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Developing patterns of the college curriculum in the United States

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Developing patterns of the college curriculum in the United States

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Content DEYELOPIHG.PATTERUS OF THE COLLEGE
CURRI CULUM IU THE TJHITEX) STATES
A D is s e r t a tio n
P re se n te d to
th e F a c u lty of th e School of E d u catio n
U n iv e r s ity of S outhern C a lif o r n ia
I n P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t
o f th e R equirem ents fo r th e Degree
D octor of P hilosophy
by
Theodore H si-Bn Chen
May 1939
U M I Number: DP23452
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This dissertation, written by
Theodore H si-En Chen
under the guidance of h^-3.... Faculty Committee
on Studies, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Council
on Graduate Study and Research, in partial ful
fillment of requirements for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Secretary
Com m ittee on Studies
tan
s .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
PART O N E
INTRODUCTION: THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
I . THE PURPOSE, SCOPE, PROCEDURE AND ORGAN!ZATION
OF' TH E, STUDY.................... 2
G eneral statem en t of the problem . . . . . . . 2
The purpose o f t h i s study . • • • . . • • • • 3
Methods o f the s t u d y ......................... .. .. ... &
The scope of th e study • • • • . ............. 1 7
The o rg a n iz a tio n o f the r e p o r t • • • • • • . . 9
I I . PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OF CHANGES IN COLLEGE
EDUCATION ............................................................. 9
Study by L. B. R ichardson 10
Study by L. V. Koos . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Study by F. J . N elly ................................ 13
Study by A. J • K l e i n ......................................... . 15
S ev en teen th Yearbook of th e N a tio n a l S o cie ty
o f C ollege T eachers of E d u ca tio n • . • • • 16
T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of the N a tio n a l S o ciety
f o r th e Study of E ducation ................................ IB
Study by Grace F o ste r ..................................... 20
R eport by F. Payne and E. W . S p e ith . . . . . 2#
Study by R. L. Duffus 2
i i i
CHAPTER PAGE
T h irty -E ig h th Yearbook of the R a tio n a l
S o cie ty f o r th e Study of E d u ca tio n . ♦ . , 26
I I I * CRITICISMS OF THE fRADITIONAL COLLEGE..................... - 29
F ra c tio n a lis m and th e c r e d it- h o u r system • • * 30
Low le v e l o f i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e in the
c o l l e g e s ................................. . .......................................... 34
Mass e d u c a tio n methods ig n o re th e in d iv id u a l . 36
The cu rric u lu m la c k s d e sig n and u n ity • . . . 3 7 *
The e v i ls of narrow s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . . . . . . Ad
Divorce from th e v i t a l problem s o f l i f e • • • 44
I n c r im in a tin g te s tim o n ie s of c o lle g e g ra d u a te s 47
C ritic is m s of s t u d e n t s .................................................... 49
C onfusion o f a i m s .............................................................. 5$
PART T W O
DEVELOPING PATTERNS OF THE COLLEGE CURRICULUM
IV. THE REVOLT AGAINST THE LOCKSTEP SYSTEM OF
CREDITS, LECTURES, AND THE MECHANIZATION O F
EDUCATION.................................................................... ... 5-T
H arvard C o l l e g e ............................................................. .... 5 j
Swarthmore C o l l e g e ........................................................ 69
R o llin s C ollege • » » . • • • 83
Summary and Comments .................................. 90
i v
CHAPTER PAGE
V. BREAKING D O W N RIGID DEPARTMEBTALI2ATIOH . . . . 96
The A d m in is tra tiv e A p p r o a c h ................................. ♦ 96
C a rle to n C ollege ............................................... 96
Reed C ollege . . 101
Summary and C om m ents............................ 10$
The C u rric u la r A p p r o a c h ............................................... 110
Columbia C ollege . . . . . . . . . 110
C olgate U n i v e r s i t y ........................................................ 1£3
Summai’y and C om m ents.......................................... 127=
71. CURRICULUM RECONSTRUCT!OH BY THE CLASSICAL
APPROACH . . . . . . . . . ................................. 1§2
The P hilosophy of th e C l a s s i c a l C urriculum • . 130
S t. Jo h n f s C ollege • •«•• • ................................ 136
Comments 14:4.
V II. CURRICULUM IB TERM S OF BROAD FIELDS OF KNOWLEDGE:
THE BEST-JUDGMENT APPROACH ........................ ISO
The U n iv e r s ity of Chicago • • • • • • • • « •
The G eneral C ollege of th e U n iv e rs ity of
’ F l o r i d a ..................................... 160"
The C ollege of L e t t e r s , A rts , and S cie n ces of
th e U n iv e rs ity of S o u th ern C a lifo rn ia * • • . 172
Goucher C o lle g e .................................• • • • • * • • • 178
Summary and Comments 180’
V
CHAPTER PAGE
V II I. CURRICXJLIJM IN TERMS OF FUNCTIONS OF LIVING:
THE SURVEY-OF-NEEDS APPROACH.................................. 184
The G eneral C ollege of the U n iv e rs ity of
M innesota ............................. . . . . . . . . . 18§
S tephens C o lleg e • 200
Summary and Comments • • • » • • • • • « . . . 2j)P
IX. EDUCATION BASED UPON THE HEEDS, INTERESTS, AND
ABILITIES OF THE INDIVIDUAL STUDENT: THE IN-
DIVIDUAL APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21§
S arah Lawrence C ollege • • • • • • • • • • • 21§
B ennington C ollege . . • • • • • . • • • • • 224
Bard C o lleg e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2%2
B lack M ountain C o lleg e • 23f;
Summary and C om m ents................................. . 244-
PART THREE
Summary and C onclusions
X. SU M M A RY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE
‘ STUDY. ....................... 850
XI. PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION . . . . . . . m o
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................... i6 §
APPENDIX . ' ..................................... 294
IHTRODUCTIOH:
PART 001
THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER I
THE PURPOSE, SCOPE, PROCEDURE,
AID ORGAIIZATI01 OF THE STUDY
* ^e n e ra 3 » Statem ent of t h e P roblem ,- The Am erican c o lle g e
i s an i n s t i t u t i o n o f unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s * Though o r ig in a l ly
an outgrow th of B r i t i s h and European u n i v e r s i t i e s , i t q u ick ly
became ad a p te d to th e c o n d itio n s and needs of American l i f e
and a c q u ire d d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i t s own# In th e
c o n s titu e n c y of i t s s tu d e n t body, in i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to 'lo w e r
and h ig h e r u n i t s i n the e d u c a tio n a l system , in i t s c u rric u lu m
and methods of i n s t r u c t i o n , i n e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s and
a l l p hases of c o lle g e l i f e , and i n fundam ental aims and p u r
p o se s, th e l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e in th e U n ited S ta te s i s d i f
f e r e n t from i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g i n o th er p a r ts of
th e w o rld .
I n re c e n t y e a r s , i n t h e fa c e of th e new demands o f a
d em ocratic system of e d u c a tio n i n a changing s o c ie ty , th e r e i s
a growing f e e l in g t h a t th e American c o lle g e has f a i l e d to
respond to s o c ia l change and t h a t i t i s i n need o f im p o rta n t
re a d ju s tm e n ts in o rd e r to be in tu n e w ith th e modern ag e . The
l a s t two decades have w itn e sse d a mushroom growth of r e o r
g a n ized c o lle g e p la n s and new ex p e rim e n ta l p r o j e c t s , aim in g ,
on th e one hand, t o r e c t i f y th e d e f e c ts and shortcom ings ;
f o r which th e c o lle g e has "been much c r i t i c i s e d , and, a t th e
same tim e, to make th e c o lle g e a t r u l y e f f e c t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n
f o r the enrichm ent o f in d iv id u a l and s o c i a l l i f e , com petent
to p rovide i n t e l l e c t u a l le a d e rs h ip in th e modern w o rld of
p e rp le x in g p ro b le m s.
