u n t r y . Among t h e N ahuas t h e v i c t i m was h e ld down w h ile t h e p r i e s t s l i t a h o le b e tw e e n h i s r i b s and t h r u s t h i s hand i n t o p u l l o u t t h e p a l p i t a t i n g h e a r t . Head an y a c c o u n t o f a n c i e n t M exican r e l i g i o n and yo u w i l l s o o n b e a c c e p t in g q u i t e c a lm ly t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e y o u th o r m aid en was th e n s a c r i f i c e d . The v i c t i m w as l a i d l i v i n g a c r o s s t h e s t o n e , an d h i s h e a r t w as s n a tc h e d o u t . 1 1 J . E r ic Thom pson, M exico B e fo r e C o r t e z . C h a p te r XV, p a s s im . 31 The s a c r i f i c e , d ressed ‘ thus and s o , was l i f t e d h ig h on th e sh o u ld ers o f a p r i e s t , beheaded w ith one b low , and f la y e d . From th e sk in th ey made masks w hich th e p r ie s t s wore in th e fo llo w in g d an ce. In one s e r v ic e th e o f f e r in g was alw ays a c h ild whom th e y fr ig h te n e d In to a fren z y o f te a r s b e fo r e k i l l i n g , b ecau se te a r s t y p if i e d r a i n f a l l , and th e more th e c h ild w ep t, th e b e t t e r th e omen. A you th and m aiden, h avin g been k ept in lu x u ry f o r a y e a r , were bound w ith flo w e r s and dropped in to a w e ll where th ey drowned w h ile th e ceremony went o n .12 The p r ie s t s were drawn from th e r o y a lty and th e n o b i l i t y so th a t t h e i r a u th o r ity was u n c h a lle n g e d . Moctezuma se r v e d an a p p r e n tic e sh ip in b o th th e army and p r ie sth o o d b e fo r e b ein g named em peror. *3 W ith such an exam ple a t th e to p o f th e s o c i a l s tr u c tu r e I t i s no wonder t h a t fo r c e and f e a r o f fo r c e exten d ed a l l th e way down. Taboos on Intem perance in d rin k e x i s t e d , but th e method o f cu rb in g t h i s g lu tto n y showed n e it h e r tem perance n or c h a r it y . I t (Intem perance) was p un ish ed in th e young w ith d e a th , and in o ld e r p erso n s w ith l o s s o f rank and c o n f is c a t io n o f p r o p e r ty .I 2 * * Unruly c h ild r e n were p unished w ith th e utm ost s e v e r i t y . In some In sta n c e s th e y were whipped w ith maguey th o r n s , in o th e r s fo r c e d to in h a le th e fumes from burning c h i l i . ^ P r e s c o tt 12 Em a Fergus eo n , F ie s t a in M exico. 6 f f . 13 Bertram W olfe, Og. o l t . , pp. 7 1 -7 5 . ^ W . H. P r e s c o t t, H isto r y o f th e Conquest o f M exico. V o l. I , p . 12 1 . 15 A lfo n so T eja Zabre, Op. c l t . . p . 5 3 . r e p o r t s t h a t a t h i r d o f C o lo n e l d e M en d oza's A n t iq u it y o f M e x ic o , Volum e I , d e a l s w it h t h e p u n ish m en t o f t h e c h i l d i n t h e te m p le s c h o o l s ♦ I I . THE CONQUISTADOHES OVERTHROW THE EMPIRE B e c a u se o f t h e A z t e c s ' t y r a n n i c a l r u l e , t h e S p a n ia r d s fo u n d t h e s t a g e s e t f o r t h e i r own c o n q u e s t an d e x p l o i t a t i o n . U s in g t h e h a tr e d s e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e h e a v y -h a n d e d A z t e c s a s a l e v e r , t h e S p a n ia r d s t o p p le d t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e . A f o r t u i t o u s p r o p h ec y r e g a r d in g t h e r e t u r n o f w h it e - s k in n e d , b e a r d e d Q u e tz a l- c o a t l ad d ed t h e o n l y s a n c t i o n n e e d e d t o s p l i t t h e em p ire and g a in a l l i e s f o r C o r t e s . W ith h i s I n d ia n a u x i l i a r i e s h e c o m p le te d t h e f o r c e f u l s u b j u g a t io n o f t h e e m p ir e . I t i s f r u i t l e s s t o p l a c e t h e on u s o f r u t h l e s s e x p l o i t a t i o n u p on t h e s h o u ld e r s o f an y ty p e o f S p a n ia r d i n t h e h is t o r y o f t h e n e x t t h r e e h u n d red y e a r s . In t h i s s o r r y c h a p t e r o f h i s t o r y , on e n e e d n o t a tte m p t t o f i n d w h e r e in l a y t h e g r e a t e s t b la m e . The m i l i t a r y , t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c s , t h e h a e e n d a d o s , a l l had t h e i r p a r t in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n a t i v e A m erican c u l t u r e s . 3*0 The c o n q u e r o r s p le a d e d a common r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n : t h e n a t i v e c o u ld n o t u n d e r s ta n d an y o t h e r tr e a tm e n t th a n t h a t w h ich h e r e c e i v e d . In t h e p e r io d o f " c r o s s an d sw ord" b o t h t h e l a y S p a n ia r d an d t h e c h u r c h made d e f i n i t e c o n t r i b u t i o n s , b u t th e y c h a r g e d a n a w fu l p r i c e a s f a r a s c u l t u r a l ad van cem en t f o r t h e 3*6 E . L . J e w e t t , Op, c l t . . p . 3 2 2 . 33 I n d iv id u a l w as c o n c e r n e d .^ I t m ust a lw a y s b e k e p t i n m ind t h a t t h e c o n q u e s t was n e v e r an a c c o m p lish m e n t o f th e S p a n is h k in g o r g o v e r n m e n t. The c o n q u e s t w as p u r e ly a m a tte r o f i n d iv i d u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , G r i j a l v a , g o v e r n o r o f C uba, f in a n c e d t h e e x p e d i t io n © f C o r t e s , f u r n i s h i n g s h i p s , e q u ip m e n t, an d men f o r t h e m arau d in g arm y. O n e - f i f t h o f a l l b o o ty w en t t o t h e k in g . L a te r t h i s sam e u s a g e m a in ta in e d i t s e l f e v en u n d e r t h e C o u n c il o f t h e I n d i e s , w h ic h a t te m p te d t o manage t h e c o l o n i e s f o r t h e cro w n . The v i c e r o y c o n s id e r e d h i s p o s i t i o n a s c a r r y in g c e r t a i n p r e r e q u i s i t e s , i n c lu d i n g t h e r i g h t t o e x t o r t a s much from t h e c o u n tr y a s h e c o u l d . E conom ic and s o c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e S p a n ia r d s t o M exico w ere made i n c i d e n t a l l y . L os C o n q u ls ta d o r e s w ere p r i m a r ily i n t h e c o u n tr y t o b e n e f i t t h e m s e lv e s , an d e v e r y p e r s o n o r r e s o u r c e n a t i v e t o t h e p la c e was c o n s id e r e d a s a m eans f o r p e r s o n a l a g g r a n d iz e m e n t .^ The d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o u n tr y I n t o trem en d ou s e n c o m le n d a s. h a c ie n d a s . an d l a t l f u n d l a s b e g a n w it h t h e g r a n t in g t o C o r te s o f h i s m a r q u isa te c o m p r is in g h u n d red s o f th o u sa n d s o f a c r e s s o u t h o f M exico C i t y , The I n d ia n s w ere r e d u c e d t o a s t a t e o f v i r t u a l s l a v e r y . ^ The en com len d a s y s te m 3-7 A . B . C a s e , T h ir t y Y e a rs W ith t h e M e x ic a n s. p . 1 9 1 . 1 8 P r e s c o t t , H is t o r y o f t h e C o n q u est o f M e x ic o . V o l. I I , C hapter I I . 1 9 F rank Tannenbaum , Op. c i t . ,p ! 0 . 34 a llo w e d t h e p a tr o n t o c o n t r o l t h e l i f e an d la b o r o f t h e n a t i v e s upon h i s la n d , an d i f t h e s e n a t i v e s a tte m p te d t o e s c a p e t h e y w ere b ra n d ed and becam e a c t u a l s l a v e s . 2 ® D o m estic a n im a ls w ere in tr o d u c e d f o r t h e more c o m p le te e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y . H o r s e s , m u le s , b u r r o s , c a t t l e , s h e e p , an d g o a t s came i n in c r e a s in g n u m b ers. F o r t h e f i r s t tim e w h e e le d t r a f f i c was s e e n , a lt h o u g h i t was g e n e r a l ly l o c a l and n o t v e r y e f f i c i e n t . The E g y p tia n p lo u g h w as in tr o d u c e d and i s s t i l l t h e c h i e f m eans o f c u l t i v a t i o n . How t h e I n d ia n fo u n d h i m s e l f w it h a new s e t o f m a s t e r s . The C hurch exp an d ed r a p i d l y , b u i ld in g c h u r c h e s an d c a t h e d r a ls o v e r t h e e n t i r e c o u n t r y s i d e . In a d d i t i o n , t h e C hurch b e g a n a c q u ir in g la n d s an d h e r d s u n t i l i t c o n t r o l l e d b e tw e e n o n e - t h i r d and o n e - h a l f o f t h e n a t i o n a l w e a lth by t h e tim e o f M exican In d e p e n d e n c e . No a c c u r a t e f i g u r e s o f i t s s i z e a r e a v a i l a b l e , b u t o n e may s a f e l y assu m e t h a t t h e c h u r c h owned "Not l e s s th a n o n e - h a l f o f t h e r e a l e s t a t e o f t h e c o u n t r y ," t h a t b e in g t h e e s t im a t e o f L ucas A lam an, t h e c l e r i c a l l e a d e r . I t h e ld m o r tg a g e s on m ost o f t h e r e m a in in g a g r i c u l t u r a l ^ p r o p e r t ie s an d had becom e t h e n a t i o n a l money l e n d e r .2 1 The I n d ia n c o n t r ib u t e d t h e la b o r t o b u i l d t h e s e e d i f i c e s , w h ich o n ly te n d e d t o c o n t r a s t , by t h e i r m a g n if ic e n c e , t h e m ean n ess o f h i s own - la c a l. He a l s o saw t h e e .lid o s s t r i p p e d from t h e 2 0 Xi. B . S im p so n , The E ncom lenda in New S p a in , p . 1 1 0 . 2 1 E r n e s t O r u e n in g , M exico and I t s H e r it a g e , p . 1 2 0 ; M o ise s S a en z an d H. I . P r i e s t l e y . Some M exican P r o b le m s. s a y 5 0 p e r c e n t ; HUmbdfct^ e s t im a t e was f o u r - f i f t h s . c a l p u l l i s u n d e r o n e p r e t e x t o r a n o t h e r f o r t h e f u r t h e r e n r ic h m ent o f C hurch an d g a c h u p in e . I I I . THE HEYDAY OF CROSS AND SW ORD The h i s t o r y o f t h e C a t h o lic C hurch i n M exico p r e s e n t s t h e sam e c u r io u s a d m ix tu r e o f b e n e f i c i e n t and d e l e t e r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s a s d o e s t h e c i v i l govern m en t* S u ch c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o s y n t h e s i z e , b u t i f o n e i s a llo w e d t o g e n e r a l i z e , i t w o u ld seem t h a t th e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s : t h e J e s u i t s , F r a n c is c a n s , A u g u s t in la n s , an d D o m in ic a n s, made r i c h c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o M exican e d u c a t io n and c u lt u r e * M ost o f t h e a b u s e s seem t o h a v e b e e n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e c l e r g y , o n c e t h e y becom e e s t a b l i s h e d a s m anagers o f l a r g e p r o p e r t i e s . Then th e y p l o t t e d a n d in d u lg e d in i n t r i g u e s i n o r d e r t o h o ld t h e i r r i c h b e n e f i c e s . 2 2 E d u c a tio n u n d e r t h e e a r l y f r i a r s w as d e f i n i t e l y a t h in g o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . The s m a ll g r o u p s o f S p a n ia r d s s c a t t e r e d o v e r New S p a in p u t t h e m s e lv e s i n t o p o s t u r e s o f d e f e n s e , b u i ld in g m a s s iv e f o r t s and b lo c k h o u s e s . T hey w ere su r r o u n d e d by en e m ie s and knew o f no way t o c o n t r o l t h e s e e n e m ie s e x c e p t th r o u g h f o r c e , w h ic h was n o t c o n d u c iv e t o an e v e n t u a l u n d e r s ta n d in g . C o r te s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e m inds o f t h e I n d ia n s m u st b e c o n q u e r e d a s w e l l a s t h e i r b o d ie s t o make t h e c o n q u e s t c o m p le t e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n h e r e q u e s t e d t h e K ing o f 3 p a ln t o s e n d f r i a r s t o c a r r y o u t s u c h a w ork . 2 2 A n ita B r e n n e r , I d o l s B e h in d A l t a r s , p . 8 2 . 36 R a th er "by m i s s i o n a r i e s th a n by arms w ere t h e n a t i v e M exican s k e p t in s u b j e c t i o n . C o lo n ia l c h u r c h e s and c o n v e n t s w ere b u i l t a s f o r t r e s s e s an d w ere in te n d e d t o s e r v e i n a d u a l c a p a c i t y . So w ere t h e i r g u a r d ia n s .23 Even b e f o r e t h e s e o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a r r i v e d , t h e r e came t h r e e F le m is h F r a n c is c a n s w h ose w ork was t o h a v e trem en d ou s s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h ese men w ere F ra y P ed ro d e G a n te , F ray Ju an de T ec t o , and F ray Juan d e A o r a . They a r r iv e d in 1523 an d in t h e same y e a r e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t s c h o o l i n t h e new w o r ld , t h a t a t T e x c o c o . From t h e i r a r r i v a l t h e s e men seem t o h a v e a c h ie v e d s u c c e s s i n g a in in g t h e c o n f id e n c e o f t h e I n d ia n s . T h e ir g e n t l e r m eth od s an d t e a c h in g s o f g o o d n e s s fo u n d a n o p p r e s s e d r a c e r ea d y t o l i s t e n . The s c h o o l p r o s p e r e d t o su c h an e x t e n t t h a t i t was moved t o M exico C it y i n 1 5 2 6 , w here i t was known a s t h e s c h o o l o f San J o s e ' In a s h o r t tim e F ray P ed ro de G ante h ad more th a n 1 ,0 0 0 I n d ia n c h i ld r e n p a r t i c i p a t in g in t h e s c h o o l . The s u c c e s s o f t h i s f i r s t s c h o o l l e d t o th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f San Juan de L e tr a n in 1 5 2 9 , f o r m e s t iz o o r p h a n s . T h e m e s t iz o — a name g iv e n t o I n d iv id u a ls o f m ixed S p a n is h and I n d ia n p a r e n ta g e — had b eg u n t o t r o u b l e a u t h o r i t i e s b y t h i s t im e . L arge num bers o f I n d ia n women, f o r c e d t o b e a r c h i ld r e n t o S p a n is h s o l d i e r y , w ere a b a n d o n in g t h e s e c h i l d r e n . San Ju an de L e tr a n was fo u n d ed t o c a r e f o r t h e s e human s t r a y s 23 E . G r u e n in g , Op. c i t . , p . 1 8 1 . 2^ A . H. N o l l , A S h o r t H is to r y o f M e x ic o . p . 89* 37 and f o r a lo n g tim e was s u b s id i z e d b y t h e s a l e o f s t r a y a n i m a ls . In t h e sam e e s t a b lis h m e n t was th e S c h o o l o f Our Lady o f C h a r it y , d e s ig n e d t o e d u c a te m e s tiz o g i r l s . The b e g in n in g o f e d u c a t io n f o r S p a n is h g i r l s was i n 1 5 5 2 , when th e y w ere a llo w e d t o e n r o l l i n t h e S c h o o l o f Our Lady o f C h a r it y . P ed ro de G ante an d h i s a s s o c i a t e s w orked o u t t e c h n iq u e s t h a t w ere sa n e and h i s t o r i c a l l y so u n d . E d u c a tio n among th e A z te c s was h a n d le d b y t h e te m p le s and b y th e p a r e n t s , w it h a l l e d u c a t io n b a s e d p r im a r ily on l i f e a c t i v i t i e s . The f r i a r s m e r e ly f o llo w e d and a m p lif ie d th e sam e s y s t e m . Work w a s c a r r ie d on b o th in A z te c a n d S p a n is h ; i t was r e l a t e d t o th e e v e r y d a y a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e c h i l d r e n , an d i t was r i c h l y i n t e r s p e r s e d w it h p i c t u r e s , h i e r o g l y p h i c s and p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s su c h a s s y m b o lic d a n ce s and p a g e a n t s . A f t e r t h i s e a r n e s t s t a r t , h o w e v e r , t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e C a t h o lic C hurch a p p ea r s t o h a v e b e e n an e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n o f th e t e x t , “t h e s p i r i t i s w i l l i n g b u t th e f l e s h i s w e a k .1 1 F or e v e r y b r o t h e r m o tiv a te d b y C h r i s t - l i k e z e a l f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e h e a th e n s* s o u l s , t h e r e w ere t e n who w ere c o n t e n t t o b a t t e n on t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n . They f e l l in e a s i l y w it h th e en com len d a s y s te m , w h ich a llo w e d t h e h o ld e r o f a la r g e g r a n t o f la n d c o m p le te c o n t r o l o v e r th e l i f e and la b o r o f th e In d ia n s on h is la n d . 2 5 E ls a Von Do mum an d Henry L . C a in , A S h o r t H is t o r y o f M e x ic o . C h a p te r X X X III. 38 The c h u r c h , in f a c t , a c c e p t e d th e e n e o m ie n d a , b e c a u s e i t c o n tin u e d th e f a m i l i a r f e u d a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , and b e c a u s e t h e n o t io n o f t h e s p i r i t u a l w a r d sh ip o f backw ard p e o p le s i s n o t in c o m p a tib le w it h C h r i s t i a n i t y . 2 ^ The e a r l y f a t h e r s fo u g h t t h e te n d e n c y to w a rd e n s l a v e m en t, a c t u a l and a p p a r e n t, b u t t h e y w ere c h e c k e d e f f e c t u a l l y . F ray B a rto lo m e/ d e l a s C a s a s , 1 1 t h e a p o s t l e o f th e I n d i e s w, d e v o te d h i s l i f e to th e c a u s e o f t h e n a t i v e s , g o in g s o f a r a s t o a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e k i n g . He was n o t o n ly d e f e a t e d , b u t d i s c r e d i t e d . H is c h i e f f o e was t h e B ish o p o f B u r g o s, Juan R o d r ig u e s de F o n s e c a , a member o f t h e C o u n c il o f t h e I n d ie s an d t h e ow n er o f an en eom ien d a i n t h e A n t i l l e s . ^ F ra y T o r ib io de B e n a v e n ta M o to lin ia dem anded t h a t Las C a sa s b e r e c a l l e d t o S p a in an d c o n f in e d i n a m o n a ste r y . E v e n t u a lly th e C o u n c il o f t h e I n d ie s o u tla w e d f o r c e d I n d ia n l a b o r , b u t th e y made an e x c e p t io n i n t h e c a s e o f C hurch la b o r o f a l l k i n d s .2 ® D u rin g t h e C o lo n ia l p e r io d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o n s t r u c t io n w ent fo rw a rd a t a g r e a t r a t e . In e v e r y p u e h lo o f New S p a in th e d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s and th e r e g u la r c l e r g y had a c o m p e t it io n t o o u td o e a c h o t h e r in t h e e x t e n t and m a g n if i c e n c e o f t h e i r c h u r c h e s and c a t h e d r a l s . C o s ts o f i n d i v i d u a l 2 6 L . B . S im p so n , The E neom ienda in New S p a in , p . 1 8 9 . 27 R lv a P a l a c i o , M exico a T ra v es^ d e l o a S i g l o s , V o l. I I , p . 6 6 . ~ 2 8 l . B . S im p son , O g. c i t . , 1 3 9 . 39 c h u r c h e s and c a t h e d r a ls r a n i n t o m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s , w h ile o n e i d o l , w it h i t s t r a p p in g s , m ig h t c o s t s e v e r a l h u n d red th o u sa n d p e s o s « The ic o n r e p r e s e n t in g t h e V ir g e n de l o s R em edies c o s t a f o r t u n e t o c l o t h e . Though t h e im age i s l e s s th a n a f o o t in h e i g h t i t was t h e ow ner o f r o b e s s a i d t o h a v e c o s t $ 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ( p e s o s ) * The r o b e s w ere l i t e r a l l y c o v e r e d w ith d ia m o n d s, p e a r l s , and o t h e r p r e c io u s s t o n e s . 2 9 The C a th e d r a l i n M exico C i t y , f i n i s h e d i n 1 6 6 7 , c o s t $ 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ( p e s o s ) , i t s o r n a m e n ta ls $ 1 ,8 0 0 ,0 0 0 . M a ssiv e r a i l in g s on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e nam e, made o f a s i l v e r , g o l d , and c o p p e r am algam , w ere f a b r i c a t e d i n C h in a a t a c o s t o f $ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . The c a t h e d r a l o f P u e b la c o s t $ 1 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 ., e x c l u s i v e o f ornam en t a t i o n . M o r e lia f s c a t h e d r a l was e r e c t e d a t a c o s t o f m ore th a n $ 7 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . The c h u r c h a t T e p o z o tla n i s a lm o s t fa b u lo u s in c o s t , e a c h a l t a r b e in g v a lu e d a t a m i l l i o n p e s o s . In G u an aju ato t h e c h u r c h c o s t 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e s o s . The m o r ta r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e e n m ixed w it h t h e r a r e s t w in e s . One r e r e d o s o f t h e m ain a l t a r c o s t 2 4 0 ,0 0 0 p e s o s . The p e o n e s who w orked t h e m in es do n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e sh a r e d i n t h i s w e a lt h , h o w e v e r , a s t h e i r wage was b u t s i x c e n t s a d a y , an d on th e r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s , w h ich w ere n u m ero u s, t h e s e p o o r p e o p le g a v e t h e i r s e r v i c e s t o t h e b u i ld in g o f t h e e h u r e h .3 0 H is t o r y i s f u l l o f s t o r i e s o f t h e G hurch, s e x p l o i t a t i o n : money from t h e S p a n ia r d an d u n p a id la b o r from t h e I n d ia n . 2 9 M rs. John W e sle y B u t l e r , H i s t o r i c C h u rch es i n M e x ic o . p . 3 4 . 3 0 i b i d . , p . 1 7 7 . 40 F o r t h a t tw o y e r e s p a s t h e h ad made i n th e m o n a ste r y o f S a n to D om ingo, in t h e s a i d c i t i e o f M e x ic o , an im age o f o u r la d y o f p u re s i l v e r a n d g o l d e , w it h p e r l e s and p r e c io u s s t o n e s , w h ic h c o s t him 7 ,0 0 0 and odd© p e s o s .3 1 As t h e l i v i n g c o n d it io n s o f t h e p e o p le becam e w o r s e , t h e f e v e r f o r b u i l d i n g e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s m ou n ted . The e r e c t i o n an d m a in te n a n c e o f t h e s e was a n enorm ous b u r d e n upon t h e p e o p le . As lo n g a g o a s 1 6 6 4 t h e C it y o f M exico s e n t a p e t i t i o n t o t h e h in d o f S p a in a s k in g t h a t no new m o n a ste r y b e fo u n d e d , ‘ o t h e r w is e t h e r e l i g i o u s h o u s e s w ou ld so o n a c q u ir e t h e p r o p e r ty o f t h e w h o le c o u n t r y . ‘3 2 The v i s i t o r t o M exico o b t a in s on e o f t h e m ost g r a p h ic p i c t u r e s o f t h i s c o m p e t it io n i n t h e fo r m e r h o ly c i t y o f C h o lu la , a tow n o f 5 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s . From t h e c h u r c h a t o p t h e o l d T o lt e c p yram id more th a n 2 0 0 c h u r c h e s may b e c o u n te d . A t t h e en d o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y t h e r e w ere f o u r h u n d red c o n v e n ts i n New S p a in , a n d , a c c o r d in g t o F a th e r M e n d ie tta , i t was im p o s s ib le t o c o u n t th e num ber o f c h u r c h e s . One a c c u s e s o n e s e l f o f u n g r a t e f u ln e s s when t h e th o u g h t o c c u r s t h a t b lo o d was w rung from an unhappy p e o p le i n t h e demand f o r t r i b u t e t o t h e s e s a c r e d b u i l d i n g s — a demand from w hose im p o v e r is h in g e f f e c t t h e y h a v e n e v e r r e c o v e r e d . 33 The f r i a r s had s t a r t e d t h e i r e d u c a t io n a l program s w it h i n s t r u c t i o n i n a g r i c u l t u r e , h o r t i c u l t u r e , and a n im a l h u sb a n d ry i n an a tte m p t t o t e a c h t h e I n d ia n t o r a i s e h i s 3 1 R ic h a r d H a k lu y t, 0 £ . c i t . , p . 2 5 7 . 3 2 a . B. C a s e , Op. c i t . , p , 2 0 3 . 3 3 E . H. B l i e h f e l d t , A M exican J o u r n e y , p . 188* 41 s ta n d a r d o f l i v i n g * They e n c o u r a g e d him t o r a i s e o t h e r t h i n g s th a n h i s s t a p l e m a is e , c h i l i , s q u a s h and b e a n s* They a tte m p te d t o e r a d ic a t e human d r u d g er y b y s u b s t i t u t i n g p a ck a n im a ls f o r human c a r r i e r s . T h e ir e f f o r t s w ere s u c c e s s f u l up t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t , a t w h ic h p o i n t t h e p e o p le w ere ta k e n o v e r and e x p l o i t e d b y t h e l a t e r c l e r g y , w ho, i n a s h o r t t im e , h ad l a r g e h o ld in g s w h ic h in c lu d e d o r c h a r d s , g a r d e n s , f i e l d s an d f l o c k s . The i n c r e a s i n g h o r d e o f in c o m in g c l e r i c s c o v e t e d t h e s e h o ld in g s an d p r o c e e d e d t o a c q u ir e g r e a t e r an d g r e a t e r h a c ie n d a s . Soon t h e i r aim o f e d u c a t io n , a m e lio r a t in g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e n a t i v e , was f o r g o t . C l e r i c s J o in e d w ith t h e h aoen d ad o i n c h e a t in g t h e I n d ia n o f h i s e .lld o . P la y in g upon th e d r e a d o f t h e S p a n ia r d f o r th e f u t u r e l i f e , t h e y i n t r i g u e d an d m an eu vered t o g e t d e a th -b e d i n h e r it a n c e s from n o b le s an d com m oners, and c o n s t a n t l y t h e v a r io u s o r d e r s fo u g h t e a c h o t h e r f o r p o w er , p ro m in en ce an d w e a lt h . The I n t e r e s t o f t h e C hurch s h i f t e d a f t e r , from s o u ls t o p r o p e r t y , e i t h e r b e c a u s e t h i s seem ed m ore Im p o r ta n t, o r b e c a u s e t h e p r i e s t s t h e m s e lv e s w e re n o t o f th e c h a r a c t e r and e n e r g y o n c e n e c e s s a r y e v e n f o r r e s id e n c e i n t h e la n d . I f t h e I n d ia n s a t t e n d e d s e r v i c e i t may h a v e b e e n c o n s id e r e d s u f f i c i e n t . The t a s k o f r e a l c o n v e r s io n d i s p i r i t e d a n y o t h e r c o n c l u s i o n . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s w ere a l l e n g a g e d i n a s t r u g g l e w it h e a c h o t h e r . The b is h o p s sp u n i n t r i g u e . The c i t y c l e r g y h e l d d e a t h - w a tc h a t n o b le b e d s and i n h e r i t e d t h e r e b y . The r u r a l p r ie s t h o o d s ip p e d c h o c o la t e and f a t t e n e d , s im p le -m in d e d ly w o r ld ly , o r , r e s e n t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n and s p i r i t o f i t s u rb a n s u p e r i o r , b rew ed r e b e l l i o n . 5 4 5 4 A n ita B r e n n e r , Op. c i t . , p . 1 2 9 . 42 The C hurch c o n t in u e d t o grow i n p ro m in en ce an d p ow er u n t i l , a s h a s b e e n sh ow n , by t h e d a t e o f in d e p e n d e n c e , from S p a in i t owned a t l e a s t o n e - h a l f t h e w e a lth o f t h e c o u n t r y . I t had a m on op oly on e d u c a t io n . Su ch e le m e n ta r y I n s t r u c t i o n a s t h e r e w as came from t h e c h u r c h s c h o o l s , an d t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s w ere p u r e ly c h u r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s . La I g l e s i a aumenta su poder econoiaico. Las m islo n e s s e c o n v ie r te n en h a c ie n d a s, l o s e a p it a le s acum ulados d e l c l e r o ,. en bancos h ip o t e c a r io s , y lo s co n v en to s en In s t it u c io n e s que acaparan b ie n e s de manos m uertas, o se a b ie n e s esta n ca d o s y mal a d m in istr a d o s.3 5 The s p e c ia l p r iv ile g e s and im m unities o f th e Church made a heavy lo a d on th e la y p o p u la tio n o f th e co u n tr y . The law o f dlezroo gave to th e Church o n e -te n th o f a l l produced each y e a r in th e c o u n tr y ,36 and th e f i r s t f r u i t s o f th e c h a se , th e gard en , and th e f i e l d went t o th e Church, w hich was a p r a c tic e o d io u s to th e p e o p le , who fr e q u e n tly com plained th a t th e r e lig i o u s s o ld th e f i r s t f r u i t s f o r su ch low p r ic e s th a t when th e r e g u la r crop was p la ce d on th e market th e p r ic e had b een low ered r u in o u s ly . The c le r g y a ls o had th e p r iv il e g e o f b e in g t r ie d f o r a l l c a u se s in ch u rch c o u r t s , w hich, la y p la in t i f f s f e l t , gave them l e s s th an no chance a t a l l fo r J u s t ic e . Add to t h i s burden o f c a r r y in g a p r iv ile g e d c l a s s th e heavy r o y a l ta x e s and th e 1 1 sq u eeze M p r a c tic e d by l o c a l a u t h o r it ie s , 35 A. T. Z a b r e , Op. c i t . . p . 135. 36 Anonymous, Ensayo Sobre l a s L ib erta d es de la I g l e s i a C a to llc a en Ambos Mundos. p . 1 82. 43 and l i f e becam e d i f f i c u l t in d e e d f o r a l l e x c e p t t h e w e a l t h i e s t c l a s s . When t h e v i l l a g e p r i e s t , M ig u el H id a lg o y C o s t i l l a , r a i s e d t h e e r y f o r in d e p e n d e n c e i n 1 8 1 0 h e w as p r o m p tly d i s owned an d ex co m m u n ica ted b y t h e Church* The C hurch c o n s i s t e n t l y fo u g h t M exican in d e p e n d e n c e , e x c o m m u n ica tin g and i n d i c t i n g r e v o lu t io n a r y f i g u r e s w it h c o n tu m e ly . When M o relo s was c a p tu r e d th e I n q u i s i t i o n b r a n d ed him a s " fo r m a lly a h e r e t i c , a p r o p a g a to r o f h e r e s y , p u r s u e r an d d i s t u r b e r o f t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l h ie r a r c h y , p r o fa n e r o f t h e h o ly s a c r a m e n ts , l a s c i v i o u s , a h y p o c r i t e , i r r e c o n c i l a b l e enemy o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , t r a i t o r t o God, K in g and P o p e .”5 7 O nce in d e p e n d e n c e was a c h ie v e d , h o w e v e r , t h e C hurch th r e w i n i t s l o t w it h A g u stifn d e I t u r b i d e , t u m - c o a t r e b e l g e n e r a l , an d c o n d i t i o n s r em a in e d much a s th e y h ad b e e n u n d e r t h e v i c e r o y a l t y * The c r l o l l o s . n a t i v e - b o r n w h i t e s , g a in e d c o n t r o l w it h t h e e l e v a t i o n o f I t u r b id e t o e m p er o r, an d M exico rem a in ed a E u rop ean a r i s t o c r a c y , w it h t h e I n d ia n an d m e s t i z o , who had b o rn e t h e b r u n t o f t h e f i g h t i n g , s t i l l In t h e e x p l o i t e d c l a s s e s . F or t h i r t y y e a r s th e h i s t o r y o f M exico w as - t h e h i s t o i y o f t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e army and t h e m a c h in a tio n s o f t h e Church* C o r r u p tio n f l o u r i s h e d u n c h a lle n g e d an d u n c h e c k e d . E d u c a tio n , p r o b i t y , j u s t i c e , a l l la n g u is h e d w h ile :: •* - y 3 7 L u cas A lam an, H l s t o r l a d e M e jic o , C h a p te r IV , p . 4 3 5 . 44 in d iv id u a ls and groups en rich ed th e m selv es from th e p u b lic trea su r y * In d ian and m e stiz o were m ulcted o f t h e i r p erso n a l and p rop erty r ig h t s by fo r c e and c h ic a n e r y . IV. BENITO JUAREZ REFO RM S CONSTITUTION AND COUNTRY C o n d itio n s h ad becom e s o n e a r ly u n e n d u r a b le f o r t h e p e o p le b y t h e e a r l y f i f t i e s t h a t s u f f i c i e n t f o r c e was e x e r t e d t o fram e t h e fam ous C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1857* No s o o n e r w as t h e f i n i s h e d docum ent p u b lis h e d th a n f i r e d e s c e n d e d from h e a v e n . The a r c h b is h o p o f M e x ic o , L azaro d e l a G arza y B a l l e s t e r o s , p r o m ise d e x c o m m u n ica tio n f o r e v e r y o f f i c i a l who s u b s c r ib e d t o t h e new I n s tr u m e n t. C e r t a in a r t i c l e s w ere s p e c i f i c a l l y nam ed by t h e B ish o p o f M lch oacan a s i n i m i c a l t o C a t h o lic is m . T h ese a r t i c l e s a n d a b r i e f d i g e s t w ere: A r t i c l e 3 , e s t a b l i s h i n g f r e e s c h o o l s . A r t ic l e 5 9 fo r b id d in g ir r e v o c a b le p e r so n a l c o n t r a c t s , aim ed a t peonage and m onastic vow s. A r t ic l e 6 , g r a n tin g freedom o f th o u g h t. A r t i c l e 7 , g u a r a n t e e in g freed o m o f t h e p r e s s . A r t i c l e 9 , a l lo w in g r i g h t o f a s s e m b ly . A r t ic l e 1 2 , a b o lis h in g t i t l e s o f n o b i l i t y , h e r e d ita r y honors and p e r q u is it e s . A r t i c l e 1 3 , r e s c i n d in g t h e c h u r c h ’ s l e g a l Im m u nity. A r t ic le 2 7 , fo r b id d in g r e lig i o u s c o r p o r a tio n s from a c q u ir in g r e a l e s t a t e . . 45 A r t i c l e 3 6 , e n u m e r a tin g t h e d u t i e s o f t h e c i t i z e n s : v o t i n g , s e r v in g i n t h e m i l i t i a , h o ld in g e l e c t i v e o f f i c e , and d o in g Ju ry d u ty . A r t i c l e 3 9 , o p e n in g u p t h e n e w e r d e m o c r a tic p h ilo s o p h y . The c o m p le te a r t i c l e s a i d : The n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y i s v e s t e d e s s e n t i a l l y and o r i g i n a l l y i n t h e p e o p le * A l l p u b lic pow er em a n a tes from t h e p e o p le , and i s i n s t i t u t e d f o r t h e i r b e n e f i t . The p e o p le h a v e a t a l l tim e s t h e i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t t o a l t e r o r m o d ify t h e form o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t . 3 8 A r t i c l e 7 2 , e n u m e r a tin g pow ers o f c o n g r e s s . A r t i c l e 1 2 3 , p r o v id in g : The f e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s s h a l l h a v e e x c l u s i v e pow er t o e x e r c i s e * i n m a tte r s o f r e l i g i o u s w o r s h ip and o u tw a rd e c c l e s i a s t i c form s s u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n a s b y la w i s a u t h o r ! z e d . 3 9 The c l e r i c s d e c la r e d h o ly w ar o v e r th e c o n s t i t u t i o n , and so o n had an arm y n u m b erin g th o u sa n d s o f men i n th e f i e l d . D u rin g t h e t h r e e y e a r s from 1858 u n t i l 1 8 6 1 t h e w ar o f t h e r efo rm was w a g ed , and f o r m onths t h e t i d e o f b a t t l e s u r g e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e a c t i o n a r i e s . S p a in , F ra n ce and I t a l y w ere v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d an d s t r o n g l y f a v o r e d t h e r e b e l c a u s e . The S p a n ia r d s s h ip p e d a c a r g o o f arms a n d am m u n ition t o t h e in s u r g e n t s w h ic h B e n ito JusCrez, g e n e r a lis s im o o f t h e g o vern m en t f o r c e s , d e c la r e d p i r a t i c a l . H ow ever, a s h e had 3 8 T r a n s la t io n b y H. N. B ra n ch , The M exican C o n s t lt u t i o n o f 1 917 Compared w it h t h e C on s11 t u t l o n ~ f 1 5 5 7 . 3 9 h . N . B ra n ch , X b l d . 46 no n a v y t o c a p tu r e t h e s h i p , he c a l l e d upon t h e U n ite d S t a t e s n a v y . The U. S . S . S a r a to g a c a p tu r e d t h e v e s s e l lo a d e d w it h c o n tr a b a n d i n t h e h a r b o r o f A n ton L i z a r d i . T h is move h e lp e d t h e g o vern m en t c a u s e m a t e r i a l l y and l e d t o t h e e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y o f t h e l o y a l i s t l e a d e r s , J u a r e z , Z a r a g o z a , and D e g o lla d o . The v i c t o r y was on e o f l i b e r a l i s m o v e r t h e f o r c e s o f o ld - w o r ld e x p l o i t a t i o n . On t h e l i b e r a l s i d e i t was a s t r u g g l e f o r freed om o f th o u g h t a n d s p e e c h , f o r th e e x t i n c t i o n o f c l e r i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a f f a i r s o f s t a t e , f o r t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f g r e a t a r e a s o f la n d h e ld b y t h e c h u r c h , f o r t h e norm al p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f laym en i n g o v e r n m e n t, f o r c o m p le te e q u a l i t y o f a l i c i t i z e n s b e f o r e t h e la w , f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o g r e s s an d m o d e r n ity . On th e c o n s e r v a t i v e s i d e t h e i d e a l was c h u r c h and army c o n t r o l , w it h a f o r e i g n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m onarchy i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . A l l t h e o l d S p a n is h a b u se s b a s e d on t h e c o l o n i a l c o n c e p t io n o f p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y w ere t o b e p e r p e tu a te d ; s p e e i a l p r i v i l e g e s , a b s e n c e o f l i b e r t y o f c o n s c i e n c e , c l a s s d o m in a tio n .4 0 A t t h e c o n c lu s i o n o f th e w ar Jua'rez was e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t and im m e d ia te ly com m enced t h e e x p r o p r ia t io n : o f c h u r c h la n d s and t h e c a r r y in g o u t o f o t h e r m ea su r es o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . The t r e a s u r y w as d e p le t e d b y , t h i s t im e , an d w hat r e v e n u e was ta k e n i n w as u s e d i n s u p p r e s s in g t h e g u e r r i l l a w a r fa r e s t i l l b e in g c a r r i e d o n . E n g la n d , S p a in , and F ra n ce form ed a c o a l i t i o n t o p r e s s c la im s f o r paym ent o f d e b ts c la im e d b y t h e i r n a t i o n a l s . The t h r e e n a t i o n s s e n t tr o o p s t o V era Cinaz, in t e n d in g t o ta k e o v e r th e cu sto m h o u s e s and r e p a y them s e l v e s th e d e b ts c l& im ed . When i t becam e a p p a r e n t t o t h e 4 0 I . P r i e s t i y , Op. c i t . , p . 3 3 7 . o t h e r n a t io n s t h a t t h e y w ere c a ts p a w s f o r F ra n ce th e y w it h drew* F ra n ce e v e n t u a l l y a d v a n c e d upon t h e M exican a r m ie s an d d e f e a t e d th e m , s e t t i n g u p a p u p p et g o v ern m en t w it h t h e A u s t r ia n , M a x im ilia n , and h i s w if e C a r lo t a , on t h e t h r o n e . The c l e r g y f e l t t h a t th e y w ere n o t v i n d i c a t e d an d dem anded t h e r e t u r n o f t h e i r fo r m e r p r o p e r ty and p r i v i l e g e . B u t t h e i r dem ands w ere s o o b v io u s ly o u tr a g e o u s t h a t M a x im ilia n , g o o d C a t h o lic th o u g h h e w a s, r e f u s e d t o a c c e d e . C hurch o f f i c i a l s becam e b i t t e r a n d v i t u p e r a t i v e , e m p lo y in g e v e r y form o f a t t a c k , b o t h o p en and u n d e r h a n d e d , p o s s i b l e . M a x im ilia n so o n fo u n d h i m s e l f w ith o u t M exican s u p p o r t and w hen t h e F r e n c h , u n d e r p r e s s u r e from t h e v i c t o r i o u s U n ion g o v e r n m e n t, w i t h d r e w , h e was e a s i l y d e f e a t e d . C a p tu r ed b y t h e f o r c e s o f B e n ito J u a 'r ez , h e w as e x e c u t e d w it h h i s few M exican a d h e r e n t s . V . BON PORFIRIO DIAZ RESTORES CONSERVATISM J u a r e z h ad b u t s t a r t e d h i s w ork o f r e c o n s t r u c t io n when d e a th o v e r t o o k him in 1 8 7 2 . W ith t h e h e lp o f r e v o l u t i o n and sh rew d p o l i t i c a l m a c h in a t io n s , Don P o r f l r i o D ia z g a in e d th e p r e s id e n c y from I 876 t o 1 8 8 0 . The c h i e f p la n k i n h i s p l a t form had b e e n "no r e - e l e c t i o n " , t h e r e f o r e , t o s a v e f a c e , h e c o u ld n o t s u c c e e d h i m s e l f . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , in 1 8 8 0 h e i n s t a l l e d h i s t o o l , G e n e r a l M anuel G o n z a le z , i n o f f i c e f o r t h e n e x t f o u r y e a r te r m . The g o o d G e n e r a l G o n z a le z was a m en a b le t o t a k in g o r d e r s 48 so lo n g a s h e was a llo w e d t o ta k e e v e r y t h in g t h a t was l o o s e . On h i s l a s t d ay i n o f f i c e h e a c t u a l l y rem oved t h e f u r n i t u r e from t h e N a tio n a l. P a la c e * I t h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t h e l e f t b u t one c l e a n s p o t i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t--th e t r e a s u r y . B isfz a g a in to o k o v e r t h e p r e s id e n c y i n 1 8 8 4 , an d t h i s tim e d id n o t r e l i n q u i s h i t u n t i l h e w as d r iv e n o u t o f M exico b y M adero i n 1 9 1 0 . The r e i g n o f Biass i s m ore d i f f i c u l t f o r th e A m erican t o u n d e r s ta n d th a n i s t h a t o f an y o t h e r M exican p r e s i d e n t . In t a l k i n g w it h w e a lth y M e x ic a n s, o r w it h A m erica n s who h a v e b e e n i n M exico many y e a r s , h e h e a r s Bon P o r f lr l© e x t o l l e d a s t h e man who p u t M exico i n t o t h e l i s t o f g r e a t n a t i o n s . He p u t money i n t o t h e n a t i o n a l t r e a s u r y , b u i l t m ile s o f r a i l w a y s , and. e r e c t e d m a g n if ic e n t b u i l d i n g s and show p la c e s i n th e c a p i t a l , t h e y s a y . When t h e A m erican i s n e x t t o l d b y m odern M exican p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s an d s o c i o l o g i s t s t h a t B la z e x p l o i t e d t h e p e o p le s h a m e l e s s l y , t h a t h e a llo w e d a s y s te m o f p e o n a g e w h ic h was a c t u a l l y s l a v e r y , t h a t h e a llo w e d sch em es o f “c o l o n i z a t i o n ” t h a t w ere a c t u a l l y t h e s e l l i n g o f I n d ia n s an d m e s t iz o s i n t o s l a v e r y , 21,1 t h a t I l l i t e r a c y m ounted t o m ore th a n 9 0 p e r c e n t among t h e t o t a l p o p u la t io n , an d t h a t h e i s c a l l e d “t h e m oth er ^ A n ita B r e n n e r . Op. c i t . . p . 975 J . K. T u rn er i n B a rb a ro u s M exico s a y s : " I fo u n d M exico t o b e a la n d . . . . w h ere a c t u a l c h a t t e l s l a v e r y o b t a in s f o r h u n d red s o f th o u s a n d s .” p . 1 0 . o f t h e f o r e i g n e r and th e s te p m o th e r o f t h e M ex ica n ” ^ t h e y a r e n a t u r a l l y c o n f u s e d . V iew ed m a t e r i a l l y , D ia z d id many t h i n g s f o r t h e c o u n t r y . V iew ed s o c i o l o g i c a l l y and h u m a n is t i c a l l y , h e n o t o n ly r e t a r d e d th e c u l t u r e o f t h e c o u n tr y and p e o p le , h u t he a c t u a l l y s e t them h a c k a c e n t u r y . The s l a v e r y a n d p e o n a g e o f M e x ic o , t h e p o v e r ty and i l l i t e r a c y , t h e g e n e r a l p r o s t r a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e , a r e d u e , i n my hum ble ju d g m en t, t o t h e f i n a n c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t a t p r e s e n t r u l e s t h e c o u n t r y — i n a w ord t o w h at I s h a l l c a l l t h e " sy ste m o f G e n e r a l P o r f i r i o D i a z .^3 * • I n summing up t h e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f Don P o r f i r i o an d w hat t h e w r i t e r s o f to d a y a r e p l e a s e d t o c a l l p o r f i r l s m o . i t i s o n ly f a i r t o en u m era te som e o f t h e a c c o m p lish m e n ts o f h i s r e g im e . H e, o r m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y , J o s e ' I v e s L im a n to u r, s e c r e t a r y o f h a c ie n d a , in c r e a s e d t h e t r e a s u r y from 1 9 ,7 7 6 ,6 3 6 p e s o s t o 7 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e s o s D u r i n g t h e Distz r e g im e t h e Im p o rts in c r e a s e d e i g h t t im e s and t h e e x p o r t s in c r e a s e d f i v e t im e s ; r a ilw a y m ile a g e jum ped from 4 0 0 t o 1 5 ,0 0 0 ; t e l e g r a p h l i n e s from 4 ,4 2 0 t o 2 0 ,0 0 0 m i l e s . In a l l l i n e s o f in d u s t r y t h e sam e s a l t a t o r y i n c r e a s e s w ere n o t e d . F a c t o r ie s w ere e r e c t e d , m in in g o u tp u t s k y r o c k e t e d , s m e lt e r s an d s u g a r r e f i n e r i e s w ere b u i l t , and a b o v e a l l t h i n g s , t h e o i l I n d u s tr y 4 2 M o ises S a e n z and H. I . P r i e s t l e y , Some M exican P r o b le m s. p . 7* 4 3 j . K. T u r n e r . Op. c i t . , p . 1 2 0 . 0 . M. F la n d r a u , Op. c i t . , p . 6 1 , s a y s . . . • M exico i s n o t a r e p u b lic b u t a m i l i t a r y D ia z p o tis m ” . 4 4 E d it h O 'S h a u g h n e ssy , I n t im a t e P a g e s o f M exican H i s t o r y , p . 65. f l o u r i s h e d . The s a l i e n t p o in t t o h e n o t e d a h o u t a l l t h i s a c t i v i t y i s o n e s m a ll m a tte r o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , h o w e v e r . I f o n e i s c o g n iz a n t o f t h a t p o in t h e h a s no d i f f i c u l t y i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s p i r i t o f p r e s e n t - d a y M exican p h ilo s o p h y a s p u t i n t o a c t i o n i n e d u c a t io n , la w and in d u s t r y . T h at p o i n t , s a y t h e M exican e c o n o m is t s , i s t h a t a l l t h e h u s t l i n g f a c t o r i e s , a l l t h e s t r a i n i n g l o c o m o t i v e s , a l l t h e c la n k in g s t e e l m i l l s w ere n o t w o r k in g f o r M exico o r t h e M exican p e o p l e . T hey w ere w o r k in g f o r f o r e i g n c a p i t a l a n d f o r t h e f a v o r e d c l i q u e o f Don P o r f i r i o . ^ 5 M exican s w orked f o r l e s s th a n s t a r v a t i o n w a g e s. No w h ere was p eo n a g e m ore ram pant th a n i n f o r e i g n c o n c e s s i o n s . M ex ica n s w ere n o t ta u g h t t h e n e w e r t e c h n iq u e s o f i n d u s t r y , n e i t h e r d id th e y f i l l t h e p o s t s o f s k i l l e d m e c h a n ic s an d o f a r t i s a n s . They d id t h e d u l l and b r u t a l i z i n g d r u d g e r y , f o r w h ic h t h e y w ere p a id f o r t y an d f i f t y c e n t a v o s d a i l y . Low a s w as t h e i r s ta n d a r d o f l i v i n g , t h i s w age f o r c e d i t lo w e r . I t t o o k a t l e a s t s i x t y c e n t a v o s d a i l y t o l i v e and t h e p eon w en t i n d e h t a t t h e company s t o r e f o r t h e e x t r a am ou n t. As tim e w en t on h e becam e more and m ore I n d e b te d t o t h e com pany, and a s g o v ern m en t la w fo r b a d e t h e la b o r e r t o l e a v e t h e em p loy ^ 5 M b ises S a e n z , F o r e ig n I n v e s tm e n ts an d M exican N a t io n a lis m ; M&Ises S a e n z .a n d H. I . P r i e s t l e y , Op. c i t * , C h a p te r I . o f an y b u s i n e s s when h e was i n I t s d e b t , t h e p eon was i n d e n tu r e d f o r l i f e i n m ost c a s e s . 4 6 F o r e ig n e r s f i l l e d a l l t h e h i g h - s a l a r i e d p o s i t i o n s t h e m s e lv e s , s o t h a t t h e y t o o k from t h e c o u n tr y a l l b u t a s e d im e n ta r y resid u u m o f t h e c a p i t a l in v o l v e d . 4 7 The f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e s w h ich s e n t t h e i r p r o f i t s o u t o f t h e c o u n tr y d id n o t e v e n l e a v e , i n r e t u r n , a n y a p p r e c i a b l e t r a i n i n g f o r M e x ic a n s, R a ilr o a d s , p o r tw o r k s , t h e o p e r a h o u s e , w ere s o many e x o t i c p l a n t s , d rop p ed up on t h e s u r f a c e , u n r o o te d i n t h e M exican s o i l , r e p r e s e n t i n g no c r e a t i v e e f f o r t on M ex ico * s p a r t .^ 8 Had F a sc is m a s a fo r m a l s y s te m b e e n known i n t h e d a y s o f D ia'z, h e w o u ld h a v e b e e n t h e num ber on e F a s c i s t . A l l h i s a c t i o n s and th o u g h ts co n fo rm ed to t h e F a s c i s t s y s t e m . To him t h e human e le m e n t was n o t w o r th c o n s i d e r in g . I n d u s tr y and m a t e r ia l p r o g r e s s an d o s t e n t a t i o u s d i s p l a y w ere p a ra m o u n t.4 9 One o f t h e b o a s t s o f h i s b io g r a p h e r s h a s b e e n t h a t l i f e was s a f e r i n M exico th a n i n an y c o u n tr y i n t h e w o r ld d u r in g t h e D i c t a t o r ’ s r e i g n . T h at s ta te m e n t m ust b e em ended t o r e a d w t h e l i v e s o f w e a lth y M exican s and f o r e i g n e r s w ere s a f e r i n M exico th a n i n a n y o t h e r p la c e i n t h e w o r l d .1 1 L i f e f o r th e lo w c l a s s 4 6 J . K. T u rn er , f!Phe A m erican P a r tn e r s o f D id z .1 1 Op, c i t , , C h a p te r XIV; E , D. T r o w b r id g e , M exico Today a n d Tom orrow, p a s sim E . H, B l i c h f e l d t , A M exican J o u r n e y . p . 5 2 . 4 7 r . r . P e d r u e z a , La Lucha de C la s e s a t r a v e s de l a H l s t o r l a de M e x ic o . 4 8 e . G -ruening, Op. c i t . , p . 63* 4 9 a , B r e n n e r , O r , c i t . . p . 9 7 . 52 M exican was p r a c t i c a l l y v a l u e l e s s . 50 The h i g h ly p u b l i c i z e d r u r a l e s . o r n a t i o n a l p o l i c e , w ere r e c r u i t e d l a r g e l y from th e b a n d it and e x - s o l d i e r c l a s s e s . They u n d e r s to o d o n ly on e m ethod o f m a in ta in in g o r d e r , t h a t o f b r u t a l f o r c e . A w ar o f e x te r m in a tio n w as b egu n on t h e b a n d i t s , and a f t e r i t h ad b e e n c a r r ie d f a r en ou gh t o s a t i s f y them t h a t s o o n e r o r l a t e r , th e y w o u ld a l l b e l i n e d up and s h o t , t h e i r l e a d e r s w ere g i v e n a c h a n c e t o e n r o l l , w it h t h e i r m en, i n a w e l l - p a i d a n d w e l l - d i s c i p l i n e d r u r a l p o l i c e f o r c e t o k e e p t h e e o u n tr y d i s t r i c t s s a f e — w it h t h e s t o n e w a ll and f i r i n g sq u a d a s an o p t i o n . T hey e n r o l l e d — a n d , from t h i s b e g in n in g t h e r e d e v e lo p e d a m a g n if ic e n t f o r c e , t h e " r u r a le s " , w h ic h , f o r r i d i n g and f i g h t i n g q u a l i t i e s , h a s n o t o f t e n b e e n e x c e l l e d . F o r c e , more f o r c e , r u t h l e s s f o r c e , su d d en a n n i h i l a t i o n — t h e s e so o n b eg a n t o w h ip t h e c o u n tr y i n t o s h a p e .51 They w ere no w h it l e s s p i c t u r e s q u e l y inhum an th a n t h e C o ssa c k s o f R u s s ia . Any c h r o n i c l e o f D ia z d a y s i s r e p l e t e w it h t h e d o in g s o f t h e r u r a l e s an d t h e e f f i c i e n t and summary way i n w h ic h t h e y d e a l t h w it h t h o s e who f e l l a f o u l t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s w ere t h e l a r g e la n d -o w n in g c l a s s e s , t h e h a c e n d a d o s . and a c t i o n s t h e y c o n s id e r e d c r im e s m ig h t b e o n ly m in or c a s e s o f l e s e m a l e s t e . One o f t h e m ost d r e a d e d t e c h n iq u e s o f t h e r u r a le s was u s e o f th e l e y fu g a : t h e la w p e r m it t in g them t o f i r e upon a p r i s o n e r who a tte m p te d e s c a p e . HThen t h e s y s te m w as f u n c t io n in g m o st s m o o t h ly , a l m ost a l l p o l i t i c a l p r is o n e r s “a tte m p te d f l i g h t 1 1 and o n ly t h e 50 G eorge i . S a n c h e z . M ex ico : A R e v o lu t io n by E duca t i o n , 4 9 . 51 E . D. T r o w b r id g e , 01 >. c i t . , 9 2 f ; S . D. K irkham , M exican T r a i l s , p . 1 3 7 . 53 d ead "bodies w ere "brought i n . The r u r a le s w ere d e f i n i t e l y t h e f o r c e w h ic h made th e name o f D ia z f e a r e d and h i s e v e r y w is h o b e y e d f o r more th a n t h i r t y y e a r s . He (D ia z ) p u t f e a r i n t o t h e h e a r t s o f t h e l o c a l c h i e f t a i n s , who h ad b e e n w o n t, on o c c a s i o n , t o h ea d a r i s i n g a g a i n s t t h e g o v e r n m e n t. When h e h e a r d t h a t a p o l i t i c a l p e r s o n a g e was p l o t t i n g t r o u b le h e s e n t him word t o come t o M exico C it y f o r a t a l k . In t h i s t a l k th e P r e s id e n t p u t t h e s i t u a t i o n u p t o him a s man t o man and g a v e him t h e o p t io n o f e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s f a m ily in t h e c a p i t o l o r a c c e p t i n g a m is s io n a b r o a d . I f he r e f u s e d and w en t hom e, t h e r u r a le s w ere in fo r m e d , and p r e s e n t l y h e m et a v i o l e n t d e a t h , a lw a y s a c c i d e n t a l o r m y s te r io u s . 52 Why, t h e n , a r e t h e r e d o z e n s o f a p o l o g i s t s f o r th e r u t h l e s s r e g im e o f D ia z among p e o p le o f h ig h c u l t u r e and o f u n im p e a c h a b le m o r a ls , a n d a b o v e a l l , why d o e s t h e C a t h o lic ✓ C hurch p o i n t t o D ia z a s t h e p a ra g o n o f p r o b it y an d J u s t i c e ? As h a s b e e n m e n tio n e d b r i e f l y b e f o r e , i t i s l a r g e l y a m a tte r o f p h ilo s o p h y an d p e r s o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S e l f - i n t e r e s t e n t e r s l a r g e l y i n t o t h e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s o f fo r m e r a r i s t o c r a t s and c l e r g y . I f t h e t h in k e r b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e en d J u s t i f i e s t h e m ean s, o r i f he d i r e c t l y o r I n d i r e c t l y p r o f i t e d b y t h e s y s te m , h e w i l l sp e a k in la u d a t o r y te r m s . I f , h o w e v e r , h e b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t h e f i n a l v a lu e in s o c i e t y , t h e n h e w i l l f e e l t h a t p o r f lr ls m o v i o l a t e d t h e u l t i m a t e s o c i a l g o o d o f M exico and c o n t a in e d t h e s e e d s o f i t s own d i s s o l u t i o n . 53 He w i l l a g r e e w it h th e M exican s o c i o l o g i s t s t h a t t h e p r a g m a tic 52 e . A . R o s s , The S o c i a l R e v o lu tio n in M e x ic o . p . 35* 53 E . H. B l i c h f e l d t , 0 £ . c i t . , 1 2 f . 54 judgm ent o f t h e s y s te m was I t s c o n c o m ita n t: t h e R e v o lu tio n o f 1 9 1 0 . La p a z s e d e s tr u y o p o r o h ra misma d e l s is t e m a que s e d e sc o m p o n ia l a c o n t in u a r s e I n d e f in id a m e n t a , h a c id n d o s e mas v i e j o y m enos u t i l , c o n c e n tr a n d o l a s r iq u e z a s y e l p o d e r y c e r r a d o e l p a so a l a e v o lu c io n y a l a s r e fo r m a s y a a l o s ca m in o s de p r o c e d im ie n t o s , de d o c t r in a s s o c i a l e s y de h o m h re s.5 4 V I . SUMMARY: PREPARATION FOR REVOLUTION P o r f i r i s m o . In i t s e l f , w as n o t t h e c a u s e o f th e R evo l u t i o n . I t was m e r e ly th e z e n i t h o f t h e f o u r h u n d red y e a r s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n w h ic h had f l o u r i s h e d in M exico s i n c e t h e com in g o f t h e S p a n ia r d s . Diaz* r e i g n was t h e f lo w e r in g o f t h e a g a v e , w h ic h l e a v e s a d ea d p l a n t a f t e r a b r i l l i a n t b lo o m . M en tion h a s b e e n made o f th e f a c t t h a t th e S p a n ia r d s c o n s id e r e d New S p a in a s th e h ap p y h u n tin g g rou n d f o r p e r s o n a l a g g r a n d iz e m e n t. The v e r y name C o n q u is ta d o r . c o n q u e r o r , i s c o n s o n a n t w it h f o r c i n g and t a k i n g . I t I s n o t c o n s o n a n t w it h g i v i n g a n d d e v e lo p in g h o n e s t l y . A t no tim e d u r in g t h e v i c e - r o y a lt y was an y o f f i c i a l m ovem ent p u t u n d e r way f o r th e lo n g tim e d e v e lo p m e n t o f M exico o r t h e M exican p e o p l e s . A few c l e r g y and on e o r tw o o f t h e V ic e r o y s made h o n e s t a tte m p ts t o r i d t h e c o u n tr y o f I t s a b u s e s , b u t t h e y w ere e i t h e r c ir c u m v e n te d o f s e n t b a c k t o S p a in In d i s g r a c e . C o r te s h i m s e l f s t a r t e d t h e en co m ien d a s y s te m when h e a c c e p t e d th e g r a n t o f t h e M arquesado 5 4 a . Z a b r e , o g . c i t . , p* 2 3 6 . d e l V a l l e . a k in gd om , p r a c t i c a l l y , o f t w e n t y - f i v e th o u sa n d sq u a r e m ile s * W ith i t w en t tw e n ty -tw o to w n s an d c o m p le te c i v i l an d c r im in a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e p o p u la t io n o f more th a n a h u n d red th o u sa n d s o u l s . M ost im p o r ta n t from t h e p o in t o f v ie w o f t h e o l d S p a n ia r d was t h e c o m p le te c o n t r o l o v e r th e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e la n d and t h e l a b o r o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . One o f C o r te s* l i e u t e n a n t s r e c e i v e d w hat i s now t h e s t a t e o f G u a n a ju a to , a s e c t i o n o f t e n th o u sa n d sq u a r e m i l e s ; a n o th e r was g r a n te d t h e en co m len d a o f X i l o t e p e e , c o n t a i n i n g on e h u n d red an d t h i r t y th o u sa n d v a s s a l s . When de l a s C a sa s s u c c e e d e d in h a v in g t h e crow n p rom u l g a t e t h e New Laws o f 154-2, p r o h i b i t i n g th e t a k in g o f more s l a v e s , a lth o u g h ow n ers m ig h t k e e p I n d ia n s a lr e a d y e n s la v e d , t h e r e was s u c h b i t t e r o p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e y w ere p o s tp o n e d in 1545.55 E very e le m e n t o f S p a n is h s o c i e t y fo u g h t an y e f f o r t t o l e s s e n i t s p e r s o n a l e n r ic h m e n t. "Even t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s w ere a g a i n s t t h e new l e g i s l a t i o n , f o r t h e y , n o l e s s th a n t h e e n c o m e n d e r o s. w ere b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f t h e s y s te m i n v o g u e 1 *, s a y s t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e h i s t o r i a n , P r i e s t l y . 56 «phe K in g was o n ly i n t e r e s t e d I n t h e n e w -w o r ld r o y a l r e v e n u e , s o h e had no d e s i r e t o a n t a g o n iz e h i s p e o p le i n New S p a in , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e M exico was su c h a h e a v y p r o d u c e r o f in c o m e . T w o -th ir d s o f t h e r e v e n u e o f S p a in was com in g from M exico i n 1 8 0 4 . 5 5 l . B . S im p so n , o p ; c i t . , p . 1 7 9 . H. I . P r i e s t l y , o p . b i t . . p . 6 5 . 5 6 The j e a l o u s an d e x c l u s i v e s y s te m a d o p te d by S p a in - - h a s no p a r a l l e l i n t h e h i s t o r y o f m ankind* F o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s t h e p o l i t i c a l and c o m m e r c ia l d ep en d en ce o f t h e c o l o n i e s u p on t h e m o th er c o u n tr y was a s c o m p le t e , an d a b s o l u t e , a s s e l f i s h p o l i c y , r ig o r o u s la w s , and o p p r e s s iv e g o v ern m en t c o u ld make i t * To d r a in t h e I n d ie s o f t h e i r w e a lt h an d draw i t t o S p a in was t h e s o l e aim w h ich i n f lu e n c e d S p a n is h m onarchs in l e g i s l a t i n g f o r t h e i r c o l o n i a l p o s s e s s i o n s , an d t h e p r o h i b i t i v e s y s te m o f com m erce p u r s u e d by them m akes g l a r i n g l y c o n s p ic u o u s t h e i r i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e w e lf a r e o f t h e i r t r a n s a t l a n t i c s e t t l e m e n t s . 57 The c o m m e r c ia l l i f e o f t h e c o l o n i e s was t h r o t t l e d b y th e g i a n t o f S p a n is h g r e e d . E v ery form o f im p o s t , l e v y , l i c e n s e , t a x , s u r c h a r g e a n d d u ty p o s s i b l e w as Im posed up on th e t r a d e o f t h e c o l o n y .5® W h atever com m od ity t h a t c o u ld b e b o u g h t from S p a in was f o r b id d e n d e v e lo p m e n t in M e x ic o . Even t h e g r o w in g o f g r a p e s , o l i v e s , an d t h e m u lb er ry was fo r b id d e n th r o u g h o u t New S p a in . B o th t h e C h r is t ia n s an d I n d ia n s a r e w eary w it h t h e s e i n f i n i t e t a x e s and c u sto m s . . . . t h e k in g h a th commanded up on p a ln e o f d e a t h , t h a t th e y s h o u ld n o t p la n t e i t h e r w in e o r o i l e t h e r e , b u t s h o u ld a lw a y e s s t a n d i n n e e d o f them t o b e b r o u g h t o u t o f S p a in e , a lt h o u g h t h e r e w ou ld more grow t h e r e i n f o u r e y e e r e s , th e n t h e r e g r g w e th i n S p a in e i n t w e n t y , i t i s s o f e r t i l e a c o u n t r y .^ W h a tev er was u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y w as t a x e d h e a v i l y , w h e th e r i t was a n e c e s s i t y o r lu x u r y . A r o y a l m onop oly was h e ld on s u c h t h i n g s a s gu n p ow d er, p l a y i n g - c a r d s , q u i c k s i l v e r , s a l t , p a p a l i n d u l g e n c e s , l o t t e r i e s , and t h e s a l e o f t i t l e s and 57 h . H. B a n c r o f t, H is t o r y o f M e x ic o . I l l , p . 6 2 7 . 58 C. H. J o n e s , M exico and I t s R e c o n s t r u e t io n . 1 8 7 f f . 5 9 R ic h a r d H a k lu y t, o £ . c i t . , p . 2 7 8 . 51 o f f i c e s . M a n u fa ctu red a r t i c l e s m ust b e "brought from S p a in i n S p a n is h s h i p s . As t h e m o th e r c o u n tr y was n o t an i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n , many o f t h e a r t i c l e s u s e d in M exico w ere p r o d u ce d i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , s h ip p e d t o S p a in , t r a n s - s h ip p e d t o M e x ic o , ta x e d h e a v i l y an d s o l d t o t h e p e o p l e . 6 ° L e g a l j u s t i c e was a n o t h e r com m od ity t o o d e a r t o h e a f f o r d e d b y t h e com m oners. O f f i c e s w ere l e g a l l y s o l d t o t h e h i g h e s t b i d d e r . Members o f t h e a u d ie n c la c o u ld s i t a s a c t i v e members o f t h e g ro u p su p p o se d t o t r y them f o r m a lf e a s a n c e . P r o p e r ty te n u r e was e x tr e m e ly u n c e r t a in a t a l l tim e s u n d e r t h e S p a n is h s y s t e m . Land was h e ld a t t h e p le a s u r e o f t h e k in g and when h e was f i n a n c i a l l y p r e s s e d h e f r e q u e n t l y lo o k e d a ro u n d f o r som e i n d i v i d u a l o r g ro u p t o d i s p o s s e s s . T h u s, C h a r le s IV e x p e l l e d t h e J e s u i t s from New S p a in i n V j6 l a n d t o o k a l l t h e i r p r o p e r ty an d w e a l t h . ^ E ven t h e en com en d eros fo u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e t i t l e t o t h e i r h o ld in g s c o n fir m e d w it h t h e a p p o in tm e n t o f e a c h new v i c e r o y . F o r t h e m e s t iz o and t h e I n d ia n i t so o n becam e a lm o s t im p o s s ib le t o h o ld any form o f p r o p e r t y . The e .lid o s w ere g u a r a n te e d t h e i r r i g h t s b y r o y a l o r d e r , b u t c r a f t y S p a n ia r d s fo u n d many l o o p h o l e s . F r e q u e n t ly th e t i t l e t o a n en co m len d a g a v e o w n e r sh ip t o a l l t h e la n d t o b e s e e n from a c e r t a i n p e a k , o r t o a l l t h e t e r r a i n 6 ° E r n e s t G r u e n in g , o p . P i t . . p . 1 8 4 . 6 1 A . H. N o l l , oja. c i t . , 1 3 1 t . from m o u n ta in t o p t o m o u n ta in t o p . B oundary m ark ers w ere m oved t o I n c lu d e t h e la n d o f a n a t i v e v i l l a g e , a n d , o v e r n ig h t , th e I n d ia n s c h a n g e d from f r e e , la n d - h o ld in g i n d i v i d u a l s t o s l a v e s o f t h e h a c ie n d a . When t h e e n co m ien d a s y s te m was f in a lly b r o k e n t h e p o o r e r c l a s s e s w ere l e f t w ith o u t la n d o r h om es. They becam e a c c u sto m e d t o d ep en d up on t h e s e a s o n a l w ork th e y c o u ld o b t a in a t t h e h a c ie n d a s . As t h i s w ork was s c a n t y a t t h e b e s t , u s u a l l y a m o u n tin g t o t h r e e m onths o u t o f t h e y e a r , and a s i t was p a id f o r a t s t a r v a t i o n w a g e s , t h e f a m i l i e s s p e n t a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e y e a r roam in g an d f o r a g in g l i k e w i l d a n im a ls . The fe w who d id o b t a in la n d w ere f o r c e d t o s l i n k f a r b a c k in t o th e m o u n ta in s an d s c r a t c h o u t a m ea g er e x i s t e n c e w h ere t h e l o r d l y w h it e s d is d a in e d t o b o t h e r th em . In t h e s t a t e o f M o relo s th e a u th o r saw g r a p h ic rem inder's o f t h i s s y s t e m . The v a s t , f e r t i l e p l a i n s , lo n g fam ous f o r s u g a r c a n e , a r e s t i l l d iv id e d i n t o v a s t h o l d i n g s , m ost o f w h ich a r e now b e in g a l l o c a t e d b y t h e g o v ern m en t t o s m a ll fa r m e r s and c o o p e r a t iv e g r o u p s . D u rin g t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r io d m ost o f t h e la n d l i e s i d l e . In t h e m o u n ta in s o v e r lo o k in g t h e s e p l a i n s , h o w e v e r , a r e num erous m a iz e p a t c h e s , som e o f them on g ro u n d t h a t i s a lm o s t p e r p e n d ic u la r . In o t h e r p la c e s t h e c o r n i s p la n t e d b e tw e e n r o c k s , w h e r e v e r t h e r e i s a t i n y p o c k e t o f s o i l . T h is d i s p o s s e s s e d r a b b le f l o c k e d t o t h e b a n n e r o f H id a lg o when h e r a i s e d t h e s ta n d a r d o f r e v o l t . So d e e p ly i n g r a in e d had becom e t h e S p a n is h id e a s o f p r o p e r ty h o ld in g and 59 e x p l o i t a t i o n t h a t no la n d r e fo r m s w ere made b y t h e o r l o l l o a who fo u n d th e m s e lv e s i n c o n t r o l . C o n d itio n s r em a in e d t h e sam e f o r t h e la n d -h u n g r y p e a s a n t who was t h e pawn in t h e c o r r u p t game o f e x p l o i t a t i o n p la y e d b y t h e t e c h n i c a l l y l i b e r a t e d M e x ic a n s• The y e a r a f t e r in d e p e n d e n c e J o e l P o i n s e t t , l a t e r t h e f i r s t A m erican e n v o y t o M e x ic o , fo u n d i n t h e c i t y o f Que r e t a r o "upwards o f e le v e n th o u sa n d I n d ia n s . . . . s t i l l h e ld i n . . . • b r u t a l . . . . b o n d a g e b y th e manu f a c t u r e r s ." T h e se t e x t i l e w o r k e r s w ere v i c t i m s o f t h e sam e s y s te m a s t h e i r f e l l o w s i n t h e f i e l d , an d n o t h in g more c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h e r e t r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e in d e p e n d e n c e o f 1 8 2 1 th a n t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e s e v e r y Q u e r e ta r o o p e r a t i v e s had b e e n l i f t e d from d e b t b on d age by t h e C g r r e g id o r D om in gu ez, s h o r t l y b e f o r e H id a lg o ’ s "Cry o f D o l o r e s ." 6 2 M exico h a s h ad unnum bered u p r i s i n g s , r e v o l t s , and i n t e r n a l w a r s . P r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y o n e h a s b e e n an a g r a r ia n r e v o l t . The v a s t m a j o r it y o f t h e p e o p le h ad n o t h in g t o l o s e a n d e v e r y t h in g t o g a i n when a n o t h e r l e a d e r a p p e a r e d w it h a " p la n " . In e v e r y c a s e e x c e p t- t h a t o f J u a r e z t h e y w ere d u p ed , an d m e r e ly fo u n d th e m s e lv e s : s e r v i n g new m a s t e r s . I t h a s a lw a y s b e e n c o n s id e r e d on e o f t h e p e r q u i s i t e s o f a c o n q u e r o r i n M exico t o e x p l o i t , ® an d a lm o s t e v e r y v i c t o r i o u s g e n e r a l h a s d on e s o . A f t e r t h e s h o r t - l i v e d r e fo r m s o f J u a r e z an d t h e s h e l v in g o f t h e R eform L aw s, D ia z l a p s e d i n t o t h e p a t t e r n s o f an o l d e r d a y . F o r e ig n and d o m e s tic c a p i t a l i s t s w ere g i v e n a f r e e hand t o d i s p o s s e s s an d t o w ork th e p e o n . The C hurch 62 E . O m e n in g , 6|>. c i t . , p . 1 2 0 . 63 E . D. T r o w b r id g e , o c i t . , p. 53. 60 ■became a s i l e n t p a r t n e r o n c e more and was r e tu r n e d t o a fa v o r e d s p o t . I f c h u r c h l e a d e r s becam e a t r i f l e u n r u ly t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 857 w as d r a g g e d o u t an d th e y s u b s id e d . The C hurch e v e n d e c id e d t h a t th e p r e v io u s ban on o f f i c i a l s s u b s c r ib i n g t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n c o u ld b e j e t t i s o n e d an d B ish o p P la n c a r t e y N a v a r e t t e , o f C am peche, s o r u le d i n a p a s t o r a l o f A p r i l 1 8 , 1 8 9 7 . W henever a g ro u p o f c a m p e s in o s becam e u n r u ly t h e y w ere g iv e n s h o r t s h r i f t b y t h e r u r a l e s , a n d , t h e u p r i s i n g sta m p ed o u t b r u t a l l y , t h e men w ere e i t h e r im p r e s s e d i n t o t h e arm y o r t h e y w ere s h ip p e d o f f t o f o r c e d la b o r in t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f som e f a v o r e d M exican o r f o r e i g n e r . ^ W ith s u c h a h i s t o r y o f i n j u s t i c e , s t u p i d i t y , g r e e d , an d in c o m p e te n c e , o n ly o n e t h in g c o u ld f o l l o w , an d t h a t was c h a o s . O nly c h a o s c o u ld f o l l o w b e c a u s e t h e s y s te m h ad n on e o f t h e s e e d s o f r e fo r m w i t h in i t , no l e a d e r s w ere b e in g t r a i n e d w it h a p h ilo s o p h y o f j u s t i c e an d d e m o cr a cy . The s t r u c t u r e h ad t o t o p p le b e c a u s e more th a n n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p le w e re i l l i t e r a t e an d d e b a s e d t o t h e p o in t o f s a v a g e r y . T h e ir o n ly e s c a p e s w ere t o s u p e r s t i t i o u s r e l i g i o n , d ru n k en d e b a u c h e s , g a m b lin g , o r b r u t a l form s o f s p o r t . And in 1 9 1 0 came t h e r e v o l u t i o n i n t o w h ic h D ia z h ad b l i n d l y f o r c e d t h e c o u n t r y . ^ J . K. T u r n e r , o p . c i t , , C h a p te r IV . CHAPTER X II THE EEVOIOTIQN OP 19X0 I n many w ays t h e M ex ica n R e v o lu t io n o f 1910 i s u n iq u e among r e v o l u t i o n s * I t w a s a s n e a r ly a i m l e s s and p l a n l e s s a s a s o c i a l m ovem ent c o u ld be and s t i l l su c c e e d * The M ex ica n r e v o l u t i o n had no p r o p h e t and no b od y o f p o s i t i v e t h e o r y ; i t w as o b l i g e d t o form u l a t e i t s own i d e o lo g y and own p rogram a s i t w en t a l o n g , a h a l t i n g , fu m b lin g , m is d ir e c t e d s e r i e s o f e x p e r im e n ts t h a t h a v e b r o u g h t t h e m a s s e s l i t t l e b u t a s e n s e o f fre ed o m — a fr e ed o m n o t to o e a s i l y d e m o n s tr a b le . P a p in i h a s d e c la r e d ttT rue r e v o l u t i o n s b e g in i n t h e h ea d n o t i n th e b a r r i c a d e s* w I n M e x ic o , t h e h e a d n e v e r c a u g h t up w it h th e b a r r i c a d e s .1 Up t o 1 9 1 0 M e x ic o had d on e l i t t l e t o t r a i n men t o t h in k i n te r m s o f h u m a n ity o r t o t h in k i n te r m s o f lo n g tim e p la n n in g o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , t o t h in k a t a l l # The w h o le h i s t o r y o f t h e la n d w as one o f e x p e d ie n c y an d s e l f - s e e k i n g . A t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r y o f t h e R e v o lu t io n s t a r t s w it h t h e e x p l o s i v e a p p e a r a n c e o f an in t e r v i e w b e tw e e n Jam es C reelm an and P r e s i d e n t D ia z i n P ea r so n * s M agazin e f o r M arch, 1908* I n t h i s i n t e r v i e w , a s r e p o r t e d , t h e a g e d d i c t a t o r an n ou n ced c a lm ly t h a t M e x ic o w as a t l a s t r e a d y f o r d em ocracy and h e h op ed t o s e e t h e r i s e o f a n o p p o s i t i o n p a r t y . P r a n c is e o I . M adero, a you n g s c i o n o f an a n c ie n t la n d - h o ld in g f a m ily i n C o a h u ila , h ea d ed su c h a m ovem ent and 1 C a r le to n B e a l s , M ex ica n M aze, p . 4 5 . 62 < a f t e r many s t a r t l i n g v i c i s s i t u d e s fo u n d h i m s e l f i n t h e p r e s id e n c y , I . MEANING OF THE REVOLUTION M ad ero’ s a c t i v i t i e s w e r e n o t c a u s e s o f t h e R e v o lu t io n i n t h e d e e p s e n s e . S h o u ld a c h i l d l a y i t s hand on a b u i l d in g a t t h e e x a c t moment a t w h ich i t t o p p le d o v e r , h e w ou ld h a r d ly h e c a l l e d a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e . The hand o f M adero w as h a r d ly m ore i n e v id e n c e i n 3 t h e s o c i a l f a i l u r e o f M e x ic o i n 1 9 1 0 . The m ovem ent w as n o t c o n s id e r e d o r p la n n e d i n a d v a n c e a s w a s t h e F r e n c h o r R u s s i a n o r A m e rica n R e v o lu t io n . M e x ic o ’ s s o c i a l f a b r i c was s o r o t t e n t h a t i t m e r e ly f la p p e d i t s e l f t o p i e c e s . The c o u n tr y w as draw n i n t o th e s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s o g r a d u a lly t h a t a t no p o i n t w as t h e r e a n o r g a n iz e d r e s i s t a n c e t o an y c l e a r l y r e c o g n iz e d f o r c e . R a th e r do we f i n d f o r c e s a l l o v e r M ex ico b l i n d l y s t r u g g l i n g w it h o t h e r f o r c e s . The d i v i d i n g l i n e 3 b e tw e e n b a n d it r y and r e v o l u t i o n w as v a g u e a t th e b e s t . One g ro u p f o u g h t f o r o n e n e e d o r i d e a l , and a n o th e r fo u g h t f o r o t h e r l o e a l o b j e c t i v e s ; b u t f o r a t l e a s t s e v e n y e a r s o f t u r m o il and f i g h t i n g no on e l e a d e r com b in ed e v e n a r e s p e c t a b l e number o f n a t i o n a l i d e a l s . g E d it h O’ S h a u g h n e s s y , I n t im a t e R a g e s o f M ex ica n H i s t o r y , C h a p te r X X II. g E . D. T r o w b r id g e , M e x ic o Today and Tom orrow , p . 1 3 8 . 63 We h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e k e y n o t e o f t h e M e x ic a n d ia p a s o n had a lw a y s b e e n p e c u la t io n * C u r io u s ly en ou gh o f f i c i a l s e l f - a g g r a n d iz e m e n t w as n o t c o n s id e r e d a s i n t o t h e man o f E u ro p ea n c u l t u r e i n M e x ic o . C r a f t w as an e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e p u b lic o f f i c e s o f M e x ic o . I t i s a r i g h t v e s t e d in t h e o f f i c e i t s e l f , i s r e c o g n iz e d a s su c h and i s r e s p e c t a b l e * 4 The o n ly s i n f e l t w as w hen t h e p e c u l a t i o n w as p r a c t i c e d by a r i v a l g ro u p o r p a r t y . R e v o l u t i o n a r ie s w ere t o o o f t e n " o u ts" who w is h e d t o f a t t e n a t t h e p u b l i c ’ s e x p e n s e . T h is p o l i t i c a l l i b i d o m o t iv a te d m o st o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y g e n e r a ls th r o u g h t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n and te n d e d o n ly t o d e s p o i l t h e c o u n tr y and p r o lo n g th e s t r u g g l e . A s f a r a s M adero w as c o n c e r n e d th e s t r u g g l e w as r a t h e r i d e a l i s t i c . He w as a yo u n g man o f k i n d l y h e a r t . I n f a c t , i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t on h i s fa m ily h a c ie n d a , p e o n e s r e c e i v e d b e t t e r c a r e th a n d id p e o n e s on n e ig h b o r in g h a c ie n d a s . B u t i t w a s n o t e n t i r e l y t o a m e lio r a t e th e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p o o r t h a t h e s t r u c k h i s b lo w . M adero w as w o r k in g a lm o s t e x c l u s i v e l y f o r p o l i t i c a l b e t te r m e n t w hen h e c h a lle n g e d D f a z . The d i c t a t o r o r i g i n a l l y made h i s s lo g a n ,rn o r e e l e c t i o n ” y e t h e had s u c c e e d e d h i m s e l f w it h m on oton ou s r e g u l a r i t y s i n c e , 1 8 8 4 . He had c r u sh e d an y o p p o s i t i o n by t h e u s e o f army and r u r a l e s and had p r a c t i c a l l y d i s f r a n c h i s e d a l l b u t h i s own 4 I . K . T u r n e r , B a r b a r o u s M e x ic o , p . 1 3 2 . R o b e r t N. Me l e a n , T h a t M e x ic a n , p . 4 4 . 64 5 s u p p o r te r s * M adero w a n ted t o r i g h t t h i s p o l i t i c a l w ro n g , h u t b ey o n d t h a t p o i n t h i s r e fo r m program d id n o t p r o p o s e t o go* I I * CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE The f i r s t c a u se o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n t h e n , w as t h e d e s i r e o f M adero f o r p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e . L i t t l e d id h e r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s d e s i r e w as t h e p e b b le t h a t w o u ld c a u se t h e a v a la n c h e o r , m ore p r o p e r ly , t h e lo o s e n i n g o f t h e one l o g t h a t w ou ld b r e a k t h e lo g - j a m . The i d e a s em b od ied by t h e M adero p h a se o f t h e R e v o lu t io n w ere p o l i t i c a l . The m ild s u g g e s t io n s a b o u t la b o r and la n d w e re m ere i n c i d e n t s . They w o u ld n o t h a v e s a t i s f i e d th e n e e d s o f u rb a n and r u r a l w o r k e r s . "What M adero d id n o t s e e w a s t h a t t h e c o m p le te o v e r th r o w o f th e e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m w as bound t o w ork a g r e a t s o c i a l and e c o n om ic c h a n g e * 6 M adero s t a r t e d o u t i n g o o d f a i t h t o o p p o se D ia z l e g a l l y . H is p a r t y , t h e " a n t i - r e e l e c t i o n i s t s , " 1 made a d e a l o f f u r o r e i n t h e i r ca m p a ig n . A t f i r s t D ia z r e g a r d e d h i s f i v e - f o o t - t w o - i n c h o p p o n e n t w it h c o n te m p t, b u t s o o n h e fo u n d t h e r e w as r e a l o p p o s i t i o n g a t h e r in g . He t h e n r e v e r t e d t o h i s c l a s s i c t e c h n iq u e s and had p o l i t i c a l m e e tin g s b r o k e n u p , p o l i t i c a l w o r k e r s j a i l e d , and M ad ero, h i m s e l f , j a i l e d i n S an L u is P o t o s i . On O c to b e r 4 , 1 9 1 0 , t h e Chamber o f F rank Tannenbaum , P e a c e by R e v o l u t i o n , p p . 100 f . fi E . G r u e n in g , M ex ico and I t s H e r i t a g e , p . 97* 65 D e p u t ie s d e c la r e d D fa z o n ce m ore e l e c t e d . M adero e s c a p e d t o t h e U n it e d S t a t e s and p u b lis h e d t h e f i r s t o f a s e r i e s o f " p la n s" t h a t w as t o c o n t in u e th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f th e r e v o l u t i o n u n d er d i f f e r e n t l e a d e r s . H is " P la n o f S a n I n i s P o t o s i" d e c la r e d f o r r e v o l u t i o n , n o r e e l e c t i o n , t h e r e t u r n o f la n d s ta k e n from t h e n a t i v e s , and f o r M adero a s p r o v i s i o n a l p r e s i d e n t . A f t e r a s i n g l e c l a s h i n w h ic h C iu d ad J u a r e z w as t a k e n , t h e D ia z r e g im e t o p p le d and M adero p r o c e e d e d t o t h e c a p i t a l i n tr iu m p h . M adero w as s i n c e r e b u t u n b e l ie v a b l y i d e a l i s t i c a n d , a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t im e , 7 M e x ic o n e e d e d a r e a l i s t . He r e a l l y a llo w e d fr e e d o m o f s p e e c h and freed o m o f t h e p r e s s and w as rew a rd ed b y h a v in g a l l s o r t s o f s c u r r i l o u s a t t a c k s made on him and h i s p rogram . H is e v e r y move seem ed t h e w rong o n e . M adero w as t r u s t i n g when t h e r e w ere fe w men i n p u b lic l i f e who w ere t r u s t w o r t h y . L ik e a l l t h e e a r l y r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s he th o u g h t and t a lk e d g e n e r a l i t i e s ; w h at t h e p e o p le w a n ted j u s t th e n w as d i r e c t 8 a c t i o n and s p e c i f i c t a l k . I f M adero w ou ld n o t g i v e t h e p e o p le d i r e c t a c t i o n t h e r e w ere o t h e r f i e r y l e a d e r s who w o u ld , and t h e f i r s t t o a r i s e w as E m ilia n o Z a p a ta in t h e S t a t e o f M o r e lo s . C o n d i t i o n s w e re c e r t a i n l y n o w o r se i n M o r e lo s th a n in o t h e r p a r t s 7 E d it h Of S h a u g h e s s y , o g . c i t . , p . 1 6 4 . 8 B ertra m W o lfe , P o r t r a i t o f M e x ic o , p . 