The pu rp o se of t h i s s tu d y . The c u rric u lu m i s th e
h e a r t of th e e d u c a tio n a l program . I n th e c u r r e n t r e a d j u s t
ments o f th e c o lle g e s , i t i s n a t u r a l t h a t c u rric u lu m changes
sh o u ld he among th e most v i t a l and s i g n i f i c a n t . I t was th e
purpose of t h i s study to examine c r i t i c a l l y th e cu rricu lu m
changes made i n a s e le c te d number of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o lle g e s
w ith s p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n to th e fundam ental methods o f approach
employed i n e f f e c t in g such changes, in o rd e r to determ ine th e
d i f f e r e n t p a t te r n s o f cu rricu lu m which have developed or a r e
i n th e p ro c e ss of d ev elo p in g a s a consequence o f r e c e n t e f f o r t s
to re o rg a n iz e th e cu rric u lu m of th e l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e stu d y was made to answ er th e fo llo w in g
q u e s tio n s :
1. I/hat im p o rta n t c r i t i c i s m s have been made a g a in s t th e
c o lle g e s and a ro u se d them, to s e lf-e x a m in a tio n and ex p erim en ta
t i o n f o r b e t t e r m a te r ia ls and methods of h ig h e r ed u catio n ?
.2* What d i f f e r e n t p a t te r n s o f th e c o lle g e c u rricu lu m
have emerged from th e v a rio u s experim ents to re o rg a n iz e th e
t r a d i t i o n a l cu rricu lu m ?
4
3* What a re th e most s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s between
th e s e d ev elo p in g p a t t e r n s of th e c o lle g e cu rricu lu m ?
4. To what e x te n t have th e c u rric u lu m in n o v a tio n s
s u c c e s s f u lly met th e m ajor c r i t i c i s m s which have been
d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e t r a d i t i o n a l cu rricu lu m ?
5* What seem to be th e g e n e ra l tre n d s and most
p r e s s in g c u rric u lu m problem s i n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , i n view
o f th e v a rio u s p a t te r n s of th e cu rricu lu m which a r e being
evolved?
Methods o f th e s tu d y * Data f o r th e study were
g a th e re d in th e fo llo w in g ways:
1. Exam ination o f g e n e ra l l i t e r a t u r e on th e American
c o lle g e and i t s problem s in modern so c ie ty *
£* A b r i e f su rv ey , based on p re v io u s in v e s t i g a t i o n s
and r e p o r ts of eh an g esin h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s , of th e a tte m p ts
which have been made to re o rg a n iz e th e c o lle g e curriculum *
3 . S e le c tio n , f o r d e t a i l e d stu d y , of a number o f o u t
s ta n d in g and r e p r e s e n ta ti v e experim ents which a re being con
d u cted i n l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e s of v a rio u s ty p e s i n d i f f e r e n t
p a r ts o f th e country* In fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s
was o b ta in e d (a) by exam ination of c a ta lo g u e s and b u l l e t i n s
p u b lis h e d by th e c o lle g e s , (b) th ro u g h books and a r t i c l e s
d is c u s s in g th e n a tu re and problem s o f th e new p la n s and
ex p e rim e n ts, (c) by correspondence w ith re s p o n s ib le perso n s
5
in th e i n s t i t u t i o n s , and (d) by p e rs o n a l v i s i t a t i o n , i n t e r
view s, and c o n fe re n c e s.
A fte r c o n s u lta tio n w ith th e f a c u l t y Committee on
S tu d ie s a t th e U n iv e rs ity of S outhern C a lif o r n i a , and w ith
v a lu a b le s u g g e stio n s from Ur. R obert L in c o ln K e lly , r e t i r e d
e x e c u tiv e s e c r e ta r y of th e A s s o c ia tio n o f American C o lle g e s,
th e fo llo w in g i n s t i t u t i o n s were' s e le c te d f o r d e t a i l e d stu d y .
I . L ib e r a l A rts C ollege i n Endowed U n iv e r s it ie s
Columbia U n iv e r s ity , New York C ity , Hew York.
H arvard U n iv e r s ity , Cambridge, Mass.
P rin c e to n U n iv e r s ity , P rin c e to n , H e?* ? J e rs e y .
U n iv e r s ity of B u ffa lo , B u ffa lo , Hew York.
U n iv e rs ity of Chicago, C hicago, I l l i n o i s .
U n iv e r s ity of S outhern C a l i f o r n i a , Los A ngeles,
C a lif o r n i a .
Yale U n iv e r s ity , Hew Haven, Conn.
I I . Independent L ib e r a l A rts C o lle g e s
A n tio ch C o lleg e , Yello?? S p rin g s , Ohio.
Bard C o lle g e , A nnandale-on-H udson, Hew York
B ennington C o lleg e , B ennington, Vermont
B lack M ountain C o lle g e , B lack M ountain, H. C.
C a rle to n C o lleg e , H o r th f ie ld , M innesota.
C olgate U n iv e r s ity , H am ilton, Hew York.
Goucher C o lle g e , B a ltim o re , M aryland.
R o llin s C o lle g e , R o l lin s , F lo r id a .
S arah Lawrence C o lle g e , B r o n x v ille , Hew York.
Sm ith C o lle g e , N ortham pton, M a ssa c h u se tts.
Swarthmore C o lleg e , Swarthm ore, P e n n s y lv a n ia .
S t.J o h n 1s C o lle g e , A n n a p o lis, M aryland.
I I I . G eneral C o lleg e s in S ta te U n i v e r s i t i e s
U n iv e r s ity of M innesota, M in n e ap o lis, M innesota
U n iv e rs ity o f F lo rid a , G a in e s v ille , F lo r i d a .
IV. T eachers C o lleg e s
M ichigan C e n tra l S ta te T e a c h e rs ’ C o lle g e ,
Mt. P le a s a n t, M ichigan.
Hew C ollege of T e a c h e rs’ C o lle g e ,
Columbia U n iv e r s ity , Hew York.
¥♦ J u n io r C o lleg e s
Stephens* C o lle g e , Columbia, M issouri#
Up to th e tim e o f w r i tin g , a l l th e above i n s t i t u t i o n s
have been v i s i t e d w ith the. e x c e p tio n of P r in c e to n , Sm ith,
A n tio c h , Bard and Coucher. With th e th o u g h t th a t new. c u r r i
culum p la n s in some te a c h e rs c o lle g e s , em phasizing broad
c u l t u r a l e d u c a tio n a s a background f o r p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n i n g ,
would shed l i g h t on problem s o f th e l i b e r a l a r t s c u rric u lu m ,
two such i n s t i t u t i o n s were in c lu d e d in th e above l i s t #
I n t h e Appendix i s g iv e n a l i s t o f th e g u id in g ques
tio n s which were used in in te rv ie w s and c o n fe re n c e s w hile
v i s i t i n g each co lleg e# Yfhile th e p ro ced u re v a r ie d ac co rd in g
to c o n d itio n s , i t was th e g e n e ra l p la n to in te rv ie w th e
p r e s id e n t or dean ( o r , in many c a s e s , both) co n cern in g th e
dominant philosophy o f e d u c a tio n or g e n e ra l v ie w p o in ts not
e x p l i c i t in c a ta lo g u e s and b u l l e t i n s , members of th e f a c u lty
whose r e a c tio n s were c o n s id e re d v a lu a b le , and, i n some
c a s e s , in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts i n th e co lleg e#
Both because of th e l i m i t a t i o n of tim e and because
o f th e f a c t th a t th e p re s e n t study was more concerned w ith
c u rric u lu m p a t te r n s th a n w ith classroom p ro c e d u re s , v i s i t a
t i o n of c la s s e s was made i n only a few i n s t i t u t i o n s * In a l l
c a s e s , e f f o r t was made to f in d out th e fundam ental method
o f ap p ro ach employed in th e s e l e c t i o n and o r g a n iz a tio n o f
cu rricu lu m content*
The scope o f th e s tu d y # The term l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e ,
a s used i n t h i s s tu d y , r e f e r s to th e u n d erg rad u ate c o lle g e ,
known i n some in s ta n c e s a s th e C ollege o f A rts and S c ie n c e s .
The study i s lim ite d to th e g e n e ra l p a t t e r n of th e c u rric u lu m .
I t i s r e a l iz e d t h a t many s i g n i f i c a n t developm ents a re ta k in g
p la c e in methods o f ad m issio n s, i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f e x t r a
c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s , in such p r o v is io n s a s new h o u sin g
p la n s f o r r e s i d e n t s tu d e n ts and e d u c a tio n a l programs f o r
alu m n i. Im p o rta n t as they a re to c o lle g e e d u c a tio n , th ey
a r e n o t w ith in th e scope of th e p re s e n t stu d y , except a s they
r e f l e c t fundam ental v ie w p o in ts in c u rric u lu m ap p ro ach .
M oreover, i t i s n o t so im p o rta n t, from th e s ta n d p o in t of t h i s
s tu d y , to in q u ir e about changes in th e d e t a i l s o f c o lle g e
re q u ire m e n ts , such a s , f o r example, a change from tw elve
ho u rs to te n h o u rs , o r th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a course in
psychology f o r a r e q u ir e d course i n p h ilo so p h y ; such d e t a i l s ,
i t i s m a in ta in e d , do n o t produce any fundam ental change in
th e g e n e ra l p a t t e r n of the c u rric u lu m . I t i s c o n sid e re d more
im p o rta n t to ask w hether any c o u rse s a r e r e q u ir e d a t a l l and
why th ey a r e r e q u ir e d , and what p r i n c i p l e s g u id e th e - o rg a n iz a
t i o n of th e c u rric u lu m and th e s e l e c t i o n of th e c o n te n t of
c o u rs e s .
I t was on th e b a s is o f th e p a t t e r n o f th e cu rric u lu m
t h a t th e c o lle g e s were grouped under d i f f e r e n t headings* Ho
two c o lle g e s , o f c o u rse , a re e x a c tly a l i k e . When two or more
8
i n s t i t u t i o n s were c la s s if ie d , under th e same g e n e ra l p a t t e r n ,
they were so p la c e d because of th e s i m i l a r i t y o f fundam ental
c u rric u lu m ap p ro ach , ig n o r in g , fo r th e moment, d if f e r e n c e s
in o th e r re s p e c ts *
The o r g a n iz a tio n of th e r e p o r t * The r e p o rt of .the
study i s made in th r e e p a r t s . P a r t One s e t s f o r t h th e back
ground o f th e stu d y , w ith s e p a r a te c h a p te rs d e a lin g w ith th e
scope and methods o f th e stu d y , a b r i e f review o f p re v io u s
in v e s t i g a t i o n s o f c o l l e g i a t e changes, and a summary o f m ajor
c r i t i c i s m s which have been made a g a in s t th e American c o lle g e .
P a r t Two, c o n s is tin g of C hapters IY to IX i n c l u s i v e ,
r e p o r ts s ix d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f th e c o lle g e cu rric u lu m
which a r e found to have emerged from th e v a rio u s a tte m p ts
which have been made h e re and th e r e to re o rg a n iz e th e c o lle g e
c u rric u lu m . Each c h a p te r d e a ls w ith a d i s t i n c t p a t t e r n ,
i l l u s t r a t e d by a number o f examples*
P a r t Three summarizes th e f in d in g s and c o n c lu sio n s o f
th e stu d y in C hapter X, and p o in ts out i n an a d d i t i o n a l
c h a p te r some m ajor problem s r e q u ir in g f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
CHAPTER I I
PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OF CHANGES
IN COLLEGE EDUCATION
We a r e w itn e s s in g th e b eg in n in g o f a new e ra in - c o lle g e
e d u c a tio n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . J u s t a s th e in tr o d u c tio n of
new s u b je c ts i n t o th e c u rric u lu m and th e in a u g u ra tio n of th e
e l e c t iv e system marked new epochs in th e h i s t o r y o f c o lle g e
e d u c a tio n , so th e new d e p a rtu re s and ex p e rim en ts which have
been and a r e being lau n ch ed in c o lle g e s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r ts
of th e c o u n try in d ic a t e a n o th e r tu rn in g p o in t in th e d ev e lo p
ment of th e American c o lle g e * I n th e l a s t decade or two,
b o th in resp o n se to in c re a s in g c r i t i c i s m s a g a i n s t th e ebbing
v i t a l i t y o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l program and i n r e c o g n itio n of new
e d u c a tio n a l problem s produced by changed so c ia l-e c o n o m ic
c o n d itio n s — such a s , f o r example, th e e f f e c t s of th e World
War, th e demands of a grow ing dem ocracy, th e e n la rg e d stu d e n t
p o p u la tio n , th e d e p re s s io n , th e modern y o u th problem , e tc * —
American c o lle g e s have shown rem arkable a c t i v i t y i n c r i t i c a l
s e lf-e x a m in a tio n and in th e in a u g u ra tio n o f new p la n s and
e x p e rim e n ts. A number o f i n v e s tig a tio n s have been made to
d eterm ine th e n a tu re and e x te n t of such in n o v a tio n s .
Leaving a s id e such g e n e ra l surveys of l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e s
10
a s th e su rv ey s o f c o lle g e s r e l a t e d to th e M ethodist
1
E p isc o p a l Church, th e stu d y of th e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n o f the
Z
Church o f th e B re th re n , th e survey of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n f o r
3
th e U n ite d L u theran Church in Am erica, th e surveys of
4
c o lle g e s under th e D is c ip le s o f C h r is t , and th e i n v e s t i g a -
5
ti o n s made by th e A s s o c ia tio n of American C o lle g e s, t h i s
c h a p te r w i l l "b riefly review only th o se i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and
r e p o r t s which were made f o r th e s p e c i f i c purpose o f u n d e r
s ta n d in g th e changes and ex p erim en ts which were "being made
in c o lle g e education*
One of th e e a r l i e s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s was made by L* B*
R ich ard so n , i n 19£4, on b e h a lf o f Dartm outh C ollege* The
^ W * R eeves, e t a l . , The L ib e r a l A rts C o lle g e : Based
upon Surveys of T h irty -F iv e C o lle g e s R e la te d t'o' "the M e th o d ist
D p isco p al Church" T C H ic a g o U n iv e r s ity of Chicago P r e s s , 1922)
2 J , S. H off s in g e r , A Program f o r H igher E d u ca tio n i n
th e Church of th e B r e th r e n : wiifa S p e c ia l R eferen ce to th e
Humber and P i s t r i b u t i o n of C o lle g e s * ( T eachers College""Con
t r i b u t i o n s to E d u c a tio n ,‘ "Ho. 172. Hew York: T eachers C o lleg e
Bureau o f P u b lic a tio n s , 19E1).
3 R, j . L eonard, e t a l * , Survey o f H igher E d u ca tio n f o r
th e U n ite d L u th eran Church i n A m erica* “Tllew Yoric: T eachers
C ollege B ureau of lu 'b li c a t io n s , 1929'.