152* 66 o f t h e la n d , b u t , g iv e n th e c o n d i t i o n s and th e l e a d e r , r e v o l u t i o n b ro k e o u t s p o n t a n e o u s ly . On N ovem ber 2 8 , 1 9 1 1 , Z a p a ta u t t e r e d h i s " P la n o f A y a la " w h ic h dem anded t h a t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e la n d o f th e h a c ie n d a s be d iv id e d among t h e l a n d l e s s , 9 a t o n c e . T h is t a l k t h e I n d ia n s u n d e r s to o d and h e so o n had a h o rd e o f b ig -s o m b r e r o e d , c o t t o n - c l a d w a r r io r s a t h i s h e e l s . T h e se men had b e e n a b u se d by t h e la n d -o w n in g c l a s s so lo n g t h a t t h e y w ere l i k e a n im a ls e s c a p e d from t h e i r c a g e s . The ow n ers o f t h e g r e a t e s t a t e s w e re few i n num ber an d t h e y p r a c t i c e d a l l t h e a b u se s t h a t l a t e r g o v e r n m e n ts in v e ig h e d a g a i n s t . T h ere w as o w n e r sh ip o f a l l th e la n d b y a v e r y fe w , and a b s e n t e e la n d lo r d is m ; t h e r e w e re no s c h o o l s and t h e r e w as much w ork and l i t t l e p a y , "mucho t r a b a j o , p o co d in e r o ," b e in g a n o n s e n s e j i n g l e a t t h e t im e . U n der D fa z a l l th e a r a b le la n d o f t h i s l o v e l y S t a t e [M o r e lo s ] w as owned by t h i r t y - t w o g r e a t p r o p r i e t o r s , n e a r ly a l l S p a n ia r d s , who l i v e d i n M ex ico C it y when t h e y d i d n o t l i v e a b r o a d . Bound t o th e h a c ie n d a s by d e b t , th e p e o n s had t o a c c e p t s u c h te r m s a s t h e amo, o r m a s t e r , d i c t a t e d . P o r w o r k in g from su n t o s u n , t h e y w e re rew a rd ed w it h t w e lv e c e n t s and a m ea su re o f c o r n , w h ile th e m a s te r drew fa b u lo u s p r o f i t s from t h e i r u n d e r -p a id t o i l o f h i s la n d . . . . N or d id t h e c h u r c h s ta n d up f o r t h e s e p o o r bondm en. N o t o n ly w ere h i s d i g n i t a r i e s hand i n g lo v e w it h t h e g r e a t p l a n t e r s , b u t sem e o f them w ere m em bers o f t h e s e sam e f a m i l i e s . The p e o n s w ere i n t h e l e a d i n g - s t r i n g s o f p r i e s t s , who c o n fir m e d them i n t h e i r ig n o r a n c e and s u b m is s iv e n e s s • 9 I b i d . , p . 160* 67 and f i l l e d t h e i r m in d s w it h t h e m o st a b s u r d i d e a s a s t o r e l i g i o n an d t h e r e s p e c t due t h e m a s t e r * 10 F o r c e n t u r i e s t h e b ig la n d ow n ers had a b s o r b e d m ore and m ore o f t h e p e o p l e ’ s la n d . T h ey had ta k e n e j i d o s w here t h e v i l l a g e r ’ s m ea g er s u p p l y - o f c o r n and b e a n s w as r a i s e d . The h a c ie n d a s com m andeered wood l o t s from w h ic h h ad come s u p p l i e s o f c h a r c o a l f o r t h e p e o p l e . F i n a l l y t h e y to o k e j i d a l g r a z in g l a n d s , w h ic h w as n o t su c h a h a r d s h ip b e c a u s e , b y t h i s t im e , t h e p e o n e s had no a n im a ls t o g r a z e . H i/hatever had b e e n s a v e d by t h e v i l l a g e s up t o t h e tim e o f D fa z w as l o s t , f o r t h e d i c t a t o r g a v e h i s f r i e n d s c o m p le te c a r t e b la n c h e . 1 ^ X t w as d u r in g one o f t h e s e i l l e g a l s i e z u r e s t h a t Z a p a ta f i r s t r e c e i v e d o f f i c i a l n o t i c e . The h a e e n d a d o s g r a b b e d t h e comm unal la n d s o f a s m a l l h i l l v i l l a g e and d e s p o i le d som e s e v e n h u n d red and f i f t y a c r e s , i n M ex ica n te r m s t h r e e h u n d red h e c t a r e s . T h is c a s e w as s o f l a g r a n t t h a t e v e n t h e c o u r t s o f X)£az o r d e r e d t h e la n d r e t u r n e d . C o n v e n ie n t ly t h e o f f i c i a l p a p e r s o r d e r in g t h e r e t u r n w ere l o s t . T h is o u tr a g e s o i n f u r i a t e d Z a p a ta t h a t he l e d t h e v i l l a g e r s a g a i n s t t h e m a s t e r s and r e s t o r e d th e la n d f o r c i b l y . He w as a r r e s t e d and f o r c e d t o s e r v e a term i n t h e army a s p u n is h m e n t. E . A . R o s s . S o c i a l R e v o lu t io n i n M e x ic o , p p . 56 f . F ern an d o G o n z a le R o a , The M ex ica n P e o p le and T h e ir D e t r a c t o r s , p p . 8 f . D . E . T r o w b r id g e , o p . c i t . , p. 1 2 2 . Z a p a ta r e t u r n e d from h i s s e r v i c e and becam e a r a n c h e r o , a s m a ll in d e p e n d e n t r a n c h e r . When t h e R e v o lu t io n b r o k e o u t h e r a i s e d an army and s u p p o r te d M adero. He c o n t in u e d t h e s u p p o r t u n t i l i t becam e e v id e n t t h a t n o t h in g w as b e in g done o r e v e n p r o j e c t e d t o r e l i e v e t h e i n t o l e r a b l e a g r a r ia n s i t u a t i o n i n t h e r e p u b l i c . Z a p a ta th e n tu r n e d h i s f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e g o v ern m en t and t h e la n d ow n ers and b eg a n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o a t t a c k and s a c k t h e g r e a t su g a r p la n t a t i o n s . He e s t a b l i s h e d th e p e o p le u p on la n d s e i z e d from t h e h a c ie n d a s and a tte m p te d t o p r o t e c t them t h e r e . F e d e r a le s came i n la r g e f o r c e s and d r o v e t h e z a p a t i s t a s i n t o t h e m o u n ta in s and d e s t r o y e d th e hom es and f i e l d s o f t h e p e o p l e , f o l l o w i n g t h e o ld S p a n is h c u sto m th e g e n e r a l s had t h e i r men f i n i s h th e r a p e o f t h e h a c i e n d a s , s t e a l i n g t h e c o p p e r r e t o r t s and v a t s and s e l l i n g them f o r t h e m e t a l. A f t e r t e n y e a r s o f f i g h t i n g M o r e lo s w as a s n e a r ly p r o s t r a t e a s a s t a t e w e l l c o u ld b e . The z a p a t i s t a s becam e t h e p r o t o t y p e o f th e M ex ica n r e v o l u t i o n a r y and to d a y h o ld a h ig h p la c e i n t h e a r t and l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e c o u n t r y . I t i s w e l l t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r p rogram t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e m u r a l p a i n t in g o f D ie g o R iv e r a and t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m u sic and p o e t r y o f M ex ico t o d a y .12 The t y p i c a l z a p a t i s t a w as a s im p le , u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d IE B ertra m W o lfe , o p . c i t . , p. 1 5 9 . 69 p eo n who w a n ted o n ly h i s p l o t o f la n d and t h e l i b e r t y t o w ork i t u n m o le s te d . T h is lo v e o f t h e s o i l s u r v i v e s u n d i m in is h e d i n m odern M e x ic o , f o r o n ly t h e la n d h u n g e r o f th e p e o n s b r o u g h t M exico* s . M ad eros and Z a p a ta s t o t h e f o r e and 1 3 made p o s s i b l e t h e o v e r th r o w o f P o r f i r i o D ia z . He w a n ted a s c h o o l f o r h i s c h i l d r e n w h ere t h e y c o u ld l e a r n b e t t e r m eth o d s o f fa r m in g and l i v i n g . To g e t t h e s e b e n e f i t s h e f e l t h e had b e e n d r iv e n t o f i g h t , and h e w as f i g h t i n g f o r t h e s e t h i n g s an d n o t h in g e l s e . Many s t o r i e s a r e t o l d o f t h e s e s e n s i t i v e , a lm o s t k i n d l y , l i t t l e men who g r a d u a lly becam e s o t e r r i b l e a s t h e y w ere m ore and m ore h a r r ie d b y f o r c e an d t r e a c h e r y . When t h e y to o k M e x ic o C it y t h e y s l i p p e d i n t o t h e c i t y w it h a q u i e t , h a l f a p o l o g e t i c a i r a n d g a r r is o n e d t h e m s e lv e s i n d i r t y l i t t l e s to r e r o o m s and a t a b l e s . T h ey w ou ld a p p ro a c h h o u s e s , h a t i n h a n d , from t h e r e a r en t r a n c e and hum bly a s k f o r f o o d . 14 T h ere w as n on e o f th e s w a s h b u c k lin g a i r o f t h e V i l l a b a n d it who r a p e d , s t o l e , and d e s t r o y e d w it h a n im a l a b a n d o n . The z a p a t i s t a w ore an im age o f t h e v i r g i n o f G u ad alu p e se w e d i n t o h i s h a tb a n d , d r e s s e d i n w h it e c o t t o n p a ja m a s and s h i r t , and su rm ou n ted t h e w h o le e n se m b le w it h c r o s s e d b a n d o l i e r s o f c a r t r i d g e s . T h e ir 1 3 J . E r ic Thom pson, M e x ic o B e f o r e C o r t e z , p . 1 6 8 . 14 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , o p . c i t . , p. 3 1 1 . A n it a B r e n n e r , I d o l s B e h in d A l t a r s , p a s s im . 70 m ovem ent w as t h e f i r s t sh o w in g o f t h e f i n a l p h a se o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n , a m ovem ent w h ose l e a d e r s h i p w as o f th e I n d ia n c l a s s and w h ose a im s w e re t o g i v e t h e c o u n tr y h a c k t o t h a t g r o u p • T h is b r i e f resu m e o f M e x ic a n h i s t o r y h a s b e e n made t o show o b j e c t i v e l y t h a t t h e c o u n tr y w as h e ld b y and f o r a n e x tr e m e ly s m a ll p e r c e n t a g e o f S p a n is h c o n q u e r o r s a t f i r s t . T or t h r e e h u n d red y e a r s e v e r y law p a s s e d and e v e r y s t e p ta k e n f o r t h e f o r e ig n - b o r n S p a n ia r d . In d e p e n d e n c e g a v e t h i s c o n t r o l t o t h e c r i o l l o , th e n a t i v e b o r n p u re w h it e . G rad u a l l y t h e h ig h e r c l a s s m e s t iz o i n s in u a t e d h i m s e l f i n t o th e p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s e s . U n der J u a r e z , b r i e f l y , th e m e s t iz o w as d o m in a n t. X)£az r e s t o r e d w h it e d o m in a tio n o f M ex ico and a g a in t h e 99 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , d o m in a n tly I n d ia n , w as f o r g o t t e n . M adero w as d e f i n i t e l y o f and f o r t h e b e t t e r c l a s s e s ; i t w o u ld n e v e r h a v e o c c u r r e d t o him t h a t th e " b a se I n d ia n " 15 c o u ld b e a n y t h in g b u t a t o o l ,. Now we f i n d Z a p a ta and h i s men b l i n d l y f i g h t i n g f o r t h e r i g h t o f t h e I n d ia n t o t i e r r a Z l i b e r t a d , a c o n c e p t t h a t may b e l ik e n e d t o germ w h ic h m u l t i p l i e s w it h l i g h t n i n g s w i f t n e s s u n t i l a seru m i s o b t a in e d w it h w h ic h t h e e n t i r e p e o p le o f M e x ic o a r e b e in g i n n o c u la t e d . Z a p a ta * s u p r i s i n g s p r e a d s l o w l y u n t i l h e c o n t r o l l e d W a lla c e Thom pson, The M e x ica n M in d, p . S § 7 . 71 a l a r g e p a r t o f M o r e lo s , G u e r r e r o , P u e b lo , and T l a s c a l a . F o r a w h il e h e made common c a u s e w it h V i l l a , and t h e com b in ed a r m ie s h e ld t h e c a p i t a l . The z a p a t i s t a s * c h i e f w eapon w as m o b i l it y ; t h e y a p p e a r e d and d is a p p e a r e d l i k e p h a n to m s. A t no tim e d id t h e y h a v e c o m p le te c o n t r o l o f any t e r r i t o r y so k t h a t t h e y c o u ld g u a r a n te e s a f e t y . M ien l a r g e r b o d ie s o f w e l l - e q u ip p e d t r o o p s w ere s e n t a g a i n s t them t h e z a p a t i s t a s had t o v a n is h up t h e b a r r a n c a s and a r r o y o s and a w a it a s t r a t e g i c moment t o s h a t t e r t h e f e d e r a l e s . G e n e r a lly t h e t r o o p s o f s u c c e s s i v e p r o v i s i o n a l p r e s i d e n t s : M adero, H u e r ta , and C a r r a n z a , w ere l e d b y a n o th e r ty p e o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a d e r , t h e o p p o r t u n i s t . P e r h a p s t h e b e s t ex a m p le o f t h a t ty p e w as t h e l a s t one s e n t a g a i n s t Z a p a ta , G e n e r a l P a b lo G o n z a le z , and t h e on e who c a u s e d h i s d e a th th r o u g h t r e a c h e r y . To t h e le a d e r o f t h e "Army o f t h e N o r th e a st,* * G e n e r a l P a b lo G o n z a le z , t h e R e v o lu t io n w as a p r i v a t e b o n a n z a . C u p id it y w as h i s d o m in a tin g t r a i t . H e, n o t th e Z a p a t i s t a s , a c h ie v e d t h e c o m p le te r u i n o f M o r e lo s . Z a p a ta * s w a r fa r e had h a l t e d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l in d u s t r y u n d er t h e o l d h a c ie n d a s y s te m . B u t i t w as P a b lo G o n z a le z , s e n t b y C a rra n za t o p u t down Z a p a ta , who s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r i f l e d e v e r y s u g a r h a c ie n d a . C ynam os, t h e c o p p e r l i n i g n o f t h e v a t s / a n y t h i n g c o n v e r t i b l e i n t o c a s h , h e rem oved and s o l d f o r h i s own a c c o u n t . The k i l l i n g o f Z a p a ta i n 1 9 1 8 f u r t h e r r e v e a l s him and h i s t y p e . H is r e p u t a t i o n a s " th e g e n e r a l who n e v e r won a v i c t o r y , " w as w e l l d e s e r v e d . Commanding th o u s a n d s h e had no c h a n ce i n a f a i r f i g h t a g a i n s t Z a p a ta ’ s h u n d re d s on t h e i r own t e r r a i n . So he r e s o r t e d t o t h e c l a s s i c M ex ica n m i l i t a r y m e t h o d - t r e a c h e r y .1 ^ 16 S . G r u e n in g , o p . c i t . , p. 3 1 0 . Z a p a ta w as k i l l e d by C o lo n e l J e s u s M. G u a ja r d o , who w it h e i g h t h u n d red f o l l o w e r s p r e te n d e d t o d e s e r t t o t h e sta n d a r d o f t h e r e b e l g e n e r a l . Z a p a ta o r d e r e d G u ajard o t o c a p tu r e t h e v i l l a g e o f J o n a c a t e p e c . The c o l o n e l d id s o a n d , t o add a f l o u r i s h , h a d e v e r y p r i s o n e r s h o t u n d er h i s own comm ands. C o m p le te ly won o v e r , Z a p a ta e n t e r e d h i s camp w ith a few men and w as s h o t b y t h e s o l d i e r s a s t h e y p r e te n d e d t o g i v e him m i l i t a r y h o n o r s . Z a p a ta had k e p t t h e a g r a r ia n i d e a l o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a l i v e f o r s e v e n y e a r s and w as u n d o u b te d ly t h e s t r o n g e s t I n d i v i d u a l i n f l u e n c e i n s h a p - 17 in g t h e f i n a l r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i c i e s o f h i s h o m ela n d . S a t u r n in e C e d i l l o w as a n o th e r l e a d e r o f t h e a g r a r ia n m ovem ent, l e a d in g t h e f o r c e s o f r e v o l t i n S an L u is P o t o s i . He i s a f u l l - b l o o d e d I n d ia n and h i s a im s w ere s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f Z a p a ta . He r e m a in e d a j e f e d e o p e r a c io n e a u n d er O bregdn and C a l l e s an d w as e l e v a t e d t o t h e ra n k o f S e c r e t a r y o f A g r ic u lt u r e u n d e r P r e s i d e n t C a r d e n a s. D i f f e r e n c e s in p o l i c y , s a i d t o b e c a u s e d b y C e d i l l o * s i n c r e a s i n g tr e n d to w a rd p e r s o n a l d i c t a t o r s h i p i n h i s own s t a t e , l e d t o h i s r e s i g n a t i o n from t h e C a b in e t d u r in g A u g u s t, 1 9 3 7 . T h ere w e re many l e a d e r s i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n who w ere b a n d it s p u r e a n d s im p le , a lt h o u g h a l l o f them hung o u t t h e b a n n e r o f L i b e r t y . P e r h a p s t h e k i n g - p i n o f 17 D. G. M agana, " H m ilia n o Z a p a ta y l a T e n d e n c ia S o c i a l d e l a t r e v o l c c io n ," N u e s tr a M e x ic o , N ovem ber, 19 3 E . 73 t h e b a n d it s w as B o r o te o A r a n g o , known t o th e w o r ld a s P an ch o V i l l a . He r o s e t o trem em dous p o w er , b u t e v id e n c e i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e w as a m o ro n ic d e g e n e r a t e w it h j u s t en ou gh k in d ly im p u ls e s m ix ed i n w it h h i s sa d is m t o h a v e draw n som e m en t o h i s s t a n d a r d , i d e o l o g i c a l l y h i s i n f l u e n c e i n t u r n in g t h e r e v o l u t i o n tow ard a d e f i n i t e c o u r s e w as l i g h t . When h e a c k n o w le d g e d C arran za a s f i r s t c h i e f o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t army h e a g r e e d t h a t t h e e v i l s o f t h e c o u n tr y sp r a n g from th e i n j u s t i c e s o f t h e r i c h a g a i n s t t h e p o o r and from la n d and c l e r i c a l a b u s e s . G e n e r a l p r o m is e s w ere made t o r i g h t t h e w ron gs o f t h e c o u n t r y , and t o w ork f o r a j u s t a p p o r t io n m ent o f la n d . T h e se p a l l i a t i v e s w ere t h e u s u a l o n e s , h o w ev e r; no d e f i n i t e t e c h n iq u e s w ere w ork ed o u t and i n c o r p o r a te d i n t h e a g r e e m e n t. The f o r c e s t h a t c a u s e d and c o n tin u e d th e R e v o lu t io n f o r t e n y e a r s may b e su m m arized q u i t e s im p ly . D e s ir e f o r p o l i t i c a l r e fo r m w as on e o f t h e u r g e s . S e l f i s h d e s i r e s o f tw o t y p e s k e p t t h e f i g h t i n g a l i v e f o r many u n n e c e s s a r y y e a r s and l e d t o t h e u s e l e s s s l a u g h t e r o f th o u s a n d s o f i n n o c e n t s . T h e se tw o d e s i r e s w ere m i l i t a r y a m b it io n s and t h e w is h f o r u n tram m eled b a n d it r y . The m o st p o w e r fu l c a u s e , and t h e one t h a t f i n a l l y becam e d o m in a n t, w as t h e g e n u in e d e s i r e t o b e t t e r t h e n a t i o n and th e l o t o f f o r g o t t e n I n d i a n s . F or t h e f i r s t tim e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f th e n a t i o n t h e r e w ere men and f o r c e s a t w ork f o r h o n e s t , 74 h u m a n ita r ia n r e a s o n s . X I I . POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RESULTS OP THE REVOLUTION M e n tio n h a s b e e n m ade o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e R e v o lu t io n w as a c h a o t i c s u r g e o f f o r c e s f o r a l a r g e p a r t o f i t s t e n - y e a r d u r a t io n . G r a d u a lly o u t o f t h e m a r c h in g and c o u n t e r m a r c h in g , t h e c o n s t a n t s h e l l i n g , f i g h t i n g , s n i p i n g , e x e c u t i n g , r a i d i n g , and d e s t r u c t i o n b e g a n t o come a m ore d e f i n i t e p u r p o s e ; a c lo u d a t f i r s t no b ig g e r th a n a m an’ s hand b eg a n t o m a t e r i a l i z e . The s i t u a t i o n may b e l ik e n e d t o t h a t o f a man b e s e t b y h o r d e s o f m o s q u it o e s . A t f i r s t h e s l a p s v i g o r o u s ly b u t f u t i l e l y a t t h e i n s e c t s , t h e n h e e r e c t s p r o t e c t i v e n e t s and b u i l d s sm udge f i r e s . L a s t l y h e s e a r c h e s f o r t h e b r e e d in g gro u n d o f t h e d i p t e r a e and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y d r a in s i t , t h u s r e m o v in g t h e c a u s e o f t h e a n n o y a n c e . A s th e g e n e r a l s th u n d e r e d a t e a c h o t h e r , m ore and m ore t h i n k e r s d e v o t e d t h e m s e lv e s t o f i n d i n g t h e m o t iv e s f o r w h ic h t h e s o l d i e r s w ere f i g h t i n g . H u n d red s o f th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le w ere on t h e m ove and a s t h e y saw new p l a c e s and t a l k e d w it h d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s th e y sh e d t h e i r o ld fo lk w a y s and becam e r e c e p t i v e t o new t h o u g h t s and i d e a s . L e a d e r s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m ovem en ts s c a t t e r e d t o a l l t h e p o l i t i c a l and a r t i s t i c c a p i t a l s o f t h e w o r ld and fo r m u la te d t h e i r a im s i n te r m s o f o r g a n iz e d s o c i o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g .^ 8 18 A n it a B r e n n e r , o p . c i t •, p. 3 2 9 . 75 The a r t o f p ro p a g a n d a dem anded t h a t e a c h g ro u p t e l l s u c c i n c t l y and c o n v i n c in g l y f o r w h at i t s t o o d . Mo lo n g e r th e em pty c h a n t o f freed o m and l i b e r t y w a s e n o u g h . A t o n e tim e t h r e e g r o u p s h ad r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n Mew Y ork t r y i n g t o sw ay t h e s e n t im e n t o f o f f i c i a l A m erica a s w e l l a s t h a t o f t h e i r IQ own p e o p l e . * A s th e f i g h t i n g c o n t in u e d y e a r a f t e r y e a r t h e t e n o r o f t h e c a t c h - p h r a s e s s u b t l y c h a n g e d . The im p a c t o f Z a p a ta and h i s h o r d e s made a l l M e x ic o la n d and I n d ia n c o n s c i o u s . A n t i c l e r i c a l s , who had fo r m e r ly h ad an a u d ie n c e from i n t e l l i g e n t a g n o s t i c s o n l y , fo u n d new h e a r e r s among t h e I n d ia n s who had f o r y e a r s b e e n k e p t w e l l i n c h e c k by v i l l a g e p r i e s t s . The c l e r g y h ad t h r e a t e n e d them w it h l a c k o f r a i n , h e l l - f i r e from t h e v o l c a n o e s , o r e x c o m m u n ic a tio n from t h e ch u rch i f t h e y l i s t e n e d t o h e r e t i c a l t a l k . G e n e r a ls made i t a p r a c t i c e t o s t a b l e t h e i r h o r s e s i n c h u r c h e s o r t o g a r r i s o n t h e i r men i n c a t h e d r a l s , a f t e r f i r s t s h o o t in g up t h e ew a g es 20 t o c o n v in c e t h e men t h a t f i r e w ou ld n o t d e s c e n d from h e a v e n . I t w as n o t d i f f i c u l t t o make a n t i c l e r i c a l s o f th e t s o l d i e r s o n c e t h e i r s u p e r s t i t i o u s f e a r w as r em o v ed , f o r many M e x ic a n s had h a te d th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f M oth er C hurch f o r c e n t u r i e s w it h o u t d o u b tin g t h e dogm as o f t h e c h u r c h i t s e l f . 19 E d it h O 'S h a u g n e s s y , "P rop agan d a a s th e F i n e s t o f A r t s and t h e M ost E x p e n s iv e ," I n t im a t e P a g e s o f M ex ica n H i s t o r y , C h a p ter X I I I . 20 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 1 3 f f . C a r le to n B e a l s , o p . c i t T , p . 2 8 5 . O th er e v e n t s h a r d e n e d t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s i n t o c o n c r e t e g o a l s t h a t c o u ld b e u n d e r s to o d b y a l i i A n t i im p e r ia lis m had b e e n b r e a th e d by M e x ic a n w r i t e r s f o r y e a r s , b u t m ean t n o t h in g t o t h e p e o n , who had m ore im m ed ia te p r o b le m s . W hen, h o w e v e r , i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f i g h t i n g th e U n ite d S t a t e s w as drawn i n t o t h e im b r o g lio , a n t i i m p e r i a l is m 2 1 . becam e p a r t o f th e n a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g . T h o u sa n d s o f M e x ic a n s w ere c h a s e d th r o u g h t h e b u r n in g d e s e r t s and moun t a i n s o f C h ih uah ua by P e r s h in g ’ s r e l e n t l e s s c a v a lr y m e n . M en, women, an d c h i ld r e n le a r n e d t h a t t h e b o g e y o f t h e " C o lo s s u s o f t h e N o rth " w as t o be t a k e n s e r i o u s l y when t h e s h i p s o f t h e U n it e d S t a t e s N avy hammered V eraC ru z i n t o su b m i s s i o n a f t e r k i l l i n g m ore th a n tw o h u n d red d e f e n d e r s . A la r g e number o f t h e s e d e f e n d e r s w ere n a v a l c a d e t s and t h e y im m e d ia te ly e n t e r e d th e P a n th e o n o f n a t i o n a l h e r o e s a lo n g w ith t h e "boy h e r o e s " o f M ex ico C i t y ’ s m i l i t a r y s c h o o l who h ad d ie d d e f e n d in g C h a p u lte p e c C a s t i l e a g a i n s t t h e a s s a u l t o f G e n e r a l W in f ie ld S c o t t ’ s t r o o p s i n 1 8 4 8 . M ex ica n h i s t o r i a n s had n e v e r f o r g o t t h a t t h e U n it e d S t a t e s to o k f i v e - e ig h t h s o f M e x ic o ’ s t e r r i t o r y away from h e r . Now a s t h e y rem in d p e o p le a g a in and a g a in o f t h i s f a c t t h e y ju d g e th e b u en v e c i n o , o r g o o d n e ig h b o r , p o l i c y i n t h e l i g h t o f t h a t h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . By 1917 t h e r e had grow n up a g ro u p o f t h in k e r s who w ere b e c o m in g m ore and m ore u n i f i e d and who H. I . P r i e s t l e y , The M ex ica n N a t i o n , p . 347* 77 w ere b a c k e d by m ore and m ore c o m r a d e s. IV . THE CONSTITUTION OF 1917 The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1917 w as r e m a r k a b le i n many w a y s . I t w a s r e m a r k a b le i n t h a t i t saw t h e l i g h t o f d a y d u r in g th e r e g im e o f C a r r a n z a , f o r i t w as t h e a n t i t h e s e s o f t h e a c t i o n s o f t h a t o p p o r t u n i s t . I t w as f u r t h e r r e m a r k a b le t h a t su c h a l i b e r a l docum ent and on e s o w e l l th o u g h t o u t and o r g a n iz e d c o u ld come o u t o f t h e w e l t e r o f th e r e v o l u t i o n . C l e a r - c u t t h in k in g w as a t l a s t b e in g b o rn i n M e x ic o . The s m a ll g ro u p who f i n a l l y fra m ed t h e docum ent o n F e b r u a r y 5 , 1 9 1 7 , d id a d e a l o f sc h e m in g t o g e t c e r t a i n a r t i c l e s in c lu d e d t h a t w ou ld r e a l l y l e a d t o s o c i a l r e a l i s m . A s m a ll r a d i c a l g rou p i n t h e a s s e m b ly c o n s e n te d t o g i v e C a r ra n za a l l s o r t s o f p o l i t i c a l a d v a n ta g e s s o lo n g a s t h e y c o u ld su p p le m e n t C a r r a n z a ’ s d r a f t o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n w it h c e r t a i n a g r a r ia n and la b o r r e f o r m s , t h a t t h e y th o u g h t j u s t l y , th e r e v o l u t i o n d em a n d ed .22 The l e s s o n s t h a t had b e e n le a r n e d w it h s o much b i t t e r n e s s and b lo o d s h e d d u r in g s e v e n y e a r s o f f i g h t i n g a t l a s t w e re b e in g a p p l i e d . E ach a r t i c l e r e p r e s e n t e d th e d e a th o f th o u s a n d s o f men and women. Z a p a ta , an d h u n d r e d s o f M e x ic a n s k i l l e d f i g h t i n g f o r and a g a i n s t h im , d ie d t o g i v e r e a l i t y t o t h e a r t i c l e s on la n d r e fo r m and th e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e common 90 J . V a s c o n c e lo s , "A M e x ic a n ’ s P o in t o f View,** M e x ic o , p . 1 3 0 . 78 23 m an. O th er th o u s a n d s d ie d a s a r e s u l t o f b a t t l e s s t i r r e d up b y p r i e s t s t o v i n d i c a t e t h e i r r i g h t s or b y p r i e s t - b a i t e r s who l e d t h e i r f o l l o w e r s i n t o t h e c h u r c h e s and m u rd ered c l e r i c s and t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s . f,I t i s d e d ic a t e d t o t h e r u l e 24 o f r e a s o n and t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , n s a y s P r i e s t l y . I t i s d e d ic a t e d t o many o t h e r t h i n g s , b u t a b o v e a l l i t i s d e d i c a te d t o t h e b o y h e r o e s o f 1 8 4 8 and t o t h e m i l l i o n s who A h a v e d ie d n e e d l e s s l y a s a s a c r i f i c e t o t h e tw in g o d s o f G reed and Ig n o r a n c e * N o t o n ly i s t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a n t i - r e l i g i o u s , o r m ore c o r r e c t l y s p e a k in g a n t i - c l e r i c a l ; i t i s a l s o a n t i - f o r e i g n and a n t i - m o n o p o l i s t i c , and i t e m b o d ie s t h e t h e o r y o f s o c i a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e e x h a u s t iv e w ay i n w h ic h i t a t t e m p t s t o p r o t e c t t h e la b o r in g c l a s s e s and f o r e s t a l l a l l i t s d i f f i c u l t i e s . I t i s i n f a c t an a tte m p t t o i n s t i t u t e a r e g im e o f s t a t e s o c i a l i s m . 25 The h ig h p o i n t s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 917 may be 26 su m m arized a s f o l l o w s : A g r a r ia n r e fo r m , an a tte m p t t o p r o v id e la n d f o r th e p e o p l e , A r t i c l e 2 7 . The p r o v i s i o n s f o r b e t t e r i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f la b o r w ere in c o r p o r a t e d i n A r t i c l e s 4 , 5 , and 1 2 3 . D u r in g th e pix I n i s F . D e l Compo, wI a Q u e r e lla de l o s C o n s t it u y - e n te s,* * jfu tu r o , J u l i o d e 1 9 3 6 . 24 H. P r i e s t l y , o £ . o i t . , p. 4 3 6 . 25 I b i d . , p. 3 6 4 . 26 h . N . B r a n c h , The M ex ica n C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 9 1 7 , Compared w it h t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 8 5 7 . p a s s im . 79 p a s t tw o o r t h r e e y e a r s A r t i c l e 123 h a s becom e m ore and m ore im p o r ta n t. I t p r o v id e d t h a t la r g e h a c ie n d a s an d in d u s t r i e s m u st f u r n i s h s c h o o l s , from t h e i r own b u d g e t s , f o r th e c h i ld r e n o f t h e i r la b o r e r s * C hurch l e g i s l a t i o n becam e much m ore s t r i n g e n t . The c h i e f a r t i c l e s aim ed a t t h e C hurch w ere A r t i c l e s 3 , 5 , 24* sind 1 3 0 . A r t i c l e 3 i s tr e m e n d o u s ly im p o r ta n t a s i t i s t h e t u r n in g p o in t i n t h e new s c h o o l s y s te m . I t made e d u c a t io n l a y , c u m p u ls o r y , and f r e e . The C hurch w as fo r b id d e n t o h a v e s c h o o l s , and a l l p r i v a t e s c h o o l s w e r e p ia c e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e S t a t e . T h is a r t i c l e w as r e v i s e d i n 1 9 3 3 s o a s t o in c lu d e t h e w ord S o c i a l i s t i c and becam e t h e f o u n d a t io n o f t h e p r e s e n t s c h o o ls * Suprem e c o u r t h e a r in g s w ere made p u b l i c and j u d i c i a l r e fo r m s w ere m ade i n A r t i c l e s 1 6 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 9 4 , 9 8 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 7 . A r t i c l e 28 a b o l i s h e d m o n o p o lie s and e x e m p tio n s from t a x a t i o n . F o r e ig n e r s w ere f o r b id d e n e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s i n A r t i c l e 3 3 . A p u b l i c h e a l t h s e r v i c e w as c r e a t e d b y A r t i c l e 7 3 . G overnm ent w ork w as t o be on a b a s i s o f c o m p e t it iv e b id d i n g , b id s t o b e op en ed p u b l i c l y . A r t i c l e 1 3 4 . A r t i c l e 8 3 p r o v id e d t h a t t h e p r e s i d e n t s h o u ld b e e l e c t e d f o r a te r m o f fo u r y e a r s w it h no r e e l e c t i o n . A r t i c l e 27 a f f ir m e d t h e g o v ern m en t o w n e r sh ip o f m in e r a ls and a l l s u b - s o i l r i g h t s . V . RESULTS OF THE CONSTITUTION ON EDUCATION T h is c o n s t i t u t i o n w as s o a d v a n c e d t h a t C a rra n za d e c la r e d a p r e - C o n s t i t u t i o n a l p e r io d and a ssu m ed d i c t a t o r i a l p o w e r s . P e r s o n a l a g g r a n d iz e m e n t w as t h e k e y n o te o f th e C a r ra n za r e g im e . The tim e o f i n d i v i d u a l e n r ic h m e n t w as now p a s t an d p e o p le i m p a t i e n t ly d e p o s e d t h e w o u ld -b e d i c t a t o r . A lv a r o O bregon t o o k o f f i c e D ecem ber 1* 1920 and im m e d ia te ly b e g a n t o p u t p r o v i s i o n s o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n i n t o e f f e c t . Land w a s d i s t r i b u t e d and t h e s y s te m o f r u r a l s c h o o l s t h a t w as so o n t o c o v e r M e x ic o had b e g u n . l o s e V a s c o n c e lo s b e g a n an a m b it io u s program t h a t sh ow ed r e s u l t s from t h e f i r s t . U n der h i s d i r e c t i o n w as b u i l t t h e g r e a t S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n t h a t i s to d a y i n e v e r y t o u r i s t ’ s i t i n e r a r y . He u n d e r to o k t o s h i f t t h e n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n from b u l l f i g h t i n g t o s p o r t s , and i n p u r s u a n c e o f t h i s aim had a tre m en d o u s c o lis e u m b u i l t i n M e x ic o C i t y . H is t h i r d p r o j e c t w as t h e N a t i o n a l N orm al S c h o o l t h a t i s to d a y o n e o f t h e u p - t o - d a t e t r a i n i n g s c h o o l s o f t h e w o r ld . I n 1 9 2 1 t h e e d u c a t i o n a l b u d g e t w as 1 2 ,2 9 6 ,2 6 5 p e s o s ; In 1 9 2 2 i t jum ped t o 4 9 ,8 2 6 ,7 1 6 p e s o s , and in 1 9 2 3 i t w a s b u i l t up t o 5 2 ,3 6 2 ,9 1 3 .5 0 p e s o s . The military element n ow felt itse lf definitely out o r t h e l i m e l i g h t and s t a r t e d a r e v o l t t h a t l a s t e d o n ly r o u r m o n th s, y e t w as o n e t h a t p r o s t r a t e d t h e c o u n t r y . F lu t a r c o E l i a s C a l l e s t o o k o v e r t h e p r e s id e n c y D ecem ber l f 1 9 2 4 , w it h an em p ty t r e a s u r y and m i l l i o n s o r p e s o s o r u n p a id d e b t s and s a l a r i e s o u t s t a n d in g . " M o r a liz a t io n o f t h e govern m en t" becam e h i s w atch w ord and h e r i g o r o u s l y p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e a l l t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n p o s s i b l e . C a l l e s w as known a s t h e " ir o n man" o f M e x ic o and h e i t r w a s who p u t t h e a n t i c l e r i c a l c l a u s e s t o w o rk . The m i l i t a r y r e v o l u t i o n c r ip p le d t h e e d u c a t i o n a l b e g in n in g s s o t h a t t h e b u d g e t f o r e d u c a t io n d r o p p ed t o 2 1 ,5 6 8 ,5 7 5 .4 1 p e s o s , i n 1 9 2 5 , came up t o 2 2 ,4 3 4 ,9 2 5 .9 6 p e s o s on 192 6 and d ro p p ed a g a in t o 2 0 ,0 3 6 ,7 0 8 .8 3 p e s o s on 1 9 2 7 . From 1927 u n t i l 1 9 3 0 , t h e g o v ern m en t and t h e s c h o o l s w ere h a r r ie d by t h e C r i s t e r o s , " f o l l o w e r s o f C h r i s t ," who b u rn ed s c h o o l s and m u t i l a t e d s c h o o l t e a c h e r s w h en ev e r p o s s i b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e r u r a l s c h o o l t h r o v e , f o r i t w as t h e n a t u r a l a n sw er t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e p e o p l e . D u r in g t h e f i r s t e i g h t m o n th s o f C a lle s * p r e s id e n c y t h e r u r a l s c h o o l s in c r e a s e d b y an a d d i t i o n a l 1 * 0 0 0 . By 1 9 3 4 , t h e r e w e r e e i g h t th o u sa n d r u r a l s c h o o l s • * T i n M e x ic o and t h e p la n o f Q u e r e te r o p r o m ise d tw o th o u sa n d a n n u a lly f o r t h e y e a r s 1 9 3 5 ,1 9 3 6 , 1 9 3 7 , and 1 9 3 8 and t h r e e th o u sa n d i n t h e y e a r 1 9 3 9 .27 27 l u i s P o n to n , S a n c h e z H a c ia l a E s c u e la S o c i a i s t a , p . 215* 82 V I . SUM M ARY The R e v o lu t io n c o n v in c e d t h e M ex ica n p e o p le t h a t t h e y c o u ld h a v e la n d * l i b e r t y and s c h o o l s i f t h e y c o n t in u e d t o f i g h t an d s t r u g g l e lo n g e n o u g h . The C o n s t i t u t i o n em erged s l o w l y th r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s o f a few men and w as a dummy in s tr u m e n t i n t h e m in d s o f m o st o f t h e p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s o f t h e t i m e . The p e o p le so o h show ed* h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e y w ere th r o u g h w it h p l a t i t u d e s and p h r a s e s ; t h e s p e e d w it h w h ic h t h e y d is p o s e d o f C a r ra n za sh ow ed t h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d t o h a v e t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n e n f o r c e d . O bregon e n f o r c e d t h e c l a u s e s h a v in g t o do w it h la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e e r e c t i o n o f r u r a l s c h o o l s w it h th e g r e a t e s t v i g o r , s c h o o l s w ere s t a r t e d e a g e r l y , h a p h a z a r d ly , e v e n e x p e r i m e n t a ll y . N o th in g w as m ore p o p u la r th a n c a s a s d e l p u e b lo , h o u s e s o f t h e p e o p le . The m i l i t a r y r e v o l u t i o n t h a t sp r a n g up a t th e end o f O b regon *s te r m w as q u ic k ly c r u s h e d , sh o w in g a g a in t h a t t h e p e o p le w ere n e v e r a g a in g o in g t o r e t u r n t o t h e d a y s w hen t h e w him s o f a fe w men c o u ld o v e r th r o w t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y . C a l l e s a llo w e d t h e la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n t o l a g b e c a u s e h e w as n o t p e r s o n a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h a t p h a s e . He d id n o t k e e p up t h e s c h o o l p rogram t h a t had b e e n s t a r t e d b y O bregon a lth o u g h h e had s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r a s a s c h o o l t e a c h e r i n S o n o r a . He w as i n t e r e s t e d i n c o m p le t e ly b r e a k in g t h e r e m a in in g p ow er o f t h e c h u r c h . C a l l e s c le a n e d up t h e 83 g o v e r n m e n t, s t a r t e d a v a s t r o a d - b u ild in g p ro g ra m , and b r o u g h t t h e army up t o d a t e . He w a s , h o w e v e r , d i s t a n t l y a k in t o D fa z i n t h a t h e w as m ore i n t e r e s t e d in M e x ic o th a n i n th e M e x ic a n s . When t h e c o n v e n t io n o f t h e P .N .R . , p a r t id a n a c i o n a l r e v o l u c i o n a r i o , m et i n Q u e r e te r o t o fram e t h e S ix -Y e a r P la n t h a t I a z a r o C a rd en a s w as t o c a r r y o u t a s p r e s i d e n t t h e y w e re i n t h e mood t o h a v e a l l t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n e n f o r c e d . The s u r g e o f t h e R e v o lu t io n had c o n t in u e d and t h e n a t i o n m ore th a n e v e r b e l i e v e d i n t h e i d e a l s o f la n d , l i b e r t y an d s c h o o l s f o r a l l . T hey had a d o p te d a s lo g a n t h a t w as s w e e p in g th e n a t io n : m ore th a n e d u c a r e s r e d im i r , t o e d u c a te i s t o r ed ee m . The p e o p le a t l a s t had l e a d e r s who r e p r e s e n t e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . T h e se l e a d e r s p r o c e e d e d t o d r a f t a p la n t h a t t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a t e w as a s k e d t o s u b s c r ib e t o b e f o r e h e w as g i v e n t h e n o m in a tio n o f t h e p a r t y . When C a rd en a s s u b s c r ib e d t o th e P la n o f Q u e r e te r o and t o o k o f f i c e t h e c h i e f o b j e c t i v e o f h i s a d m i n is t r a t i o n w as t o fo u n d and s u p p o r t t h e S o c i a l i s t i c S c h o o l o f M e x ic o , a t a s k t h a t w as t o r e q u ir e a p p r o x im a te ly o n e - f i f t h o f t h e n a t i o n a l b u d g e t f o r h i s s i x - y e a r te r m . CHAPTER XV THE PHILOSOPHY OP SOCIALIST EDUCATION The b a s i s o f t h e M ex ica n S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l o f t o d a y i s t h e fam ous A r t i c l e 5 a s r e v i s e d b y t h e C o n v e n tio n o f t h e P.N.-R* a t ^ u e r e t e r o i n O c to b e r , 1 9 3 3 . A r t i c l e 3 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1917 r e a d s : I n s t r u c t i o n i s f r e e ; t h a t g i v e n i n p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g s h a l l b e s e c u l a r . P rim a ry i n s t r u c t i o n , w h e th e r h ig h e r o r lo w e r , g i v e n i n p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s , s h a l l l i k e w i s e b e s e c u l a r . P r i v a t e p r im a r y s c h o o l s may b e e s t a b l i s h e d o n ly s u b j e c t t o o f f i c i a l s u p e r v i s i o n . P r im a r y i n s t r u c t i o n i n pub l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s s h a l l be g r a t u i t o u s . 1 U nder t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s a r t i c l e , e d u c a t io n i n M e x ic o c o n t in u e d t o im p r o v e , b u t i t to o k on t h e c h a r a c t e r o f e a c h S e c r e t a r y o f P u b li c E d u c a tio n , s o t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l s t y l e s m arked t h e s c h o o l s s t r o n g l y . One c e n t r a l them e w h ic h may b e n o te d i n t h e s c h o o l s a f t e r 1 9 1 7 , i s s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e g ro u p r a t h e r th a n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f i n d iv i d u a l is m . The e f f e c t o f Joh n Dewey w as f e l t f o r a num ber o f y e a r s i n th e " s c h o o ls o f a c t i o n . n T h ere w as a l s o t h e p e r io d o f t h e c a s a d e l p u e b lo , t h e h o u se o f t h e p e o p l e , when a d u l t e d u c a t i o n r e c e i v e d a s t r o n g im p e tu s . The " o p en a i r s c h o o l ," w it h i t s s t r o n g sw in g to w a r d s p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n , f o l lo w e d th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f v i t a l i s & o . o r b e h a v io r is m . I n a l l o f t h i s e x p e r im e n t a l e d u c a t io n t h e e d u c a t o r s t h e m s e lv e s fo r m u la te d H. N. B r a h c h , The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1857 Com pared w ith t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 9 1 7 . 8 5 t h e i r t h e o r i e s and p la n n e d t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n . I . SOCIALISM BECOMES CONSTITUTIONAL IN MEXICO The c o n v e n in g o f t h e p a r t id o n a c i o n a l r e v o l u c i o n a r i o a t Q u e r e te r o b r o u g h t i n t o b e in g a c o n c e p t new t o M e x ic o . T h a t w as t h e fr a n k b e l i e f t h a t e d u c a t io n i s t h e m on op oly o f a l l t h e p e o p le o f t h e s t a t e , n o t o f a g r o u p , w h e th e r t h a t g ro u p b e o f t h e C hurch o r o f t h e b od y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l ed u c a t o r s . A g a in t h e y w e n t b a c k t o a m a t e r i a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y and p o in t e d o u t t h a t e d u c a t io n h a s a lw a y s b e e n o r ie n t e d b y t h e d o m in a n t c l a s s e s , t h a t I t h a s a tte m p te d t o m old t h e human b e in g i n t o t h e i d e a l o f t h e p e r i o d * and t h a t t h e b a s i s o f e d u c a t io n i n a l l a g e s h a s b e e n e c o n o m ic . T h e r e f o r e , t h e m em bers o f t h e c o n v e n t io n d e te r m in e d , from t h e s t a n d p o in t o f la y m en and l e g i s l a t o r s , w hat t h e aim s and l i m i t s o f e d u c a t io n s h o u ld b e . T hey am ended A r t i c l e 3 t o r e a d : A r t i c l e 3 . The e d u c a t io n im p a r te d b y t h e S t a t e s h a l l b e a s o c i a l i s t i c o n e , and i n a d d i t i o n t o e x c lu d in g a l l r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e , s h a l l com bat f a n a t i c i s m and p r e j u d i c e s b y o r g a n iz in g i t s i n s t r u c t i o n and a c t i v i t i e s i n a way t h a t s h a l l p e r m it t h e c r e a t i o n i n y o u th o f an e x a c t and r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t o f t h e U n iv e r s e and o f s o c i a l l i f e . O nly t h e S t a t e — F e d e r a t io n , S t a t e s , M u n i c i p a l i t i e s — s h a l l im p a r t p r im a r y , s e c o n d a r y , and n o rm a l e d u c a t i o n . A u t h o r iz a t i o n may b e c o n c e d e d t o i n d i v i d u a l s who d e s i r e t o im p a r t e d u c a t io n i n a n y o f t h e a f o r e m e n tio n e d t h r e e l e v e l s i n c o n f o r m it y , i n e v e r y c a s e , w it h t h e f o l l o w i n g n o rm s. 1 . The t e a c h i n g s ,a n d a c t i v i t i e s o f p r i v a t e p l a n t s m u st a d j u s t t h e m s e lv e s w it h o u t e x c e p t i o n t o t h a t i n d i c a t e d in t h e i n i t i a l p a r a g r a p h o f t h i s A r t i c l e and s h a l l be i n c h a r g e o f p e r s o n s w h o, i n t h e o p in io n o f t h e S t a t e , s h a l l h a v e s u f f i c i e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t io n and a m o r a l i t y and id e o lo g y t h a t i s s u i t a b l e t o and i n k e e p in g w it h t h i s p r e c e p t . I n v ie w o f t h i s , r e l i g i o u s c o r p o r a t i o n s , t h e m in is t e r s o f c u l t s , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h ic h p r e f e r a b ly o r e x c l u s i v e l y c a r r y on e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , and t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s o r s o c i e t i e s bound d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e p ro p a g a n d a o f a r e l i g i o u s c r e e d s h a l l i n no w ay in t e r v e n e i n p r im a r y , s e c o n d a r y , o r n o rm a l s c h o o l s , n o r s h a l l t h e y b e p e r m it t e d t o a s s i s t t h e s e f i n a n c i a l l y . I I . The fo r m a tio n o f p l a n s , p rogram m es, and m eth o d s o f t e a c h i n g s h a l l i n e v e r y c a s e r e s t i n t h e S t a t e . I I I . P r i v a t e p l a n t s s h a l l n o t b e p e r m it t e d t o f u n c t i o n w it h o u t f i r s t , and i n e a c h c a s e , h a v in g o b t a in e d t h e e x p r e s s a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c p o w e r . IV . The S t a t e may a t a n y tim e r e v o k e th e a u t h o r i z a t i o n g r a n te d ( t o p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) . T h e r e s h a l l b e no ju d gm en t o r r e c o u r s e w h a ts o e v e r a g a i n s t su c h r e v o c a t i o n . The same norm s s h a l l g o v e r n t h e e d u c a t io n o f w h a te v e r ty p e o r g r a d e t h a t i s im p a r te d t o w o r k e r s o f p e a s a n t s . P r im a r y e d u c a t io n s h a l l b e o b l i g a t o r y , and t h e S t a t e s h a l l im p a r t i t g r a t u i t o u s l y . The S t a t e m ay, a t i t s d i s c r e t i o n and a t an y t im e , w ith d ra w r e c o g n i t i o n o f o f f i c i a l v a l i d i t y t o t h e s t u d i e s made i n p r i v a t e p l a n t s . The C o n g r e ss o f t h e U n io n , i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f u n i f y i n g and c o - o r d i n a t i n g e d u c a t io n th r o u g h o u t th e R e p u b lic , s h a l l p r o m u lg a te t h e n e c e s s a r y la w s d e s t i n e d t o d i s t r i b u t e th e s o c i a l e d u c a t iv e f u n c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e F e d e r a t io n and t h e S t a t .e s and M u n ic i p a l i t i e s , t o f i x t h e f i n a n c i a l a p p o r tio n m e n ts c o r r e s p o n d in g t o t h a t p u b l i c s e r v i c e , and t o i n d i c a t e t h e s a n c t i o n s [ p e n a l t i e s ] a p p l i c a b l e t o t h o s e f u n c t i o n a r i e s who do n o t com p ly w i t h , o r f o r c e 8 ? c o m p lia n c e t o , t h e r e s p e c t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s , a s w e l l a s t o a l l t h o s e who v i o l a t e th e m .2 S o new w as t h i s l i n e o f th o u g h t and s o d e f i n i t e l y aim ed a t th e C a t h o lic C hurch t h a t i t r a i s e d an im m ed ia te sto r m o f p r o t e s t from t h e c l e r g y . The Chamber o f D e p u t ie s d e h a te d t h e c h a n g e f o r a w e e k , e v e n c o n s i d e r in g a m o tio n t o s u b s t i t u t e t h e w ord " m a r x is t" f o r " s o c i a l i s t b u t o n O c to b e r 1 0 , v o t e d u n a n im o u sly t o a l t e r t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n and a p p ly A r t i c l e 3 t o a l l s c h o o l s from t h e k in d e r g a r t e n t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y , l e a v i n g t h e l a t t e r a u to n o m o u s. The C a t h o lic C hurch th r e w a l l o f i t s i n f l u e n c e a g a i n s t t h e e n fo r c e m e n t o f t h e r e f o r m s . On J a n u a ry 1 7 , 1 9 3 4 , a c i r c u l a r l e t t e r w as s e n t o u t t o be r e a d i n a l l C a t h o lic c h u r c h e s on J a n u a ry 2 0 . I n t h i s l e t t e r a s c h o o l s t r i k e w as c a l l e d f o r ; o n ly p a r e n t s , C a t h o li c t e a c h e r s , and p r i e s t s w ere a c c e p t a b l e a s t e a c h e r s o f C a t h o lic c h i l d r e n . F ou r fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e s w ere em b o d ied i n t h e l e t t e r : no C a t h o li c c a n b e a S o c i a l i s t , no C a t h o lic c a n s t u d y o r t e a c h S o c i a l i s m , n o C a t h o lic ca n co n d o n e S o c i a l i s m , and no C a t h o lic c a n a p p ro v e p e d a g o g ic n a t u r a lis m o r s e x e d u c a t io n . 2 t G eorge I , S a n c h e z , t r a n s l a t o r , M e x ic o : A R e v o lu t io n by E d u c a t io n , p p . 102 f . 3 " S o c ia lis m and C a t h o lic is m i n th e M ex ica n S c h o o ls ," S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , 4 3 : 1 1 1 , J a n u a ry 2 5 , 1 9 3 6 . 8 8 I I . MEANING OF MEXICAN, OR SCIENTIFIC, SOCIALISM The p r o v i s i o n s o f A r t i c l e 3 took: e d u c a t io n o u t o f t h e f i e l d o f s p e c u l a t i v e p h ilo s o p h y and p la c e d i t i n t h e f i e l d o f a p p l ie d s c i e n c e s , i n th e t h i n k i n g o f t h e P .N .R . The P la n S e x e n a l , o r s i x - y e a r p l a n , w h ic h w as d r a f t e d a t t h e sam e t i m e , p r o v id e d f o r r e a l i s t i c r e fo r m s i n t h e f i e l d o f la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n , b e t t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , and e x p r o p r ia t io n o f h e a v y i n d u s t r i e s and t h e r e m a in in g h a c ie n d a s . The e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s w ere so c l o s e l y i n t e g r a t e d w it h t h i s program t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t im p o s s i b l e , t o draw a l i n e b e tw e e n e d u c a t io n and e co n o m ic r e fo r m . "The c h i e f i n t e r e s t o f t h e M e x ic a n g o v ern m en t i n t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s i s i n t h e f ir m e s t a b lis h m e n t o f i t s 4 m odern i d e o l o g y ," s a y s D r . M an u el R. P a l a c i o s . To t h e c r y f o r a c a d e m ic fr e e d o m th e i d e o l o g i s t s r e p l y t h a t a t n o tim e h a v e s c h o o l s o r i n d i v i d u a l s h a d fre ed o m o f t e a c h i n g o r t h o u g h t • F or p r o o f t h e y a g a in g o b a ck t o M arx and e co n o m ic d e te r m in is m . A c c o r d in g t o t h i s t h e o r y , e a c h p e r io d o f e c o nom ic s t a g e had i t s own i d e a l o f w hat t h e a d u l t s h o u ld be and e v e r y d e v ic e o f s o c i e t y i s b e n t t o m old th e c h i l d t o t h i s i d e a l* I n t h e M id d le A g e s t h e c h i e f e m p h a sis o f s o c i e t y 4 M. R. P a l a c i o s , " P r i n c i p l e s U n d e r ly in g M ex ica n E d u c a tio n ," P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a tio n , 1 2 : 8 3 , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 . 89 w as on " o t h e r w o r ld lin e s s " and a l l a g e n c ie s o f s o c i e t y w ere s u b o r d in a te d t o t h e C hurch and i t s w ork o f p r e p a r in g f o r a l i f e t o com e. T h is l i n e o f r e a s o n in g sh ow s t h a t t e a c h e r s d id n o t h a v e a c a d e m ic fr e e d o m , f o r t h e i r t h i n k i n g w as c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e S t a t e , w h ic h i n t h i s c a s e w as t h e C h u rch . I n t h e p e r io d o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e a d i f f e r e n t i d e a l w as c r e a t e d : t h a t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l who c o u ld e n r ic h h i m s e l f u n r e s t r a i n e d l y a t t h e e x p e n s e o f s o c i e t y . T h is e n r ic h m e n t c o u ld b e e c o n o m ic , r e l i g i o u s , o r c u l t u r a l . I n t h i s p e r io d t h e i n d i v i d u a l f l o u r i s h e d i n a l l f i e l d s ; L eo n a rd o Da V i n c i , i n a r t ; N i c c o l o M a c h i a v e l l i , i n p o l i t i e s ; F r a n c is D r a k e , i n t h e f i e l d o f g l o r i f i e d p i r a c y . I n t h e e r a o f c a p i t a l i s m , m on ey, p e r s e , h a s b e e n r a i s e d t o t h e p o in t o f p r im e im p or t a n c e . A s a r e s u l t , e d u c a t io n i n c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s p l a c e s i t s e m p h a sis on t r a i n i n g f o r m o n ey -m a k in g , o r some o t h e r form o f f i n a n c i a l o r m a t e r i a l s u c c e s s f o r t h e indi** v i d u a l . I n e a c h c a s e , t h e m odern M ex ica n i d e o l o g i s t r e a s o n s , t h e r e h a s b e e n n o " fr ee d o m o f t e a c h i n g ." The t e a c h e r h a s b e e n f r e e o n ly t o t e a c h i n h i s own way w h at s o c i e t y dem anded. T h ese v e r y sam e i n d i v i d u a l t e c h n iq u e s te n d t o add t o th e s t u d e n t ' s t r a i n i n g i n i n d iv i d u a l is m , w h ic h t h e S o c i a l i s t c o n s i d e r s m e r e ly a s a form o f s e l f i s h n e s s . S o c i a l i z a t i o n i s n o t an i s o l a t e d com p artm en t o f k n o w led g e t h a t ca n be t a u g h t b y i n d i v i d u a l i s t s . I t i s a m eth od o f l i v i n g t h a t m ust b e a b s o r b e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l , w h e th e r he be a d u l t o r s t u d e n t . The t e a c h e r s m u st f i r s t o f a l l he s o c i a l i z e d them s e l v e s b e f o r e t h e y ca n add t o t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c h i l d , t o a c c o m p lis h w h ic h p u r p o s e t h e y m u st form a n ed u c a t i o n a l p rogram i n a c c o r d w it h t h e s o c i a l program a s f o r m u la te d by t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a l l g r o u p s i n s o c i e t y * T h e se p ro g ra m s a r e c o o p e r a t iv e p la n s w orked o u t a s t h e r e s u l t o f s c i e n t i f i c d a t a c o l l e c t e d and a s s i m i l a t e d . T hey a r e t h e m a tu red t h i n k i n g o f l a r g e g r o u p s o f t r a i n e d men and women. Once t h e y h a v e b e e n a c c e p t e d , i t seem s t o th e S o c i a l i s t t h a t i t i s t h e d u ty o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o s tu d y t h e p rogram and f i t h i m s e l f and h i s t h i n k i n g i n t o t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . W here t h e n , h e a s k s , i s t h e r e room f o r l i b e r t y o f t e a c h i n g i f i t i m p l ie s t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l i s s o c o n c e i t e d 5 a s t o t h in k h i s own m eth o d s a r e s u p e r io r t o t h o s e o f s o c i e t y ? The s t a t e and t h e s c h o o l . The S o c i a l i s t S t a t e i s n o t C O T sid ered param oun t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a s i s th e F a s c i s t S t a t e . The S t a t e i s c o n s id e r e d i n t h e sam e l i g h t a s i s t h e b r a in i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I t d e c id e s w h a t c o u r s e t h e b od y i s t o f o l l o w and t h e n s e n d s m e s s a g e s th r o u g h t h e e f f e c t o r s t o t h e v a r io u s m em bers o f t h e b o d y . The S o c i a l i s t S t a t e i s lo o k e d up on a s a n e v o lu t io n a r y g ro w th o u t o f and b ey o n d t h e 5 T r e jo L. De T e ja d a , l a E d u c a tio n S o c i a l i s t s , p . 2 1 4 ; P la n S e x e n a l d e l P a r t i d o N a c io n a l R e v o l u c io n a r i o . p.' 18* 91 d e s p o t i c and l i b e r a l s t a t e . I n t h e d e s p o t i c S t a t e t h e mem b e r s a r e o r d e r e d a b o u t f o r t h e f i n a l g o o d , and a t t h e w him , o f on e m an, o r , a t b e s t , a s m a ll grou p o f s e l f i s h i n d i v i d u a l s . I n t h e L i b e r a l S t a t e t h e c i t i z e n s a r e g iv e n a s much fre ed o m o f c h o ic e a s p o s s i b l e . E a ch o f t h e s e S t a t e s a r e e q u a l l y p l a n l e s s and a i m l e s s , s a y t h e S o c i a l i s t s . I n t h e f i r s t t h e b l i n d d r iv e o f s e l f i s h n e s s w i l l b r u t a l i z e t h e i n d i v i d u a l m ore an d m ore u n t i l t h e n a t i o n a l m ed ia n i s s o lo w t h a t t h e n a t io n w i l l be d e s t r o y e d th r o u g h s h e e r c u m u la tiv e ig n o r a n c e . I n t h e l i b e r a l s t a t e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e i n t e l l i g e n t o r t r a i n e d w i l l s u c c e e d , b u t t h e u n t r a in e d c l a s s e s w i l l s i n k lo w e r a s t h e w h o le p o p u la t io n d id i n th e d e s p o t ic s t a t e . F i n a l l y t h e tim e w i l l come w hen t h e y w i l l lo w e r t h e c u l t u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y t o c a u s e t h e breakdow n o f t h e c o u n t r y . An A c t i v a t i n g S t a t e i s , t h e n , a n e c e s s i t y t o c a r r y o u t t h e S o c i a l i s t p rogram . T h is E s ta d o a c t u a n t e m eans m ore th a n a s t a t e t h a t m oves t o a c t i o n . I t m eans a s t a t e t h a t d i r e c t s t h e m ovem ent a c c o r d in g t o a d e f i n i t e t h e s i s . ; . • i n t h e M ex ica n r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n c e p t , t h e s t a t e i s an a c t i v e a g e n t o f m anagem ent an d d i r e c t i o n o f t h e v i t a l phenom ena o f t h e c o u n tr y ; n o t a m ere c u s t o d ia n o f n a t i o n a l i n t e g r i t y , p e a c e , and p u b l i c o r d e r .6 P la n S e x e n a l d e l P a r t id o N a c io n a l R e v o l u c io n a r i o » t r a n s l a t e d a s The M e x ica n G overnm ent * s S i x Y e a r P la n , p . 1 7 . H ere i s t h e d e f i n i t e s p l i t b e tw e e n t h e S o c i a l i s t and F a s c i s t p h ilo s o p h y . The S o c i a l i s t t h e s i s i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e c o o p e r a t iv e w ork o f s o c i o l o g i s t s an d s c i e n t i s t s , who g a t h e r 7 d a ta and a p p ly t h e la w s o f s c i e n c e t o t h e i r f i n d i n g s . A p la n i s w orked o u t f o r t h e b e tte r m e n t o f s o c i e t y , and f o r t h e b e t te r m e n t o f t h e s t a t e . The S t a t e t h e n h a s t h e d u ty o f c a r r y in g o u t t h e p rogram i n a s t r o n g , u n co m p ro m isin g m an n er. An im p o r ta n t p o i n t i s t h e b e l i e f t h a t th e g o a l s f o r s o c i e t y and f o r t h e S t a t e m u st be t h e sam e. S o c i a l i n e r t i a , w h ic h i s com pounded o f i n d i v i d u a l ig n o r a n c e , t r a d i t i o n a l i s m , a n d s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s , w i l l a t tem p t t o h o ld b a ck th e p rogram . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e S o c i a l i s t S t a t e d e p e n d s s t r o n g l y o n e d u c a t io n . The s c h o o l i s n o t a t h i n g a p a r t . I t i s a s much a t t h e c a l l o f t h e g o v ern m en t a s i s t h e arm y. The p r im a ry s c h o o l i s a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n a n d , a s s u c h , i t s t e a c h i n g s and t h e c o n d i t i o n s t o be f u l f i l l e d b y t e a c h e r s , i n o r d e r t o com p ly w it h th e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n m u st b e t h o s e s e t b y t h e s t a t e a s t h e g e n u in e and d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e p e o p le a t l a r g e ; no r i g h t b e in g c o n c e d e d t o p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s (who h a v e a f a l s e and e x a g g e r a te d id e a o f i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y ) t o o r g a n iz e and m anage s c h o o l s in d e p e n d e n t ly o f S t a t e c o n t r o l . 8 E d u c a tio n i s lo o k e d t o a s t h e in s tr u m e n t o f e n lig h te n m e n t w h ich w i l l p r e p a r e t h e p e o p le t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e p rogram and 7 L . S . P o n to n , H a p ia l a E s c u e la S o c i a l i s t a , p . 3 9 . 8 The M ex ica n G overnm ent * s S i x Y e a r F l a n , p p . 30 f . th e n t o c a r r y i t o u t . The S o c i a l i s t t h e o r y d o e s n o t d ep en d on f o r c e t o make i t s program w ork . I t d e p e n d s on t h e m a ss o f t h e p e o p l e . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t o n c e t h e p e o p le u n d e r s ta n d w h at i s b e in g done f o r th em , t h e y w i l l a llo w no i n t e r f e r e n c e * 9 C e r t a in p h r a s e s w h ic h f i t i n t o t h i s p h ilo s o p h y a r e h e a r d c o n s t a n t l y . S u ch p h r a s e s a r e " c l a s s s o l i d a r i t y , " " u n it e d f r o n t ," and t h e " s t r u g g le o f c l a s s e s . " The lu c h a de c l a s e s , o r s t r u g g l e o f c l a s s e s , i s a s t r u g g l e l a r g e l y o f i d e a s . A s t h e S o c i a l i s t s do n o t d ep en d on f o r c e , t h e y c o n s i d e r i t s u s e a s a s i g n o f t h e break d ow n o f l o g i c . To be c o n s i s t e n t t h e y m u st a l l o w freed o m o f s p e e c h and o f t h e p r e s s t o b o th th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t and t h e S o c i a l i s t . The r e a s o n f o r su c h a p o l i c y i s o b v io u s . A c c o r d in g t o t h e i r own t h e o r y , f a l s e d o c t r i n e s a r e s u p p o r te d b y f o r c b and t r u e d o c t r i n e s a r e su p p o se d t o triu m p h b y t h e i r own v i r t u e . The S o c i a l i s t program i s d i v i d e d i n t o tw o p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t c o n s i s t s i n b a c k in g t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e and i n r a i s i n g t h e c u l t u r a l l e v e l o f t h e p e o p l e . E v e n t u a l l y , i t i s b e l i e v e d t h e r e w i l l be b u t one c l a s s , and th e n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ca n be h e lp e d t o w ork to w a r d s h i s h i g h e s t c a p a b i l i t i e s . The se c o n d p a r t o f th e program h a s t o do w it h s o c i e t y w hen t h e f i r s t s t a g e i s r e a c h e d . 9 M . B. Palacios, op. c it. . p. 81. 94 The e q u a l i z a t i o n o f man. P e r h a p s t h e o n e f r o n t on w h ic h t h e S c i e n t i f i c S o c i a l i s t s h a v e ta k e n th e m o st a s s a u l t s i s t h e i r i n s i s t e n c e t h a t s o c ie ty * m ust w ork to w a r d s e q u a l i z a t i o n , o r i g u a l a c i o n . M e x ic a n s c i e n t i f i c p h ilo s o p h e r s m a in t a in t h a t t h e s e a t t a c k s a r e o c c a s io n e d by* e n e m ie s who do n o t u n d e r s ta n d t h e i r t h e s i s o r who do n o t w an t t o u n d e r -, s ta n d i t . B r i e f l y , t h e y do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t men a r e e q u a l i n i n t e l l e c t u a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o d a y . T hey do n o t know t h a t t h e y c a n e v e r b e . B u t t h e y do b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r e e q u a l i n dem and ing c e r t a i n r i g h t s from s o c i e t y . T h ey b e l i e v e t h a t b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f so u n d s o c i o l o g i c a l and e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s t o s o c i e t y t h e r e w i l l b e m ore o f a n e q u a l i z a t i o n o f p r i v i l e g e s . W ith th e e q u a l i z a t i o n o f p r i v i l e g e s p i n c l u d i n g p r o p e r l i v i n g and s t u d y , t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l b e a w e ll- r o u n d e d and hap p y p e r s o n d e v e lo p e d m ore n e a r ly t o h i s f u l l c a p a b i l i t i e s . T h is b e l i e f i s an a tt e m p t t o v a l i d a t e s c i e n t i f i c a l l y th e p h i l o s o p h i c c o n c e p t known a s " p e r f e c t i o n i s m ," p o s t u l a t e d b y C o n d o r c e t and c a r r ie d t o l y r i c h e i g h t s b y t h e p o e t S h e l l e y . The German p o l i t i c a l w r i t e r , Max S c h e l e r , i s a u th o r t o t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t e q u a l i z a t i o n i s th e k e y n o te o r th e m odern e p o c h . H is i n f l u e n c e i s a c k n o w le d g e d by t h e M e x ic a n s , who a g r e e w it h h i s h a n d lin g o f th e p r o b le m . S c h e l e r s a y s t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e p h a s e s o f m odern e q u a l i z a t i o n : e t h n o l o g i c , p s y c h o l o g i c , and e c o n o m ic . 95 1 . B t h e n ic e q u a l i z a t i o n * Among s o c i o l o g i s t s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s th e t h e o r y o f r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i s b e in g w id e ly m o d ifie d * The id e a o f " l e s s e r b r e e d s w it h o u t th e law " i s com in g t o b e c o n s id e r e d a N o r d ic r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n . J o t i n s t a n c e , t h e s p e e d w it h w h ic h Jap an h ad a c c e p t e d and a d a p te d w e s t e r n t e c h n iq u e s had p r o v e d t h a t n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n i n g d o e s e x i s t . C h in a , T u r k e y , and I n d i a becom e a s p r o f i c i e n t i n t e c h n iq u e s o f i n d u s t r y , w a r f a r e , and s c i e n c e a s th e . O c c id e n t , a s r a p i d l y a s t h e y can a c q u ir e t h e s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g n e c e s s a r y . The U n it e d S t a t e s i s c i t e d a s an e x am ple o f a c o u n tr y w h ic h h a s am algam ated many r a c e s and c u l t u r e s i n t o a d i s t i n c t ty p e * F o r c e n t u r i e s S p a in m a in t a i n e d t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e in d ig e n o u s r a c e s o f M e x ic o w ere s o i n f e r i o r t h a t t h e y w e r e f i t o n ly t o be b e a s t s o f b u r d e n . Y e t th o u s a n d s o f e x a m p le s a r e e x t a n t o f a n I n d ia n m a s t e r in g a m a t e r i a l o r i n t e l l e c t u a l , t e c h n i q u e and e q u a l l i n g th e S p a n ia r d . I n t h e f i e l d s o f a r t , h a n d i c r a f t s , t h e o l o g y , and m e t a llu r g y t h i s te n d e n c y w as e s p e c i a l l y n o t e d , and g i v e s t h e M ex ica n o f to d a y c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t th e many e t h n i c g r o u p s o f M e x ic o c a n be r a i s e d t o a l e v e l a llo w in g t h e g r o w th o f a n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e e q u a l t o a n y i n t h e w o r l d .10 2 . P s y c h o l o g ic e q u a l i z a t i o n . The b e l i e f i n 10 L . S . P o n to n , o p . c i t . , p p . 24 f f . ; M an u el G am io, " I n c o r p o r a t in g t h e I n d ia n i n t h e M ex ica n P o p u la t io n ," i n J o s e V a s c o n c e lo s and M an u el G am io, A s p e c t s o f M ex ica n C i v i l i z a t i o n . 96 e q u a l i z a t i o n h a s h e a n g iv e n a tre m en d o u s im p e tu s b y t h e sp r e a d o f b e h a v i o r i s t i c p s y c h o lo g y . P a v lo v i s known a s w e l l i n M ex ico a s i n R u s s ia . The e f f e c t o f b e h a v io r is m , o r v i t a l i s m o , i s t h e k e y n o te o f a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h y . T h is th e o r y m akes t h e n e r v o u s s y s te m t h e e s s e n t i a l c a u s e o f b e h a v io r . Any b i o l o g i c u n i t may b e c o n d it io n e d t o r e a c t i n a d e s i r e d w ay by a p p ly in g t h e c o n c o m ita n t s t im u l u s . A s t u d y o f b i o l o g y c o n v in c e s t h e b e h a v i o r i s t t h a t a s lo n g a s a l l human b e in g s h a v e t h e sam e n e r v o u s s y s t e m , t h e y may e v e n t u a l l y b e t r a i n e d t o r e a e t i n t h e sam e w ay. I n t h e p a s t , "m ind” w as c o n s id e r e d a s a t h i n g a p a r t from t h e b o d y , and an a tte m p t w as m ade t o t r a i n i t a s an i s o l a t e d e n t i t y . The b e l i e f w as a lm o s t u n i v e r s a l t h a t c e r t a i n p e r s o n s h ad b e t t e r m in d s th a n o t h e r s b e c a u s e o f a m y s t ic form o f " o r i g i n a l en d ow m en t." F o r t h e same r e a s o n , c e r t a i n n a t i o n s 1 1 w e re endow ed m ore f o r t u n a t e l y th a n o t h e r n a t i o n s . " O rig i n a l n a tu r e * w as d i s c u s s e d a t g r e a t l e n g t h and c o n d it io n e d t h e ty p e o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and e d u c a t io n t h a t a n a t i o n m ig h t h a v e . C e r t a in i n s t i n c t s w ere b e l i e v e d t o r e s i d e i n th e b ab e a t b i r t h and n o t h in g c o u ld c h a n g e t h e s e i n s t i n c t s . C e r t a in r e l i g i o n s ta u g h t t h a t man w as b o r n in s i n and m ust sp e n d h i s e n t i r e l i f e i n an u n h ap p y, u n n a t u r a l m anner i n an a tte m p t t o e x p i a t e t h i s s i n . 1 1 H fic o la s B u j a r in , F I $> £aterialism o H i s t o r i c o , p . 2 6 3 . 97 B e h a v io r is m h a s op en ed a new f i e l d o f o p tim ism t o i t s f o l l o w e r s , f o r i t d e n i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an o r i g i n a l n a tu r e o u t s i d e o f t h e l i m i t s o f t h e n e r v o u s s y s te m . I t d e n i e s th e e x i s t e n c e o f i n s t i n c t s and d o e s n o t r e c o g n iz e g r e a t r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s t h e M e x ic a n S o c i a l i s t p l a c e s g r e a t f a i t h i n c h a n g e s h e h a s made i n t h e n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l 12 s t r u c t u r e . Some o f t h e s e c h a n g e s b a s e d on b e h a v io r is m a r e i n th e m eth o d s o f t e a c h i n g p h y s i c a l e d u c a t io n , d i e t e t i g s , s c i e n c e o r n a t u r a l i s t i c e d u c a t i o n , and v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g . > T h e se a c t i v i t i e s a r e e x p e c t e d t o g i v e f u l l e x p r e s s i o n t o t h e b od y an d t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m , a l lo w in g f o r e x p r e s s i o n r a t h e r th a n r e p r e s s i o n . The aim o f v i t a l i s m o i s t h e s e r p l e n a r i o , o f t h e f u l l - m a n , t h e f u l l an d c o m p le te l i f e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l . 13 The o p p o s i t e c r e e d t o t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f a l l th e p e o p le i s t h a t o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m . I n d i v i d u a li s m p o i n t s t o i t s men o f g e n iu s d u r in g t h e a g e s a s a p r o o f t h a t a l l men ca n n e v e r b e e q u a l and t h a t t h e y s h o u ld n o t b e b e c a u s e o f t h e enorm ous c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e g e n i u s . The b e h a v i o r i s t a n s w e r s t h a t t h e g e n iu s i s m e r e ly an in d e x o f w h at m ore men c o u ld b e i f i n h i b i t i n g s o c i a l f a c t o r s w ere rem o v ed . F u r t h e r m ore , h e s a y s , i t i s a g o a l w h ic h a l l men may r e a c h i f Ip / C o n seco d e E d u c a c io n B r im a r ia d e l D. F . , p p . 19 f f . 13 1. S. Ponton, op. c i t ., p. 51. 98 s o c i e t y i s s u f f i c i e n t l y p e r f e c t e d . O ddly e n o u g h , t h e S c i e n t i f i c S o c i a l i s t o f M e x ic o d o e s n o t d en y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s p i r i t u a l s i d e o f m an’ s n a tu r e # He d o e s d en y t h e d ic h o to m o u s n a tu r e o f m an, i n w h ic h bod y and s p i r i t a r e tw o s e p a r a t e f a c t o r s . A s t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ’ s aim i s t o u n i f y s o c i e t y s o t h a t t h e r e w i l l be no c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s , s o t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t a im s a t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l u n i t y . The s e r p l e n a r i o w i l l h a v e t h e p h y s i c a l and s p i r i t u a l p a r t s o f h i s b e in g f u s e d i n t o an i n t e g r a t e d w h o le* E l f i n d e l a e d u c a c io n e s a q u £ , n e u v e a m e n ta , LA fo r m a c i6n d e la p e r s o n a l id a d , p e r o medI a n t e la INTERACCI<5N DE LOS DOS ELEMENTOS Q ,U E ANTES APAREClAN SEPARADOS E INTEPENDIENTES. 14 E con om ic e q u a l i z a t i o n . The te n d e n c y to w a r d s eco n o m ic e q u a l i z a t i o n i s m arked b y t h e c o n tin u e d c l a s s s t r u g g l e , d e c la r e t h e M arxian p h i l o s o p h e r s . They s e e th e e x i s t e n c e o f c l a s s e s a s t h e o u tg r o w th o f c a s t e s and c l a s s e s i n p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t y , w h ere t h e p r i v i l e g e d a c q u ir e d t h e i r p r e s t i g e i n tw o w a y s . E i t h e r t h e y to o k t h e b e s t o f e v e r y t h i n g by v i r t u e o f b r u te s t r e n g t h , a s d id t h e t r i b a l c h i e f t a i n s , o r t h e y a c q u ir e d i t by e x p l o i t i n g t h e ig n o r a n c e and f e a r o f t h e i r f e l l o w s , a s d id m e d ic in e men and m a g ic ia n s . The tw o t y p e s o f e x p l o i t e r s h a v e w orked hand i n g l o v e e v e r s i n c e , s a y t h e M a r x ia n s . A n c ie n t m o n a r c h ie s k e p t t h e c l a s s l i n e s d i s t i n c t b y t h e u s e 14 I b i d . , p . 5 2 ( c a p i t a l s i n o r i g i n a l ) . 99 o f ig n o r a n c e and f e a r , ig n o r a n c e o f t h e t r u e f a c t s o f l i f e and s o c ie t y * , and f e a r o f t h e k i n g ’ s m ig h t. The p r i e s t h o o d u p h e ld t h e f i c t i o n b y i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e k in g had c e r t a i n * d i v i n e r i g h t s w h ic h i t w ou ld b e s a c r i l e g i o u s t o r e s i s t * . To k e e p i t s e l f i n a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n t h e p r i e s t h o o d h a s fo u n d i t n e c essa ry * t o make t h e p e o p le b e l i e v e i n an u t t e r l y f a l s e c o sm o g o n y . E v e r y d e v ic e o f p r i e s t and k in g had a lw a y s b e e n b r o u g h t t o b e a r on i d e a s t e n d in g t o d is p r o v e t h e d i v i n e r i g h t o f k in g and p r i e s t t o a p o s i t i o n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n , s a y t h e M a r x ia n s « D y n a s t ie s h a v e b e e n o v e r th r o w n and s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l u t i o n s h a v e b e e n s t a g e d , b u t t h e c l a s s s y s te m r e m a in s . How, t h e n , d o e s t h e M a rx ia n t h e o r y m ee t t h i s an om aly? T h ey s im p ly p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e e le m e n ta r y f o r c e t h a t w as n e v e r d e s t r o y e d w as t h e e c o n o m ic m o tiv e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e E ren ch R e v o lu t io n s h o u ld h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d e q u a l i t y , f o r e q u a l i t y w as th e s e c o n d o f t h e t h r e e fam ous w ords o f t h e s lo g a n : L i b e r t y , e q u a l i t y , and f r a t e r n i t y . H o w ev er, n o t h in g b u t nam es w ere d e s t r o y e d . The E ren ch p e a s a n t and w o rk er m e r e ly a c q u ir e d a new s e t o f m a s t e r s . A s lo n g a s t h e eco n o m ic m o tiv e f o r i n d i v i d u a l p r o f i t r e m a in s , th e c l a s s s t r u g g l e m u st go o n , s o t h e way o u t i s t o s o c i a l i z e a l l t h e m eans o f p r o d u c t i o n and p e r f e c t m eth o d s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n t o r e s o l v e t h e s t r u g g l e . Xn t h e m e a n tim e , t h e s c h o o l i n M e x ic o i s th e m edium w h ic h d i r e c t s t h e s t r u g g l e , p o i n t i n g o u t t o t h e 100 s t u d e n t s t h e i r r i g h t s and d u t i e s and m e th o d s f o r a t t a c k i n g 1 5 in t r e n c h e d p r i v i l e g e . The C hurch i s a t t a c k e d a s a d e l e t e r i o u s e co n o m ic f a c t o r , n o t a s a s p i r i t u a l f o r c e . The S t a t e and s c h o o l e n c o u r a g e s p i r i t u a l an d r e l i g i o u s d e v e lo p m e n t, h u t n o t o f a f a n a t i c , s u p e r n a t u r a l, o r a n t i r a t i o n a l i s t i c 16 n a tu r e » v I I I . PREMISES OF SOCIALIST EDUCATIONAL THEORY I t h a s b e e n p o in t e d o u t i n w h a t w ay t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n w as am ended t o in c lu d e S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t i o n , in w h at way S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n i s i n t e r p r e t e d , and t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f t h e com in g o f t h e S o c i a l i s t s t a t e b e c a u s e o f t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e . The q u e s t io n w h ic h n e x t a r i s e s i s , w h a t i s t h e i d e a l t y p e s e t up by S o c i a l i s m and how i s t h e a v e r a g e c h i l d t o b e m old ed i n t o t h e s i m i l i t u d e o f t h e p r o t o t y p e ? To a n sw er t h a t q u e s t io n i t b eco m es n e c e s s a r y t o s tu d y t h e r i g h t s and d u t i e s o f t h e c h i l d u n d e r t h e S o c i a l i s t s t a t e ; t h e d u t i e s and f u n c t i o n s o f t h e t e a c h e r o r m a e s t r o ; and th e n t o s e e w h a t t h e a c t i o n o f t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l and m a e s tr o u p on t h e c h i l d b o r n in t h e S o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y w i l l b e . I t m u st b e k e p t i n m ind c o n s t a n t l y t h a t t h e M e x ic a n s c h o o l i s c o n s id e r e d a s p r im a r ily s o c i a l , t h a t i t i s an in s tr u m e n t o f t h e S t a t e t o ^ E m ilio P o r t e s G i l , La E s c u e la y e l C a m p esin o , p p . 29 f. i g George I. Sanchez, op. cit., Chapter VIII. 1 0 1 c o n d i t i o n t h e e n v ir o n m e n t o r t h e c h i l d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y s o t h a t h e w i l l d e v e lo p i n t o a man d i s t i n c t from t h e man o f t h e p a s t , l a E s c u e la S o c i a l i s t s d e b e s e r un f a c t o r d e t e r m in a n ts d e l n u ev o o r d e n s o c i a l and econ om ic© de M e x ic o y p a r a e l l o d eb e p a r t i c i p a r s e un modo i n - t e n s o y e x t e n s o e n l a v i d a m ism a de l a com u n i- d a d , . . .1 7 E i g h t s and d u t i e s o f t h e c h i l d . T he M e x ic a n i d e o lo g y r e s o l v e s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e a s t o who owns t h e c h ild * t h e f a m ily o r s o c i e t y , b y a n s w e r in g t h a t n e i t h e r ow ns h im . He i s a f r e e member o f s o c i e t y from t h e moment h e i s b o r n , and h e i s u n d e r a r e c i p r o c a l a g r e e m e n t w it h b o th th e f a m ily an d s o c i e t y . He h a s c e r t a i n i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t s w h ic h m u st b e r e s p e c t e d b y t h e f a m i l y , by s o c i e t y , and b y t h e S t a t e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e h a s d u t i e s w h ic h h e m u st d is c h a r g e f a i t h f u l l y i f h e i s t o m e r it and r e c e i v e h i s r ig h t * "He h a s a r i g h t t o a l l t h e b e n e f i t s t h a t H um an ity h a s a c q u ir e d th r o u g h t h e a g e s . The c h i l d h a s t h e r i g h t t o i s s u e from h e a l t h y p a r e n t s who a r e c a p a b le o f t r a n s m i t t i n g maximum v i t a l i t y t o h im , and t o b e b o r n u n d e r h y g i e n i c c o n d i t i o n s f r e e from c o n d i t i o n s t h a t w i l l h in d e r h i s d e v e lo p m e n t. The p a r e n t s m u st b r in g t o m a trim o n y t h e f u l l e s t k n o w led g e o f t h e p r o b le m s o f c o n j u g a l l i f e and o f t h e g r o w th and e d u c a t io n o f c h i l d r e n . The c h i l d m u st be p la c e d i n an e n v ir o n m e n t w h ere h e w i l l d e v e lo p p h y s i c a l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n a n orm al m anner • 17 J . J . De l a R o sa P . , I n E s c u e la S o o i a l i s t a M e x ic a n s , p . 6 0 . 102 The h u n g r y c h i l d m u st b e f e d , t h e s i c k , n o u r is h e d ; th e r e t a r d e d m ust b e s t i m u l a t e d , t h e w ayw ard, g u id e d ; t h e o rp h a n and t h e aban d on ed m ust b e p r o t e c t e d . The c h i l d m u st b e t h e f i r s t t o r e c e i v e a id i n t im e s o f c a la m i t y . A l l c h i l d r e n m ust b e g i v e n t h e c h a n c e t o r e a c h th e c u l t u r a l l e v e l t h e y a r e c a p a b le o f , in d e p e n d e n t ly o f c ir c u m s t a n c e s o f a n e c o n o m ic , e t h n i c , r e l i g i o u s , o r s o c i a l n a t u r e . The c h i l d h a s t h e r i g h t t o b e t h e a g e n t o f h i s own e d u c a t i o n , and t o f e e l t h e p l e a s u r e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n and t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t r u t h . He w i l l b e a id e d and g u id e d i n t h u s fo r m in g h i s own c u lt u r e * I t i s th e r i g h t o f t h e c h ild - t h a t h i s m e n t a l i t y be r e s p e c t e d and t h a t h e s h a l l n o t h a v e im p osed u p on him f a n a t i c a l o r p r e j u d ic e d i d e a s o r c o n c e p t s o f l i f e t h a t h in d e r o r im pede h i s fo r m a tio n o f a s a n e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . H is i n t e r e s t s , n e c e s s i t i e s , and s p o n t a n e o u s a c t i v i t i e s m u st b e r e s p e c t e d , f o r i t i s from t h e s e t h a t h e a c q u i r e s t h e f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to w a r d s c o l l e c t i v e s o c i e t y , an d r e a c h e s t h e maximum e v o l u t i o n o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and a p t i t u d e s . The c h i l d h a s p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t m u st b e d i s c o v e r e d , e v o lv e d and c u l t i v a t e d . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t h e r e a c h c o m p le te s e l f - d i r e c t i o n i n s e a r c h in g f o r and d i r e c t i n g h i m s e l f to w a rd t h e c a u s e o f t h in g s # He h a s a r i g h t t o h a v e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e a c h e r s o f h ig h c h a r a c t e r an d v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g who do n o t c o n s id e r t h e i r p o s i t i o n s im p ly a s a m ean s to w a r d a l i v e l i h o o d b u t who t h in k i n te r m s o f S o c i a l i s t i c i d e a l s o f a d v a n c e . He h a s a r i g h t t o a s i m p l e , l o c a l s c h o o l t h a t i s a h a p p y , h y g i e n i c p l a c e w h ic h h e h e l p s t o im p ro v e and k e e p i n o r d e r . A l l c h i l d r e n h a v e a r i g h t t o t h e o p e n a i r f o r t h e i r w o rk , t o p l a y t h e i r g a m es, t a k e n a t u r a l e x e r c i s e s and r e s p i r a t o r y m ovem ents w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e t h e i r b e s t fo rm s o f p h y s i c a l e d u c a t io n ; t o r e c e i v e an e d u c a t io n o f t h e b od y t h a t h a b i t u a t e s them t o a b e t t e r c a r e o f t h e p e r s o n , m ak in g th em f r i e n d s t o w a t e r , a i r , l i g h t , g a m es, s p o r t s , t r i p s , e t c . T hey m u st b e g iv e n a s i n c e r e and e x a c t v i s i o n o f an e x i s t e n c e t h a t i s in t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e a c c o r d 103 w it h t h e b i o l o g i c la w s t h a t r u l e t h e i n t e g r a l d e v e lo p m en t o f t h e human b e i n g . The b o y s h a v e t h e r i g h t t o be e d u c a te d w it h th e g i r l s and t h e g i r l s w it h t h e b o y s , b e c a u s e i n t h e s o c i a l l i f e t h e man d o e s n o t l i v e i n a w o r ld e x c l u s i v e l y m a s c u lin e , o r t h e woman i n on e e x c l u s i v e l y f e m in in e . C are w i l l b e ta k e n t h a t t h e y do n o t l o s e t h e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i r s e x . The c h i l d h a s a r i g h t n o t t o be e x p l o i t e d by b e in g s e t t o w ork p r e m a t u r e ly , b u t t o be h e lp e d by t h e c o o p e r a t io n o f a l l i n f u r n i s h i n g him t h e n e c e s s i t i e s o f l i f e # T h er e m u st b e form ed i n t h e c h i l d , from h i s e a r l i e s t y e a r s , a s e n t im e n t o f r e p u l s i o n a g a i n s t t h e i n j u s t i c e and i g n o b i l i t y o f s y s te m s f o r e x p l o i t i n g human l a b o r . He h a s t h e r i g h t t o t h e c o o p e r a t io n o f t e a c h e r and p a r e n t s i n h i s e d u c a t io n ; t o t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e s o c i e t y an d t h e s c h o o l , w h ic h m u st a d v a n c e a lw a y s u n i t e d , c o n s t a n t l y im p r o v in g t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h ic h t h e s c h o o l w ork i s c a r r i e d o u t . He h a s a r i g h t t o be a member o f a s t u d e n t commu n i t y w h e r e , w it h t h e au ton om y w h ic h he m e r i t s , h e e n j o y s h i s r i g h t s a s a c t i v e e le m e n t s , u s e f u l and e f f i c a c i o u s , and p u t s h i s w i l l and a b i l i t i e s a t th e s e r v i c e o f t h e common g o o d ; th u s m ak in g p a t e n t a t a l l t im e s t h e v a lu e o f h i s a c t s , w h e th e r t h e y b e b e n e f i c i a l o r d e t r im e n t a l t o h i m s e l f o r t h e com m u n ity. C h ild r e n m u st n o t b e ju d g e d , i n an y c a s e , a s com mon d e l in q u e n t s ; i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c l a r i f y t h e i n f l u e n c e s t h a t m o t iv a t e t h e c o n d u c t o f m in o r s , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t, a n d t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s t o w h ic h t h e y a r e o r w e re s u b m it t e d . They m u st n o t be condem ned f o r t h e i r own m i s f o r t u n e . S o c i e t y m u st s e a r c h f o r and work to w a r d s th e r e m o v a l o f t h e c a u s e o f t h e f a u l t . The d u t i e s o f t h e c h i l d a r e : To c o n s id e r a l l co m p a n io n s a s b r o t h e r s , w it h e q u a l i t y o f r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s , w it h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n s a s t o c l a s s , s e x , c r e e d , o r r a c e . To make h i m s e l f c o n s c io u s o f t h e n e e d s o f h i s com r a d e s , s h a r in g w it h th e m , a s much a s p o s s i b l e , e d u c a t io n , 1 0 4 f o o d , s h e l t e r , hom e, and a m u sem en ts. To t h i n k , t o f e e l and t o a c t i n s e a r c h a lw a y s f o r t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e g r o u p , w h ic h i s c o n s e q u e n t ly h i s own; w h ic h g i v e s t h e i n t i m a t e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a c o m p le te d d u t y ; , To c a r e f o r h i s own h e a l t h and t o im p ro v e t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f p u b l i c h e a l t h . To l o v e s o c i a l j u s t i c e , t r u t h and b e a u ty and t o d e fe n d th em w it h d i g n i t y and v a l o r . To i n v e s t i g a t e and v e r i f y t h e c a u s e s o f n a t u r a l and s o c i a l phenom ena w it h o u t a c c e p t i n g d o g m a tic a f f i r m a t i o n s . E x a c t in g from a l l th e m o st p r o fo u n d r e s p e c t f o r t h e r i g h t s o f t h e w o r k e r w h ic h o u r C o n s t i t u t i o n g u a r a n t e e s , t h u s , i n k e e p in g w it h t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t , fo r m in g j u v e n i l e r e v o l u t i o n a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s and p u t t i n g h i s h i g h e s t q u a l i t i e s a t t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e w a g e -e a r n in g c l a s s e s . To com bat i d l e n e s s and v i c e w it h w ork and h o n e s t y , s p o r t s , and an e t h i c a l and e s t h e t i c im p ro v em en t. To o r g a n iz e s c h o o l c o o p e r a t i v e s , w h ic h e d u c a t e f o r c o l l e c t i v e p r o d u c t io n , t h e i n t e g r a l c o m p e n sa tio n o f w o r k , and t h e e q u i t a b l e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f n e e d s , t a k in g c a r e t h a t t h e a s p e c t o f i n d i v i d u a l i s t c o o p e r a t i v e s be n o t g i v e n t o t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s w h ere o n e i n d i v i d u a l i s p r o f i t e d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e r e s t . To a c q u i t th e t a s k s o f s o c i a l s e r v i c e e f f i c a c i o u s l y , w h ic h h i s t e a c h e r s and com rad es o f th e s c h o o l p o i n t o u t , c a r r y in g them o u t b y b e in g th e w o rk er and t h e c i t i z e n who b e s t s e r v e s h i s f a m i l y , th e n a t i o n and h u m a n ity , f i g h t i n g w it h o u t t r u c e , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n , f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e and t h e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f a l l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f h i s e q u a l s . 18 1 8 / P la n de A c c io n de l a E s c u e la P r im a r ia S o c i a l i s t a . ( T r a n s l a t i o n b y t h e authorT , p p . 10 f f . 105 I t t h u s b eco m es o b v io u s t h a t t h e S o c i a l i s t t h e o r y o f e q u a l i t y i s e x te n d e d t o in c lu d e t h e c h i l d . The S o c i a l i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o n l y way i n w h ic h t h e c h i l d w i l l l e a r n t o t h in k i n te r m s o f e q u a l i t y i s a c t u a l l y t o l i v e a l i f e o f e q u a l i t y . He c a n n o t b e t r e a t e d a s an i n f e r i o r b y a d u l t s , e v e n th o u g h t h e a d u l t s t h in k t h e y - a r e p r e p a r in g t h e c h i l d f o r a d e m o c r a tic l i f e . T h is b e l i e f h a s b e e n e x p r e s s e d b y Joh n D ew ey w hen h e s a i d t h a t " E d u c a tio n i s n o t p r e p a r a t io n f o r l i f e ; i t i s l i f e . " I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t i f t h e c h i l d i s n o t e x p o s e d t o d o m in a tio n , p u n is h m e n t, and r e g im e n t a t io n a s a c h i l d , w hen h e b e c o m e s an a d u l t h e w i l l n o t t h in k o f d o m in a tin g , p u n is h in g , o r r e g im e n t in g o t h e r s . 19 The c h i l d i s th o u g h t o f p r i m a r i ly a s a human b e in g and s e c o n d a r i l y a s an a g e n t o f s o c i a l c h a n g e . He i s t o be t a u g h t t o th in k c o n s t a n t l y i n te r m s o f s o c i a l b e t t e r m e n t and h u m a n ity . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t to o many n a t i o n s p u t t h e c h i e f e m p h a sis o f e d u c a t io n u p on m a t e r i a l t h i n g s : m o n ey -m a k in g , s u b j e c t m a t t e r , p a s s i n g e x a m in a t io n s . T hus t h e f o c u s o f th e s c h o o l m oves o f f t h e c h i l d and a s a r e s u l t t h e c h i e f v a l u e s t h e s t u d e n t l e a r n s a r e n o t human v a l u e s . Se c o n s id e r a r a a l n in o como un a g e n t e d e t r a n s - fo r m a c io n s o c i a l y como e le m e n to r e a l y e f e c t i v o d e l a com unidad e n que a c t u a . 20 iq , I g n a c i o G. T e l l e z , S o c i a l i z a o i o n d e l a C u lt u r a , p p . 7 2 f . . 20 P l a n d e a c c i o n d e l a B s o u e la F r im a r la S o c i a l i s t s . p . 2 1 . 106 D u t i e s o f t h e t e a c h e r . J u s t a s t h e s c h o o l i s c o n s i d e r e d by" t h e S o c i a l i s t e d u c a to r o f M e x ic o a s an in s tr u m e n t o f s o c i a l ch a n g e and t h e c h i l d a s an a g e n t o r s o c i a l c h a n g e , s o i s t h e t e a c h e r c o n s id e r e d a s a l e a d e r i n s o c i a l c h a n g e . The t e a c h e r i s n o t a b e in g l i v i n g an i s o l a t e d e x i s t e n c e , t e a c h in g a p u r e s c i e n c e o r an a c a d e m ic h i s t o r y i n a c l o i s t e r . On t h e c o n t r a r y , h e m u st b e i n t h e m id s t o f t h e s o c i a l c u r r e n t , d i r e c t i n g , e n c o u r a g in g , and a b o v e a l l , l e a d i n g . He i s th e f r i e n d l y g u id e i n t h e s c h o o l com m unity and i n t h e a d u l t w o r ld o f h i s p u e b lo , r a n c h e r f a , o r c i t y . E l m a e s tr o r e v o l u e i o n a r i o ^debe s e r l f d e r s o c i a l , c o n s e j e r o , o r ie n t a d o r . No s o l o d eb e e n s e n a r a l e e r y a e s c r i b i r , s i n o m o s tr a r ta m b ie n a l p r o l e t a r i a d o l a m anera de c o n v i v i r m e jo r , d e c r e a r una e x i s t e n c i a mas hurnana y mas j u s t a .2 1 The t e a c h e r , man o r woman, m u st s t i m u l a t e t h e c h i l d t o d i s c o v e r f o r h i m s e l f new h o r iz o n s o f t r u t h , b u t t o a s g r e a t an e x t e n t a s p o s s i b l e h e m u st l e t t h e c h i l d w ork o u t h i s own p a t h s to w a r d t h o s e t r u t h s . The t e a c h e r w i l l p o i n t o u t i n e q u a l i t i e s and form s o f i n j u s t i c e t o b o th t h e s c h o o l p o p u la t io n and t h e a d u lt m em bers o f s o c i e t y , b u t w i l l i n d i c a t e them i n o r d e r t o b r in g a b o u t t h e i r f a i r a d j u d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , n o t t o , s t i r up c l a s s h a t r e d and u n n e c e s s a r y s t r i f e . 22 S e l f - e x p r e s s i o n an d r e s p e c t f o r th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e c h i l d a r e t h e k e y n o t e s 2 1 / l a z a r o C a r d e n a s , S p e e c h d e l i v e r e d i n T l a l t i z a p a n , M o r e lo s , May 2 1 , 1 9 3 4 . Op E m ilio P o r t e z G i l , o £ . e i t . , p . . 3 6 . 107 t h a t t h e m a e s tr o m u st s t r i k e . The new s c h o o l h a s r e g a in e d t h e c h i l d ’ s r i g h t s b u t w a n ts t h e i n s t r u c t o r t o rem em ber t h a t t h e a d u l t i s s t r o n g and t h a t t h e c h i l d i s w e a k . The t e a c h e r ’ s d u ty m u st b e l i m i t e d so t h e p u p i l c a n f in d h i s own a b i l i t y th r o u g h a p r o c e s s e s s e n t i a l l y s p o n t a n e o u s .23 The t e a c h e r m u st b e a h i g h l y p r a c t i c a l p e r s o n t o f i t t h e i d e a l o f t h e M ex ica n S o c i a l i s t s . He m u st b e a b e t t e r fa rm er th a n a l l t h e c a m p e s in o s in t h e n e ig h b o r h o o d , f o r h e i s c o u r t o f t h e h i g h e s t a p p e a l i n q u e s t io n s r e l a t i n g t o a g r i c u l t u r e . He m u st b e a b l e t o g u id e t h e p e o p le t o b e t t e r w ays o f fa r m in g : d e e p e r c u l t i v a t i o n , f e r t i l i z a t i o n , s e l e c t i o n - o f s e e d s , and c o m b a tin g o f p e s t s . He m u st c b n v in c e th em t h a t l o c a l le g e n d s an d s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s , o f t e n e n c o u r a g e d by v i l l a g e p r i e s t s i n t h e p a s t , a r e u n t r u e , and h e m u st s u b s t i t u t e s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s i n t h e i r s t e a d . The t e a c h e r m u st l e a d t h e w ork o f s e e i n g t h a t w a te r f o r t h e v i l l a g e s i s p o t a b l e . As p a r t o f h i s a d u l t e d u c a t io n w ork h e m u st t e a c h h i s s t u d e n t s t o c o n s t r u c t f i l t e r s and b o i l e r s . He m ust ta k e th e le a d i n s a n i t a t i o n , t e a c h i n g t h e p e o p le t h e t h e o r y o f germ s and s t e r i l i z a t i o n . When p e o p le becom e s i c k h e m u st n u r s e th em h i m s e l f o r s e c u r e a d o c t o r , s e e i n g t h a t l o c a l w i t c h - d o c t o r i n g i s d is c o u r a g e d . As t h e f i r s t s t e p i n s u b s t i t u t i n g s c i e n t i f i c f o r f o l k b e l i e f s , h e m u st g u id e t h e c h i l d r e n o u t o f th e 23 Ju an B , S a l a z a r , "M odern E d u c a t io n a l C u r r e n ts ," p. 5* 108 PA b e l i e f s o f t h e i r e l d e r s , b o t h b y p r e c e p t and e x a m p le . . He m u st s u r v e y t h e n e ig h b o r h o o d and s t a r t lo n g - t im e p la n n in g f o r t h e f u t u r e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e r e g i o n by t h e p r o l e - . . . 25 t a n a t • I t i s t h e d u ty o f t h e m a e s tr o t o b e s o s t e e p e d i n S o c i a l i s t id e o lo g y t h a t h e w i l l t e a c h c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s t h e t e n e t s o f t h e p h ilo s o p h y and l e a d them to w a r d s th e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f i t . T h is d u ty m eans t h a t h e m u st k e e p t h e p e o p le s t r u g g l i n g f o r th e d i v i s i o n o f t h e l a r g e h a c i e n d a s , a c c o r d in g t o t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , and t h a t a f t e r t h e la n d s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d h e m u st s e e t h a t t h e p e o p le a r e p r e p a r e d t o p r o t e c t th em . He i s a le a d e r in t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f c o o p e r a t i v e s , b o th p r o d u c t iv e an d d i s t r i b u t i v e . The sam e r e l i g i o u s z e a l t h a t s e n t th e m i s s i o n a r i e s t o t h e f a r c o r n e r s o f Hew S p a in i n t h e c o l o n i a l p e r io d i s to d a y d r i v i n g t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l t e a c h e r o v e r t h e same t r a i l . T hey a r e a d v a n c in g th r o u g h t h e t r o p i c j u n g l e s , o v e r th e h a r s h s i e r r a s , and i n t o t h e a r i d d e s e r t s . A t t im e s t h e y h a v e b e e n p e r s e c u t e d . D u r in g th e u n c e r t a i n d a y s o f t h e C r i s t e r o u p r i s i n g s many s c h o o l s w e re b u rn ed and t h e m a e s tr o o r m a e s tr a l e f t d ea d o r m u t i l a t e d . T od ay t h e y a r e s t i l l u n s a t i s f i e d ^ an d e Ac c io n d e l a E s o u e la P r im a r ia S o c i a l i s t a , p . 1 8 . 25 M. R. P a l a c i o s , " E l S i g n i f i c a d o d e l a E d u c a c io n S o c i a l i s t a , " P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t io n , p . 9 . 109 w it h w h at t h e y h a v e a c c o m p lis h e d , u n d a u n te d by w h at r e m a in s t o b e d o n e . T h e ir g o a l i s t o r e b u i l d t h e o ld w o r ld i n t o t h e new J e r u s a le m ; t o a c t a s m id w iv e s a t th e b i r t h o f t h e p h o e n ix from t h e a s h e s o f a d ead s o c i e t y . We s h a l l e d u c a te t h e new g e n e r a t i o n i n su c h a m anner t h a t we s h a l l h a v e men w it h o u t r e l i g i o u s p r e j u d i c e s , c o n v in c e d o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s o c i a l r e g u l a t i o n s , u n d er w h ic h t h e w e a lt h c r e a t e d b y a l l w i l l b e e q u i t a b l y d i s t r i b u t e d ; u n d e r w h ic h t h e in s tr u m e n t s and m eans o f p r o d u c t io n w i l l b e s o c i a l i z e d ; u n d er w h ic h women w i l l b e e m a n c ip a te d and a s s o c i a t e d w it h men i n w o r k in g f o r c o l l e c t i v e p r o g r e s s ; and u n d e r w h ic h i n d i v i d u a l p e r f e c t i o n w i l l b e c o n s id e r e d , n o t a s a n e n d , b u t a s a m eans to w a rd s o c i a l p e r f e c t i o n . 26 R a f a e l R a m ir e z , "The S ix - Y e a r P la n in E d u c a tio n ," i n H u b er t H e r r in g and H e r b e r t W e in s to c k , R e n a s c e n t M e x ic o . CHAPTER V CHARACTERISTICS OF MEXICAN EDUCATION I n t h e p r e c e d in g c h a p te r i t h a s b e e n p o in t e d o u t t h a t M e x ic o * s e d u c a t o r s c o n s i d e r t h e s c h o o l a s a l e g i t i m a t e i n str u m e n t o f t h e g o v ern m en t f o r b r in g in g a b o u t s o c i a l c h a n g e . The p h i l o s o p h i c a l g o a l s w ere p r e s e n t e d , and t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e s t a t e t o o r i e n t t h e s c h o o l s to w a rd p r o d u c in g a d e f i n i t e t y p e o f man and s o c i e t y w as g i v e n . The s c h o o l w as s e e n a s n o t o n ly a p a s s i v e in s tr u m e n t o f s o c i a l c h a n g e , b u t a l s o a s a n a c t i v e o r g a n ism t h a t p a r t i c i p a t e s i n e v e r y p h a s e o f t h e n a t i o n * s s t r u g g l e . La e d u c a c io n c o n t r ib u y e p o d e r o s a m e n te . a fo rm a r d ic h a s g e n e r a c io n e s . Su c o n t r o l p o r e l E s t a d o , como r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d e l a c o l e c t i v i d a d , p e r m ite c u m p lir l a e le v a d a , m is io n h o m o g e n e iz a d o r a do l a i d e o l o g i a do l a s m a sa s p o p u l a r e s , i n d is p e n s a b l e p a r a fo rm a r l a f is o n o m ia d e una N a c io n y p a r a im p r im ir s u h u e l l a e n e l c o n c i e r t o u n i v e r s a l . 1 To u n d e r s ta n d t h e c o m p le te p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e M e x ic a n s c h o o l i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m in e m ore c l o s e l y t h e im m e d ia te a im s and g o a l s o f t h e s y s t e m . The M ex ica n p h ilo s o p h e r r e a l i z e s t h a t i t i s n o t en ou gh t o t e l l th e m a e s tr o t o w ork f o r a c o l l e c t i v e s o c i e t y ; h e m u st d e v e lo p s p e c i f i c t e c h n iq u e s t o m eet s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s . M e x ic o i s a la n d w it h su c h a v a r ie d c l i m a t e , t e r r a i n , and p e o p le t h a t a s y s te m f l e x i b l e en ou gh t o ^ I g n a c i o G a r c ia T e l l e z , S o c i a l i z a c i o n d e l a C u lt u r a , p • 3 3 • I ll m e e t e v e r y l o c a l s i t u a t i o n and n o t b r e a k down i n t o a c o n g e r i e s o f au ton om ou s d i s t r i c t s m ust h a v e t h e p l i a b i l i t y o f a s u i t o f c h a in m a i l . I t w i l l be t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r t o s t u d y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e M e x ic a n s c h o o l w it h t h e v ie w o f f i n d i n g how t h e g e n e r a l S o c i a l i s t i c p h ilo s o p h y i s made t o f i t e v e r y s i t u a t i o n . I . MEXICAN SOCIALIST EDUCATION , ♦ The p r im a ry a im o f t h e s c h o o l i s t o b a s e th e e n t i r e e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e on a f o u n d a t io n t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y M e x ic a n . The fo u r h u n d red y e a r s o f M e x ic a n h i s t o r y from t h e C o n q u est onw ard sh ow ed a c o n s t a n t i m i t a t i o n o f E u ro p ea n c u s to m s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , an d h a b i t s . Many o f t h e s e c u sto m s s t i l l c l i n g t o t h e s o c i a l f a b r i c and a r e a s in c o n g r u o u s a s i s a T a r a sc a n I n d ia n s a y in g " O jala,** a c o n t r a c t i o n o f ,fG A lla h ,* 1 when h e h a s no id e a o f who A l l a h i s . Many c u sto m s o r i g i n a t e d by t h e M o o rs, h a v e b e e n a c c e p t e d b y th e S p a n ia r d s an d h a n d ed on t o th e M e x ic a n f o r no c l e a r r e a s o n . The s c h o o l p e o p le h a v e a t te m p te d t o a n a ly z e t h e n e e d s o f t h e c o u n t r y , t o f i n d t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r e v e r y n e c e s s i t y , and t o t e a c h t h e s t u d e n t t o d e s i r e and w ork f o r t h e s e m ore f u n c t i o n a l w a n ts . I t i s a s c h o o l t h a t w a n ts M e x ic o f o r M e x ic a n s a n d ,t h a t s e e k s t o s t i m u l a t e an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e v a lu e o f M ex ica n i d e a s , M ex ica n i n s t i t u t i o n s , M ex ica n a c c o m p lis h m e n t s , an d M ex ica n c u l t u r e . I t s e e k s t o a c c e n t u a t e t h o s e a s p e c t s o f M ex ica n l i f e t h a t g i v e M e x ic o i n d i v i d u a l i t y and c h a r a c t e r a s a n a t i o n . I n s h o r t , i t i n s i s t s t h a t M e x ic o i s no lo n g e r a c o l o n i a l p r o v in c e t o be e x p l o i t e d a t w i l l 112 by f o r e i g n n a t i o n s an d i d e a s , b u t r a t h e r t h a t M e x ic o i s a s o v e r e i g n p ow er w it h c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s w o r th y o f r e c o g n i t i o n . 2 A w ord t h a t o n e h e a r s c o n s t a n t l y i n p r e s e n t - d a y M e x ic o i s " I n d ia n ." I n d ia n i s M e x ic o * s word f o r p r o l e t a r i a n . The c o u n tr y i s p r e d o m in a n tly I n d ia n an d i t i s t h e a im o f t h e n a t i o n t o f u s e t h e many t y p e s o f I n d ia n s i n t o a r a c e o f M e x ic a n s . T h is u n d e r t a k in g i s tre m en d o u s in t h e f i e l d o f la n g u a g e a l o n e . I t i s e s t im a t e d t h a t tw o m i l l i o n I n d ia n s know no S p a n is h w h a ts o e v e r and t h a t t h e sa m e number know 3 S p a n is h , b u t sp e a k som e l o c a l d i a l e c t . T h ere a r e no e x a c t d a ta c o v e r in g t h e e x a c t num ber o f d i a l e c t s and la n g u a g e s 4 sp o k e n i n M e x ic o , b u t e s t i m a t e s f l u c t u a t e a ro u n d f i f t y . N ahua i s sp o k e n i n a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e c o u n tr y and w a s fo r m e r ly s u b d iv id e d i n t o s i x t e e n d i a l e c t s , e a c h o f w h ic h w as f u r t h e r s u b d iv id e d . The Y a q u i i s d i v id e d i n t o Y a q u i, M ayo, and T e h u e c o . Maya i n c l u d e s t w e n t y - o n e d i a l e c t s o f w h ic h C h a n a b a i, C h ic o m u c e lt e c a , C h o i, C h o n t a l, H u a x te c , M aya, T z e n t a l , and T z o t z i l a r e s t i l l sp o k e n i n M e x ic o . The O to m l, P G eorge I . S a n c h e z , M e x ic o : A R e v o lu t io n by E d u c a t io n , p . 1 0 4 • 3 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , M e x ic o and I t s H e r i t a g e , p . 8 6 . M o is e s S a e n z , "The S c h o o l and C u lt u r e ," P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t io n , 9 : 9 , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 E . L u is C a b r e r a , "The K ey t o t h e M e x ic a n C h a o s," i n H u b er t H e r r in g and H e r b e r t W e in s t o c k , R e n a s c e n t M e x ic o . 4 W illia m G a t e s , R u r a l E d u c a tio n i n M e x ic o and th e I n d ia n P r o b le m . K a th e r in e M. C ook , The H ou se o f t h e P e o p l e , p . 6 . 1 X 3 o n e o f t h e o r i g i n a l la n g u a g e s , h as f o u r v a r i a n t s : M azah ua, O tom f, F am e, and P i r i n d a . The Z a p o te e la n g u a g e i s u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n O a x a c a ;T a r a sc a n i s e x t a n t i n M ieh o a ca n ; T o to n a c a n in V era C ru z; A th a p a s c a n i n p a r t s o f C h ih uah ua and C o a h u ila ; and Yuman and W a ic u r ia n i n B a j a , C a l i f o r n ia * Xn a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e num erous p r i m i t i v e la n g u a g e s u s e d by s m a ll g r o u p s s u c h a s t h e S e r i s , T a ra h u m a res, and C o r a s . T h is l a c k o f l i n g u i s t i c u n i t y im m e d ia te ly l e a d s t o tr e m e n d o u s p r o b le m s f o r t h e e d u c a t o r . He m u st f i r s t o f a l l 5 b u i ld up a d e s i r e i n t h e I n d ia n c h i l d t o l e a r n S p a n is h . S e n o r R i v e r a , d i r e c t o r o f r u r a l e d u c a t io n i n N a y a r i t , e x p l a i n e d t o t h e a u th o r t h e m eth od u s e d t o t e a c h C o ra s t h e S p a n is h la n g u a g e . When t h e b e g in n e r s f i r s t come t o t h e s c h o o l t h e y h a v e no n e e d f o r t h e la n g u a g e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e y f e e l no d e s i r e t o l e a r n . i t . A g ro u p i s ta k e n t o T e p ic , th e c a p i t a l , f o r a d a y o f gam es and s p o r t s . When th e y r e t u r n i t i s e a s y t o i n t e r e s t th em i n l e a r n i n g su c h a game a s b a s e b a l l . A s t h e s t u d e n t s p l a y , t h e n e e d f o r t h e nam es o f ob j e c t s u s e d i n t h e game b eco m es o b v io u s . F i r s t t h e name p e l o t a , b a l l , may be l e a r n e d , t h e n b a t , u n t i l g r a d u a lly t h e c h i ld r e n h a v e b u i l t up a s l i g h t S p a n is h v o c a b u la r y . S o n g s an d d a n c e s p r o v id e a n o t h e r s t r o n g m o t iv a t io n f o r an in d ig e n o u s 5 M hnuel G am io, " E d u c a tio n and N a t i o n a l I n t e g r a t i o n ," P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a tio n . 1 3 : £ - 8 3 , F e b r u a r y , 1936* 114 p o p u la t io n Who u n ifo r m ly lo v e m ovem en t, c o l o r , and m u sic * U nder t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e B th n o -d e m o g r a p h ic I n s t i t u t e and t h e C u lt u r a l M is s io n s r e g i o n a l d a n c e s and s o n g s a r e b e in g c o l l a t e d i n S p a n is h and f u r n is h e d t o t h e s c h o o l s i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y . T h e se m e th o d s s e r v e t h e d o u b le p u r p o s e o f u n i f y in g t h e p e o p le th r o u g h u n d e r s ta n d in g o t h e r g r o u p s , and o f g i v i n g a n a t u r a l im p e tu s t o t h e s p r e a d o f t h e S p a n is h la n g u a g e . The I n d ia n p o p u la t io n o f M e x ic o i s a p p r o x im a te ly 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h is p o p u la t io n r a n g e s i n c u l t u r e from t h e S e r i o f T ib u r o n I s l a n d , i n t h e G u lf o f C a l i f o r n i a , who e a t s h i s fo o d raw and l a c k s e v e n a m a r r ia g e r i t u a l , t o t h e M aya, Z a p o te e , and A z t e c who h ad a c u l t u r e e q u a l , o r s u p e r i o r , t o t h e S p a n ia r d . T h e ir tre m en d o u s s ta m in a and v i g o r i s a t t e s t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a c c e p t e d t h e b r u t a l e x p l o i t a t i o n and t h e d i s e a s e s o f t h e w h it e man and came th r o u g h t o c o n q u e r h im . B or t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r t o k e e p i n m ind i n u n d e r s ta n d in g t h e p r e s e n t r e g im e in M e x ic o i s t h a t i t i s t h e u l t i m a t e v i c t o r y o f t h e I n d ia n . E r n e s t G ru en in g g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y s t a t i s t i c s : P o p u la t io n o f M e x ic o i n 1 8 0 5 : W h ite s 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 e q u a l t o 18 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l 6 "L os G e n tr o s d e E d u c a c io n I n d ig e n a ," E l M a e str o R u r a l, J u l i o d e 1 9 3 7 , p . 6* 115 M e s t iz o s 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 e q u a l t o 3 8 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l I n d ia n s 2 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 e q u a l t o 4 4 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l I n 1910 t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e r a c e s h ad becom e: W h ite s 1 ,1 5 0 ,0 0 0 e q u a l t o 7 .5 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l M e s t iz o s 8 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 e q u a l t o 53 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l I n d ia n s 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 e q u a l t o 39 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l The m e s t iz o lo n g h e l d t h e u n e n v ia b le p o s i t i o n o f a d i s t i n c t c l a s s , u n a c c e p t a b le t o t h e w h i t e , b u t w it h a f e e l i n g o f s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e n a t i v e . The w h it e p la y e d u p on t h i s ' c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n t o k e e p b o th g r o u p s i n s u b j e c t i o n . T h is d i s t i n c t i o n w as l o s t d u r in g t h e R e v o lu t io n and t h e tw o g r o u p s a r e to d a y w o r k in g f o r c l a s s s o l i d a r i t y . E d u c a to r s c o n s i d e r i t t h e d u ty o f t h e s o h o o l t o t e a c h a l l m em bers and c l a s s e s o f M ex ico : w h i t e , m e s t i z o . I n d ia n , u rb a n and r u r a l , t h e i r r i g h t s and d u t i e s an d t o h e lp them a c h ie v e and l i v e up t o t h e s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T h is t a s k i s tr e m e n d o u s b e c a u s e t h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l r i g h t s i s i t s e l f a lm o s t i m p o s s i b l e f o r a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o com p reh en d . U n der t h e en c o m ie n d a s y s te m i n New S p a in and * — _ e v e n d u r in g t h e f i r s t f i f t y y e a r s o f t h e r e p u b l i c b o th S t a t e and C hurch c o n s id e r e d t h e I n d ia n a s n o t b e in g a g e n t e d e r a z o n . a r a t i o n a l b e i n g . He w as n o t s u b j e c t t o t h e I n q u i s i t i o n and c o n v e r s e l y h e h ad no r i g h t s a s a human. B e n it o J u a r e z , h im s e l f a f u l l - b l o o d e d Z a p o t e e , w as th e f i r s t t o l e a d a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t t o g i v e t h e I n d ia n c o n s i d e r a t i o n . D fa z u n d id h i s w o rk , w hen h e a b r o g a te d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o r t h e R eform l a w s . S c h o o ls o f to d a y m u s t, t h e r e f o r e , e s t a b l i s h a n a t i o n a l lie la n g u a g e and s p r e a d t h e d o c t r i n e o f e q u a l i t y apd r e s p e c t f o r p e r s o n a l i t y . To f u r t h e r t h i s ca m p a ig n p r o le n g u a n a c i o n a l f o r a n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e t e a c h e r s f r e q u e n t l y m u st know th e 7 la n g u a g e o f t h e l o c a l i t y a s w e l l a s S p a n is h * I n th e m ean tim e t h e u n i v e r s a l ,l a n g u a g e o f a r t , m u s ic , dram a and t h e d a n ce i s u s e d t o s p r e a d t h e S o c i a l i s t d o c t r i n e . Many of t h e t e c h n iq u e s u s e d b y t h e new s c h o o l s a r e t h o s e u s e d by t h e C hurch i n b r in g in g a b o u t t h e m e n ta l s u b j e c t i o n o f t h e n a t i v e s d u r in g C o l o n i a l t i m e s . B u t t h e s p o n ta n e o u s s p i r i t o f th e p e o p le ,t o w a r d s t h e s c h o o l s i s a t h i n g t h a t th e c o u n tr y h a s n e v e r known b e f o r e . The s c h o o l s a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e p e o p l e , and o f t h e c o u n t r y . The s c h o o l i s t h e C asa d e l p u e b lo , t h e h o u s e o f t h e p e o p le * F e a s a n t s h a v e p la c e d t h e i r f a i t h i n t h e s c h o o l , t h e y h a v e s p i r i t u a l l y g r o u p e d t h e m s e lv e s a ro u n d i t , and h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h e m s e lv e s i n a m ore c e r t a i n , fe c u n d an d c o n s c io u s f a s h io n th e n a ro u n d t h o s e c h u r c h e s w h ic h t h e c o n q u e r o r f o r c e d them t o e r e c t t h r e e c e n t u r i e s a g o . 8 A n o th e r s t e p t h a t e d u c a t o r s c o n s id e r n e c e s s a r y i n t h e m arch o f M e x ic a n iz a t io n i s t h e r e g a i n i n g o f t h e e c o n o m ic m a s te r y o f t h e c o u n t r y . W h ile t h e c o u n tr y h a s i t s p o l i t i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e t h e e co n o m ic in d e p e n d e n c e i s s t i l l t o be won by t h e p e o p l e . I n 1 9 3 0 , l e s s th a n tw o th o u sa n d p e r s o n s owned m ore th a n 7 8 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s o f l a n d , a b o u t 1 9 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 7 P ro g ra m s d e E d u o a o io n d e A c u e rd o c o n l o s P o s t u la d o s d e l P la n S e x e n a l , p . 1 1 . 8 W illia m G a t e s , o£ . c i t . ( i t a l i c s I n o r i g i n a l ) . 117 9 a c r e s , o r m ore th a n o n e - t h i r d o r t h e la n d o f M ex ico * F o r e ig n c a p i t a l c o n t r o l s much o f t h e h e a v y in d u s t r y o f th e c o u n tr y a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e r e i s t h e c o n s t a n t t h r e a t o f f o r e i g n i n t e r v e n t i o n . The d i f f e r e n t i a l t h a t e x i s t s b e tw e e n t h e M e x ic a n and t h e 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 f o r e i g n e r s who e i t h e r l i v e i n M e x ic o o r c o n t r o l h e r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i s g i v e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e . P e r c a p i t a w e a lt h o f M e x i c o : ^ M e x ic a n s $ 192 F o r e ig n e r s i n g e n e r a l 2 2 ,3 5 0 E n g li s h 1 8 8 ,8 4 5 A m e rica n 9 7 ,3 6 8 F r e n c h 5 8 ,5 3 8 German 1 1 ,6 2 4 S p a n is h 4 ,1 8 5 C a n a d ia n 3 ,1 4 3 The p rogram o f e c o n o m ic M e x ic a n iz a t io n i n t h e s c h o o l s d o e s n o t aim t o e n c o u r a g e im m ed ia te e x p r o p r ia t i o n o f f o r e i g n 11 i n d u s t r y . No m ore d o e s i t aim a t d r i v i n g o u t f o r e i g n id e a s su c h a s m e c h a n iz a t io n o f i n d u s t r y . I t a im s , f i r s t o f a l l , a t m ak in g a l l t h e p e o p le c o n s c io u s o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e c o u n tr y d o e s n o t b e lo n g t o them and s e c o n d ly a t p r e p a r in g th em t o t a k e o v e r t h e s e i n d u s t r i e s e v e n t u a l l y , and r u n n in g th em a s e f f i c i e n t l y a s t h e y h a v e b e e n r u n i n t h e p a s t . M. P a l a c i o s , M E1 S i g n i f i c a d o de l a E d u c a c io n S o c i a l i s t a , ” P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t io n , 1 2 : 2 1 , F e b r u a r y , 1936* I . W. b ow erth," "The F e d e r a l S y s te m o f E d u c a tio n i n M e x ic o , n S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , S e p te m b e r 1 1 , 1937* 10 G ab in o A . P a lm a , " R iq u e z a y P o b la c io n d e M e x ic o ,» S en d a N u e v a , O c tu b r e , 1 9 3 5 . 11 L o c . c i t . 118 G ra p h ic c h a r t s an d t a b l e s a r e c o n s t a n t l y made b y t h e s t u d e n t s , b a s e d on in f o r m a t io n f u r n is h e d b y t h e n a t i o n a l d e p a r tm e n t o f e d u c a t io n th r o u g h b u l l e t i n s , m a g a z in e s , and l e c t u r e s . T h e se c h a r t s show t h e p a r t o f t h e c o u n tr y t h a t i s owned by f o r e i g n e r s and M e x ic a n c a p i t a l i s t s . T hey sh o w , r o r i n s t a n c e , t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f s u g a r t h a t a r e e x p o r te d and t h e s m a l l am ount t h a t r e m a in s i n M e x ic o , s u c h a s m a ll am ount t h a t many n a t i v e s n e v e r h a v e t a s t e d t h e co m m o d ity . T e a c h e r s u s e t h e s e e x a m p le s t o show why t h e g o v ern m en t h a s t a k e n o v e r m o st o f t h e l a r g e s u g a r p l a n t a t i o n s and w i l l n o t a l lo w t h e e x p o r t a t i o n o f su g a r p r o d u c e d on g o v ern m en t c o n t r o l l e d la n d . M e x i c a n iz a t i o n , i n t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e s c h o o l , i s an a t te m p t t o a llo w e a c h p e r s o n i n M e x ic o t o r e a c h t h e p o in t o f h i s c a p a b i l i t i e s . He i s t o b e f r e e d from a l l i n h i b i t i o n s and a r t i f i c i a l p r o h i b i t i o n s w h e th e r t h e y be o f a s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , o r eco n o m ic n a t u r e . The i n d i v i d u a l i s t o be e d u e a - 12 t e d t o t h e l i m i t o f h i s c a p a b i l i t i e s o r t o h i s c a p a c i t a c i o n . T h is e d u c a t io n i s n o t o f a n a c a d e m ic n a tu r e b u t r a t h e r o f a n i n t e g r a t e d , o r g l o b a l , t y p e o r S o c i a l i s t i c e d u c a t io n . The s t u d e n t w i l l w ork to w a r d r e a l i z i n g h i s own s o c i a l r i g h t s , n e v e r , h o w e v e r , f o r g e t t i n g t h e r i g h t s o f o t h e r s . He w i l l , b e a c i t i z e n o f t h e w o r ld a s w e l l a s a c i t i z e n o f M ex ico * 12 J o a q u in J a r a X>iaz, nF u n c io n S o c i a l d e l a E d u c a c io n P u b l i c a ," R e v i s t a d e E d u c a c io n ,S e p t ie m b r e , 1 9 3 7 . 119 IX . MEXICAN EDUCATION I S FUNCTIONAL, PROGRESSIVE, AND I S BASED ON W ORK Tli© h i s t o r y o f M e x ic o h a s show n t h a t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e t h e r e s u l t a n t o f u n n u m erab le f o r c e s b o th from w it h o u t and w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y . S o a l s o a r e h e r s c h o o l s t h e e q u i lib r iu m o f f o r c e s t h a t h a v e b e e n p u s h in g and p u l l i n g f o r c e n t u r i e s . I t w ou ld b e d i f f i c u l t t o name any p a r t i c u l a r f o r c e and s a y , " T h is on e made M e x ic o 1s s c h o o l s f u n c t i o n a l * o r p r o g r e s s i v e ." I n 1 9 2 3 , a F e d e r a l o r d e r w as s e n t o u t t h a t a l l o f h e r e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s w e re t o b e " s c h o o ls o f a c t i o n . " A s lo n g a s t h e s t u d e n t u s e d h i s h a n d s h e w as c o n s id e r e d t o b e p r o g r e s s i n g s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . An A m e r ic a n , P r o f e s s o r F re d S t a r r , in t r o d u c e d " f u n c t i o n a l e d u c a tio n " t o M e x ic o , and p u t t h e s c h o o l s i n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t io n g r o u p . F o r a w h il e t h e w atch w ord o f t h e c o u n tr y w as D ew ey, w it h t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n , r e a l i t y , s e l f - a c t i v i t y , and s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n . A c c o r d in g t o M o is e s S a e n z , fo rm e r s u b - s e c r e t a r y o f e d u c a t i o n , D ew ey1s tw o g r e a t s e r v i c e s t o M e x ic o l a y i n h i s c o n fir m in g M e x ic o 1s p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a t io n and i n l i b e r a t i n g h e r from 1 3 fo r m a l s c h o o l e q u ip m e n t. A t t h e sam e tim e t h e w ork o f a g r e a t M e x ic a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , D r . M an u el G am io, w as g o in g fo r w a r d i n t h e v a l l e y o f T e o t ih u a c a n . H ere h e w as s u r v e y in g a n e n t i r e se g m e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e , a w ork r e q u i r i n g r 13 "Newer A s p e c t s o f E d u c a tio n i n M e x ic o ," B u l l e t i n e P&&- A m e rica n U n io n . S e p te m b e r , 1929* 120 s e v e r a l y e a r s * A s a r e s u l t o f h i s s u r v e y h e d e c id e d t h a t o n ly a s c h o o l w h ic h em b raced a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e com m u n ity w as w o r th w h i l e . The i n d i v i d u a l m u st b e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e l i f e o f t h e g ro u p s o c i a l l y , e c o n o m i c a ll y , p o l i t i - 14 c a l l y , l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , and a r t i s t i c a l l y * T h is " i n t e g r a l e d u c a t io n ," he h o p ed w ou ld g u id e b o th c h i ld r e n and a d u l t s i n a l l p h a s e s o f t h e i r l i f e . " I n t e g r a l e d u c a t io n " i n c l u d e s g u id a n c e i n d i e t , c l o t h i n g , and s h e l t e r , i n h y g i e n e , i n t h e m e th o d s o f m ak in g a l i v e l i h o o d , i n t h e r e l a t i o n s o f n e ig h b o r s , i n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f e a c h v i l l a g e i n t o t h e e n v ir o n m e n t o f w h ic h i t form s a p a r t . B u t t o a p p l y " i n t e g r a l e d u c a tio n " i n t e l l i g e n t l y , i t i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e f i r s t t o s t u d y e a c h r e g i o n , s i n c e t h e r e q u ir e m e n t s o f g r o u p s l i v i n g u n d e r w i d e l y d i v e r s e c l i m a t i c and p h y s io g r a p h ic c o n d i t i o n s , w it h d i f f e r i n g a n t e c e d e n t s and c o n t a c t s , and i n d i s t i n c t s t a g e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t, a r e u n l i k e . 15 Out o f t h e s e b e g i n n in g s , b a c k e d b y th o u s a n d s o f o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e s su c h a s t h e o l d A z t e c e d u c a t io n and t h e w ork o f t h e e a r l y C hurch f a t h e r s , grew t h e p r e s e n t - d a y S o c i a l i s t i c s c h o o l . The c h i e f r e a s o n t h a t t h e s c h o o l s o f M e x ic o a r e p r im a r ily f u n c t i o n a l i n t h a t t h e y a r e l a r g e l y s c h o o l s f o r r u r a l and p r o l e t a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n . I t h a s b e e n e s t im a t e d t h a t m ore th a n 8 0 p e r c e n t o f M e x ic o ’ s p o p u l a t i o n i s r u r a l . 16 14 M anuel G am io, l o c . c i t . 15 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , o p . p i t * , p . 5 2 0 . 16 F ran k Tannenbaum , "The L iv in g S c h o o l ," J o u r n a l o f A d u lt E d u c a t io n , 5 : 1 1 - 1 9 , J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 3 . P ro g ra m s de E d u c a c io n d e A c u e rd o c o n l o s P o s t u la d o s d e l P la n S e x e n a l , 1 9 3 5 , p . 1 3 , g i v e s 6 6 .2 7 p e r c e n t “ T h is r e f e r s t o a s t r i c t l y r u r a l p o p u la t io n w h ile Tannenbaum l i s t s p o p u la t io n i n to w n s o f l e s s th a n fo u r th o u s a n d . 1 2 1 R u r a l e d u c a t io n and t h e a g r a r i a n q u e s t io n i n M e x ic o a r e tw o t h i n g s w h o lly i n s e p a r a b l e . The o n ly p o s s i b l e way t o m ee t and s o l v e e i t h e r i s by c o n f r o n t in g b o th in a s i n g l e a t t a c k . R u r a l e d u c a t io n a f f e c t s o v e r t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , and a f f e c t s t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e s s e s o f M e x ic o ’ s e co n o m ic and p o l i t i c a l l i f e t o su c h an e x t e n t t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o a t tem p t a s e r i o u s s o l u t i o n o f an y o f t h e im p o r ta n t p r o b le m s o f t h e n a t i o n w it h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t , t h e c u l t u r a l and e c o n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p e a s a n t s . 17 Im p rovem en t o f l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . B e c a u s e o f t h e c u l t u r a l and e co n o m ic n e e d s o f t h e p e a s a n t s t h e e d u c a t io n g iv e n i n t h e s c h o o l s i s l a r g e l y c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e p r o b le m s o f l i f e on t h e s o i l o r i n t h e s m a ll com m u n ity. T h e r e f o r e , t h e m a e s tr o i s e x p e c t e d t o l i v e i n t h e com m unity and p l a y t h e 18 l e a d i n g r o l e i n a l l t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e p l a c e . I f t h e w a te r s u p p ly o f t h e r e g i o n i s c o n ta m in a te d , t h e t e a c h e r l e a d s th e a t t a c k upon t h e f o c u s o f p o l l u t i o n w it h t h e h e l p o f t h e e n t i r e com m u n ity. F a r t o f t h e tim e t h e s t u d e n t s la b o r on t h e i r w ork e a r l y and j o i n i n t h e t a s k . O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e m a e s tr o e x p l a i n s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f m ic r o b e s and t h e w ays i n w h ic h d i s e a s e s p r e a d s . I t i s f r e q u e n t l y im p o s s ib le t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n s c h o o l and com m unity work* W illia m G a t e s , o p . c i t . , p . 7 . "L os M a e s tr o s D eb en V i v i r en e l P o b la d o Donde T r a b a ja n ," B s c u e la R u r a l, 30 d e J u n io , 1 9 2 7 . R o b e r t J . P a r k e r , "The M e x ic a n S c h o o l S y s te m T o d a y ," S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , 4 0 : 5 5 8 - 6 2 , O c to b e r 2 7 , 1 9 3 4 . F ran k Tannenbaum , P e a c e b y R e v o l u t i o n , p . 2 8 2 . 1 2 2 C u r r ic u lu m m ak in g t h u s r e s o l v e s i t s e l f i n t o a commu n i t y p r o j e c t w h ic h s o o n b e c o m e s c l e a r c u t . T e a c h e r s do n o t n e e d t o sp en d h o u r s and d a y s d e c i d i n g w h at i s t o b e t a u g h t and how i t s h a l l b e t a u g h t . N e e d s a r e o b v io u s and t h e s c h o o l s w ork t o s a t i s f y th em . P e r h a p s t h e s c h o o l i s i n a m a la r ia o r s m a llp o x r e g i o n . X f s o t h e s c h o o l p r o v id e s i t s e l f w it h q u in in e o r v a c c i n a t i n g n e e d l e s . T he v i r t u e o f im m ed ia te c a r e i s t a u g h t t o t h e c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s w h ile g r a d u a lly an a t t a c k i s made on t h e fu n d a m e n ta l c a u s e s o f t h e d i s e a s e . E d u c a t io n a l w ork i s c a r r i e d fo r w a r d b y m eans o f s i g n s and p o s t e r s m ade by t h e c l a s s e s , who l e a r n t h e l i f e sp a n o f t h e m a la r ia m o s q u ito and t h e way i n w h ic h i t b r e e d s and s p r e a d s d i s e a s e . T he p o s t e r s a r e t h e n p la c e d i n c o n s p ic u o u s p l a c e s w h ere t h e y w i l l add t o t h e k n o w le d g e o f t h e com m u n ity. I n t h e p r o c e s s o f c a r r y in g o u t t h i s s p e c i f i c cam p aign th e c h i l d r e n h a v e r e a d a l i t t l e , w r i t t e n a l i t t l e , draw n much an d h a n d le d t h e m e d ic in e s and p e r h a p s b u i l t a m e d ic in e c h e s t . When t h e a u th o r v i s i t e d T e p o z t la n , c h o s e n b y R o b e r t R e d f i e l d a s t h e t y p i c a l M e x ic a n v i l l a g e , i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e s c h o o l had an u p - t o - d a t e m e d ic in e c a b i n e t , made b y t h e s t u d e n t s and k e p t b y them i n a n e a t , s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n . E v e r y d e v i c e known t o t h e D e p a r tm en t o f R u r a l E d u c a tio n i s a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e s c h o o l s , i n c lu d i n g a w e e k ly co m ic s t r i p i n one o f t h e 19 e le m e n ta r y p a p e r s f o r t h e s t u d e n t s . P o l i n y P o l i n , " G r a f ic o d e A g r i c u l t u r e , M arzo 1 5 . 1936. 123 Im p rovem en t o f e c o n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s . I* o c a l i n d u s t r i e s , c r a f t s , and e n t e r p r i s e s a r e s t u d i e d and im p r o v e d . P o t t e r y , w e a v in g , b a s k e t r y o r le a t h e r w o r k may be among t h e s o u r c e s o f in com e f o r t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . I f s o t h e t e c h n i q u e s a r e s t u d i e d and p o s s i b l e c h a n g e s m ad e. On t h e I s l a n d o f J a n i t z i o p a r t o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n i s i n l a c a o r t h e n a t i v e la c q u e r w ork on t h e g o r g e o u s j f e a r a s s o n o te d i n t h a t c o u n t r y . I n T e o tih u a o a n t h e s c h o o l s im p ro v ed t h e r a t h e r c r u d e brow n and b la c k p o t t e r y o f t h e r e g i o n , m ak in g i t m ore s e r v i c e a b l e , b u t a t t h e sam e tim e r e t a i n i n g t h e n a t i v e r h y th m ic d e s i g n s . The im p ro v ed d e s ig n i n c r e a s e d t h e s a l e o f t h e p r o d u c t , c o n s id e r a b ly t o t h e e co n o m ic b e t te r m e n t o f many o f t h e p e o p l e . M aguey f i b e r w as d e v e lo p e d i n t h e s e sam e s c h o o l s i n t o a f o u n d a t io n f o r r u g m ak in g t h a t now e n j o y s c o n s i d e r a b l e v o g u e . A g r i c u lt u r e i s c o n s t a n t l y s t u d i e d , t a l k e d , and l i v e d . I n a c o u n tr y e s s e n t i a l l y a g r i c u l t u r a l i t seem s u n b e l ie v a b l e t h a t d e v e lo p in g a s c h o o l g a r d e n a s an e d u c a t i o n a l t e c h n iq u e w as t i m i d l y a d v a n c e d by a r u r a l t e a c h e r l e s s th a n f i f t e e n y e a r s ago* Y e t su c h i s t h e f a c t , an d to d a y t h e s c h o o l g a r d e n , o r c h a r d , and a v i a r y a r e a lm o s t M e x ic a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . G ard en s a r e e x p l o i t e d i n e v e r y p o s s i b l e fo rm . T h ere a r e e x p e r im e n t a l g a r d e n s and c o o p e r a t i v e g a r d e n s and g a r d e n s t o p r o v id e n e e d e d v e g e t a b l e s f o r u n d e r n o u r is h e d c h i l d r e n . Prom tim e im m em o ria l t h e M e x ic a n h a s s t u c k a s t i c k i n t h e g ro u n d and d r o p p ed i n h i s s e e d . T oday i t i s a d i f f i c u l t t a s k t o 1 2 4 c o n v in c e t h e fa r m e r t h a t h e s h o u ld c u l t i v a t e , f e r t i l i z e , and i r r i g a t e . So on t h e s c h o o l g r o u n d s a c o r n f i e l d i s o f t e n d i v id e d i n t o s e v e r a l s e c t i o n s w h ere t h e m a iz e i s grow n u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . I n o n e t h e c o r n i s p la n t e d and l e f t u n d is t u r b e d . I n a n o t h e r i t i s w e e d e d , b u t u n c u l t i v a t e d ; i n y e t a n o th e r i t i s w e e d e d , c u l t i v a t e d , and, f e r t i l i z e d . The r e s u l t s s p e a k f o r t h e m s e lv e s an d n e ig h b o r in g c a m p e sin o s l e a r n a s r a p i d l y a s d o e s th e c h i l d . V a r io u s k in d s o f v e g e t a b l e s a r e r a i s e d i n o r d e r t o in t r o d u c e them t o th e l o c a l i t y and e n c o u r a g e a b e t t e r b a la n c e d d i e t . Im p rovem en t o f h o u s in g . One o f M e x ic o ’ s g r e a t e s t s o c i a l n e e d s t h a t i s b e in g m et by t h e s c h o o l s i s a k n o w le d g e o f b e t t e r h o u s in g . Due t o th e y e a r s o f i n s e c u r i t y i n t h e i r la n d t e n u r e t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n h a s l i v e d u n d e r m is e r a b le c o n d i t i o n s . F u n d a m e n ta lly , t h e r e a r e b u t two t y p e s o f s t r u c t u r e s i n an y g i v e n l o c a l i t y o f M e x ic o : t h e t y p e o f h o u s e u s e d b y t h e in d ig e n e s when t h e S p a n ia r d s cam e, and 20 t h e t y p e b r o u g h t by t h e c o n q u e r o r s from S p a in . O fte n t h e h o m e s, p a l a c e s , and c h u r c h e s e r e c t e d by t h e S p a n ia r d w e re im p r e s s iv e and o s t e n t a t i o u s b u t u t t e r l y o u t o f k e e p in g w it h t h e l o c a l i t y . M a t e r i a l s w e re f r e q u e n t l y b r o u g h t from g r e a t d i s t a n c e s an d t h e s t y l e came e v e n f a r t h e r . A b u i l d i n g t h a t 20 C h a r le s Macomb F la n d r a u , V iv a M e x ic o , p . 117* J . K. T u r n e r , B a r b a r o u s M e x ic o , p . 1 1 1 . EU JJ. T r o w b r id g e , M e x ic o T oday and T om orrow , p . 1 1 0 . w as i d e a l r o r t h e f l a t , a r i d p l a i n s o f C a s t i l e w o u ld be e n t i r e l y o u t o f p l a c e i n t h e m o u n ta in s o f D uran go o r M e x ic o w it h t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d s o f t o w e r in g c r a g s and t h e i r m on th s o f t o r r e n t i a l r a in * T o o , t h e i r m eth o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , m akin g u s e o f tre m en d o u s s t o n e s o f hand hewn t e z o n t l e , and g i g a n t i c c a r v e d beam s w ere e n t i r e l y o u t o f t h e r e a lm o f p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e common m an. The S p a n ia r d , t h e r e f o r e , made l i t t l e o r no c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e M e x ic a n ’ s k n o w le d g e o f h o u s in g . The p o o r c o n t in u e d t o l i v e i n t h e sam e t y p e o f h o u s e t h e y 21 had o c c u p ie d b e f o r e t h e C o n q u est* I n t h e S o u t h e a s t one f i n d s t h e Maya d w e l l i n g , a n e l l i p t i c a l s t r u c t u r e w it h b u t one o p e n in g ', a door* I t i s o r d i n a r i l y b u i l t o f lim e s t o n e o r w a t t l e s , c o v e r e d w it h s t u c c o , and su rm o u n ted w it h a g r a s s 22 o r p a lm r o o f* The I n d ia n s i n t h e t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s s t i l l o c c u p y th o u s a n d s o f j a c a l e s f l i m s i l y and p r i m i t i v e l y made o f p a lm b r a n c h e s . T he j a c a l i s o f t e n no m ore th a n a s h e l t e r , o r w in d b r e a k , r e m a in in g op en on on e s i d e . On t h e p l a t e a u t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e s t o n e or a d o b e c o n s t r u c t i o n w it h g r a s s o r t i l e r o o f s . Tlie t i l e r o o f i s a S p a n is h c o n t r i b u t i o n , b u t i t s u s e i s o n ly f e a s i b l e w h ere t h e r e i s en o u g h tim b e r t o b u i l d a s t r o n g r o o f t o h o ld t h e h e a v y t i l i n g . I n t h e n o r t h e r n p i R o b e r t R e d f i e l d , T e p o z t la n s A M e x ic a n V i l l a g e , p . 31* I . E r ic T hom pson, M e x ic o b e f o r e C o r te z T pp* 9 5 -9 7 * 22 J . E r ic T hom pson, C i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e M a y a s, p . 8 4 . E* L* H o w e rth , A n c ie n t l i f e Tn M e x ic o and C e n t r a l A m e r ic a , p p . 290 f* 1£6 and w e s t e r n s t a t e s b u i l d i n g h a s lo n g b e e n o f a d o b e w it h a f l a t r o o f m ade o f c l o s e l y l a i d w i l lo w s o v e r w h ic h a r e p a c k e d £3 s e v e r a l i n c h e s o f . e a r t h . When t h e g o v ern m en t s t a r t e d i t s w id e s p r e a d r u r a l - e d u c a t io n p rogram i n 1 9 £ 1 , i t w as c o n f r o n t e d w it h t h e p r o b lem o f h o u s in g t h e s c h o o l s . T h ere w as s o l i t t l e m oney a v a i l a b le t h a t i t w as o b v io u s no s o r t o f b u i l d i n g p rogram c o u ld b e u n d e r ta k e n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o l i c y w as s t a r t e d , w h ic h i s s t i l l b e in g f o l l o w e d , o f e x p e c t i n g t h e l o c a l i t y t o f u r n i s h t h e s c h o o l b u i l d i n g i n r u r a l a r e a s . T h rou gh t h e c o o p e r a t i v e la b o r o f t h e c a m p e s in o s a b u i l d i n g w ou ld be e r e c t e d o r an ab an d on ed s t r u c t u r e r e h a b i l i t a t e d . O fte n c h u r c h e s o r p a r t s £4 o f c h u r c h e s w e r e r e n o v a te d and tu r n e d i n t o s c h o o l s * T h e se b u i l d i n g s s t i l l sh ow ed a te n d e n c y t o b e p r i m i t i v e , d a r k , and d i r t y . A s t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ere o p p o se d t o th e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e new s c h o o l s , i t becam e o b v io u s t h a t t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e m u st be h a r m o n iz e d . R e g io n a l d i r e c t o r s to o k a g r e a t e r p a r t i n h e l p i n g c i t i z e n s d e s ig n new s t r u c t u r e s . L a t e r th e T r a v e l l i n g M is s io n s w e re s t a r t e d and t h e y to o k t h e l e a d i n r e g i o n a l b u i l d i n g . The T r a v e l l i n g M is s io n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a t g r e a t e r l e n g t h l a t e r o n , b u t i t i s n o t o u t o f L u c ie n B i a r t , The A z t e c s , T h e ir H i s t o r y , M a n n e r s, and C u sto m s. H e r b e r t E . B o l t o n , R im o f C h r iste n d o m . Thomas Gann and J . E r ic T hom pson, T he H is t o r y o f t h e M aya. m . S . P it t m a n , "New S c h o o ls i n O ld M e x ic o ,” J o u r n a l o f t h e N a t io n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c i a t i o n , M ay, 1 9 3 1 . F ran k TePtnenbaum, o p . c i t . , p . £ 7 7 . 127 p la o © h e r e t o s a y t h a t i t i s com p osed o f a g ro u p o f e x p e r t t e a c h e r s who t o u r back w ard s e c t i o n s i n s t r u c t i n g i n - s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s and c o m m u n itie s i n b e t t e r t e c h n iq u e s o f l i v i n g an d t e a c h i n g . O r d in a r ily t h e M is s io n s t a y s i n one com m unity f o r s i x w e e k s . S u ch a s t a y g i v e s t h e s t a f f tim e t o b u i l d a m o d el home o r s c h o o l from m a t e r i a l s o f t h e c o u n t r y . The d e s i g n s t r i v e s f o r m ore room , c o n v e n ie n c e , s a n i t a t i o n , and f r e s h a i r . M ost o f t h e r e g i o n a l N orm al S c h o o ls h a v e a m o d e l home w h ic h c o m b in e s a l l t h e s e f e a t u r e s and y e t r e m a in s w i t h i n t h e c o s t r a n g e o f t h e p e o p le * A f t e r a s c h o o l h a s b e e n p r o v id e d , t h e r e y e t r e m a in s u n l im i t e d w ork f o r t h e t e a c h e r and p u p i l s t o a c c o m p lis h . A c a r p e n te r sh o p and f o r g e i s o b t a in e d and t h e s c h o o l com m unity g o e s a b o u t i t s w ork o f im p r o v in g w o r k in g and l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . I f t h e b u i l d i n g p r o v id e d i s p a r t o f an o ld s t r u c t u r e i t may be f l o o r e d , w in d ow s c u t o u t and c u r t a i n s p r o v id e d b y t h e g i r l s i n t h e i r d o m e s t ic s c i e n c e w o rk . P e n s and c a g e s a r e b u i l t and m a in ta in e d f o r p i g e o n s , p i g s , c h i c k e n s , r a b b i t s , o r w h a te v e r a n im a ls t h e s t u d e n t s ca n o b t a i n . A t h e a t e r , e i t h e r i n s i d e o r o p e n - a i r , i s b u i l t n e x t . B a s k e t b a l l s ta n d a r d s a r e e r e c t e d and a c o u r t c le a r e d and l e v e l e d f o r p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . T h is p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y d o e s n o t e x c lu d e t h e l e a r n i n g o f m ore a c a d e m ic s u b j e c t s f o r , i n t e r s p e r s e d w it h t h e m an u al and p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y , a r e s t u d y p e r io d s w hen t h e s t u d e n t s a v i d l y r e a d m a t e r i a l f u r n is h e d by t h e 128 25 F e d e r a l d e p a r tm e n t on m e th o d s o f d o in g a l l t h e s e t h i n g s . B lu e p r in t and p la n r e a d in g come n a t u r a l l y a s p la n s a r e draw n and f o llo w e d by t h e g r o u p . M ost o f t h e r e a d e r s f o r t h e c l a s s e s a r e f i l l e d w it h s t o r i e s o f c h i l d r e n who im p ro v ed t h e i r own e n v ir o n m e n t. Or t h e s t o r i e s may d e a l w it h t h e s t o r y o f a r e g i o n t h a t w as v i s i t e d b y d r o u g h t c o n t i n u o u s l y u n t i l t h e p e o p le c o n s t r u c t e d a dam a n d l e d w a t e r , c o o p e r a - 26 t i v e l y , t o t h e f i e l d s # H ere in d e e d t h e term s o common i n M e x ic o , s c h o o l s o f a c t i o n ( e s c u e l a s d e a c c i o n ) , i s a p p l i c a b l e . I n t h e s e p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s on e f i n d s t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f r e a l i t y . The s c h o o ls a r e f r e e from t h e " p la y a c t i n g and s i g h t - s e e i n g " w h ic h som e o b s e r v e r s c o n s i d e r w e a k n e s s e s o f ou r own p r o g r e s s i v e s c h o o l s . 27 I n g e n e r a l t h e m o r n in g s a r e s p e n t s t u d y in g S p a n is h , a r i t h m e t i c , s o c i o l o g y , n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , a g r i c u l t u r e an d a n im a l h u sb a n d r y . The a f t e r n o o n s a r e t h e n d e v o te d t o t h e s c h o o l com m u n ity’ s n e e d s . A fte r w a r d s t h e s t u d e n t s i n d u l g e i n s o n g s , d a n c e s and g a m es, w h il e t h e a d u l t s a r e a s s e m b lin g f o r t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n s and c l a s s e s . C am paign a g a i n s t a l c o h o l i s m . A cam p aign a g a i n s t a l o o h o l i s m o , o r in te m p e r a n c e i s s p o n s o r e d b y a l l t h e f e d e r a l s c h o o l s o f t h e c o u n t r y . D r in k in g p u lq u e , t h e fe r m e n te d j u i c e C a ls o F l o r e s Z am ora, " M exican R u r a l E d u c a tio n and A d m in i s t r a t i o n ," P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t io n , F e b r u a r y , 1936# 26 S i m i e n t e , L i.b r o s , I , IX , I I I , and IV ; E l P u e b lo Q,ue T e n ia S e d ; l e c t u r a s P o p u la r e s . 27 K a t h e r in e M. C ook , The H o u se o f t h e P e o p l e , p . 1 1 . 129 o f t h e m aguey p l a n t , i s a w e l l - n i g h n a t i o n a l c u sto m t h a t d a t e s h a c k i n t o t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s . Among b o th M ayas and A z t e c s t h e r e w a s much im b ib in g o f a c e r e m o n ia l n a t u r e . G e n e r a l d r in k in g w as f o r b id d e n among t h e A z t e c s , i n f a c t p e r s o n s u n d e r s e v e n t y who o v e r in d u lg e d w e re l i a b l e t o 28 f o r f e i t t h e i r l i v e s . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , many r e c o r d s o f t h e e x c e s s e s t o w h ic h d r in k in g w as c a r r ie d d u r in g r e l i g i o u s o r g i e s . T oday p u lq u e r £ a s a r e p l e n t i f u l i n m o st p a r t s o f M e x ic o and e v e n i n t h e s t a t e s w h ere p r o h i b i t i o n i s i n e f f e c t 29 p u lq u e i s i n e v i d e n c e . T h er e a r e , o f c o u r s e , o t h e r a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s s o l d and d run k i n t h e c o u n t r y b u t n o n e o f th em h a v e t h e h ig h c o n su m p tio n r a t e o f p u lq u e . The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s u n i v e r s a l t h i r s t a r e m a n if o ld ; p r i m a r i ly t h e d r in k i s s o c h e a p t h a t th e n a t i v e s may f e e l t h e y c a n n o t a f f o r d n o t t o d r in k i t . On t h e p l a t e a u a l i t r e , s l i g h t l y m ore th a n a q u a r t , s e l l s f o r l e s s th a n f o u r c e n t s . S e c o n d ly , p u lq u e d r in k in g h a s b e e n a form o f n a t i o n a l e s c a p is m d u r in g t h e c e n t u r i e s o f b e s t i a l o p p r e s s io n . The p e o p le o f t h e c o n t r e y a r e o f a g o o d s t a t u r e , taw n y c o lo u r e d , b ro a d r a c e d , f l a t n o s e d , and g iv e n much t o d r in k b o th w in e o f S p a in e and a l s o a c e r t e i n e k in d o f w in e w h ic h t h e y make w it h h o n y o f M a g u e iz , an d r o o t s an d o t h e r t h i n g s w h ic h t h e y u s e t o p u t i n t o t h e sa m e. T hey c a l l t h e same w in e P u l c o . T h ey a r e 2 8 E r ic J*. T hom pson, o p . c i t . , p . 6 8 . L e s l i e J . M i t c h e l l , The C o n q u e st o f t h e M aya, p . 1 6 7 . pa R o b e r t R e d f i e l d , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 1 f . E d gar 1 . E e w e t t , A n c ie n t L i f e i n M e x ic o and C e n t r a l A m e r ic a , p . 3 2 6 . 130 so o n e d r u n k e , and g iv e n t o much b e a s t l i n e s s , an d v o id o r a l l g o o d n e s s e .3 0 When t h e c i v i l and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s h ad g ro u n d th e l a s t c e n ta v o f o r t h e p e o n , t h e r e w as n o t h in g l e f t f o r h im e x c e p t a r e l i g i o u s f i e s t a w h ere he was e n c o u r a g e d t o im b ib e t o o b l i v i o u s d r u n k e n n e s s . O fte n t h e h a c e n d a d o s f o r c e d t h e 3 1 l a b o r e r s t o t a k e p a r t o f t h e i r p ay i n p u lq u e . P u lq u e t a k e s a tre m en d o u s t o l l from t h e M e x ic a n n a t io n from t h e s t a n d p o in t o f h e a l t h , c u l t u r e , an d e c o n o m ic s . The m eth od o f o b t a i n in g p u lq u e i s u n h y g ie n ic t o t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e . A m aguey p la n t i s to p p e d and th e a g u a m ie l, h o n ey w a t e r , w e l l s i n t o t h e c a v i t y t o b e su c k e d o u t th r o u g h a lo n g g o u r d , t h e a c o c o t e , b y t h e t l a c h i q u e r o . The s u c t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e t l a c h i q u e r o ’ s l i p s draw s i n t h e l i q u i d b u t a l s o draw s b a c k s a l i v a t h u s a d d in g t o t h e b a c t e r i a c o u n t . The a g u a m ie l i s c a r r ie d t o t h e t i n a c a l in p i g s k i n c o n t a i n e r s and t h e r e p la c e d i n b e e f h id e v a t s t o fe r m e n t. V a r io u s I m p u r it ie s a r e a d d ed t o h u r r y f e r m e n t a t io n . Among t h e a d u l t e r a n t s t h a t a r e p o u r e d i n t o th e p u lq u e a r e t e q u e s q u i t a , a c h a lk y r o c k ; x i x i , a n a t i v e p l a n t t h a t c o n t a i n s l y e ; v e g e t a b l e p a r in g s ; and so m e tim e s e v e n c a n i n i l l a , o r d o g e x c r e m e n t, t o i n c r e a s e t h e f e r m e n t a t i o n .3 2 The d i s t r i b u t i o n i s e q u a l l y d i s g u s t i n g and p r i m i t i v e . 30 R ic h a r d H a k lu y t , The E n g lis h V o y a g e s , V I , p . 2 8 6 . P ran k Tannenbaum , P e a c e by R e v o l u t i o n , o p . c i t . , p p . 28*-30. 3 2 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , 0 £ . c i t . , p . 5 3 8 . 131 P u lq u e r f a s l a d l e o u t t h e l i q u o r from o p en c o n t a i n e r s . The a l c o h o l i c c o n t e n t i s a b o u t e q u a l t o b e e r , b u t p u lq u e i s a b a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e t h a t c o n t in u e s i t s fe r m e n t i n t h e i n t e s t i n e s an d may e v e n t u a l l y le a d t o a to x e m ia c a u s in g a d ru n k en s t u p o r . The " n a t io n a l c u r s e " i s i n e v id e n c e i n e v e r y s tr a tu m o f s o c i e t y . M o th e r s f r e q u e n t l y w ean t h e i r c h i l d r e n on p u lq u e b e c a u s e i t c a n be o b t a in e d f o r t w e lv e c e n t a v o s a l i t r e w h ile m ilk i s t h i r t y . l a b o r e r s in f i e l d and f a c t o r y c a r r y g o u r d s o r j u g s o f t h e m ilk y f l u i d w liie h t h e y consum e a s t h e i r t h i r s t i s a g g r a v a te d b y t h e h e a t . C h urch f e s t i v a l s a r e l i t t l e m ore 3 3 th a n d ru n k en o r g i e s t h a t f r e q u e n t l y l a s t tw o o r t h r e e d a y s . Among t h e m a s s e s d r u n k e n n e s s and s e x u a l d e b a u c h e r y form t h e a ft e r m a t h o f many r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s , an d a lw a y s h a v e .34 From a n e c o n o m ic s t a n d p o in t p u lq u e i s a b a t t e n i n g p a r a s i t e s u c k in g t h e l i f e b l o o d fro m t h e n a t i o n . P r o d u c t io n and c o n su m p tio n o f t h e l i q u o r i s bound up w it h t h e l i f e o f t h e p e o p le on t h e m esa c e n t r a l t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t i t r e s e m b le s a c a n c e r o u s g r o w th t h a t c a n s c a r c e l y be e x t r a c t e d w it h o u t t a k i n g t h e l i f e o f t h e v i c t i m . D r in k in g o t h e r form s o f a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s a d d ed t o p u lq u e d r in k in g m ak es a b u r d e n in d e e d f o r t h e a l r e a d y h a g - r id d e n c o u n tr y t o w it h s t a n d . 3 3 C a r l L u m h o ltz , New T r a i l s i n M e x ic o , p . 1 2 5 . P h i l l i p s R u s s e l l , B ed T i g e r , "pi &&1* 3 4 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , o£ . c i t . , p p . 5 4 1 -5 4 & . E rna F e r g u s s o n , F i e s t a i n M e x ic o , p . 4 0 . 13 E I n 19E3 t a x e s w e r e p a id on a p r o d u c t io n o f 2 9 4 ,1 1 7 ,7 5 0 l i t r e s ( l i t r e - 1 . 0 5 6 7 q u a r t s ) . The D e p a r tm en t o f S t a t i s t i c s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t y e a r ' s p e r c a p i t a c o n su m p tio n i n t h e n in e p u lq u e -g r o w in g s t a t e s ( H id a lg o , T l a x e a l a , M e x ic o , P u e b la , Y era O ru z, 4 u e r e t a r o , G u a n a ju a to , M ic h o a c a n , S a n L u is .iB e t o s i) and t h e F e d e r a l D e i s t t l o t , t o be 4 5 8 i i t r e s , o r on e and a q u a r t e r l i t r e s d a i l y . The c o n su m p tio n i s u n d o u b te d ly much g r e a t e r — f o r t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s consu m ed i n t h e f i e l d s c a n n o t b e e s t i m a t e d . I t g r e a t l y e x c e e d s t h a t o f o t h e r a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s . ’ I n t h e same y e a r , t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t io n and im p o r t a t io n o f w i n e s , l i q u o r s , and s p i r i t s o f a l l k in d s w as g i v e n a s 4 2 ,8 4 8 ,0 3 5 l i t r e s — a l s o a g r e a t u n d e r e s t im a t e , s i n c e a g u a r d ie n t e i n t h e ' t r o p i c s , and m e s c a l , d i s t i l l e d from a s m a l l e r v a r i e t y o f a g a v e , a r e made p r i v a t e l y i n many h a m le t s . The c o n su m p tio n o f b e e r w as 4 8 ,4 8 5 ,7 4 6 l i t r e s , an a c c u r a t e f i g u r e , s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o k e e p c h e c k on t h e - o u t p u t o f b r e w e r i e s . R ed u ced t o te r m s o f a l c o h o l i c c o n t e n t , t h e N a t i o n a l D ep a rtm en t o f S t a t i s t i c s c a l c u l a t e d an a n n u a l c o n su m p tio n e q u i v a l e n t t o 7 * 9 3 l i t r e s o f p u r e a l c o h o l p e r p e r s o n i n M e x ic o , com p ared w it h 4 .E 0 i n H o lla n d and 2 * 3 1 i n N orw ay. The s c h o o l s h a v e u n d e r ta k e n a t a s k t h a t r i v a l s th e c l e a n i n g o f th e A u gean S t a b l e s . P r e s i d e n t C a l l e s h ad t o a d m it d e f e a t w hen i t came t o a b o l i t i o n o f t h e p u lq u e i n d u s t r y . I f t h e t r u t h w ere known p e r h a p s m ore th a n one o f t h e f e d e r a l s c h o o l t e a c h e r s who s a c r i f i c e d h i s l i f e o s t e n s i b l y t o th e c r i s t e r o s w as a v i c t i m o f a l o c a l l i q u o r l o r d who r e s e n t e d t h e t e a c h e r * s o u ts p o k e n a t t a c k s on t h e e v i l . A t l e a s t one S t a t e D i r e c t o r l o s t h i s p o s i t i o n from t h e sam e c a u s e . S o d e p e n d e n t i s t h e c i t y (S a n C r i s t o b a l in C h ia p a s) u p on t h e s a l e o f a g u a r d ie n t e t o t h e I n d i a n s , and u p o n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f th em t h a t an a tte m p t by t h e F e d e r a l 3 5 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , o p . c i t . , p p . 5 4 1 - 5 4 2 . S t a t i s t i c s w e re ta k e n from E s t a d i s t i c a N a c i o n a l , N o . 3 , F e b r u a r y , 15, 1 9 2 5 , p . 1 0 . 133 S c h o o l D i r e c t o r t o i n i t i a t e an a n t i - a l c o h o l i c cam p a ig n among t h e Cham ula I n d ia n s l e d t o s u c h v i o l e n t p r o t e s t s and d i f f i c u l t i e s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e m urder o£ tw o t e a c h e r s by m em bers o f t h e w h it e c o m m u n ity ), t h a t t h e D i r e c t o r w a s f o r c e d t o l e a v e t h e S t a t e . I n m ore th a n on e i n s t a n c e , t e a c h e r s who h a v e b e e n e d u c a t in g t h e I n d ia n s t o a s e n s e o f t h e i r r i g h t s h a v e b e e n m u r d e r e d .36 P a t i e n t l y t h e t e a c h e r s a r e w o r k in g , day a f t e r d a y , w it h t h e y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s i n day s c h o o l an d th e a d u l t s in n i g h t s c h o o l . M u r a ls and p o s t e r s a r e made t h a t show g r a p h i c a l l y t h e l o s s t o w o r k e r and c o u n tr y from a l c o h o l i s m o . A l l o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s show t h a t t h e M e x ic a n s c h o o l i s a t t e m p t in g t o d e v e lo p a ty p e o f M e x ic a n c i t i z e n s s u p e r io r t o t h e M e x ic a n o f t h e p a s t . The s c h o o l a im s t o be f u n c t i o n a l an d p r o g r e s s i v e th r o u g h b e in g a s c h o o l o f w ork o r o f a c t i o n . A f u n c t i o n a l o r p r o g r e s s i v e c u r r ic u lu m d o e s n o t m ean a n y form o f a c t i v i t y t h a t t e a c h e r o r s t u d e n t may c h o o s e t o in d u lg e i n i s a c c e p t a b l e b u t t h a t s o c i a l l y u s e f u l and m e a n in g f u l a c t i v i t y o n ly may b e i n c lu d e d . M e x ic o i n t e n d s t o t r a i n men an d women who c a n t h e m s e lv e s f i t i n t o a new s o c i e t y and who c a n h e l p t o b r i n g a b o u t s o c i a l c h a n g e . How s u c c e s s f u l M e x ic o h a s b e e n i n t h a t w ork s o f a r i s a t t e s t e d t o b y a t l e a s t on e A m e rica n s o c i o l o g i s t . I n a c t u a l p r e p a r a t io n f o r l i f e T e p o z t I a n ’ s e d u c a t i o n a l m e th o d s a r e s u p e r i o r t o M id d le to w n ’ s .3 7 F rank T annenbaum , o p . c i t . , p . 3 0 . 37 S t u a r t C h a se , M e x ic o : A S tu d y o f Two A m e r ic a s . p . 