4 F. W. Reeves and J* D. R u s s e ll , C ollege Q rg a n iz a tio n
and A d m in is tra tio n : A R eport Based upon a S e r ie s of Surveys
o f C h u rc h C o lle g e s ( I n d ia n a p o lis : Board of E d u c a tio n , D is-
cT ples o f C h r i s t , 1 9 £ 9 ) .
5 For exam ple, th e S m aller C o lleg e S tudy, re p o r te d in
d i f f e r e n t is s u e s o f th e B u l le t in of th e A s s o c ia tio n o f American
C o lle g e s.
i n v e s t i g a t i o n was made to d is c o v e r "th e p u rp o ses and methods
6
of r e p r e s e n ta ti v e c o lle g e s o f l i b e r a l a r t s , " w ith s p e c ia l
a t t e n t i o n to "movements which looh tow ard a b e tte rm e n t of
7
c o n d itio n s ” in th e c o lle g e s# On th e b a s is of such an i n
q u iry a s e r i e s of recom m endations were made f o r th e m o d ifi
c a tio n o f th e e d u c a tio n a l program a t D artm outh.
The in q u ir y was made by means o f e x te n s iv e t r a v e l and
p e rs o n a l v i s i t a t i o n of c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s in th e
U n ite d S t a t e s , Canada, and G reat B r i t a i n . The f e a t u r e s of
th e B r i t i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s which were c o n s id e re d w orthy of th e
a t t e n t i o n of th e Am erican c o lle g e s in c lu d e d th e c a r e f u l p ro
v is i o n s f o r th e developm ent of th e b r i l l i a n t s tu d e n t, p u ttin g
th e s tu d e n ts on t h e i r ov& i e f f o r t s in s t e a d o f r e ly in g on
8
" le a r n in g le s s o n s i n th e fa s h io n o f the sc h o o lb o y ," th e
em phasis on th e r e a l m astery o f some fundam ental f i e l d of
Knowledge, th e g e n e ra l com prehensive e x a m in a tio n , and th e
c lo s e p e rs o n a l r e l a t i o n s between te a c h e r s and s tu d e n ts .
Many of th e s e f e a t u r e s a r e found i n th e recom m endations f o r
th e improvement of c o lle g e e d u c a tio n i n th e U n ite d S ta te s .
^ L. B. R ich ard so n , A Study of th e L ib e r a l C ollege
(H anover, H. H .: Dartm outh ( J o l l e g e , ~ T 9 )’, p. 7 .
^ £ °c « o i t .
8 r b i a . , p. 160.
1 2
The recommended cu rric u lu m p ro v id e s f o r an ”improved
9
and e n la rg e d m ajor” plan n ed a s !fa c o h e re n t w h o le .” The
stu d e n t i s p u t on h i s own re s o u rc e s to work f o r th e m astery
of a wide f i e l d which i s n e c e ss a ry f o r th e p a s sin g of a
com prehensive exam ination a t the end of th e course* He i s
g iv e n much freedom , -unhampered by any re q u ire m e n ts beyond
T T sueh a command of th e E n g lish language a s to make him a b le
to e x p re ss h im s e lf c l e a r ly and f o r c i b l y . ” and f? a re a d in g
10
knowledge of a t l e a s t one f o r e ig n to n g u e .”
I n th e d is c u s s io n of such s p e c i f i c to p ic s a s exam ina
t i o n s , th e t u t o r i a l system , and o th e r s , the r e p o r t made
r e f e r e n c e to a c t u a l p r a c t ic e s i n d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s .
Among th e im p o rta n t changes c i t e d a r e : th e use of new -type
ex am in atio n s a t Columbia; th e s p e c ia l tre a tm e n t of Freshmen
a t Brown, D artm outh, W illia m s, H arvard, Colum bia, H av e rfo rd ,
C a rle to n , and o th e r s ; th e com prehensive exam inations and
t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n a t H arvard; th e p r e c e p t o r i a l system a t
P rin c e to n ; th e honors course a t Swarthm ore, Columbia,
P rin c e to n , and Smith*
I n h i s stu d y of the ju n io r - c o lle g e movement, made
under su b v e n tio n s from the Commonwealth Fund o f Hew Ygrk C ity
9 > p* 1 7 6
10 I b i d . , p . 178.
and from th e U n iv e r s ity o f M innesota, 1 . ¥ . Koos made an
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of tr e n d s of r e o r g a n iz a tio n i n h ig h e r educa-
11
t i o n . H is m ajor f in d in g s were: the advanced age of
s tu d e n ts e n te r in g c o lle g e , a s compared w ith a c e n tu ry ago;
th e w idening scope o f re q u ire m e n ts f o r a d m issio n ; th e down
ward tr e n d o f th e m a te r ia ls o f th e c o lle g e c u rric u lu m ; th e
o c c u p a tio n a l f m ic tio n of th e m ajor; and th e ju n io r - e o lle g e
l i n e of c le a v a g e , w ith th e upper y e a rs of th e c o lle g e
d evoted to s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . I t was p r e d ic te d th a t w ith the
consummation o f r e o r g a n iz a tio n a lo n g th e s e l i n e s , the sm all
number o f fo u r- y e a r n o n -o c e u p a tio n a l c o lle g e s which m ight
w ith s ta n d th e f o r c e s o f r e o r g a n iz a tio n would be "re g a rd e d
a s a t y p i c a l , th e p r e v a i lin g ty p e comforming to th e tr e n d of
12
r e o r g a n iz a tio n a s d i s c l o s e d .1 1
With th e a i d of a su b v e n tio n from th e Commonwealth
Fund and under the d i r e c t i o n of a s p e c ia l com m ittee c r e a te d
by th e E d u c a tio n a l R esearch Committee o f th e .Fund, F. J .
K e lly made a study o f th e l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e i n America by
i n v e s t i g a t i n g c o n d itio n s i n tfa s e le c te d group o f c o lle g e s to
d is c o v e r e x a c tly what th e y a r e on th e e d u c a tio n a l s id e , what
~ ~ -
L. V. Koos, The J u n io r C ollege (M in n eap o lis:
U n iv e r s ity of M in n e so ta, 1924)', P a r t I I T •
12
1 . IT. Koos, "The Trend of R e o rg a n iz a tio n i n H igher
E d u catio n a s A ffe c tin g th e J u n io r C o lle g e ," E a r l I-Iudelson,
e& * > Problem s o f C ollege E d u catio n (M in n eap o lis: U n iv e rs ity
of M innesota P r e s s ,’ 1928) , p. 150.