1 7 2 . I I I . MEXICAN EDUCATION I S FREE, OBIJGATORY, INTEGRAL AND I S DESIGNED TO ORIENT P r o v id in g f r e e f e d e r a l s c h o o l s w h ic h e v e r y c h i l d s h a l l h e c o m p e lle d t o a t t e n d i s a p a r t o f S o c i a l i s t S c h o o l P rogram o f M e x ic o .38 S o f a r i t se em s l i t t l e m ore th a n a dream , a c h im e r a , an d an o b s e r v e r lo o k in g a t M e x ic o ’ s p ro b lem w o u ld b e a t l i b e r t y t o c a l l i t an i m p o s s i b i l i t y w ere i t n o t f o r t h e a c c o m p lis h m e n ts t o d a t e and t h e a g g r e s s i v e way in w h ic h t h e g o v e rn m e n t i s p u s h in g fo rw a rd a s y s te m o f s c h o o l s t h a t t h i n l y c o v e r s t h e e n t i r e r e p u b l i c . T h er e a r e s c h o o l s i n e v e r y p a r t o f M e x ic o and t h e b u i l d i n g o f new o n e s g o e s on u n a b a te d . The a u t h o r h a s s e e n t h e f a m i l i a r e s c u e l a r u r a l f e d e r a l i n t h e m o st u n l i k e l y and u n e x p e c te d s p o t s i n M e x ic o , and many o t h e r n tQ o b s e r v e r s r e p o r t t h e same t h i n g . When, h o w e v e r , one lo o k s a t t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e p i c t u r e , h e w o n d e rs how s o o n n a t u r e w i l l ch eck m a te man w it h t h e tre m en d o u s o b s t a c l e s sh e im p o s e s . B e s i d e s t h e b a r r i e r s o f r a c e , la n g u a g e , c a s t e , and c u sto m c o n f r o n t in g t h e e d u c a t i o n a l z e a l o t s t h e r e a r e th e g e o g r a p h ic a l b a r r i e r s o f s tr e a m in g j u n g le h e a t , b a r r a n c a s th o u s a n d s o f f e e t d eep t h a t c o n t a i n r a g in g , im p a s s a b le r i v e r s w hen on e o f t h e — J . J e s u s De La R o sa P . , l o c . c i t . P la n d e A c c io n d e l a E s c u e la P r jja a r ia S o c i a l i s t s , p . I . G. T e l l e z , S o c i a l i z a t i o n de l a C u lt u r a , p . 3 7 . 39 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , o p . c i t . , p . 5 2 3 . F ran k T annenbaum , op."1 " " c it . , C h a p ter XX7. K. A . S a r a f i a n , ’’New S c h o o ls i n O ld M e x ic o ,” S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , 3 5 : 8 9 0 , J a n u a ry 1 6 , 1 9 3 2 . G. I . S a n c h e z , l o c . c i t . L a r r y B a r r e t t o , B r ig h t' M e x ic o , p p . 144 f f . 135 su d d en r a in s t o r m s a r i s e s . T h ere a r e t h e m o u n ta in r a n g e s t h a t t r a v e r s e t h e n a t i o n i n e v e r y d i r e c t i o n and t h r u s t t h e i r su m m its up from s i x t o t w e lv e and f o u r t e e n th o u sa n d f e e t . P o r h u n d r e d s o f m i l e s t h e a u to m o b ile h ig h w a y w e s t o f M e x ic o C it y i s a t e l e v a t i o n s r u n n in g from s i x th o u s a n d t o e l e v e n th o u sa n d f e e t ; o n ly a t o n e s p o t , R io T u xp an , d o e s i t d rop t o f i v e th o u s a n d f e e t . Xn p l a c e s c o r n f i e l d s a r e s o s t e e p t h a t t h e w o r k e r s h a v e t o l e t e a c h o t h e r down by r o p e s t o p l a n t and h a r v e s t t h e i r c r o p s . V i l l a g e s f r e q u e n t l y v a r y a th o u sa n d f e e t i n e l e v a t i o n from one b o u n d a ry t o t h e o t h e r . 4 0 I n t h e n o r t h and w e s t a r e t h e d e s e r t s w h ere t h e m i s i o n e r o s o f th e p r e s e n t g o v e rn m e n t f o l l o w t r a i l s b la z e d b y P a th e r E u s e b io K in o and o t h e r m i s s i o n a r i e s a h u n d red and f i f t y y e a r s a g o . The o n ly p r o o f t h a t a s c h o o l c a n be p r o v id e d f o r e v e r y c h i l d i u M e x ic o l i e s i n t h e l i s t o f w h at h a s b e e n a c c o m p lis h e d s i n c e 1 9 2 1 . The o n ly e v id e n c e o f t h e s i n c e r i t y o f S o c i a l i s t p o l i c y o v e r t h a t o f t h e a n c ie n r e g im e i s i n a n o b j e c t i v e com - 4 1 p a r i s o n . The f o l l o w i n g s t a t i s t i c a l s u r v e y i s i l l u m i n a t i n g . Y e a r E d u c a t io n a l b u d g e t o e n t o f ° n a t i o n a l b u d g e t 1 8 6 8 -1 9 0 7 7 0 ,8 8 1 ,6 8 4 .0 5 p e s o s 4 .5 5 5 1 9 0 7 -1 9 0 8 7 ,0 1 0 ,2 4 9 .9 2 " 6 .7 5 8 1 9 0 8 -1 9 0 9 7 ,1 4 1 ,0 1 9 .0 3 » 6 .7 6 8 1 9 0 9 -1 9 1 0 6 ,6 0 0 ,1 6 5 .0 0 M 6 .7 4 4 1 9 1 0 -1 9 1 1 7 , 8 6 2 ,4 2 0 .7 4 " 7 ,0 8 9 1 9 1 1 -1 9 1 2 8 ,1 8 3 ,1 6 2 .3 7 " 7 .4 8 5 4 0 R o b e r t R e d f i e l d , o £ . c i t . , p . 7 1 . 4 1 M anuel R . Palacios, loc. cit. 136 P e r c e n t o f Y ea r E d u c a t io n a l b u d g e t n a t i o n a l b u d g e t 1 9 1 2 - 1913 8 155 4 4 3 .2 0 p e s o s 7 .3 2 3 1 9 1 3 - 1914 13 926 6 0 0 .1 2 t » 9 .8 6 6 1 9 1 4 - 1 915 9 656 4 7 3 .6 5 tt 6 .8 7 5 1917 1 507 5 1 6 .2 9 tt 1 .2 1 2 1918 1 389 1 7 5 .4 4 , tt 1 .2 6 6 1919 1 8 1 2 6 9 3 .7 5 ft .8 4 2 1920 2 2 1 8 1 6 5 .7 5 tt .9 3 6 1 9 2 1 12 296 2 6 5 .0 0 it 4 .9 0 3 1922 4 9 826 7 1 6 .0 0 tt 1 2 .9 8 7 1 9 2 3 52 3 6 2 9 1 3 .5 0 tt 1 5 * 0 2 6 1 9 2 4 25 523 3 4 7 .6 0 tt 8 .5 6 5 1925 ' 21 568 5 7 5 .4 1 tt 7 .1 3 8 1926 22 4 3 4 9 2 5 .9 6 tt 7 .1 3 8 1927 20 036 7 0 8 .8 3 tt 7 * 0 3 5 1 9 2 8 25 8 2 1 6 0 1 .5 4 ft 9 .0 0 5 1929 27 165 0 6 3 .0 7 tt 9 .6 1 6 193 0 33 2 2 1 7 2 1 .7 0 tt 1 1 .3 0 9 1 9 3 1 35 200 0 0 0 .0 0 tt 1 1 .7 5 3 1 9 3 2 28 8 2 2 1 0 3 .3 6 tt 1 3 .3 9 2 1933 3 1 627 2 8 9 .3 4 tt 1 4 ,6 7 3 1 93 4 3 1 3 1 9 1 8 3 .2 8 ft 1 2 .8 4 4 1 9 3 5 44 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 .0 0 tt 1 6 .1 5 3 I n 1 9 3 6 , t h e am ount s p e n t w as 5 2 ,0 6 5 ,0 8 6 .5 7 p e s o s , 1 8 .1 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l b u d g e t . The b u d g e t f o r 1937 w as 4 2 5 3 ,8 6 2 ,7 6 5 .8 3 t o w h ic h l a t e r w as ad d ed 1 ,7 9 7 ,6 7 9 .2 6 p e s o s . I t w as t h e a im o f t h e P .N .R . and o f P r e s i d e n t l a z a r o C a rd en a s t o d e v o t e 15 p e r c e n t o f t h e b u d g e t i n 1 9 3 4 t o e d u c a t io n . F o r 1 9 3 6 , 16 p e r c e n t w ou ld b e earm ark ed t o e d u c a t i o n , f o r 1 9 3 6 , 17 p e r c e n t ; f o r 1 9 3 7 , 18 p e r c e n t ; f o r 1 9 3 8 , 19 p e r c e n t ; and 20 p e r c e n t f o r 1 9 3 9 . D u r in g t h e s e sam e y e a r s i t w as h op ed t o add new s c h o o l s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g n u m b ers: o n e th o u sa n d i n 1 9 3 4 ; tw o th o u s a n d e a c h y e a r from 1 9 3 5 t o 1 9 3 8 i n c l u s i v e , an d t h r e e th o u sa n d i n 1 9 3 9 . I n 1 9 2 9 t h e r e w e r e 6 ,1 0 6 ^ I . W * H o w e rth , "The F e d e r a l S y s te m o f E d u c a tio n in M e x ic o , l o c . c i t . 137 r u r a l p r im a ry s c h o o l s in M e x ic o ; i n 1 9 3 3 , t h e y e a r b e f o r e C a rd en a s t o o k o f f i c e , t h e r e w e r e 7 ,0 1 8 ; i n 1 9 3 6 , t h e r e w e r e 1 1 * 1 3 3 r u r a l p r im a r y s c h o o l s . R u r a l t e a c h e r s i n c r e a s e d i n t h e same p e r io d a s f o l l o w s : i n 1 9 2 9 , t h e r e w ere 7 ,1 7 9 r u r a l p r im a r y t e a c h e r s ; i n 1 9 3 3 , t h e r e w e r e 9 ,2 9 8 and i n 1 9 3 6 , 4 3 t h e r e w e r e 1 4 ,7 4 3 . S t u d e n t s in t h e s e sam e s c h o o l s num bered > 2 8 2 ,2 5 3 i n 1 9 2 9 ; 5 8 2 ,8 2 0 i n 1 9 3 3 ; 7 3 7 ,3 2 9 i n 1 9 3 6 . T h e se f i g u r e s do n o t , o f c o u r s e , i n c l u d e t h e u r b a n p r im a r y , t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s , t h e r u r a l n o r m a ls , n o r m a ls an d s p e c i a l s c h o o l s t h a t t h e g o v e rn m e n t m a i n t a i n s . X f on e lo o k s b a c k o v e r t h e h i s t o r y o f M e x ic o , h e i s l i k e l y t o be p e s s i m i s t i c a s t o th e f u t u r e o f M e x ic o in s p i t e o f t h e s e a p p a r e n t ly o p t i m i s t i c d a t a . The n a t i o n i s s u c h a r i c h pawn i n t h e h a n d s o f e x p l o i t e r s t h a t sh e h a s n e v e r b e e n a b le t o s u c c e e d e v e n w hen s h e h a s s t a r t e d on a c o u r s e o f r e fo r m . Xn g l a n c i n g o v e r t h e t a b l e sh o w in g e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e n d it u r e s o n e im m e d ia te ly s e e s t h a t e v e r y tim e t h e b u d g e t s t a r t e d t o c lim b som e f o r e i g n f a c t o r c r e p t i n t h a t f l a t t e n e d o f f t h e c u r v e * 1/hen P r e s i d e n t O bregon s t a r t e d h i s i d e a l i s t i c w ork in 1 9 2 1 , an d seem ed on t h e way t o s u c c e s s , h e w as m u rd ered b y a C r i s t e r o , a C a t h o li c f a n a t i c . The c r i s t e r o u p r i s i n g s h e ld t h e e d u c a t i o n a l b u d g e t s down from 1 9 2 4 t o 1 9 2 9 . A g a in i n 1 9 3 4 , t h e s c h o o l s s u f f e r e d a s e t - b a c k due t o t h e C a t h o li c 4 3 " E s t a d i s t i c a , " R e v i s t a de E d u c a c io n , S e p t ie m b r e , 1937* S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , N ovem ber 6 , 1 9 3 7 , l i s t s 1 1 ,0 7 8 s c h o o l s i n 1 9 3 6 and 1 4 ,7 3 4 t e a c h e r s . 138 C h u rch ’ s c a l l i n g a s t u d e n t s t r i k e . T oday t h e i n f l u e n t i a l c l a s s e s and t h e C hurch a r e s t i l l th r o w in g a l l t h e i r w e ig h t a g a i n s t t h e a d v a n c e o f t h e s c h o o l s . I n s e l f - d e f e n s e t h e g o v e rn m e n t i s t u r n in g m ore and m ore t o t h e I n d ia n f o r t h e s u p p o r t o f num bers and o f i n t e r e s t . The I n d ia n h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y p r o v e d h i m s e l f t o t h e b e s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y and i s to d a y t h e g o v e r n m e n t’ s s t a u n c h e s t s u p p o r te r # X t s [ t h e s c h o o l ’ s ] a im i s n o t h in g l e s s th a n t h e g e n e r a l d i f f u s i o n o f k n o w le d g e , i n w h ic h v a r io u s e d u c a t i o n a l a g e n c ie s a r e e m p lo y e d . No g ro u p i s t o be n e g l e c t e d , l e a s t o f a l l t h e I n d ia n . I n 1 9 3 6 , t w e n t y - s e v e n b o a r d in g s c h o o l s f o r I n d ia n s w e re f u n c t i o n i n g and f i v e m ore w ere a b o u t t o b e o p e n e d . Of 1 ,0 8 0 r u r a l s c h o o l s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h a t y e a r , 75 p e r c e n t w e re i n d i s t r i c t s h a v in g a p u re I n d ia n p o p u l a t i o n .4 4 A s y n t h e s i s o f a l l t h i s a c t i v i t y w o u ld l e a d t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l s a r e m a k in g a r e a l i s t i c a s w e l l a s i d e a l i s t i c e f f o r t t o l i v e up t o t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b e in g f r e e and o b l i g a t o r y . I t a p p e a r s t h a t many y e a r s m u st s t i l l e l a p s e b e f o r e e v e r y c h i l d w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d i n a f e d e r a l s c h o o l , an d t h e p r o m is e s o f t h e p rogram c o m p le t e ly c a r r i e d o u t . The t h i r d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i t h i n t h i s g r o u p , " i n t e g r a l , ” s i g n i f i e s t o t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e p la n t h a t t h e e n t i r e s c h o o l s y s te m w i l l b e i n t e g r a t e d and a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n i t s e l f # A c o m p le te s y s te m i s e n v i s i o n e d t h a t w i l l c o m p r is e e d u c a t io n fro m t h e j a r d i n de n in o s t o a g o v ern m en t s u p p o r te d S o c i a l i s t ^ I . W # H o w erth , "The F e d e r a l S y s te m o f E d u c a tio n in M e x ic o ," l o c . c i t . 139 u n i v e r s i t y . T h is p la n d o e s n o t in c lu d e t h e p r e s e n t u n iv e r s id a d n a c i o n a l w h ic h h a s b e e n g u a r a n te e d au tom on y by t h e g o v e r n m e n t. W h ile t h e c o m p le te p la n f o r t h e f i n a l i n t e g r a l s y s te m i s w ork ed o u t and i s i n o p e r a t io n i n many u r b a n c e n t e r s c l e a r t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y , i t i s s t i l l l a r g e l y t h e o r e t i c a l w hen c o n s i d e r e d on a n a t io n - w id e s c o p e . The f i r s t d r i v e o f th e S e c r e t a r i s t o f E d u c a tio n i s t o s e e e v e r y c h i l d i n a p r im a ry s c h o o l . When t h a t o b j e c t i v e i s a t t a i n e d t h e n e x t g o a l w i l l b e t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s o v e r th e e n t i r e c o u n t r y . S c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . The j a r d in de n in o s i s sh o w in g t h e same s a l t a t o r y g r o w th t h a t h a s m arked t h e s p r e a d o f t h e * V , ' p r im a ry s c h o o l s . I n 1 9 3 4 , t h e r e w ere f i f t y - n i n e su c h c e n t e r s ; i n 1 9 3 5 , t h e t o t a l jum ped t o ISO; i n 1 9 3 6 , t h e r e w e r e 154 j a r d i n e s de n i n o s . The M e x ic a n k in d e r g a r t e n i s a s o c i a l ' w e l f a r e a s w e l l a s an e d u c a t i o n a l c e n t e r . I t s p u rp o se- i s t o h e lp c a r e f o r t h e c h i l d r e n o f w o r k in g m o t h e r s , t o ad d t o t h e p h y s i c a l h e a l t h o f th e c h i l d th r o u g h r e s t , s u n s h in e , and d i e t a r y c o r r e c t i o n s ; and t o s t a r t th e w ork o f S o c i a l i s t i c i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . The w ork i s c a r r i e d oh th r o u g h f r e e gam es and a c t i v i t i e s , t h e u s e o f d r a w in g , sa n d t a b l e s , c o n v e r s a t i o n s and t r i p s t o l a b o r a t o r i e s , f a c t o r i e s , w o r k s h o p s, and t o t h e hom es o f w o r k e r s . I f t h e c h i l d i s from a m o d e r a te ly w e l l - t o - d o home h e i s t o be made c o n s c io u s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h ic h h i s l e s s f o r t u n a t e b r o t h e r s l i v e . I f h e com es 140 from tli© p o o r e s t t y p e o f home t h e e n v ir o n m e n t o f t h e k in d e r g a r t e n i s e x p e c t e d t o a r o u s e i n him t h e n e e d f o r a s i m p l e , . 45 e c o n o m ic a l, h y g i e n i c , m o r a l, and a e s t h e t i c hom e. C l e a n l i n e s s , b e t t e r h e a l t h h a b i t s and a k n o w le d g e o f n a tu r e a r e s t r e s s e d . N a tu r e s t u d y i s c o n s id e r e d o f p rim e im p o r ta n c e b e c a u s e i t b e g in s t h e t r a i n i n g i n a r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t o f n a t u r e , i t m ak es t h e c h i l d c o n s c io u s o f t h e n a t u r a l n e e d s and b e n e f i t s o f t h e c o u n t r y , and i t a d d s t o t h e c h i l d ’ s c o l l e c t i o n o f s p e c i f i c in f o r m a t io n upon w h ic h h e c a n l a t e r b u ild s c i e n t i f i c g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . S tu d y i s made o f s e a s o n a l c h a n g e s , o f t h e s u p e r f i c i a l h a b i t s o f i n s e c t s , b i r d s and a n im a ls , and o f t h e n e e d t o c o n s e r v e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s th r o u g h t h e s a v in g and p l a n t i n g o f t r e e s and s h r u b s . P a t r i o t i s m i s i n c u l c a t e d th r o u g h t e a c h i n g r e s p e c t t o t h e f l a g , from h i s t o r i c a l s t o r i e s and from t r i p s t o m useum s and a r c h e o l o g i e a l c e n t e r s o f i n t e r e s t • The p r im a r y s c h o o l s f a l l i n t o t h r e e c l a s s e s : r u r a l , se m iu r b a n an d u r b a n . R u r a l p r im a r y s c h o o l s a r e o f fo u r y e a r ’ s d u r a t io n w h il e t h e se m iu r b a n and u rb a n may c o n t a in tw o c y c l e s , t h e f o u r - y e a r and an u p p e r c y c l e o f tw o y e a r s . A t t h e c o m p le t io n o f t h e f o u r - y e a r r u r a l s c h o o l t h e s t u d e n t S e c r e t a r i a d e E d u c a c io n P u b l i c s , J a r d in e s de N in o s y E s c u e la s P r im a r ia s . M e x ic o , 1 9 3 7 , p p . 1 9 -2 5 * _ R o sa u r a Z a p a ta , ” La E d u c a c io n d e l N in o e n l a E dad P r e - E s c o l a r R e v i s t a d e E d u c a c io n , J u l i o d e 1937* 141 may e n t e r t h e R e g io n a l R u r a l S c h o o l w h ere h e s p e c i a l i z e s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o b le m s f o r tw o y e a r s . T h o se s t u d e n t s who d e s i r e t o b e r u r a l t e a c h e r s may t h e n g o th r o u g h t h e t h i r d y e a r o f t h e s c h o o l . Xn t h e c i t i e s t h e g r a d u a t e s o f t h e f o u r - y e a r e le m e n ta r y may e i t h e r e n t e r s p e c i a l v o c a t i o n a l c o u r s e s o r c o n t in u e th r o u g h t h e u p p e r tw o y e a r s o f t h e p r im a r y . G r a d u a te s o f t h e s i x - y e a r e le m e n t a r y s c h o o l a r e r e a d y f o r th e . T e c h n i c a l and V o c a t io n a l s c h o o l s , t h e S e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s , o r t h e F iv e - Y e a r N o r m a l. G r a d u a te s o f t h e S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l may e n t e r t h e H ig h e r T e c h n ic a l andl V o c a t io n a l s c h o o l s , th e P r e p a r a t o r y S c h o o l , o r t h e S u p e r io r N o rm a l. A t t h e com p l e t i o n o f t h e P r e p a r a t o r y S c h o o l t h e s t u d e n t i s r e a d y f o r t h e u n i v e r s i t y . The R e g i o n a l R u r a l S c h o o l . The R e g io n a l R u r a l S c h o o l h a s h ad an i n t e r e s t i n g e v o l u t i o n . D u r in g t h e p e r io d o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e M e x ic a n s c h o o l s y s t e m i n t h e 1 9 2 0 * s th e R u r a l N orm al w as c r e a t e d . I t f o llo w e d t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e r u r a l p r im a r y s c h o o l i n t h a t i t w a s d e s ig n e d t o m e e t t h e s o c i a l and e c o n o m ic n e e d s o f t h e r e g i o n . A t t h e sam e tim e t h e F e d e r a l S e c r e t a r i a t o f A g r i c u l t u r e e s t a b l i s h e d a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o l s i n v a r io u s s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y . A s t h e s e s c h o o l s had no p r e c e d e n t i n M e x ic o , t h e y w e r e p a t t e r n e d a f t e r A m e rica n and E u ro p ea n c o l l e g e s . M odern m a c h in e r y w as in t r o d u c e d , p u r e b r e d s t o c k e s t a b l i s h e d a n d , i n g e n e r a l , m o d e l s c h o o l s o f t h e N o r th A m e rica n t y p e e s t a b l i s h e d . From t h e f i r s t , t h e s e 142 c e n t e r s f a i l e d b e c a u s e t h e y w ere n o t a d a p te d t o t h e l o c a l e * Xn few p a r t s o f M e x ic o i s i t f e a s i b l e o r d e s i r a b l e t o u s e pow er m a c h in e r y , c o m b in e s , gan g p lo w s and o t h e r l a r g e - s c a l e fa r m in g e q u ip m e n t. The s t o c k g e n e r a l l y su ccu m b ed t o l o c a l d i s e a s e s and i n s e c t s . I n 1 9 3 2 , t h e C e n t r a le s A g r £ c o la s w ere tu r n e d o v e r t o t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n w it h a n e n r o llm e n t o f a p p r o x im a te ly 50 p e r c e n t o f c a p a c i t y . The A g r i c u l t u r a l S c h o o ls and t h e R u r a l N o rm a ls w ere com b in ed a s r a p i d l y a s e x p e d ie n t i n t o t h e R e g io n a l T r a in in g S c h o o l s . T h is b r a n c h i s u n d e r t h e D e p a r tm en t o f R u r a l N orm al S c h o o l s a n d C u lt u r a l M i s s i o n s . An e d u c a t io n w as p r o v id e d t h a t f i t t e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t y ; m ore e m p h a sis w as p la c e d on p r e p a r in g r u r a l t e a c h e r s ; and t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s w ere g iv e n e q u a l im p o r ta n c e w it h p u r e ly t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g . T h er e w e r e n in e C e n t r a le s A g r £ c o la s when t h e y w e r e tu r n e d o v e r t o t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a t io n . The D e p a r tm en t had s e v e n t e e n R u r a l N orm al S c h o o ls f u n c t i o n i n g i n a s many s t a t e s w hen t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c e n t e r s w ere a d d e d . By 1 9 3 4 , t h e num ber o f N orm al S c h o o ls h ad b e e n r e d u c e d t o e l e v e n , w h ile t h e r e w e r e b u t f i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o l s l e f t . The r e m a in d e r h ad b e e n m erged t o form s i x R e g io n a l T r a in in g S c h o o l s . T h er e w e r e 46 9 0 1 b o y s an d g i r l s i n t h e s e R e g io n a l t r a i n i n g s c h o o l s . By t h e summer o f 1 9 3 7 , a l l o f th e s c h o o l s had b e e n f u s e d and S e c r e t a r i a De E d u c a c io n P u b l i c a , M em oria R e l a t i v e a l E s ta d o Q,ue G uarda e l Ramo de E d u c a c io n P u b l i c a , I , p . 1 0 9 . 143 o t h e r s a d d e d , b r in g in g t h e t o t a l t o t h i r t y R e g io n a l t r a i n i n g s c h o o l s i n w h ic h 3 ,4 5 5 s t u d e n t s w ere r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . I n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e R e g io n a l T r a in in g S c h o o l i s f r e e , t h a t i s , t h e g o v ern m en t p a y s a l l o f t h e s t u d e n t s ’ l i v i n g e x p e n s e s . The s c h o o l i s e x p e c t e d t o b e a g e n e r a l c o l l e g e f o r t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . I t l e a d s t h e c a m p e sin o h e a r e r t o h i s c a p a c i t a c i o n th a n d o e s t h e r u r a l p r im a r y . E m p h a sis i s s t i l l p la c e d on t h e r e g i o n a l c u l t u r e , and on im p r o v in g m e th o d s o f l i v i n g f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n and f o r in t r o d u c in g im p ro v ed t e c h n iq u e s o f a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s t r y . The s t u d e n t s a r e t r a i n e d i n l e a d e r s h i p q u i t e n a t u r a l l y th r o u g h b e in g l e a d e r s w h il e t h e y a r e i n s c h o o l . T h ey o r g a n iz e c o o p e r a t i v e s i n t h e s c h o o l and com m u n ity, t h e y h a v e c o m m itte e s f o r a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s c h o o l , and a l l t h e tim e th e y ta.ke t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e s c h o o l . V a r io u s c o m m is s io n s and t h e e x p e d i t i o n s k e e p i n c o n t a c t w it h t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e r e g i o n s u r r o u n d in g t h e s c h o o l , i n s t i t u t i n g r e fo r m s and im p r o v em e n ts much a s t h e C u lt u r a l M is s io n s d o . D e f i n i t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s p la c e d up on t h e s t u d e n t body f o r t h e im p r o v e m en t o f r u r a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e v i c i n i t y . S t u d e n t s h a v e many o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o d i s p l a y q u a l i t i e s o f l e a d e r s h i p i n r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n s and t h e y a r e g u id e d i n t o a t t a c k i n g l o c a l p r o b le m s i n a n a t u r a l way and a s m em bers o f t h e s o c i a l g r o u p .47 B e c a u s e o f t h e tr e m e n d o u s demand f o r t e a c h e r s , p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f th e g r a d u a t e s o f t h e R e g io n a l T r a in in g s c h o o l s e n t e r 4 7 G eo rg e I . S a n c h e z , o p . c i t . , p . 1 4 9 . nLa E d u c a c io n A g r ic o X a y f o r m a l R u r a l ,” C o n f e r e n c ia I n t e r a m e r io a i a d e E d u c a c io n , I I I , p . 2 6 . 144 t h e t e a c h i n g f i e l d . The u l t i m a t e a im i s t o h a v e en ou gh s c h o o l s o f t h i s n a t u r e t o g i v e e v e r y c h i l d who can p r o f i t by i t , t r a i n i n g i n a g r i c u l t u r e o r e d u c a t io n s o t h a t he ca n c h o o s e b e tw e e n t e a c h i n g and fa r m in g . A t t h e p r e s e n t tim e t h e r e a r e n o t e v e n en o u g h o f t h e s e s c h o o l s t o m ee t t h e d e mand f o r t e a c h e r s s o t h a t a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t e a c h e r s a r e s im p ly r u r a l s c h o o l g r a d u a te s * T e c h n ic a l and v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n . The D ep a rtm en t o f T e c h n ic a l E d u c a tio n i s p r o v id in g t r a i n i n g i n many o f th e s k i l l s , a r t s , v o c a t io n s and p r o f e s s i o n s th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n tr y * \ T h e ir w ork i s i n t e g r a t e d c l o s e l y w it h th e work o f t h e r e g u la r s c h o o l s i n many i n s t a n c e s and i s in s e p a r a t e p l a n t s i n o t h e r s . T e c h n ic a l w ork i s o f f e r e d i n n i g h t s c h o o l s f o r t h e s t u d e n t s who h a v e c o m p le te d f o u r y e a r s o f e le m e n t a r y work and w is h t o c o m p le te f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g . T h e s e E s c u e l a s de A r t e s £ Q f i c i o s f u n c t i o n a s a n n e x e s t o th e p r e v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s t h a t h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n v a r io u s p a r t s o f t h e n a t i o n . G r a d u a te s o f t h e f u l l s i x y e a r s o f p r im a r y e d u c a t io n may g o i n t o t h e p r e v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s o f w h ic h t h e r e w ere tw e n t y - o n e i n J u l y , 1 9 3 7 . T en o f t h e s e s c h o o l s w e re l o c a t e d i n t h e F e d e r a l 4 8 D i s t r i c t and t h e r e m a in d e r w e r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e R e p u b lic . 4 8 Ju an De D io s B a t i z , wLa R e a l i z a c i o n d e l a E n se n a n z a T e c n ic a , d e C o n fo rm id a d con l o s E s t a b l e c i d o p o r e l P la n S e x e n a l," R e v i s t a de E d u c a c io n , J u l y , 1937* 145 T h e se s c h o o l s a im t o g i v e im m e d ia te t r a i n i n g f o r i n d u s t r i a l and v o c a t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n an d p r e p a r a t io n f o r t h e V o c a t i o n a l and P r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o l s . B o th P r e v o c a t i o n a l and V o c a t io n a l s c h o o l s a r e o f tw o y e a r ’ s d u r a t io n . S p e c i a l T e c h n i c a l s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n c o n j u n c t io n w it h r e g u l a r s c h o o l s f o r g i v i n g v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g t o g i r l s . A n o th e r t y p e o f s c h o o l t h a t i s a r o u s in g c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i s t h e S c h o o l f o r t h e C h ild r e n o f t h e A rm y, a s i x - y e a r p r im a r y s c h o o l t h a t g i v e s s p e c i a l e m p h a sis t o v a r i o u s k in d s o f sh o p w o rk . The g o v ern m en t m a in t a in s t h e s e s c h o o l s , a s t h e name i n d i c a t e s , f o r t h e c h i l d r e n o f s o l d i e r s . The e x p e n s e f o r t h e i r f o o d , s h e l t e r , an d u p k eep i s b o r n e e n t i r e l y by t h e g o v e r n m e n t. T h er e w e r e s i x o f t h e s e s c h o o l s i n 1 9 3 7 ; tw o i n M e x ic o C i t y , on e e a c h i n P a tz c u a r o , C u a d a la ju a r a , T o r r e o n , and T l a x c a l a . The s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . The s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e s t a n d s s o c i a l i s t i c e d u c a t io n t h r e e y e a r s upw ard from t h e s i x t h y e a r o f t h e p r im a r y s c h o o l . I t , t o o , i s a u n iq u e , M e x ic a n t y p e o f s c h o o l t h a t h a s b e e n o r g a n iz e d s i n c e t h e R e v o l u t i o n . I n 1 8 6 8 , t h e e s c u e l a p r e p a r a t o r ia w as o r g a n iz e d i n M e x ic o , b a s e d on E u ro p ea n and H o r th A m e rica n p a t t e r n s . D u r in g t h e y e a r o f i t s i n c e p t i o n t h e r e w e r e 5 6 8 s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d , a s e l e c t 4 9 I . W. H o w e rth , " T e c h n ic a l, I n d u s t r i a l and C o m m ercia l E d u c a tio n i n M e x ic o ," S c h o o l an d S o c i e t y , Ju n e 3 6 , 1 9 3 7 . 146 a r i s t o c r a t i c g ro u p p r e p a r in g p u r e ly f o r t h e u n i v e r s i t y . T en y e a r s l a t e r t h e r e w e re b u t 880 s t u d e n t s i n t h i s b r a n c h o f e d u c a t io n , sh o w in g t h a t i t w as n o t d e s ig n e d t o m ee t dem ands f o r p o p u la r e d u c a t i o n . By p r e s i d e n t i a l d e c r e e s o f A u g u st 29 and D ecem ber 2 2 , 1 9 2 5 , t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l w as e s t a b l i s h e d . A l i t t l e m ore th a n a y e a r l a t e r t h e r e w ere 6 ,5 6 3 a d o l e s c e n t s e n r o l l e d i n s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n . A t f i r s t an e n r o llm e n t f e e w as c h a r g e d , b u t i n 1 9 3 5 t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l w as d e c la r e d g r a t u i t o u s and t h a t y e a r saw 1 1 ,6 4 0 M e x ic a n c h i l d r e n o f b o th s e x e s a t t e n d i n g . Of t h i s num ber 7 6 .7 p e r c e n t b e lo n g e d t o t h e w o r k in g c l a s s , 1 9 .8 6 p e r c e n t t o t h e m id d le c l a s s , and 50 3 # 4 4 p e r c e n t t o t h e a r i s t o c r a c y . R e a l i z i n g t h a t b u t a s m a ll p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l w i l l e n t e r t h e u n i v e r s i t y , th e c u r r ic u lu m h a s b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d t o b e o f im m e d ia te s o c i a l an d p r a c t i c a l v a l u e . I t c o n t in u e s t h e m e th o d s and t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l an d a t t e m p t s t o d e e p e n t h e s t u d e n t ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s s o c i a l n e e d s . An e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e s e c o n d a r y p rogram i s t h e p r e v o c a t i o n a l w ork g iv e n i n a l l s c h o o l s . S h o p s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d w h ere t r a i n i n g i s g i v e n i n c a r p e n t r y , m e t a lw o r k in g , l e a t h e r w o r k , p r i n t i n g , d o m e s tic s c i e n c e and many o t h e r p r a c t i c a l a r t s . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s w ork i s t w o f o ld : t o h e lp t h e s t u d e n t c h o o s e th e ty p e v Ju an B . S a l a z a r , B a s e s o f t h e S o c i a l i s t S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l , ( E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n by F r a n c is c o O la v e ) , p . 1 4 . 147 o f o c c u p a t io n f o r w h ic h h© i s f i t t e d and w h ic h i n t e r e s t s h im , an d t o g i v e t r a i n i n g t h a t w i l l make h im a b l e t o b e t t e r h im s e l f v o c a t i o n a l l y * The S o c i a l i s t i c S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l , a s t h e p r e v o c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f M e x ic a n S o c i e t y , i s t h e k in d o f i n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h o f f e r s r e a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r human im p r o v em e n t. X t i s t h e la b o r a t o r y s c h o o l m ea n t t o b r in g f o r t h new g e n e r a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m od ern t im e s ; a n i n s t i t u t i o n w h e r e in t h e d e s t i n i e s o f a b e t t e r M e x ic o w i l l b e m o d e le d ( n o t a f o r e i g n c o l o n i a l M e x ic o o r i n d u s t r i a l p r o t e c t o r a t e ) ; b u t a c o u n tr y t h e n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s o f w h ic h , i t s l a n d s , o i l , i n d u s t r i e s and w ood s may be d i r e c t l y e x p l o i t e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e l a b o r in g c l a s s e s , a c t u a l l y w o r k in g su c h f i e l d s o f p r o d u c t i o n .5 1 The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l a s g i v e n b y 5 2 P r o f e s s o r Ju an B . S a l a z a r , C h ie f o f t h e D ep a rtm en t o f S e c o n d a r y E d u c a tio n , a r e a s f o l l o w s : A . I t i s a M id d le - E d u c a t io n S c h o o l. B . I t i s a D e m o c r a tic S c h o o l C* I t s o c i a l i z e s y o u t h . D* I t i s a s e l e c t i v e s c h o o l . E . I t g i v e s p r a c t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n . F . I t b u i l d s human c h a r a c t e r , and e d u c a t e s f o r c i t i z e n s h i p . G. I t i s p r e - v o c a t i o n a l . H. I t co m b a ts b u r e a u c r a t ic i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m . I . I t i s t h e S c h o o l o f Work and S o c i a l R e c o n s t r u c t io n . J . I t i s a c o m p le te e d u c a t io n . K . I t i s t h e s c h o o l o f C o o p e r a t io n . L . I t i s c o n s p ic u o u s ly s o c i a l . The a im o f t h e S o c i a l i s t S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l i s t o t u r n o u t a s e l f - r e l i a n t p r o l e t a r i a n who w i l l b e a c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s 5 1 I b i d . , p . 1 9 . 82 I b i d . , p p . 1 3 - 1 9 . 148 workman o f a h ig h t y p e , r a t h e r th a n an a c a d e m i c a l l y - t r a i n e d p r o l e t a r i a n who w i l l j o i n t h e r a n k s o f t h e w h it e c o l l a r u n - 53 e m p lo y ed and who w i l l lo o k w it h c o n te m p t on t h e w o r k in g m an. One o f th e m o st n o t i c e a b l e f e a t u r e s o f t h e s c h o o l s o f M e x ic o , and p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , i s t h e am ount o f w ork d o n e b y s t u d e n t and t e a c h e r . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e y a r e t r y i n g t o make up f o r t h e c e n t u r i e s o f n e g l e c t i n a s s h o r t a tim e a s p o s s i b l e . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l t h e c u r r ic u lu m dem ands t h i r t y - t w o h o u r s e a c h w e e k , an d i n t h e se c o n d and t h i r d y e a r , t h i r t y - s i x h o u r s p e r w eek* T he p rogram f o r th e t h i r d y e a r w i l l s e r v e a s a sa m p le o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n . F o u r h o u r s a w eek a r e d e v o te d t o S p a n is h , w it h c h i e f e m p h a s is u p on S p a n is h -A m e r ic a n l i t e r a t u r e ; t h r e e h o u r s t o f o r e i g n la n g u a g e , e i t h e r E n g l i s h o r F r e n c h ; tw o h o u r s t o c i v i c s , w h ere c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g iv e n t o th e e c o n o m ic p r o b le m s o f t h e M e x ic a n p e o p l e , R e v o lu t io n a r y la w f a g r a r ia n an d la b o r l e g i s l a t i o n . E con om ic and s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y co n su m es t h r e e h o u r s w e e k ly w h il e u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y c o n s id e r e d from a m a t e r i a l i s t i c s t a n d p o in t i s g iv e n an e q u a l am ount o f t im e . B i o l o g y , w h ic h c o n s i d e r s m ic r o b io lo g y and human h y g ie n e p r i m a r i l y , r e c e i v e s t h r e e h o u r s w e e k ly a s d o e s m a th e m a tic s and c h e m is t r y . A t t h e sam e tim e t h e s t u d e n t i s d o in g p h y s i c a l w ork o f t h e f o l l o w i n g n a t u r e ; d r a w in g , 53 P rogram a de E d u c a c io n d e A c u e rd o con l o s P o s t u la d o s d e l P la n S e x e n a l , p . 19* 149 m o d e l li n g , w o o d -c a r v in g an d p l a s t e r f i g u r e s , tw o h o u r s p e r w e e k . M u s ic , on e h o u r , p h y s i c a l c u l t u r e , t h r e e h o u r s and l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r im e n t s i n c h e m is t r y an d a n a to m y , tw o h o u r s w e e k ly . E v e r y c h i l d s p e n d s fo u r h o u r s e a c h w eek i n t h e w ork s h o p s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s s t i n t t h e s t u d e n t s form c o o p e r a t i v e s , — i n c l u d i n g fa rm p r o d u c t iv e and a s t o r e , f o r t h e u s e and e d u c a t io n o f t h e s c h o o l . T hey h a v e c o m m itte e s f o r s o c i a l a i d an d b e tte r m e n t o f t h e com m unity an d f o r t h e s p r e a d o f s o c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y . I n a d d i t i o n c o n s t a n t t r i p s a r e made t o f a c t o r i e s , s lu m s , and p o i n t s o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t . 54 The s p r e a d o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l h a s b e e n s lo w and w i l l c o n t in u e t o b e r e t a r d e d f o r many y e a r s . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r t h i s : f i r s t o f a l l s i n c e t h e r e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t m oney t o f i n i s h t h e w ork o f e s t a b l i s h i n g b o t h e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s , t h e p r im a r y s c h o o l s com e f i r s t . S e c o n d ly , t h e r e w i l l n o t b e a tr e m e n d o u s demand f o r s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r a num ber o f y e a r s b e c a u s e o f t h e f a c t t h a t a h ig h p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e s t u d e n t s I n t h e p r im a r y g r a d e s a r e d r o p p in g o u t a f t e r on e y e a r i n s c h o o l t o h e lp o u t t h e f a m i l y . A s 54 H a r o ld H. P u n k e , " R ec en t D e v e lo p m e n ts in M e x ic a n S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t io n ," The S c h o o l R e v ie w , 4 0 : 6 8 3 - 7 9 6 , N ovem b er, 1 9 3 2 . Km A . S a r a f i a n , l o o . c i t » C a r lo s E . C a s ta n e d a , "The T e a c h in g o f H is t o r y i n t h e S e c o n d a r y S c h o o ls o f M e x ic o ," H i s t o r i c a l O u t lo o k , 2 4 : 2 4 6 - 2 5 2 , M ay, 1 9 3 2 . E n r iq u e B e l t r a n , "The P la c e o f t h e B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s i n E d u c a t io n a l P r o g r a m s," P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t io n , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 6 . 150 e c o n o m ic p r e s s u r e i s l e s s e n e d on t h e h ea d o f t h e f a m i l y , t h e c h i l d w i l l be a b le t o s t a y i n s c h o o l l o n g e r . A s t h e g r a d u a te s fro m t h e s i x - y e a r e le m e n t a r i e s becom e m ore an d m ore n u m erou s, t h e r e w i l l be a c o n t in u o u s demand f o r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s and th e n t h e g o v ern m en t w i l l h a v e t o m e e t i t . The t h i r d r e a s o n f o r t h e s lo w e x p a n s io n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i s t h e l a c k o f t e a c h e r s . W h ile t h e p r im a ry t e a c h e r may b e , and o f t e n i s , b a r e l y a b l e t o r e a d and w r i t e , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h e s e c o n d a r y t e a c h e r m u st b e much b e t t e r g r o u n d ed i n p e d a g o g y , s u b j e c t m a t t e r , and S o c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y . T h e r e a r e to d a y a p p r o x im a t e ly 110 p u b l i c s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s i n M e x ic o . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e many p r i v a t e and p r o t e s t a n t s e c o n d a r y and p r e p a r a t o r y s c h o o l s . I n o t h e r p l a c e s t h e r e a r e v o l u n t e e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s , m anned b y t e a c h e r s who d o n a te an h o u r o r tw o fro m o t h e r o c c u p a t io n s d a i l y . The a u th o r v i s i t e d s u c h a s c h o o l i n P a t z c u a r o , M ic h o a c a n , w h ere a lm o s t a h u n d red y o u t h s a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n th a n k s t o t h e p u b lic s p i r i t e d n e s s o f a g r o u p o f e d u c a te d c i t i z e n s . An e n g in e e r in g s t u d e n t , s t a y i n g o u t o f ' t h e u n i v e r s i t y f o r a y e a r t o w o rk , t e a c h e s e n g in e e r in g d r a w in g and m a th e m a t ic s , a n E n g lish w o m a n l i v i n g in t h e to w n t e a c h e s E n g l i s h , and so on th r o u g h t h e f a c u l t y . C l a s s e s a r e h e ld i n t h e e le m e n t a r y s c h o o l p l a n t in t h e d a y and e v e n in g , c l a s s e s b e in g g iv e n a t t h e h o u r th e t e a c h e r c a n t a k e o f f fro m h i s r e g u la r o c c u p a t io n . I t i s from b e g in n in g s s u c h a s t h e s e t h a t M e x ic o h o p e s t o w ork to w a r d th e 151 d ay w hen t h e r e w i l l b e f r e e , o b l i g a t o r y , s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n o v e r a l l t h e n a t i o n . " C om p u lsory e d u c a t io n o n t h e s e c o n d a r y 55 l e v e l i s o n e o f o u r g r e a t e s t p e d a g o g i c a l o b j e c t i v e s . " Sum m ary. T h is b r i e f o v e r v ie w h a s b e e n g i v e n w it h t h e p u r p o se o f sh o w in g t h e r e a d e r t h e s t a t u s o f t h e M e x ic a n s c h o o l w it h r e g a r d t o t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : f r e e an d c o m p u lso r y a t t e n d a n c e , an i n t e g r a l s c h o o l s y s t e m , and a p rogram o f o r i e n t a t i o n . The i d e a l h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a n d s u i t a b l e la w s p a s s e d p r o v id in g t h a t e d u c a t io n s h a l l be f r e e and t h a t i t s h a l l b e c o m p u lso r y f o r a l l c h i l d r e n b e tw e e n t h e a g e s o f s i x and f o u r t e e n t o a t t e n d s o h o o l . H o w ev er, b e c a u s e o f t h e s c a r c i t y o f s c h o o l s and t h e c o n t in u in g e c o n o m ic n e c e s s i t y o f m o st f a m i l i e s i t w i l l be many y e a r s b e f o r e a l l c h i l d r e n a r e a b le t o a t t e n d a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . A s c h o o l s y s te m h a s b e e n o r g a n iz e d i n M e x ic o t h a t i s i n t e g r a l from t h e j a r d i n de n ln o s t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y . On a l l l e v e l s th e s c h o o l s a r e s o c i a l i s t i c , s c h o o l s o f a c t i o n an d o f w o r k , p r e v o c a t i o n a l , and t h e y a im t o o r i e n t t h e s t u d e n t s o c i a l l y and e c o n o m i c a ll y . P r o v i s i o n i s m ade f o r th e s t u d e n t t o a d v a n c e from one l e v e l o f e d u c a t io n t o t h e o t h e r a c c o r d in g t o h i s o r i g i n a l i n t e l l e c t u a l endow m ent a n d .t o h i s e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . A t e a c h l e v e l t h e p r im a r y d u ty o f t h e s c h o o l i s t o s t u d y t h e c h i l d a c c o r d in g t o s o c i o l o g i c a l d a t a g a th e r e d b y m em bers o f t h e s t a f f an d i n Enrique Beltran, loc. c it» 152 t h e l i g h t o f h i s s c o r e s on i n t e l l i g e n c e and a p t i t u d e t e s t s . The c h i l d ’ s r e c o r d i s k e p t on a f i c h a , o r p e r s o n a l r e c o r d c a r d , and a s h e p r o g r e s s e s th r o u g h t h e s c h o o l s new in fo r m a t i o n i s c o n s t a n t l y a d d ed s o t h a t a g u id a n c e e x p e r t i s a b le t o a d v i s e t h e c h i l d i n h i s s t u d i e s and f u t u r e w o rk , I V , MEXICAN SCHOOLS ARE COEDUCATIONAL C o e d u c a tio n i s a s t r a n g e new c o n c e p t i n M e x ic o . F or a few y e a r s i t c a u s e d a n i s s u e o v e r w h ic h th e n a t io n r a n g e d i t s e l f i n tw o cam p s. On t h e o n e s i d e s t o o d t h e S o c i a l i s t s an d t h e m od ern s c la m o r in g f o r c o e d u c a t io n i n a l l t h e s c h o o l s , s a y in g t h a t t h e o n ly t r a i n i n g f o r s o c i a l l i f e com es from t h e tw o s e x e s m in g lin g w h il e t h e y a r e i n s c h o o l . On t h e o th e r s i d e s t o o d t h e c l e r g y , t h e r e l i g i o u s and c o n s e r v a t i v e s s a y in g t h a t c o e d u c a t io n l e d t o im m o r a lit y , and l a s c i v i o u s n e s s . The b a t t l e r e a c h e d i t s c r u x i n 1 9 3 5 , and s i n c e t h e n t h e a n t i c o e d u - c a t i o n a l camp h a s becom e l e s s v o c i f e r o u s i f n o t r e c o n c i l e d . The f e d e r a l r u r a l an d e le m e n t a r y s c h o o l s q u i t e n a t u r a l l y f e l l i n t o a c o e d u c a t i o n a l p a t t e r n b e in g c a l l e d e s c u e l a s m ix t a s , o r m ix e d s c h o o l s . W hen, h o w e v e r , th e e f f o r t w as made t o e x t e n d c o e d u c a t io n upw ard t h e r e a l f i g h t b e g a n . The cream o f M e x ic o f s s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s a r e i n M e x ic o C i t y . ¥flien t h e y w e re e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e y w e r e d e f i n i t e l y f o r b o y s o r f o r g i r l s . I n 1 9 3 6 , t h e e n t e r i n g c l a s s e s w e r e c o e d u c a t i o n a l i n b o th b o y s ’ and g i r l s ’ s c h o o l s . Some t e a c h e r s s e a t e d th e 155 b o y s a l l on on e s i d e an d t h e g i r l s on t h e o t h e r ; o t h e r s s e a t e d th em a l p h a b e t i c a l l y w it h o u t r e g a r d t o s e x . E v e r y o n e w as v e r y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e f a c t t h a t c l a s s e s w e r e m ix e d , h o w e v e r , and t h e s i t u a t i o n w as d i s t i n c t l y hum orous t o a n A m e r ic a n . By 1 9 5 7 , c o e d u c a t io n w as a lr e a d y b e in g t a k e n a s a m a t te r o f c o u r s e an d t e a c h e r s w e re c o n c e r n in g t h e m s e lv e s w it h m ore im p o r ta n t p r o b le m s . A t t h e sa m e tim e t h a t t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s w ere made c o e d u c a t i o n a l , t h e d i f f e r e n t g r a d e s o f t h e t e c h n i c a l and v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s w ere o p e n in g 56 t h e i r d o o r s t o b o th s e x e s . M e x ic o h a s t h e w e ig h t o f b o th I n d ia n and S p a n is h t r a d i t i o n a g a i n s t e q u a l i t y o f s e x e s . I n a n c i e n t A z t e c and Maya d a y s t h e tw o s e x e s w e r e s e g r e g a t e d a lm o s t c o m p le t e ly b e f o r e m a r r ia g e ; t h e y w e re e d u c a te d s e p a r a t e l y and m a r r ia g e w as 57 a r r a n g e d b y t h e p a r e n t s . The M o o r ish c u sto m s f o l lo w e d b y t h e S p a n ia r d s i n r e g a r d t o t h e p r a c t i c a l s e c l u s i o n o f women a r e t o o w e l l known t o n e e d r e c a p i t u l a t i o n . I n s p i t e o f t h i s c u l t u r a l l a g , t h e S o c i a l i s t i d e o lo g y c a l l s f o r e q u a l i t y o f t h e s e x e s l e g a l l y , e d u c a t i o n a l l y , s o c i a l l y , and e c o n o m ic a lly . M e x ic a n e d u c a t o r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y m u st p r e p a r e th e 56 M ig u e l H u e r ta , "La P o l i t e c n i c a a b r e s u s P u e r t a s a l a M u je r ," S en d a N u e v a , O ctu b re de 1 9 5 5 . " Ia C o e d u c a c io n en l a s E s c u e l a s P o s t - P r i m a r i e s ," S en d a N u e v a , D ic ie m b r e de 1 9 5 6 . 57 J . E r i c T hom pson, o£ . c i t . , p p . 45 f f . F r a n s B lom , The C o n q u e st o f Y u c a ta n , C h a p ter 2X E. E . L . H e w e tt, o £ . c i t . , p a s s lm l 154 s e c o n d a r y s t u d e n t s f o r c o e d u c a t io n th r o u g h e le m e n t a r y m ix ed s c h o o l s . When t h e a d o l e s c e n t p e r io d i s r e a c h e d , t h e y f e e l t h a t ^ s p e c i a l g u id a n c e m u st h e g iv e n t h e s t u d e n t s s o t h a t t h e h o y s , who t h e y f e e l h a v e a s t r o n g e r b i o l o g i c a l u r g e th a n g i r l s , w i l l n o t d e b a s e t h e i r fe m a le c o m p a n io n s. T hey a l s o f e e l t h a t g r e a t c a r e m u st h e e x e r c i s e d s o t h a t e d u c a t io n w i l l be a d a p te d t o b o t h s e x e s and w i l l n o t b e p u r e ly a m a sc u l i n e e d u c a t i o n . T hey p l a c e c o n s i d e r a b l e e m p h a s is o n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y e x p e c t t h e g i r l t o m a in t a in h e r w om anly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an d n o t t o be h a r d e n e d s o t h a t s h e a c q u i r e s m a s c u lin e p a t t e r n s . ^ 8 . . . w it h r e g a r d t o m o r a l o r d e r c o - e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e s b o th r e s p e c t and g e n t l e n e s s to w a r d s women who becom e b e t t e r p r e p a r e d f o r t h e S e x S t r u g g l e . A s f o r t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l o r d e r , i t i s t h e n a t u r a l s o o t h in g rem ed y f o r s e x u a l d e s i r e s , an d t h e b e s t p r e p a r e r f o r t h e r e c i p r o c a l k n o w le d g e o f q u a l i t i e s and d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e s e x e s . I n c o n n e c t io n w it h t h e s o c i a l e c o n o m ic o r d e r , c o - e d u c a t i o n w i l l e n a b le woman t o f o l l o w an y p r o f e s s i o n o r b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t y t h a t s h e c a n p e r fo r m a s w e l l a s a n y man; t h u s e n j o y in g m o r a l in d e p e n d e n c e , i n s t e a d o f t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d s l a v e r y i n t o w h ic h s h e w as f o r m e r ly d r a g g e d .59 V . MEXICAN EDUCATION I S COOPERATIVE AND EMANCIPATORY One o f t h e im p o r ta n t g o a l s o f M e x ic a n e d u c a t io n i s t r a i n i n g f o r a c o l l e c t i v e s o c i e t y . I n t h i s s o c i e t y p r o p e r t y 5 3 E m ilio P o r t e s G i l , l a E s o u e la jjr .e l C a m p e sin o t p p . 4 2 f, 59 Juan B. Salazar, o£. cit., pp. 26 f. i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h e l d in common, b u t w ork w i l l b e d on e c o o p e r a t i v e l y and t h e f i n a l a im o f e v e r y a c t i v i t y i s t h e common good* C i t i z e n s a r e t o l e a r n t o w ork t o g e t h e r f o r t h e i r m u tu a l b e n e f i t , n o t t o t h in k o f o t h e r hum ans a s u n i t s t o b e e x p l o i t e d f o r t h e s e l f i s h a g g r a n d iz e m e n t o f a few * F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e s c h o o l s e m p h a siz e c o o p e r a t io n i n a l l i t s p h a s e s . T h er e i s a c o o p e r a t iv e s t o r e i n e v e r y s c h o o l t h a t h a s t h e a t t e n d a n c e t o s u p p o r t o n e . T h e r e a r e c o o p e r a t i v e g a r d e n s w h ere t h e s t u d e n t s w ork t o g e t h e r and s h a r e t h e p r o f i t s . B u t a b o v e a l l t h e s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s c o o p e r a t i v e . C om m unity, s t u d e n t s and f a c u l t y h a v e a n e q u a l v o i c e i n t h e m anagem ent o f t h e s c h o o l . T e a c h e r s h a v e a n e q u a l v o i c e w it h e d u c a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n t h e c h o i c e o f a d i r e c t o r o f t h e s c h o o l . S t u d e n t s may c a u s e t h e r e m o v a l o f a n y t e a c h e r t h e y do n o t a p p ro v e* S t u d e n t s and t e a c h e r s s o o n l e a r n t o w ork t o g e t h e r and r e s p e c t e a c h o t h e r , t h u s e d u c a t in g f o r e q u a l i t y o f r i g h t s and r e s p e c t f o r p e r s o n a l i t y . W h ile t h e M e x ic a n h a s lo n g b e e n u s e d t o comm unal 60 o r g a n i z a t i o n , h e i s s t i l l p r i m a r i ly an i n d i v i d u a l i s t * I n t h e e j i d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d t h e v i l l a g e h a s i t s com m ons, b u t e a c h c i t i z e n h a s h i s own i n d i v i d u a l p l o t w h ic h h e and h i s f a m ily w o r k . T hus t h e g r o u p m em bers do n o t w ork c o o p e r a t i v e l y t h e y w ork i n d i v i d u a l l y on la n d s h e ld in common. I n t h e p a s t 60 R o b e r t N. M cL ean, T h at M e x ic a n , p . 34* a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e w ork o f t h e c o u n t r y , s u c h a s fa r m in g , s p i n n i n g , w e a v in g , and h a n d i c r a f t s o f a l l s o r t s h a s b e e n i n d i v i d u a l . P o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e n e v e r b e e n e x t e n s i v e and w e l l a r t i c u l a t e d . The h i s t o r y o f th e c o u n tr y sh o w s e x t e n s i v e u s e b e in g m ade o f c a c iq u is m o , h o l d in g on e c h i e f o r c a c iq u e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r k e e p in g h i s g ro u p i n o r d e r and c o l l e c t i n g t h e t a x e s . T h is c a c iq u e w as u s u a l l y v e n a l , e x p l o i t i n g h i s own g ro u p a s m e r c i l e s s l y a s w ou ld an y S p a n ia r d . A n to n io de M en d o za , f i r s t o f t h e v i c e r o y s t o New S p a in , l e f t a l e t t e r o f a d v ic e t o h i s s u c c e s s o r , I n i s d e V e l a s c o , i n w h ic h h e w arn ed h im o f t h e c r u e l t y o f m in o r I n d ia n o f f i c i a l s t o t h e i r own p e o p l e . T he c a l p i s q u e s o r n a t i v e o v e r s e e r s had a r e p u t a t i o n f o r h a r s h t r e a t m e n t o f t h e i r c o u n tr y m e n , w h il e t h e i r c a c i q u e s h ad t o be w a tc h e d t o 6 1 p r e v e n t them fro m r o b b in g t h e i r own p e o p le # A s a r e s u l t t h e s c h o o l s a r e f a c i n g t h e t a s k o f u n d o in g th e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f c e n t u r i e s . E v e r y p h a s e o f t h e s c h o o l w ork s t r e s s e s s o c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n . T h er e i s a s l i t t l e f o r m a l, i n d i v i d u a l r e c i t a t i o n and e x a m in a tio n a s p o s s i b l e . C la s s w ork i s e s s e n t i a l l y t r a i n i n g i n g r o u p p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; c l a s s p r o j e c t s and group e n d e a v o r s a r e p a r a m o u n t. S p o r t s a r e f o r g ro u p p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s much a s p o s s i b l e , w it h t h e team id e a u p p e r m o s t. R e g io n a l L. B . S im p so n , The E n co m ien d a i n New S p a in , p p . 185 f. 157 d a n c e s a r e u s e d f o r t h e sam e r e a s o n ; t h e y h a v e a te n d e n c y t o d e v e lo p a s e n s e o f s o l i d a r i t y , a n e s p r i t d e c o r p s among th e s t u d e n t s . The e m a n c ip a to r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f M e x ic a n e d u c a t io n i s o n e t h a t r a m i f i e s i n t o t h e o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . M e x ic a n e d u c a t io n e x p e c t s t o e m a n c ip a te t h e p a is a n o from e c o n o m ic s l a v e r y b y t e a c h i n g h im c o o p e r a t i v e o r g a n iz a t i o n an d e n c o u r a g in g t h e f o r m a t io n o f c o n f e d e r a t i o n s , g u i l d s , u n io n s , and le a g u e s * T hey e x p e c t t o e m a n c ip a te him from la n d p o v e r t y by t e a c h i n g h im h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s , a c c o r d in g t o t h e a c t u a l p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s o t h a t he w i l l know t h a t h e i s e n t i t l e d t o la n d and w i l l demand t h a t i t be g iv e n h im . M e x ic a n e d u c a t io n e x p e c t s t o e m a n c ip a te t h e m ind o f t h e p e o p le from f a n a t i c i s m and s u p e r s t i t i o n , g i v i n g th em i n s t e a d a r a t i o n a l i s t i c and s c i e n t i f i c v ie w o f t h e u n i v e r s e . C H A P T E R VI CHARACTERISTICS OP MEXICAN EDUCATION (CONTINUED) To a r r i v e a t a n e x a c t u n d e r s t a n d in g o f M e x ic o ’ s s ta n d to w a r d s r e l i g i o n , and t o s e e c l e a r l y t h e p a r t th e s c h o o l p l a y s i n t h e C h u r c h -S ta te c o n t r o v e r s y , t h e s t u d e n t m u st t h r e a d a c a r e f u l way th r o u g h a l a b y r i n t h o f c o n f l i c t i n g s t a t e m e n t s , h i s t o r i c a l d a t a , and m odern dogm a. When h e h a s d on e t h e s e t h i n g s and h a s s t u d i e d t h e s c h o o l s in a c t i o n he f i n d s c l e a r l y t h a t M e x ic a n e d u c a t io n i s n o t a g a i n s t an y h o n e s t r e l i g i o n n o r i s i t a g a i n s t r e l i g i o u s te a c h in g ." ^ M e x ic a n e d u c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , d e c l a r e s i t s e l f a g a i n s t s u p e r s t i t i o n , f a n a t i c i s m , b i g o t r y , and r e l i g i o u s e x p l o i t a t i o n . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o f i n d how t h i s s t a t e m e n t s q u a r e s w it h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C a t h o li c C hurch h a s b e e n f o r c e d t o c l o s e h e r s c h o o l s , and c u t down t h e num ber o f h e r c l e r g y i n M e x ic o i n 1 9 3 5 from 4 ,4 9 3 t o l e s s th a n 3 0 0 .^ A g la n c e a t A r t i c l e 3 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n sh o w s t h a t t h e m a jo r e m p h a sis i s p l a c e d on a n e d u c a t io n t h a t , ’’e x c lu d in g a l l r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e , s h a l l com bat f a n a t i c i s m and p r e j u d i c e s b y o r g a n i z i n g i t s i n s t r u c t i o n and a c t i v i t i e s i n a way X C. T r e jo L erd o d e T e ja d a , La E d u c a c io n S o c i a l i s t a , C h a p te r IV . J . J e s u s de l a R o s a , La E s c u e la S o c i a l i s t a M e x ic a n a , p . 6 8 . ’’C o m b a tir e l F a n a tism o no e s A ta c a r C r ed o s R e l i g i o s o s , q u o te d from a s p e e c h b y P r e s i d e n t C a r d e n a s:in E l M a e str o R u r a l, 15 de M a rzo , 1 9 3 6 . 2 C. S . M a cF a rla n d , C haos i n M e x ic o , p . 7 1 . 159 t h a t s h a l l p e r m it t h e c r e a t i o n i h y o u th o f an e x a c t and r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t o f t h e U n iv e r s e and o f s o c i a l l i f e . ” Form er P r e s i d e n t E m ilio P o r t e s G i l e l u c i d a t e s t h i s s e c t i o n r a t h e r c l e a r l y i n a few p a r a g r a p h s : The r e fo r m o f A r t i c l e 3 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n e s t a b l i s h i n g S o c i a l i s t i c t e a c h i n g i n t h i s c o u n t r y , th e t e x t b e in g a p p r o v e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s and i n a c c o r d w it h t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s th e m e , i n c l u d e s i n my o p in io n tw o fu n d a m e n ta l q u e s t io n s : I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e i t g i v e s t o th e t e a c h i n g r a t i o n a l i s t {r a c i o n a l i s t a ) o r i e n t a t i o n w it h t h e p u r p o se t h a t t h e s c h o o l s h a l l a c c u sto m t h e p u p i l s t o e x p l a i n s c i e n t i f i c a l l y th e phenom ena o f n a t u r e . The c a r r y in g o u t o f t h i s o b j e c t im p o s e s u p on t h o s e c h a r g e d w it h im p a r t in g k n o w le d g e t h e d u ty o f f r e e i n g t h e m in d s o f t h e p u p i l s fro m t h e p r e j u d i c e s w h ic h , a s a s o c i a l i n h e r i t a n c e from p a s t g e n e r a t i o n s , h a v e b e e n c o n s e r v e d a s a n a r b i t r a r y e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e phenom en a o f t h e U n iv e r s e and a r e w it h o u t an y s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s . The se c o n d o b j e c t o f t h e r e fo r m t e n d s t o c r e a t e i n c h i l d r e n s e n t im e n t s and i d e a s o f human f r a t e r n i t y , and m o r a l an d e c o n o m ic r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e s o c i e t y o f t o d a y , i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y may l e a r n t o c o r r e c t t h e i r r i t a t i n g i n e q u a l i t i e s a t p r e s e n t e x i s t i n g i n M e x ic o , a c c o r d in g t o t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e R e v o lu t io n a r y la w s o f t h e c o u n tr y and p r a c t i c a l l y th r o u g h th e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f A r t i c l e 27 an d 123 o f t h e G e n e r a l C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e R e p u b lic . The e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e S o c i a l i s t i c s c h o o l i n M e x ic o d e p e n d s u p on t h e s o c i a l and p e c u l i a r i d e a l s o f t h e R e v o lu t io n a r y m ovem en t, w h ic h h a s e n d e a v o r e d t o c a r e f o r t h e n e c e s s i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t s o c i a l l i f e i n M e x ic o . The r e fo r m o f A r t i c l e 3 d o e s n o t c o n t a i n an y a t h e i s t i c p r o p o s i t i o n s . The p r a c t i c e o f r e l i g i o n T s l e f t t o th e r e l i g i o n s , a l l o f whom a r e o f f i c i a l l y a u t h o r iz e d b y t h e g e n e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n . 3 H . N. B r a n c h , The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1857 Com pared w it h t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 9 1 7 . 160 B u t t h e r e fo r m o f A r t i c l e 3 i m p l i e s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c o m b a tin g p r e j u d i c e s an d f a l s i t i e s w h ic h h a v e b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n , f o s t e r i n g t h e ig n o r a n c e o f ou r h u m ble c l a s s e s s o t h a t c o n s c i e n c e l e s s p e o p le may e x p l o i t them in h u m a n ly ,4 I . MEXICAN EDUCATION I S SCIENTIFIC AND RATIONALISTIC I n a s t u d y o f r e l i g i o n i n M e x ic o a n y s t a t e m e n t r e f e r s t o t h e Roman C a t h o li c C hurch b e c a u s e o f t h e s im p le f a c t t h a t r e l i g i o n i n M e x ic o i s and h a s b e e n C a t h o li c fro m t h e com in g o f t h e S p a n ia r d u n t i l t o d a y . A n o th e r p o s t u l a t e o f t h e e n t i r e p r o b le m i s t h a t t h e M e x ic a n C a t h o lic C hurch i s n o t com p a r a b le t o t h e A m e rica n C a t h o li c C hurch o r t h e E u ro p ea n C a t h o li c C hurch o f t o d a y . The M e x ic a n C hurch w a s , u n t i l i t s a lm o s t c o m p le te e m a s c u la t io n b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t, l a r g e l y a n 5 e c o n o m ic and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t d id n o t p r o d u c e a b o d y o f C h r i s t i a n s w it h m o n o t h e i s t i c b e l i e f s ; i t d id n o t g i v e m o r a l an d s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n t o a p e o p le t h a t w as " c r y in g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s ." A f t e r f o u r h u n d red y e a r s o f C a t h o lic is m i n M e x ic o , t h e c o u n tr y i s s a t u r a t e d w it h s u p e r s t i t i o n , f a n a t i c i s m , and ig n o r a n c e an d h a s r e a c h e d t h e v a n i s h i n g p o i n t i n s o c i a l 6 m o r a ls . The h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f r e l i g i o n i n M e x ic o 4 C. S . M a c F a r la n d , o p , c i t . , p p . 70 f . 5 G eorge X . S a n c h e z , M e x ic o : A R e v o l u t i o n b y E d u c a t io n , p . 1 6 6 . M o is e s S a e n z and H. I . P r i e s t l e y , Some M e x ic a n P r o b le m s , p . 158* R . N. M cLean, T h a t M e x ic a n , p . 6 5 , - C. S . M a c F a r la n d , o p . c i t . , p . 63# 6 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , M e x ic o and I t s H e r i t a g e , p p . 254 f f * A n it a B r e n n e r , I d o l s B e h in d A l t a r s , C h a p te r V I I . 1 6 1 sh ow s t h a t t h e p e o p le h a v e m a in t a in e d t h e i r p a g a n ism and h a v e l o s t t h e i r s t r i c t m o r a l c o d e s d u r in g t h e p a s t f o u r hu n d r e d y e a r s . P a g a n o r i g i n o f t h e C a t h o lic C hurch i n M e x ic o . The r e l i g i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x ic a n i s d i f f i c u l t t o e v a lu a t e b e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k o f u n b ia s e d h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s . E a r ly c h u r c h l e a d e r s d e s t r o y e d e v e r y c o d e and m a n u s c r ip t t h a t f e l l i n t o t h e i r h a n d s . Ju an d e Z u m arraga, f i r s t A r c h b is h o p , b u rn ed a l l o f t h e b e a u t i f u l n a t i v e m a n u s c r ip t s t h a t c o u ld be fo u n d i n M e x ic o i n one g r e a t h o l o c a u s t . L a t e r c h u r c h w r i t e r s s im p ly a im ed t o p l a c e t h e n a t i v e r e l i g i o n i n a s p o o r a l i g h t a s p o s s i b l e w it h l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r a c c u r a c y . M e x ic a n r e l i g i o n , w it h i t s h o l o c a u s t s o f s a c r i f i c i a l v i c t i m s , a p p e a r s on t h e s u r f a c e an u g l y and b a r b a r ic t r a v e s t y o f ou r c o n c e p t io n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n man an d t h e h e a v e n ly p o w e r s , b u t we m u st rem em b er, t o o , s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y b i g o t s , who w o u ld h a v e c o n s id e r e d t h a t t h e y w ere i n d a n g e r o f f a l l i n g i n t o t h e c l u t c h e s o f h i s s a t a n i c m a j e s t y w ere t h e y t o d e s c r i b e f e a t u r e s o f M e x ic a n r e l i g i o n i n a f a v o r a b le l i g h t . 7 G ods o f a g r i c u l t u r e form ed t h e m a j o r it y o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l h o r d e , b e c a u s e t h e a u to c h t h o n s w e re p r i m a r i l y an a g r i c u l t u r a l p e o p l e . T h e se s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g f e l l i n t o t h r e e c l a s s e s : g o d s o f r a i n , o f g r o w in g t h i n g s , an d o f t h e s o i l . The T l a l o c s w e re a n im p o r ta n t g ro u p among t h e g o d s o f th e e l e m e n t s , f o r t h e y w e r e m o u n ta in g o d s ,a n d r u l e d t h e r a i n s , th u n d e r , 7 J . E r ic T hom pson, M e x ic o b e f o r e C o r t e z , p p . 135 f . 16 Z l i g h t n i n g , sn o w , r i v e r s , l a k e s , an d w e l l s , F iv e f e s t i v a l s y e a r l y w ere d e d ic a t e d t o t h e w o r s h ip o f t h e T l a l o o s , t h r e e o f w h ic h w e re i n t e r c e s s i o n s f o r r a i n i n t h e p l a n t i n g s e a s o n and f o r t h e you n g m a iz e , A f e a t u r e o f t h e w o r s h ip o f t h e T l a l o c s w as th e s a c r i f i c e o f y o u n g c h i l d r e n , and t h e v i c t i m s s a c r i f i c e d t o t h e s e g o d s w e re g e n e r a l l y su p p o se d t o w e ep . T h is i s an ex a m p le o f s y m p a t h e t ic m a g ic c o m b in in g w it h r e l i g i o n . .. . 8 W o rsh ip o f t h e s u n , m oon, and s t a r s w as im p o r ta n t among t h e p r i m i t i v e s , T o n a tiu h , t h e su n g o d , b e in g one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l d e i t i e s . A s h e g a in e d s t r e n g t h b y d r a w in g m o is t u r e from t h e s o i l , t h e s a c r i f i c e o f v i c t i m s w as p r i m a r i ly f o r h i s b e n e f i t . A s h e n e e d e d a c o n s t a n t s u p p ly o f human b e in g s t o h e lp h im i n h i s jo u r n e y a c r o s s t h e h e a v e n s , t h e w a r r io r s c a p tu r e d i n b a t t l e and s a c r i f i c e d t o him a d d ed s t r e n g t h f o r h i s l a b o r s . Women who d ie d i n c h i l d b i r t h a l s o w ere b l e s s e d f o r t h e y w e r e ad d ed t o h i s r e t i n u e . T h er e w e r e o t h e r g o d s o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld s u c h a s M i c t l a n t e c u t l i , a n d h i s w i f e M i c t e o a c i u a t l . T h ey r u l e d M i c t l a n , a n o t u n p l e a s a n t p l a c e , w h ere t h e s o u l s en d ed a f o u r - y e a r w a n d e r in g a f t e r d e a t h . B o th o f t h e s e g o d s w ere s y m b o liz e d b y s k u l l s , o r p o r t i o n s o f s k e l e t o n s . S t r o n g v e s t i g e s o f t h i s w o r s h ip a r e t o be fo u n d i n many f i e s t a s o f p r e s e n t - d a y M e x ic o , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e Day o f t h e D ea d , i n w h ic h g a i e t y a b o u n d s i n t h e m id s t o f d a n c in g 8 Ibid., p. 138. 163 9 s k e l e t o n s . H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i w as god o f w a r 'a n d o f t h e h u n t. Among t h e A z t e c n o b i l i t y he w as h e l d i n t h e g r e a t e s t e s te e m ; h i s te m p le i n T e n o c h t i t l a n , t h e p r e s e n t M e x ic o C i t y , w as th e l a r g e s t an d m o st im p o r ta n t s h r i n e i n M e x ic o . He i s p i c t u r e d i n a d r e s s o f h u m m in gbird f e a t h e r s , c a r r y in g a s h i e l d , s p e a r , and s p e a r th r o w e r . Q .u e t z a lc o a t l was a n o th e r o f t h e le a d in g d e i t i e s o f p r e - C o r t e s i a n M e x ic o and i s i n d i r e c t l y c r e d i t e d w it h t h e d o w n f a ll o f t h e A z t e c e m p ir e . H is name m eans ”Q u e t z a l - s n a k e ,” and h e w as s u p p o s e d t o h a v e b e e n a w h it e god w it h a lo n g b e a r d . He w as show n d e c k e d o u t i n t h e f e a t h e r s o f t h e q u e t z a l b i r d , an e x o t i c c r e a t u r e fo u n d n e a r t h e G u a te m a la n -M e x ic a n b o r d e r . C h ie f c e n t e r o f t h e w o r s h ip o f Q ,u e t z a lc o a t l w as a t C h o lu la , a lt h o u g h a d j a c e n t t o t h e p y ra m id o f t h e su n a t S a n Ju an T e o tih u a c a n t h e r e i s an e x t e n s i v e te m p le t o Q u e t z a l c o a t l . H is w o r s h ip w as f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i e d by t h e s e r p e n t s f h e a d s t h a t w e r e u s e d i n d e c o r a t i o n s i n h i s t e m p l e s , f f i i e t z a l c o a t l w as s u p p o se d t o h a v e b e e n d r iv e n from t h e c o u n t r y and h e v e n g e f u l l y p r o m ise d t o r e t u r n from t h e e a s t w i t h h i s f o l l o w e r s and r e t a k e t h e c o u n t r y . S i n c e h e w ore a c r o s s on h i s c l o t h i n g , w as r e p u t e d l y w h i t e , and had a b e a r d , t h i s le g e n d c o n t r ib u t e d w o n d e r f u lly t o t h e 9 E rn a F e r g u s s o n , F i e s t a i n M e x ic o , C h a p te r X I . 164 10 p r e s t i g e o f t h e S p a n ia r d s w hen t h e y a r r i v e d m 151 9 * ^/hen t h e C a t h o lic c l e r g y s t a r t e d t h e w ork o f c o n v e r t in g t h e I n d ia n s t o t h e new f a i t h , t h e y a p p a r e n t ly h ad w o n d er f u l s u c c e s s * I n s t a n c e s a r e r e c o r d e d o f on e f a t h e r ’ s b a p t i z i n g th o u s a n d s o f n a t i v e s d a i l y . T h er e w as l i t t l e o u tw a rd h o s t i l i t y t o t h e new f a i t h f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h e n a t i v e M e x ic a n w as a c c u sto m e d t o a c c e p t t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e c o n q u e r o r a lo n g w it h h i s g o v e r n m e n t. H o w e v er , t h e y w e re n o t a c c u sto m e d t o d r o p p in g t h e i r own f a i t h ; t h e y m e r e ly ad d ed new g o d s t o t h e i r own P a n th e o n . I n t h e o u tw a rd fo rm s o f w o r s h ip t h e r e w e r e many s i m i l a r i t i e s b e tw e e n M e x ic a n p a g a n ism and S p a n is h C a t h o li c is m . The n a t i v e u n d e r s to o d and p r a c t i c e d t h e u s e o f i n c e n s e , h o l y o i l s and w a t e r s , p e n it e n c e and f a s t i n g , c o n f e s s i o n , and t h e y c a r r ie d c h a r m s, a m u le t s , and s c a p - u l a r i e s . On t h e s i d e o f r e l i g i o n , t h e p r i e s t s fo u n d m uch i n t h e o ld c u sto m s w h ic h w as e a s i l y t r a n s p la n t e d t o t h e new* I n c e n s e , h o l y o i l s and h o l y w a t e r , p e n i t e n c e and f a s t i n g a s r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e s , t h e w e a r in g o f c h a r m s, an d im a g e s w e r e a l l com m on p lace. C o n s id e r a l s o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e I n d ia n s w ere u s e d t o a d d in g new g o d s t o t h e i r t e m p l e s , an d i t c a n r e a d i l y b e s e e n how t h e new f a i t h . H o w ev er, s i n c e t h e y d id 10 P o r m ore d e t a i l e d in f o r m a t io n r e g a r d in g p r i m i t i v e M e x ic a n r e l i g i o n s e e J . E r i c T hom pson, The C i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e M a y a s. L u c ie n B i a r t , T he A z t e c s : T h e ir H is t o r y , M anners and C u sto m s. J . X e s l i e M i t c h e l l , The C o n q u est o f t h e M aya. 165 n o t u n d e r s ta n d t h e t h e o r y o f a s i n g l e su prem e p o w e r , i t i s a lm o s t i n d u b it a b le t h a t t h e y d id n o t u n d e r s ta n d a n y t h in g o f t h e a b s t r a c t i o n s t h e C hurch a tt e m p t e d t o t e a c h . To a p a n t h e i s t i c p e o p l e , a c c u sto m e d t o s e e a g o d i n e v e r y h i l l , c lo u d , r i v e r , a n d t r e e , t h e y h a d no d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c e p t i n g t h e c h u r c h o r c a t h e d r a l a s a n o t h e r h a llo w e d s p o t* B u t t h e y b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c h u r c h t h e i r own c o n c e p t o f r e l i g i o n , and a f t e r fo u r c e n t u r i e s t h a t c o n c e p t h a s ch a n g ed l i t t l e , w h ile t h e C hurch h a s ch a n g ed s o much i n a c c e p t i n g m ore and m ore from t h e p e o p le t h a t i t i s h a r d ly r e c o g n i z a b le a s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t e n t e r e d New S p a in w it h H ernan C o r t e s . The r a c e , t h e n a t i o n , i s p r o f o u n d ly r e l i g i o u s . I t w o r s h ip s a l s o i n C a t h o li c c h u r c h e s . W h eth er o r n o t i t c a n b e c o n s id e r e d a c r e a t u r e o f t h e C h u rch , o n ly t h e C hurch c a n a n s w e r . O fte n i t h a s .b e e n d o u b te d , b u t n e v e r f u l l y q u e s t io n e d . T r a v e l l e r s and h i s t o r i a n s a lm o s t u n a n im o u sly a r e s k e p t i c a l ; f r i a r s and p r i e s t s v o i c e b i t t e r , f r u s t r a t i o n . F r a y B a r to lo m e and F a th e r S a h a g u n Im m e d ia te ly a f t e r t h e c o n q .u e st; F r a y J a c i n t o d e l a S e r n a and h i s c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e ^ i n v e s t i g a t i o n a g a i n s t i d o l a t e r s ” a h u n d red y e a r s l a t e r ; B aron v o n H um boldt i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y ; L u m h o ltz r e c e n t l y , and o t h e r e t h n o l o g i s t s t o d a y , r e c o r d s i m i l a r l y th e t h i n g t h a t i s w r i t t e n i n t h e f a c e s o f l o n e l y r u r a l p r i e s t s . And n e a r ly an y o n e i n M e x ic o ca n add one e p is o d e o f an i d o l b e h in d a c r o s s . - 1 -1 The f i r s t w ork u n d e r ta k e n b y t h e C h urch i n New S p a in w as t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f e v e r y p h a s e o f t h e p a g a n f a i t h . T e o o a l l i s w e re p u l l e d dow n, c o d i c e s p u b l i c l y b u r n e d , e v e r y i d o l an d t e p o z t o n fo u n d w a s d e s t r o y e d . The p e o p l e , h o w e v e r , H A n it a B r e n n e r , o p . c i t ., p. 1 2 8 . R. N . M cLean, p p . c i t . , p . 3 6 . E rna F e r g u s s o n , p p . c i t . , p a s s im . 166 h i d t h e i r im a g e s in e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e p l a c e . N o t t h e l e a s t i n g e n io u s c o n c e a lm e n t w as don e b y t h e n a t i v e m ason s who s e a l e d up l o c a l or r e g i o n a l i d o l s i n t h e a l t a r s o f t h e c h u r c h e s , o r i n t h e w a l l s and f o u n d a t i o n s . I n s t a n c e s a r e t o l d b y d o z e n s o f t r a v e l l e r s o f t h e f i n d i n g o f t h e s e im a g e s IE when a l t a r s n e e d e d r e p a i r s o r when w a l l s c r a c k e d * I n l o c a t i o n s t h a t w e re s a o r e d t o p o w e r f u l I n d ia n g o d s , t h e f a t h e r s e r e c t e d new p l a c e s o f w o r s h ip upon th e fo u n d a t i o n o f t h e r a z e d t e o c a l l i . The C a th e d r a l o f M e x ic o C i t y i s s t a n d in g on t h e s i t e o f t h e g r e a t t e o c a l l i o r H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i ; a c h u r o h r e s t s a to p t h e p y ra m id t o ^ u e t z a l c o a t l i n C h o lu la , a p i l e s o tr e m e n d o u s t h e S p a n ia r d s c o u ld n o t r a z e i t , f o r i t e x c e e d s t h e p y ra m id a t C h eop s i n v o lu m e . A s C h o lu la w as t h e M ecca o f t h e I n d i a n s , a n a tte m p t w as made t o e r e c t a c h u r c h on t h e s i t e o f e a c h te m p le in t h e c i t y an d m ore th a n t h r e e h u n d red c h u r c h e s i n a tow n o f f i v e th o u s a n d p e r s o n s t o d a y s t a n d a s a m ute r e m in d e r o f t h i s game o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c h e c k e r s . A t T e p o z t la n c e n t e r e d t h e w o r s h ip o f T e p o z t e c a t l , a go d o f s u c h im p o r ta n c e t h a t p i l g r i m s came fro m a s f a r a s C h ia p a s t o w o r s h ip . The s p i r i t u a l w e l f a r e o f t h i s r e g i o n w as i n t r u s t e d t o a D o m in ic a n , F r . Dom ingo d e l a A n u n c ia c io n . T e p o z t e c a t l s a t m a j e s t i c a l l y upon a c r a g o v e r lo o k in g th e tow n 12 A n it a B r e n n e r , o £ . c i t . , p p . 137 f f . E rn a F e r g u s s o n , o £ . c i t ., p. 59* C a r le t o n B e a l s , M e x ic a n M a ze, p . 3 0 0 . B e r tr a m W o lf e , P o r t r a i t o f M e x ic o , p . 91* 167 and t h e D om in ican made a p a c t w it h th e to w n s p e o p le t h a t th e god s h o u ld h e p u sh ed o v e r t h e e d g e , and i f he s u r v iv e d th e f a l l he s h o u ld he c o n s id e r e d d i v i n e . I f . h o w e v e r , he s h a t t e r e d , h i s w o r sh ip w as t o h e ab an d on ed . The im age b ro k e i n t o fr a g m e n ts and t h e m asons in c o r p o r a t e d t h e p i e c e s i n t o th e 13 f o u n d a t io n s o f th e m o n a s te r y t h a t was c o m p le te d i n 1 5 8 8 . P o p u la r f e s t i v a l s a t t r a c t e d th o u sa n d s o f n a t i v e w or s h i p e r s t o c e r t a i n s a c r e d s p o t s made h o ly by le g e n d s o f m ir a c u lo u s h a p p e n in g s . As a C a t h o lic h o l y day may he found f o r p r a c t i c a l l y any d ay i n t h e year, a S a i n t ’ s day was e a s i l y s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h a t o f t h e i d o l . G e n e r a lly some m ir a c u lo u s h a p p e n in g was i n c i d e n t t o th e a p p ea r a n c e o f t h e S a i n t ’ s im age in t h e new l o c a t i o n . Thus t h e S en or de Chalma su d d e n ly a p p e a r ed i n th e g r o t t o o f O s t o t o o t e o t l , th e god o f th e c a v e s , c a s t down t h e i d o l and e r e c t e d h i m s e l f w h ere h i s w o r s h ip h a s c o n t in u e d w it h u n d im in is h e d p o p u l a r i t y . 