14
they a r e doing and how s u c c e s s f u lly th e y a r e re a c h in g a lre a d y
13
determ ined, o b j e c t i v e s . ” The study was concerned c h ie f ly
w ith th e c u rric u lu m and methods o f te a c h in g , w ith tfenough
a t t e n t i o n to th e e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s o f s tu d e n ts to
a s c e r t a i n th e b e a rin g of th e se a c t i v i t i e s upon th e aim s and
14
su c c e s se s o f c o lle g e s of a r t s . ” I n a d d i t i o n to th e examina
t i o n o f c a ta lo g u e s and b u l l e t i n s and th e use o f q u e s tio n
n a i r e s s e n t to c o lle g e a d m in is t r a to r s , s tu d e n ts , and alu m n i,
th e i n v e s t i g a t o r v i s i t e d about f i f t e e n s e le c te d c o lle g e s o f
v a rio u s ty p e s and se cu red in fo rm a tio n th ro u g h in te rv ie w s
and c o n fe re n c e s. I n d e a lin g w ith such problem s a s c o lle g e
c o u rse s and c u r r i c u l a , e d u c a tio n a l gu id an ce o f s tu d e n ts ,
c o lle g e methods of te a c h in g , and th e m easurem ent of s tu d e n t
achievem ent, th e r e p o r t p re s e n ts in each case a g e n e r a l s t a t e
ment o f th e problem , a survey o f c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s and t e n
d e n c ie s , o p in io n s and c r i t i c i s m s , and, f i n a l l y , problem s
which need f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n an d re se a rc h *
The stu d y o f c o lle g e c u r r i c u l a , i n t h i s e a s e , d e a l t
more w ith th e d e t a i l s of re q u ire m e n ts i n term s o f s p e c if ic
c o u rse s and h o u rs , r a t h e r than w ith th e g e n e ra l p a t t e r n o f
F. J* K e lly , The. im e ric a n A rts C o lleg e (New York:
M acM illan Company, 19E5) 'p* 1*
14 Ibid.. , p . 2.
15
o f c u rric u lu m o r g a n iz a tio n . I t was p o in te d o u t, how ever,
th a t " te n d e n c ie s p o in t u n m istak ab ly to the c l e a r e r s e p a ra -
15
t i o n o f th e ju n io r c o lle g e work from th e s e n io r c o lle g e "
(a f in d in g , by th e way, which confirm s th a t o f Koos, a s
j u s t r e f e r r e d t o ) ; th a t th e c u r r i c u l a of th e s e n io r c o lle g e
"have a v o c a tio n a l f u n c tio n i n th e minds of th e m a jo rity o f
s tu d e n ts " and were becoming so f o r "an in c r e a s in g p r o p o rtio n
16
o f te a c h e r s , v and th a t com prehensive ex am in atio n s a t th e
end of th e s e n io r c o lle g e co u rse ?i?ere being more and more
a d o p te d .
A. J . K le in , th e th e n C h ief o f th e D iv is io n o f H ig h er
E d u c a tio n of th e U n ite d S ta te s B ureau o f E d u c a tio n , r e p o rte d
a t th e I n s t i t u t e on th e Problem s of C ollege E d u ca tio n h e ld
a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f M innesota i n J u ly , 1927, an i n v e s t i g a
t i o n of a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro c e d u re s f o r im proving c o lle g e
te a c h in g . The r e p o r t was based on d a ta o b ta in e d from se v e n ty -
fo u r i n s t i t u t i o n s , f i f t y - n i n e of which were p e rs o n a lly v i s i t e d
by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r in h is o f f i c i a l c a p a c ity . The se v e n ty -
fo u r i n s t i t u t i o n s in c lu d e d f o r ty - s e v e n la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e s
and se v e n te e n negro i n s t i t u t i o n s ; only te n w h ite p r iv a te i n s t i
tu t i o n s were on th e l i s t . From th e s ta n d p o in t of th e American
l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e , the l i s t co u ld n o t be c o n sid e re d a
15 I b i d . , P. 153.
16 I b i d . , p . 154.
r e p r e s e n ta ti v e one.
The fin d in g s of th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n were a s fo llo w s:
f i f t y - s i x of th e s e v e n ty -fo u r i n s t i t u t i o n s had adopted
"some form of a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro ced u re d esig n ed to improve
17
th e q u a l ity of te a c h in g in c o lle g e 1 , 1; f o u r te e n i n s t i t u t i o n s
r e q u ir e d p r i o r te a c h in g e x p e rien ce f o r f a c u l t y app o in tm en t;
th e re was in c r e a s in g a t t e n t i o n to th e stu d y of e d u c a tio n and
methods o f te a c h in g , and th e use of such d e v ic e s as f a c u lty
fo ru m s, v o lu n ta ry c lu b s , and f a c u l ty com m ittees f o r s p e c ia l
stu d ie s *
An i n v e s t i g a t i o n made w ith th e s p e c i f i c purpose of
d e s c rib in g d e p a rtu re s and ex p e rim en ts i n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
was r e p o r te d i n th e Yearbook Humber XYII (1929) of th e
H a tio n a l S o c ie ty of C o lleg e T eachers o f E d u c a tio n * The d a ta
co n cern in g l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e s had been su b m itte d by 156
c o lle g e s , w hich fu rn is h e d in fo rm a tio n u n d er one or more o f
th e fo u r s e c tio n s o f in q u ir y : v i z . , s tu d e n t p e rs o n n e l, r e
c o n s tr u c tio n of c u r r i c u l a , problem s of i n s t r u c t i o n , o rg a n iz a
t i o n and a d m in is tra tio n *
The Yearbook r e p o r ts r a d i c a l changes i n h ig h e r i n s t i
tu tio n s * The c o lle g e c u rric u lu m was u n d erg o in g so many
changes t h a t " th e Brahmans sh o u ld weep a t what i s happening
17
A. J . K le in , " A d m in is tra tiv e P ro c ed u res f o r
Im proving C ollege T e a c h in g ," H udelson, op. c i t . , p. 103.
17
to th e c o n te n t o f th e a r t s - c o l l e g e c u r r ic u lu m ." 18 C urriculum
re a d ju s tm e n ts in c lu d e d changes in e n tra n c e and g ra d u a tio n
re q u ir e m e n ts ; th e developm ent o f o r i e n t a t i o n c o u rse s " to
f i t th e immature s tu d e n t to f in d h i s way ab o u t i n th e realm
o f know ledge, to ta p th e s p rin g s of h i s i n t e r e s t , to develop
a b a la n c e of u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e co m p lic a te d w o r l d , t h e
ap p earan ce of new c u r r i c u l a r o f f e r i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
s p e c ia liz e d and v o c a tio n a l f i e l d s ; the in tr o d u c t io n o f honors
c o u rs e s . O ther ty p e s o f re a d ju s tm e n ts were summarized a s
fo llo v js:
Some o f th e more s i g n i f i c a n t tr e n d s may be c h a r a c t e r
iz e d b r i e f l y a s fo llo w s : th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f new a d
m i n i s t r a t i v e u n its a s i l l u s t r a t e d by ju n io r c o lle g e s ;
th e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e p u rp o ses o f i n s t r u c t i o n a t
th e J u n io r , S e n io r, and g ra d u a te l e v e l s ; th e d ev e lo p
ment o f new c u r r i c u l a and c o u rse s to meet the broad
s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , and v o c a tio n a l needs of s tu d e n ts ;
th e a d o p tio n o f new te a c h in g p ro c e d u re s to in c re a s e
s tu d e n t i n t e r e s t , i n i t i a t i v e , and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and
to p ro v id e f o r in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s ; th e in te n s iv e
stu d y of th e i n t e r e s t s , c a p a c i t i e s , a m b itio n s , and
needs of s tu d e n ts b o th a t th e tim e o f a d m issio n a n d
a t su bsequent p e rio d s th ro u g h o u t t h e i r c o lle g e
c a r e e r s ; th e developm ent o f e la b o r a te p e rs o n n e l
a g e n c ie s f o r g iv in g s tu d e n ts ad e q u ate e d u c a tio n a l
g u idance and s p e c i f i c h e lp when d i f f i c u l t i e s a re
e n c o u n te re d ; more a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of a d m in is
t r a t i v e o f f i c e r s i n im proving i n s t r u c t i o n ; h ig h e r
s ta n d a rd s r e q u ir e d among th e te a c h in g s t a f f ; and th e
developm ent of a g e n c ie s f o r th e s c i e n t i f i c study of
i n s t r u c t i o n a l problem s, These and o th e r s i g n i f i c a n t
^ n a t i o n a l S o c ie ty of C o lleg e T eachers of E d u c a tio n ,
Yearbook Humber XVII, 1929 {Chicago: The U n iv e rs ity of Chicago
P r e s s , 19 2 9 ), p . 19V
19 I b i a . , p. 20.
te n d e n c ie s a re r e s u l t i n g in v i t a l changes in th e
p u rp o se, c o n te n t, and o r g a n iz a tio n o f i n s t r u c t i o n in
b o th academ ic and p r o f e s s io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . ^ ^
P erhaps th e most e x te n s iv e r e p o r t o f new v e n tu re s and
in n o v a tio n s in c o lle g e e d u c a tio n i s found i n th e t h i r t y - F i r s t
Yearbook ( P a rt I I I ) of th e N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r the Study o f
Education# The r e p o r t was based upon an i n v e s t i g a t i o n
c a r r i e d on by h r . K athryn McHale and h e r a s s o c i a t e s on
b e h a lf of th e American A s s o c ia tio n o f U n iv e r s ity Women, f o r
th e purpose of f in d in g out ”th e m ajor tr e n d s o f c u r re n t
changes and ex p e rim en ts i n s t i t u t e d f o r th e improvement of
21
l i b e r a l - a r t s e d u c a tio n .” The stu d y was i n i t i a t e d i n 1930.
Responding to th e r e q u e s t of th e American A s s o c ia tio n
of U n iv e r s ity Women th r e e hundred and f i f t e e n c o lle g e s jo in e d
i n a C o o p e r a tiv e e n t e r p r is e o f s to c k - ta k in g and p o o lin g of
e x p e rie n c e s r e l a t i n g to changes and ex p erim en ts c u r r e n t in
l i b e r a l c o l l e g i a t e e d u c a tio n alo n g th e l i n e s o f th e ca re and
d i r e c t i o n o f s tu d e n ts , c u rric u lu m and i n s t r u c t i o n , o rg a n iz a -
22
t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .” The co u n try was d iv id e d i n t o
n in e g e o g ra p h ic a l r e g io n s , each re g io n h aving a com m ittee .
r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e c o m p ila tio n and d is c u s s io n o f d a ta . The
20 I h i d . , p . 148.
^ n a t i o n a l S o c ie ty f o r th e Study of E d u c a tio n , T h irty
F i r s t Y earbook, P a r t I I , Changes and E xperim ents in L ib e r a l-
A rt s E d u catio n (B loom ington, I l l i n o i s ! P u b lic School P u b lis h
in g Company, 1932), p . 1#
22 i b i d * , p . 2#
f in d in g s of th e r e g io n a l com m ittees were su b m itte d th ro u g h
t h e i r chairm en to n a t i o n a l h e a d q u a r te r s , where th e y were
" f u r t h e r com piled and c o n s id e re d by th e D ir e c to r [ [of th e
A, A, U. W.J a r e s e a r c h a s s o c i a t e , and a n a t i o n a l a d v iso ry
com m ittee of e d u c a to rs who have th em selv es been in s tru m e n ta l
23
in b r in g in g about changes in c o l l e g i a t e e d u c a tio n ."
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n showed "how w id esp re ad i s th e
s p i r i t of e x p e rim e n ta tio n and how numerous a r e th e r e s u l t i n g
changes*”^ Out o f th e numerous in n o v a tio n s r e p o r te d from
d i f f e r e n t r e g io n s , 128 " o u ts ta n d in g changes and ex p e rim en ts"
were s e le c te d f o r d e s c r ip tio n . They co v e r a vd.de range of
new v e n tu re s in p e rso n n e l p ro c e d u re s , c u rric u lu m developm ents,
a d m in is tr a tiv e p r a c t i c e s , and o th e r phases o f c o lle g e educa
t i o n .
I n an e f f o r t to make an a p p r a i s a l o f th e im portance
o r s ig n if ic a n c e of th e changes, the Yearbook in c lu d e s s t a t e
ments by members o f th e n a tio n a l a d v is o ry com m ittee and o th e r
e x p e rts on m ajor p h ases o f e x p e rim e n ta l change and on th e
f u tu r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n l i b e r a l - a r t s e d u c a tio n , The c o lle g e s
were found to be a l i v e and ready t o make changes to meet new
p ro b lem s. I n th e words of th e D ir e c to r o f th e stu d y : "T h eir
p a s t i s not la c k in g in g lo r y ; t h e i r p re s e n t s t a t u s i s , f o r
23 » * > • 3 ‘
24 I M A ., p. 235.
20
th e most p a r t , h e a lth y and p ro m isin g ; t h e i r f u tu r e i s b r ig h t
w ith h o p e .n^
The fo llo w in g co n c lu d in g rem arks c o n c ern in g the c u r r i
culum a re w orthy o f n o te :
One could only h a z a rd a g u ess a s to what e x a c tly
w i l l c o n s t i t u t e the curriculum , te n y e a rs hence or
in what may le a r n in g w i l l be g u id e d . I t may be
s a f e , how ever, to a s s e r t a s g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s o f th e f u t u r e th a t th e c u rric u lu m w i l l i n t e
g r a te f i e l d s of le a r n in g ; t h a t b o th c u rric u lu m
and method w i l l be i n d iv i d u a li z e d and d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
in term s of in d iv id u a l c a p a c ity , i n t e r e s t , and f u tu r e
n ee d s; t h a t te a c h in g w i l l be more e x a c t and more i n
fo rm a l; and t h a t th e s tu d e n t w i l l be s o c i a l i z e d
th ro u g h c o n ta c ts w ith many more l i f e s i t u a t i o n s and
w i l l be a b le to le a r n more co m p letely by l i v i n g
more c o m p le te ly .26
Grace F o s te r made in 1934 a stu d y o f new cu rricu lu m d e
velopm ents i n women1s c o lle g e s . V i s i t a t i o n of chosen c o lle g e s
was supplem ented by q u e s tio n n a ire s and in te rv ie w s w ith th e
alumnae of womenTs c o lle g e s . S ta r tin g w ith th e t h e s i s t h a t
s o c i a l and economic changes had brought about th e r a p id
expansion of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n o f women and had a t th e same
tim e produced e d u c a tio n a l problem s demanding new s o lu t io n s ,
th e study was made nto a n a ly z e th e se problem s which c o n fro n t
th o se who a re concerned w ith th e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n of women
and a ls o to show what e x te n t c e r t a i n c o lle g e s e d u c a tin g women
2 5 > p* 2 3 1 •
26 Ibid-. , p. 2 3 5 .
21
z
a r e m eeting th e s e p roblem s, by means of changes i n c u r r ic u la * "
fhe a n a ly s is o f problem s o f s o c i a l change was made,
f i r s t , by a survey o f contem porary w r i t i n g s , an d , se c o n d ly ,
by o b ta in in g th e o p in io n s and su g g e s tio n s o f about 700
alum nae. To d is c o v e r th e e x te n t to w hich th e c u r r i c u l a of
women*s c o lle g e s had b een s e n s i t i v e to s o c i a l change, an
a n a ly s is was made o f s i g n i f i c a n t c u rric u lu m developm ents in
f iv e women1s c o lle g e s : nam ely, Y assar C o lle g e , W e lle sley
C o lle g e , Mount Holyoke C o lle g e , R a d c lif f e C o lle g e , and
B arnard C o lle g e . Such developm ents were found to be ffa lo n g th e
l i n e fo llo w ed by o th e r p ro g re s s iv e c o lle g e s of th e day.
Program s of e d u c a tio n a l and v o c a tio n a l g u id an ce have been
d ev elo p ed , honors c o u rse s have been i n s t i t u t e d , new p o s s i b i
l i t i e s o f p r o f e s s io n a l and p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a tio n have
been opened, d ep artm en ts a r e b ein g c r o s s - c u t i n th e i n t e r e s t
oo
o f g a in in g a whole view o f some f i e l d o f k n o w led g e.”