14 U n d o u b te d ly th e g r e a t e s t c a s e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n i n M ex ico i s t h a t o f th e M ir a c u lo u s V i r g i n o f G u a d a lu p e. The e a r l y Church found t h a t i t c o u ld n o t b r e a k t h e w o r s h ip o f T o p a n t z in , m oth er o f th e g o d s and s p e c i a l g o d d e s s o f E a r th and C orn. H er w o r sh ip c e n t e r e d a t th e h i l l o f T e p e y a c , a s h o r t d i s t a n c e from M exico _ R o b e r t R e d f i e l d , T e p o z t la n , A M ex ica n V i l l a g e , p p . 27 f . 14 E rna P e r g u s s o n , jdu. c i t . , C h a p te r I I I . S t a n t o n D a v is K irkham , M exican T r a i l s , p . 1 2 6 . 168 C i t y . H e r e , on th e t w e l f t h o f D ecem ber, came t h e I n d ia n s by th e th o u sa n d s t o w o r sh ip and p e r fo r m t h e i r r i t u a l d a n c e s . One Decem ber day Juan D ie g o , a p oor I n d ia n , came t o A r c h b ish o p Zumarraga w it h t h e s t o r y t h a t t h e V i r g in had a p p ea r e d t o him on t h e h i l l and a sk e d t h a t a s h r in e be e r e c t e d t o h e r . The A r c h b ish o p d o u b ted and a sk e d him t o b r in g p r o o f o f t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e t a l e . On t h e t w e l r t h o f Decem ber* o d d ly en o u g h , t h e V i r g i n a g a in ap p ea red t o Juan and p lu c k e d b loom in g r o s e s from t h e b a r r e n , r o c k y h i l l s i d e . When s h e p l a c e d them i n D ie g o ’ s t i l m a h e r p i c t u r e s u d d e n ly apLpeared i n l u s t r o u s c o l o r s on t h e cru d e w eave o f t h e c l o t h . By d e c r e e o f Pope B e n e d ic t XIV, t h i s m ir a c le was o f f i c i a l l y r e c o g n iz e d by th e Church and h e r s h r in e h a s s i n c e become t h e g r e a t e s t c e n t e r o f w o r sh ip i n M e x ic o . Today t h e I n d ia n s and m e s t i z o s come b y th e th o u sa n d s and a g a in d an ce t h e i r p agan r i t u a l d a n c e s , f l a g e l l a t e t h e m s e lv e s , buy h o l y r e l i c s , h a v e im a g es b l e s s e d , and end w it h a drun ken orgy* Once a y e a r r a g t a i l and c a b a l l e r o , h a r l o t and h o u s e w if e , t h i e f and h o n e s t man, s w i r l th r o u g h t h e i r o n g r i l l o f t h e a tr iu m , i n t o t h e c a t h e d r a l , aroudd t h e s l i p p e r y s t o n e s o f t h e h o ly w e l l , b e n e a th th e h o r s e - s h o e fa c a d e o f t h e C a p i l l a d e l C e r r i t o . P oor and r i c h , t h e y a r e h o l y and h i l a r i o u s . Awe and j e s t c l a s h i n a d o z e n d i a l e c t s — Otom£, T a r a s c a n , A z t e c , Z a p o te c , H u a s te o a n , and a l l t h e i r v a r i a n t s . T h is i s M e x ic o ’ s g r e a t e s t f i e s t a . G uadalupe i s s t i l l th e hub o f t h e M exican r e l i g i o u s w h e e l. I t s sp o k e s a r e T l a lo o and T o n a n tz in ; G u ad alu p e, M octezuma and th e P ope; h ig h m ass and fe a th e r ^ d e c k e d d a n c in g ; h o l y - w a te r and d e e r - e y e s . G uadalupe i s th e r e l i g i o u s 169 15 c a p i t a l o f M exico# D u rin g t h e R e v o l u t i o n o f 1 8 1 0 , th e r e b e l s c a r r i e d t h e im age o f th e V ir g e n de G u a d a lu p e , w h ic h v i r g i n w as t r i e d by th e Church and b u rn ed ; w h il e th e S p a n is h f o r c e s fo u g h t un der t h e a e g i s o f t h e V ir g e n de S o le d a d * M ir a c l e s and s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f th e C a t h o li c C hurch. Once t h e Church w as e s t a b l i s h e d i n New S p a in s h e d i d n o t s e e k 16 t o r i d t h e p e o p le o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . On t h e c o n t r a r y sh e f o s t e r e d a l i k e number o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s , l e g e n d s , and m a g ic a l b e l i e f s . The c l e r i c a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e I n d ia n s i s b a s e d on t h e i r s u p e r s t i t i o n . I n s t e a d o f p r o p a g a t in g th e r e l i g i o n o f l o v e , t h e c l e r g y h a s i n c u l c a t e d o r p e r m i t t e d t h e r e t e n t i o n o f a r e l i g i o n o f f e a r , a s u r v i v a l o f b o th t h e gloom y t h e o l o g y o f s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y S p a in and t h e som ber A z t e c t e r r o r o f t h e unknown. The p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e A nahuac s p i r i t i s v i s i b l e i n t h e e x tr e m e b l o o d i n e s s o f t h e M ex ica n im a g es o f t h e S a v i o r . The f a t h e r s r e p o r t e d m i r a c l e s w it h t h e daw ning o f e a c h d a y . E v e ry n a t u r a l phenomenon t h a t o c c u r r e d w as a m i r a c le or a c u r s e . I f t h e y e a r w as e x c e p t i o n a l l y d r y , t h a t w as b e c a u s e o f God’ s d i s p l e a s u r e a r o u s e d , p e r h a p s , b e c a u s e t h e o f f e r i n g s had n o t b e e n h e a v y e n o u g h . D id e x c e p t i o n a l l y h e a v y r a i n s f a l l , 15 C a r le to n B e a l s , o p . c i t . , p . 69* 16 A n it a B r e n n e r , ^ P a in te d M i r a c l e s , n I d o l s B e h in d A l t a r s , C h a p ter V I I . 1 7 Ernest Gruening, op. c it . , p. 856* i t was th r o u g h God’ s d i v i n e g r a c e , and %he p e o p le w ere e x p e c te d t o g i v e e s p e c i a l l y h e a v y alm s i n r ep a y m e n t. I f th e .A z t e c s w ere t h r e a t e n e d w it h a p la g u e o f l o c u s t s , t h e y g a th e r e d some o f t h e i n s e c t s , c r u sh e d them i n w a t e r , had i n c a n t a t i o n p erfo rm ed o v e r them and s e t them a t t h e l i m i t s o f t h e f i e l d s . The C a t h o li c c l e r g y to o k o v e r t h i s f u n c t i o n a n d , f o r a f e e , b l e s s e d t h e same c o n c o c t i o n w h ic h w as p la c e d a s i t had fo r m e r ly 18 b e e n a t t h e e x t r e m i t i e s o f th e f i e l d t o r i d them o f t h e p e s t . Juan O b rig o n , a s im p le n a t i v e o f B a ja , C a l i f o r n i a , t e l l s in h i s a u to b io g r a p h y o f a l e g e n s sp o n s o r e d by t h e C hurch. The p r i e s t s o f t h e s o u t h e r n end o f B a ja , C a l i f o r n i a , fo r b a d e th e p e o p le t o d i g c e l l a r s , h o l e s , o r t u n n e l s b e c a u s e o f t h e f a n c i e d e x i s t e n c e o f a g i a n t g o p h e r , Ig. Topa C h is e r a , t h a t had d i a b o l i c p o w e r s. "Once i n s o o f t e n h e p i e r c e d our z a n ja w a l l s , and we who cow er i n our h u t s h e a r a th u n d e r in g r u sh o f w a t e r , w h ich t e a r s o u t y a r d s o f d i t c h and d e s t r o y s a c r e s o f our b e s t la n d . S h o u ld an y g o o u t a t n i g h t , or w ith o u t a p a d r e , t o r e p a i r our d i t c h , he who f i r s t p l a c e s f o o t i n th e m ire i s p a l l e d down i n t o a g r e a t t a v e r n , w here t h i s d e v i l 19 s i t s s m i l i n g and h u n gry f o r m en’ s s o u l s and b o d i e s . A s t u d e n t a t th e A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e i n C hapingo t o l d t h e a u th o r t h a t t h e p r i e s t s i n h i s d i s t r i c t w arned t h e p e o p le 18 F r e d e r ic k S t a r r , N o te s upon t h e E th n o g ra p h y o f S o u th e r n M e x ic o . ^ A n to n io de F ie r r o B la n c o , The J o u r n e y o f t h e F la m e , p p . 19 f f . 171 t h a t i f m e t a l p a s s e d th r o u g h t h e grou n d n o t h i n g w ou ld grow , t h u s d i s c o u r a g i n g t h e u s e o f s t e e l p lo w s . The d i v i d i n g l i n e b e tw e e n m agic and r e l i g i o n i n M e x ic o , e v e n t o d a y , and b e tw e e n p a g a n ism and t h e a c c e p t e d u s a g e o f t h e Church i s s o f i n e a s t o b e a lm o s t n o n e x i s t e n t . I t was d i f f i c u l t i n any c a s e t o s a y w h ere n a t i v e s o r c e r y and r e l i g i o u s h a b i t en d ed and d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a t c o u ld be e n d o r s e d by t h e C h urch , b e g a n . By e n c o u r a g in g d e v o t i o n t o m i r a c u l o u s ly a p p e a r e d C h r i s t s and by p r e a c h in g , a s m ust h a v e b e e n d o n e , w it h t e x t s o f t h e m i r a c l e s o f s a i n t s and m adon nas, t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s sow ed l u x u r i a n t c r o p s . Many m ore m i r a c l e s o c c u r r e d th a n t h e f r i a r s w ere p r e p a r e d t o a d m i t .20 T h ere i s l i t t l e o f t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e s p i r i t u a l or t h e m o r a l a b o u t M ex ica n m i r a c l e s . I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t h a t one be p io u s t o m e r it d i v i n e i n t e r p o s i t i o n . N o, t h e one r e q u i s i t e o f a M ex ica n m i r a c le i s t h a t i t hap pen o p p o r t u n e l y .2 1 T h ere w a s, f o r a n i n s t a n c e , t h e f a i t h l e s s w i f e who w as s u r p r i s e d i n t h e w oods w i t h h e r l o v e r by h e r i r a t e h u s b a n d .. The hu sb an d had a m a ch ete and w as i n a p o s i t i o n t o do mayhem when t h e woman c a l l e d on Our Lord o f C halm a. Im m e d ia te ly t h e l o v e r w as tu r n e d i n t o a n a l t a r w i t h C h r is t upon i t . The husband d rop p ed m a ch ete and i n t e n t i o n s and f e l l upon h i s k n e e s a s h e and h i s w i f e w o r s h ip p e d . T h ie v e s and m u r d e r e r s h a v e t h e i r own p a tr o n s a i n t s and in v o k e t h e i r b e n e d i c t i o n b e f o r e 2< ^ A n it a B ren n er , op_. c i t . , p . 1 5 8 . 21 L u cas A lam an, H i s t o r i a de M e jic o I , p . 5 5 . H. H. B a n c r o f t , H i s t o r y o f M e x ic o , I I I , p . 6 6 5 . 172 any p r o j e c t e d crim e* I f t h e d eed . i s s u c c e s s f u l , t h e y d u ly "bring t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e c h a p e l o f t h e s a i n t . Jose" / ✓ y, de Leon T o r a l, m urderer o f P r e s i d e n t A lv a r o O bregon, r e c e i v e d t h e sa cra m en t from M other C o n c h it a , S u p e r io r o f an o u tla w e d pp c o n v e n t , b e f o r e c o m m ittin g t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n . So t h o r o u g h ly imbued have t h e M ex ica n s become w ith t h e b e l i e f i n m i r a c l e s t h a t t h e y h ave l i t t l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f m ind l e f t . They b e l i e v e a n y th in g t h a t i s t o l d them a b o u t s i c k n e s s , d e a t h , o r o t h e r n a t u r a l phenom ena. They a r e n o t c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e h ig h i n f a n t m o r t a l i t y r a t e o f M e x ic o , h ig h e r th a n t h a t o f C hina e v e n , b e c a u s e t h e y s t i l l have v e s t i g e s o f t h e pagan b e l i e f in T o n a n tz in t o whom th e c h i l d - dead w ere d e d i c a t e d . The F e a s t o f th e L i t t l e Dead i s c e l e b r a t e d h a p p i l y , w it h f e a s t i n g and d r i n k in g , w it h th e f u l l s a n c t i o n o f t h e C hurch. E x v o to s a r e i n e v id e n c e i n any ch u r c h in M exico f o r t h e v i s i t o r t o s e e . H ere t h e p e t i t i o n e r w r i t e s a p o s t c a rd t o God, e i t h e r r e c i t i n g a m ir a c le t h a t h a s h ap p en ed o r a s k in g f o r one i n t h e f u t u r e . Some a r e in t h e n a tu r e o f c o n t r a c t s and c a n n i l y s e t f o r t h th e te r m s: t h i s i s t o be done by th e d e i t y and i n r e t u r n th e p e t i t i o n e r w i l l p a y a s p e c i f i e d am ount. 2 2 C ar,leton B e a l s , 0 £ . c i t . » p . 327 f f ♦ 23 A n it a B r e n n e r , ojd. c i t . » p . 166 f . 173 P o ly t h e is m i n th e M exican C a t h o li c C hurch. A n oth er a t t r i b u t e o f M exican C a th o lc is m t h a t h a s come from th e com b i n a t i o n o f p a g a n ism and th e m e d ie v a l ch u rch i s t h e b e l i e f in a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f g o d s and i d o l s . J u s t a s e v e r y f a m i ly had i t s own l a r e s and p e n a t e s and e v e r y v i l l a g e i t s p a r t i c u l a r g o d s , so t h e Church e n c o u r a g e d a b e l i e f i n t h e s p e c i a l e f f i c a c y o f c e r t a i n c h u r c h e s and s a i n t s o v e r o t h e r s . The c o n c e p t o f C h r is t o r God a s d ise m b o d ie d d em iu rge i s unknown e x c e p t to a fe w c o s m o p o lit e M ex ica n s o f th e c i t i e s . The M exican e n j o y s a form o f h a g i o l a t r y and m a r i o l a t r y o f th e m ost i n t e n s e s o r t . T o u r i s t s who w r i t e o f t h e trem en d o u s, s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s e n jo y e d by t h e s e p e o p le i n th e c h u r c h e s and c a t h e d r a l s o f M exico w ould be s u r p r i s e d t o know t h a t i t i s l i k e l y c a u s e d by t h e o b j e c t “d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t o f t h e w o r s h ip p e r , th e s a n t o , o r th e c r i s t o , o r t h e v i r g e n . E very ch u rch o f any p r e t e n s i o n s had i t s own im a g e s , t h e p a tr o n s a i n t o f th e c h u r c h , and one o r m ore v i r g i n s and C h r i s t s , th e number d e p e n d in g upon th e s i z e o f t h e c h u r c h . M ost o f th e s a n t o s r e c e i v e v e n e r a t i o n o n ly in t h e l o c a l i t y . But when le g e n d s su ch a s t h i s c l u s t e r t h i c k l y , t h e im age com es t o be so u g h t by p e o p le n o t o f t h e r e g i o n , and i n t h i s way d e v e lo p t h e s a c r e d s h r i n e s o f M e x ic o , su ch a s G uadalupe and Chalma. . . . The word S a n to i s s p e c i a l and e x a c t ; t h e r e i s no s u b s t i t u t e f o r i t , and i t i s u s e d i n b o th S p a n ish and N a h u a tl d i s c o u r s e . G e n e r a lly i t m eans any s a c r e d e f f i g y ; s p e c i f i c a l l y and commonly i t r e f e r s t o th e im a g es o f C h r i s t i a n s a i n t s h o u se d i n t e m p l e s . 24 R o b ert R e d f i e l d , T e p o z tla n a M exican V i l l a g e . p . 196 f . 174 O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e r e w i l l be a f r a n k l y pagan im age w h ic h t h e p r i e s t and t h e p e o p le o f to d a y do n o t r e c o g n i z e , G ru en in g r e p o r t s an im age t o th e god T l a lo c i n t h e c h u rch y a rd o f M ilp a A l t a , The a u th o r fo u n d a T o l t e c a n im a l-g o d i n th e Church a t San A n to n io T e o lo y u c a n s t a n d in g n e x t t o a l i f e - s i z e d S a i n t J o h n , When t h e p r i e s t w as q u e s t io n e d a s t o i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e h e lo o k e d v a g u e and murmured, f,I t i s o f th e v i l l a g e , " Each v i r g i n , e a c h C h r i s t , e a c h s a i n t p i c t u r e d i n m u r a ls , on th e w a l l s , o r c a r v e d i n wood i s an i n d i v i d u a l . The im age r e p r e s e n t s C h r is t a s t h e wood c a r v e r o r th e a r t i s t p i c t u r e d him , and th u s he h a s b een p e r p e tu a t e d f o r h u n d red s o r th o u s a n d s o f o t h e r s a c c o r d in g t o th e number t h a t h ave w o r sh ip p e d him . The m ost p o t e n t im a g e s , a c c o r d in g t o th e n a t i v e b e l i e f , a re th e d ark o n e s , t h e I n d ia n im a g e s . W hite C h r i s t s and v i r g i n s a r e t o o c o ld and a l o o f . They are f o r t h e f o r e i g n e r s . The f i r s t C h r is t c a r v e d and p la c e d i n A m erica i s a w h it e C h r is t fo u n d i n t h e c h u rch o f S a n - F r a n c is c o de T l a s c a l a . I t i s a g r i s l y f i g u r e , n a k e d , b lo o d s p l a t t e r e d , h a v in g a ro p e a b o u t i t s n e c k . A l a t e r C h r is t i n t h e same c h u r c h i s a dark C h r i s t , n e a r l y b l a c k , h a v in g a crown o f t h o r n s and a b r i e f I n d ia n s k i r t . The C h r is t a t T e p o z tla n i s th e s o u th e r n I n d ia n t y p e , s l i g h t , a lm o s t O r i e n t a l in a p p e a r a n c e . T h is f i g u r e i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t t h e l e f t arm i s 175 shown a s b ro k en and p u l l e d b ack o v e r t h e arm o f t h e c r o s s . I t i s d r e s s e d i n lo n g t r o u s e r s and h a s a s k u l l c a p . At M ilp a A l t a i s t o be fo u n d a recum bent e n c e i n t e v i r g i n i n I n d ia n d r e s s and sh od i n g u a r a c h .e s. A M e x ic a n -n e a r ly a lw a y s w o r s h ip s a t h i s f a v o r i t e s a n t o y s s h r in e o r a l t a r . . In t h e l a r g e c h u r c h e s i n M e x ic o , i f one w a tc h e s t h e w o r s h ip e r s e n t e r , he w i l l n o t i c e t h a t e a c h one g o e s p u r p o s e f u l l y to w a r d s one o f th e many a l t a r s o r im a g es and k n e e l s i n f r o n t o f t h a t o n e . When v i l l a g e r s from tw o or t h r e e c e n t e r s o f p o p u la t io n c o n g r e g a t e , t h e r e a r e f r e q u e n t l y a rg u m en ts and f i g h t s a s t o w hose C h r is t i s th e m ost p o t e n t . C e r t a in o f t h e s a i n t s and C r i s t o s h a v e s p e c i a l v i r t u e s , su ch a s t h e a b i l i t y t o c u r e d i s e a s e , o r rem ove b l e m is h e s . A t t h e f i e s t a s , w h ich a r e in s e s s i o n i n o n e p o b la c io n o r a n o th e r a l l o f t h e t i m e , a t r e mendous b u s i n e s s i s c a r r i e d fo r w a r d in ch arm s, t r i n k e t s t h a t have b e e n b l e s s e d , and m in ia t u r e s a i n t s . The p e o p le a s a w h o le t h u s h a v e no i d e a w h a te v e r o f t h e m ean in g o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . J u s t a s i n th e c i v i l g o v e r n m e n ts a t t h e tim e o f t h e C on q u est t h e p e o p le m e r e ly ch a n g ed m a s t e r s , so i n t h e i r r e l i g i o n t h e y w ere m e r e ly g i v e n on e fo rm o f i d o l a t r y f o r a n o t h e r . They w a n ted b r e a d and w ere g i v e n s t o n e s . The a m o r a lit y o f t h e M ex ican C h urch. I n r e v i e w in g t h e c h a r g e s t h a t h ave b een made a g a i n s t th e ch u r c h f o r a l a c k o f m oral g u id a n c e , o n ly t h e e f f e c t s upon t h e p e o p le t h e m s e lv e s w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d . M odern M ex ican s c h o o l men b r in g s e r i o u s a lm o s t u n b e l i e v a b l e c h a r g e s a g a i n s t t h e m o r a l i t y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s o f th e C a t h o lic C hurch. T h ese c h a r g e s t h e y docum ent w it h e n d l e s s a u t h o r i t y , n o t t h e l e a s t o f w h ic h com es from h ig h c h u rch men who p e r i o d i c a l l y demanded t h a t t h e money l e n d e r s b e d r iv e n from th e t e m p le s . R a t i o n a l i s t l e a d e r s co n a i d e r t h a t t h e l i f e demanded o f t h e c l e r g y , c e l i b a c y p a r t i c u l a r l y , w as s c i e n t i f i c a l l y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y u n sou n d and t h a t i t c o u ld o n ly l e a d t o d e p r a v i t y and t h a t . i t c e r t a i n l y d id n o t l e a d t o m oral w a r d s h ip . D is c o u n t in g t h i s p h a se o f t h e s i t u a t i o n e n t i r e l y , o n l y t h e s t a t e m e n t s t h a t t h e C hurch, a f t e r h a v in g t h e s p i r i t u a l and m o ra l g u a r d ia n s h ip o f t h e M exican p e o p le i n i t s k e e p in g f o r f o u r h u n d red y e a r s , h a s p ro d u ced a p e o p le who d i v o r c e m o r a l i t y and r e l i g i o n i n t h e i r t h i n k i n g , w hose r a t e o f i l l e g i t i m a c y i s h i g h , and who h a v e v a g u e i d e a s a s t o te m p e r a n c e , c h a s t i t y , and m a r i t a l p r o b i t y w ould i n d i c a t e t h a t th e c h u r c h h a s f a i l e d in g i v i n g m o ra l l e a d e r s h i p . U nder t h e A z t e c s a m oral t o n e w as m a in ta in e d t h a t w as S p a r ta n i n i t s s e v e r i t y . The Mayas and th e o t h e r l e a d i n g r a c i a l g ro u p s had e q u a l l y h ig h s t a n d a r d s . I n c o r r i g i b l e c h i l d r e n m ig h t b e s o l d i n t o s l a v e r y a s a l a s t r e s o r t . C h ild r e n , who w ere to o p r o n e t o l i e , w ere p u n is h e d by h a v in g a .p ie c e c u t o u t o f one o f t h e i r 177 l i p s . W ith su ch s t r i c t t r a i n i n g i t i s n o t s t r a n g e t h a t t h e S p a n ia r d s w ere a s t o n i s h e d a t t h e h ig h m o ral to n e o f th e n a t i v e s , and t h e i r r e l u c t a n c e to t e l l a l i e . Un f o r t u n a t e l y c o n t a c t b etw een t h e tw o c i v i l i z a t i o n s so o n l e d t o a r a p id m oral d e g e n e r a t io n o f t h e n a t i v e c o d e . 2 ® An u n f a i t h f u l w i f e and h e r s e d u c e r had t h e i r h e a d s c r u s h e d w it h a s t o n e d rop p ed by t h e o u t r a g e d h u s b a n d .2 ^ D ru n k en n ess w as fo r b id d e n and v i o l a t o r s o f t h e ta b u w ere p u t t o d e a th . The C o n q u is ta d o r e s s t a r t e d t h e d eb a u ch ery o f n a t i v e m o r a ls by t h e i r i n d i s c r i m i n a t e t a k i n g o f women. U nder t h e i r dom ina t i o n n a t i v e women w ere f o r c e d t o su b m it t o t h e i r w is h e s a t any t im e . A ft e r w a r d s , u n d er t h e en com ien d a s y s te m , t h e h a c e n d a d o s and t h e i r o v e r s e e r s e x e r c i s e d a s p e c i e s o f s e i g n i o r i a l r i g h t s o v e r t h e women. T h is p r a c t i c e w as c o n t in u e d th r o u g h th e d a y s o f t h e v i c e r o y a l t y and became m ore p ron ou n ced u n d er D ia z when th e r i g h t s o f t h e ow n ers o v e r 27 t h e i r p eo n s e x te n d e d t o l i f e and d e a t h . Today M exico i s p a y in g t h e p i p e r f o r t h e mad m elo d y o f im m oral l i c e n s e t h a t s k i r l e d th r o u g h fo u r hundred y e a r s . Her l e a d e r s o f to d a y c h a r g e t h e C a t h o lic Church w it h c a l l i n g t h e tu n e and d a n c in g t o i t w it h th e u tm o st aban d on . C e r t a i n l y t h e u tm o s t e x c e s s e s h a v e b e e n p r a c t i c e d by a l l c l a s s e s o f 25 J . E r ic Thompson, M exico B e fo r e C o r t e z , p . 4 0 . 26 J . E r ic Thom pson, C i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e M ayas. 2? J . K. T u rn er, op.* c i t . , C h a p te r s I and I I . 178 M e x ic a n s , w h ile t h e y and t h e Church c o n s id e r e d t h e s e same M ex ica n s t o be d e v o u t members o f t h e Church. Of t h e m o ra l cod e w h ich t h e ch u rch sh o u ld h ave i n s t i l l e d and d o e s i n s t i l l i n th e U n it e d S t a t e s , o r i n C a t h o lic P r a n c e , t h e r e a r e few v e s t i g e s i n M e x ic o . M ale c o n j u g a l f i d e l i t y among th e M exican u p p er c l a s s e s i s r a r e . I n f i d e l i t y i s f l a g r a n t and r e p u t a b l e . M ex ica n s sp e a k w it h o u t r e s t r a i n t o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n and t h e i r " n a tu r a l c h i l d r e n . " Among t h e m a sse s d r u n k e n n e s s and s e x u a l d e b a u ch er y form t h e a fte r m a t h o f many r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s , and a lw a y s h a v e . I n t o x i c a t i o n i s an i n v a r i a b l e f e a t u r e o f G uadalupe D ay, Decem ber 1 2 , a s anyon e who h a s w i t n e s s e d t h e c e r e m o n ie s , a s 1 h a v e , ca n t e s t i f y .-28 One o f t h e c h u r c h c u sto m s t h a t h a s h e lp e d d r i v e t h e M exican t o im m o r a lity i s t h a t o f p l a c i n g a h ig h c h a r g e upon su c h s e r v i c e s a s m a r r ia g e and b a p tis m . I n ^ th e p a s t o n l y th e c h u r c h b l e s s i n g w a s r e c o g n i z e d , y e t a h ig h p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e p e o p le rem a in ed u n b l e s s e d i n t h e i r u n io n s and i n th e f r u i t s t h e r e o f . One o f t h e fam ous p a s s a g e s i n l i t e r a r y M exican a i s t h a t o f P la n d r a u i n d e s c r i b i n g M ex ico i n 1 9 0 8 . I t s t r i k e s one a s s t r a n g e , a s w ic k e d e v e n , t h a t a p o w e r fu l Church (a C h urch , m o r e o v e r , t h a t r e g a r d s m a r r ia g e a s a sa c r a m e n t) s h o u ld d e l i b e r a t e l y p l a c e i n s u p e r a b le o b s t a c l e s i n t h e p a t h o f p e r s o n s who f o r t h e tim e b e i n g , a t l e a s t , h a v e e v e r y d e s i r e t o t r e a d t h e s t r a i g h t and n arrow w ay. T h is , t o i t s sham e, th e Church i n M exico d o e s . The o n l y l e g a l l y v a l i d m a r r ia g e cerem ony i n M exico i s t h e c i v i l cerem o n y , b u t t o a M exican p eo n t h e c i v i l 28 ] g rnest Gruening, op. c it . , p. 250 f. 179 cerem ony m eans n o t h in g w h a te v e r ; h e c a n ’ t g r a sp i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , and t h e r e i s n o th in g i n t h e p r o s a i c , b u s i n e s s l i k e p r o c e e d in g t o to u c h h i s h e a r t and s t i r h i s im a g in a tio n * The o n l y cerem ony he r e c o g n i z e s i s one c o n d u c te d by a p r i e s t i n a church# When h e i s m a r r ie d by a p r i e s t he b e l i e v e s h i m s e l f t o be m arried--* w h ic h f o r m o ra l and s p i r i t u a l p u r p o s e s i s j u s t a s v a l u a b l e a s i f h e a c t u a l l y w ere# One w o u ld su p p o se t h a t t h e Church w ou ld r e c o g n i z e t h i s and e n c o u r a g e u n io n s o f m ore o r l e s s s t a b i l i t y by m akin g m a r r ia g e i n e x p e n s iv e and e a sy # I f i t had t h e s l i g h t e s t d e s i r e t o e l e v a t e t h e lo w e r c l a s s e s i n M exico from t h e i r f r a n k l y b e s t i a l a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n — t o i n c u l c a t e i d e a s d i f f e r e n t and f i n e r th a n t h o s e m a in ta in e d by t h e i r c h ic k e n s and t h e i r p i g s - - i t c o u ld l o n g s i n c e e a s i l y h a v e done s o . B u t q u i t e s im p ly i t h a s no su c h d e s i r e . In th e m o r a l i t y o f t h e m a ss e s i t show s no i n t e r e s t # F or p e r fo r m in g t h e m a r r ia g e c e r e mony i t c h a r g e s much more th a n p o o r p e o p le can p ay w it h o u t g o in g i n t o d e b t . Now and th e n t h e y g o i n t o d e b t; more o f t e n t h e y d i s p e n s e w i t h t h e cerem ony# On my r a n c h , f o r i n s t a n c e , v e r y fe w o f t h e "m arried " p e o p le w ere m a r r i e d .29 One t h i n g s t a n d s o u t o f th e w h o le m o u n ta in o f dam ning e v id e n c e a g a i n s t t h e C a t h o lic c h u r c h i n M exico and t h a t i s t h e i n d i s p u t a b l e f a c t t h a t i t i s in no way a l l i e d t o C h r is t o r C h r i s t i a n i t y . I t h a s b e e n a g r e e d y , g r a s p in g i n s t i t u t i o n b l i n d l y s e e k i n g p o w er, p o l i t i c a l , m o n e ta r y , and te m p o r a l. D r. G eorge I . S a n c h e z , h i m s e l f a C a t h o li c and an a u t h o r i t y on M e x ic o , s a y s : F or our p u r p o se i t i s b e s t t o e l i m i n a t e any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e s o r b e l i e f s i n o r d e r t h a t we may be in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o ju d g e t h e e f f e c t s t h a t t h e C h u r c h -S ta te c o n t r o v e r s y h a s had on e d u c a t io n i n M e x ic o . I sa y t h i s b e c a u s e o f a f ir m c o n v i c t i o n t h a t r e l i g i o n , a s s u c h , i s p r o b a b ly t h e m o st i n s i g n i f i c a n t 29 C. M. F la n d r a u , V iv a M e x ic o , p . 91 f 180 f a c t o r in th e c o n t r o v e r s y . The c o n f l i c t i n M exico h a s a r i s e n b e c a u s e , u n l i k e th e A m erican Church w h ic h i s modern and i n w h ic h r e l i g i o n i s t h e c h i e f c o n c e r n , t h e M exican C a t h o li c Church i s t h e m e d ie v a l C hurch, t h e c o l o n i a l Church w h ich w as b o th S t a t e and Church and w h ich e x e r c i s e d n o t o n ly a r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n b u t a p o l i t i c a l one i n w h ic h eco n o m ic pow er w as e s s e n t i a l t o i t s e x i s t e n c e . 30 B e c a u se o f t h i s c o n s c i e n c e l e s s g r e e d f o r money t h e v o t a r i e s o f t h e c h u rch ca n a p p ea r i n a h i g h l y u n f a v o r a b le l i g h t when an o c c a s i o n a r i s e s w h ere t h e p e o p le w ant l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e i r s p i r i t u a l w a n d e r in g s . P r i e s t s i n M ex ico h a v e lo n g b e e n i n fam ous f o r t h e i r h e a r t l e s s , r u t h l e s s , u n d i g n i f i e d p lu n d e r in g o f t h e p e o p le in t h e i r moments o f e m o tio n a l w e a k n e s s . A n oth er f e r t i l e f i e l d f o r w e a lt h w h ich t h e Church d id n o t n e g l e c t w as fo u n d i n th e f e e s f o r f u n e r a l s , w e d d in g s and c h r i s t e n i n g s . The c h a r g e s f o r su ch s e r v i c e s w ere g r a d u a te d t o f i t i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , b u t w ere a lw a y s a s much a s t h e t r a f f i c w o u ld b e a r . ? l L e t u s exam in e t h e s e s p i r i t u a l c a t h a r s e s a s th e y w e re s e e n by e y e w i t n e s s e s and f i n d t h e i r n a t u r e . Then, c o m b in in g , in a q u i t e w o n d e r fu l f a s h i o n , e x trem e r a p i d i t y w it h an a i r o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c a lm , h e made h i s c o n f ir m a t o r y way down on e s i d e o f t h e n a v e , a c r o s s th e e n d , and up t h e o t h e r , p r e c e d e d by one p r i e s t and f o l l o w e d by tw o . The f i r s t g a t h e r e d up t h e c e r t i f i c a t e s (n o l a y i n g on o f h an d s u n l e s s one had p a id o n e ’ s t w e n t y - f i v e c e n t a v o s ) and r e a d t h e name o f t h e c h i l d n e x t i n l i n e t o th e b i s h o p , who murmured t h e a p p r o p r ia t e fo r m u la made a t i n y s i g n o f th e c r o s s on a t i n y f o r e h e a d w i t h th e end o f a l a r g e , d i r t y thum b, and moved o n . The s e c o n d , w i t h a b i t o f a b s o r b e n t c o t t o n 30 I b i d . , p . 1 6 6 . 31 R. N. M cLean, ojs. c i t . , p . 6 0 . 181 d ip p e d i n o i l , sw abbed t h e s p o t on w h ic h th e c r o s s had b een s i g n e d , w h il e th e t h i r d , t a k in g a d v a n ta g e o f th e g e n e r a l r a p t u r e , g e n t l y r e l i e v e d e v e r y o n e o f h i s b l e s s e d c a n d le ( i t had n e v e r b e e n l i g h t e d ) and c a r r ie d i t away t o be s o l d a g a in . B ut b y t h e tim e t h e f i r s t p r i e s t r e a c h e d my. f a m i l y p a r t y he had grown t i r e d and c a r e l e s s . I n s t e a d o f c o l l e c t i n g t h e c e r t i f i c a t e s s i n g l y , he b e g a n t o t a k e them i n tw o s and t h r e e s w i t h th e r e s u l t t h a t t h e y b e came m ixed and G eronim o w as c o n fir m e d , n o t a s G eron im o, b u t a s " S a t u r n in a ," w h ic h happened t o be t h e name o f t h e l i t t l e sn u b n o sed T oton ac g i r l s t a n d in g n e x t t o h im . When I r e a l i z e d w h at had h a p p e n e d , I p r o t e s t e d . Where f o r e h i s g r a c e and I p r o c e e d e d t o h ave " w o rd s." W ith e x c e e d in g b i t t e r n e s s he th e n r e p e r fo r m e d t h e r i t e , and i f t h e e y e s o f t h e f i r s t p r i e s t c o u ld h a v e k i l l e d , I s h o u ld h av e w it h e r e d on my s l e n d e r s t a l k . 32 Or c o n s i d e r a t y p i c a l c h u rch s c e n e i n p r e - r e v o l u t i o n M e x ic o . A s t o u t and v e n e r a b le p a d re com es down t h e a i s l e , f o l l o w e d by a p r o c e s s i o n o f c h o i r b o y s i n r e d and w h i t e . More th a n o n c e h e s t o p s on h i s way t o the- l i t t l e d o o r i n t h e c h o i r t o sp e a k t o one o r a n o t h e r , and t h e women r e v e r e n t l y k i s s h i s f a t h a n d . H is k i n d l y f a c e seem s t o e x p r e s s a p p r o v a l o f h i s g e n e r o u s p r o p o r t i o n s , a s much a s t o s a y , "L et them f a s t and p ra y who w i l l , but no f a s t i n g f o r m e. • • . . . I n t h e f a c e s o f t h e k n e e l i n g w o r s h ip p e r s one s e e s t h e w h o le gamut o f human e x p r e s s i o n . Such g r e a t w i s t f u l e y e s lo o k o u t from c l o s e l y drawn r e b o s o s ; and now and a g a in ~ t h o s e s o b o ld . H ere a r e t h e s u p p l i a n t and t h e p e n i t e n t ; c r im in a l f a c e s a l s o , and t h o s e from w h ic h a l l human i n t e r e s t and f e e l i n g h ave fa d e d and w h ic h l o o k beyond t o some shadow y hope n o t o f t h i s w o r ld . A sw a r th y l i t t l e man, w i t h b r i s t l i n g h a i r and m o u s ta c h e , p r a y s l o n g and f e r v e n t l y w h i l e h i s s m a ll p i g - e y e s r o v e t h i s way and t h a t , c e a s e l e s s l y d a r t i n g s l y and f u r t i v e g l a n c e s a t t h o s e a ro u n d . N ear him a c r i p p l e d woman h a s d r a g g e d h e r s e l f t o th e r a i l i n g on h e r k n e e s b y t h e a i d o f a p a i r o f s h o r t c r u t c h e s . Drop p in g t h e p a p e r s and l o t t e r y t i c k e t s sh e c a r r i e d f o r C . M . ITlandrau, o j d. c it. » p. 60. 18 £ s a l e , and g r a s p in g t h e ir o n b a r s , sh e b u r s t i n t o t e a r s * P r e s e n t l y a f a t o l d l a d y b u s t l e s up w i t h much a d o , c r o s s e s h e r s e l f w i t h an a i r , a s i f p ow d erin g h e r f a c e , and b u s t l e s away a g a in w it h o u t so much a s a g la n c e a t t h e o t h e r s .3 3 Church r i t u a l i n M exico h a s a lw a y s b e e n l a r g e l y a m a t te r o f th e l e t t e r r a t h e r th a n th e s p i r i t * M oth er Church r e a c h e d i n t o e v e r y a c t i v i t y o f th e d a i l y l i f e and c o n s e c r a t e d th e a c t i v i t y - - f o r a f e e . * ^ The d a i l y rh yth m s o f m a r r ia g e , b i r t h and d e a th w e re a lw a y s t h e f a v o r i t e s , h o w ev e r, f o r t h e y w ere t h e m o st r e g u la r and num erous. Anyone who h a s v i s i t e d a Church c e m e te r y h a s s e e n th e l a r g e p i l e o f b o n es w h ich h a v e b een c a s t o u t o f t h e c r y p t s and dug o u t o f t h e g r a v e s a s so o n a s t h e r e n t a l w as u n p a id , f o r t h e r e n t a l s i n c o n s e c r a t e d grou n d m ust b e p a id i n p erp etu u m * S in c e t h e govern m en t h a s ta k e n o v e r a l l c e m e t e r i e s t h i s p r a c t i c e h a s been d is c o n tin u e d * S u ch huge f e e s w e re c h a r g e d f o r m a r r ia g e s and b u r i a l s t h a t v a s t num bers o f I n d ia n s w ere a b le t o c o n t r a c t o n l y i l l i c i t u n i o n s , and i l l e g i t i m a c y became so enorm ous a s n o l o n g e r t o a r o u s e i n t e r e s t . As f o r t h e d e a d , s i n c e t h e y had t o be d i s p o s e d o f , b o d i e s w ere h a s t i l y b u r ie d i n u n c o n s e c r a t e d grou n d o r abandoned by t h e r o a d s i d e u n t i l t h e y becam e a h o r r o r t o th e p a s s e r - b y * 35 The C h u rch ’ s l a c k o f m oral g u id a n c e d id n o t s t o p h e r e . P e r s o n s t h a t f a i l e d t o g e t t h e C h u rch ’ s b l e s s i n g on t h e i r S ta n to n D a v is K irkham , ojd* c i t * , p . 1 8 . 34 I b i d . , p . 1 3 3 . 33 L a r ry B a r r e t t o , B r ig h t M e x ic o , p . 1 4 7 . 183 u n io n s o r on c h i l d r e n h o rn o f t h e s e l a w l e s s u n io n s c o u ld s t i l l g e t f u l l b l e s s i n g s on t h e d e f e r r e d paym ent p l a n . Any tim e t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t i n g p a r t i e s fo u n d t h e n e c e s s a r y money f o r t h e f e e t h e y came t o t h e p r i e s t and r e c e i v e d t h e same c o n s e c r a t i o n t h e y w ould h ave r e c e i v e d had t h e y l i v e d i n s o l i t a r y v i r t u e u n t i l t h e y c o u ld a f f o r d a l a w f u l m a r r ia g e . The p r i e s t d id n o t th e n t e l l t h e s e v i o l a t o r s o f t h e m oral co d e t h a t t h e y had s i n n e d , bu t w ou ld be f o r g iv e n # He d id n o t s a y , "Go and s i n no m o r e ." He m e r e ly to o k t h e f e e and s a i d n o t h in g , t h u s f a i l i n g a g a in in t h e f i e l d o f m oral g u id a n c e f o r . a p e o p l e . L a s t y e a r a man I know, who h a s a c a t t l e r a n c h a day and a h a l f away from h e r e , i s s u e d a g e n e r a l i n v i t a t i o n , t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t o come t o h i s p l a c e and be m a r r ie d f r e e o f c h a r g e . He b u i l t a tem p o ra ry c h a p e l and h i r e d a p r i e s t and f o r tw o d a y s th e h ym en eal t o r c h fla m e d a s i t n e v e r had in t h a t p a r t o f th e w o r ld b e f o r e . So many p e r s o n s to o k a d v a n ta g e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t th e p r i e s t , who b e g a n by m a r r y in g a c o u p le a t a t im e , w as o b l i g e d to w a r d th e l a s t t o l i n e them up i n l i t t l e sq u a d s o f s i x and e i g h t and t e n and l e t them h a v e i t , s o t o s p e a k , by t h e w h o l e s a l e . I t w as p a t h e t i c t o s e e o l d men and women w it h t h e i r c h i l d r e n and t h e i r c h i l d r e n ’ s c h i l d r e n a l l w a i t i n g i n t h e same group t o be m a r r i e d . 36 Tw enty y e a r s l a t e r i n an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p a r t o f t h e R e p u b lic , a n o th e r e y e w i t n e s s t e l l s th e same s t o r y . On A u g u st 1 , 1 9 2 6 , t h e M exican c l e r g y s t a r t e d a ch u rch s t r i k e t h a t l a s t e d f o r t h r e e y e a r s i n an e f f o r t t o th w a r t t h e g o v ern m ent i n i t s e f f o r t s t o c a r r y o u t th e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e 36 C . M . Flandrau, o£. c it. » p. 127 184 n a t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n . D u rin g t h e l a s t w eek b e f o r e th e c a l l i n g o f t h e s t r i k e t h e C a th e d r a l i n M ex ico C i t y w as crow ded w i t h p e r s o n s s e e k i n g i n d u l g e n c e s f o r t h e i r p a s t s h o r t c o m in g s . A c t i v i t y d u r in g one day i s th u s d e s c r i v e d : The I n d i a n s — t h e p o o r and t h e d i s i n h e r i t e d — w ere t h e o n e s f i g h t i n g f o r t h i s l a s t - m i n u t e s a l v a t i o n . The m id d le and u p p er c l a s s e s w ere n o t f o r c e d t o t h i s e x t r e m i t y . T h e ir c h i l d r e n had b een b a p t i z e d , c h r i s t e n e d , c o n fir m e d , m a r r ie d a t l e i s u r e . B ut t h e m a s s e s s tr e a m in g i n t o t h e ch u rch had t o p o s tp o n e t h e s e l i t u r g i c a l a c t s from w eek t o w e e k , h o p in g a g a i n s t hope t h a t n e x t m onth or t h e m onth a f t e r a few p e n n i e s c o u ld be l a i d a s i d e f o r t h e c o n f ir m a t io n v e i l , t h e n e c e s s a r y c a n d l e s , t h e f e e s . But now i n t h i s l a s t m in u te sc r a m b le th e y c h e a te d t h e i r sto m a c h s and m o rtg a g e d t h e i r h e a l t h t o b e g , b o r r o w , o r s t e a l t h e sums r e q u ir e d f o r e v e r y h o l y a c t , e v e r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f h o l y w a t e r , e v e r y d e c l a r a t i o n o f b a n s . . . t h i s v a s t p a w in g sc r a m b le o f t h e e x c i t e d d i s i n h e r i t e d o f M e x ic o , t h i s f l a u n t i n g o f i d o l a t r y , s u p e r s t i t i o n , r a g s , d i r t , was a p r o f a n a t i o n o f t h e human s p i r i t . . The M e x ic a n - S p a n is h - A z t e c ch u rch i n i t s b a t t l e w i t h t h e M ex ica n s t a t e showed a c a l l o u s c r u e l t y , r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e days o f I n n o c e n t I I I . 37 E v id e n c e c o u ld b e a c c u m u la te d i n d e f i n i t e l y t o s u p p o r t t h e s t a n d o f t h e p r e s e n t - d a y M ex ica n gov ern m en t i n i t s f i g h t a g a i n s t s u p e r s t i t i o n , f a n a t i c i s m and im m o r a lit y . T h is resum e i s in t e n d e d t o g i v e t h e g o v e r n m e n t’ s j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i t s s ta n d i n r e g a r d t o s e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o l s . As th e C hurch h a s r e s i s t e d t o th e u tm o st t h e r i g h t o f t h e g ov ern m en t t o h a n d le e d u c a t i o n , t h e govern m en t h a s had t o f i g h t b a c k . I t h a s f o u g h t b ack by r e q u i r i n g t h a t a l l p r i e s t s s h a l l be M e x ic a n s , t h a t t h e y s h a l l n o t h ave t h e r i g h t t o v o t e , or t o 37 Carleton Beals, ojd. c it . , p . 289. 185 a p p ea r i n p u b l i c i n t h e i r c l e r i c a l h a b i l i m e n t s . Some o f t h e s t a t e s h ave gone f u r t h e r and o n ly a l l o w p r i e s t s t o o f f i c i a t e who a r e m a r r ie d . The p l a c e o f th e s c h o o l s i s t h a t o f an a c t i v e a g e n t i n f r e e i n g t h e m in d s o f a new g e n e r a t i o n from t h e s l a v e r y o f t h e p a s t . ‘I I . THE PLACE OF SCIENCE AND RATIONALISM IN MEXICO’S SCHOOLS How, t h e n , d o e s t h e S o c i a l i s t S c h o o l in t e n d t o g i v e t h e p e o p le freed o m o f m ind and c o n s c i e n c e w h il e i t i s s u p p o r t in g th e g o v e r n m e n t’ s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t th e Church? D oes i t in t e n d t o make a r e l i g i o n o f s c ie n c e ? - S c h o o l l e a d e r s an sw er t h a t t h e y a r e . n o t a t t a c k i n g r e l i g i o n and t h a t t h e y do n o t in t e n d f o r s c i e n c e t o s u p p la n t r e l i g i o n . They m e r e ly w is h t h e p e o p le t o g e t a m odern v ie w o f t h e u n i v e r s e and e n j o y any r e l i g i o n t h e y c h o o s e . In s h o r t , t h e y a r e a t t e m p t in g t o r e a c h t h e same p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e U n it e d S t a t e s to d a y o c c u p ie s i n h e r e d u c a t i o n a l f i e l d s . The r e s t r i c t i o n s p l a c e d by M ex ico on t h e n a tu r e o f e le m e n ta r y e d u c a t i o n , h ow ever d r a s t i c t h e y m igh t be from t h e s t a n d p o in t o f r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n , a r e t h o s e t o w h ic h t h e s c h o o l s i n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s h ave co n form ed in p r i n c i p l e . W h ile A m erica n s may r e g r e t t h a t t h e M ex ica n Church h a s b e e n d e p r iv e d o f t h i s m edium o f r e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n , t h e r e i s no c o n s i s t e n c y i n d e n y in g t h a t th e M ex ica n programme o f f e d e r a l s c h o o l s i s ground ed on a sou n d p r i n c i p l e o f e d u c a t io n i n a d e m o c r a c y .38 38 George I. Sanchez, 0£. c it . , p. 175 186 I n s o f a r a s t h e s c h o o l p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e s t r u g g l e b e tw e e n Church and S t a t e , i t i s o n ly i n t h e f i e l d o f b r e a k in g t h e h o ld o f i d o l a t r y , s u p e r s t i t i o n , and f e a r o f s u p e r n a t u r a l 39 a n g e r s . I t i s f u r t h e r f o r c e d t o b a t t l e f o r i t s own l e g a l and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l e x i s t e n c e , f o r t h e Church h a s fo m en ted l a w l e s s n e s s , d e f i a n c e o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n and b lo o d s h e d . ; One t h i n g , h o w e v e r , h a s t h u s f a r e n d u r e d , and t h a t i s , t h e c o u r a g e and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e Church t h a t i t w i l l n o t y i e l d t o t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s te m and i t s a l l e g e d l y r a t i o n a l i s t i c e d u c a t i o n . I t h a s e x co m m u n ica ted , a t l e a s t t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , a l l members who h a v e a c t e d o t h e r w i s e . T h at i t h a s , i n s h o r t , d e f i e d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e l a n d , t h e r e . i s no q u e s t i o n . 40 M odern r a t i o n a l i s m may n o t h o ld th e k e y t o a l l l i f e ’ s p r o c e s s e s . But t h e Church in M e x ic o f e a r s e n lig h t e n m e n t , and w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e i t s t i l l f i g h t s s e c u l a r e d u c a t i o n . R e c e n t l y i n S an P a b lo E t l a , I fou n d t h a t t h e p r i e s t was d e c la im in g from t h e p u l p i t a g a i n s t t h e F e d e r a l s c h o o l and i n c i t e d some o f t h e v i l l a g e r s t o t e a r up t h e a t h l e t i c f i e l d . I n m ost r u r a l l o c a l i t i e s t h e p r i e s t t h r e a t e n s p a r e n t s w it h d i r e p u n is h m e n ts i f t h e y p e r m it t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o a t t e n d g overn m en t s c h o o l s . I n a s m a ll v i l l a g e i n t h e M ix te c a n I n d ia n r e g i o n , t h e p e o p l e w ere f r i g h t e n e d by t h e w a i l i n g o f Xa L lo r a n a , th e g h o s t o f M a lic h e (b e d -c o m p a n io n o f C o r te s), t h a t p r o w le d t h e s t r e e t s e v e r y n i g h t . The m i l i t a r y commandant o f t h e r e g i o n , on v i s i t i n g t h e v i l l a g e , h e a r d t h i s n i g h t l y t e r r o r and s e t h i s s o l d i e r s t o c a t c h th e sp o o k . I t p r o v e d t o be t h e s a c r i s t a n d r e s s e d up i n 39 I g n a c i o G a r c ia T e l l e z , S o c i a l i z a c i o n de l a C u l t u r a , p p . 37 f . J o s e de l a Luz M ena, E s c u e l a R a c i o n a l i s t a t p p . 33 f f . E m ilio P o r t e s G i l , La E s c u e l a £ e l C a m p esin o , p . . 2 9 . J . J . de l a R o sa , £ £ . c i t . , p . 6^7 40 Charles S. MacFarland, 0£. c it . t p. 75. 187 41 a s h e e t and a f r i g h t f u l m ask. I t i s e x a c t l y t h i s a p p e a l t o t h e pagan f e a r s o f th e p e o p le t h a t t h e s c h o o l i s f i g h t i n g . The s c h o o l t e a c h e r ' s a p p e a l i s t o l o v e and l i g h t and c l e a n l i n e s s a s o p p o se d t o f e a r and d a r k n e s s and i g n o r a n c e . From t im e t o tim e i n th e bod y o f t h i s s t u d y n o t i c e h a s b e e n ta k e n o f t h e way i n w h ich t h e r e l i g i o u s and s o - c a l l e d r e s p e c t a b l e p e o p le o f M ex ico h a v e fo u g h t and th w a r te d t h e work o f t h e s c h o o l . They h a v e fo u g h t i t i n i t s a n t i a l c o h o l i c cam p aign , t h e y h a v e fo u g h t i t i n i t s a t t e m p t s t o b r in g t h e l e s s o n s o f s c i e n c e t o t h e p e o p l e , and t h e y h a v e f o u g h t i t i n i t s a t t e m p t s t o t e a c h t h e p e a s a n t s b e t t e r fa rm in g m e th o d s. One o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l t a s k s f a c i n g t h e p r e s e n t s o c i a l m ovem ents i n M e x ic o i s t h a t o f a w a k en in g th e m a s s e s o f p e o p l e from t h e l e t h a r g y a n d - - in e r t ia w h ich b in d them t o t h e i r p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n o f p o v e r t y . When a b l i g h t a t t a c k s t h e m elon c r o p s i n t h e lo w la n d s , no e f f o r t i s made t o s t o p i t ; t h e p e a s a n t m e r e ly s a y s : " I t ' s a l l r i g h t ; God w o n 't l e t u s s t a r v e . " The f e e l in g h a s grown t h a t r e l i g i o n , by e m p h a s iz in g r e l i a n c e on s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w er, h a s s t i f l e d t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f t h e p e a s a n t , and made him b e l i e v e t h a t h i s p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n i s i r r e m e d i a b l e . 42 The s c h o o l h a s ta k e n o v e r many o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f s p i r i t u a l c a t h a r s i s and i s u s i n g them i n t h e c u r r ic u lu m . Thus m u sic i s e n j o y in g a r e n a i s s a n c e i n M e x ic o th r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e s c h o o l s . R e g io n a l m u sic h a s b e e n g a t h e r e d and i s made 41 C a r le t o n B e a l s , o p . c i t . , p . £ 9 7 . ^ Charles S. MacFarland, op. c it ., p. £38* 188 a v a i l a b l e t o s c h o o l s th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . P a i n t i n g i s i n e v id e n c e e v e r y w h e r e , w it h o u t t h e gloom and le w d n e s s t h a t once c h a r a c t e r i z e d M ex ica n a r t . D a n c in g i s t a u g h t i n th e F e d e r a l s c h o o l s w i t h a new a i r o f c l e a n l i n e s s and d e c e n c y t h a t d o e s n o t demand a s e x u a l and d r in k in g debau ch a f t e r w a r d s . The s c h o o l p e o p le do n o t t a k e t h e l a i s s e z f a i r e a t t i t u d e o f th e c l e r g y to w a r d s l i c e n s e ; w hen t h e r e i s d e p r a v i t y th e s c h o o l t e a c h e r and h i s p u p i l s a r e som ew here e l s e . F ir e w o r k s , f o l k - p l a y s w it h a l l d e l i c a c y l e f t o u t , e v e r y b o d y i n tow n who can g e t t h e r e , and u n l i m i t e d s u p p l i e s o f l i q u o r . I t was a f i e s t a w it h no t r a c e o f to d a y a t a l l . The t e a c h e r s had gone t o t h e b a s e b a l l game w it h t h e m odern youn g M e x ic a n s .43 A s c i e n c e i s b e in g o f f e r e d t h e new M e x ic o t h a t w i l l mean a new way o f l i f e . I t i s n o t a m y s t e r io u s s c i e n c e t h a t i s aim ed a t m aking l i f e l e s s m e a n in g f u l, b u t one t h a t w i l l f i l l t h e w o r ld w it h m e a n in g . B o ta n y t e a c h e s th e M ex ica n th e t r u e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e g e r m in a t in g and b u r g e o n in g m a iz . N a t u r a l s c i e n c e t e a c h e s him 'w h y th e l i f e - g i v i n g r a i n comes and p e r h a p s r e p l a c e s p r im e v a l v e s t i g e s o f a b e l i e f i n and w o r sh ip o f T l a l o c b u t c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t r e p l a c e b e l i e f i n a Supreme B e in g who m a k e s’ n a t u r a l law* . C h e m istr y t e a c h e s him why he s h o u ld im prove h i s d i e t ; how h e can i n c r e a s e t h e f e c u n d i t y o f h i s s o i l w it h o u t o f f e r i n g s a c r i f i c e s t o r e g i o n a l g o d s o r i n d u l g i n g In s y m p a t h e tic m a g ic t o p r o p i t i a t e th e g o d d e s s o f 45 Brna Fergusson, o£. c it ., p. 40. 189 f e r t i l i t y . I t p e r h a p s show s him t h e f u t i l i t y o f p a y in g a p r i e s t t o b l e s s th e g r a in t h a t i s t o be p l a n t e d . H y g ie n e t e a o h e s t h e s t u d e n t t h a t h e sh o u ld h a v e s a n i t a r y d r in k in g w a te r s o t h a t h e w i l l no l o n g e r d r in k from t h e d r a in t h a t r u n s down t h e m id d le o f th e s t r e e t . B io lo g y w i l l t e a c h t h e M ex ica n s c h o o l boy and g i r l how t h e body f u n c t i o n s , how t o r i d t h e body o f g e r m s, how t o e x e r c i s e p r o p e r l y , and why one s h o u ld n o t d r in k a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s . D u r in g th e c o u r s e o f t h i s e d u c a t io n and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n , M ex ico w i l l l o s e many o f h e r p i c t u r e s q u e c u sto m s i n a n o th e r g e n e r a t i o n . Women w i l l n o t w rap t h e i r h e a d s t i g h t l y i n r e b o z o s t o k eep o u t th e f r e s h a i r ; t h e y w i l l n o t l a y b a b i e s on t h e f l y - c o v e r e d f l o o r s o f m a r k e ts . H o u ses w i l l be b u i l t m ore s p a c i o u s l y t o g i v e p r o p e r v e n t i l a t i o n and more h y g i e n i c q u a r t e r s f o r t h e f a m i l y . Un d o u b te d ly t h e i n f a n t m o r a l i t y r a t e w i l l drop from a p o i n t p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e t o 50 p e r c e n t t o one a p p r o a c h in g t h a t o f t h e U n it e d S t a t e s . T e a r , b o th eco n o m ic and s u p e r n a t u r a l, w i l l l i k e l y d is a p p e a r and t h e M ex ica n w i l l be a happy i n d i v i d u a l who more c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s h i s Maker i s n o t " h a l f b r o t h e r t o t h e o x ." I t w as t h e a u t h o r ’ s p r i v i l e g e t o t a l k w i t h Edwin Markham i n t h e shadow o f th e pyram id a t San Juan T e o t ih u a e a n . The v e n e r a b le p o e t s a i d t h e n t h a t th e M ex ica n came n e a r e r t o h i s c o n c e p t o f "The Man w it h th e Hoe" t h a n an y c l a s s or r a c e h e had e n c o u n t e r e d . I n d u b i t a b l y much o f t h e " c o lo r " o f M e x ic o w i l l be l o s t 190 f o r b o r e d t o u r i s t s and v i s i t i n g w r it e r s * B ut t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f t h e M ex ica n e d u c a to r i s t h a t i t i s b e t t e r f o r M exico t o be t h e home o f a h e a l t h y , h a p p y , m odern r a c e th a n t o be a c u r i o s i t y f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e w o rld t o p i t y and s t a r e a t f o r i t s p i c t u r e s q u e n e s s . The s e n t i m e n t a l i s t r e g r e t s th e p a s s i n g o f an a n a c h r o n ic c i v i l i z a t i o n and ad d s h i s w e ig h t t o th e f o r c e o f t h e r e a c t i o n a r i e s who a r e f i g h t i n g t o k eep t h e i r a n c i e n t r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s . Ifu tu re c i t i z e n s w ere w a i t i n g on t h e cem ent p l a t form r e a d y t o d a n c e . A t e a c h e r i n a h e a v y m a r c e l and a b r i g h t r e d b lo u s e m a r sh a le d them o u t t o g r e e t t h e v i s i t o r s . T h is was t h e k i n d e r g a r t e n , m i t e s o f fo u r or f i v e y e a r s , a l l v e r y c l e a n , and i n t h e r e a l i n d ig e n o u s c o s tu m e s . B o y s i n w h ite c a l z o n e s , s h i r t s , and s a s h e s ; g i r l s i n low b l o u s e s and p l e a t e d s k i r t s . They r a n and cro w d ed , b u t n o t on e f o r g o t h i s m a n n ers. They sp o k e i n g e n t l e v o i c e s and o f f e r e d s o f t warm baby h an ds a t g r e e t i n g and p a r t i n g . L a t e r t h e y d an ced t o a tu n e p la y e d on th e p ia n o , w it h f u s s y t e a c h e r s b o s s i n g e v e r y m ove. I t was w e l l d o n e , com p a r e d w it h t h e p e r fo r m a n c e i n th e c h u r c h — a t i d y p e r fo r m a n c e , w e l l r e g u l a t e d , s c h o o l e d , and t r a i n e d . But w h e r e , oh w h e r e , w as t h e in d ig e n o u s d an ce? T h is came from t h e S e c r e t a r x a de B d u e a c io n i n M ex ico and had n o c o n n e c t io n w it h t h e a n c i e n t t r i b a l r i t e s o f t h e p l a c e . They w ou ld h a v e d an ced a J a p a n e se d a n ce w it h th e same f e e l i n g . A t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e s c h o o l g r o u n d s , b e s k e t - b o l w as g o in g o n . I t w as an in f o r m a l game wi t h no u n i fo rm s, no c o a c h , n o t h in g t h a t lo o k e d l i k e s u p e r v i s i o n ; b u t i t was a h a r d , f a s t gam e, p la y e d a c c o r d in g t o r u l e , and i t had a t t r a c t e d an a u d ie n c e o f h a l f a h u n d red men and b o y s , w h i l e t h e d a n c e s i n t h e ch u rch and a t t h e s c h o o l w ere w a tch ed by o n ly t h e d o t i n g p a r e n t s . T h ose tw o d a n c e s and t h e game r e p r e s e n t so m e th in g s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i s h a p p e n in g i n M e x ic o , so m e th in g t h a t e v e n a s t r a n g e r f e e l s p o i g n a n t l y , t h a t p r o b a b ly n o t e v e n t h e m o st t h o u g h t f u l M ex ica n c o u ld f u l l y a n a l y z e . S e r io u s s t u d e n t s f i n d many a p p r o a c h e s t o 191 t h e p r o b le m , b u t anyone who lo o k s a t f i e s t a s m ust be aw are o f t h e c o m p l ic a t io n s made by t h e C hurch and s c h o o l and s p o r t — e v e r y t h i n g t h a t to u c h e s y o u th and i n f l u e n c e s i t . What i s g o in g t o hap pen t o t h e s e c h i l d ren ? N ot t h e n a t i o n , b u t t h e p e o p l e . F or f o u r hundred y e a r s t h e y h av e l i v e d i n t h e way ap p ro v ed by t h e Roman C a t h o lic C hurch. They h ave f u n c t io n e d w i t h i n t h a t schem e i n w ays o f t h e i r own. T h e ir s a i n t s a r e g o d s o f t h e i r own l i t t l e p l a c e . They h o n o r C h r i s t i a n s a i n t s w it h pagan c u sto m s , b u t , f o r a l l t h a t , l i f e h a s c e n t e r e d i n t h e C hurch. Now, s u d d e n ly , a govern m ent a s rem o te t o m ost o f them a s th e n o r t h s t a r h a s d e c id e d t h a t t h e y m ust no lo n g e r l i v e t h a t w ay. T ak in g t h e Church aw ay, i f i t can be d o n e , w i l l mean t a k in g away much t h a t a l l h u m an ity n e e d s , e s p e c i a l l y s im p le h u m a n ity t h a t c a n n o t f i n d r e a s s u r a n c e i n m e n ta l e x e r c i s e s . I n s p i t e o f a l l t h a t may be s a i d or t h e a b u s e s o f t h e c l e r g y , t h e Church o f f e r s c o m fo r t; s e e any I n d ia n k n e e l i n g t o h i s s a i n t . I t o f f e r s p a g e a n tr y and drama: human dram a, s im p le enough t o e n t h r a l l t h e m ost c h i l d i s h m in d , d e e p ly human enough t o h ave m ean ing f o r t h e m o st s o p h i s t i c a t e d . I t o f f e r s b e a u ty i n s t a t u e and p i c t u r e , m u sic and c a n d l e l i g h t , r o b e s and v e s t m e n ts , c h u r c h e s a s l o v e l y a s j e w e l s , and v e r i t a b l e j e w e ls worn by t h e l o v e l i e s t M adonnas and h a n d le d by g i r l s and women who c o u ld n e v e r h a v e su c h t h i n g s fo r t h e m s e lv e s . I t o f f e r s g a y e t y and fu n . And i t o f f e r s a s p i r i t u a l way o f l i f e . 44 S u ch r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s , s a y t h e e d u c a t o r s , do n o t e x p l a i n th e trem en d ou s c o s t t h e s e b a u b le s r e p r e s e n t t o th e p e o p l e . T h ere i s p e r h a p s no c o u n tr y e q u a l l y c i v i l i z e d w here t h e e d u c a t i o n a l , p o l i t i c a l , and m a t e r i a l w e l f a r e o f t h e l a b o r in g p e o p le h a s ad va n ced l e s s and w here t h e i r c o n d i t i o n p r e s e n t s more c r u e l , an d a t t h e same tim e m ore im m em o ria lly p i c t u r e s q u e p h a s e s th a n in M e x ic o . The p r o b le m o f l i f t i n g them t o a d i s t i n c t l y h ig h e r p la n e o f l i f e i s t h e im m ed ia te and u r g e n t p r o b le m o f t h e n a t i o n . I t w as t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e M adero r e v o l u t i o n , w h a te v e r may h ave b e e n t h e a l l e g e d g r i e v a n c e s o f o t h e r c l a s s e s . I t i s t h e m a t t e r c o n c e r n in g w h ic h th e D ia z r e g im e m ust g i v e i t s m o st im p o r ta n t 44 Edna Fergusson, ££. cit., pp. 251-258. 192 f i n a l a c c o u n t , h ow ever g r e a t th e p r o g r e s s made i n m a t e r i a l d e v e lo p m e n t.4 5 C e r t a i n l y a new s p i r i t i s a b ro a d i n M e x ic o and i t i s com pounded o f t h e f o r c e s o f m o r a l i t y , p s y c h o lo g y , b i o l o g y , chem i s t r y , and l e a r n i n g i n a l l i t s r e m i f i c a t i o n s . A r ra y e d a g a i n s t t h i s s p i r i t a r e t h e f o r c e s o f m o rte m a in , in t r e n c h e d p r i v i l e g e , and c o n s e r v a t is m . A n o th e r f a c t o r w h ic h t h e Church i n M e x ic o — a s e ls e w h e r e — m ust f a c e i s t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d o f m odern p h i lo s o p h y , w hose p r i n c i p l e s and i d e a s a r e in co m p a t i b l e w it h t h e p l a t o n i c a b s o l u t i s m o f t h e C a t h o li c dogm as. M ir a c l e s h ave n o t y e t r e c o n c i l e d t h e m s e lv e s w it h m odern s c i e n c e . A l l th e a n t i - C a t h o l i c te n d e n c i e s o f m odern th o u g h t h a v e c o n v e r g e d i n t h e m in d s o f t h e l i v i n g M ex ica n i n t e l l e c t u a l s — C a so , V a s c o n c e lo s , Lombardo T o le d a n o , R i v e r a , R e y e s , D r. A t l . N ot o n ly m odern t h i n k i n g b u t t h e m odern s y s te m c h a l l e n g e s t h e C hurch— a l l t h e trem en d ou s m a t e r i a l e x p a n s io n o f our d a y . I t i s w i t h tr u e i n s t i n c t t h a t th e N a t i o n a l L eagu e o f R e l i g i o u s D e fe n s e i n M ex ico i n s t i t u t e d an eco n o m ic b o y c o t t a g a i n s t l u x u r i e s - - a u t o s , am u sem en ts, f i n e c l o t h e s , and e p ic u r e a n f o o d s — i n i t s war w it h th e G overnm ent. (The s a v in g w ent t o pay f o r b o o t - l e g m a ss e s a t f i f t y p e s o s a h e a d .) The Church b o y c o t t f a i l e d , n o t b e c a u s e i t s members had becom e l e i s u r e - l o v i n g ( a s p r i e s t s p e r h a p s ) , b u t b e c a u s e th e m ass o f p e o p l e i n M ex ico a r e d e n ie d e v e n t h e minimum o f l i f e f s n e c e s s i t i e s .4 6 M ex ico i s d e f i n i t e l y m aking a ch a n g e; s h e i s t r a d i n g one way o f l i f e f o r a n o t h e r w it h h e r e y e s o p e n . M ex ico i s n o t r e p u d i a t i n g C h r is t n or h i s t e a c h i n g s , sh e i s a t t e m p t in g t o go b ack t o h i s p r e c e p t s and p u t them i n t o p r a c t i c e . L ik e m o st 4 5 E . H. B l i c h f e l d t , A M exican J o u r n e y , pp . 12 f . 46 C a r le t o n B e a l s , ojd. c i t . , p p . 296 f . o t h e r r e v o l t s a g a i n s t t h e C h urch , t h i s r e v o l t i s a g a i n s t dead fo r m a lism r a t h e r th a n t h e e s s e n c e o f r e l i g i o n . On t h e t h r e s h o l d i t may be n o t e d t h a t th r o u g h o u t a l l t h e c e n t u r i e s o f d e s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m th e c h a r a c t e r o f J e s u s C h r i s t h a s n e v e r b e e n b e s m ir c h e d .^ 7 M e x ic o ’ s s ta n d i s b e s t shown by a p h r a s e u s e d i n a m odern 48 M ex ica n s c h o o l r e a d e r . No C r i s t o H e y , s i n o C r i s t o P u e b lo ; n o t C h r is t th e k in g b u t t h e p e o p l e ’ s C h r i s t . 47 E . L. P e n n in g to n , ’’The R e v o l t a g a i n s t C h r i s t i a n i t y , The A m erica n S c h o l a r , S p r in g , 1 9 5 7 . 48 E . V. B r in g a s , L e c t u r e s P o p u l a r e s , p . 2 5 9 . CHAPTER V II REVOLUTIONARY ART IN SCHOOL AND SOCIETY B e c a u se t h e s c h o o l i s so i n e x t r i c a b l y bound up i n s o c i e t y , s c h o o l a r t and t h e a r t o f t h e n a t i o n a r e a lm o s t i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e . M ost M ex ica n a r t i s t s a r e t e a c h e r s a n d , c o n v e r s e l y , m ost t e a c h e r s o f a r t a r e a r t i s t s . A r t l i f e i n M ex ico c e n t e r s i n t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n w it h i t s c o l o r f u l f r e s c o e s and p a i n t i n g s by s u b s i d i z e d a r t i s t s . The D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n h as b e e n t h e c o n s t a n t p a tr o n o f a r t s i n c e V a s c o n c e lo s b u i l t t h e new S e c r e t a r i a t and t h e N a t i o n a l Norm al S c h o o l . To a r a c e t h a t t r a n s m i t s i d e a s p i c t o r i a l l y , t h a t i s a c cu sto m ed t o a r c h i t e c t o n i c m a s t e r p ie c e s a s a p a r t o f i t s e v e r y d a y l i f e , and t h a t draws p i c t u r e s on an y b la n k w a l l w here o t h e r r a c e s w ould s c r i b b l e t h e s u r e s t means o f com m u n icatin g new dogma i s th r o u g h t h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f a r t . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s a r t h a s becom e one o f t h e m ost p o t e n t t o o l s o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n i n t h e new s c h o o l o f M e x ic o . S in c e t h e c l o s e o f t h e R e v o lu t io n i n 1 9 2 1 , two s c h o o l s o f a r t h ave e x i s t e d s i d e by s i d e . The f o r m a l, o r Beaux A r t s , h a s o f n e c e s s i t y b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l and e x o t i c , a E uropean g r a f t on t h e M ex ica n s t a l k . The n ew er R e v o lu t io n a r y a r t , w h ich i s v a r i o u s l y d e s i g n a t e d a s p r o l e t a r i a n and m a t e r i a l i s t i c , h a s b e e n an e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n c o m ita n t t o t h e s o c i a l g ro w th o f t h e n a t i o n . L ik e T opsy i t " j u s t growed" from t h e l o v e s and h a t e s and h o p e s and f e a r s o f t h e p e o p l e . 195 In t h e F in e A r t s Academ y, s t u d e n t s made d a n c in g nymphs f o r bedroom s and r e c a s t G reek c a s t s . • . Out s i d e t h e Academy G uad alu pe P o sa d a a n on ym ou sly la u g h e d and w ept and c r e a t e d an a r t by h i m s e l f , i l l u s t r a t i n g b a l l a d s . O ther anonym ous p e o p le p a in t e d m i r a c l e s on t i n o r ca rd b o a rd and hung them w it h p r a y e r s i n t h e i r f a v o u r i t e s h r i n e s . Or m u r a ls i n t h e c i t y s t r e e t s , on t h e w a l l s o f p u l q u e r i a s . l I . BIRTH OF MEXICAN POPULAR ART G uadalupe P o sa d a worked q u i t e f r a n k l y f o r t h e man on t h e s t r e e t . H is work was t o i l l u s t r a t e c o r r i d o s , t h o s e w h o lly M ex ica n b a l l a d s t h a t t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e n e w sp a p er , sh ow , o r r a d io th r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n . Of t h e c o r r id o R o b e r t R e d f i e l d s a y s : The e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e c o r r id o and t h e f o l k so n g o f a t r u l y p r i m i t i v e p e o p le a p p e a r s t o l i e i n t h e te n d e n c y o f t h e c o r r id o t o e n t e r i n t o t h e r ea lm o f n ew s, p u b l i c o p in io n and e v e n p r o p a g a n d a .2 P osad a tu r n e d from t h e s t y l i z e d E uropean form t o one t h a t was r e a l i s t i c and M e x ic a n . Up t o h i s tim e p e a s a n t s had b e e n p o r tr a y e d w h en ev er t h e y w ere t r e a t e d , w h ich w as se ld o m , i n an A r c a d ia n and w h o lly a r t i f i c i a l m anner. The a r t i s t , l i k e t h e r e s t o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s , c o n s id e r e d t h e n a t i v e a s b e in g w it h o u t s i g n i f i c a n c e a s a s u b j e c t o r a s an a u d ie n c e .^ p a i n t in g was a s f a r rem oved from l i f e a s p o s s i b l e ; s c e n e s w o r th y 1 A n it a B r e n n e r , I d o l s b e h in d A l t a r s , p . 98 f . 2 T e p o z t la n : A M ex ica n V i l l a g e , p . 9 . ® R o b e r to M o n ten eg r o , M ex ica n P a i n t i n g , p a s s im . 196 o f r e p r o d u c t io n w ere ta k e n from t iie B i b l e , h i s t o r y , o r c o u r t l i f e . P o sa d a b ro k e s h a r p ly w it h a l l t h i s . H is wood c u t s and z i n c e t c h i n g s ch a n g ed , t h e l a t t e r i n t e c h n iq u e a s w e l l a s s t y l e . H is work i s l u d i c r o u s , c a r i c a t u r e ; y e t i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y t r a g i c ; i t i s P a g l i a c c i i n a l i n e d r a w in g . He d id ✓ a l l h i s work d u r in g t h e r eg im e o f B ia z and t h e e a r l y d a y s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n , d y in g when t h e t h i n g he h a d .l o n g h i n t e d was becom in g a r e a l i t y . I n t h e m id s t o f t h e d e c a y o f t h e a n c ie n r e g im e he d a r e d t o d e p i c t t h e a r i s t o c r a c y a s d e c a d e n t and p e r v e r te d ; t o show f i e n d s t h a t somehow f a i l e d t o c o n v in c e on t h e s i d e o f s i n c e r i t y , and t o p r e s e n t r i o t s , p l a g u e s , and v i r t u a l s l a v e r y when su ch t h i n g s w ere o f f i c i a l l y ig n o r e d . A bove a l l he c a u g h t M ex ico on t h e p o i n t o f t h e e t c h i n g t o o l and t r a n s f e r r e d i t t o t h e m e ta l t h a t i s s t i l l r e p r o d u c in g c o p i e s . He g a v e t h e w o r ld t h e t y p e s t h a t a r e s t i l l draw ing c r i e s o f p r o t e s t a s t h e y a p p ea r i n t h e work o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g h o r d e s o f young r e v o l u t i o n a r y a r t i s t s . When J o s e Y a s c o n c e lo s becam e S e c r e t a r y o f E d u c a tio n i n 1 9 2 1 , he a tte m p te d t o f o r m u la t e t h e c h a o t i c s u r g e o f t h e R ev o l u t i o n i n t o e d u c a t io n . F o r D i r e c t o r o f D raw in g4 he c h o se A d o lf o B e st-M a u g a rd . L ik e P o sa d a he a tte m p te d t o fom en t an a r t t h a t was e s s e n t i a l l y M ex ica n and t o do t h i s he w ent back 4 D i r e c c i o n de D ib u .lo . 197 t o t h e p r e -C o n q u e st M exico o f t h e A z te c and M a y a .5 F i f t e e n y e a r s b e f o r e , w h il e d o in g a r c h e o l o g i c a l d ra w in g f o r P r o f e s s o r F ra n z B o a s, he had d i s c o v e r e d t h a t s e v e n fu n d a m e n ta l m o t i f s u n d e r la y t h e work o f t h e a n c i e n t s . By co m b in in g t h e s e b a s i c d e s i g n s , t h e m ost i n v o l v e d d r a w in g s c o u ld be d e v e lo p e d . A l l o f t h i s a r t i s t i c d i a l e c t th e n m ig h t be e x p e c t e d t o le a d t o h ig h e r v a l u e s . The im p o r ta n t p a r t i n th e new c o n c e p t io n w i l l be th e w ork, i t s a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n . B e in g no lo n g e r c ir cu m s t a n t i a l b u t t r a n s c e n d e n t a l , and o f a h ig h e r c a t e g o r y , t h e work o f t h e a r t i s t w i l l c o m p r ise c o n s c i o u s k n o w led g e o f i t s c a u s e s — i t s f u n c t i o n and i t s p u r p o s e .6 T h is a e s t h e t i c v a g u e n e s s , t r u e o f t h e e n t i r e p o s t - Re v o l u t i o n a r y grou p o f e d u c a t o r s and a r t i s t s , was th e c a u se o f V a s c o n c e lo s * rem o v a l from o f f i c e and h i s l a t e r r e a p p e a r a n c e i n one o f R i v e r a ’ s m u r a ls — s e a t e d on a w h it e e le p h a n t . B est-M au gard and h i s book w ere b o th rem oved, q u i t e w ith o u t a n im u s, t o s e r v e a s h i s t o r i c a l c u r i o s i t i e s . E l l i b r q donde A d o lf o B e s t d e s a r r o l l o ^ l o s p o s t u la d o s de su t e o r i a , s i no a d q u ie r e im p o r ta n c ia y v a l o r e d u - c a t i v o s , no p ie r d e su m e r ito de c u r i o s i d a d . ? The new D i r e c t o r o f D r a w in g , M anuel R o d r ig u e z L o za n o , h i m s e l f an a r t i s t o f n o t e , in t r o d u c e d t h e m ethod b a se d on 5 R o b er t N. M cLean, That M e x ic a n , p . 9 6 . 6 A d o lf o B e st-M a u g a rd , A M ethod f o r C r e a t iv e D e s i g n . p . 1 7 3 . 7 X . V i l l a u r r u t i a , "La P in t u r a M ex ica n s A c t u a l ," N u e s tr o M e x ic o , N o v iem b re, 1 9 3 2 . 198 s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n . T h is p ed ag ogy sm acks s t r o n g l y o f John D ew ey, w h ose t e a c h i n g s w ere s e e p i n g a c r o s s th e R io B r a v o , b r o u g h t by fo rm e r s t u d e n t s and th r o u g h t r a n s l a t i o n o f h i s w o r k s. D u rin g t h e 1 9 2 0 ’ s t h e M ex ica n c u r r ic u lu m g a v e a l m ost f u l l sway t o t h e M a ste r o f M o r n in g sid e H e i g h t s . Where t h e c r e d i t g o e s i s b e s i d e t h e p o i n t ; t h e f a c t r em a in s t h a t a r t e d u c a t io n becam e a m a tt e r o f t h e c h i l d ’ s becom in g t h o r o u g h ly l i b e r a t e d . He w as t o draw w hat he f e l t l i k e d raw in g and was n o t t o b e d i r e c t e d , th w a r te d o r i n h i b i t e d . Open a i r a r t s c h o o l s o r i g i n a t e d by A lf r e d o Ramos M a r tin e z i n C o yoacan , becam e p o p u la r and t h e govern m en t fo u n d ed c e n t e r s i n e s p e c i a l l y p i c t u r e s q u e s p o t s su c h a s X o c h im ilc o , C u er n a v a c a , T la lp a m , G u a d a la ja r a , and T a x co . P r o d u c ts o f t h e a r t s c h o o l s w ere e x p e c t e d t o f u r n i s h n o t o n ly an in d e x t o t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e s t u d e n t and t h e s c h o o l , b u t t o g i v e d a ta f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . C o lo r was s t r e s s e d c o n s t a n t l y . I n M ex ico t h e c h i l d i s c o n s c io u s o f c o l o r from t h e d ay i n w h ic h h i s e y e s can d i s t i n g u i s h th e sp ec tru m u n t i l h i s e y e s i g h t f a i l s . The g r e e n o f t h e p l a t e a u , v a r y in g fro m s a g e t o t h e b l u i s h - g r e e n o f t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t m aguey, and t h e l u s h g r e e n o f t h e t r o p i c s a r e a lw a y s g iv e n an a p p r o p r ia t e b ack grou n d by t h e m o u n ta in s . The m o u n ta in s o f M exico a r e u b iq u it o u s and r a n g e i n c o l o r from t h e l i g h t e s t la v e n d e r t o a cru d e p u r p le t h a t M axw ell P a r r is h w ould n o t d a re t o a t t e m p t . B eh in d t h e s e , and p r o v id in g c o n s t a n t 199 p o i n t s o f a c c e n t , a r e t h e m a j e s t i c sn o w -c o v e r e d v o lc a n o e s t h a t have becom e an a lm o s t s y m b o lic p a r t o f M ex ica n a r t . I I . RISE OF THE SCHOOL OF MONUMENTAL ART C on com itan t w it h t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o p u la r e d u c a t io n i n a r t was t h e r i s e o f t h e f r e s c o p a i n t e r s . D ie g o R iv e r a r e t u r n e d from a t e n - y e a r s t a y i n E u ro p e, w here h e s t u d i e d i n S p a in , B e lg iu m , H o lla n d , F r a n c e and I t a l y . I n F r a n c e , R iv e r a came u n d er t h e i n f l u e n c e o f C ezanne and R e n o ir , g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d a s t h e fo u n d e r s o f th e s c h o o l o f m onum ental a r t.. T h is i n s p i r a t i o n c a u se d him t o f i n i s h h i s s tu d y i n I t a l y i n t h e f i e l d o f I t a l i a n f r e s c o . He r e t u r n e d t o M exico t o f i n d i t a fla m e w it h r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e o l o g y and a r e s u r g e n c e o f i n t e r e s t i n in d ig e n o u s M e x ic o , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e I n d i a n . 8 R iv e r a to u r e d s o u th e r n M ex ico and Y u ca ta n f i l l i n g h i s s k e t c h b o ok s w it h t y p e s and t y p i c a l s c e n e s . He a l s o d is c o v e r e d t h a t f r e s c o had b e e n r a i s e d t o a h ig h d e g r e e by t h e M ayas o f t h e new e m p ir e , w hose t e c h n iq u e was d i s t i n g u is h e d and w hose fo r m u la f o r a m ural p a i n t was u n e x c e l l e d . 9 Many o f t h e e d i f i c e s d i s c o v e r e d b y a r c h e o l o g i s t s c o n t a in e d 8 R o b e r t N. M cLean, ojd. c i t . , p . 9 5 . 9 T. A . J o y c e , Maya and M ex ica n A r t , p . 1 2 9 ; Alma R e e d , e d i t o r , J o s e C lem en te O ro zco , p . 3 ; J . E r i c Thompson, The C i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e M ayas, p . 87 f. ; J . L e s l i e M i t c h e l l , C on q u est o f t h e M aya, p . 89 f . 