S in c e , how ever, th e s e developm ents " a re not ones vjhich
on
con cern th em selv es s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith problem s of women,”
an a d d i t i o n a l survey was made of e x p e rim e n ta l program s "which
27
Grace R. F o s te r , S o c ia l Change i n R e la tio n to
C u r r ic u la r Development i n C o lle g ia te E d u c a tio n (v /a te rv T lle ,
M aine: Grace R. F o s te r , 1 934), p . 3.
28 » P« 136.
L o 6 ..P i t .
aim s p e c i f i c a l l y to h e lp women to meet th e problem s con-
30
f r o n ti n g them in modern s o c i e t y . ” These programs in c lu d e
th e I n s t i t u t e f o r th e C o o rd in a tio n o f Women1s I n t e r e s t s a t
Smith C o lle g e , th e f u n c tio n a l a n a ly s is of th e c u rric u lu m a t
S tephens C o lle g e , th e use of s tu d e n t i n t e r e s t s a t Sarah
Lawrence C ollege and B ennington C o lle g e , and s i g n i f i c a n t
developm ents a t S c rip p s , Goucher, and o th e r women1s c o lle g e s*
The changes in d ic a te d th a t th e c o lle g e s were a tte m p tin g
to a d ju s t t h e i r c u r r i c u l a to meet th e problem s o f s o c ia l
change and to p re p a re f o r i n t e l l i g e n t l i v i n g in a changing
s o c i e t y *
U sing th e s c i e n t i f i c method th e y _Lth e _ c o l le g e s j have
s e t up th e c r i t e r i o n o f p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y f o r s u b je c t
m atter* R e search goes on sp a ce to a n a ly z e , by o b je c tiv e
m ethods, l i f e a c t i v i t i e s , and th e n by s u b je c tiv e a n a ly
s i s e v a lu a te th e s e fin d in g s to d eterm ine th e m a te r ia l
which w i l l mahe th e most u s e f u l a d d i t i o n to c o u rse s of
s tu d y .3* 1 -
The p o in t was re p e a te d ly s t r e s s e d th a t ”th e is s u e as
to w h eth er or n o t e d u c a tio n e s p e c i a lly d esig n ed to meet th e
needs of women sh o u ld be p ro v id e d was b u t one o f th e p h ases
of th e s tr u g g le betw een th o se who ad v o c a te p r o f e s s io n a l
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and th o s e who a re convinced th a t th e l i b e r a l
32
a r t s program sh o u ld rem ain c u l t u r a l in i t s a im .”
30 F o s te r , l o c * c i t *
31 I b i d *, p* 163*
I b i d * , p . 179 *
23
I t was p o in te d out t h a t w h ile th e f iv e s e le c te d c o l le g e s —
t h a t i s , Y assar, W e lle s le y , e tc * —had "rem ained f a i t h f u l
to th e c u l t u r a l i d e a l , " th e newer e x p e rim e n ta l c o lle g e s
had been a b le " to b reak from th e c o n v e n tio n a l c o lle g e system
o f c o u rse s and c r e d i t s and to make th e needs and i n t e r e s t s
of th e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t th e c e n te r o f t h e i r program of
c u rric u lu m c o n s tr u c tio n ,
The fo llo w in g sta te m e n t i n th e c o n c lu d in g c h a p te r i s
of i n t e r e s t :
The is s u e o f v o c a tio n a l t r a i n i n g , which the l i b e r a l
a r t s c o lle g e cannot much lo n g e r a v o id , has a s one of
i t s p hases th e q u e s tio n o f e d u c a tin g women to meet
th e problem s which a r e p e c u lia r to them. The l i b e r a l
a r t s c u rric u lu m must to some e x te n t meet th e v o c a tio n a l
needs o f the s tu d e n t. However, th e c u l t u r a l a n d v oca
t i o n a l aim s have been to o much opposed. They a r e n o t
m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e b u t sh o u ld r e in f o r c e each o th e r .
The l i f e c a r e e r m otive i s a p ow erful in c e n tiv e to
le a r n in g and th e c u rric u lu m of th e l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e
i s i n need o f i t s e n e rg iz in g in f lu e n c e . Even though
many o f th e c o lle g e s f o r women st%nd firm i n t h e i r
su p p o rt o f t h e i r c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n , a f f irm in g th a t
th e l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e i s n o t o rg a n iz e d to se rv e
v o c a tio n a l en d s, n e v e r th e le s s th ey a r e of n e c e s s ity
s e rv in g th e v o c a tio n a l needs o f the s tu d e n ts i n an
in c r e a s in g number o f w ays. One im p o rta n t method i s
t h a t of v o c a tio n a l g u id a n c e . I f t h i s program be
a d e q u a te , th e s tu d e n t i s h e lp e d in d is c o v e rin g h e r
own a b i l i t i e s , n e e d s, and i n t e r e s t s . Then by
e d u c a tio n a l g u id an ce she i s e n a b le d to f in d a c o u rse
o f stu d y which w ill, h e lp h e r se rv e th o se needs and
i n t e r e s t s . In. such a p ro ced u re i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t
p r e p a r a tio n f o r a v o c a tio n , and t r a i n i n g f o r c u l t u r e ,
go hand in h a n d .35
33 I M S - » p * 181 •
Loc. e i t .
35 r b i d . , p* 1 8 5 .
£4
Payne and S p e ith wrote i n 1935 a book which i a s not
based on any in v e s tig a tio n i n th e s t r i c t sense of th e word,
but an in fo rm al d is c u s s io n of nsome of the more s i g n i f i c a n t
developments in h ig h e r ed u catio n from th e p o in t o f view of
36
the c o lle g e t e a c h e r . ” There a r e , however, i n t e r e s t i n g
accounts in th e book of experim ental programs a t Chicago,
A ntioch, Bennington, Bard, Swarthmore, H arvard, M innesota,
and o th e r c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . The book a ls o co n tain s
c h a p te rs on honors co u rses, t u t o r i a l work, and th e education
of the e l i t e ,
Under th e au sp ic e s of the Carnegie Foundation f o r th e
Advancement of Teaching, R. 1. Duffus made a study i n 1936
of "the h is t o r y and p re se n t s t a t u s of the u n it system of
37
adm ission to c o lle g e ” and " o th e r t o p i c s . ” Data were
o b tain ed by v i s i t a t i o n of a s e le c te d group of i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
re p re s e n tin g d i f f e r e n t types of c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
Although the c e n tr a l to p ic of th e in v e s t i g a t i o n was the
a r t i c u l a t i o n of th e secondary school and the c o lle g e , the
r e p o r t in c lu d e s a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l d is c u s s io n of the e l e c t iv e
F. Payne and U. tT. S p e ith , An Open L e tte r to College
Teachers, (Bloomington, In d ian a : The P r in c ip ia P re s s , 19351,"'
P re fa c e , p. v i i .
R, L. Buff u s, Democracy E n te rs C o lle g e : A Study of
the Rise and D ecline of Academic Lockstep (Ifew York: C haries
S c r ib n e r 1 s Sons, 1936T7 Foreword, p. v.
25
system and the r i s e of the c r e d it-h o u r system of c o lle g e
ed u c atio n , and a g en e ra l survey of new developments i n h ig h e r
ed u catio n .
H arvard, Yale, and P rin c e to n were re p o rte d to be
l i b e r a l i z i n g adm ission requirem ents and moving away from the
c r e d it-h o u r system through the encouragement of independent
study by means of comprehensive exam inations and, some form of
t u t o r i a l or p r e c e p to r ia l system. Columbia, Swarthmore,
Goucher, and B uffalo were given a s examples of "e d u c a tio n a l
new d e a ls ” experim enting w ith th e m a te r ia l of ed u catio n .