200 m u r a ls t h a t rem a in ed a lm o s t undimmed i n f r e s h n e s s a f t e r h a v in g b e e n abandoned h u n d red s o f y e a r s . R iv e r a g a th e r e d a b o u t h i m s e l f a t a l e n t e d group o f p a i n t e r s , imbued w i t h t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y dogma. T h is grou p form ed t h e R e v o lu t io n a r y S y n d ic a t e o f T e c h n ic a l W ork ers, P a i n t e r s , and S c u l p t o r s . They becam e p r o f e s s i o n a l p r o l e t a r i a t , v y in g w it h e a c h o t h e r t o b e more l i k e t h e workman th a n a l a b o r e r . They d e c r e e d : A r t f o r a r t ’ s sa k e i s an a e s t h e t i c f a l l a c y ; a r t f o r th e p e o p le i s a p h r a s e o f i n c o n s i s t e n t and h y p o c r i t i c a l s e n t i m e n t a l is m . A r t i s n e c e s s a r i l y a t h i n g o f t h e p e o p l e , n o t an a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t , n o r a v e h i c l e f o r e x p l o i t i n g w him s. The s e a r c h f o r t r u e e x p r e s s i o n o f m ass f e e l i n g i s n o t t o be c o n fu s e d w it h t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t p l a s t i c a r t , t o b e r e c o n s t r u c t i v e o r r e v o l u t i o n a r y , m ust be s u b s e r v ie n t t o t h e p r o p a g a t io n o f p r e s c r ib e d i d e a s . A p a n e l s i n c e r e l y and f o r c e f u l l y c o n c e iv e d from p u re emo t i o n , and p o r tr a y e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e a e s t h e t i c la w s o f t h e c r a f t , w i l l g e n e r a t e i t s own m o r a l .10 The c h i e f a c t o r s i n t h i s a r t i s t i c drama w e r e : Jose^ G lem en te O ro z co , A l f a r o S i q u e i r o s , C a r lo s M e r id a , F erm in R e v u e l t a s , R o b er to M o n ten eg r o , F ern an d o L e a l , X a v ie r G u e r r e r o , Amado de l a Cueva and th e Frenchm an J e a n C h a r io t . The gro u p was g i v e n t h e N a t i o n a l P r e p a r a t o r y S c h o o l t o p a i n t . The S e c r e t a r y o f E d u c a tio n p a id them on t h e same b a s i s a s h o u se p a i n t e r s . D u rin g t h e two y e a r s t h e g ro u p worked i n t h e c l o i s t e r s , h a l l s and p a t i o s o f t h e N a t io n a l P r e p a r a to r y s c h o o l , was b orn t h e s o u l t h a t now a n im a te s 1° Quoted by Anita Brenner, o£. c it . , p. 245. M ex ica n a r t , e d u c a t io n and a r c h i t e c t u r e . The tem p era m en ta l i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h a t one t h i n k s o f i n c o n n e c t io n w it h th e a r t i s t was s lo u g h e d o f f and t h e r e d e v e lo p e d a t r u e c o l l e c t i v e a r t . One m ust k e e p c o n s t a n t l y i n m ind t h e i r m a n i f e s t o , t o f o l l o w t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e i r a r t w h ich many c r i t i c s and v i s i t o r s f i n d c h a o t i c . T h e ir a r t i s n o t f o r a r t ’ s sa k e n o r f o r t h e p e o p l e ’ s s a k e ; i t i s o f th e p e o p l e . They do n o t a tte m p t t o p a in t dogma u n l e s s t h e y a r e a t t h e tim e f u l l o f a dogma t h a t b u rn s t o b e g i v e n a r t i s t i c o r p l a s t i c b i r t h . When t h e y p a i n t men and women t h e y a r e n o t p r e s e n t i n g s o r d id o r d i s t o r t e d t y p e s t h a t f u s e i n t o m is a n t h r o p ic im p r e s s io n is m . No, t h e y a r e p r e s e n t i n g I n d ia n s and m e s t i z o s a s t h e y a r e , b ro k en d ep ra v ed b e in g s sh o w in g t h e r e s u l t s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n , o r t h e y p o r t r a y d i g n i f i e d T e h u a n te p e e s and c le a n - lim b e d I n d ia n s l a c k i n g t h e d e f e c t s o f an a r t i f i c i a l c i v i l i z a t i o n . The one c o n c e p t d i r e c t s a t t e n t i o n t o f a l s e s ta n d a r d s ; t h e o t h e r i s e x p e c t e d t o b r in g a new u n i t y and d i g n i t y t o t h e in d ig e n o u s M e x ic a n . The S y n d ic a t e was com posed a lm o s t e q u a l l y o f s o c i a l r e fo r m e r s and r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s who w ere p a i n t e r s , and p a i n t e r s who w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a s and s o c i a l r e fo r m . Two y e a r s o f i n t i m a t e c o l l a b o r a t i o n f u s e d t h e i r t h i n k i n g and e x e c u t i o n i n t o su c h an o r g a n ic w h o le t h a t t h e y th o u g h t and p a in t e d a s a c o l l e c t i v e u n i t . I t i s s a i d t h a t S i q u e i r o s l e f t work e a r l y one n i g h t t o m eet an en g a g e m e n t, l e a v i n g a 2 0 2 p a r t i a l l y c o m p le te d p a n e l . H is c o a d j u t o r G u errero o b l i g i n g l y p u t a head i n . The e x e c u t i o n p l e a s e d S i q u e i r o s so m i g h t i l y t h a t he s a i d i t m ust be a m i r a c le and l e f t a n o th e r h e a d l e s s p a n e l on a n o t h e r e v e n in g . T h is tim e O rozco o b l i g e d w it h a head t h a t was more S i q u e i r o s th a n one by S i q u e i r o s h i m s e l f . A f t e r t h e i r lo n g w o rk in g d a y t h e grou p w ent i n t o o t h e r f i e l d s w it h un qu en ch ed f i r e . They e d i t e d and f i l l e d t h e M a ch ete w it h a r t i c l e s , e d i t o r i a l s and w o o d c u ts . They l e c t u r e d , a t t e n d e d u n io n m e e t i n g s , a r g u e d , made l o v e , d ra n k , and i n g e n e r a l l i v e d w it h g u s t o . T h e ir p a i n t i n g was n o t a t h i n g a p a r t ; i t was d e f i n i t e l y a t h i n g t h e y l i v e d and b e l i e v e d i n . Many o f t h e g r o u p had f o u g h t i n t h e B e v o lu t io n or had come from t h e e x p l o i t e d m a ss e s t h e y p i c t o r i a l i z e d . T h e ir i n t e r e s t i n t h e p r o l e t a r i a t was n o t a c a d e m ic ; i t was f u n c t i o n a l . As t h e i r w ork p r o g r e s s e d , sto r m s o f p r o t e s t r a g e d a b o u t th em . They w ent t o work u n p e r tu r b e d , b u t w it h lo a d e d p i s t o l s p e e k in g from o v e r a l l s p o c k e t . A grou p o f l a d i e s h e ld a s o c i a l f u n c t i o n i n t h e i n n e r c o u r t o f t h e P r e p a r a - t o r i a a n d , t o s p a r e t h e d e l i c a t e f e e l i n g s o f t h e g u e s t s , c o v e r e d O r o z c o ’ s m onum ental f i g u r e s w it h d r a p e s and b o u g h s. A fe w w eek s l a t e r a f i n i s h e d p a n e l s to o d f o r t h , sh o w in g t h e l e a d e r s tra m p in g o v e r t h e recu m b en t f i g u r e s o f t h e p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n and e x p l o i t e d c l a s s e s . The l a d i e s had t h e i r e y e s 203 and n o s e s c h a s t e l y a v e r t e d s o t h e y w ou ld n o t be o f f e n d e d by s i g h t s and od ors* Soon v a n d a ls w ere a t work; p a n e ls w ere m u t i l a t e d , s c r a t c h e d and s t o n e d . A p a n e l by S i q u e i r o s r em a in s u n f i n i s h e d t o t h i s d a y . W ith t h e end o f t h e O bregon r eg im e came t h e c o n c lu s i o n o f t h e work a t t h e P r e p a r a t o r ia and t h e d e m ise o f t h e S y n d i c a t e . O ddly en ou gh , o n ly tw o a r t i s t s w ere r e t a i n e d by t h e govern m en t f o r c o n tin u e d work a t t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n , R o b e r to M on ten egro and D ie g o R iv e r a . M on ten egro i s fam ous f o r h i s s t y l e w h ile R iv e r a was u n d o u b t e d l y g i v i n g e v id e n c e o f t h e o p p o rtu n ism o f w h ich he i s a c c u se d by h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s t o d a y . C e r t a i n l y h i s work on t h e P r e p a r a to r y S c h o o l can h a r d ly be c a l l e d t h e m ost d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The members o f t h e S y n d ic a t e s c a t t e r e d t o d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e R e p u b lic . De l a Cueva and S i q u e i r o s w ent t o G -uadalajara w here t h e y p a in t e d w a l l s i n th e U n i v e r s i t y , th e s t a t e c a p i t o l , and t h e g o v e r n o r ’ s m a n sio n . A fe w d a y s a f t e r t h e c o m p le t io n o f t h e i r work De l a Cueva was k i l l e d i n an a c c i d e n t . S i q u e i r o s tu r n e d from p a i n t i n g t o la b o r and p e a s a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n and b u i l t up a p o w e r fu l g r o u p . L a te r he , v i s i t e d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w here h i s a c t i v i t i e s c a u se d h i s d e p o r t a t i o n . More s o c i a l work i n M ex ico f o l l o w e d . When t h e war i n S p a in s t a r t e d he becam e tr e m e n d o u s ly s t i r r e d , f o r he knew S p a in , b o th p o l i t i c a l l y and a r t i s t i c a l l y , from stu d y 204 t h e r e . Soon he f o l lo w e d h i s s y m p a th ie s t o .S p a i n and j o in e d t h e G overnm ent f o r c e s t o o f f e r h i s l i f e f o r t h e i d e a l s he had p a in t e d s o a r d e n t l y . S i q u e i r o s i s t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e s p i r i t o f t h e S y n d i c a t e and o f M ex ica n P r o l e t a r i a n a r t t o d a y . I t i s an a r t t h a t i s so a l i v e , s o b e l i e v e d i n by t h e a r t i s t t h a t i t seem s b r u t a l t o t h e p a tr o n who i s a c cu sto m ed t o t h e s a lo n a r t o f t h e d o m e s t ic a t e d a r t i s t . Out o f t h e S y n d ic a t e a s p i r i t was s y n t h e s i z e d t h a t to d a y a n im a te s t h e work o f some one hundred a r t i s t s and th o u sa n d s o f s t u d e n t s i n a l l t h e s c h o o l s o f M e x ic o . A fe w p r i n c i p l e s and sy m b o ls u n d e r l i e t h e e n t i r e m ovement and s e r v e a s k e y s t o u n lo c k t h e d o o r t o u n d e r s ta n d in g o f an y p i c t u r e , wood c a r v i n g , o r m u ral e x e c u t e d by t h e m odern s c h o o l* I I I . IDEOLOGICAL BASES OF REVOLUTIONARY ART The p o e t r y o f S h e l l e y h a s b e e n c a l l e d G odw in’ s P o l i t i c a l J u s t i c e s e t t o m e tr e ; so t h e p a i n t i n g o f t h e P r o l e t a r i a n a r t i s t s o f M ex ico may be c a l l e d K a rl Marx p i c t o r i a l i z e d . T h e ir a r t i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l ; y e t i t i s su p r e m e ly A m erican ; t h a t i s t o s a y , i t i s M e x ic a n . The i d e o l o g y , t h e sy m b o ls , t h e t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n fou n d t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e c o u n tr y and y e t t h e y c u r i o u s l y f i t i n t o t h e M arx ian c o sm o s. The M ex ica n h a s h i s c e n t u r i e s - o l d p r o v e rb from N e t z a h u a l c o y o t l , A z te c p o e t - k i n g , ’’The la n d b e lo n g s t o him who w orks i t w it h 205 h i s h a n d s .” The s p o n ta n e o u s u p r i s i n g s i n M ex ico from t h e tim e o f t h e C on q u est w ere p r a c t i c a l l y o v e r th e same t h i n g : la n d . Z a p a ta was t h e a p o t h e o s i s o f t h e n a t i o n a l u r g e f o r ”Land and L i b e r t y . ” Thus th o u s a n d s who p e r h a p s n e v e r h eard t h e name o f Marx o r E n g e ls g a v e e x i s t e n c e t o t h e u r g e t o ta k e la n d f o r c i b l y from t h o s e who h e ld m ore th a n t h e i r s h a r e . T h is la n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s e x p l a i n s t h e p e r e n n i a l p e a s a n t t h a t one f i n d s i n so much o f t h e new M exican p a i n t i n g , b o th a d u l t and s t u d e n t . The cam p esin o s ta n d s w it h h i s s i c k l e i n c o n v e n ie n t j u x t a p o s i t i o n t o t h e hammer o f h i s f r i e n d t h e workman, th u s fo r m in g a f o r t u i t o u s Communist sy m b o l. A n o th e r c o n v e n t io n f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u n te r e d i s t h e armed fa r m e r . Through t h e f o u r c e n t u r i e s o f o p p r e s s io n th e I n d ia n le a r n e d t o move o f f h i s la n d when o r d e r e d t o do s o . Land was ta k e n u n j u s t l y and i l l e g a l l y ; y e t t h e I n d ia n and m e s t iz o had no r e c o u r s e b u t t o g e t o f f . I f t h e y a tte m p te d r e s i s t a n c e t h e y w ere excom m un icated and brand ed a s o u tla w s and t h e i r p u n ish m en t i n t h e lo n g run was f a r more s e v e r e th a n t h e m ere l o s i n g o f t h e i r la n d . The la b o r and a g r a r ia n l e a d e r s o f to d a y a r e now a t t e m p t in g t o a r o u s e i n t h e c a m p esin o a s p i r i t o f r e s i s t a n c e , t h e w i l l t o f i g h t f o r w hat t h e y b e l i e v e t o be r i g h t l y h i s , and t o k eep i t o n ce he h a s i t . A l l o f t h e f o r c e o f t h e M arxian w o rld i s e x p e c te d t o come fro m t h e w o r k e r, t h e fa r m e r , and t h e s o l d i e r . T h ese t h r e e a r e p i c t u r e d t o g e t h e r s o o f t e n t h a t t h e y h ave a lm o s t 206 becom e a h o ly t r i n i t y . I n one o f R i v e r a ’ s m u r a ls i n t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n th e t h r e e a r e p i c t u r e d s n e e r in g a t t h e w h it e c o l l a r w o r k e rs and t h e b o u r g e o is i n t e l l i g e n t s i a and t h e le g e n d o v e r t h e p a n e l s a y s , " A ll t h e r e a l t h i n g s i n t h e w o rld come from t h e s o i l . " A n o th e r u rg e t h a t i s s p o n t a n e o u s ly M ex ica n and a t th e same tim e a prim e M arxian t e n e t i s t h e d e s i r e f o r e d u c a t io n . A l l o v e r t h e n a t i o n t h e p e o p le a r e p l e a d i n g , c la m o r in g f o r , and dem anding la n d and s c h o o l s . They w i l l b u i ld t h e s c h o o l s t h e m s e lv e s , i f t h e go vern m en t w i l l o n ly f i n d a t e a c h e r and k e e p them g o i n g . The k e y s t o n e o f th e S o c i a l i s t M ex ica n s t r u c t u r e i s , E ducar e s r e d e m ir : t o e d u c a te i s t o red eem . A g a in and a g a i n one f i n d s a s e r i e s o f m u r a ls o r p i c t u r e s sh o w in g t h e com ing o f th e new w orld w it h t h e h i s t o r i c a l a p p r o a c h . F i r s t come th e e x p l o i t e r s : S p a n is h s o l d i e r , h a o e n d a d o , and p r i e s t . N ex t t h e y e a r s o f d i s g r a c e and op p r e s s i o n a r e shown; th e n comes t h e s t r u g g l e , w it h t h e l e a d e r o r p e r h a p s an unknown s o l d i e r o f t h e p e o p le k i l l e d . L a t e r i s shown t h e r e v o l u t i o n triu m p h a n t w it h t h e new d ay d a w n in g . I n t h e l a s t s p a c e o r p a n e l i s a lm o s t a lw a y s t h e s c h o o l or s c h o o l t e a c h e r , a s t h e p r o m ise t h a t a l l i s w e l l and t h e w o rld w e l l s a v e d . T h ese m a t e r i a l s form t h e c o n s t a n t theme o f R iv e r a and h i s s a t e l l i t e s i n an y medium. I n t h e a u d i t o rium o f t h e Casa d e l P u e b lo a t H e r m o s illo , S o n o r a , i s a s e c t i o n e d s t a i n e d g l a s s window d e s ig n e d b y R e v u e l t a s and 207 e x e c u t e d by Casa Monta'na. The s i x s c e n e s b u i ld up t o t h e l a s t one w h ic h show s t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l t e a c h e r i n s t r u c t i n g two c h i l d r e n . E i t h e r i n t e n t i o n a l l y o r u n c o n s c io u s ly t h e backgroun d o f f o l i a g e g i v e s th e a p p e a r a n c e o f a n g e l f s w in g s . Time and a g a in a t i n g e o f C h r i s t i a n sy m b o lism c r e e p s i n t o t h e new a r t ; w h e th e r i t i s a d e v i c e u sed t o s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n e d d e s i r e o f t h e c h r i s t i a n i z e d m a ss e s o r i s f o r t u i t o u s h a s n o t b e e n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a n s w e r e d . The u s e o f t h e t r i n i t y o f s o l d i e r , c a m p e s in o , and w o rk er by R iv e r a i s a lm o s t r i t u a l i s t i c . IV . THE INFLUENCE OF DIEGO BIVERA U n d o u b te d ly t h e T it a n o f t h e R e v o lu t io n a r y a r t m ove m ent i n M ex ico i s D ie g o R iv e r a . The im p r e s s o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and work w i l l be f e l t f o r y e a r s , p o s s i b l y f o r c e n t u r i e s . He h a s a l r e a d y s t i m u l a t e d b i t t e r c o n t r o v e r s i e s th r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld . W h ile a g u e s t o f t h e S o v i e t govern m en t i n M oscow, he p r e c i p i t a t e d a r i f t i n th e a r t i s t i c w o rld t h e r e o v e r P r o l e t a r i a n a r t . I n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s he c a u se d a p r o lo n g e d c o n t r o v e r s y w it h h i s m u r a ls , l a t e r rem oved , i n t h e R o c k e f e l l e r C e n te r b u i l d i n g . I n h i s own c o u n tr y h e h a s b e e n an a r t i s t i c storm y p e t r e l s i n c e h i s r e t u r n from E urope i n 1 9 2 1 . N ot o n ly t h e p a i n t e r s , b u t t h e t e a c h e r s , t h e p o e t s , t h e a c t o r s , t h e m u s ic i a n s , t h e s t u d e n t s , and ab o v e a l l th e 208 f o r e i g n e r s , succumb t o h i s r h y th m ic and m a s s iv e i n s i s t e n c e . He i s e v en g i v e n c r e d i t f o r r e v o l t i n t h e f i e l d o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h is r e v o l t , s u r p r i s i n g l y en o u g h , came n o t from th e a r c h i t e c t s b u t from a grou p o f p a i n t e r s , l e d by D ie g o R iv e ra .^ -2 To u n d e r s ta n d why R iv e r a a n t a g o n i z e s c o n v e n t io n a l a r t i s t s , Church l e a d e r s , s o e i e t y f o l k and r i c h p r o p e r ty h o ld e r s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a n a ly z e h i s a r t i s t i c i n t e n t i o n s . I n g e n e r a l h i s p h ilo s o p h y i s c o n so n a n t w it h t h a t o f t h e g o v ernm ent and s c h o o l l e a d e r s s o t h a t t h e p e r so n who u n d e r s ta n d s t h a t i d e o l o g y o n ly h a s t o l e a r n R iv e r a * s sym b olism t o u n d e r sta n d t h e l e s s o n s in h e r e n t i n h i s m u r a ls . R iv e r a h i m s e l f h a s b e e n q u o ted a s s a y in g o f h i s aim : I f my work h a s a p u r p o s e , i t may be summed up a s b e in g t o make t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f w h ich I am c a p a b le t o t h e e s t h e t i c n o u r ish m e n t o f t h e w o rk in g e l a s s , i n th e form o f c l a r i f y i n g e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e t h i n g s t h a t c l a s s m ust u n d e r sta n d i n i t s s t r u g g l e f o r a c l a s s l e s s s o e i e t y • 13 A r t i s t s im m e d ia te ly r e p ly t h a t t h i s i s a n e g a t i o n o f a r t , a c o m m e r c ia liz a t io n , a p r o s t i t u t i o n o f t h e m u se. A r t , t h e y p o s t u l a t e , m ust be f r e e ; i t m ust p o i n t no m o ra l or t a k e no s i d e s i n t h e mundane a f f a i r s o f t h e w o r ld ; i t m ust be 11 I b i d . , p . 286 t . 12 B each R i l e y , " S o c ia l P r o g r e s s and t h e New A r c h i- t e c t u r e , ” A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e c o r d » A p r i l , 1 9 3 7 . 13 P o r t r a i t o f A m e r ic a , p . 19 f . 209 "A rt f o r a r t ’ s s a k e ." A t t h i s p o i n t R iv e r a p o i n t s t o th e M a t e r i a l i s t c o n c e p t o f a r t a s fo r m u la te d by M arx, E n g e ls , L u n a c h a r sk y , B u k h a rin , and o t h e r s . A c c o r d in g t o t h i s g r o u p , a r t h a s a lw a y s r e f l e c t e d t h e eco n o m ic w an ts and d e s i r e s o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s . E l a r t e e s una m a n i f e s t a c i o n de l a c o n c i e n c i a , de l a i d e o l o g f a y de l a p r a c t i c e s o c i a l . T h e r e fo r e t h e a r t i s t i s , i n r e a l i t y , t a k in g s i d e s i n th e s t r u g g l e o f t h e c l a s s e s . He i s e i t h e r r i c h enough t o l i v e a l i f e o f l e i s u r e th r o u g h i n d i v i d u a l w e a lth o r h i s c l i e n t e l com es from t h e r u l i n g c l a s s . H is a r t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e s t a t u s quo i n one way o r a n o t h e r . They p o in t o u t t h e way i n w h ich a r t g l o r i f i e s t h e dom inant i n s t i t u t i o n s . Thus t h e a r t i s t , i n t h e M id d le A g e s , p ro d u ced v a s t am ounts o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a r t w h ich was i n su p p o r t o f t h e Church and t h e f e u d a l s y s te m . B o u r g e o is a r t h a s a lw a y s b e e n w o rk in g f o r t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s , th e y s a y , and h a s con s i s t e n t l y ig n o r e d b o th t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e w ork in g c l a s s e s and t h e m a t e r i a l t o b e fo u n d i n t h e i r m i l i e u . L e t t h e new P r o l e t a r i a n a r t be a s s t r o n g f o r t h e w o rk in g c l a s s , b u t l e t i t b e p e r f e c t l y h o n e s t w it h i t s v o t a r i e s and w it h t h e w orld a t l a r g e and an n ou n ce i t s p u r p o s e , s a y R iv e r a and h i s s c h o o l . H avin g p o s t u l a t e d t h e a p o l o g i a o f M a t e r i a l i s t i c a r t R iv e r a t u r n s t o fu n d a m e n ta l t e c h n iq u e s b a se d on p s y c h o lo g y , A r q u e le s V e la , H i s t o r i a M a t e r i a l i s t s de A r t e , p . 5 . 210 I n d ia n M e x ic o , and M arxian i d e o l o g y . A s th e g o a l o f t h e M arxian i s c o l l e c t i v i s m s o t h e aim o f h i s p a i n t i n g i s c o l l e c t i v e . The s o c i a l d e v e lo p m en t o f our tim e i s a c o n t in u o u s , a c c e l e r a t e d march to w a r d s c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n , and f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r m u ral p a i n t i n g , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f w h ich i s e s s e n t i a l l y c o l l e c t i v e , becom es e v e r more u r g e n t .1 5 H is a r t i s a p o r t r a y a l o f t h e m a ss e s f o r t h e m a s s e s . One t h in k s o f m a s s e s e v e r y tim e h e s e e s a p a n e l or c o m p le te m u r a l. A c r i t i c i s m t h a t one h e a r s c o n s t a n t l y i n r e g a r d t o D i e g o ’ s work i s t h a t he d o e s n o t p a in t b e a u t y . Such a c r i t i c i s m i s r e l a t i v e . B e a u ty i s an a b s t r a c t sta n d a r d t h a t r e s i d e s i n t h e b e h o l d e r ’ s m in d . I t i s a f a c t o r c o n d it io n e d by s o c i a l t r a i n i n g and u s a g e . To t h e a g r a r ia n a l a r g e , fe c u n d woman i s b e a u t i f u l b e c a u s e sh e i s c a p a b le o f b e a r in g many c h i l d r e n and d o in g much work on t h e fa rm . To t h e C h in e s e a r i s t o c r a t lo n g f i n g e r n a i l s and o b e s i t y a r e b e a u t i f u l b e c a u s e t h e y show t h a t he d o e s n o t h av e t o w ork. So t h e sta n d a r d o f b e a u ty i s a s h i f t i n g norm t h a t i s s e t by s o c i e t y and by econ om ic f a c t o r s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n R iv e r a i s a t t e m p t in g t o s e t new s t a n d a r d s o f b e a u t y . One m ust remember h i s e s t h e t i c b a s e s a r e a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s m , communism, and a g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n . To a c h i e v e t h e s e e f f e c t s he p r e s e n t s t h e I n d ia n man 15 Diego Rivera, 0£. c it ., p. 11. 211 o r woman w it h s t o l i d f a c e and b o d y , brown s k i n and s t r o n g sq u a r e han ds a s a m od el o f b e a u t y . When he show s t h e w h ite i t i s w it h w eak, e f f e m in a t e f a c e and b o d y , and w it h l o n g , s o f t , t a p e r i n g h a n d s . Work i s t h e t o u c h s t o n e o f b e a u ty ; w h a te v e r i s u s e f u l , f u n c t i o n a l , i s b e a u t i f u l , w h eth er i t be a team o f o x e n , a woman w it h a w a te r j a r on h e r h e a d , a mod e r n m a c h in e , o r a s k y s c r a p e r . T h is h e l p s t o e x p l a i n t h e r e a s o n why h e p r e s e n t s t h e in d ig e n o u s t y p e o f M ex ica n work in g w it h t h e l a t e s t ty p e t r a c t o r . He i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p i c t u r e s q u e ; he r a r e l y show s a s c e n e i n w h ich t h e p eon i s w o rk in g un der p r i m i t i v e c o n d i t i o n s . L ik e t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t, t h a t o f R iv e r a i s t o e n c o u r a g e t h e s a l v a g in g o f t h e good t h i n g s handed down from t h e T o l t e c and Maya c i v i l i z a t i o n , b u t t o j e t t i s o n outm oded e q u ip m en t. R iv e r a s h o c k s t h e s e n t i m e n t a l i s t by lu m p in g wooden p lo w s , u n p o ta b le w a t e r , t h e C a t h o li c C hurch, t h e c l a s s s y s te m , p r o s t i t u t i o n , ig n o r a n c e , and bad r o a d s i n t h e same c a t e g o r y . ? /h ile R iv e r a r a r e l y h a s c o n v e n t io n a l b e a u ty i n i n d i - V v i d u a l f a c e s h e a c h i e v e s b e a u ty i n t h e t o u t e n s e m b le . He i s p a i n t i n g m a ss e s and t o him t h e m ass i s t h e p o i n t o f a c c e n t . The o n ly i n d i v i d u a l who i s b e a u t i f u l i s t h e w orker o r s o l d i e r , dead f o r t h e c a u s e , o r t h e R e v o lu t io n a r y l e a d e r k i l l e d by t h e f o r c e s o f r e a c t i o n . I n a l l o f h i s m u r a ls some one l e a d e r i s a c c e n t e d . Thus one f i n d s su c h f i g u r e s a s Z a p a ta , C a r i l l o , m urdered g o v e r n o r o f Y u c a ta n , or M o r e lo s h i g h l i g h t e d . 212 N e a r ly a l l o f h i s m u r a ls show t h e b u r i a l o f a w orker w it h t h e a lm o s t r i t u a l i s t i c m ourning c o m ra d es. The m u r a ls o f R iv e r a a r e m onu m en tal. They m u st be s e e n i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y t o f e e l t h e c o sm ic s u r g e t h a t i s im m anent i n th em . They a r e a symphony o f m ovem ent, i d e a s , m y th s, f o r c e s , b u t a b o v e a l l o f p e o p le . B ie g o R iv e r a e n c ie r r a e n .s u s f r e s c o s to d o e l tu m u lto de m it o s y de m aquinas en un r itm o de g r a n d e s y a m p lio s c o n t r a s t e s l i r i e o s * 1 ^ T r u ly t h e r e i s a ^ tu m u lt o f m yth and m a c h in e ." R iv e r a w ould r e p la c e t h e M ex ico o f f o l k l o r e and s u p e r s t i t i o n w it h a M ex ico o f s c i e n c e and l o g i c . L o g ic i s t h e u n d e r ly in g s t r a tum o f h i s l i f e and he i s f o r e v e r t r a n s f e r r i n g i t t o p l a s t e r . To him t h e sm o o th ly f u n c t i o n i n g m ach in e i s t h e a r t i f a c t o f t h e g r e a t e s t b e a u ty i n t h e w o r ld . I t was c o n c e iv e d and b u i l t i n harm ony, c o n fo rm in g t o t h e la w s o f m e c h a n ic s , i n c o n f l i c t w it h no n a t u r a l la w s . To him i t seem s o b v io u s t h a t human l i f e , human s o c i e t y c o u ld b e o r g a n iz e d on a s r a t i o n a l i s t i c a b a s i s . He i s f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e m ach in e and l o v e s t o p a i n t i t i n m o tio n . He s e e s i n i t a m a r v e lo u s c r e a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t iv e la b o r o f m an k in d , a p o w erfu l; and o b e d ie n t s e r v a n t o f t h e p r o d u c e r s i n t h e m a s te r y o f n a t u r e , a t h i n g o f g r e a t e s t h e t i c b e a u t y i n i t s f ir m n e s s and p r e c i s i o n , i n t h e m ig h t and s u b t l e t y o f i t s m o tio n , i n t h e c l a r i t y o f i t s l i n e s , and t h e u n e r r in g e x p r e s s i o n o f f u n c t i o n i n i t s s t r u c t u r e . 1 ” 16 A r q u e le s V e la , oj>. c i t . , p . 7 8 . ^ B ertram W o lfe i n P o r t r a i t o f A m e r ic a , p . 1 6 3 . V. THE MURALS OF RIVERA 2 1 3 R iv e r a h a s im p o r ta n t m u r a ls i n b o th t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and M e x ic o . H is N o r th A m erican f r e s c o e s a r e fo u n d i n t h e San F r a n c is c o S t o c k E x c h a n g e , t h e San F r a n c is c o S c h o o l o f F in e A r t s , t h e D e t r o i t Museum, and i n New Y ork i n t h e New W o r k e rs’ S c h o o l . I n M ex ico im p o r ta n t m u r a ls a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e N a t i o n a l P r e p a r a to r y S c h o o l, t h e N a t i o n a l P a l a c e , t h e P a la c e o f F in e A r t s , and t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f P u b l i c E d u c a tio n i n M ex ico C it y ; a t t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S c h o o l a t C h ap in go; and a t C o r t e s ’ P a la c e i n C u er n a v a c a . The m u r a ls a t C hapingo a r e p e r h a p s t h e m ost d i s t i n g u i s h e d and u n i f i e d o f h i s w o r k s. They a r e p a in t e d on t h e w a l l s and c e i l i n g s o f a s m a ll a ss e m - s b l y h a l l t h a t was fo r m e r ly a c h a p e l. The work i s f i n i s h e d i n t e c h n iq u e and h i g h l y s y m b o lic . A l l t h e sym b olism i s p u r p o s e l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l . I t i s r e m in is c e n t o f S h e l l e y ’ s " R e v o lt o f I s la m ," i n w h ich S h e l l e y had a s e r p e n t r e p r e s e n t t h e f o r c e o f g ood and an e a g l e t h a t o f e v i l . The dom inant f i g u r e o f t h e room i s a s e m i r e c l i n i n g nude woman on t h e b ack w a l l . She r e p r e s e n t s M other N a tu r e . B elow h e r F a t h e r N a tu re i s g i v i n g f i r e t o man. T h is s c e n e im m e d ia te ly b r in g s t o m ind t h e b e a u t i f u l s t o r y o f P ro m eth eu s; b u t one m ust b e warned v i g o r o u s l y t h a t t h i s f i g u r e i s n o t t h a t o f P r o m e th e u s, f o r h e s t o l e t h e f i r e t o g i v e t o man. A c c o r d in g t o t h e R iv e r a cosm ogon y, f i r e i s man’ s r i g h t and i t i s g i v e n him f r e e l y by F a th e r N a tu r e . 214 The work i n t h e N a t i o n a l P a la c e c o n s i s t s o f on e t r e m endous p i c t u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e p a g e a n t o f M e x ic o . I t i s m e a n in g le s s t o t h e p e r s o n u n a c q u a in te d w it h M ex ica n h i s t o r y , f o r e a c h f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t s a h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e or a s y m b o lic p e r s o n a g e . I t i s a symphony o f h i s t o r y i n c o l o r . R i v e r a ’ s fam ous m ural i n t h e P a la c e o f P in e A r t s i s a r e p l i c a o f t h e d e s t r o y e d c e n t r a l p a n e l i n th e R o c k e f e l l e r C e n te r . I n t h e a u d ito r iu m o f t h e N a t i o n a l P r e p a r a to r y S c h o o l i s t o b e fo u n d a R iv e r a t h a t i s o n ly i n t e r e s t i n g a s a f o r e r u n n e r o f what m a e s tr o was t o do l a t e r . The m u r a ls i n t h e P a la c e o f C o r te s a t C u ernavaca w ere p a id f o r by D w igh t M orrow, fo rm er U n ite d S t a t e s A m bassador t o M e x ic o , and a r e h i s g i f t t o th e p e o p le o f C u ern a v a ca . They a r e p a in t e d on t h e e x t e r i o r s t u c c o o f an o u t s i d e c o r r id o r o v e r lo o k in g t h e p l a i n s o f M o r e lo s . I n t h e d i s t a n c e P o p o c a t e p e t l s l e e p s i n a g e l e s s m a j e s t y . T h is m u ral t o o k t e n m onths t o p a i n t and i s rem ark a b l e f o r t h e dom in ant g r e e n o f c e r t a i n o f t h e p a n e l s , a g r e e n t h a t i s t h e c o l o r o f t h e ca n e f i e l d s o f M o r e lo s . The p a n e l w h ic h show s t h e I n d ia n s b r in g in g th e f i r s t f r u i t s t o t h e p r i e s t s i s c o n s id e r e d m ost t y p i c a l o f t h e l i g h t i n w h ic h t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s p l a c e t h e C hurch. Monks and p r i e s t s a r e d e p i c t e d w it h c r u e l , r a p a c io u s f a c e s and w e l l - f e d f i g u r e s c lo t h e d i n a m p le , w e ll-m a d e g a r m e n ts. They a r e a c c e p t i n g b a s k e t s o f f r u i t , b r e a d , m eat and fo o d from th e h a lf - n a k e d b a r e f o o t n a t i v e s . One I n d ia n 215 r e a c h e s o v e r the. c a r c a s s o f a n e w ly k i l l e d d e e r t o k i s s t h e hem o f a monk’ s r o b e . A woman, k n e e l i n g , o f f e r s a b a s k e t o f f r u i t ; two o t h e r I n d ia n s a r e i n p o s i t i o n s o f h u m i l i t y , one k i s s i n g a monk’ s h an d, a n o th e r o f f e r i n g a b a s k e t o f p r e c io u s s t o n e s . The hands o f one monk a r e cu rv ed i n c u p i d i t y a s he r e a c h e s f o r t h e g i f t . M ost s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l l y , i f n o t a r t i s t i c a l l y , o f a l l R i v e r a ’ s work a r e t h e f r e s c o e s i n t h e S e o r e t a r i a de E d u c a c io n P u b l i c s . The m u r a ls a r e p a in t e d i n t h e c o r r i d o r s t h a t op en on a trem en d ou s i n t e r i o r c o u r t and e x te n d f o r t h r e e s t o r i e s upw ard. Even t h e p r o l i f i c R iv e r a n eed ed f o u r y e a r s t o f i n i s h t h i s magnus o p u s » w h ich i s p e r h a p s one o f t h e m ajor e s t h e t i c f e a t s i n th e A m e r ic a s . He [ R iv e r a l i s p r o b a b ly t h e g r e a t e s t p a i n t e r o f o u r t im e ; and t h e M ex ica e p i c w h ich h e h a s p a in t e d i n t h e h e a r t o f i t s e d u c a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g may y e t be e stee m ed a s th e g r e a t e s t a c h ie v e m e n t i n p a i n t i n g i n t h e w e s t e r n h em i sp h ere® 18 On t h e f i r s t f l o o r i s fo u n d M ex ico t i p i o o ; r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s , t r o p i c a l V era C ruz, t h e Y aqui D eer D a n ce , women o f T e h u a n te p e c , w o r k e r s I n t h e s t e e l m i l l s o f M o n te r r e y . E ach p a n e l i s r e a l i s t i c ; t h e r e i s non e o f t h e n o s t a l g i c emo t i o n o f t h e e s c a p i s t sh o w in g a h e r o i c p a s t o r a R o u s s e a u i s t i c s a v a g e . T h ere i s seld o m e m o tio n i n t h e work o f R iv e r a ; emo t i o n i s t h e f o r t e o f O ro zco . I n t h e f e a s t o f t h e Day o f t h e 18 Ernest Gruening, o£. cit., p. 640. ■216- Dead t h e a r t i s t show s t h e f e s t i v a l a s i t i s c e le b r a t e d * T here i s a l l t h e t i n s e l and t r a p p in g o f t h e M ex ica n f i e s t a ; d e a t h ’ s head m a sk s, c a m p e sin o s i n so m b r e r o s, c h e a p , o v e r d r e s s e d women, h orn b lo w e r s , p u p p et s k e l e t o n s , and b u sy co n c e s s i o n a i r e s s e l l i n g r e f r e s c o s and a n t o j i t o s . The a r t i s t h a s e v en shown h i m s e l f m oving th r o u g h t h e crowd i n e v id e n t en joym en t o f t h e n o i s e and c o n f u s io n . On t h e f i r s t f l o o r t h e a r t i s t i c a p p ro a ch i s g e o g r a p h i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l . I n t e r s p e r s e d w it h s c e n e s sh o w in g d y e r s , h a r v e s t e r s , w e a v e r s , m in e r s , s m e l t e r s , and p o t t e r y m akers a r e e v o lu t io n a r y p a n e ls p r e s e n t i n g th e b i r t h and g ro w th o f th e R e v o l u t i o n . A m in e r i n G u a n a ju a to i s shown em ergin g from t h e m ine t o t h e d a i l y h u m i l i a t i o n o f a s e a r c h by t h e o v e r s e e r s . N ex t com es t h e d e a t h o f a l a b o r e r i n t h e e a r l y u p r i s i n g s a g a i n s t o p p r e s s io n . F o llo w in g t h i s i s t h e t a k in g o f t h e la n d w it h t h e o r d e r l y d i v i s i o n o f t h e h a c ie n d a s by a g r o n o m is t s . R iv e r a n o t o n ly show s t h e p e a s a n t w hat t o do i n h i s m u r a ls; he show s him how t o do i t . Thus i n t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e la n d t r a i n e d men, e n g i n e e r s , a g r o n o m is t s , and s o c i a l l e a d e r s s u p e r v i s e an o r d e r l y , e q u i t a b l e m e e t in g a t w h ic h t h e la n d s t a k e n from t h e e x p l o i t e r s a r e i n e x o r a b ly d i v i d e d among t h o s e who a r e t o farm t h e f i e l d s . T h is them e i s g i v e n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t r e d a c t i o n i n t h e s t a i r w e l l a t C hapingo w here t h e m o tto o f t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S c h o o l h a s b e e n p i c t o r i a l i z e d by D ie g o . That m o tto i s , " E x p lo it t h e e a r t h , b u t n o t y o u r f e l l o w m a n ,” A n o th e r s i g n i f i c a n t s e c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t f l o o r f i n d s t h r e e p a n e ls g i v e n o v e r t o th e w o rk ers c e l e b r a t i n g t h e F i r s t o f M ay, t h a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l h o l i d a y s t a r t e d by C h ic a g o ’ s Haym arket R i o t s . Over a d o or i s a s c r o l l w it h one o f t h e e v e r p r e s e n t R iv e r a s l o g a n s . T h is one s a y s , ”True C i v i l i z a t i o n w i l l be a c h ie v e d b y a harmony o f man w it h t h e e a r t h and b e tw e e n men upon t h e e a r t h . ” T h ese p a n e l s a r e i n p e r f e c t k e e p in g w ith th e r e s t o f t h e M a e s t r o ’ s w ork: t h e r e i s l i t t l e e m o tio n a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . W orkers o f a l l r a c e s a r e g a t h e r e d i n one v a s t c o n c o u r s e . A fe w h ave b a n d a g e s, r e p r e s e n t i n g wounds r e c e i v e d from t h e C o s s a c k s . Z ap ata and C a r r i l l o f a c e e a ch o t h e r ; e a c h h a s a hand r e a s s u r i n g l y upon t h e s h o u ld e r s o f a s m a ll b o y . On t h e t h i r d g a l l e r y a r e th e b u r n in g , a c e r b i c , d o c - t r i n n a i r e p a n e l s w h ich c a u s e t h e p r o t e s t s from b o u r g e o is b e h o l d e r s . Around t h e e n t i r e e o r r id o r run a s e r i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l p a n e ls c o n n e c te d i d e o l o g i c a l l y r a t h e r th a n i n a n a r r a t i v e f a s h i o n . The p a n e ls a r e c o n n e c te d by a r ib b a n d o f ora n g e on w h ich a r e r e f r a i n s from b a l l a d s and c o r r i d o s . The work i s a s c o l o r f u l a s an I n d ia n p a in t e d f o r a war d a n c e . T h ese p a n e ls r e p r e s e n t t h e e p ito m e o f a r t i s t i c r i d i c u l e ; h e r e i s u n d o u b te d ly t h e M ecca o f P r o l e t a r i a n a r t . " T h is i s c a r to o n e l e v a t e d i n t o a r t , and a r t become a w e a p o n . ”19 19 E r n e s t in e E v a n s, The F r e s c o e s o f D ie g o R iv e r a , p. 1 4 . £18 T h ese p a n e l s a r e on t h e way t o becom in g c l a s s i c s . They h ave b een p h o to g ra p h e d and r e p r o d u c e d f o r s a l e t o t o u r i s t and r e p r i n t e d i n m a g a z in e s u n t i l c e r t a i n o n e s a r e becom i n g le g e n d a r y . T here i s t h e " S o n g 'o f Z ap ata" i n w h ich t h e l e a d e r and h i s f o l l o w e r s a r e s i n g i n g t o th e s t r a i n s o f a g u i t a r i n t h e han ds o f a r o l y - p o l y c a m p e s in o . The " C a p it a l i s t F am ily" show s an o v e r d r e s s e d grou p a b o u t a t a b l e . A l l a r e p r e p a r ed t o s t a r t t h e b an q u et and w a it w ith f o r k s p o i s e d . They a r e b a f f l e d , h o w ev e r, f o r t h e r e i s n o t h in g t o e a t b u t one s o l i t a r y g o ld c o in on e a c h p l a t e . One p i c t u r e e x p r e s s e s R i v e r a ’ s t h e o r i e s o f a r t p e r f e c t l y . A s t r o n g , brow n woman i s c l e a n i n g h o u s e . Sh e h as r i f l e and c a r t r i d g e b e l t and i s backed by armed w o rk er, fa rm e r and s o l d i e r . Two o v e r d r e s s e d a r i s t o c r a t s a r e s t a n d in g h e l p l e s s l y by w i t h l o o k s o f d e s u e tu d e w h ile t h e brown woman p o i n t s a t t h e m o tto w h ich s a y s , "T hose t h a t w ou ld e a t m ust w ork ." An a r t i s t i n t r a d i t i o n a l smock and s c a r f i s b e in g k ic k e d o n to t h e f l o o r by a y o u th w it h r i f l e and emblem o f t h e S y n d i c a t e . I n t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e a r t i s t w i l l h ave t o e a t h i s p a i n t b r u s h , p a l e t t e , and l y r e . A n o th e r p a n e l shows a young la d y s c h o o l t e a c h e r p a s s i n g o u t b ook s and m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n t o c h i l d r e n , a d u l t s , and t o t h e t r iu m v ir a t e o f s o l d i e r , fa r m e r , and w o rk er. W hatever one t h i n k s o f t h e work o f R iv e r a he m ust a d m it t h a t t h e man h a s i n f l u e n c e d and w i l l c o n t in u e t o i n f l u e n c e a i9 th o u g h t and a r t i s t i c t h e o r y f o r many y e a r s . H is m u ra ls a r e i n s t r a t e g i c p l a c e s w h ere h u n d red s o f p e r s o n s come i n c o n t a c t w it h them d a i l y . In t h e S e c r e t a r i a t t h e l i f e b lo o d o f t h e n a t i o n a l s c h o o l sy s te m p u l s e s d a i l y . D ep artm en t h e a d s , s u b s e c r e t a r i e s , s u p e r v i s o r s , m i s i o n e r o s , t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s h u rr y a b o u t t h e i r work c o n s t a n t l y . On ea ch t r i p t h e y r e c e i v e a s e n s u o u s m e ssa g e t h a t can n e v e r b e f o r g o t . V I. THE CONTRIBUTION OF JOSE CHEMENTE OROZCO W h ile R iv e r a i s th e p a i n t e r o f t h e l o g i c a l p r o c e s s o f a r r i v i n g a t t h e c o l l e c t i v i z e d w o r ld , O rozco i s th e a p o s t l e o f e m o tio n . R iv e r a b u i l d s up a s e r i e s o f s t a t i c s c e n e s e a ch o f w h ic h i s l i k e a d e t a i l i n a b l u e p r i n t . E v e r y th in g i s o r d e r e d and i n p l a c e ; t h e r e i s b a la n c e , and c l o s e d sym m etry. O rozco p r e s e n t s an u n b a la n c e d w o rld t h a t i s f u l l o f sliam, i n j u s t i c e , h y p o c r is y , and s t u p i d i t y . He i s b i t t e r , v i o l e n t l y s o ; he i s M e x ic o ’ s Dean S w i f t . R iv e r a e s mas d i a l e c t i c o , y su fo r m a ^ e s ta mas c e r c a d e l c o n o c im ie n t o ; O rozco e s v i o l e n t o y m i s t i c o ; m ie n t r a s R iv e r a o b s e r v a l a v id a y l a r e f l e j a , r a c io n a lm e n t e , O rozco t r a s l u c e una i n t e n s i d e d a p a s i o n a d a . O ro zco , l i k e S i q u e i r o s and o t h e r o f t h e R e v o lu t io n a r y a r t i s t s , l i v e d th r o u g h t h e R e v o l u t i o n w ith t h e Red B r ig a d e . H is m i s s i n g l e f t hand k e p t him from a c t i v e f i g h t i n g , b u t he p r o du ced c a r t o o n s and t e x t f o r an army p u b l i c a t i o n and saw t h e 20 Arqueles Vela, o£. cit., p. 78. 280 war a t f i r s t han d. One c a n n o t h e lp f e e l i n g t h a t R iv e r a i s a d o d g er o f r e a l i t y . He l e f t M ex ico j u s t a s th e R e v o lu t io n opened and rem ained i n E urope u n t i l , o d d ly enough , t h e v e r y y e a r i n w h ich t h e war e n d e d . W h ile i n E r a n c e h i s h e a r t b le d f o r t h e c a u s e o f t h e a l l i e s , b u t some v a g u e c a u se k e p t him from f i g h t i n g f o r them . He e s p o u s e d P r o l e t a r i a n a r t a s he had im p r e s s io n is m , p o i n t i l i s m , f u t u r is m , and cu b ism . He m ust b e g i v e n c r e d i t f o r th o r o u g h n e s s ; o n ce he had e sp o u se d t h e c a u s e he becam e t h o r o u g h ly grounded i n i t s p r i n c i p l e s , b u t d eep u n d er i t a l l t h e s o u l o f O rozco i s m i s s i n g . O rozco h a s p i t i f u l l y l i t t l e t o show f o r h i s y e a r s o f work and s u f f e r i n g . He i s n o t t h e w i t t y c e n t e r o f cosm o p o l i t a n g r o u p s t h e D ie g o i s . When he v i s i t e d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , he d id n o t f i n d h i m s e l f t h e v o r t e x o f t i t a n i c sto r m s; he o n ly s u f f e r e d p e t t y h u m i l i a t i o n and m ild c u r i o s i t y . A t th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o r d e r he was sto p p e d by t h e a r t i s t i c c o g n o s c e n t i o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s G overnm ent and one hundred o f h i s d r a w in g s b u r n e d . I n L os A n g e le s he e x i s t e d by t i n t i n g p h o to g r a p h s . He e x e c u te d one m ural a t Pomona C o l l e g e , C la r em o n t, C a l i f o r n i a , w h ic h h a s n o t a t t r a c t e d w id e a t t e n t i o n . Where R iv e r a i s t h e p i e c e de r e s i s t a n c e a t an y ban q u e t , O rozco i s t h e s k e l e t o n a t t h e f e a s t . H is b u rn in g e y e s lo o k o u t upon a w o rld o f t r a d u c e r s th r o u g h u n r o m a n tic , t h i c k l e n s e s . Today he i s r e a p in g so m e th in g o f a rew ard i n t h e asi a t t i t u d e o f t h e a r t i s t i c l e a d e r s i n M e x ic o . E veryw h ere he i s c o n s id e r e d one o f them ; a r e a l R e v o lu t io n a r y . R iv e r a i s c o n s id e r e d a s a c h a r l a t a n , a s e e k e r a f t e r k u d o s, an a r t i s t f o r th e A m erican t u r i s t a s . I t i s i n d u b i t a b l e t h a t O r o z c o ’ s work i n th e P r e p a r a - t o r i a was by f a r t h e m ost d i s t i n g u i s h e d , and a t t h e same tim e th e m ost v i l i f i e d o f t h e S y n d ic a t e .* 3- * * That o f R iv e r a i n t h e same b u i l d i n g i s a lm o s t e m a s c u la te by c o m p a r iso n . Y e t on i t s c o m p le tio n R iv e r a was k e p t on t h e govern m en t p a y r o l l and a llo w e d t o g e t f o u r y e a r s f a d d i t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e i n t h e f i e l d o f m onum ental a r t w h ile O rozco had t o fe n d f o r him s e l f i n a d e c i d e d l y h o s t i l e w o r ld . He d id manage t o p i c k up a m eager l i v e l i h o o d a s a n ew sp a p er c a r i c a t u r i s t , b u t he l o s t t h e v a l u a b le y e a r s o f e x p e r ie n c e w o rk in g on t h e w a l l s o f im p o r t a n t b u i l d i n g s . R iv e r a h a s b e e n s u b s i d i z e d by i n d i v i d u a l s o r g r o u p s a l l h i s l i f e , w h ile O rozco h a s b e e n Is h m a e l w it h e v e r y man’ s hand a g a i n s t him . In s p i t e o f t h e s e h a n d i c a p s he h a s work s m a ll i n q u a n t i t y , b u t so p o w e r fu l i n e x e c u t i o n t h a t t h e pendulum o f d i s c r i m i n a t i n g t a s t e i s s l o w l y s w in g in g h i s w ay. O rozco h a s a w a l l i n th e Casa de A z u le .jo s , t h e H ouse o f T i l e s , or t o t h e t o u r i s t h o rd e s im p ly S a n b o r n ’ s . T h is t a s k was d e f i n i t e l y a com m ercial c o m m issio n , p a id f o r by 21 Alma R e e d , e d i t o r , J o s e C lem en te O r o z c o , I n t r o d u c t i o n . 2 2 2 F r a n c i s c o I t u r b e ; y e t J e a n C h a r io t d e s c r ib e d i t a s t h e m ost b e a u t i f u l w a l l p a in t e d i n A m e r ic a . He h a s a n o t h e r m u ral i n an i n d u s t r i a l s c h o o l i n t h e c i t y o f O r iz a b a . I n t h e P a l a c i o de B e l l a s A r t e s O rozco h a s p ro d u ced w hat i s p e r h a p s one o f t h e m ost sm ash in g r e v o l u t i o n a r y m u r a ls s i n t h e w o r ld . The R e n a is s a n c e word t e r i b i l i t e i s t h e p e r f e c t a d j e c t i v e f o r t h e c o m p o s it io n . The w o r ld o f c a p i t a l is m , s y m b o liz e d by i n t r i c a t e m a ch in e ry w ith i t s s l a v e s c h a in e d t o i t , i s b e in g o v e r tu r n e d by t h e push o f t h e new , f r e e d man. I n t h e fo r e g r o u n d i s a f u l l l e n g t h , naked stru m p e t , O ro zco * s sym bol o f t h e im m o r a lity o f c a p i t a l i s m . She t o o i s a b o u t t o be c r u sh e d by t h e r e l e n t l e s s a d v a n ce o f th e o r d e r l y r a n k s o f th e . aw akened p r o l e t a r i a t . T h is f r e s c o i s on t h e t h i r d f l o o r , a t t h e o p p o s i t e end o f a g r e a t s a l o n from R iv e r a * s copy o f t h e R o c k e f e l l e r m u r a l. O r o z c o ’ s a r t and ir o n y r e a c h a h ig h p o in t i n h i s work a t t h e P r e p a r a t o r i a , h o w e v e r . He h a s one s c e n e , La T r in c h e r a --T h e T ren ch , i n w h ich h e h a s com bined e x p l o s i v e d yn am ics w it h t e c h n i c a l p e r f e c t i o n . Three s o l d i e r s b e h in d a s t o n e b u lw ark a r e a t t e m p t in g t o h o ld b ack some enorm ous t h r u s t from t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e b a r r i e r . One s o l d i e r i s down; a n o th e r e v i d e n t l y wounded i s g i v i n g t h e l a s t o f h i s s t r e n g t h i n one trem en d ou s h e a v e ; t h e r e m a in in g s o l d i e r f a c e s tow ard t h e enemy and a t t e m p t s t o h o ld t h e cru m b lin g b a r r i e r w it h t h e l a s t o f h i s w i l l p ow er. I t i s a p e r f e c t 22 3 p o r t r a y a l o f t h e s p i r i t o f No p a s a r a n , o r I l s ne p a s s e n t p a s . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a r t i s t ’ s y e a r s a s a c a r i c a t u r i s t i s ev er y w h e re a p p a r e n t. H is d e p i c t i o n o f L i b e r t y i s a c l a s s i c . She i s a drunken bawd s e l l i n g o u t t o t h e w e a lth y who a r e g i v i n g h e r a b a c c h a n a lia n p a r t y . J u s t i c e n e g l i g e n t l y h o ld s h e r t i l t e d s c a l e s and l e e r s a t t h e w orld a s sh e i s em braced s e n s u a l l y by a p o l i t i c o . The e n t i r e work i s a b i t t e r in d ic t m e n t o f a w o rld run w it h o u t s o c i a l p la n n in g , s i n c e r i t y , o r s c r u p l e . ”I n t h e P r e p a r a t o r ia he seem ed t o h ave p a in t e d w it h a th o u sa n d h o r s e pow er p i s t o n d ip p e d i n v i t r i o l . ”22 O ro z co ’ s n e w e s t and m ost h i g h l y a c c la im e d work from t h e s t a n d p o in t o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y a r t i s fou n d i n h i s w a l l and c u p o la m u r a ls i n t h e a ss e m b ly h a l l a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G u a d a la ja r a . T h ese f r e s c o e s s e r v e a s a m easu re o f t h e grow th o f M a t e r i a l i s t a r t i n M exico and o f t h e p e r s o n a l g ro w th i n t e c h n iq u e and i d e o lo g y o f t h e a r t i s t i n s i x t e e n y e a r s . F o r i f i t i s t r u e t h a t s i n c e h i s e a r l i e s t work he h a s g i v e n u t t e r a n c e t o t h a t w h ic h h as rem ain ed i n M exico u n u tt e r e d th r o u g h o u t c e n t u r i e s , i t i s e q u a l l y t r u e t h a t t h e m u r a ls a t t h e P r e p a r a to r y S c h o o l l a c k t h e enormous w e a lt h and i n t r i c a c y e v in c e d i n h i s G u a d a la ja r a a c h i e v e m ent . 2^ 22 A n it a B r e n n e r , £ £ . c i t .» p . 2 5 4 . 23 L u is C ardoza y A ragon , ’’New M u rals by Jose* C lem en te O r o z c o ,” M ex ica n L i f e , D ecem ber, 1 9 3 7 . zm The p a in t e d dome i s m ore th a n f i f t y f e e t i n d ia m e te r and t h e v a s t sp a c e h a s b e e n w orked i n t o a u n i t y t h a t e x p r e s s e s b o th t h e s i m p l i c i t y and t h e c o m p le x it y o f S o c i a l i s t t h o u g h t . The e n t i r e m ural r e v o l v e s a b o u t man. Man i s th e m easu re o f t h e u n i v e r s e ; he i s t h e b e g in n in g and t h e en d , t h e m a ste r and t h e s l a v e . Man i s a n s w e r a b le o n ly t o him s e l f . Gone a r e g o d s , f a b l e s , a l l e g o r i e s , and t h e E l y s i a n f i e l d s o f o t h e r w o r l d l i n e s s . T h ere a r e f o u r fu n d a m e n ta l f i g u r e s . One i s man m e a su r in g and com paring h i s w o r ld . The f i g u r e s t a n d s w ith sq u a r e and com pass and a t t e m p t s t o l i m i t and u n d e r s ta n d h i s w o r ld . I n f r o n t o f him i s a m acabre f i g u r e , a c a d a v e r r e a d y t o b e d i s s e c t e d . T h is s y m b o liz e s man - s e r v i n g m ank ind . The t h i r d f i g u r e i s t h e s c i e n t i s t , t h e man who m akes u s e o f t h e in f o r m a t io n g a th e r e d i n t h e f i r s t two f i e l d s o f m e n su r a b le s c i e n c e . E ig u r e number f o u r i s an e n o r mous man who g r a s p s f o l d s o f red c l o t h and i s s w ir l e d a b o u t by b lo o d and f i r e . He s y m b o liz e s and e x a l t s t h e t r a g e d y o f hu m an ity: r e b e l l i o n . The w a l l s c o n t in u e and a m p lif y t h e them e o f man s t r u g g l i n g , t r y i n g t o u n d e r s ta n d h i m s e l f , b e t r a y in g h i m s e l f . One v a s t p a n e l shows t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e g r a p h i c a l l y . I t i s c a l l e d " E a lse T e a c h in g and t h e Human P r o b le m .” B earded s a v a n t s a r e shown a t t h e i r b o o k s , p o i n t i n g o u t s p e c i o u s d o c t r i n e s w h ich t h e y f o r c e p e o p le t o b e l i e v e i n s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t t h e s a v a n t s know t h e i r t e a c h i n g s t o be f a l s e . One 225 p ed agogu e h a s a k n i f e i n h i s h an d, s y m b o lic o f t h e f o r c e u s e d t o make p e o p le b e l i e v e s o c i a l l y a c c e p t e d f a b l e i n t h e o l d e r e r a . The S o c i a l i s t t e a c h e r i s l e a d i n g a group o f g h o u l - l i k e f i g u r e s , sy m b o ls o f o p p r e s s e d and e x p l o i t e d hu m a n ity , a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n a l e d u c a t io n . T h is f r e s c o h a s t h e d e p th and sw eep o f a c a n t o from D a n t e ’ s I n f e r n o . R e v o l u t i o n a r y a r t i s t s c o n s i d e r t h e work a t G u a d a la ja r a a s t h e a p o g e e o f f r e s c o a r t i n t h e new w o r ld . " G u ad alajara i s t h e m is t r e s s o f t h e m ost b e a u t i f u l f r e s c o e s i n A m e r ic a ," s a y s one c r i t i c * 24 O ther a r t i s t s t h e r e a r e i n M ex ico ; i n f a c t t h e l i s t i s i n c r e a s i n g d a i l y . H owever i t w ould be p o i n t l e s s t o name them c a t e g o r i c a l l y . The L .E .A .R ., L ig a de E s c r i t u r a s y A r t l s t a s R e v o l u c i o n a r i a s , h a s a lm o s t on e hundred a r t i s t s on i t s r o l l s , m ost o f them i n t h e i r e a r l y t w e n t i e s . They a r e p a i n t i n g s c h o o l s and p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s th r o u g h o u t t h e Repub l i c , t h e y a r e c a r v in g d o o r s and f r i e z e s , t h e y a r e m aking w o o d cu ts and i l l u s t r a t i n g b o o k s, t h e y a r e m o d e llin g h ea d s o f L e n in and M adero, and t h e y a r e d e s i g n in g and e x e c u t in g h e r o ic s t a t u e s i n a l l t h e im p o r ta n t c i t i e s o f t h e la n d . But one c a n n o t e s c a p e t h e th o u g h t t h a t t h e t e c h n iq u e o f R e v o lu t io n a r y a r t i n M ex ico i s f i x e d , t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r s h ave become sym b o l i z e d , and t h a t m eth od s have b e e n s t a n d a r d iz e d . The young 24 Luis Cardoza y Aragon, loc. c it . 226 men a r e a lr e a d y b e g in n in g t o do b e t t e r m u r a ls th a n R iv e r a and O ro z co , b u t th e y a r e im p r o v in g t h e m o ld s , n o t m aking new o n e s . The a u th o r v i s i t e d P a ch eco and U g u a rte on t h e i r s c a f f o l d s i n th e N a t i o n a l Normal S c h o o l d u r in g t h e summer o f 1 9 3 7 . T h e ir work i s su p e rb i n c o l o r i n g and c r a f t s m a n s h ip , i t a p p e a r s d e f i n i t e l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f O rozco and R iv e r a , t h e r e i s s i n c e r i t y and s o u l i n t h e f r e s c o , b u t i t i s d e f i n i t e l y becom in g " s c h o o l . ” V I I . FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE IN MEXICO Few t h i n g s i n f l u e n c e t h e t h i n k i n g o f a p e o p le more th a n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e a b o u t th em . The E n g lish m a n i s u n q u es t i o n a b l y more c o n s e r v a t iv e - th a n t h e A m erica n , and t h i s t e n d en cy m ay, p e r h a p s , b e t r a c e d a s d e f i n i t e l y t o t h e h o a r y e d i f i c e s a b o u t him a s t o an y o th e r s i n g l e f a c t o r . The C h in e s e h ave b e e n h e ld i n t h e i r th o u g h t o r b i t s f o r th o u sa n d s o f y e a r s by t h e s i g h t o f a n c i e n t te m p le and p agod a. B e c a u se o f t h i s n a t u r a l la w , a c o r o l l a r y w ou ld be t h a t one o f t h e s u r e s t m eth o d s o f c h a n g in g t h e t h in k in g o f a p e o p le i s t o ch an ge t h e i r a r c h i t e c t u r e . Such a b e g in n in g h a s b e e n made i n M e x ic o , and one o f t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t and t e l l i n g o f th e m eth od s o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n i s t h e b u i l d i n g o f m odern s c h o o l s o f t h e " F u n c tio n a l" t y p e . T h is a r c h i t e c t u r e i s a n a t u r a l o u tg r o w th o f t h e a r t i s t i c t h e o r i e s o f t h e " S y n d ic a te " w it h i t s demand f o r t h e in d ig e n o u s and u s e f u l . The r i s e o f F u n c t io n a lis m i s , i n a w ay, a n e g a t i o n o f t h e dogma o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s t h a t p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s makes no c o n t r i b u t i o n t o c u l t u r e or c i v i l i z a t i o n . One o f t h e c h i e f m id w iv e s a t t h e b i r t h o f F u n c t io n a l A r c h i t e c t u r e was S a n ch ez F o g a r t y , s a l e s p ro m oter f o r t h e T o lt e c a Cement Company. He f lo o d e d M ex ico w it h th e R e v i s t a T o l t e c a w h ich prom oted c o n s t a n t c o m p e t it io n s i n t h e f i e l d o f b u i l d i n g d e s i g n . Jose" V i l l a g r a n G a r c ia , a young a r c h i t e c t , c o l l a t e d t h e e le m e n ts s c a t t e r e d by t h e a r t i s t s and F o g a r t y , and became t h e p io n e e r o f a new t y p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . As i t s name s u g g e s t s , F u n c t i o n a l A r c h i t e c t u r e s t r i p p e d o f f th e g in g e r b r e a d and gewgaws o f t h e B a ro q u e, C h u r r ig e r e s q u e , P l a t e r e s q u e , and R o c o co . Of a l l t h e h a b i li m e n t s o f an a r t i f i c i a l c i v i l i z a t i o n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l d r e s s o f s e v e n t e e n t h , e i g h t e e n t h , and n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y M ex ico i s p e r h a p s t h e m ost f a c t i t i o u s . No m a tte r how e x a g g e r a te d a c o u n tr y * s a r c h i t e c t u r e may b e , t h e r e i s u s u a l l y a r e a s o n f o r i t : China *s upward c u r v in g e a v e s a r e t o p i t c h demons who w ould s l i d e e a r th w a r d , i n t o t h e a i r once m ore. The m ost im p o sin g G o th ic c a s t l e w as b u i l t f o r a c t u a l d e f e n c e . But M ex ica n b u i l d i n g s o f t h e S p a n is h and e a r l y i n d e p e n d en ce e r a had no e x c u s e w h a te v e r f o r t h e i r g r o t e s q u e r i e ; t h e y w ere s im p ly E uropean c o p i e s . F o g a r ty w anted cem ent u sed and e n co u ra g ed i t s u s e w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e . As i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o make f a n c y c o n c r e t e e d i f i c e s , c o n c r e t e b u i l d i n g s te n d e d t o becom e p l a i n . G a r c ia to o k a d v a n ta g e o f t h i s p l a i n n e s s £28 and d e s ig n e d b u i l d i n g s t h a t had a maximum o f u t i l i t y . A premium was p la c e d on f l o o r s p a c e , window a r e a , w it h i n c r e a s e d l i g h t and a i r , and s im p le c o r n e r s and a n g l e s t h a t c o u ld be k e p t c l e a n . s I n 1926 G a r c ia was i n v i t e d t o t e a c h a r c h i t e c t u r e a t t h e N a t io n a l Academ y. H ere h e s o o n g a t h e r e d a group o f young men who sp r e a d t h e g o s p e l o f F u n c t io n a lis m t o t h e c o r n e r s o f M ex ico d u r in g t h e n e x t fe w y e a r s . Juan 0*Gorman, E n riq u e d e l M o r a l, M a u r ic io Gampos, A lv a r o A b u r to , L eonardo N o r ie g a , S a lv a d o r R o n c a l, F r a n c is c o A r c e , J e s u s R obado, J a v i e r T o r r e s A n soren a and C a r lo s V ergara w ere h i s o u t s t a n d i n g s t u d e n t s . S in c e 1926 t h e s e men h a v e b u i l t h o s p i t a l s , o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s , w orkers* r e s i d e n c e s and a p a r tm e n ts , r e s i d e n c e s , and a b o v e a l l , s c h o o l s . Juan G'Gorman and Juan L e g a r r e ta h a v e b e e n t h e o u t s t a n d in g members o f th e g r o u p . L e g a r r e ta d e s ig n e d a minimum h o u se f o r l a b o r e r s t h a t was a d o p ted by t h e P e p a r ta m e n to C e n tr a l and l a t e r b u i l t i n l a r g e num bers. 0*Gorman r e c e i v e d a c o m m issio n a t one t im e t o d e s i g n tw e n ty s c h o o l s f o r t h e g overn m en t; s i n c e th e n he h a s d e s ig n e d a lm o s t one hundred and f i f t y m ore. E veryw h ere one g o e s i n M ex ico C i t y and i n th e o t h e r l a r g e urban c e n t e r s he s e e s u ltr a m o d e r n b u i l d i n g s . T h is tr e n d i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n s c h o o l c o n s t r u c t i o n . The C e n t r a l S c h o o l o f t h e R e v o lu t i o n , b u i l t on t h e s i t e o f t h e in fa m o u s P a r c e l de B e le m , a b r u t a l C o l o n i a l p r i s o n , i s an ex em p la r o f t h e b e a u ty o f 22 9 s i m p l i c i t y and u t i l i t y . The f o u r s t o r i e s a r e o f u n orn a m en ted , r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . E v e ry room i n t h e trem en d ou s e d i f i c e , w h ich now h a s a c o e d u c a t io n a l s t u d e n t body o f f i v e th o u sa n d , i s a c c e s s i b l e t o a i r and s u n s h in e . L ik e e v e r y o t h e r movement i n modern M ex ico t h i s r e n a is s a n c e h a s o f t e n b e e n c h a l le n g e d . T h is o p p o s i t i o n i s p r i n c i p a l l y d u e , I am c o n v in c e d , t o a r e a c t i o n a r y grou p who h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y and l o u d ly op p o sed e v e r y move o f in n o v a t io n or p r o g r e s s i n t h e l a s t two d e c a d e s , r a n g in g from t h e a g r a r ia n r e fo r m s t o t h e m u sic and c o n d u c tio n o f C a r lo s C h a v e z .25 N e v e r t h e l e s s , b u i l d i n g s h a v e b e e n e r e c t e d i n t h e m odern man n e r and m ore a r e b e in g e r e c t e d . Many a r e d e c o r a t e d w it h m u ra ls i n s i d e ; many h a v e s u g g e s t i v e s c u l p t u r e s n e a r t h e f r o n t or on t h e f a c a d e . M ex ico h a s e v e r b een a c o u n tr y o f monu m e n ts, and to d a y t h e r e a r e r a d i a t i n g from t h e Monument o f t h e R e v o lu t io n t o th e f r o n t i e r s o f t h e n a t i o n , s t a t u e s and memo r i a l s t o t h e h e r o e s and i d e a l s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n . A l l t h e e d i f i c e s d e s ig n e d a r e e x p e c t e d t o c o n d i t i o n t h e t h i n k i n g o f t h e m i l l i o n s who p a s s them by d a i l y . In t h e w ords o f Jose" V i l l a g r a n G a rc ia t h e y a r e e x p e c t e d t o : 1 . S e t f o r t h r e l u c t a n t l y and t o make known t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f ou r p e o p l e . 2 . Take an a c t i v e and l e a d in g p a r t i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f ou r p e o p l e . 26 25 B each R i l e y , ojd. c i t . , p . 1 8 . 26 A r c h i t e c t u r a l R e c o r d , A p r i l , 1 9 3 7 , p . 3 2 . V I I I , ART IN THE SCHOOLS A r t p ed a g o g y h a s e x p e r ie n c e d t h e same e v o l u t i o n t h a t o t h e r fo rm s o f th o u g h t h a v e , s i n c e th e d a y s o f 1 9 2 1 , U n d i r e c t e d e x p r e s s i o n i s no lo n g e r t h e k e y n o te o f t h e c la s s r o o m o r s a l o n . T h ere m ust now be a d e f i n i t e s o c i a l i d e o l o g y b e h in d t h e work o f ea ch s t u d e n t . The a r t i s t i s n o t c o n s id e r e d i n t h e l i g h t i n w h ich he h a s b e e n lo o k e d upon i n Europe and A m erica f o r so lo n g . No lo n g e r i s he a superm an, a su p er-- i n d i v i d u a l i s t ; he i s s im p ly a workman t h e same a s a m ason o r a sh oem ak er. I t i s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t he h a s an i n d i v i d u a l a b i l i t y t h a t a l l men do n o t h a v e , b u t t h a t a b i l i t y i s t o be p la c e d a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f s o c i e t y t h e same a s t h e s u p e r io r s t r e n g t h o f a lo n g sh o rem a n i s t o b e u se d f o r t h e common g o o d . A r t i s no l o n g e r c o n s id e r e d a s a c l o i s t e r e d a c t i v i t y t h a t f l o u r i s h e s i n an i v o r y to w e r ; i t i s r a t h e r a s o c i a l f o r c e and a s su ch i s t o b e t a u g h t . Q,uiere d e c i r e s t o , que e l a r t e no sie m p r e v i v e en una s i t u a c i o n i d e a l y e x t r a s o c i a l , e l a r t i s t a no e s un s e r d i f e r e n t e en nada d e l hombre cornua, l o u n ic o que d i f e r e n c i a a l a r t i s t a d e l hombre comun, e s que su e s p e e i a l i d a d e s e l a r t e , un m edio de t r a b a j o como c u a lq u ie r a o t r o . 27 W ith t h i s t h e o r y i n m in d , M e x ic o ’ s a r t t e a c h e r s e n c o u r a g e t h e i r s t u d e n t s , from t h e .jard in de n in o s upward, t o g a i n an i n d i v i d u a l i d e o l o g y and e x p r e s s i t a r t i s t i c a l l y . T here i s 27 Angel E. Salas, Arte £ Literatura Proletarios, p. Q . .231 no p a i n t i n g o f p i c t u r e s f o r t h e m ere t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g o r t o e x p r e s s some i n d i v i d u a l whim or mood u n l e s s i t h a s s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e x p r e s s an id e a f u l l y i n a s i n g l e s c e n e , t h e work i n t h e p rim a ry s c h o o ls i s t e n d in g more and more t o two o r more s u c c e s s i v e s c e n e s . The c h i l d may t a k e an y o f t h e p h a se s o f th e g o v e r n m ent refo rm t o p i c t o r i a l i z e . I f he f e e l s s t r o n g l y a b o u t d r u n k e n n ess he may show a man r e c e i v i n g h i s pay e n v e lo p e , g o in g t o t h e c a n t in a o r p u l q u e r ia , d r in k in g , l a t e r f i g h t i n g and e n d in g i n j a i l . To make i t m ore g r a p h ic , o t h e r s c e n e s may b e added i n w h ich t h e d r u n k a r d ’ s f a m i ly i s shown h u n g r y , p o o r ly c lo t h e d and i l l - s h e l t e r e d . C o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g com es i n f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e t r e a t m e n t ; w o rk ers a r e shown b e in g b e la b o r e d by company g u a r d s o r p o l i c e , w h ile a c o r r e s p o n d in g num ber, w e l l o r g a n iz e d and c a r r y in g p l a c a r d s , a r e a b l e t o d e f y t h e e x p l o i t i n g c l a s s . Z a p a ta i s a w e l l l i k e d f i g u r e among s c h o o l c h i l d r e n a s w e l l a s among o ld e r M ex ica n p a i n t e r s . C l e a n l i n e s s f u r n i s h e s m a t e r i a l f o r many i n f a n t i l e w orks o f a r t . The a d v i s a b i l i t y o f b o i l i n g d r in k in g w a t e r , im por t a n c e o f ty p h o id i n n o c u l a t i o n s and sm a llp o x v a c c i n a t i o n s , and th e v a lu e o f r e g u la r s a v in g s come i n f o r much e s t h e t i c t r e a t m e n t . A n t i- i m p e r i a l is m and a n t i - F a s c is m h ave proved im m e n s e ly p o p u la r among t h e embryo a r t i s t s who h ave more v i o l e n t n a t u r e s and demand a s t r o n g e r e x p r e s s i o n . When t r e a t i n g 33£ t h e s e two s u b j e c t s no a r t i s t i c r e s t r a i n t i s p r a c t i c e d , and t h e b i t t e r e s t form o f g r a p h ic i n v e c t i v e i s p e r m it t e d . O rig i n a l work i s o f t e n su p p lem en ted by p i c t u r e s c l i p p e d from n e w sp a p e r s. S in c e t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e war i n S p a in , many c h i l d r e n have made up l a r g e p i c t u r e s w it h news p h o to s o f t h e bom bardm ents and d e a t h s o f n o n c o m b a ta n ts. To t h e p i c t o r i a l d i s p l a y th e y add s l o g a n s and c a r i c a t u r e s o f t h e i r own c o m p o s it io n . P o s t e r s and n ew sp a p er m u r a ls a r e made up i n s c h o o ls a l l o v e r t h e n a t i o n , t h e n ew spap er m u ral t a k in g t h e p l a c e o f t h e s c h o o l p ap er i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . I n some s c h o o l s t h e e n t i r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s p i c t o r i a l and h i g h l y i d e o l o g i c a l ; i n o t h e r c a s e s i t may be made up o f p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l r a n g in g from s c h o o l news t o t h e war i n S p a in . I n g e n e r a l t h e r e i s a s t r o n g e d i t o r i a l on some s t o c k s u b j e c t . The m aking o f t h e n ew sp ap er m ural i s a c l a s s p r o j e c t and u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s a w eek t o p r o d u c e . I t com es o u t on a r e g u la r d a t e a s d o e s a n ew sp a p er. The com ic s t r i p i s u sed more and m ore e x t e n s i v e l y by t h e v a r io u s d e p a r tm e n ts o f th e S e c r e t a r i a t . P o r i n s t a n c e t h e G r a fic o de A g r i c u lt u r a c a r r i e s on t h e b a ck p age o f i t s w e e k ly e d i t i o n f o r e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s t h e com ic d o in g s o f P o l i n and P i I o n . P i l o n i s a t y p i c a l ca m p esin o o f t h e o ld s c h o o l , ig n o r a n t and s u p e r s t i t i o u s . P o l i n knows t h e s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s o f farm l i f e . T h e ir w e e k ly a d v e n tu r e s a r e e n t e r t a i n i n g , "but e n l i g h t e n i n g . 2 3 5 IX . SUMMARY M exican a r t i s , p e r h a p s , t h e m ost p o t e n t t o o l i n e x i s t e n c e f o r i n d o c t r i n a t i n g b o th a d u l t s and c h i ld r e n w it h t h e new er d o c t r i n e s . The C h in ese a d a g e s a y s t h a t a good p i c t u r e i s w orth t e n th o u sa n d w o r d s. B ased on t h i s p r e m is e , t h e a r t i s t i c o u tp u t o f th e R e v o lu t io n a r y a r t i s t s o f M ex ico i s t a k in g t h e p l a c e o f w h ole l i b r a r i e s o f propaganda pub l i c a t i o n s . J u s t a s M exico C it y was o n ce t h e s p i r i t u a l c e n t e r o f t h e R e p u b lic , now i t i s t h e fo u n ta in h e a d o f i d e o l o g y w here m a e s tr o s go f o r t h e l a t e s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and f o r f u r t h e r i n s p i r a t i o n . They f i n d b o th a s t h e y p a s s t h e mon um ents o f a r t s c a t t e r e d th r o u g h o u t t h e c i t y . E v e ry day th o u s a n d s o f p e r s o n s p a u se t o lo o k a t t h e m u ra ls o f O rozco and R iv e r a and a t t h e s c u l p t u r e and p a i n t i n g o f t h e d o z e n s o f o t h e r young a r t i s t s . More and more s c h o o l s a r e b e in g d e c o r a t e d i n f r e s c o d a i l y by a r t i s t s , t e a c h e r s or s t u d e n t s . The i n s t r u c t i o n i n a r t s e r v e s t h e d o u b le p u rp o se o f t r a i n i n g more P r o l e t a r i a n a r t i s t s t o c a r r y on t h e work o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n l a t e r and o f m aking e v e r y c h i l d i d e a c o n s c i o u s . Even th o u g h t h e c h i l d may h av e no a r t i s t i c t a l e n t w h a ts o e v e r , he i s l e a r n in g t h e t h i n g s t h a t t h e govern m en t s ta n d s f o r , when he s t u d i e s f o r an a r t p r o j e c t . He a l s o l e a r n s t h e sym b olism o f P r o l e t a r i a n a r t s o t h a t he can i n t e r p r e t t h e works o f a r t o f t h e l e a d in g m a s te r s f o r h i m s e l f and o t h e r s . CHAPTER V I I I REVOLUTIONARY MUSIC AND DANCING M u sic and d a n c in g p la y an u n iq u e r o l e i n M e x ic o ’ s s o c i a l i s t i c e d u c a t io n . They a r e n o t m ere s u b j e c t s u sed t o f i l l o u t t h e s c h o o l program ; t h e y a r e r a t h e r k e y a c t i v i t i e s around w h ic h t h e s c h o o l l i f e i s b u i l t . S in g in g i s r e c o g n iz e d th e w o rld o v e r a s a m o r a le b u i l d e r . M ex ica n l e a d e r s e x p e c t i t t o s e r v e t h e f u n c t i o n o f M e x ic a n iz in g t h e n a t i o n , o f g i v i n g i t an e s p r i t de c o r p s . D a n cin g i s a gro u p a c t i v i t y par e x c e l l e n c e f o r t e a c h i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l t o l o s e h i m s e l f i n t h e communal s p i r i t . He i s en r a p p o r t w ith s o c i e t y so c o m p le t e ly t h a t h i s i n d i v i d u a l w i l l i s m erged i n t o t h a t o f t h e common w i l l and he i s , f o r t h e n o n c e , a c t i n g h a r m o n io u sly a s a sm o o th ly f u n c t i o n i n g u n i t o f a l a r g e s o c i a l b od y. M u sic and d a n c in g a r e i n t h e program s o f e v e r y s c h o o l i n t h e c o u n tr y , w h ile m a th e m a tic s and w r i t i n g a r e n o t . I . AIMS OF REVOLUTIONARY MUSIC AND DANCING The m eaning o f t h e term r e v o l u c i o n a r i o n e e d s t o be r e s t a t e d o c c a s i o n a l l y t o k eep i t s c o n n o t a t io n c l e a r l y i n m in d . R e v o l u c i o n a r i o . i n t h e M exican s o c i o l o g i c a l u s a g e , i s n o t synonym ous w ith t h e E n g lis h word r e v o l u t i o n a r y . The word r e v o l u c i o n a r i o i s a s h i b b o le t h ; i t i s u se d t o t e s t a l l m a t e r i a l i n t h e s c h o o l program t o s e e t h a t i t i s n o t 235 t r a d i t i o n a l and t h a t i t i s i n a c c o r d w it h t h e p r o l e t a r i a n s c h o o l . L os program as de t i p o r e v o l u c i o n a r i o son l o s que no tom an en c u e n ta nada de l o e s t a b l e c i d o en program as a n t e r i o r e s , t i e n d e n a c r e a r , a i n v e s t i g a r , a h u ir de to d a t r a d i c i o n y e s t u d i a r , en cam b io, e l m a t e r i a l v i v o , en e l n in o y s u s i n t e r e s e s . l R e v o lu t io n a r y e d u c a t io n i s , i n s h o r t , th e c h i l d - c e n t e r e d s c h o o l . T h ere i s l i t t l e , i f a n y , o f t h e s w a s h b u c k lin g , m a r t i a l ty p e o f m u sic i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n s t h a t a r e b e in g u s e d th r o u g h o u t M e x ic o . I t m ust be k e p t i n m ind t h a t S o c i a li s m i s a p h ilo s o p h y o f l o v e and p e a c e , t h e r e f o r e th e m u sic g l o r i f i e s t h e s e c o n c e p ts a s w e l l a s u s e f u l w ork, n a tu r e and t h e i n d i v i d u a l . M usic i n t h e s c h o o l i s p r im a r ily a t th e s e r v i c e o f S o c i a l i s m t o u n i f y t h e n a t i o n , n o t t o d i s r u p t i t . Ahora debem os p o n er e l c a n to a l s e r v i c i o d e l a s i d e a s s o c i a l i s t a s y e n se n a r c a n c io n e s v erd a d era m en te r e v o l u c i o n a r i a s y en u lt im o c a s o , p r o d u c c io n e s que e n se n e n a l g o u t i l y e f e c t i v o . 2 R e v o lu t io n a r y m u s ic , t h e r e f o r e , h a s a d e f i n i t e l y c o n s t r u c t i v e p l a c e i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l sch em e. I t d o e s n o t aim t o fom en t h a tr e d a g a i n s t t h e w e a lth y c l a s s e s o r a g a i n s t f o r e i g n coun t r i e s . R a th e r , i t a im s t o r e s t o r e d i g n i t y t o t h e M exican ^ V i c t o r M. R e y e s , "La J u g u e t e r ia Hecha por l o s N in o s M e x ic a n o s," R e v i s t a de S d u c a c io n , D eciem b re de 1 9 3 7 . 2 J o se' T eran T o v a r , r,La E n sen anza d e l C a n to ," E l M a estro R u r a l , E nero de 1 9 3 6 . 236 and h i s c o u n tr y and c u sto m s . I t a im s t o undo t h e work o f E uropean m u sic i n M exico w h ich h a s te n d e d t o g l o r i f y t h e c u l t u r e o f E urope and t o d e p r e c i a t e t h a t o f in d ig e n o u s M e x ic o . In a d d i t i o n , R e v o lu t io n a r y m u sic t e n d s t o h a ve a m o r a liz in g i n f l u e n c e ; i t g e t s t h e f o l k away from t h e / c a n t i n a s and p u l q u e r i a s , t r a d i t i o n a l c e n t e r s o f d e b a s in g e s c a p is m , and g i v e s them new c u l t u r a l and e s t h e t i c c e n t e r s . I t i s i n a c c o r d w ith t h e s o c i a l i s t p h i lo s o p h ic c o n c e p t o f d e v e lo p in g t h e s e r p l e n a r i o . / X La propaganda t e n i a d o s f i n e s , uno a r t i s t i c o de d i f u n d ir e l g u s t o p or l a m u sica en e l p u e b lo , y o t r o m o r a liz a d o r , de a p a r ta r a l p u e b lo de l o s l u g a r e s de d i s i p a c i o n d a n d o le c e n tr o de r e u n io n y s o c i a l b i l i d a d para que h a l l a r a en l a m u sica s o l a z y h o n e s t o e n t r e t e n i m i e n t o .3 A cco rd o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y m u sic w it h s o c i a l i s t p h ilo s o p h y . The prim e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n , t h a t i t s h a l l be in d ig e n o u s , and t h a t i t s h a l l f i t t h e p e o p le and t h e l o c a l e , i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f t h e r e n a s c e n t m u sic o f M e x ic o . The p r e s e n t m u sic g o e s b ack to t h e p r e - C o r t e s ia n m u sic o f t h e c o u n tr y and t o t h e subm erged m u sic o f t h e p e o p le t h a t h a s b e e n c o m p le t e ly ig n o r e d by M exican com p osers f o r fo u r hundred y e a r s . A s t h e R e v o lu t io n was a p o p u la r m ovem ent, an u p r i s i n g o f t h e p e o p l e , t h e y e x p r e s s e d them s e l v e s d u r in g t h e R e v o lu t io n w it h g r e a t g u s t o th r o u g h t h e i r 3 Ruben Campos, E l F o l k l o r e y l a M u sica M e x ic a n a » p . 1 5 1 . 257 own s o n g s . The f i r s t and m ost t y p i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f n a t i v e a r t was t h e sp o n ta n e o u s a d o p t io n o f M exican t u n e s a s t h e cam paign so n g s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n . The a g r a g r ia n s un der Z ap ata inarched t o t h e s im p le r e f r a i n o f " A d e l i t a . ” V i l l a ’ s g u e r r i l l a s r a id e d t o t h e rh y th m ic tu n e o f ”La C u c a r a c h a .” The c a t c h in g s i m p l i c i t y o f " V a le n t in a ” was en d eared t o th e f o l l o w e r s o f C a r ra n za . C a l l e s a d o p ted ”La B o r r a c h i t a ” a s h i s 1 9 2 4 p o l i t i c a l cam paign so n g . M u sic was i n t h e s o u l, o f t h e M ex ica n a n d , i n t h e n e w ly fou n d freed o m by r e v o l u t i o n , he tu r n e d t o n a t i v e t u n e s f o r an o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f j o y . The p e a s a n t s ’ humble m e lo d ie s became f a s h i o n a b l e . They w ere o f t h e p e o p le and by t h e p e o p l e , and i n p r o l e t a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y M e x ic o , t h e y r e c e i v e d p o p u la r a c c l a i m . 4 W ith a l l M ex ica n s s i n g i n g s o n g s a b o u t t h e i r own c o u n tr y and th e s im p le t h i n g s and p e r s o n s o f t h a t c o u n tr y , t h e com p osers tu r n e d a s t o n is h e d e y e s upon t h e i r own m u sic and r e a l l y d i s c o v e r e d i t fo r. th e f i r s t t im e . They d is c o v e r e d t h a t M exico i s p e r h a p s t h e r i c h e s t c o u n tr y i n t h e w o r ld f o r m u s ic a l a p p r e c i a t i o n and f o r a m u s ic a l b ack grou n d . I t dawned upon t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s t h a t t h e y d id n o t n eed t o im p o rt r e v o l u t i o n a r y so n g s from F r a n c e and R u s s ia and t h u s p e r p e tu a t e t h e t r a d i t i o n o f im p o sin g f o r e i g n cu sto m s on t h e p e o p l e . As p o s t - R e v o lu t io n a r y M exico b egan t o stu d y t h e m u sic o f t h e p e o p le sh e fou n d t h a t what had b e e n t r u e o f a r t was t r u e o f m u s ic . The m u sic and t h e d a n c e , a s t h e y f l o u r i s h e d among t h e p e o p le , came a lm o s t d i r e c t l y from t h e in d ig e n o u s m u sic o f t h e a u to c h th o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y . T ru e, t h e y had 4 George I. Sanchez, Mexico: A Revolution B y Education, p. 59. 