The s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s , re p re s e n te d by W isconsin, M innesota,
Iowa, Kentucky, and G eorgia, were shown to be g ra p p lin g w ith
th e problem o f keeping t h e i r doors open i n response to the
demands of democracy, a t the same time paying due re g a rd to
s e l e c t i o n and avo id in g th e e v i ls of mass ed u catio n . A s p e c ia l
c h a p te r devoted to th e experim ental c o lle g e s , some more ra d
i c a l th a n o th e rs , d isc u sse d the programs a t Bennington,
Chicago, th e General College of th e U n iv e rsity of M innesota,
Bard, Sarah Lawrence, Reed, Stephens, and o th e r c o lle g e s .
In th e m idst of th e s e v a rie d changes, B u ffu s5 saw
g e n e ra l "te n d e n c ie s in the d i r e c t i o n of g r e a t e r freedom and
38
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r th e s t u d e n t , ” and a g e n e ra l movement
ffto break down mass ed u c a tio n , to f u r n is h in d iv id u a l guidance
38 I b i i . , p. 235.
to take advantage of in d iv id u a l s t u d e n t s 1 t a s t e s , enthusiasm s
and a b i l i t i e s , to put l e s s emphasis upon enforced classroom
e x e rc is e s and more upon s e lf - p r o p e lle d a c t i v i t i e s , and, in
s h o r t, to s e t the stu d e n t fre e to educate h im s e lf and t e s t
39
him by h is success i n doing s o . 1 1 "There i s no re p u ta b le
American c o lle g e 1 1 he concluded," which does not in some
degree f e e l the s t i r r i n g s of t h i s movement. The c o lle g e s
are a l i v e , They are facin g toward the new day and the new
40
e d u c a tio n .1 1
The T h irty -E ig h th Yearbook of the n a t i o n a l S ociety
f o r the Study of E ducation, d ea lin g in P a rt I I w ith the
g e n e ra l to p ic !lG-eneral E ducation in the American C o lle g e ,”
devotes a s e c tio n to r e p o r ts of co lleg e p lan s emphasizing
the ex te n sio n of g e n e ra l ed u c atio n . A ch a p ter w r i t t e n by
B. Lamar Johnson d e s c rib e s the g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n programs
of th re e ju n io r c o lle g e s : the Pasadena Ju n io r C ollege, th e .
fo u r-y e a r C ollege of th e U n iv e rsity o f Chicago, and Stephens
41
College* M. S. MacLean, w ith the a s s is ta n c e of Th L. L i t t l e
40 Ih ic U , p. 236.
44 B. Lamar Johnson, "The Ju n io r C o lleg e ," T h ir ty -
E ighth Yearbook o f N, S, S. E . , P a rt I I ( Bloomington:
T I l i n o i s : Pub1ie School P u b lish in g Company, 1939), pp. 113-
134.
and G. A. Works, d e s c rib e s the programs of s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s
th e Experim ental College of the U n iv e rsity of W isconsin, the
General College of th e U n iv e rsity of M innesota, and the
General College of th e U n iv e rsity o f F l o r i d a . ^ p. p.
C o t t r e l l re p o rts a com parative i n v e s t i g a t i o n of f iv e e x p e ri
m ental c o lle g e s —Sarah Lawrence C o lleg e, Bennington C ollege,
Black Mountain C o lle g e , Bard C ollege, S t. Johnl s C o lleg e—
showing how c e r t a i n main is s u e s of g e n e ra l ed u c atio n are
43
faced by each. J . P. R u s s e ll summarizes an in v e s t i g a t i o n ,
by means of correspondence, of t h i r t y - f i v e l i b e r a l a r t s
c o lle g e s in n in e te e n s t a t e s , and r e p o r ts such in n o v a tio n s
as th e cleavage betv^een the upper and the lower d iv is io n
of the c o lle g e , the d iv is io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n of s u b je c t-
m a tte r o f f e r in g s , the development of survey co u rse s, th e
encouragement of independent study, comprehensive examina-
44
t i o n s , and o th e rs . Among a l l th e se in n o v a tio n s, R u s s e ll
o b serv es, "th e fu n c tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n of s u b je c t- m a tte r
co u rses i s worthy of e s p e c ia lly s e rio u s a t t e n t i o n , f o r i f
42
M. S. MacLean and o th e rs , "The General C o lle g e s,"
I b i d . , pp. 135-170.
^ P. P. C o t t r e l l , "General E ducation in Experim ental
L ib e ra l A rts C o lle g e s," I b i d . , pp. 193-218.
^ J . P. R u s s e ll, "General E ducation i n the L ib e ra l
A rts C o lle g e s," I b i d . , pp.
28
i t proves s u c c e s s fu l, i t w i l l r e v o lu tio n iz e the p la n of
s u b je c t-m a tte r o rg a n iz a tio n th a t lias been fix e d f o r more
45
th an two thousand y e a rs in Western C i v i l i z a t i o n * n
I t i s c le a r from t h i s b r i e f summary of previous i n
v e s tig a t io n s t h a t w hile they have brought to l i g h t many
s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n c o lle g e edu catio n and have, in some
e a se s, in d ic a te d the g e n e ra l tre n d s i n c o lle g e i n s t r u c t i o n
and curriculum developm ents, they have not made any s y s
te m atic in q u iry in to the fundam ental methods of approach
i n curriculum c o n s tru c tio n and re o rg a n iz a tio n * Moreover,
they have not attem p ted to group the numerous changes under
a sm all number of c a te g o rie s or p a tte rn s*
45
I b i d * , p. 189.
CHAPTER I I I
CRITICISMS OF THE TRADITIOHAL COLLEGE
As p rev io u sly n o te d , re c e n t changes i n co lle g e educa
t i o n came about in response to c r i t i c i s m s of i t s inadequacy
i n meeting th e problems of th e modern ag e. C ritic is m s of
the c o lle g e have s p r m g from many sources: from s tu d e n ts ,
a
who complain th a t they are g iv e n /s to n e when they a s h f o r
bread; from a lu m n i, who t e s t i f y to the low value of c o lleg e
s tu d ie s in h e lp in g them solve the p r a c t i c a l problems of l i f e ;
from p a r e n ts , who q u e stio n whether th e a c tu a l b e n e f i ts of
c o lle g e education j u s t i f y th e expense of keeping t h e i r sons
and d aughters in c o lle g e ; from co lleg e a d m in is tr a to r s and
te a c h e rs them selves, who bemoan th e low le v e l of i n t e l l e c t u a l
l i f e i n th e c o lle g e and th e ap p aran t la c k of i n t e r e s t and
i n i t i a t i v e on th e p a r t of th e s tu d e n ts ; from s o c ia l le a d e rs
o u tsid e «bf th e academic c i r c l e s , who p o in t out th a t the
c o lle g e f a i l s to educate i t s s tu d e n ts f o r re s p o n s ib le c i t i z e n
ship and competent le a d e rs h ip i n a democracy and f o r i n
t e l l i g e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n modern, tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry li f e *
Hot a l l the c r i t i c i s m s , of course., a re worthy of
a t t e n t i o n . I t i s th e purpose of t h i s c h a p te r to summarize
th e most p o in te d and p e r tin e n t of th e c r i t i c i s m s so th a t
they may serve as a background fo r th e u n d erstan d in g
30
and th e e v a lu a tio n of the changes which th e c o lle g e s have
in a u g u ra ted , numerous c r iti c is m s found in p ro fe s s io n a l
and lay p