238 b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by E uropean m u s ic , b u t th e v ig o r o u s body came d i r e c t l y from t h e p r e - C o r t e s ia n I n d i a n s , I m m e d ia te ly t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y m u s ic ia n s began a stu d y o f m e s t iz o m u sic t h a t l e d them t o i t s b e g in n in g — in d ig e n o u s m u s ic . The S p a n ia r d s had done su ch a th o r o u g h jo b o f stam p in g o u t a l l r e c o r d o f and a l l r e s p e c t f o r t h e in d ig e n o u s a r t s t h a t much r e s e a r c h had t o be done t o g e t a t a k n ow led ge o f p r e - C o r t e s ia n m u sic and d a n c in g , fr o m t h e a n c i e n t m u si c a l in s tr u m e n t s i n t h e N a t io n a l Museum and from t h e w r i t t e n r e p o r t s o f a few e a r l y ch u rch f a t h e r s , n o t a b ly Juan de Torquemada and B e r n a r d in o de S ah agu n , i t was p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t th e o r i g i n a l m u s ic a l h e r i t a g e o f M e x ic o . As u s u a l , th e S e c r e t a r i a de B d u c a clo n P u b l i c s to o k t h e l e a d i n t h i s m u s ic a l r e n n a is s a n c e by i n s t i t u t i n g th e D i r e c o io n de C u ltu r a E s t e t i c a . F o lk d a n ce s and so n g s w ere c o l l e c t e d from a l l p a r t s o f t h e c o u n tr y and e v e r y sh r e d o f k n ow led ge c o n c e r n in g them c o l l a t e d . A l l o f t h i s in f o r m a tio n was i n c o r p o r a te d by Ruben Campos i n t h r e e m onum ental w orks: E l F o l k l o r e y l a M u sica M e x ic a n s, i n 19 2 8 ; E l F o l k l o r e L i t e r a r i o de M e x ic o , 1 9 2 9 ; and E l F o l k l o r e M u s ic a l de l a s C iu d a d e s, i n 1 9 3 0 . The N a t i o n a l C o n se r v a to r y o f M usic c a r r ie d on an e x h a u s t i v e s tu d y o f p r e - C o r t e s ia n m u s ic a l i n s t r u m e n t s , p u b l i s h in g i t s f i n d i n g s i n t h e r e v i e w , M u s ic , and i n t h e a n n a ls o f t h e N a t io n a l Museum. The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s o f a l l t h i s r e s e a r c h 339 w ere t h a t in d ig e n o u s m u sic was tr e m e n d o u sly M ex ica n and p re d o m in a n tly com m unal--tw o c a r d in a l p o i n t s o f S c i e n t i f i c S o c i a l i s m . M u sic was an i n t e g r a t e d a c t i v i t y o f t h e h i g h e s t o r d e r among t h e A z t e c s . M u sic was p la y e d , su n g , and dan ced s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i n g r o u p s o f v a r io u s s i z e s , some o f w h ic h , a c c o r d in g t o c h r o n i c l e r s , c o n s i s t e d o f a s many a s s e v e r a l t h o u sand p e r s o n s . L i t t l e o r n o t h in g i s known o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an i n d i v i d u a l m u sic u se d f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s o f t h e a r t i s t s . — -B u t no a r t i s t i c a l m u s ic a l e x p r e s s i o n , ev en th ou gh com posed by a known i n d i v i d u a l ,, f a i l e d t o be t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e s e n t i m e n t , f o r i t was a lw a y s t h e p e o p le i n a group who s a n g , p la y e d , and danced f o r t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a c o l l e c t i v e s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y . ^ 3-* I n d ig e n o u s M exican m u s io . A n c ie n t M exico was s a t u r a t e d w it h m u sic and d a n c in g .^ The two g r e a t p r o f e s s i o n s , r e l i g i o n and w ar, s t a r t e d and f i n i s h e d e v e r y a c t i v i t y w it h m u s ic . E very a c t had i t s own r i t u a l w h ich was c a r r i e d o u t t o t h e th r o b o f t h e a h u e h u e t l and t h e t e p o n a z t l i , t h e ca rv e d drums o f th e A z t e c s ; t h e w a i l o f t h e f l u t e - l i k e t l a p i t z a l l i made from baked c l a y , o r th e t z i c a h u a z t l i , made from human b o n e s; t h e r a t t l e o f g o u r d s f i l l e d w it h p e b b le s ; and t h e w h i s t l e o f t h e a t e o c o l l i , made from se a s h e l l s , o r t h e c h i l i l i h t l i , a s m a ll c l a y , h i g h - p i t c h e d f l u t e . The rhythm s ^ C a r lo s C h avez, "M exican M u s ic ," H u b ert H e r r in g and H e r b e r t W e in s to c k , R e n a s c e n t M e x ic o , pp . 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 . & C a b r ie l S a l v i d a r , "El O rig en de l a D an za," N u e s tr o M e x ic o , J u l i o de 1 9 3 2 . 240 o f t h e d a i l y l i f e , b i r t h , d e a th and m a r r ia g e ; p l a n t in g and h a r v e s t i n g ; and f e s t i v a l s t o t h e su n and r a i n g o d s , w ere p u n c tu a te d by m u s ic . I n d ig e n o u s M exican m u sic i s p r im a r ily r h y th m ic .* I t l a c k s t h e m elod y o f E uropean m u sic b e c a u s e t h e r e w ere b u t f i v e n o t e s i n th e m u sica n s c a l e . The n a tu r e o f th e i n s t r u m e n ts , p e r c u s s io n and w in d , and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m u sic was d e s ig n e d c h i e f l y f o r d a n c in g , g a v e i t a s t r o n g l y marked a c c e n t t h a t i s s t i l l e v id e n t i n M exican m u s ic . The words u se d c a r r y o u t th e l o v e o f rhythm , b e in g c h i l d l i k e i n th e m etr e and c h o ic e o f w o rd s. Many o f t h e v e r s e s a r e a lm o st pu re o n o m a to p o e ia . Campos g i v e s an exam ple t h a t i s b e a u t i f u l l y p r i m i t i v e i n i t s i n c e p t i o n . I t i s t h e P e r e g r in a t io n o f A z t la n , and i s b a se d on th e le g e n d t h a t a s a c r e d b ir d t o l d t h e a n c i e n t A z t e c s t o move on and so c a u se d them t o wander on t o T e n o c h t i t l a n . The m u sic and t h e w ords a r e i n s p i r e d by t h e so n g and t w i t t e r o f t h e b i r d . I n N a h u a tl t i h u i m eans ”l e t u s g o . ” 241 A z t a t z i t z i n t i n t i , t i n , t i n t i n , t i n , T i h u i , t i h u i y a n , t i h u i , t i h u i , T i h u i , t i h u i y a n , t i h u i , t i h u i , A z t a t z i t z i n t i n t i , t i n , t i n , t i n , 7 T h is same l o v e o f p r i m i t i v e m e tr e i s e v id e n t i n th e Dance o f t h e L i t t l e I n d i a n s , e v en a f t e r i t h a s b een t r a n s l a t e d i n t o S p a n is h , A lth o u g h t h i s f i e s t a i s t h e se c o n d m ost p o p u la r i n M exico t h e w ords h a v e l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e , m e r e ly f u r n i s h i n g a backgroun d p a t t e r f o r t h e d a n c e . One s ta n z a w i l l s e r v e f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n . Agua l i c a , n i can ca s o n a j a . Agua l i c a , n i can ca c a t e r a . Mi to n c h e mi l o n c h e , Mi m a la c a to n c h e Con l a m e lc o c h e r a . Y S a n to " S in b r de Chalma" P i t i t u n , p i t i t u n , tu n t u n . 8 T h is m u sic i s a p a r t o f M e x ic o . I t i s i n s p i r e d by t h e b i r d s and b e a s t s o f h e r c o u n t r y s i d e , i t i s h a r s h a s h e r p r e c i p i t o u s m o u n ta in s and i t i s a s h a u n tin g a s t h e perfum e o f h e r s p r in g f l o w e r s . M odern M ex ican com p osers a r e t u r n in g t o i t d a i l y f o r a s i n c e r e m u sic t h a t w i l l a t t h e same tim e b e i n s p i r e d by M exico and h e lp t o w eld a s o u l f o r t h e n a t i o n . C a r lo s C h avez, one o f t h e l e a d in g com p osers and m u s ic ia n s o f t o d a y , owes h i s new v i s i o n to e a r l y c o n t a c t w it h in d ig e n o u s m u s ic . He l i v e d f o r y e a r s n e a r T l a s c a l a , w here t h e s t e r i l e 7 Ruben Campos, o p . c i t . , p . 3 7 . Q / / S e c r e t a r i a de S d u c a c io n P u b l i c a , ”L os I n d i t o s r" 242 s o i l o f t h e m o u n ta in s had k e p t o u t f o r e i g n e r s , and t h e c u l t u r e had rem ained p r a c t i c a l l y u n ch an g ed . As he c o n tin u e d t o s tu d y E u r o p e a n iz e d M exican m u sic h e h a s c o n s t a n t l y t h in k in g o f t h e h a u n t in g , v ig o r o u s m u sic o f h i s own p e o p le u n t i l he was i n f l u e n c e d t o a r e t u r n t o t h e m u sic o f M e x ic o , T h is m u sic o f h u e h u e t l , c h i r i m i a , f l u t e s and drums i s p u r e ly t r a d i t i o n a l and in d ig e n o u s : r h y th m ic , c o n t r a p u n t a l , v i g o r o u s , o f a s t o n i s h i n g v i g o r and c o n v i c t i o n . W henever I h ea rd t h i s m u sic I was g r ip p e d by i t s f o r c e , by i t s u n lim it e d command. I t h a s n e v e r , i n l a t e r p e r io d s when I was s u b j e c t e d t o v a r ie d i n f l u e n c e s , c e a s e d t o be f o r me t h e m ost im p o r ta n t f o r m a t iv e e l e m e n t .9 M e s t iz o m u s ic . The Church stam ped o u t much o f t h e m u sic and many o f t h e r i t u a l d a n c e s , su ch a s i t c o u ld n o t 10 e r a d i c a t e b e in g a d a p te d t o C a t h o lic p u r p o s e s . Each y e a r t h e I n d ia n s r e t u r n t o t h e h i l l o f T epeyac and dan ce th e pagan d a n ce s a t t h e s h r in e o f t h e V ir g in o f G uadalupe a s t h e y h ave done f o r c e n t u r i e s . The D ance o f Los I n d i t o s i s now d an ce f o r Our Lord o f Chalma a s i t was fo r m e r ly dan ced f o r O z t o c t e o t l , God o f t h e C a v e s . ^ The J a r a b e , c o n s id e r e d th e n a t i o n a l d an ce o f M e x ic o , was among t h o s e t h a t was frow ned upon by t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . I n 1802 Don F e l i x B e r e n g e r banned 9 C a r lo s C h a v ez, ojd. j c i t . , p . 2 1 1 . IjQ C * c i t . Erna F e r g u s s o n , F i e s t a i n M e x ic o , l O f f . T h is d an ce may be fou n d i n Norma Schw endener and A v e r i l T i b b e l s , L egen d s and D a n ces o f Old M e x ic o , p . 9 7 . 243 th e J a r a b e , d e c l a r i n g t h a t anyone d a n c in g i t sh o u ld be im p r is o n e d f o r two y e a r s , w h ile o n lo o k e r s sh o u ld be s e n te n c e d t o a t l e a s t two m onths i n j a i l . 12 Under th e C o lo n ia l r eg im e and f o r t h e f i r s t c e n tu r y o f in d e p e n d e n c e i t was c o n s id e r e d v u lg a r t o s i n g I n d ia n so n g s o r in d u lg e i n r e g i o n a l d a n c e s . 1^ H ow ever, a new m u sic a p p ea red i n M exico w hich h a s s i n c e come t o be known a s m e s t iz o m u s ic . I t i s a f u s i o n o f t h e in d ig e n o u s m u sic and t h e v a r io u s E uropean v a r i e t i e s t h a t h ave f l o u r i s h e d i n M e x ic o . F ra y P ed ro de G ante u se d m u sic e x t e n s i v e l y i n h i s f i r s t s c h o o l a t T e x c o c o . He s e t th e names o f s a i n t s t o m u sic and th u s ta u g h t S p a n is h and ch u rch m a t e r i a l s a t t h e same t im e . The F r e n c h and I t a l i a n i n f l u e n c e h ave b e e n marked i n t h e m u s ic a l t r a d i t i o n o f th e n a t i o n . D u rin g t h e r e i g n o f M a x im ilia n , A u s t r ia n m u sic made a b r i e f a p p ea r a n c e and i t s i n f l u e n c e can s t i l l b e f e l t i n su ch p i e c e s a s "Sobre l a s 0 1 a s tf— Over t h e W aves— w h ich was com p o sed i n honor o f C a r lo ta and i s r e m in is c e n t o f S t r a u s s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f E uropean m u s ic a l in s tr u m e n t s was a s i n f l u e n t i a l i n t h e grow th o f a m e s t iz o m u sic a s was any o t h e r f a c t o r . The g u i t a r was borrow ed by t h e S p a n ia r d s from t h e A rabs and g iv e n t o M e x ic o , w here i t h a s fou n d a d e f i n i t e ✓ p la c e f o r i t s e l f . The same i s t r u e o f t h e c h ir im ia -, a 12 I b i d . , p . 3 . 1 3 Erna Fergusson, Fiesta in Mexico. p. 18. 244 d o u b le - r e e d f l u t e , p r o b a b ly borrow ed from th e A s t u r i a n s , who d e v e lo p e d i t from th e Homan g a i t a . ^ The v i o l i n i s p la y e d a l l o v e r M exico i n a way t h a t E u rop ean s n e v e r dreamed o f . I t i s t h i s v e r y o r i g i n a l i t y o f tr e a tm e n t and h a n d lin g o f E uropean m a t e r i a l s t h a t h a s made m e s t iz o m u sic t y p i c a l l y M e x ic a n • The n a t i v e s o f th e S t a t e s o f M ich o a ca n , M e x ic o , and P u e b la p r i n c i p a l l y , c o n s t r u c t v i o l i n s e q u a l t o , o r r e s e m b lin g , t h o s e o f E u ro p e. N e v e r t h e l e s s , when we h e a r them i n M ex ica n o r c h e s t r a s , t h e y do n o t seem t o rem ind us o f t h e i r c o n v e n t io n a l s t y l e , a s much b e c a u s e o f t h e s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s o f t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n a s b e c a u s e o f t h e m anner o f p la y in g them and t h e k in d s o f m u sic p l a y e d . 1 ^ As t h e m u sic s u b t l y changed i t s n a tu r e a f t e r i t s a d m ix tu r e o f E uropean m e lo d y , so d id t h e d a n c e , f o r i n M exico one h a r d ly sp ea k s o f t h e tw o s e p a r a t e l y . D a n ces a r e sp ok en o f i n M exico a s z a p a te a d o s from t h e i n f i n i t i v e z a p a t e a r , t o ta p th e tim e or c l i c k t h e m easu re w it h s h o e s : z a p a t o s . A l l o f t h e b e st-k n o w n d a n c e s o r i g i n a t e d i n S p a in , b u t th e way t h e y a r e now d an ced m akes them d e f i n i t e l y M e x ic a n . The I n d ia n i n f l u e n c e i s shown i n t h e p o s e o f th e u p p er b o d y , d i f f e r e n t i n e v e r y dance and t y p i c a l o f t h e g a i t and movement o f each r e g i o n , and i n a c e r t a i n d i g n i t y and p o i s e w h ich make th e d a n c e s t r u l y M exican and n o t S p a n i s h .16 I 4 C a r lo s C h a v es, o£ . c i t . . p . 2 1 3 . I b i d . , p . 2 1 2 f • 16 Erna E e r g u s s o n , ojd. c i t . . p . 1 9 . 245 The .jarabe t a p a t i o , o f J a l i s c o , t h e huapango from Yera C ruz, t h e sandun^a o f T e h u a n te p e c , and th e ja ra n a o f Y u catan a r e t h e o u t s t a n d in g r e g i o n a l d a n c e s o f M e x ic o . The m u sic f o r th e ja r a b e i s f u r n is h e d by s t r i n g e d in s tr u m e n t s ; u s u a l l y t h e m a r ia c h i or v i h u e l a , a M exican d ev elo p m en t o f t h e g u i t a r . M a ria ch i bands a s a r u l e c o n s i s t o f v i o l i n , m a r i a c h i , and any o t h e r l o c a l in s tr u m e n t a v a i l a b l e . What i s la c k e d i n i n s t r u m e n ta t io n i s f u r n is h e d by t h e s h r i l l f a l s e t t o whoop o f t h e M exican s i n g e r . T y p ic a l m a r ia c h i m u sic d e f i e s m u s ic ia n s b u t i t s l i v e l y , r a p i d l y c h a n g in g tim e i s i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o 17 t h e tem peram ent o f t h e M exican and h i s d a n c e s . The Danza de l o s V i e j i t o s , D ance o f t h e L i t t l e Old Men, a l s o com es from J a l i s c o and i s one o f th e fe w com ic d a n c e s o f t h e n a t i o n . The d a n c e r s w ear m asks r e p r e s e n t i n g o ld men and c a r r y c a n e s w it h w h ich t h e y ta p o u t a q u ic k m oving m ea su r e. L os T eoom ates i s t h e gourd d a n c e , a s i t s name i m p l i e s . Gourds a r e u sed f o r o r n a m e n ta tio n and t o add t o t h e rhythm o f t h e d a n c e . L as Sem bradoras i s a d an ce d e d ic a t e d to t h e so w er s o f c r o p s . I t i s d an ced on th e se c o n d o f F eb ru a ry and i s a d a n ce o f t h a n k s g iv i n g . Farm a n im a ls , c o r n , w h eat and o t h e r p r o d u c ts o f t h e h a r v e s t a r e g a i l y added t o th e background o f t h e p e r fo r m a n c e . L os ^ E le n a P ic a z o de M urray and P a u l V. M urray, "The Charm o f M e x ic o ’ s P o p u la r M u s ic ," E tu d e , A u g u s t, 1 9 3 7 . 246 N e g r i t o s and L os M oros a r e two b e a u t i f u l o ld d a n c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y fa v o r e d i n t h e Lake P a tz c u a r o r e g i o n o f M ich o a ca n . B oth a r e c o l o r f u l and a lm o s t r i t u a l i s t i c i n e x e c u t i o n . La V ir g e n jr L as F i e r a s , ^ t h e v i r g i n and t h e b e a s t s , i s a dan ce b a se d on an o ld I n d ia n le g e n d . A b e a u t i f u l g i r l l i v e d n e a r a d ark f o r e s t . A l l t h e a n im a ls i n t h e f o r e s t lo v e d t h e s w e e t , k i n d l y g i r l . One day sh e s t r a y e d f a r i n t o t h e f o r e s t and t h e e v i l s p i r i t s a t t a c k e d h e r . The b e a s t s form ed a cord on a b o u t h er and th u s sa v e d h e r from t h e f o r c e s o f e v i l . The Y aqui d e e r d a n ce i s a c e r e m o n ia l movement i n w h ich t h e h u n te r p u r s u e s t h e d e e r ab ou t a f i r e . B o th a r e m asked and w ear g o u r d s* a b o u t t h e i r a n k le s w h ich g i v e o u t a c o n s t a n t r a t t l e d u r in g th e c o u r s e o f t h e d a n c e . Las C anacuas i s a d an ce o f M ich oacan w h ich s y m b o liz e s t h e h o s p i t a l i t y o f t h e T a r a sc a n I n d i a n s . T h is d an ce i s h i g h l y c o l o r f u l a s i t a llo w s t h e d i s p l a y o f t h e p ic t u r e s q u e c o stu m es o f t h e T a r a sc a n s a s w e l l a s a sh o w in g o f t h e h an d som ely c a r v e d and la c q u e r e d wooden t r a y s o f t h e r e g i o n , known a s ✓ j i c a r a s . The d an ce i s accom p an ied by t h e s i n g i n g o f / " J ic a r a s de M ic h o a c a n . y f T h is son g i s su ch a n e x c e l l e n t H i .ja ra b e; h u a p an g o; l o s v i e j i t o s ; l o s t e c o m a t e s ; l a s se m b r a d o r a s; l o s n e g r i t o s ; l o s m o r o s; and l a v ir g e n £ l a s f i e r a s a r e d e s c r ib e d i n d e t a i l by Schw endener and T i b b e l s , L egen d s and D an ces o f Old M e x ic o . 247 exam ple o f what t h e modern M ex ica n s c o n s i d e r w o r th w h ile t h a t i t i s in c lu d e d h e r e . I t h a s b e a u ty o f word and movement and g l o r i f i e s t h e a r t i f a c t s t h a t a r e t r u l y M ex ica n . * * . ' S ’ J i c a r a s , j i c a r a s , j i c a r a s de M ich o a ca n , donde e l alma de un a r t i s t a p u so en su a r t e l o c o a f a n . P a j a r o s , f l o r e s , f a n t a s i a s d e l amor e s t a n en e l l a s com binados en arm on ico c o l o r . C h o ru s: T ie r r a de f l o r e s , d e b e l l o s p a i s a j e s , de l a g o s a z u l e s , y e s p le iid id o s o l ; 0 t i e r r a de e n s u e n o s , jam as t e he o l v id a d o , e r e s e l a n h e lo de mi c o r a z o n .1 9 From t h e b ack grou n d o f t h e s e d a n c e s and many o t h e r s t h a t h a v e b een d a n c e s a l l o v e r M e x ic o , t h e D epartm en t o f E d u c a tio n i s c o m p ilin g , d e s c r i b i n g and d i s s e m i n a t i n g dan ce in fo r m a tio n and d a n ce c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o t h e p e o p l e . The S c h o o l o f t h e D ance o f t h e D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n i s a lr e a d y u s in g th e m e s , s t e p s , m u sic and c o stu m e s ta k e n from b o th s e c u l a r and r i t u a l d a n c e s , and a d a p tin g them t o t h e s t a g e . The f i r s t e x p e r i m en ts h ave b e e n b o th v e r y M exican and e x c e e d i n g l y b e a u t i f u l . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e i s no q u e s t io n b u t t h a t t h e d a n ce and t h e m u sic b e in g p r o p a g a te d th r o u g h t h e work o f t h e s c h o o l s i s t r u l y n a t i o n a l , t r u l y M e x ic a n , and th u s i t f u l f i l l s th e prim e t e n e t o f th e S o c i a l i s t S c h o o ls : The s c h o o l s s h a l l b e M ex ica n . E d it h J o h n s to n , R e g io n a l D a n ces o f M e x ic o , p . 3 1 . Erna F e r g u s s o n , o|>. c i t . » p . 2 7 . I I . THE TEACHING OF REVOLUTIONARY MUSIC 248 In t h e s c h o o l s o f M exico t h e aim i s to have t r a in e d m u sic t e a c h e r s f o r a l l t h e s c h o o l s , i f p o s s i b l e . A t p r e s e n t t h e m a j o r it y o f t h e s c h o o l s h ave no s p e c i a l t e a c h e r , th e g e n e r a l- p u r p o s e m a e s tr o t e a c h in g m u sic w it h h i s o th e r d u t i e s . A p e r io d i s s e t a s i d e f o r s i n g i n g and i s p r e c e d e d and f o l low ed by a r e s t p e r i o d . S p e c i a l c a r e i s ta k e n t h a t th e c h i l d r e n s h a l l n o t s t r a i n t h e i r v o i c e s . They a r e n o t a llo w e d t o s in g t o o l o u d ly o r t o make h a r s h , u n p le a s a n t n o i s e s . In t h e k in d e r g a r t e n s im p le s o n g s a r e u s e d , o f t e n so n g s o f o n ly t h r e e n o t e s . I n t h e e le m e n ta r y g r a d e s more ad van ced so n g s a r e su n g . Care i s a lw a y s ta k e n w it h d i c t i o n and w it h u n d e r s ta n d in g t h e m eaning o f th e w ord s. S p a n is h t e a c h in g i s a n a t u r a l b y -p r o d u c t o f m u sic i n s t r u c t i o n . Among th e I n d ia n s m u sic i s t h e m ost u s e f u l s u b j e c t i n th e s c h o o l f o r la n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n . The n a t u r a l i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c h i l d a r e c o n s id e r e d t o o , i n t h e c h o ic e o f s o n g s . In t h e f i r s t and se c o n d g r a d e s t h e t e a c h e r s e l e c t s so n g s h a v in g t o do w ith b i r d s , a n im a ls , and n a t u r e . In t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h g r a d e s t h e r e a r e s o n g s o f t r i p s and a d v e n t u r e s . Romance and s e n t im e n t a r e in tr o d u c e d i n t o t h e m u sic u sed i n t h e f i f t h and s i x t h g r a d e s . Care i s a lw a y s e x e r c i s e d , how e v e r , t h a t th e s o n g s o f s e n tim e n t s h a l l be s im p le , pu re and t r u e t o n a t u r e and s h a l l n o t b o r d e r on t h e e r o t i c . The 249 a d v e n t u r e s and s t r u g g l e s m ust n o t be o f t h e t y p e i n w hich s t r e n g t h e x p l o i t s w e a k n e s s .2 - * - S in g in g i s a lm o s t e n t i r e l y a group a c t i v i t y . The c l a s s i s t r a in e d t o s i n g a s a u n i t w it h c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n a c c o r d in g t o v o i c e s and p a r t s . W henever p o s s i b l e t h e group s i n g s i n t h e open a i r and a lw a y s w it h th e members s t a n d in g . In th e l a t e a f t e r n o o n t h e a d u l t s come t o t h e s c h o o l when t h e y have f i n i s h e d t h e i r d a y ’ s w ork. T here i s in s t r u m e n t a l m u sic and group s i n g i n g f o r a l l w h ic h o f t e n l a s t s i n t o t h e e v e n in g . O r fe o n e s , o r Orpheus c l u b s , h ave b een s t a r t e d a l l o v e r M exico f o r v a r io u s a d u l t g r o u p s . The p u rp o se i s t o b u i l d up s i n g i n g u n i t s i n f a c t o r i e s , g u i l d s , and c o m m u n ities. The army i s a l s o g i v e n r e g u la r t r a i n i n g i n group s i n g i n g and on v a r io u s o c c a s i o n s l a r g e army u n i t s h a v e su ng p u b l i c l y w it h g r e a t e f f e c t i v e n e s s . I n 1927 a c o n c o u r se o f f i f t e e n th o u sa n d c h i ld r e n from t h e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s g a v e a m ass c o n c e r t i n th e N a t io n a l S tad iu m o f M ex ico C i t y . A s e r i e s o f m u s ic a l e x tr a v a g a n z a s h a s b een p r e s e n t e d th r o u g h o u t M exico from 1923 up t o t h e p r e s e n t tim e to f u r t h e r t h e work o f c u l t u r a l p ro p a g a n d a . L as C anacuas was p la y e d i n t h e m ou n tain v i l l a g e o f P a r a c h o , M ich o a ca n , i n 1 9 2 3 . T h is m u s ic a l b a l l e t p r e s e n t e d t h e m u s ic a l h i s t o r y o f M e x ic o . P a r t one c o n s i s t e d o f m u sic and d a n c e s com posed or 2- * - lose Teran Tovar, loc. cit. 250 p o p u la r around t h e y e a r 1 8 7 0 , The se c o n d p a r t was r ed u c ed ✓ t o in d ig e n o u s so n g s p la y e d on th e c h i r i m i a » t e p o n a z t l i , and tam b or. P a r t s t h r e e and f o u r p r e s e n t e d m u sic from t h e Maya and Isth m u s o f T eh u a n tep ec r e g i o n s . In 1925 a pantom im e w it h a c o l o r f u l m u s ic a l b a ck ground was p r e s e n t e d a t th e open a i r t h e a t r e o f San Juan T e o tih u a c a n . T h is pantom im e was c a l l e d T l a h u ic o l e and un f o l d e d th e le g e n d o f a fam ous T la s c a la n g l a d i a t o r who: d e f e a t e d a l l a d v e r s a r i e s s e n t a g a i n s t him i n t h e a n c i e n t c o n t e s t s w h ic h p r e c e d e d t h e A z t e c r e l i g i o u s r i t e s . Thou sa n d s o f p e r s o n s came from a l l p a r t s o f M exico and many from ab roa d t o s e e t h i s m a s t e r p ie c e , w h ich was l a t e r shown i n t h e p a t i o o f t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a t io n .22 In 1929 E l L a b o r i l l o was o f f e r e d i n O axaca, one o f M e x ic o ’ s r i c h e s t s e c t i o n s f o r f o l k l o r e , and was l a t e r shown i n t h e W ork ers’ P ark o f B alb u en a i n M ex ico C i t y . The b a l l e t Q u e t z a l c o a t l i s c o n s id e r e d by M exican a u t h o r i t i e s t o be t h e a p o t h e o s i s o f t h e m odern R e v o lu t io n a r y s p i r i t i n a r t . 2^ The p a i n t e r C a r lo s G o n z a le z d e s ig n e d th e s e t t i n g and co stu m e s w h ile A lb e r t o F la c h e b b a c o l l a t e d and com posed t h e m u s ic a l s c o r e . The a n c i e n t A z te c r e l i g i o u s c a p i t a l T o l l a n , o r T u la , a s i t i s c a l l e d t o d a y , f u r n is h e d 22 Ruben M. Campos, E l F o l k l o r e M u s ic a l de l o s C iu d a d e s, p . 2 0 0 . 23 I b i d . , p . 2 0 2 . 851 t h e s e t t i n g f o r t h i s e p ic o f t h e b eard ed g o d - k in g . D a n c in g , c o l o r , m u sic and movement b le n d e d t o p rod u ce a s p i r i t u a l c a t h a r s i s t h a t was t r u l y M exican i n n a t u r e , t r u l y R e v o lu t i o n a r y . . . . e s l a f u s i o n d e to d o s l o s r i t m o s , de t o d o s l o s s o n i d o s , de t o d o s l o s c o l o r e s y de t o d o s l o s m o v im ie n to s en una f i e s t a de p o e s i a , en un em b ru jam ien to de c o l o r , en un e x t a s i s de e s p i r i t u a l i d a d . Su d e sb o r d a m ie n to de v id a v i o l a to d o s l o s p r e c e p t o s e s t a b l e c i d o s , porq u e e s una m a n i f e s t a c i o n a r t i s t i c a r e v o l u c i o n a r i a , que r ec la m a para, e l a r t e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e y p l a s t i c o una a m p litu d como jam as l a ha t e h i d o n in gu n a o t r a . 24 O th er s p e c t a c l e s have b een p r e s e n t e d and a r e s t i l l b e in g p r e s e n t e d th r o u g h o u t t h e R e p u b lic . S a c n i c t e , X o c h i t l , C o o sih e u z a £ M octezum a X o c o y o t z in , La F i e s t a de T l a l o c » and Anahuac a r e i n t h e c o n s t a n t l y grow in g r e p e r t o i r e o f t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n . Each one i s p r e s e n t e d i n i t s p r o p e r g e o g r a p h ic a l s e t t i n g and s e r v e s th e d o u b le p u rp ose o f t e a c h in g l o c a l h i s t o r y t o t h e p e o p le and o f b u i l d i n g up a p r id e o f s e l f , r a c e and c o u n tr y . I I I . MATERIALS OF REVOLUTIONARY MUSIC P er h a p s th e m ost p o p u la r ty p e o f so n g i n M exico i s th e c o r r i d o , d i s t a n t l y a k in t o t h e E n g li s h b a l l a d i n form b u t w it h t h e im p o r ta n t e x c e p t i o n t h a t t h e c o r r id o h a s t o do w ith c u r r e n t h a p p e n in g s . I t i s u s u a l l y a lo n g , n a r r a t i v e poem d e p e n d in g on a p o s tr o p h e and ir o n y a t t i m e s . The c o r r id o i s 24 Ibid. , p. 202. 25 2 p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l a d a p te d t o t h e work o f p rop ag an d a, f o r i t u sed d e s c r i p t i v e a d j e c t i v e s w it h p i t h i n e s s and t e l l i n g e f f e c t . T here i s a "body o f f o l k p o e t r y i n e x i s t e n c e t h a t d e t a i l s e v e r y h ap p en in g from t h e com ing o f t h e S p a n ia r d t o t h e a d o p t io n o f t h e p la n s e x e n a l . The son i s a n o th e r t y p i c a l M ex ica n m u s ic a l fo rm . S o n e s a r e t h e t u n e s t h a t accom pany ja r a b e s and t h e w ords t h a t go w it h th e s o n e s a r e t r u l y f o l k l o r e . They a r e s im p le i n a rra n g em en t and t h e v o c a b u la r y i s o f t h e p e o p l e , d e s c r i b i n g t h i n g s t h e y know. To know t h e M exican p e o p le one sh o u ld be f a m i l i a r w it h i t s s o n g s . F o r n o t o n ly t h e m u sic i s s i g n i f i c a n t , i n i t s v a r i a t i o n s from t h e l i t t l e more th a n rh y th m ic m onotone among th e l e s s d e v e lo p e d in d ig e n o u s g r o u p s t o t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d s y n c o p a t io n s o f th e c a p i t a l : The w ords o f t h e so n g s r e v e a l much t h a t i s e x p r e s s e d i n no o t h e r w ay*25 A fe w s t a n z a s o f t y p i c a l c o r r id o s and f o l k so n g s w i l l g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e n a tu r e o f th e m u sic b e in g sung a l l o v e r M e x ic o , b o th i n t h e s c h o o l and o u t . E n g li s h t r a n s l a t i o n s l o s e th e f l a v o r and sw in g o f t h e M exican o r i g i n a l s ; so m ost o f t h e e x a m p les g i v e n a r e l e f t i n t h e S p a n is h . La V a le n t in a s t i l l t i n k l e s from t h e g u i t a r s o f M ex ica n m u s ic ia n s a s i t d id when t h e f o l l o w e r s o f C arranza swung a lo n g t o i t s c a d e n c e . Una p a s io n me dom ina, e s l a que me ha h ech o v e n i r , V a l e n t i n a , V a l e n t i n a , yo t e q u i s i e r a d e c i r . 25 Ernest Gruening, Mexico and Its Heritage, p. 657. Son M iehoaeano Tempo &i i i ’ i A l t C J XVJL* A V i i - C V X X V R ecop. R o b erto A n gelei f u % ^--------------------- - 0 — f C - | m - - - _ * ■ -----S-----:-----------ft- ~-a-r: — ----^ —i r". M - F — .... #_. .... . — =— f — *--------- ----1 ------- 1 ----------------- \ = 7f s f ^ - I - ~ ~ ~ - 7 - . # -------------* -------* ----- =4 = ----- :------# -------wi--- s ------------ — m-------------- p — . ( f 1 / * i , f f £ X J L ^ U = ----------- r j - : - '' a Manzana Chata I I & 3 l » 1 ? i - ■ - i $ i P £ = # b f - - f - p - <t- - Z f i f T f i v • ' " I 1 ! * • * i* J h 6 * C. —i ------------------------^ - — h F — ^ T** # # # » :....... _ ==5== * ----------- 1 ----------1 = r 3 = * = f ^ = w * -* D . ( -i»- (T ----------------> 1 + ---------------- lT J - r . v > * 254 Que por e s o s t u s am ores La v id a woy a p e r d e r ; ^ s i me han de m atar manana que me m aten de una v e z . 6 S o , f o r many s t a n z a s , c o n t in u e s t h e p l a i n t o f t h e s o l d i e r . Z ap a ta i s m e m o r ia liz e d t h u s : H arken, e d u c a te d p u b l i c ; t o t h e so n g a b o u t our m a r ty r , V e r s e s t e l l i n g you th e s t o r y o f E m ilia n o Z a p a ta , Of h i s t a k in g up o f arm s, and t o f i g h t th e n l i k e a h e r o , To d e fe n d t h e n o b le c a u se o f E r a n c is c o I . M adero. On t h e t w e n t i e t h o f November when t h e war b la z e d up i n t e r r o r , Was M adero i n San L u is , and Z a p a ta i n h i s t i e r r a ; And Z ap ata h e lp e d M adero, h e lp e d him t o a c h i e v e a v i c t o r y , P e e l i n g t h a t t h e p la n s o f e a c h c o n t a in e d n o th in g c o n t r a d i c t o r y . But no la n d was b e in g g iv e n ; ”And i f now Madero f a i l u s , We’l l f i g h t o n , ” d e c la r e d Z a p a ta , ”we th e p e o p le o f ' M o r e lo s , We, th e s u f f e r i n g c a m p e s in o s , who h ave l i v e d t i l l now i n s q u a l o r , ” And he th e r e u p o n p r o c la im e d r e v o l t — t h e P la n o f V i l l a A y a l a .2 ” Z a p a ta a s a sym b ol em b odies t h e grou p c o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e I n d ia n s o f M o r e lo s w h ich d e v e lo p e d d u r in g th e r e v o l u t i o n . H is e x p l o i t s a r e su ng a l l o v e r M e x ic o , b u t i t i s e s p e c i a l l y i n M o r e lo s t h a t h i s memory i s r e v e r e d . C o r r id o s a b o u t him , w r i t t e n e ls e w h e r e i n M e x ic o , d e s c r i b e h i s ”b a s e p a s s i o n s ” and r e f e r t o him a s ”an A t t i l a . ” But i n th e s o n g s o f th e l o c a l c o l l e c t i o n he i s ” our d e f e n d e r , ” ”a N a p o le o n ,” ’’our e x a lt e d 26 « C a n cio n e s R e v o l u c i o n a r i a s , ” N u e s tr o M e x ic o , N o viem b re, 1 9 3 2 . 27 E r n e s t G r u e n in g , M exico and I t s H e r i t a g e , p . 6 5 7 . T r a ig o mi oa- n a s - t a 3 P £ £ - F - ~ l l e n a de e o n - _ r ~ " 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ ^ - A - * A >- J f i :fcpr ± M % i j i j . t t e que d a s - t e i r — fr- so - - l a i p o rq u e t u qu i s i s - t e i ? ~y ma e s t a c a n a s t i de c h i - l e s j j t e man- da s e r le g -jg L f b u - - r r o m p o r - que no j j muer -d 256 s a v i o r , ” " th e s c o u r g e o f many a t r a i t o r , ” and ”so w i s e and q u i c k - t h in k in g a v e t e r a n o . ” L e s e n c a r g o a l a s f u e r z a s s u r ia n a s He ch arged th e Que como j e f e y sublimje r e d e n to r ; f o r c e s o f t h e so u th Su m emoria c o n s e r v e n manana As c h i e f and e x a l t e d Como prueba d e su p a t r i a am or. s a v i o r ; To p r e s e r v e h i s mem o r y tom orrow As a p r o o f o f t h e i r l o v e o f c o u n t r y .28 I n h i s q u e r r i l l a w a r fa r e Z ap ata and h i s r a i d e r s san g th e s im p le A d e l i t a w h ich i s s t i l l h eard i n M o r e lo s and th e o t h e r s t a t e s o f M e x ic o . A d e l i t a s e lla m a l a jo v e n a q u ie n q u ie r o y no puedo o l v i d a r , a q u ie n amo e i d o l a t r o , y con q u ie n me v o y a c a s a r . ✓ S i , A d e l i t a , h a s de s e r mi e s p o s a , s i , A d e l i t a , s e r a ’ s mi m ujer c o lo c a en t u p ech o e s t a r o s a y t e l l e v o a b a i l a r a l c u a r t e l . 29 V i l l a , t o o , h a s h i s p l a c e i n t h e f o l k m u sic o f t h e c o u n tr y , b u t h i s n ic h e i s n o t t h e same a s t h a t o f Z a p a ta . He i s t h e p i c a r e s q u e , r o i s t e r i n g t y p e ; he i s muy hom bre, an a d v e n tu r e r w it h t h e l a d i e s and a d a r e d e v i l i n w ar. The f o l lo w in g c o r r id o e x e m p l i f i e s h i s d e r r in g - d o i n w a r fa r e . Thfe T ak in g o f Z a c a t e c a s by V i l l a , U r b in a , N a te r a , e t c . 30 28 R o b ert R e d f i e l d , o jd. c i t . , p . 1 9 9 . 29 ”C a n c io n e s R e v o l u c i o n a r i a s , ” N u e s tr o M e x ic o , N oviem b re, 1 9 3 2 . 30 Ernest Cruening, op. c it . , p. 648. H uapango Chiapaneeo Recop. J.Jesus S. Sao r — - - — 0 --------------f — ^ - - - - - - - - - -- r----- * - " V 1 - ..> - % ------------j----- — J— «L .. ^ C -- „ r j ^ Z = i 3 ■ ......i ; — 8— L — 1 ----- £----- L 6 , r # J - X -^f r~ — J —7 J -------• — -*- - * - : . , ¥ e/ . y _S— , f j L - ^ " ~ — r H h r ^ — ! — ---Z.----- 41---- 3 J - J rf= j t - r - 3 v_ F in . ; t - W- r r x r - r - ~ rj T D.C 258 Hahi You drunkard V i c t o r i a n o , Your bad h e a r t w i l l s l i p a b e a t , When you h e a r o f Z a c a te c a s Where yo u r t r o o p s have met d e f e a t . On t h e t w e n t y - t h i r d o f Ju n e— I a d d r e s s t h o s e who a r e h e r e , ”P an ch o” V i l l a storm ed t h e c i t y , T aking i t by f r o n t and r e a r . A l l t h e s t r e e t s o f Z a c a te c a s Were p i l e d h ig h w it h f e d e r a l d e a d , And t h e fe w t h a t w ere n o t s l a u g h t e r e d , E a r ly i n th e d ay had f l e d . F or some f e d e r a l s w ere so f r i g h t e n e d , That t h e y h id i n women’ s s k i r t s , P u l l i n g them up o v e r t r o u s e r s , And m a n t i l l a s o v e r s h i r t s . The d i f f e r e n c e i n th e u n d e r ly in g m o t iv e s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a d e r s i s e x a c t l y p o r tr a y e d by t h e mood and to n e o f t h e i r m arch in g s o n g s . La C u ca r a ch a , th e c o c k r o a c h , i s t h e g a y e s t , m ost r o l l i c k i n g , t h e m ost d e v il- m a y - c a r e o f t h e so n g s t o come o u t o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n . C a r ra n za , th e a rch -en em y o f V i l l a , i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d a s t h e c o c k r o a c h , and m ost o f t h e s t a n z a s o f th e in t e r m in a b le C ucaracha a r e l u s t y and baw dy. C ucaracha sw ep t th e U n ite d S t a t e s a f t e r i t s p o p u l a r i z a t i o n i n th e c i n ema ’’V iva V i l l a . ” One s ta n z a w i l l show th e s p i r i t and move m ent o f t h i s s o n g . La C ucaracha Un p an ad ero f u e a m is a , No e n c o n tra n d o que r e z a r , Le p i d i o a l a v i r g e n p u ra, D in e r o para g a s t a r . ( r e p e a t ) La C u ca rach a , l a c u c a r a c h a , ya no puede ca m in a r, SAN MIGUEL TZITZIKI 42l . . r. m , - ^ 2 _ r- - - _ _ P & --------------------- <y• .......... r - *— — T L ---- ---- ^ ---------- ■ s - r ^ V . —jS J P ----------7---- — ©i • .. I y - _ - r — - r - 1 . - J - f - i - i 1 - J f 1 - 1 r f I -< s t £60 p orq u e no t i e n e , p orq u e l a f a l t a , m arihuana que fum ar. ( r e p e a t ) The r e g i o n a l and f o l k m u sic o f M exico w h ich i s b e in g g a th e r e d and d is s e m in a te d so c a r e f u l l y i s b a sed on th e sim p l e s t o f s u b j e c t s . Any o b j e c t in th e d a i l y l i f e o f th e M exican may be t h e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r a c a m e o -lik e s o n g . E x p e r ie n c e s and d a i l y r o u t i n e s a re d u ly im m o r ta liz e d i n s o n e s ab o u t w h ich d a n ce s a r e w oven. The u n d e r ly in g moods b e h in d t h e s e so n g s come from a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s ; th e p l a i n t i v e m e la n c h o ly t h a t u n d e r l i e s some o f th e m u sic i s t r a c e d to th e I t a l i a n i n f l u e n c e t h a t sw ep t 31 M exico in th e f i r s t t h i r d o f t h e n i n t e e n t h c e n tu r y ; th e l o v e s o n g s t h a t c o n s t a n t l y r e c u r t o t h e th em es o f ?ta m o r ,n T ,de mi c o r a z o n ,” and T tde su s o j o s n e g r o s , N come from t h e M oorish i n f lu e n c e on S p a in ; th e s t r o n g l y a c c e n te d m u sic t h a t c a u s e s th e h e a r e r t o z a p a te a r i n s p i t e o f h i m s e l f i s th e in d ig e n o u s con t r i b u t i o n . The work o f t h e s c h o o l s i n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s m u sic a s a u n i f i e d w h o le i s draw ing th e a t t e n t i o n o f m u s ic a l e x p e r t s from a l l o f th e A m e r ic a s. The s c h o o l s a r e u n u s u a lly p r o g r e s s i v e a lo n g t h e s e l i n e s , and a lm o s t a l l o f them d e v o te a good d e a l o f tim e t o i n t e l l i g e n t m u s ic a l s t u d y . ^ P o s t - R e v o lu t io n a r y so n g s have combined a l l t h e e le m e n ts o f th e p a s t t o p ro d u ced a m u sic t h a t i s b e in g f e l t s t r o n g l y i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . P erh ap s th e one so n g t h a t b e s t e x p r e s s e s 31 E le n a P ic a z o de Murray and P a u l V. M urray, l o c . c i t . 3£ y e r n a A rv ey , " M exico’ s S i g n i f i c a n c e i n P r e s e n t Day M u s ic ,” E tu d e , F eb ru a ry , 1 9 3 6 . £61 th e s a d n e s s o f t h e M exican a t t h e rape o f h i s c o u n tr y by th e w a r r in g f o r c e s o f t h e R e v o lu tio n i s M Las C uatro Mi Ip a s , ft The Four C o r n - f i e l d s . Cuatro m ilp a s t a n s o l o han quedado en e l ran ch o que e r a m io .............. Ay! A q u e llo c a s i t a t a n b ia n c o y b o n it a que t r i s t e q u ed o. Y p o r e s o e s t o y t r i s t e , m orena Y p o r e s o me p o n g o , y me pongo a l l o r a r , reco rd a n d o l a s h o r a s f e l i c e s que ju n to s pasam os en mi d u lc e h o g a r . Los p o t r e r o s e s t a n s i n ganado t o d i t i t o s e ha a ca b a d o , a y .............. Y ya no hay p a lo m a s, n i f l o r e s , n i aromas to d o s e a e a b o . A n o th er so n g t h a t has come o u t o f M exico t o a c h ie v e p o p u l a r i t y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s a l s o g l o r i f i e s th e r a n c h o : "A lla e n e l Rancho G rande. r f T h is i s a gay tu n e t h a t h a s f o r g o t th e sc o r c h e d r a n ch h o u se s and t h e dead c a t t l e . B oth o f t h e s e so n g s were u se d i n m oving p i c t u r e s b e a r in g th e same names a s t h e s o n g s . A n oth er r e g i o n a l so n g t h a t t a k e s th e e v e r y d a y jo y s and so r ro w s o f ranch l i f e as i t s them e i s c a l l e d s im p ly “V ida R a n ch era . “ T h is i s a hu sp ango from C h ia p a s. tT La C a n a sta “ i s a b i t o f m u sic b a sed on a b a s k e t f u l l o f g r e e n p ep p .ers. The g o ld e n o r a n g e s o f M exico i a r e im m o r ta liz e d i n a s im p le , c h i l d i s h tu n e , nN aran ja d u l c e , ✓ lim o n p a r t i d a . “ A so n t h a t i s much u se d in th e lo w e r g r a d e s f o r s i n g i n g and d a n c in g shows th e In d ia n lo v e o f s t r o n g l y a c c e n t e d rhythm , ”La P a ja r a P in t a , * * The C o lo r ed B ir d . E sta b a l a p a ja r a p i n t a a l a sombra d e l v e r d e lim o n . con e l p i e o , p ic a b a l a ram, con l a c o la m ovia l a f l o r . ^ fAy! s i ! lay! n o , ^cuando v en d ra mi amor? 33 Luis F. Obregon, Recreaclon Fisica, p. 36. 8 6 8 The hawk, th e sn ak e and e v en th e dog form t h e b a s i s f o r t h e s e r e g i o n a l s o n g s . The names o f many f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s are more m u s ic a l and e x o t i c th a n i n E n g li s h , so t h a t t h e i r so u n d s a re p u re p o e t r y . In t T Las C uatro M ilp a s " th e word p o t r e r o i s p o e t i c a l and m u s ic a l , w h ereas i t s E n g lis h e q u i v a l e n t , w a te r - h o l e , l o s e s t h a t c o n n o t a t io n . An exam ple o f th e words ’ plum , a p r i c o t , c a n ta lo u p and w a term elo n b e in g b le n d e d i n t o p o e t r y comes from "A La V ib o r a , V ib o r a . " --U n a m ex iea n a que f r u t a v e n d ia , c i r u e l a s , c h a b a e a n o s, m elon o s a n d i a ..............t r a n s , t r a s . P erh a p s th e e p ito m e o f t h i s ty p e o f m u sic i s "El Z o p i l o t e ," The B u zza rd . A g a y , r e g i o n a l so n g comes from th e s t a t e o f G uerrero t e l l i n g o f th e s e a r c h by th e l i t t l e b u zza rd f o r a m ate t o c o n s o le him . E s t e e s e l z o p i l o t i t o de A yah u alco de G uerrero que l o mero Z u n i, z u n i, z u n i l o z o p i l o t i t o .3 5 The m u s ic a l names o f f lo w e r s a r e n o t o v e r lo o k e d In t h e s e s o n g s . In "M ila n o " — Vamos a l a h u e r t a , de t o r o , t o r o n j i l , a v e r a "M ilano" com iendo p e r e j i l . --M ila n o no esta^ a q u i esta* en su v e r g e l , a b r ie n d o l a r o s a y cer ra n d o e l c l a v e l . 6 P o p u la r m u sic in M exico to d a y adds t o a l l th e e le m e n ts d i s c u s s e d a t i n g e o f p o p u la r m u sic from th e U n ite d S t a t e s . 54 P* 39 • 35 M usica R e g io n a l M ex iea n a . S e c r e t a r i a de E d u ea eio n P u b l i c a . Luis F. Obregon, o p _ . c it. , p. 41. F L O R D E C A N E L A » p — F = l r i ^ I ^ ----------------*2-----------------^ ^ ------ yJ v) J p * -------------^— 0 0 --------------£ »------ 1 » — - * » - ... ... = g — : ■ -------------- “ * L _ ______ 0 0 c _ h - 4 0 0 r - f — g <0 — t z -s> - . p r i ----------------* , 1 --- \.. -- 1 --- \ ----- * J.: - - = j ------ — -------------- ^ r --------- — 4 * ------^ — - ■ * --------? ---------- — 3—3 -— * > 7 ~ * ------------- 0 - - 0 ► P m -- 0 0 j -14} ..... ....._______£ ____ -------------« * -----« C------ ^ — -------p— 0 * ^ — r _ / — — p — f: ------ T C— — * ------ ■ ^ ---------V ?------ . ____ _ p --------- v ^ ---------- r | — t ---------m . --- - m . ------1 — V * \p 'a / ^ ♦ ----- 1------- -----^----- 0 .. V — ’ F ----------------------------- 3 #-----n 'in e ^-------- w * t ~ m 0----- . . . 0------ ---- ■ ---- £----- 0------ — J ----^ ----- l j - 0-----f/0---- -----J a ^ »---------------- fe— *— * 1 ------------- V------ 9 ------- t------- 9------- , “ # " • 0 0 0 — ^2 --------------------— —r — ----------p------------- r . . L ~ r ~ 264 "Yanqui J a z z* i s r e v i l e d and in v e ig h e d a g a i n s t by m u sic l e a d e r s b u t i t i s d e f i n i t e l y a f a c t o r t h a t m ust be c o n s id e r e d . A m erican f i l m s and r e c o r d s a re p o p u la r a l l o v e r M ex ico . To h e a r a m a r ia - c h i o r c h e s t r a p l a y i n g a p o p u la r c o m p o s itio n fro m th e -U n ited S t a t e s i s a m a rv e l n e v e r to be f o r g o t . A g u s tin L ara, one o f th e m o st p r o l i f i c com posers o f p o p u la r m u s ic , com b ines a l l th e f o r e i g n and n a t iv e e le m e n ts t h a t go i n t o th e m aking o f M exican m u s ic , b u t s t i l l h a s h i s f e e t on M exican s o i l . A g u s tin Lara was born in V era Cruz and i s th e l o c a l h e r o . At l e a s t e v e r y o t h e r p e r s o n w ith whom I t a lk e d a sk ed me i f I knew h i s s o n g , Las P a lm e r a s . And a s we w atch ed th e t r e e s a g a i n s t t h e sk y we c o u ld s e e where he g o t th e id e a o f palm s drunk w ith th e s u n .37 Las P alm era s Hay en t u s o j o s e l v erd e esm er a ld a que b r o ta d e l mar, Y en t u b o q u it a l a sa n g r e m a r c h ita que t i e n e e l c o r a l , Hn l a s c a d e n c ia s de tu v o z d iv in a l a rim a de am or,' Y en t u s o j e r a s se ven l a s p alm eras b o r r a c h a s de s o l . From t h i s b r i e f r e v ie w o f R e v o lu t io n a r y m u sic i t i s e a s y to s e e t h a t m usic i s one o f t h e m ost p o t e n t o f th e t o o l s o f S o c i a li s m in M ex ico . A f u l l r e p e r t o i r e o f R e v o lu tio n a r y m u sic d e e p e n s th e p r id e and b e l i e f o f t h e M exican b o t h i n him s e l f and i n h i s c o u n tr y . I t g i v e s an o u t l e t f o r h i s in n a t e e s t h e t i c s e n s e s , a llo w in g fo r b o th c r e a t i o n and e x p r e s s i o n . . Above a l l , i t te n d s t o b le n d t h e d i s p a r a t e e le m e n ts o f th e c o u n tr y i n t o a s o c i a l i z e d , M e x ic a n iz e d w h o le . B e ss Adams G-arner, M e x ic o : N o te s in th e M a rg in , p . 1 1 2 . AMADRUS, SENORES A ndantino v e n -g o de l a Ha "ba A- ma -d r u s s e - no r e s , na de c o r - t a r ma— dro p a - r a d o - Jua n os n a na m m La man- o de - cha y d e s - p u es l a i a - <iuier - & & r e If— J*— J - 1' t — f — } } » h y d e s - p n es de f ^ -------* m ? l a - - - do wr < * ■ J J y d e s - p u e s c o s — ~— ~ j — — m ---------- J --------------- - - ta - - do ' < ...... s * * * s' ------------------s---------------- s-------- U....* * ---------9-------------9------------ [ — ' i' h g - ^ i J s = -7> * O - — — j ^ = 1 ^ . -—» r e n - c i a t i n - na me - d i a v u e l t a co n s x l r e un ve ------ *------r----- P------r----- } i^_ -= * — h — b — — h— ta n lla m a n a l a . p — J ------* : -------------j ------- — - J - - 4 = p u er - t a t i n ~ 7.. —T ~ t ' « .mi — ml t a n yo no q u ie r o a - -----1 - - j----------- r j J j r t T - — t - : T ~T = ^=1 -w L-- " I I t T - g r gr- £ ------jC------- #r r.......... " '--- = -- ^ J -.. b r i r t i n an que v i e n e p o r - C H A P T E R IX CARRYING SOCIALISM TO THE PEOPLE The more f i x e d i n s t i t u t i o n s o f S o c i a l i s t i n d o c t r i n a t i o n have b een exam ined a t some l e n g t h . T h ese i n s t i t u t i o n s in c lu d e v a r io u s t y p e s o f s c h o o l s where t h e p e o p le , b o th c h i ld r e n and a d u l t s , come to l e a r n ; m ural and o t h e r form s o f a r t t h a t c a t c h th e eye o f t h e p a s s i n g M exican ; and m u sic and d a n c in g a s p r a c t i c e d by g ro u p s under S o c i a l i s t t e a c h e r s . A l l t h e s e form s o f e d u c a t io n do t h e i r p a r t i n g u id in g th e t h i n k in g o f g r o u p s i n more s e t t l e d p a r t s o f th e c o u n t r y . But what o f t h e in d io who l i v e s f a r back i n t h e m o u n ta in s, th e f a c t o r y w orker who t o i l s from d a y l i g h t t o dark and h a s no o p p o r t u n it y t o go n e a r t h e c u l t u r a l c e n t e r s ; what o f t h e p o v e r t y - r id d e n s t r e t c h e s f a r from th e c a p i t a l w here o n ly a p oor s c h o o l i s m a in ta in e d by an a lm o st i l l i t e r a t e t e a c h e r ? How a r e t h e s e p e o p le to be r e a c h e d w ith t h e m essa g e t h a t M e x ic o f s l e a d e r s c o n s id e r so v i t a l ? Many t e c h n iq u e s a r e em ployed t o r e a c h them , b u t th e m ost im p o r ta n t from th e p o in t o f v ie w o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s and e x t e n s i v e n e s s a r e th e C u lt u r a l M is s io n s and t h e C e n te r s o f I n d ia n E d u c a tio n . I . THE CULTURAL MISSIONS The C u lt u r a l M is s io n w as d i s t i n c t l y th e an sw er t o a f e l t n eed when i t f i r s t came i n t o b e in g i n 192B. J o s e 268 Y a s e o n c e lo s was a t t a c k i n g t h e t i t a n i c work o f b u i ld in g an e d u c a t io n a l sy ste m from s c r a t c h , w ith e v e r y t h i n g — p l a n t , p e r s o n n e l, and t e c h n i q u e s — t o be d e v e lo p e d . The p e o p le w ere dem anding, p le a d in g f o r , a lm o st f i g h t i n g f o r s c h o o l s . S c h o o ls w ere s t a r t e d i n t h e m ost a v a i l a b l e b u i ld in g o r i n s t r u c t u r e s c o o p e r a t i v e l y b u i l t by t h e com m unity. T e a c h e r s w ere h u r r i e d ly r e c r u i t e d from t h e l o c a l i t y and, u s u a l l y , w ere b a r e ly a b le t o r ea d and w r i t e . T h is f i r s t g r e a t "push” was c l a s s e d a s a cam paign a g a i n s t i l l i t e r a c y , a t t h a t tim e around 90 p er c e n t i n M e x ic o . A r e n n a is s a n c e o f l e a r n i n g t o read and w r i t e sw ep t t h e c o u n tr y . P r a c t i c a l l y a l l o b s e r v e r s m en tio n c l a s s e s t h a t m et in any k in d o f p l a c e a v a i l a b l e , i n c lu d in g t h e m id d le o f t h e s t r e e t . The cam paign a g a i n s t i l l i t e r a c y —-planned a s an a u x i l i a r y d r i v e — b r o u g h t f o r t h many s t i r r i n g e x a m p les o f d e v o t io n . Equipm ent was l a c k i n g . In t h e p a t i o o f a Casa de V eein d a d (H ouse o f t h e N eig h b o rh o o d ) o r te n e m e n t, I saw a g i r l o f t h i r t e e n , who had g a th e r e d some tw e n ty - f i v e c h i ld r e n a b o u t h e r , m arking l e t t e r s and f i g u r e s on t h e p i n k - t i n t e d p l a s t e r w a l l , w h ile t h e m o th e r s p au sed i n t h e i r w a sh in g around t h e c e n t r a l s t o n e f o u n t a in t o g a ze w ith a d m ir a tio n and aw e. A n oth er g i r l o f t h e same a g e , d a u g h te r o f an i l l i t e r a t e p l a s t e r e r , had ta u g h t h e r f a t h e r and 150 c h i ld r e n t o read and w r i t e . T h ese j u n io r v o l u n t e e r t e a c h e r s w ere two o u t o f s e v e r a l hundred drawn a lm o st w h o lly from t h e la b o r in g c l a s s . ^ W ith a t e a c h in g s t a f f made up o f m i s i o n e r o s , o f * v o lu n t e e r t e a c h e r s , who w ere i n a lm o st a s g r e a t n eed o f t r a i n in g a s t h e i r s t u d e n t s , i t became im p e r a tiv e t o f u r n i s h 1 Ernest Gruening, Mexico and Its Heritage, p. 518. 269 i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g . The t e a c h e r n eed ed h e lp i n m e e tin g th e problem o f t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s o f h a l f s t a r v e d c h i l d r e n . He n eed ed h e lp t o b u i ld a s c h o o l , t o fo r m u la te a s c h o o l program and t o s t a r t th e work o f com m unity b e t te r m e n t. W ith t r u e i n s i g h t , t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n so u g h t t o rem edy t h e s e w e a k n e s s e s and t o p r o f i t by t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e m i s s i o n e r s b y c r e a t i n g th e a g e n c y t h a t i s th e m ost M exican o f t h e n a t i o n ’ s e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h a t h a s become t h e backbone o f r u r a l e d u c a t io n i n M ex ico — t h e C u lt u r a l M i s s i o n . 2 I t i s o f i n t e r e s t to n o te t h a t t h e f i r s t - C u lt u r a l M is s io n w as u n d er t h e d i r e c t i o n o f R a f a e l R am irez who l a t e r became C h ie f o f th e D epartm ent o f R u ra l E d u c a tio n . T h is M is s io n e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f i n Z a e u a lt ip a n , H id a lg o , i n th e f a l l o f 1 9 2 3 .^ In t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e M is s io n w ere t e a c h e r s o f soap m aking, t a n n in g , h e a l t h and p h y s i c a l e d u c a t io n , a g r i c u l t u r e , and m u s ic . R u ra l t e a c h e r s from t h e su rro u n d in g r e g io n c o n g r e g a te d f o r an i n s t i t u t e w h ich in c lu d e d i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g i n t h e s p e c i a l t i e s and a c t i v i t i e s m en tio n e d a b o v e , a s w e l l a s i n t h e p ed ago gy o f r u r a l t e a c h in g and S o c i a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n . Such w o r th w h ile r e s u l t s w ere o b t a in e d , b o th i n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g and in com m u n ity b e t te r m e n t, t h a t S en o r Ram irez was a sk ed t o le a d a n o th e r M is s io n t o C u ernavaca, M o r e lo s, d u r in g t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . A f t e r th e f i r s t y e a r ’ s ' e x p e r ie n c e th e i n s t i t u t e s w ere 2 G eorge I . S a n ch ez , M e x ic o : A R e v o lu t io n by E d u c a tio n , p . 7 1 . 3 Loc. eit. h e ld i n s m a ll r u r a l v i l l a g e s where t h e e n v iro n m en t was s i m i l a r t o t h a t t o w h ich th e t e a c h e r w as a c cu sto m ed , i n s t e a d o f in l a r g e r c i t i e s . The v i l l a g e w as u s e d a s a la b o r a t o r y f o r t h e t e a c h e r s d u r in g t h e p e r io d o f t r a i n i n g . Men and women w ere o r g a n iz e d i n t o u n i t s o f la b o r o r p e a s a n t c o n fe d e r a t i o n s , a l l i n h a b i t a n t s w ere v a c c in a t e d , and th e young p e o p le w ere ta u g h t gam es and d a n c e s . Once t h e i n s t i t u t e p e r i o s was o v e r , h ow ever, t h e v i l l a g e and s c h o o l rem ain ed a s a perm anent c e n t e r . G e n e r a lly a m odel h o u se w as c o n s t r u c t e d , a l i b r a r y was e s t a b l i s h e d a s a h e a d q u a r te r s f o r t h e s m a lle r l i b r a r i e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t and th e town rem a in ed a s t h e s i t e o f t h e t e a c h e r ’ s f e d e r a t i o n . I n p la n n in g th e program o f r u r a l - t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s e r v i c e , we have t r i e d t o keep i n mind th e f o l l o w i n g p r i n c i p l e s . F i r s t , t r a i n i n g m ust be s p e c i f i c and i n t e n s e s e c o n d , th e t e a c h e r sh o u ld r e c e i v e t r a i n i n g i n t h e t e c h n iq u e o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n b o th o f th e s c h o o l and o f the. com m u n ity.4 By t h e end o f 1984 t h e r e w ere s i x C u lt u r a l M is s io n s i n t h e f i e l d . S in c e t h a t tim e t h e y have changed s l i g h t l y i n c h a r a c t e r b e c a u se o f c h a n g in g c o n d i t i o n s and i n c r e a s i n g know l edge o f th e s u b j e c t , b u t t h e y have r e t a i n e d t h e i r m ost s a l i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c — t h e i r e x p lo r a t o r y n a t u r e . A Bureau o f C u lt u r a l M is s io n s was e s t a b l i s h e d in 1926 w it h S e n o r it a E le n a T o r r e s a s i t s c h i e f . The grow th o f th e M is s io n may be shown by th e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e . 4 M o is e s S aen z and H. I . P r i e s t l e y , Some M exican P r o b le m s, p . 8 0 . 271 No, o f I n s t i t u t e s R u ra l t e a c h e r s S t a t e s Y ear M is s io n s h e ld a t t e n d in g R eached 19E3 1 1 147 1 1926 6 42 2 ,3 2 7 11 1930 14 85 2 ,4 8 2 1 9 5 1935 18 75 4 ,4 9 4 20 a , F u n c t io n a l b a s e s o f t h e C u lt u r a l M i s s i o n s . The p rim ary p u rp o se o f t h e C u lt u r a l M is s io n i s t o b e t t e r t h e p rim ary s c h o o l t e a c h e r , c u l t u r a l l y and p r o f e s s i o n a l l y , w h ile he i s in s e r v i c e . ^ T h is b e tte r m e n t i n c l u d e s academ ic t r a i n in g and g u id a n c e i n e d u c a t i o n a l t e c h n iq u e s . He i s a c t u a l l y ta u g h t t o r e a d and w r i t e b e t t e r , and i s g iv e n f u r t h e r t r a i n in g in a r i t h m e t i c , g e o g ra p h y and o t h e r s u b j e c t s . The t e a c h e r i s t r a i n e d i n e d u c a t io n . He i s g iv e n i n s t r u c t i o n i n th e s c ie n c e o f e d u c a t io n , e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g y , s c h o o l o r g a n iz a t i o n , m eth ods o f t e a c h i n g , and group and com m ittee o r g a n iz a t i o n . The t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g o f th e m a e str o i s im proved . He i s ta u g h t th e e le m e n ts o f s c i e n t i f i c a g r i c u l t u r e , c a r e and f e e d i n g o f a n im a ls , farm i n d u s t r i e s and m e c h a n ic s . N a t u r a l l y t h i s t r a i n i n g , g iv e n in such a s h o r t tim e , w i l l be o f t h e m ost e le m e n ta r y t y p e . However t h e m i s s i o n e r s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e mere t e a c h in g o f th e v a lu e o f c u l t i v a t i o n , i r r i g a t i o n , w G eorge I . S a n ch ez , ojd. c i t . , p . 7 2 . ft ' B a s e s que D e fin e n l a s F u n c io n e s de l a s .M is io n e s C u lt u r a l e s y D eterm in an s u s Formas de T rab ajo en G e n e r a l, p . 3 . ^ R ob ert N. McLean, That M ex ica n , p . 1 0 6 . K a th e r in e M ..C ook , The House o f th e P e o p le , p . EE. 272 and r o t a t i o n o f c r o p s w i l l be a c u l t u r a l ad van ce o f h u n d red s o f y e a r s o v e r th e th e o r y o f s e t t i n g up r a in g o d s , h a v in g se e d b l e s s e d , and h o ld in g f e s t i v a l s f o r good c r o p s w h ile t h e se e d i s p la n t e d in p o o r ly plow ed ground and n e v e r c u l t i v a t e d , w eed ed , o r i r r i g a t e d . T r a in in g i s g iv e n t h e t e a c h e r in s o c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n . That i s , he i s t r a i n e d t o s u r v e y h i s l o c a l s o c i a l group and f i n d d e f i n i t e n e e d s and th e n o r g a n iz e th e p e o p le t o work f o r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r s o c i a l d e s i r e s . T h ese s o c i a l l y approved aim s c o v e r su ch t h i n g s a s r e f o r e s t a t i o n , d o m e stic and s o c i a l h y g ie n e , and s u p p r e s s io n o f v i c e : i . e . , g a m b lin g , im m o r a lity , and d r in k in g . A seco n d p u rp o se o f t h e M is s io n i s to le a d th e r u r a l t e a c h e r to w a rd s a n i c e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f s c i e n t i f i c s o c i a l i s m . J u s t a s e v e r y segm ent o f the S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l a t t e m p t s t o b r in g t h e s t u d e n t s n e a r e r t h e i r c a p a c it a c io n so t h e C u ltu r a l M is s io n means t o le a d th e m a e str o to w a rd s h i s own c a p a c i t a c i o n in p h ilo s o p h y . I f t h e t e a c h e r u n d e r s ta n d s t h e p h ilo s o p h y c l e a r l y he w i l l d e v e lo p new ways o f t e a c h i n g i n con so n a n ce w ith th e sy s te m . T h is p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a i n i n g w i l l ten d to e l i m i n a t e r,f a d s w and b l i n d c o p y in g o f m eth o d s. The M is s io n p r o p o s e s to g i v e th e i n s t r u c t o r a p r o l e t a r i a n c o n s c io u s n e s s and a f e e l i n g o f p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in th e c r e a t i o n o f a new o r d e r . A f e e l i n g o f th e g r e a t r o l e th e t e a c h e r p la y s in t h e scheme o f r e h a b i l i t a t i n g a p e o p le i s com m unicated t o th e t e a c h in g b o d y. They a r e t o be f i r e d l i k e th e a n c ie n t 273 c r u s a d e r s w it h a z e a l t o b u i ld a new w o r ld , b u t u n lik e th e c r u s a d e r s t h e y a r e t o c a l l upon r e a s o n and b r o th e r h o o d i n s t e a d o f b l i n d e m o tio n , f a n a t i c i s m , and b lo o d s h e d . As a p a r t o f h i s s o c i a l i s t c a p a c it a c io n th e t e a c h e r i s changed from an i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c t h in k e r t o a c o o p e r a t iv e t h i n k e r . T hat i s , he i s ta u g h t th e body o f k n ow led ge and shown th e p o s i t i o n s t h a t h ave b e e n a c c e p te d a s th e r e s u l t o f y e a r s o f th o u g h t. He i s th e n shown how t o s u b o r d in a te h i s s e l f i s h t h in k in g t o th e p h ilo s o p h y t h a t i s w o rk in g f o r a s lo w common b e t te r m e n t . L a s t l y he i s l e d t o f r e e h i s own t h i n k i n g w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f S o c i a li s m so t h a t he can make new er and r i c h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o th e body o f s o c i a l th o u g h t. Above a l l , th e t e a c h e r i s f r e e d from th e h o ld o f s u p e r s t i t i o n , dead cu stom , and f a n a t i c i s m so t h a t he can h e lp f r e e t h e m inds o f h i s p e o p le . E v e n t u a lly s ta n d a r d s w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a l l r u r a l t e a c h e r s , dem anding t h a t a minimum amount o f e d u c a t io n be r e q u ir e d . A t p r e s e n t and f o r th e p a s t s i x t e e n y e a r s th e s c h o o l s , s t a r t i n g from p r a c t i c a l l y n o t h in g , have grown so r a p i d l y t h a t no su ch demands can be made. Add t o th e d i f f i c u l t y o f g e t t i n g t e a c h e r s i n th e f i r s t p la c e t h e f a c t t h a t two th o u sa n d t e a c h e r s y e a r l y drop from th e r a n k s ,8 and i t Q I g n a c io G a r c ia T e l l e z , La E u n cio n de l a s M is io n e s C u lt u r a le s a n te l a Reforma E d ucatT va, p . 2 . 274 becom es e v id e n t t h a t anyone w ith t h e s l i g h t e s t s m a tt e r in g o f fo r m a l l e a r n i n g m ust be im p r e sse d i n t o th e s e r v i c e . 9 A n o th er g o a l o f th e C u lt u r a l M is s io n s , t h a t o f h e lp in g t e a c h e r s , work f o r a Norm al S c h o o l d ip lo m a , i s r e a c h e d by a llo w in g them t o ta k e e x a m in a tio n s i n t h e r e q u ir e d f i e l d s o f l e a r n i n g . A f t e r a s e r i e s o f i n s t i t u t e s many t e a c h e r s a r e p rep a red f o r t h e s e e x a m in a tio n s and t h e m edian o f t e a c h e r s ta n d a r d s i s t h u s r a i s e d . The M is s io n f u n c t i o n s a s a su p e r v i s o r y a id i n i t s d i s t r i c t . T here a r e d i s t r i c t i n s p e c t o r s and s u p e r v i s o r s , and w it h t h e s e t h e M is s io n w orks i n t i m a t e l y . An a tte m p t i s made t o k eep t h e number o f t e a c h e r s a t t e n d in g e a ch i n s t i t u t e down t o s i x t y . Such l i m i t i n g a l lo w s a r e c o r d t o be k e p t o f th e p r e p a r a t io n o f e a c h t e a c h e r so t h a t he can be g iv e n c o u n s e l in h i s t e a c h i n g and shown t h e a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g he n e e d s . As th e members o f th e M is s io n make a s p e c i a l i z e d s tu d y o f t h e r e g io n in w h ich t h e y work, t h e y a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o know, o v e r a p e r io d o f tim e , w h eth er t h e t e a c h in g i n t h a t r e g i o n i s a c c o m p lis h in g what i t i s in te n d e d t o a c c o m p lis h . C o n fe r r in g w ith b o th s u p e r v i s o r s and t e a c h e r s , t h e y a re t h u s a b le t o c o o r d in a t e t h e work o f t h e e n t i r e 9 I g n a c io G a r c ia T e l l e z , S o c i a l i z a c i o n de l a C u ltu r a , p* 5 3 , e s t i m a t e s t h a t 3 5 ,0 0 0 t e a c h e r s a r e r e q u ir e d to d a y . S t a t i s t i c s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a in bu t R e v i s t a de E d u c a tio n , S e p tie m b r e de 1 9 3 7 , g i v e s 1 4 ,7 4 3 a s th e t o t a l o f th e r u r a l s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . T e a c h e r s i n o th e r d e p a r tm e n ts can h a r d ly t o t a l 5 ,0 0 0 . 275 r e g io n , s t r e n g t h e n in g th e p o s i t i o n o f th e s u p e r v is o r s and e n c o u r a g in g th e t e a c h e r s . The M is s io n ad d s w e ig h t t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f th e m a e s t r o , f o r th e i n e r t i a o f t h e p e a s a n t r y m ig h t f o r c e him t o abandon h i s p la n s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e new o r d e r . Lack o f su ch a f o llo w - u p sy ste m i s w here t h e Church o r g a n iz a t io n brok e down. The pagan ism o f th e p e o p le was t o o much f o r t h e i s o l a t e d p r i e s t s t o cope w it h , and th r o u g h t h e c e n t u r i e s M exican r e l i g io n changed t o an i n s t i t u t i o n u n r e c o g n iz a b le a s C h r i s t i a n i t y . S c h o o l l e a d e r s e x p e c t t h e r e p e a t e d im p a c ts o f th e f r e s h body o f " sh ock t r o o p e r s ” t o overcom e t h i s s o c i a l la g and t o e d u c a te th e p e o p le s lo w ly i n t o a new way o f t h in k in g and d o i n g . ^ Each tim e th e M is s io n com es t o a p l a c e , i t l e a v e s perm anent r e c o r d s o f i t s s t a y . B e s id e s t h e m a t e r i a l c h a n g e s i t makes in th e form o f w a te r f i l t e r s , b e t t e r h o u s e s , and m odel f i e l d s , t h e r e a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s s e t up t h a t c o n t in u e f u n c t i o n i n g a f t e r t h e M is s io n h a s l e f t . T here a r e b r a n c h e s o f th e Bank o f A g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t f o r th e b e n e f i t o f the e j i d o s and c o o p e r a t i v e fa r m e r s , and c o m m itte e s o f h e a l t h , s a n i t a t i o n , and i n f a n t c a r e . One im p o r ta n t work o f t h e C u lt u r a l M is s io n i s t o s e r v e a s an a g e n c y t o sp rea d the- i d e a s o f S o c i a li s m and t o e x p l a in i t and t o g a in f r i e n d s f o r t h e g o v e rn m e n t’ s program . 10 Ignacio Garcia Tellez, ibid. , p. 50. 276 Thus t h e y hope t o c o u n te r t h e propaganda sp re a d by th e Church and t h e la r g e h a c ie n d a s and w e a lth y g r o u p s . The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s o f th e p e o p le a r e e x p la in e d t o them , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r a g r a r ia n r i g h t s and t h e i r r i g h t s a s w ork ers t o o r g a n iz e and demand b e t t e r w ork in g c o n d i t i o n s , h ig h e r w a g e s, and s h o r t e r h o u r s . The program o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f E d u c a tio n i s a l s o e x p la in e d t o th e p e o p le . They a r e shown th e a c t u a l work o f t h e s c h o o l s , how t h e y are a t te m p t in g t o a m e lio r a t e th e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t and t o make b e t t e r b e in g s o f them b o th e c o n o m ic a lly , s o c i a l l y and m o r a lly . There i s s t i l l a v a s t body o f v i c i o u s propaganda t o o v ercom e. M ex ico , l i k e more c i v i l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , had h e r " w h isp e r in g c a m p a ig n s ,1 1 rum ors, g o s s i p s , and s l a n d e r s , m ost o f them ema n a t i n g from e s t a b l i s h e d c e n t e r s . The a u th o r h a s b een t o l d by many w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d M ex ica n s in a l l s e r i o u s n e s s t h a t t h e S o c i a l i s t t e a c h e r s w ere r e c r u i t e d from b r o t h e l s , opium d e n s, and o t h e r c e n t e r s o f v i c e f o r t h e s o l e p u rp o se o f t e a c h in g s e x and a t t a c k i n g t h e Church. The work o f th e m i s s i o n s , made up o f s o f t - s p o k e n , c l e a r - e y e d men and women who go about t h e i r work w ith sym pathy, t a c t and u n d e r s ta n d in g g o e s a lo n g way t o d is p r o v e t h e s e s t o r i e s . ^ So k een h a s b een t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e p e o p le i n th e w ork, t h a t when one o f th e m i s s i o n s v i s i t e d t h e s t a t e o f O axaca, w h ich h a s an i l l i t e r a c y o f e i g h t y - e i g h t p e r c e n t , H Frank Tannerbaum, P ea ce by R e v o l u t i o n , p . 2 9 6 . K a th e r in e M. Cook, 0 £ . c i t . , p . 2 7 . Z l l f i f t y - t w o In d ia n c h i e f s o f th e s t a t e form ed th e m s e lv e s i n t o a b o d y -g u a r d , and c o n d u cte d th e e x p e r t s from d i s t r i c t t o d i s t r i c t . C u ltu r a l M is s io n s s e r v e somewhat th e same p u rp o se a s d id th e tr o u b a d o u r s and w an d erin g m i n s t r e l s o f a p a s t d ay. They go from v i l l a g e t o v i l l a g e s p r e a d in g a g o s p e l o f b e a u ty . They b r in g m u s ic , l i t e r a t u r e , p o p u la r and p l a s t i c a r t s , gam es and r e g i o n a l s p o r t s , and d a n c e s . They a tte m p t to keep a l i v e th e b e a u ty t h a t h a s a lw a y s b een a p a r t o f M exico w h ile t h e y s e p a r a t e from th e w heat o f b e a u ty th e e h a f f o f b i g o t r y , c r u e l t y , im m o r a lity and s u p e r s i t i o n . W orth w h ile f o l k l o r e , le g e n d , c o r r i d o , and s t o r i e s a r e c a r r ie d from one s e c t i o n t o a n o th e r . Many o f t h e s e s t o r i e s a r e o l d , b e a u t i f u l le g e n d s h a v in g a h i s t o r i c and l i t e r a r y v a lu e t h a t m akes them w orth s a v in g . New s t o r i e s and so n g s a r e in tr o d u c e d t h a t have a d i f f e r e n t m ora l from t h e o ld M exican t a l e t h a t was a lw a y s i n c r u s t e d w it h t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l. New s t o r i e s have a m o ra l, sh ow in g th e v a lu e o f l i v i n g c le a n , w o rk in g t o g e t h e r and a d o p t in g modern w ays o f d o in g t h i n g s . A v i c t r o l a , r a d io and m oving p i c t u r e equip m en t a r e p a r t o f th e e q u ip a g e o f th e M is s io n . Each e v e n in g th e v i l l a g e r s are e n t e r t a i n e d w ith m u sic and p i c t u r e s . The cinem a in M exico h a s a lr e a d y r ea c h e d a h ig h d e g r e e o f a r t and i s p o p u la r w it h th e p e o p le . L ik e th e a r t and a r c h i t e c t u r e o f M exico i t i s f u n c t i o n a l , a p a r t 12 Robert N . M cL ean, op. c it ., p. 107. 278 o f th e p e o p le . H ig h ly p a id a r t i s t s a r e n o t in c lu d e d i n th e c a s t . G e n e r a lly one o r tw o p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t o r s a r e u s e d in th e m aking o f a p i c t u r e and t h e rem a in d er come from t h e e v e r y d a y p e o p le o f a r e g i o n . " J a n i t z i o , " su ch a m oving p i c t u r e o f th e l i f e and cu sto m s o f t h e T a ra sca n fis h e r m e n o f th e Lake P a tz c u a r o r e g io n i s r a p i d l y b ecom in g a c l a s s i c in t h e w o r ld o f th e cin em a. P r e p a r a t io n o f th e c u l t u r a l m i s s i o n e r s . Today th e m is io n e r o s a r e p rep a red a s th o r o u g h ly f o r t h e i r f o r a y s i n t o t h e h i n t e r la n d a s i s an army p r e p a r in g f o r a cam paign. Dur in g t h e i r t r a i n i n g p e r io d t h e y spend day a f t e r i n t e n s i v e day i n th e S e c r e t a r i a de E d u c a cio n F u b lic a a c q u ir in g new k n ow l e d g e , s t e e p i n g t h e m s e lv e s more t h o r o u g h ly i n t h e p h ilo s o p h y and i d e o lo g y o f t h e s c h o o l sy ste m , and l e a r n i n g t e c h n iq u e s t h a t have b een d e v e lo p e d on t h e f a r - f l u n g b a t t l e f r o n t o f th e cam paign a g a i n s t ig n o r a n c e and p o v e r t y . The a u th o r s a t w ith t h e s e m is io n e r o s th r o u g h p a r t o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g p e r io d . E x p e r ts i n a l l l i n e s l e c t u r e d and d e m o n stra te d t o them i n t h e f i e l d s o f f o l k a r t , h y g ie n e , d i e t e t i c s , and th e p s y c h o lo g y o f w o rk in g w it h backward p e o p l e s . The p rim ary em p h asis i s a lw a y s upon th e econ om ic b e tte r m e n t o f th e p e o p le .^ -3 Each group h a s a s n e a r ly a hom ogeneous s e c t i o n o f c o u n tr y t o work i n a s ■ J rz I g n a c io G a r c ia T e l l e z , La E u n cion de Las M is io n e s C u lt u r a le s A n te l a Reform a E d u catT va, p . 1 . 279 p o s s i b l e . ^ T h is c o u n tr y i s s t u d i e d t h o r o u g h ly so t h a t th e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f i t s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s can be made under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e M is s io n . D en tro de l a o r i e n t a c i o n de l a S s c u e l a S o c i a l i s t a , l a c a p a c i t a c i o n d e l m a e str o r e q u ie r e e s t a r e str e e h a m e n te v in c u la d a con l a f u n c io n eco n om ica de m ed io, no s o l o p a ra a d a p ta r s e a e l , s in o p r in c ip a lm e n te para t r a n s form er l o , m ejorando l a s c o n d ic io n e s de l a p r o d u c c io n . 5 T h is i n s t i t u t i o n i s d e s ig n e d , p ar e x c e l l e n c e , f o r t h e t e a c h in g o f c o o p e r a t io n and th e d ev elo p m en t o f l o c a l l e a d e r s h i p . The m i s s i o n e r s and l o c a l m a e s tr o s and t h e community work t o g e t h e r i n su ch c l o s e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e y have su ch a com m unity o f i n t e r e s t s , and so c o n s t a n t l y exch an g e what t h e y have le a r n e d , t h a t c o o p e r a t io n becom es a l i v i n g r e a l i t y . What t h e t e a c h e r l e a r n s in t h i s im p r o v is e d t r a i n i n g s c h o o l, he may g i v e o u t in h i s com m unity, and w hat he l e a r n s i n h i s comm unity he may sh a r e w ith th e o t h e r members o f th e c u l t u r a l m i s s i o n s . I t , t h e r e f o r e , com b in es l e a r n i n g and d o in g , and g i v e s t h a t c o n t i n u i t y t o p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g w h ich i s so e s s e n t i a l i f th e d a i l y r o u t i n e i s n o t t o weaken t h e i n i t i a l v i g o r and e n th u s ia s m . The i d e a l o f th e h i g h l y s o c i a l i z e d t e a c h e r i s e v e r upperm ost i n t h e m inds o f t h e d i r e c t o r s o f th e C u lt u r a l M is s io n . They have le a r n e d from t h e b i t t e r e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e Church t h a t i t i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o t e a c h by p r e c e p t , b u t p u r e ly by exam p le. ^ B a s e s que D e fin e n l a s F u n c io n e s de l a s M is io n e s C u lt u r a l e s y D eterm in a n s u s Formas de T rab ajo en G e n e r a l, p . 3 . 15 I g n a c io G a r c ia T e l l e z , ojd. c i t . , p . 1 . 1 a Frank T annenbaum , Peace by Revolution, pp. 290 f . 280 Each t e a c h e r , i f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f S o c i a l i s t O r ie n t a t io n w o rk in g th r o u g h th e C u lt u r a l M is s io n h a s i t s way, w i l l he a w a lk in g exem p lar o f th e new man. The new t e a c h e r i s a l o y a l f r i e n d , a good c o u n s e l l o r , a k n ig h t a t th e s e r v i c e o f t h e work o f s o c i a l r e n o v a t io n . The t e a c h e r i s , a t t h e same tim e , a c o n d u c to r , a g u id e o f c h i ld r e n and a d o l e s c e n t s , and f o r t h i s he r e q u i r e s a s a b a s i c c o n d i t i o n : s c i e n t i f i c c a p a c i t a t i o n , a b s o lu t e p r o b i t y , a l i v i n g e x em p la r , m aking o f h i s l i f e a m oral exam p le; i t i s n o t enough t h a t t h e e d u c a to r be a man o f s c i e n c e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t h e l i v e p u b l i c l y and p r i v a t e l y i n a c c o r d w ith s o c i a l m o r a lit y ; n o t w ith t h e c o n v e n t io n a l and h y p o c r i t i c a l '-b o u r g e o is m o r a l i t y , bu t w it h a s t u r d y m oral c r e e d o f human a s s i s t a n c e , 17 M exico h a s b een d i v id e d i n t o d i s t r i c t s , ea ch o f w h ich i s a s n e a r ly u n ifo rm g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , e c o n o m ic a lly , and e t h n i c a l l y a s p o s s i b l e . One t r a v e l l i n g m is s io n c o v e r s e a c h t e r r i t o r y and th e w o rk ers th u s become e x p e r t in t h e n e e d s and la n g u a g e o f t h e t e r r i t o r y , The m i s s i o n e r s h ave b een fo r c e d t o le a r n th e I n d ia n d i a l e c t s t o c a r r y fo rw a rd t h e i r work more e f f i c i e n t l y . One o f t h e s t r i c t e s t c h a r g e s l a i d upon t h e m i s s i o n e r s b e f o r e t h e y l e a v e f o r t h e i r f i e l d work i s t h a t o f u s in g th e g r e a t e s t t a c t and p a t i e n c e a t a l l t im e . They m ust a l l a y th e s u s p i c i o n s o f I n d ia n s a ccu sto m ed t o t r i c k e r y and e x p l o i t a t i o n when d e a l in g w it h an y form o f go v ern m en t. They a r e c o n fr o n te d w it h d e l i b e r a t e cam p aign s t o v i l l i f y t h e s c h o o l s ; th e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e m ercen a ry p r e s s and i n w h is p e r in g 17 I g n a c io G-arcia T e l l e z , 0 £ . c i t . , p . 3 . T r a n s la t io n by th e a u th o r . 281 cam p aigns a s th o u g h i t had no o t h e r o b j e c t th a n t o w ork, im p l a c a b l y , a g a i n s t r e l i g i o n . 18 The w orker i s warned t h a t he i s n o t t o b e s u r p r is e d or a n g e r ed a t any su d d en , u n j u s t i f i e d a t t a c k . He i s n o t t o an sw er i n k in d and i s t o be c o u r te o u s and t h o u g h t f u l a t a l l t i m e s . A c o n s t r u c t i v e cam paign m ust go forw ard t o e n l i g h t e n t h e p e o p le , rem ove t h e i r ig n o r a n c e and s u p e r s t i t i o n , and b e t t e r t h e i r econ om ic s i t u a t i o n . W hile t h i s cam paign g o e s on l e t t h e h e a th e n r a g e . S t a y c l e a r o f t h e b e a te n t r a c k t h a t l e a d s th ro u g h f i e l d s o f d e c la m a tio n ; t o th e a t t a c k s , t o th e c a lu m n ie s , t o t h e i n s i d i o u s rem ark s, we s h a l l r e sp o n d w ith t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e work o f t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l , w h ich s h a l l become g r e a t th r o u g h t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c c o o p e r a t io n o f t e a c h e r s and a u t h o r i t i e s m o t iv a te d by a san e r e v o l u t i o n a r y s p i r i t . 1^ The C u lt u r a l M is s io n i n o p e r a t i o n . A C u lt u r a l M is s io n u n i t o r d i n a r i l y c o n s i s t s o f s e v e n m embers: th e j e f e , o r c h i e f ; a r u r a l o r g a n iz e r , a woman s o c i a l w o rk er, a nu rse* a m u sic t e a c h e r , a t e a c h e r o f p l a s t i c a r t s , and a m oving p i c t u r e o p e r a t o r . The j e f e d o e s n o t d e v o t e h i s tim e t o a d m in is t r a t i o n a lo n e ; he i s l e a d e r , t e a c h e r , c o o r d in a t o r , and s o c i a l w o r k e r .20 B e fo r e l e a v i n g on a t o u r o f d u ty he m ust c o n f e r w it h th e D i r e c t o r o f F e d e r a l E d u c a tio n and th e C h ie f o f th e D epartm ent o f S o c i a l i s t O r ie n t a t io n and o u t l i n e h i s p r o s p e c t iv e 1 8 I g n a c io G a r c ia T e l l e z , La F u n cio n de l a s H is io n e s , p ^ 19 I b i d . , p . 7 . A u th o r ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n . ^ ffu n cio n e s Encomendadas a l J e f e de l a M is io n , p . 1 . 282 work. H© th e n h a s a c o n fe r e n c e w it h th e I n s p e c t o r o f t h e zone i n w h ich he w i l l w ork. A f t e r t h i s groundwork i s com p l e t e he o v e r s e e s th e a c t u a l p r e p a r a tio n , t h e lo a d in g o f t h e tr u c k w it h t h e n e c e s s a r y eq u ip m en t, nam ing o f th e p la c e to work and t h e r o u t e t o be f o l lo w e d . A f t e r th e group a r r i v e s a t th e v i l l a g e w h ich w i l l be i t s home f o r th e f o l l o w i n g s i x o r e i g h t w eek s th e j e f e becom es a s o c i a l w orker and t e a c h e r . He t e a c h e s S o c i a l i s t o r i e n t a t i o n h i s t o r y o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a n movement in M ex ico , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l w o r k e r ’ s m ovem ent, th e u n eq u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f M e x ic o ’s w e a lth , t h e r e l i g i o u s p rob lem i n M ex ico , and t h e e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f P u b lic E d u c a t io n .2 ^ The r u r a l o r g a n iz e r w orks w ith th e com m unity and w it h th e t e a c h e r s . 22 H is work w it h t h e comm unity c o n s i s t s o f p r o m o tin g t h e r e n o v a tio n and c o n s t r u c t io n o f b e t t e r homes; s u p e r v i s i n g th e d i s t r i b u t i o n and u s e o f w a te r f o r home u s e and i r r i g a t i o n ; im p ro v in g t h e l i v e s t o c k s i t u a t i o n ; s t im u la t i n g th e p l a n t i n g o f t r e e s ; e s t a b l i s h i n g comm unity s e r v i c e s . T h ese comm unity s e r v i c e s c o n s i s t o f p io n e e r in g t h e e s t a b l i s h ment o f a m e d ic a l c e n t e r , p o s t o f f i c e , te le p h o n e l i n e , b e t t e r m a rk ets and a h y g i e n i c s la u g h t e r h o u se , p u b lic l i g h t i n g and a p u b lic p a rk . He i s a l s o a c t i v e in o r g a n iz in g g u i l d s i n th e 21 I b i d . , p. 7. 22 Program s S u r g e r e n te de L ah ores p ara e l A gen te de O r g a n iz a c io n , p . 1 f f . £83 com m unity. The r u r a l o r g a n iz e r g i v e s c o u r s e s to t h e t e a c h e r s on th e F e d e r a l Labor la w , th e A g r a r ia n c o d e , and t h e t e x t s o f la w s c o v e r in g A g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t and a l l i e d s u b j e c t s . W hile t h e m i s s i o n i s in t h e com m unity, he t a k e s ch a r g e o f th e s c h o o l g a r d e n s and d e m o n s tr a te s m eth ods t o s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s and c i t i z e n s . The n u r s e t a k e s t h e le a d in h y g ie n ic b e tte r m e n t and t r a i n s th e l o c a l m id w iv e s in s im p le m eth od s o f c l e a n l i n e s s and s a n i t a t i o n . She t e a c h e s g ro u p s o f a d u l t s th e d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s o f a l c h o h o l , c a u s e s , p r e v e n t io n and c u r e o f v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e s , and g i v e s them t h e th e o r y and a p r a c t i c a l demon s t r a t i o n o f v a c c i n a t i o n . She i n c r e a s e s t h e t e a c h e r s 1 k n ow l- prz ed ge o f h e a l t h and m e d ic in e . ° The woman s o c i a l w orker f u n c t i o n s i n c l o s e c o o p e r a t io n w it h t h e n u r s e and th e r u r a l o r g a n i z e r . The m oving p i c t u r e o p e r a to r i s on c a l l a t a l l t im e s w ith h i s m a ch in e, sh ow ing p i c t u r e s t h a t d e m o n stra te t h e m a n ifo ld a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e m i s i o n e r o s . The t e a c h e r o f m u sic and th e t e a c h e r o f p l a s t i c a r t s n o t o n l y b r in g m u sic and a r t t o t h e p e o p le , t h e y o r g a n iz e t h a t o f t h e p e o p le . The m u s ic ia n h a s many more d u t i e s th a n th e mere t r a i n in g o f t e a c h e r s and p e a s a n t s in r e g i o n a l so n g s or in th e u s e o f m u s ic a l in s tr u m e n t s . He o r g a n iz e s bands and o r c h e s t r a s ; he p u t s on m u s ic a l f e s t i v a l s ; he f u r n i s h e s t h e m u sic f o r rh yth m ic p h y s i c a l - e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e s and f o r t h e d a n c e s . . . . ^ Program s G e n e r a l de l o s T r a b a jo s Encomendados a l a E n ferm era, p . 1 f f . 284 The p a i n t e r h a s c o u r s e s i n fr e e - h a n d draw ing and m ural p a i n t i n g . He m akes h i s work p r a c t i c a l by t a k in g h i s group i n t o t h e homes o f th e p e a s a n t s and d e c o r a t in g t h e s e humble e d i f i c e s w ith m u r a ls t h a t w ould do j u s t i c e t o th e P a la c e o f F in e A r t s i n t h e n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l . The s c h o o lh o u s e , th e o p e n - a ir t h e a t r e , th e l o c a l a r t s and c r a f t s — a l l a r e a p a r t o f th e la b o r a t o r y in w h ich t h i s m is s io n e r and h i s group o p e r a t e . 2^ The p h y s i c a l - e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e r h a n d le s gam es, s p o r t s , d a n ce s and f e s t i v a l s among a d u l t s , c h i ld r e n and t e a c h e r s . He o r g a n iz e s team s and c o m p e t it io n s f o r i n t e r v i l l a g e r i v a l r y . T h is h e a l t h y c o m p e t it io n t e n d s t o b rea k down c e n t u r i e s - o l d f e u d s b etw een n e ig h b o r in g tow n s and add s t o t h e f e e l i n g o f c o o p e r a t io n and f r i e n d l i n e s s b e in g en g en d ered e v e r y w h e r e . An id e a o f th e f u n c t i o n i n g o f a C u lt u r a l M is s io n may be g a th e r e d from a t y p i c a l r o u t i n e . DAILY PROGRAM M E OF A CULTURAL MISSION INSTITUTE25 — P e r s o n a l C l e a n l i n e s s — B r e a k f a s t — B e s t p e r io d and m i s c e l la n e o u s d u t i e s — P l a s t i c a r t s — Work i n t h e community — Luncheon - - B e s t p e r io d —M usic and r e g i o n a l so n g s — T heory and p r a c t i c e o f c o o p e r a tio n — S p o r t s ( t e a c h e r s ) — S p o r t s ( com m unity) — Supper — T uesday and T h ursday— B ea d in g i n r u r a l l ib r a r y --M onday— G e n e r a l a sse m b ly 6—7 a.m 7—8 ♦ i 8—9 9—10 tt 10—11 11—1 p.m 1—2 tt 2—3 ft 3— 4 tt 4—5 tt 5—6 « » 6—7 f * 7—8 tt 8—9 tt ^ G eorge I . S a n ch ez , 0 £ . c i t . , p . 83 O K Ibid** P* 78 f * 285 --W ed n esd ay and S a tu r d a y — Community f e s t i v a l — F r id a y a f t e r n o o n s , a f t e r 3 p .m . s h a l l he d e v o te d t o t h e v i s i t a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s and co m m u n ities i n t h e M i s s i o n ’ s z o n e . A n e n e c u ilc o , M or., May 2 0 , 1935 (S ig n e d ) J o s e S an ch ez C h ie f o f t h e M is s io n s O r i g i n a l l y th e m i s s i o n s o p e r a te d o n ly a month i n one l o c a l i t y . As t h e number o f m i s s i o n s grew , and a s t h e work became b e t t e r o r g a n iz e d and more s c i e n t i f i c th e p e r io d le n g th e n e d t o s i x and e v en e i g h t w e e k s. The f i r s t two w eek s i s d e v o te d t o s tu d y in g t h e e n v iro n m en t: g e t t i n g a c q u a in te d w it h th e f o l k and th e t e a c h e r s , and s t u d y in g l o c a l p o l i t i c s and p r o b le m s. The m i s s i o n e r s adop t t h e l o c a l d r e s s and b e come p a r t o f t h e c o u n tr y . I t i s a r e v e l a t i o n t o w atch t h e m i s s i o n e r s a t work d u r in g t h i s i n i t i a l s t a g e , t o se e how much t h e y a r e a b le t o a c c o m p lis h in so s h o r t a t im e . I n a p e r io d o f te n o r f i f t e e n d a y s th e m i s s i o n e r s l o s e t h e i r s t a t u s a s s t r a n g e r s , t h e y ad ap t t h e i r d r e s s t o l o c a l cu stom , th e y worm t h e i r way i n t o th e c o n f id e n c e o f o f f i c i a l s , and c i t i z e n s , t h e y become a c c e p t e d members o f t h e com m unity. I was dumb fou n d ed a t t h e c o m p le te change t h a t had o c c u r r e d in m is io n e r o s whom I had known in M exico C it y and who had f i t t e d i n t o th e c o s m o p o lita n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . As t h e y worked in th e r u r a l v i l l a g e , i t w as d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u is h them from th e p e a s a n t s o f t h e com m unity. N ot o n ly t h a t , b u t t h e y were so d e f i n i t e l y e n tr e n c h e d i n th e good g r a c e s o f t h e c a m p esin o s t h a t t h e y seem ed t o know a l l t h e g o s s i p and a l l t h e p r o b le m s, sm a ll and l a r g e , t h a t con f r o n t e d th e i n d i v i d u a l p e a s a n t s and t h e comm unity a s a w h o le .26 A f t e r t h i s p r e lim in a r y s k ir m is h th e i n s t i t u t e i s e s t a b l i s h e d 26 Ibid., p. 77. 286 and o p e r a te d f o r fo u r or f i v e w e ek s. At th e c l o s e o f th e t r a i n i n g p e r io d e x a m in a tio n s a re g iv e n i n t h e academ ic c o u r s e s and u n f i n i s h e d b u s i n e s s i s c le a r e d up. Then a grand f i e s t a i s h e ld , a f i e s t a o f a ty p e new t o M ex ico , H ere th e p e o p le a r e en co u ra g ed to ta k e p a r t in a c t i v i t i e s t h a t b u ild h e a l t h and good f e e l i n g . No lo n g e r d o e s th e p e a sa n t go ab ou t w ith a b o t t l e i n one hand and a k n i f e in t h e o t h e r . H e a lth , h a p p in e s s and f r i e n d s h i p a r e th e p a tr o n g o d s o f t h i s f e s t i v a l . I t i s a c e l e b r a t i o n o f th e work t h a t i s f i n i s h e d and o f t h e work t h a t i s j u s t b e g in n in g . An o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s O f f i c e o f E d u c a tio n g i v e s a s p le n d id d e s c r i p t i o n o f one o f t h e s e f i e s t a s . When th e m on th ’ s work o f t h e c u l t u r a l m is s io n and i t s l o c a l group o f t e a c h e r s e n d s, t h e c l o s i n g day i s a f i e s t a o c c a s io n f o r t h e im m ed iate comm unity in w h ich th e i n s t i t u t e i s h e ld and f o r t h e su rr o u n d in g r e g io n whose s c h o o l s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e a t t e n d a n c e . The o p p o r tu n i t y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n and o b s e r v e t h e c l o s i n g d ay o f a t e a c h e r ’ s i n s t i t u t e c o n d u cte d by th e m is s io n a t T u la was a r e v e l a t i o n t o t h e a u th o r i n t h e amount o f and s p i r i t o f com m unity i n t e r e s t , and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f a c t t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n e x te n d e d w e l l beyond t h e im m ed iate com m u n ity , b e in g t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e r e g io n a t l a r g e . T u la i s an a n c ie n t c i t y , once a c e n t e r o f p r e -H is p a n ic c i v i l i z a t i o n and o b v io u s ly a c i t y o f d i g n i t y and im por t a n c e d u r in g and s i n c e th e S p a n is h r e g im e . A r r iv in g t h e r e on t h e m orning o f th e c l o s i n g day, one f e l t th e f e s t i v e and h o s p i t a b l e a tm o sp h e re . B u ild in g s w ere d e c o r a t e d w ith f l a g s ; s t r e e t s w ere f i l l e d w ith h o r s e s and c a t t l e on t h e i r way to th e e x h i b i t s , and w it h men, women, and c h i ld r e n , r i d i n g and on f o o t ; fo o d w as c o o k in g and on s a l e a lo n g th e s t r e e t s and i n t h e m arket square-—a t y p i c a l M exican f i e s t a s p i r i t ev eryw h ere i n e v id e n c e . A s t r e e t f a i r su rrou n d ed t h e m arket sq u a r e , e x h i b i t i n g p r o d u c ts o f th e n e ig h b o r in g h a c ie n d a s and e j i d o s , h o r s e s , c a t t l e , c h ic k e n s , v e g e t a b l e s , and f r u i t s a t t r a c t i v e l y , 287 ev en a m a z in g ly , a r r a y e d , many o f t h e a n im a ls c a r r y in g t h e p r i z e r ib b o n s r e c e n t l y won. H o rses and c a t t l e w ere d e c o r a te d w it h r ib b o n s and f l o w e r s , some i n a n c ie n t A z te c p a t t e r n s p r e s e r v e d and u se d c o n t in u o u s ly th r o u g h th e c e n t u r i e s and o f t r a d i t i o n a l or r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i can ce to t h e d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e e a r l y c i v i l i z a t i o n s . The i n s t i t u t e i t s e l f had p rep a red an e x t e n s i v e e x h i b i t o f i t s work, f o r e c a s t i n g th e a c t i v i t i e s w h ich d u r in g th e com ing s c h o o l y e a r w ould be f e a t u r e d by th e t e a c h e r s i n a tte n d a n c e a t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s c h o o l s . The i n s t i t u t e e x h i b i t was made up o f p r o d u c ts o f th e s c h o o l g a r d e n s, canned f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s , a l l t y p e s o f h a n d i c r a f t s in c lu d i n g f u r n i t u r e , b a s k e t s , p o t t e r y , w e a v in g , and th e l i k e , i n d u s t r i e s w h ich t h e n e x t y e a r t h e t e a c h e r s would be p rom otin g in t h e i r s c h o o l c o m m u n itie s. In th e m orning t h e r e w ere gam es, a t h l e t i c s t u n t s , n a t i v e d a n c e s i n w h ich t e a c h e r s and com m unity p a r t i c i p a t e d and w h ich w ere g iv e n i n th e v i l l a g e sta d iu m , a g a in f o r e c a s t i n g and d e m o n s tr a tin g th e a c t i v i t i e s w h ich t e a c h e r s w ould be e x p e c te d t o prom ote th ro u g h t h e i r s c h o o ls i n th e l o c a l co m m u n ities to w h ich t h e y w ould l a t e r be a s s ig n e d o r from w h ich t h e y cam e. In th e a f te r n o o n th e g u e s t s w ere e n t e r t a i n e d by a p erform an ce a t th e t h e a t e r , c o n s i s t i n g c h i e f l y o f s h o r t 1 - a c t p l a y s , m u s ic , n a t i v e d a n c e s , and th e l i k e . 27 The C u lt u r a l M is s io n may be c a l l e d t h e c a t a l y s t t h a t i s h u r r y in g th e c o m b in a tio n o f e le m e n ts i n M ex ico ; th e f l u x t h a t a i d s th e w e ld in g o f a p e o p le . I t i s an i n - s e r v i c e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g d e v i c e , b u t i t i s much more th a n t h a t . I t i s t h e a p o t h e o s is o f M e x ic o ’ s e x p e r im e n ta l i n s t i t u t i o n s , i t i s an i n t e g r a t i o n o f e c o n o m ic s, m o r a ls , s c i e n c e , and h u m an ity. I t i s t h e th r e a d on w h ich i s s tr u n g th e v a r i - c o l o r e d b ea d s o f th e p e o p l e s o f M exico m aking o f them a c o m p le te d u n i t y . 27 Katherine M . C ook, o£. c it.. p. 28. 288 The C u lt u r a l M is s io n s sta n d f o r w hat i s new i n e d u c a t io n , i n a g r a r ia n r e fo r m s , i n econom ic p r a c t i c e s , i n p o l i t i c a l p o l i c i e s , and in s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Born o f d ir e n e e d , t h e y r e p r e s e n t a l l th e e le m e n ts t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h modern M exico from o ld M e x ic o . They sy m b o liz e th e change from f e u d a lis m t o s o c i a l i s m , from e x p l o i t a t i o n t o c o o p e r a t io n , from s l a v e r y t o freed o m . They wage a r e v o l u t i o n by e d u c a t i o n .28 I I . CENTROS DE EDUCAClflN INDIgENA (C e n te r s o f I n d ig e n o u s E d u c a tio n ) Eor fo u r c e n t u r i e s th e In d ia n in M exico h a s rem ain ed u n con qu ered and u n a s s im i l a t e d . T rue, he h a s b een d e f e a t e d and h a r r ie d and d i s p o s s e s s e d and e n s la v e d , bu t he h a s n e v e r b een co n q u er e d . Such a sta te m e n t d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e M exican I n d ia n i s a f i e r c e , u n t r a c t a b l e c r e a t u r e . On th e c o n t r a r y he i s u s u a l l y a s e n s i t i v e , a r t i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l , f i n e l y a ttu n e d t o n a t u r e . He h a s b een b e s t i a l i z e d , in many c a s e s , by c o n t a c t w it h a c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t was m o r a lly and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r t o h i s own. "They d e n ie d t o th e A z t e c s ( t h e i r s u p e r io r s m e n t a lly , m o r a lly , and i n c i v i l i z a t i o n ) e v en th e g i f t o f r e a s o n ." 29 Today t h e In d ia n r em a in s t o be r ec k o n ed w i t h . He i s n o t a n o b le sa v a g e , w a it in g t o ambush t r a v e l l e r s and s c a lp h i s e n e m ie s . He h a s r e t i r e d a s f a r i n t o h i m s e l f a s p o s s i b l e . H is r e s i s t a n c e i s p a s s i v e ; he 28 G eorge I . S a n c h e z , ojd. c i t . , p . 95. 29 Cora Vtfalker, Cuatemo, L a st o f th e A z te c E m perors, p . 3 4 2 . Q uoted from Judge I g n a c io "Ramirez. 289 i s a brake on th e v e h i c l e o f p r o g r e s s . M e x ic o f s prob lem i s to in c o r p o r a t e th e In d ia n i n t o th e l i f e o f th e c o u n tr y , t o make him an i n d i v i d u a l , t o g i v e him back th e r e a s o n t h a t was d e n ie d him b y solem n d e c r e e o f th e Church. To su c c e e d t h e r e f o r e , M exico m ust r e t a i n t h e s p i r i t u a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e I n d ia n , and a t th e same tim e p r o v id e him w it h t h e n e c e s s i t i e s o f a s c i e n t i f i c t e c h n iq u e w h ic h ca n n o t be im p r o v is e d . I t m ust p r o f i t by t h e u t i l i t a r i a n f o r c e s o f t h e enorm ous power in our c i v i l i z a t i o n t o h a r n e s s th e f o r c e s o f n a t u r e , and ( t a k in g them o u t from e x p l o i t a t i o n ) im prove t h e e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e . 30 l a k e so many o t h e r M exican e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e p r e s e n t m ethod o f i n t e g r a t i n g t h e In d ia n i s u n iq u e . The b e l i e f t h a t I n d ia n s c o u ld be e d u c a te d w ent th ro u g h a lo n g , s lo w e v o l u t i o n b e f o r e b e in g a c c e p te d and i s n o t y e t u n a n i m o u sly ack n ow led ged i n t h e c o u n tr y . I n d ia n s w ere n o t g e n te de r a z o n . They w ere b e in g s w ith s o u l s t h a t c o u ld be a u to m a t i c a l l y sa ved th r o u g h b a p tism and by m e e tin g t h e r i t u a l o f th e Church, a c c o r d in g t o t h e o b i t e r d i c t a s a n c t i f i e d b y t h e h ie r a r c h y . T h is b e l i e f h a s p e r s i s t e d so s t r o n g l y t h a t n o t u n t i l 1925 was any c o n c e r te d e f f o r t made to redeem t h e in d ig e n o u s r a c e s . House o f t h e n a t i v e s t u d e n t . Through th e e f f o r t s o f D r. P u ig C asauranc a r e s i d e n c e s c h o o l was e s t a b l i s h e d in th e su b u rb s o f M exico C it y f o r th e e d u c a tio n o f I n d ia n s t u d e n t s . 30 W illia m G a te s , R u ra l E d u c a tio n i n M exico and th e In d ia n P rob lem , p . 2 2 . 290 Here more th a n two hundred n a t i v e y o u th w ere g a th e r e d from th e t w e n t y - e ig h t s t a t e s . They r e p r e s e n t e d t w e n t y - f i v e d i f f e r e n t t r i b e s and sp oke a s many l a n g u a g e s . 31 The f i r s t s c h o o l w as in te n d e d t o d e m o n stra te t h a t t h e In d ia n c o u ld be e d u c a te d and t o t r a i n l e a d e r s who w ould r e tu r n t o t h e i r p e o p le and a c t a s g u id e s in le a d in g them to w a rd s a h ig h e r p la n e o f c u l t u r e . In th e f i r s t aim th e s c h o o l su c c e e d e d a d m ir a b ly , i n t h e se co n d i t was a d ism a l f a i l u r e . The s t u d e n t s were t a u g h t S p a n is h , t h e y w ere t r a i n e d i n advan ced h a n d i c r a f t s and p e t t y i n d u s t r i e s . They le a r n e d modern games and g y m n a s tic s and com peted w h o le h e a r te d ly . A cadem ic l e a r n in g came e a s i l y f o r them and t h e y soon a d o p te d t h e E uropean i z e d m eth ods o f l i v i n g in t h e c a p i t a l c i t y . But when th e tim e came f o r t h e s tu d e n t t o r e tu r n t o h i s p e o p le , t h e p la n broke down. The In d ia n had become t o o w e l l in c o r p o r a te d i n t o M exican l i f e , he w anted t o c o n t in u e l i v i n g in o r n e a r th e urban c e n t e r s . He w anted t o be an a u to m o b ile m ech an ic o r a s t o r e k e e p e r . The s t u d e n t had h e lp e d c o n s t r u c t h i s own h y g i e n i c q u a r t e r s w it h r u n n in g w a te r and s a n i t a r y l i v i n g q u a r te r s and he now w anted t o c o n tin u e l i v i n g i n s i m i l a r su r r o u n d in g s . He had no d e s i r e to r e t u r n t o t h e j a c a l e s o f h i s p e o p le and l i v e w ith th e a n im a ls on a d i r t f l o o r w ith th e r a in d r ip p in g th r o u g h on h i s grim y b od y. 31 Katherine M . C ook, op. cit., p. 62,ff. Ernest Gruening, o£. cit., p. 527. 291 T h is f i r s t Casa d e l E s t u d ia n te In d fg e n a was f a r from b e in g a l o s s to M exican e d u c a t io n , h ow ever. I t was f o llo w e d by o th e r s c h o o l s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e n a t io n and th r o u g h t h i s p r o g r e s s io n came th e k n ow led ge n e c e s s a r y t o p la n th e new ty p e o f w ork . As o t h e r s c h o o ls w ere fou n d ed i t became e v id e n t t h a t a s t h e s c h o o l n e a r ed th e c o u n tr y o f t h e a u to c h th o n s th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d became more p ron ou n ced . A l a r g e r and l a r g e r p e r c e n ta g e r e tu r n e d t o t h e i r own p e o p le t o add a n u c le u s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n t o th e p r i m i t i v e s . O ther f a c t o r s now e n t e r e d t h e p rob lem . S tu d e n t s b r o u g h t back k n ow led ge t h a t was u s e l e s s in t h i s new e n v ir o n m e n t. Too, i t became e v id e n t t h a t a few i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s c o u ld n o t g r e a t l y a f f e c t t h e i n e r t i a o f a backward p e o p le . The n e x t l i n k in th e c h a in o f l o g i c was th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f c e n t e r s i n th e m id s t o f th e In d ia n c o u n t r i e s . E s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e In d ia n c e n t e r s . The l e s s o n le a r n e d from t h e House o f t h e In d ia n S tu d e n t was t h a t he c o u ld be e d u c a te d , b u t t h a t he was b e in g tu r n e d ou t a s an i n d i v i d u a l i s t r a t h e r th a n a s a c o o p e r a t in g member o f a c o l l e c t i v i s t s o c i e t y . P r o f e s s o r R a f a e l R am irez s a id o f t h i s e x p e r im e n t: So we s e t ab ou t lo o k in g f o r more s a t i s f a c t o r y m eth ods t h a t w ould i n t e g r a t e t h e I n d ia n s by g ro u p s and m a ss e s and n o t by i n d i v i d u a l s and, above a l l , t h a t when t h e y became in t e g r a t e d w it h c i v i l i z e d grou p s t h e y sh o u ld n o t become a l i e n a t e d from t h e i r i n t r i n s i c i d e a l s and w o rth y t y p e s o f l i f e . . . . 292 The e d u c a t io n a l e x p e r im e n t b rou gh t a b o u t th r o u g h th e House o f th e I n d ig e n o u s S tu d e n t was n o t a f a i l u r e . E veryb od y i n M exico i s now c o n v in c e d t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o e d u c a te t h e I n d ia n b e c a u se i t i s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t he h a s g r e a t c a p a c it y , and n o t o n ly a r e we c o n v in c e d o f t h i s t r u t h , b u t a l s o o f th e u r g e n t n e c e s s i t y t o do s o . 32 In 1935 t h e t r a n s i t i o n was made t o th e C e n tr o s de E d u c a cio n I n d i g e n e . T here w ere t e n su ch c e n t e r s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t y e a r , ea ch one i n t h e m id s t o f t h e I n d ia n group i t i n te n d e d t o red eem . By th e end o f 1954 t w e lv e new c e n t e r s had b een added t o h e lp in c o r p o r a t e .such d i v e r s e p e o p le s a s th e Tarahum aras, th e M ix t e c a s , th e O to m ies, t h e T o to n a c a s, th e Ghamulas, th e M azaguas, t h e H u a s te c a s, and t h e M ayas. D u rin g 1955 t e n more c e n t e r s grew u p .33 In 1957 P r e s id e n t L azaro C ardenas c a l l e d a c o n fe r e n c e o f a l l D i r e c t o r s o f th e I n te r n a d o s and t h i r t y - t h r e e r e s p o n d e d .34 A t t h e b e g in n in g o f 1937 th e S e c r e t a r i a de E d u ca cio n F u b lio a e s t a b l i s h e d t h e D epartam ento de E d u ca cio n In d ig e n a w ith C a r lo s B a sa u r i a s J e f e . The new c h i e f i s an a u t h o r i t y on th e l i f e and c u lt u r e o f t h e a u to c h th o n o u s r a c e s o f M ex ico . He i s th e a u th o r o f M o n o g ra fia de l o s T arahu m ares; T o j o l a b a l e s , T z e l t a l e s £ M ayas, and La S i t u a c i o n S o c i a l de l a P o b la c io n I n d ig e n a . Two o t h e r b ook s r e a d y t o le a v e th e p r e s s a r e : E s t u d io E t n o g r a f ic o de l o s T a r a sc o s and E s tu d io E conom ico- E t n o g r a f ic o de l o s O to m ie s. 32 Q uoted by G eorge I . S a n ch ez , ojd. c i t . , p. 154 f . 33 I b i d . , p . 1 5 6 . "Los C e n tr o s de E d u ca cio n I n d ig e n a ." E l M aestro R u r a l, J u l i o de 1 9 3 7 . 293 P la n o f a o t l o n o f t h e In d ia n c e n t e r s , S en or B a sa u r i p l a n s a l l h i s program s on t h e p r e m ise t h a t t h e r e a re two fu n d a m en ta l t y p e s o f In d ia n c u l t u r e : t h e s t a t i c , t h a t was ch eck ed by t h e S p a n ia r d s and t h a t h a s rem ained i n a more or l e s s dormant s ta g e ;, and t h e d e c a d e n t, t h a t , o f b i o l o g i c , s o c i a l econ om ic o r p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s , had s t a r t e d b r e a k in g down b e f o r e th e . c o n q u e s t. La c u l t u r a in d ig e n a t i e n e d os a s p e c t o s fu n d a m e n ta le s en l a a c t u a lid a d : c i e r t o s g ru p o s se han con served © e s t a t i c o s o p r e s e n ta n una e v o lu c io n i n c i p i e n t e y c a s i n u la , o t r o s p or e l c o n t r a r io c o r r e sp o n d e n a c u l t u r a s r e t r o g r a d e s p or i n v o l u c i o n , que a lc a n z a r o n un d e s a r r o l l o f l o r e c i e n t e ^ a n t e s de l a O o n q u ista^ y p o s te r io r m e n te c a u s a s b i o l o g i c a s , s o c i a l e s * e co n o m ic a s y p o l i t i c a s d e te r m in a r o n su d e c a d e n c ia . 5 The In d ia n C e n te r i s e s t a b l i s h e d i n some sp o t t h a t shows good p o s s i b i l i t y f o r f u t u r e d ev elo p m en t from an a g r i c u l t u r a l or econ om ic p o in t o f v ie w . S o i l , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , h y g ie n ic c o n d i t i o n s , and n e a r n e s s o f raw m a t e r i a l s a r e co n s id e r e d i n c h o o s in g a s i t e . T h is p r e lim in a r y s tu d y i s c a r r ie d on by e x p e r t s f u r n is h e d by th e S e c r e t a r i a t r a t h e r th a n b y th e f a c u l t y o f th e c e n t e r . In c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p la n t t h e u n d e r ly in g p h ilo s o p h y o f M exican e d u c a tio n i s f o l lo w e d . The b u i l d i n g s m ust be i n k e e p in g w it h th e p s y c h o lo g y o f th e r e g io n and th e p e o p le . M a t e r i a l s e a s y t o o b t a in a r e u sed and e d i f i c e s t h a t a r e 35 C a r lo s B a s a u r i, C en tro s de E d u ca cio n I n d ig e n e , p . 6 . 294 s a n i t a r y and commodious a re b u i l t . As th e I n d ia n s a r e f r e q u e n t ly seminomad, t h e y do n o t work w e l l i f t h e y f e e l t o o c o n f in e d , so none o f t h e b u i l d i n g s p a r ta k e o f th e n a tu r e o f a c o n v e n t o r b a r r a c k s . F r e q u e n t ly t h e rooms have th r e e s i d e s , one s i d e b e in g open t o th e a i r and s u n s h in e . The e n t i r e c e n tr o i s b u i l t i n t h e form and s t y l e o f a w e l l - d e s ig n e d p r o l e t a r i a n v i l l a g e . I n s t e a d o f la r g e c a p a c it y d o r m it o r ie s t h e s t u d e n t s a r e q u a r te r e d i n s m a ll h o u s e s i n w h ich s i x t o e i g h t s t u d e n t s l i v e . L a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s are e r e c t e d f o r s h o p s , t o o l s h e d s , b a r n s , o r m achine s h o p s . There i s one c e n t r a l b u i ld in g w it h c la s s r o o m s and a g e n e r a l a u d ito r iu m . An open a i r t h e a t e r i s p r o v id e d w here s i n g in g , d a n c in g , and t h e a t r i c a l s may be h e l d . The In d ia n c e n t e r i s n o t a s c h o o l in th e t r a d i t i o n a l or c l a s s i c a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e term .^ ^ I t m ig h t b e t t e r be c a l l e d a c u l t u r a l c o lo n y , fo r th e p u rp o se i s a lm o st e n t i r e l y one o f s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l propaganda and t r a i n i n g . I t d o e s n o t com pete w ith t h e e s c u e l a r u r a l w h ich i s b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d in i n c r e a s i n g num bers i n In d ia n c o m m u n itie s. The in te r n a d o t a k e s s t u d e n t s o f an o l d e r a g e and a tt e m p t s t o move them fo rw a rd a t an a c c e l e r a t e d p ace o f d e v e lo p m e n t. The aim o f th e in te r n a d o i s t o " s t r e a m lin e ” e v o l u t i o n . B oys b etw een th e a g e s o f f o u r t e e n and tw e n ty and g i r l s b etw een t h e a g e s o f 36 Ibid.. p. 8 . 295 tw e lv e and e ig h t e e n are e n r o l l e d in th e c e n t e r . The f a c u l t y c o n s i s t s o f a d i r e c t o r , a woman n u r s e , an a g e n t o f In d ia n o r g a n i z a t i o n , one t e a c h e r o f g e n e r a l m a t e r i a l s , one woman e c o n o m is t, and f o u r t e a c h e r s o f a r t s , c r a f t s , and p e t t y i n d u s t r i e s . The f i r s t s t e p i n th e e d u c a tio n o f th e In d ia n y o u th i s t o t e a c h them S p a n is h . A fte r w a r d s th e s t u d e n t s a r e ta u g h t t o b u i l d t h e i r own h o u se , n o t a s an academ ic e x e r c i s e , b u t f o r t h e p u rp o se o f h a v in g a home. The s t u d e n t s m e r e ly l i v e and go t h e i r d a i l y round o f w o r k in g , s i n g i n g , d a n c in g , p la y in g games and g e t t i n g on w it h com rades. The o n ly d i f f e r e n c e b etw een t h e l i f e i n th e in te r n a d o and in an advan ced community i s th e f a c t t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s a r e g u id e d r a p i d l y and n a t u r a l l y i n t o more advan ced t e c h n iq u e s . There i s J u s t enough i n s t r u c t i o n and group work t o remove t h e l e a r n in g from th e f i e l d o f t r i a l and e r r o r . In r e a l i t y t h e c e n t e r i s a lm o st p u r e ly a s c h o o l o f work. S tu d e n t s a r e n o t t h e grad u a t e s o f t h e r u r a l s c h o o l s , b u t o n e s who have b een m is s e d by t h e s c h o o l s . The D epartm ent o f I n d ig e n o u s E d u c a tio n makes t h e p o in t c o n s t a n t l y t h a t t h e c e n t e r s a r e n o t an end i n t h e m s e lv e s , t h e y a re n o t a perm anent form o f e d u c a tio n , t h e y a re r a th e r a m eans t o b r id g e t h e gap b etw een p r e -c o n q u e s t c u l t u r e s and t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y p r o b le m s. The aim i s t h e same a s t h a t in e v e r y o t h e r departm en t o f th e p r e s e n t M exican govern m en t, t o k eep t h e b e s t o f t h e I n d ia n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and h a b i t s and t o 296 add th e m ost modern t e c h n iq u e s o f p r o d u c tio n . M ach in ery i s b ro u g h t to t h e c e n t e r s and i t s u s e ta u g h t th e I n d ia n s , but th e th o u g h t i s a lw a y s upperm ost in t h e m inds o f t h e t e a c h e r s and i s o f t e n e x p r e s s e d by them t h a t t h e m achine i s f o r th e u s e o f man. The I n d ia n s a r e ta u g h t t h e u s u a l l e s s o n s o f modern s o c i a l i z a t i o n : t h e la n d i s t h e i r s , t h e y m ust ta k e i t , k eep i t and work i t in t h e m ost e f f i c i e n t manner p o s s i b l e . They m ust n o t make p r o d u c tio n a god and t h e m s e lv e s s l a v e s t o e f f i c i e n c y ; on th e o t h e r hand t h e y m ust r e l e a s e th e m s e lv e s from th e s l a v e r y t o t h e m a iz . They m ust n o t work from day l i g h t u n t i l dark w it h p r i m i t i v e t o o l s to r a i s e a sm a ll crop o f low grad e c o rn so t h e i r w iv e s can spend a l l t h e day and h a l f t h e n ig h t g r in d in g t h e corn m eal i n a p r i m i t i v e m i l l . They a re ta u g h t to r a i s e d i v e r s i f i e d c r o p s by u s in g h o r s e s o r m u le s and a s t e e l p low and o t h e r modern t o o l s . They are th e n ta u g h t how t o g e t farm a n im a ls and t o o l s by fo rm in g a g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t c o o p e r a t i v e s and b orrow in g th e money from th e govern m en t. They a r e ta u g h t t o form c o o p e r a t i v e s t h a t u n it e w ith n a t i o n a l g ro u p s f o r t h e m a rk etin g o f t h e c r o p s a d v a n ta g e o u s ly . T hese t e c h n iq u e s a r e n o t ta u g h t i n l e c t u r e s o r s p e e c h e s ; t h e young men and women a c t u a l l y do a l l t h e s e t h i n g s under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s . And t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h e y form a r e n o t j u n io r g ro u p s or s c h o o l g r o u p s, t h e y a r e a c t u a l l y f u n c t i o n i n g c o o p e r a t i v e s . The s t u d e n t s u s u a l l y s t a y two o r t h r e e y e a r s in th e 297 c e n t r o . When t h e y le a v e t h e y may do one o f two t h i n g s • They can r e t u r n t o t h e i r own f a m i ly w h ich may he some d i s ta n c e away and p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e t h e l e s s o n s le a r n e d . Or th e s tu d e n t may s e t t l e down a s a p a r t o f th e I n d ia n c e n t e r , b u ild h i s h ou se w it h th e h e lp o f h i s f r i e n d s i n th e group and w it h th e a c t i v e g u id a n c e o f th e f a c u l t y . H ere he may m arry and become a p a r t o f a comm unity t h a t knows how t o work t o g e t h e r , p la y t o g e t h e r , and i n g e n e r a l l i v e t o g e t h e r i n an i n t e l l i g e n t f a s h io n . When th e tim e comes t h a t th e community i s a l a r g e , w e l l k n i t g ro u p , l i v i n g th e p r i n c i p l e s o f S c i e n t i f i c S o c i a li s m th e f a c u l t y o f t h e in te r n a d o w i l l q u i e t l y move o u t, so a s t o d is t u r b no p a r t o f th e s o c i a l m a ch in ery and s t a r t a new c e n t e r i n a l o c a t i o n t h a t h a s n o t y e t f e l t t h e im p act o f t h e new e d u c a t io n . C H A P T E R X SUMMARY ’’E duoar ejs r e d l m i r .ff C h is e le d i n t h e s t o n e o f monu m en ts and s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s ; p a in t e d on m u r a ls, p la c a r d s and b a n n e r s; and w r i t t e n i n e v e r y book h a v in g t o do w it h M e x ic o ’ s s c h o o l s , t h i s m o tto e p i t o m iz e s th e p h ilo s o p h y o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n . The p r e s e n t governm ent o f M exico w i l l sta n d or f a l l on th e p la tfo r m : <to e d u c a te i s t o r ed ee m . A new M exico i s on t h e march t o d a y . A M exico t h a t i s s e a r c h in g t h e w o r ld f o r new t r u t h s and t h a t a tt e m p t s t o e v a l u a te e v e r y t h in g i n t h e l i g h t o f s c i e n c e . N ot a s c i e n c e t o s e t up a s a g o ld e n c a l f f o r th e p e o p le t o w o r sh ip , b u t a s c i e n c e t h a t s h a l l be a g e n iu s w a i t i n g t o s e r v e th e p e o p le . For th e M exican t h e o r y i s t h a t th e p e o p le i n M exico are s o v e r e i g n . No l o n g e r d o e s o f f i c i a l M exico lo o k upon th e g e n te a s h ew ers o f wood and d raw ers o f w a te r f o r th e fe w . The n a t io n i s s t r i v i n g f o r freed om f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l and f o r h e r s e l f , freed om f o r f o r e i g n d o m in a tio n in th e f i e l d o f id e a s and in t h e f i e l d o f econ om ic e x p l o i t a t i o n . And e d u c a t i o n i s t h e m agic lamp w h ich M exico h o p e s w i l l prod u ce a g e n iu s t o f u r n i s h t h i s fre ed o m . I . THE GENESIS OF SOCIAL THEORY Much h a s been made o f th e R e v o lu t io n o f 1910 in th e 399 c o u r s e o f t h i s s t u d y . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s s im p le : th e p h ilo s o p h y o f S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n i s d e f i n i t e l y th e c h i l d o f t h e R e v o lu t io n . More th a n t h a t , th e R e v o lu t io n i s a sym bol o f th e p r o t e s t o f M e x ic o ’ s p e o p le a g a i n s t a l l t h a t t h e p r e - R e v o lu t io n a r y s o c i e t y em b odied. For t h i s r e a s o n , t o d a y ’ s s c h o o l s r e p r e s e n t an a tte m p t t o r e p la c e o ld i n s t i t u t i o n s d e s tr o y e d by t h e R e v o lu t io n w it h new o n e s w h ich w i l l be u s e f u l t o a l l t h e p e o p le . F or f o u r hundred y e a r s M exico w as h a g -r id d e n w it h v i c e , r e v o l u t i o n , h y p o c r is y , sham, and g l i t t e r . Many o f S p a in ’ s a d v e n tu r e r s came t o th e Hew W orld, n o t t o foun d a new e m p ire , a f u t u r e home f o r th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r c h i ld r e n , b u t t o l o o t t h e c o u n tr y a s r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e b e f o r e r e t u r n in g t o S p a in t o l i v e i n lu x u r y and e a s e . T h is c l a s s o f S p a n ia r d b e tr a y e d t h e c o n f id e n c e o f th e p e o p le , v i o l a t e d t h e i r women b r a z e n ly , and f o r c i b l y d e s t r o y e d much th e n a t i v e s h e ld sa c r e d and v i r t u o u s . The S p a n ia r d s d iv id e d th e la n d among t h e m s e lv e s and e n s la v e d t h e p o p u l a t i o n . The Church seem ed t o o f f e r th e o n ly r e f u g e t o th e h a r r ie d n a t i v e s and t h e y gave t h e i r t r u s t t o i t . Soon t h e y fo u n d t h e m s e lv e s w ith a new s e t o f m a s t e r s . They w ere f o r c e d t o g i v e t h e d ie z m o , t h e t e n t h o f th e p oor l i v i n g t h a t was l e f t to them , t o th e Church. They la b o r e d w it h o u t pay on t h e p r i n c e l y e d i f i c e s t h a t soon r o s e th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y . They w ere g iv e n a f o r e i g n r e l i g i o n , c o n d u cte d i n f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s , w h ich 300 m eant n o th in g t o them in t h e i r e v e r y day l i v i n g . A n oth er f e a r was added t o t h e i r a lr e a d y o v e r lo n g l i s t — th e e v e r p r e s e n t t e r r o r o f excom m u n ication and h e l l f i r e w h ich se r v e d t o k eep them in su b m iss io n t o Church and s t a t e * L i t t l e was done by M e x ic o ’ s S p a n ish m a s te r s to im prove th e c o u n tr y or t o r a i s e t h e m o ral and i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l o f th e p e o p le , w h ic h , a s a c o n se q u e n c e , dropped a s th e y e a r s p a s s e d . The M exican was e n co u ra g ed t o b e l i e v e absurd le g e n d s and t o c o n t in u e t h e p r a c t i c e o f paganism and m agic under th e g u i s e o f r e l i g i o n . The Church o f f i c i a l l y d e c la r e d th e In d ia n t o be w ith o u t r e a s o n , and, t h e r e f o r e , in c a p a b le o f b e in g d e v e lo p e d . 3Tew i n d u s t r i e s w ere in tr o d u c e d , many b e in g f o r b id d en t o t h e c o lo n y by la w , a s th e m other c o u n tr y w anted a m onopoly on c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s . M u lb e r r ie s , w in e - g r a p e s , and to b a c c o w ere o n ly a few o f th e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts th e c o lo n y was fo r b id d e n t o p r o d u c e . More th a n s i x t y d i f f e r e n t in c o m e -p r o d u c in g l e v i e s w ere im posed on M exico by S p a in . I t i s s m a ll wonder t h a t t h e S p a n ia r d s who l i v e d i n M exico f i n a l l y grew t i r e d o f s e e in g th e g o ld e n stream f l o w from th e New World t o t h e o l d , and s ta g e d a s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l u t i o n . A f t e r te n y e a r s o f f i g h t i n g M exico c u t th e u m b i li c a l cord i n 1 8 8 1 . In d ep en d en ce d id l i t t l e t o change th e s t a t u s o f th e I n d ia n and th e m e s t i z o , h o w ever, and a t t h i s tim e a new s t r u g g l e began f o r th e econ om ic m a ste r y o f th e c o u n tr y , a s t r u g g l e w h ich w as t o l a s t f o r a n o th e r hundred y e a r s and in 301 w h ich th e M exican w as t o be b u t a pawn. T h is s t r u g g l e to o k p l a c e b e tw e en th e Church and S t a t e , and h a s n o t y e t b een s e t t l e d . The C a t h o lic Church owned h a l f o r more o f th e w e a lth o f t h e c o u n tr y by t h i s tim e and th e p o l i t i c o s b egan t o c a s t c o v e to u s e y e s upon t h i s h o a r d . Laws w ere p a s s e d n a t i o n a l i z i n g much o f t h i s w e a lth , b u i l d i n g s o f c e r t a i n o r d e r s w ere c o n f i s c a t e d , and th e power o f t h e c l e r g y was c u r t a i l e d . D u rin g th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e n a t io n s u f f e r e d , a s t h e ro b b er b a ro n s fo u g h t f o r p o s s e s s i o n o f i t s v a s t w e a lth * One f a c t i o n fo u g h t a n o th e r f o r c o n t r o l o f t h e governm ent and i t s a t te n d a n t p r e q u i s i t e s . The U n ite d S t a t e s to o k f i v e - e i g h t h s o f M e x ic o ’ s t e r r i t o r y . For a tim e E ngland c o n t r o l l e d t h e cu stom s o f Y era C ruz. F ran ce s e t up a pu pp et governm ent u n der M a x im ilia n and f o r a b r i e f tim e a b r i l l i a n t , f e v e r i s h g a i e t y o v e r la y th e v a s t s i c k n e s s t h a t was M ex ico . W ith th e o v e rth r o w o f M a x im ilia n , B e n it o J u a rez a tte m p te d a refo rm / g o v ern m en t. A f t e r h i s d e a th , P o r f i r i o D iaz s e i z e d c o n t r o l and r u le d a lm o st c o n t in u o u s ly from 1876 u n t i l 191 1 . / D ia z a tte m p te d to e x t r a c t th e l a s t pound o f f l e s h , t h e . f i n a l drop o f b lo o d , from t h e c o u n tr y . He and h i s c li q u e s o l d o u t c o m p le t e ly t o f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s . E n g lis h and - / A m erican c a p i t a l i s t s r e c e i v e d i n c a l c u l a b l e c o n c e s s i o n s . D ia z s o l d th e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o u t r i g h t in r e t u r n f o r p e r s o n a l f o r t u n e s f o r h i m s e l f and h i s f a v o r i t e s . R a ilr o a d s , m in e s, 502 o i l r i g h t s , power and la n d were tu r n e d o v e r t o f o r e i g n e r s , o f t e n in v i o l a t i o n o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n , u n t i l t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f th e n a t u r a l w e a lth o f M exico was owned by t h e s e same f o r e i g n e r s . At th e same tim e , t h e c o n d i t i o n o f th e p e o p le was becom ing u n e n d u r a b le . The l a s t o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l h o ld i n g s , v i l l a g e la n d s , and f i n a l l y t h e i r human r i g h t s w ere to r n from them . A sy ste m o f fo r c e d la b o r and peonage grew t o such p r o p o r t io n s t h a t th o u sa n d s o f th e p e o p le o f th e c o u n tr y w ere v i r t u a l s l a v e s . I l l i t e r a c y m ounted u n t i l i t in c lu d e d SO p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u la t io n . When Madero r a i s e d th e sta n d a r d o f r e v o l t , i n 1 9 1 0 , th e n a t io n w ent w it h him and he won w ith p r a c t i c a l l y no o p p o s i t i o n . But M adero, t h e p e o p le soon fo u n d , was n o t t h e M oses who was t o le a d them t o th e prom ised la n d . M exico had no l e a d e r s who u n d e r s to o d th e t r u e n e e d s o f th e c o u n tr y . As a c o n se q u e n c e , one p r o n u n c ia m le n to f o llo w e d a n o th e r a s dema g o g u e s r a is e d f r e s h r e b e l l i o n s a g a i n s t o t h e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y g e n e r a l s . Each m i l i t a r y c h i e f had h i s own " p la n ” f o r th e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e c o u n tr y . G r a d u a lly t h e s e f,p l a n s ” le d to a more s i n c e r e and p r a c t i c a l f o r m u la tio n o f s o c i a l i d e o l o g y . T h in k e rs s t u d ie d r e v o l u t i o n a r y and econ om ic s y s te m s th r o u g h o u t th e w orld and s l o w l y b u i l t up a n a t i o n a l s e n tim e n t t h a t r e s u l t e d in t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 9 1 7 . T h is C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v id e d f o r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o f th e c o u n tr y so t h a t a l l t h e p e o p le c o u ld sh a re th e n a t i o n ' s 302 w e a lt h , Labor was p r o t e c t e d from undue e x p l o i t a t i o n . But p e r h a p s th e m ost advan ced p r o v i s i o n o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n was A r t i c l e 3 p r o v id in g f o r a n a t i o n a l sy stem o f f r e e , l a y p u b lic s c h o o l s . I I . GROW TH OF EDUCATION R e a l i s t i c e d u c a t io n a l a d v a n ce s w ere made i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 ’ s by J o s e V a s c o n c e lo s , S e c r e t a r y o f E d u c a tio n un der P r e s id e n t A lv a r o O bregon. More th a n f i f t y m i l l i o n p e s o s w ere expended on e d u c a tio n in 192 1, se v e n t im e s th e amount o f any p r e v io u s y e a r ’ s s c h o o l b u d g e t. John Dewey’ s t h e o r i e s o f th e " a c t i v i t y s c h o o l ” w ere f o llo w e d a t f i r s t . P r o g r e s s i v e l y , a more u n iq u e ty p e o f s c h o o l was d e v e lo p e d t o answ er t h e n e e d s o f M ex ico . The C a t h o lic Church fo u g h t th e s c h o o ls a t e v e r y tu r n , d e c la r in g t h a t a m onopoly on e d u c a tio n was t h e i r p r e r o g a t i v e . P r e s id e n t Obregon was m urdered by a C a t h o lic f a n a t i c and a s e r i e s o f b lo o d y u p r i s i n g s w ere s ta g e d by th e c r i s t e r o s , o r f o l l o w e r s o f C h r i s t . S p o ra d ic f i g h t i n g l a s t e d f o r e ig h t y e a r s in w h ich th e c r i s t e r o s burned s c h o o l s , and m u t ila t e d and m urdered s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . T h is s e d i t i o u s a c t i v i t y so h a n d ica p p ed th e governm ent t h a t th e e d u c a t io n a l b u d get was red u ced d r a s t i c a l l y . In r e t a l i a t i o n f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e f a n a t i c s i n f i g h t i n g th e g o v ern m en t’ s program a fir m sta n d was ta k e n a g a i n s t th e Church. The governm ent a d o p ted th e 304 P la n s e x e n a l , i n 1 9 3 3 . At th e same tim e th e s c h o o l s w ere o f f i c i a l l y named th e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o ls o f M ex ico . A r t i c l e 3 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1917 was amended t o e x c lu d e a l l p r i v a t e and r e l i g i o u s s c h o o l s t h a t did n o t come under th e d i r e c t s u p e r v is io n o f th e govern m en t. E d u c a tio n was r e a f fir m e d a s b e in g f r e e and o b l i g a t o r y . The prim ary aim o f th e s c h o o l was t o p r o v id e an e d u c a tio n w hich w ould be s c i e n t i f i c , r a t i o n a l , and a g a i n s t f a n a t i c i s m . S c ie n c e th u s became th e c o r n e r s t o n e o f th e e d u c a t io n a l s t r u c t u r e . S o c i a l em p h a sis i n S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t i o n . The S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l i s c o n s id e r e d a s b e in g p r im a r ily a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n t o p rep a re t h e you n ger g e n e r a t io n s f o r a new s o c i e t y . More o v e r , th e s c h o o l h e l p s t o m old t h e new s o c i e t y by t a k in g th e le a d in b r in g in g modern t e c h n iq u e s t o th e p e o p le o f M ex ico . Thus th e m a estro l e a d s th e p e o p le o f th e comm unity in im prov in g t h e i r l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . He t e a c h e s them t o b u i l d b e t t e r h o u s e s , t o f i l t e r d r in k in g w a te r , to c le a n up u n s a n ita r y s p o t s in th e com m unity, and to s e t up a b e t t e r d i e t e t i c sta n d a r d . The t e a c h e r o r g a n iz e s l a b o r e r s i n t o g u i l d s and u n io n s so t h e y can work f o r b e t t e r la b o r in g c o n d i t i o n s ; he e x p l a i n s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s o f th e c i t i z e n and h e l p s him a c q u ir e t h e s e r i g h t s . The t e a c h e r shows t h e farm er how t o o b ta in la n d t h a t i s l e g a l l y h i s , and th e n a s s i s t s th e fa rm e rs in 305 o r g a n iz in g an A g r i c u lt u r a l C r e d it bank and s e c u r in g money from th e governm ent t o buy a n im a ls and modern e q u ip m en t. A f t e r t h e cam p esin o h a s a c q u ir e d t o o l s th e t e a c h e r show s him how to u s e them i n an e f f i c i e n t way, s o . t h a t he can in c r e a s e h i s p r o d u c tio n and th u s r a i s e h i s sta n d a r d o f l i v i n g . C h ild r e n a r e n o t o n ly ta u g h t t o become more e f f i c i e n t p r o d u c e r s , t h e y a r e ta u g h t t o l i v e and work t o g e t h e r c o o p e r a t i v e l y w ith o u t th o u g h t o f e x p l o i t i n g one a n o th e r . They (are ta u g h t t o e x p l o i t n a tu r e a s th o r o u g h ly a s p o s s i b l e , b u t n o t m ankind. Academ ic l e a r n in g i s i n c i d e n t a l t o le a r n in g s o c i a l l y u s e f u l t e c h n iq u e s . A r t i s t i c t r a i n i n g i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e c u r r ic u lu m . A r t, m u s ic , and d a n c in g a r e ta u g h t f o r t h e i r s o c i a l i z i n g v a l u e s , s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g , th ro u g h t h o s e m ediums, t o work t o g e t h e r a s a m e n ta l and p h y s i c a l u n i t . The a r t s s e r v e a n o th e r p u rp o se in c o n v e y in g g r a p h i c a l l y t h e g o s p e l o f S o c ia lis m : b r o th e rh o o d o f man, e q u a l i t y o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s and r a c e s , and th e r i g h t o f a l l t o le a d a f r e e , happy l i f e . P h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n h a s become one o f th e o u t s t a n d in g c o n t r i b u t io n s o f t h e modern M exican s c h o o l t o th e c o u n tr y . P la y grou n d s a r e m a in ta in e d th ro u g h o u t th e la n d f o r th e enjoym en t o f c i t i z e n s o f a l l a g e s and c l a s s e s . The d e s i r e o f th e e d u c a to r i s t o d iv o r c e t h e M exican from h i s o ld l i f e , d r in k in g , g a m b lin g , f i g h t i n g , c o c k - f i g h t i n g , and pagan r i t u a l i s t i c w o r sh ip , and wed him to a new l i f e o f p r o p e r d i e t , h e a l t h f u l gam es, d a n c e s, and f r i e n d l y community i n t e r c o u r s e . I n d i v i d u a l growth, i n S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t i o n . The i d e a l o f t h e S o c i a l i s t s c h o o l i s t o r a i s e e v e r y c i t i z e n o f M ex ico , I n d ia n , m e s t i z o , o r C a u c a sia n , t o h i s c a p a c i t a c i o n , o r s a t u r a t i o n p o i n t , s o c i a l l y , m o r a lly , and m e n t a l ly . I n d i v i d u a l s a r e n o t c o n s id e r e d a s h a v in g e q u a l c a p a c it y f o r ad van ce h u t i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e o l d e r s o c i e t y o f M ex ico d id n o t g i v e 95 p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p le a ch an ce e v en t o ap p roa ch t h e i r p o t e n t i a l l e v e l o f d e v e lo p m e n t. On th e c o n t r a r y , i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t s o c i e t y i n t h e p a s t h a s had a b r u t a l i z i n g e f f e c t on t h e i n d i v i d u a l and h a s made him an econ om ic s l a v e , a d u lla r d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , and an im m oral f o l l o w e r o f r i t u a l s ; To c o r r e c t t h i s f a u l t , th e M exican l e a d e r s hope t o e x te n d t h e s c h o o l s u n t i l e v e r y c h i l d can c o n t in u e h i s e d u c a t io n t o th e p o in t w here he h a s d e v e lo p e d t o t h e l i m i t o f h i s a b i l i t y . T h is may make him a fa r m e r , a m e c h a n ic , an a r t i s a n , a m u s ic ia n , a w r i t e r , o r a s c h o o l t e a c h e r , b u t w h a te v e r he becom es he i s e x p e c te d t o be th e b e s t t h a t h i s in n a t e a b i l i t y w i l l a l lo w him t o b e . To c a r r y t h i s e d u c a tio n t o a l l t h e p e o p le a v a s t sy ste m o f e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s i s b e in g o r g a n iz e d i n M e x ic o . S t a r t i n g from p r a c t i c a l l y n o t h in g i n 1 9 2 0 , th e s c h o o l sy stem h a s r e a c h e d th e p o i n t i n 1938 o f h a v in g more th a n f i f t e e n th o u sa n d e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s . New s c h o o l s , a c c o r d in g t o th e > fF la n S e x e n a l, n a r e b e in g added a t th e r a t e o f two th o u sa n d y e a r l y . T h is r a p id r a t e o f i n c r e a s e makes i t im p o s s ib le t o p r o v id e 307 w e l l - t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s , and b e c a u se o f t h i s f a c t , th e S e c r e t a r i a t o f E d u c a tio n se n d s o u t t r a v e l l i n g C u lt u r a l M is s io n s t o c o n tin u e and su p p lem en t th e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s . T hese M is s io n s s e t . up an e i g h t weeks* i n s t i t u t e in th e v a r io u s d i s t r i c t s , n o t o n ly c o n d u c tin g th e s c h o o l in th e app roved f a s h io n f o r t h e g u id a n c e o f t h e m a e s tr o , b u t a l s o o f f e r i n g academ ic and p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o u r s e s t o him . In a d d i t i o n , th e M is s io n s u p e r v i s e s in c le a n i n g up th e com m unity, v a c c i n a t i n g c i t i z e n s , t e a c h i n g m o th e rs im proved m eth ods o f c h i l d c a r e , and t e a c h in g c r a fts m e n b e t t e r t e c h n iq u e s i n t h e i r o c c u p a t io n s . M e x ic o ’ s In d ia n p o p u la t io n i s n o t b e in g o v e r lo o k e d in t h e work o f red eem in g th e p r o l e t a r i a t . The I n d ia n i s g iv e n b e t t e r la n d on w h ich t o r a i s e h i s m aiz and a b e t t e r o p p o r tu n i t y t o d e v e lo p h i s c u l t u r e . Many o f t h e a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s o f th e c o u n tr y a r e b e in g r e o r ie n t e d i n th e l i g h t o f in d ig e n o u s c u l t u r e . A r ts and m u sic p a r t i c u l a r l y a r e d ro p p in g th e a r t i f i c i a l o v e r la y o f European i n f l u e n c e and g o in g d i r e c t l y t o th e a u to c h th o n o u s s o u r c e s f o r new i n s p i r a t i o n and f o r a t r u l y n a t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n . S c h o o ls a r e b e in g p r o v id e d r a p i d l y f o r t h e I n d ia n , w it h t e a c h e r s who u n d e r sta n d him and sp eak h i s - la n g u a g e , but he i s a l s o b e in g ta u g h t S p a n ish so t h a t th e c o u n tr y may have a u n i f i e d p e o p le th ro u g h t h e u s e o f a n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e . E v ery e f f o r t i s b e in g made t o s t i m u l a t e th e n a t i v e c u l t u r e , p r a c t i c a l l y s t i f l e d s i n c e th e com ing o f th e S p a n ia r d . C e n te r s o f I n d ia n E d u c a tio n h ave b een e s t a b l i s h e d in th e 508 I n d ia n d i s t r i c t s , i n w h ich th e young men and women l i v e in an en v iro n m en t a s n e a r ly t h a t o f t h e S o c i a l i s t comm unity a s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o make i t . The y o u th a r e ta u g h t t o u s e modern t o o l s and m a ch in e ry f o r t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r e , t o u n d er sta n d th e th e o r y o f a modern s o c i e t y , and t o r a i s e t h e i r in d ig e n o u s l i f e - p a t t e r n s t o h ig h e r l e v e l s . The I n d ia n had many a c t i v i t i e s in h i s s o c i e t y b e f o r e t h e com ing o f th e S p a n ia rd t h a t w ere a k in t o t h o s e o f t h e S o c i a l i s t s t a t e . T h ese a r e t o be s tr e n g t h e n e d and r e t a i n e d . E j id o s have b een m a in ta in e d by t h e In d ia n a g a i n s t trem en d ou s o p p o s i t i o n up t o th e p r e s e n t d a y . Under th e e .j id a l o r g a n i z a t i o n th e group owns la n d com m unally and th e i n d i v i d u a l r e c e i v e s a sh a re p r o p o r t io n a t e to h i s n e e d . T h is custom i s s i m i l a r t o th e S o c i a l i s t p la n o f c o o p e r a t iv e fa r m in g . When t h e young In d ia n l e a v e s th e c e n t e r , he u s u a l l y b u i l d s h i m s e l f a home n ea rb y and p u t s i n t o p r a c t i c e t h e l e s s o n s he h a s le a r n e d . Thus th e In d ia n i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a modern w o r ld . I I I . ACCOMPLISHMENTS 0E THE SOCIALIST SCHOOL When one a t te m p t s t o ju d ge th e a c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e S o c i a l i s t S c h o o ls o f M exico he i s im m e d ia te ly f a c e d w it h c o n t r a d i c t o r y im p r e s s io n s . A p i c t u r e o f th e s c o r e s o f modern s c h o o l p l a n t s s c a t t e r e d o v e r M exico , f i l l e d w i t h h e a l t h y , i n t e l l i g e n t c h i l d r e n , im bues th e o b s e r v e r w it h e n th u s ia s m . O ther p i c t u r e s o f h a l f - w i l d l i t t l e s a v a g e s in abandoned 509 c o n v e n t s and adobe b u i l d i n g s l e a v e s one a l i t t l e t r i s t e . One i s rem inded o f D r. J o h n so n ’ s rem ark ab ou t th e dog w h ich w alk ed on i t s h in d l e g s : th e rem ark a b le t h i n g i s n o t how w e l l th e dog w a lk s b u t t h a t he w a lk s a t a l l . Human b e in g s a r e p r e t t y w e l l a l i k e t h e w o rld over# The members o f t h e t e a c h in g s t a f f o f M e x ic o ’ s s c h o o l s , th e i n s p e c t o r s , and th e d i r e c t o r s a r e n o t a hom ogeneous body o f S o c i a l i s t s , a g r e e d i n t h e i r m e th o d o lo g y . The sy ste m i s su p p o sed t o be f l e x i b l e enough so t h a t i t can be changed a s c o n d i t i o n s change and new l e a d e r s w it h more ad van ced t r a i n i n g come a lo n g . Many t e a c h e r s a r e t r y i n g t o change t h e sy stem t o f i t t h e i r own whims a t a l l tim e s# W ith in th e o f f i c i a l f a m ily are many t e a c h e r s n o t i n a c c o r d w ith th e o b j e c t i v e s a s l a i d down by th e S e c r e t a r i a t . The l e a d e r s i n M exico C it y ap p ear t o be a lm o s t u n ifo r m ly o f a h ig h t y p e , m o r a lly , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , and s o c i a l l y , and a r e b u r s t in g w ith e n th u sia sm , b u t a s one v i s i t s s c h o o l s on a l l l e v e l s he c o n s t a n t l y f i n d s t h e p e d e s t r i a n , r o u t i n i z e d t e a c h e r c o n d u c tin g c l a s s i n a manner t y p i c a l o f e d u c a t io n o f a p a s t e r a . Many t h i n g s t h a t M exico i s d o in g and f e e l s sh e h a s d is c o v e r e d have b een done w e l l and q u i t e g e n e r a l l y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . The a u th o r h a s c o n s t a n t l y b e e n t o l d th e same t h i n g by e x p e r t s in v a r io u s l i n e s o f p ed a g o g y who have v i s i t e d s c h o o l s w ith him o r t o l d o f o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e s . In one s c h o o l an A m erican t e a c h e r w i l l be overcom e by amazement and a d m ir a tio n 310 a t some p h a se o f work and rem ark, ”T hey*re y e a r s ahead o f u s . ” Y e t, n e x t d oor may be an e x h i b i t i o n o f "m uddling th r o u g h ” t h a t c o u ld e a s i l y be c o r r e c t e d by a k n ow led ge o f what h a s b een worked o u t e ls e w h e r e . M e x ic o ’ s a t t i t u d e con c e r n in g e d u c a t io n in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i s an i n t e r e s t i n g compound o f h a l f - i n f o r m a t i o n and h a l f - l e g e n d . I t i s g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s c h o o l s o f h e r n o r th e r n n e ig h b o r a re a l l h o u sed i n sum ptuous b u i l d i n g s b u t t h a t e d u c a t io n i s o f a h i g h l y r e a c t i o n a r y n a t u r e . I t w ou ld seem d e f i n i t e l y t h a t M exico c o u ld p r o f i t by a th o r o u g h s tu d y o f what h a s b een done and i s b e in g done i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Many o f th e le a d in g e d u c a to r s h ave b een t r a i n e d i n A m erican u n i v e r s i t i e s and have ta k e n back much w it h them . The f a c t r em a in s t h a t t h e e n t i r e body o f e d u c a to r s i s n o t c o g n iz a n t o f t h e f a c t t h a t many p r o g r e s s i v e t e c h n iq u e s a r e a v a i l a b l e n e x t d o o r . Some o f th e r u r a l s c h o o l s m igh t v / e l l s e r v e a s ex a m p les o f a p e r f e c t b le n d in g o f th e u s e f u l and t h e b e a u t i f u l . They a r e c h e a p ly b u t w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d , com b in in g a l l t h e d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s f o r s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s a s em bodied in th e S o c i a l i s t c o n c e p t o f e d u c a t io n : maximum a i r and s u n s h in e , f u n c t i o n a l d e s ig n and b e a u ty o f e x e c u t i o n . W e ll - c a r e d - f o r p o t t e d p l a n t s a r e e v er y w h e re , f r u i t t r e e s abound, b e e s from th e s c h o o l a v ia r y hum l a z i l y i n t h e b lo s s o m s . C a r e f u l l y weeded and c u l t i v a t e d g a r d e n s s t r e t c h away on e v e r y s i d e . O ther r u r a l s c h o o l s p r e s e n t a d r e a r y a p p e a r a n c e , p e r f e c t l y d e s c r ib e d by 311 t h e M exican a d j e c t i v e , t r i s t e , sa d . A s e v e r e l y w h itew a sh ed abode may^ s i t in a w id e ex p a n se o f p l a i n w ith t h e fo re g r o u n d and background unbroken by t r e e o r sh ru b . Windows a re broken and unmended. A fe w anem ic p l a n t s a r e s tu c k in t h e ground a s th o u g h f o r a sop t o th e n a t i o n a l program o f s c h o o l g a r d e n s . I n s i d e , o ld s t y l e d e sk s a r e a rra n g ed h a p h a z a r d ly on a d i r t y f l o o r fla n k e d b y c h ip p ed w a l l s and g ra y b la c k b o a r d s . H owever, i t i s o n ly f a i r t o sa y t h a t t h i s ty p e o f s c h o o l i s more t y p i c a l o f t h e n o r th e r n s t a t e s , w h ich have lo n g t r i e d t o b u ild on l i n e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . Here i t i s h a r d e r t o change t h e s c h o o l th a n i t i s t o b u i ld one w here t h e r e h a s n e v e r been a s c h o o l b e f o r e . The im p o r ta n t f a c t t h a t one m ust k eep in m ind, how e v e r , i s t h a t M exico i s b u i ld in g s c h o o l s . P oor s c h o o ls can be im proved and weak t e a c h e r s can e i t h e r be s tr e n g th e n e d w h ile in s e r v i c e or l a t e r r e p la c e d w ith s t r o n g e r o n e s . S o c i a l i s t e d u c a t io n i s n o t a t h e o r e t i c a l p la n t h a t e x i s t s on p ap er o n ly n o r i s i t an e m a s c u la te p h ilo s o p h y t h a t i s argu ed by c l o i s t e r e d s a v a n t s . I t i s a program o f a c t i o n , fo r m u la te d and r e fo r m u la te d by s t r o n g , a t h l e t i c men and women who c o n s t a n t l y l i v e t h e t h e o r y t h e y a d v o c a t e . M a e str o s who l i v e d and ta u g h t f o r m onths w it h a p i s t o l a lw a y s str a p p ed on t h e i r h ip s a re n o t i n c l i n e d t o be o v e r l y t h e o r e t i c a l . E very p o in t t h a t i s d i s c u s s e d a t an i n s t i t u t e or r e g i o n a l m e e tin g r e p r e s e n t s a l i v i n g e x p e r ie n c e t o t h e s e p e o p l e . E very m onth, 312 a lm o s t e v e r y day, t h e program i s b e in g a l t e r e d t o m eet a c t u a l p r a c t i c e . E v ery day more s c h o o l s a r e b e in g e r e c t e d ; e v e r y day more c h i ld r e n a re e n t e r i n g s c h o o l who w ould n e v e r have had a ch an ce to go to an y s c h o o l un der t h e a n c ie n r e g im e . And t h a t i s a l l t h a t t h e o b s e r v e r can o b j e c t i v e l y r e p o r t on th e sy s te m . M exico i s p r o v id in g s c h o o l s f o r h e r c h i ld r e n , she i s s i n c e r e l y t r y i n g t o make t h e s e s c h o o l s th e b e s t t h a t can be p r o v id e d , and sh e i s c o n s t a n t l y t r y i n g to im prove them . O nly tim e can t e l l w h eth er t h e y w i l l a c c o m p lish th e r ed em p tio n o f a r a c e t h a t h a s seld om known a n y th in g b u t ty r a n n y , o p p r e s s i o n , and e x p l o i t a t i o n . 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Zamora, C e lso F l o r e s , "M exican R ural E d u c a tio n and A dm inis t r a t i o n , " P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a tio n , F eb ru a ry , 1 9 3 6 . Z a p a la , R osau ra, "La E d u cacio n d e l N in o en l a Edad P r e - E s c o la r ," R e v is t a de E d u c a c io n , J u l i o de 1 9 3 7 . APPENDIX APPENDIX A gu am iel— The u n ferm en ted j u i c e o f th e maguey from w hich p u lq u e i s made. A g u a r d ie n te — I n t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r . A h u e h u e tl—A z te c drum. A l c o h o l i smo—A lc o h o li sm. A n a h u a c --A n c ie n t name o f M e x ic o . A m o--M aster o r o v e r s e e r . A n t o j i t o s — T y p ic a l p rep ared d i s h e s o f M ex ico . A rro y o — R a v in e or r i v e r bed. A u d ie n c ia — T i c e - r o y a l c o u n c il and c o l o n i a l supreme c o u r t m a in ta in e d by S p a in i n h er c o l o n i e s . B arran ca— G-ully o r deep c u t . B e s k e t - b o l — B a s k e t b a l l . B i b l i o t e c a N a c io n a l^ - N a tio n a l l i b r a r y . Buen vecino--G -ood n e ig h b o r . C a c iq u e — N a tiv e In d ia n c h ief; a p o l i t i c a l b o s s . C aciq u ism o— P r a c t i c e o f n a t i v e c h i e f s o f e x p l o i t i n g t h e i r own p e o p le . C a lp is q u e — N a tiv e o v e r s e e r on c o l o n i a l h a c ie n d a s . C a l p o l l i - - A z t e c community. Cam pesino— Parm er. C a n tin a -- S a lo o n . C a p a c it a c io n — C a p a c ity o f any i n d i v i d u a l to be d e v e lo p e d . C a r r i l e s — Communal wood l o t s . Casa de A z u l e j o s — House o f t i l e s ; famous t o u r i s t c e n t e r i n M exico City. 328 Casa d e l E s t u d ia n t e — House o f th e n a t iv e s t u d e n t ; an e x p e r i m en ta l sc h o o l* C a r c e l de B e le n — An in fam ou s p r is o n d e s tr o y e d by t h e p o s t r e v o l u t i o n govern m en t. Casa d e l p u e b lo --H o u se o f t h e p e o p le ; a name f o r th e s c h o o l s . C e n o te s — N a tu r a l w e l l s i n th e lim e s to n e o f Y u ca ta n . / C e n t r a le s A g r i c o l a s —A g r i c u l t u r a l c e n t e r s . C e n tr o s de E d u cacion I n d ig e n a — C e n te r s o f In d ia n e d u c a t io n . Conqui s t a d o r e s — S p a n ish c o n q u e r o r s . C o r r e c to s — The g e n t e e l str a tu m o f s o c i e t y . C o r r id o s --S o n g s o f c u r r e n t h a p p e n in g s. C r i s t e r o - - ”F o llo w e r s o f C h r i s t . ” G u e r r illa bands who k i l l e d governm ent f o l l o w e r s and burned s c h o o l s . C r i o l l o — Pure S p an iard born in M ex ico . C r i s t o — C h r is t o r im age o f C h r is t . D iezm o— The t e n t h o f a p e r s o n ’ s incom e or produce fo r m e r ly ta k e n by law f o r t h e ch u rch . Educar e s r e d im ir — To e d u c a te i s t o redeem . E j i d o s — Communal la n d p l o t s . E ncom enderos— P r o p r i e t o r s o f th e g r e a t e s t a t e s who owned th e p e o p le on t h e la n d a s w e l l a s th e la n d . Encom ienda— A r o y a l la n d g r a n t w ith s l a v e s . E s c u e la de a c c i o n — S c h o o l o f a c t i o n . E s c u e la p r e p a r a t o r ia — P r e p a r a to r y s c h o o l; an o ld e r ty p e o f s c h o o l t h a t i s b e in g su p e r se d e d by th e se co n d a r y s c h o o l . E s c u e la s m ix t a s - - C o e d u e a t io n a l s c h o o l s . E sta d o a e t u a n t e — The a c t i v a t i n g s t a t e . F ic h a — Perm anent r e c o r d card k ep t f o r each s t u d e n t ; f i l e . 529 F i e s t a — F e s t i v a l w ith a r e l i g i o u s b a s i s f e a t u r i n g m u s ic . G ach up in e— S p an iard born i n S p a in . G e n t e - - P e o p le . G ente de r a z o n — R ea so n in g or r a t i o n a l p e o p le ; g e n t e e l f o l k . G lo b a l— I n t e g r a l . H acendado— R ancher; owner o f an h a c ie n d a . H a cie n d a --L a r g e e s t a t e . H e c ta r — A p p r o x im a te ly 2j- a c r e s . Huapango— R e g io n a l dance o f M e x ic o ’ s w e st c o a s t . H u e h u e tl—A n c ie n t t r e e s o f C y p ress f a m ily . H u elg a — S t r i k e . H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i — W arlik e god o f A z t e c s . I g u a la c io n — E q u a liz a t io n . I n d i o - - I n d i a n . J a c a l — Poor house;- sh a c k . J a r a b e — N a t io n a l dance o f M ex ico . J a r a n a --M u s ic a l in s tr u m e n t and dance o f Y u ca ta n . J a r d in de n i n o s — K in d e r g a r te n . J e f e — C h ie f . J i c a r a s — L acquered wooden p l a t t e r s or t r a y from M ich oacan . L aca— In d ig e n o u s la c q u e r work. ,La T r in c h e r a --T h e T rench; a p a r t o f O ro zco ’ s m ural a t th e p r e p a r a to r y s c h o o l. L a t i f u n d i a s — G reat land h o ld in g s h e ld o u t o f u s e . Ley fu g a — Law o f f l i g h t ; p e r m its c a p to r s t o s h o o t p r is o n e r a l l e g e d l y t r y i n g t o e s c a p e . 350 Los de a b a jo — Those o f t h e lo w er c l a s s e s ; t i t l e o f book by- M anuel A z u e lo . Lucha de c l a s e s — C la s s s t r u g g l e . M a e str a — F em ale t e a c h e r . M aestro-—M ale t e a c h e r . Maguey— C entu ry p la n t from w h ich f i b e r s and j u i c e a r e ob t a i n e d . M a iz—F i e l d c o r n . M a r ia c h i— S t r in g e d m u s ic a l in s tr u m e n t; a l s o a p p lie d t o o r c h e s t r a made up o f s t r in g e d in s t r u m e n t s . Mesa c e n t r a l — C e n tr a l p la t e a u o f M ex ico . M e s c a l— I n t o x i c a t i n g d r in k . M e s t iz o — H a lf S p a n ia r d , h a l f I n d ia n . M e ta te — F l a t s to n e on w h ich corn i s ground. M exico t y p i c o — T y p ic a l M ex ico . M ilp a — C o r n - f i e l d . M is io n e r o s —M is s io n e r s ; e a r l y u n tr a in e d t e a c h e r s . tr Mucho t r a b a j o , poco d in e r o ; Tengo f r i j o l e s , v iv a M adero”— J i n g l e from tim e o f M a d e r o --" P le n ty o f work, n o t much money; b ean s to e a t, h u rrah f o r M a d ero .” Muy hom b re--V ery much t h e man. O r fe o n e s—M u s ic a l c lu b s . P a is a n o — N a tiv e countrym an. P a la c io de b e l l a s a r t e s - - P a l a c e o f Beaux A r t s . P a r tid a n a e io n a l r e v o l u c i o n a r i o — P .N .R .— N a t io n a l R e v o lu t io n a r y p a r ty . P a s t a l e s — Communal g r a z in g la n d handed down from A z te c E m pire. P e la d o — P oor p e r so n ; l i t e r a l l y , sk in n ed o n e . 331 P eon — One f o r c e d t o work o u t a d e b t. P i n o l e — Ground; t o a s t e d c o r n . P la n s e x e n a l — S ix y e a r p la n . P o b la c io n — S m a ll tow n. P o l i t i c o - - P o l i t i c i a n . P o r f ir is m o — S ystem o f P o r f i r i o Diaz. P o s o le - - G r u e l made from c o r n . P o t r e r o — W a te r -h o le . P ro n u n c ia m e n t© --R e v o lu tio n a r y pronou ncem ent. P u e b lo — Town. P u lq u e — F erm ented j u i c e o f th e maguey p l a n t . P u lq u e r ia — P la c e where p u lq u e i s s o l d . P e l o t a — B a l l f o r gam es. Q ,u e tz a lc o a tl— W hite god o f A z t e c s who l e f t M exico w ith prom i s e t o r e tu r n ; th e S p a n ia r d s were th o u g h t t o f u l f i l l t h i s p r o p h ec y . R a n c h e r ia — S m a ll ra n c h . R an ch ero— R ancher. R ebozo— head c o v e r in g ; a sh a w l. R io B ravo— R io Grande R iv e r . ✓ R u r a le s — N a t io n a l p o l i c e o f D ia z u sed f o r p o l i t i c a l p u rp o se s a s w e l l a s f o r crim e s u p p r e s s io n . San d u n ga--D an ce o f T e h u a n tep ec . S a n t o s — S a i n t s or im ages o f s a i n t s . S er p l e n a r i o — F u l l man. S i n d i c a t o de M a e str o s S o c i a l i s t a s — S y n d ic a te o f S o c i a l i s t S c h o o l T e a c h e r s. 332 Son—M usic f o r d a n ce. T e n o c h t it la n - - A z t e c name f o r M exico C it y . T e o c a l l i — A z te c te m p le . T e p o n a z tli--F o r m o f Aztec drum. T e p o z to n — God w orsh ip p ed a n c i e n t l y n e a r T e p o z tla n . T e z o n t le — Red v o l c a n ic rock foun d on t h e c e n t r a l p la t e a u , u sed e x t e n s i v e l y f o r b u i l d i n g . T ie r r a — Land. T ie r r a c a l i e n t e - - H o t c o u n tr y . T ie r r a f r i a — Cold c o u n tr y . T ie r r a tem p la d a — Tem perate c o u n tr y . T ie r r a y l i b e r t a d — Land and l i b e r t y . T ilm a — In d ia n c a r r y in g n e t . T la c h iq u e r o —Man who su c k s j u i c e from maguey p l a n t . T la lo c s -- W e a th e r g o d s . T o n to s— Ig n o r a n t p e o p le ; lo w er c l a s s e s . T r i s t e — Sad; a p p lie d t o p l a c e s where c o n d i t i o n s a r e p o o r , e s p e c i a l l y s l e e p y v i l l a g e s . V e te r a n o — V e ter a n o f t h e R e v o lu t io n . V ih u e la —M u s ic a l in s tr u m e n t, same a s m a r ia c h i . V i t a l is m o — P s y c h o lo g ic b e h a v io r is m . Z a p a te a r — To ta p tim e t o m u sic w ith t h e f o o t . Z a p a t i s t a s — F o llo w e r s o f Z a p a ta .

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Creator Booth, George Clive (author)

Core Title A critique of the philosophy and techniques of indoctrination of the Mexican socialist school

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, philosophy of,OAI-PMH Harvest,political science, general

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-398775

Unique identifier UC11243001

Identifier usctheses-c26-398775 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP23451.pdf

Dmrecord 398775

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Booth, George Clive

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA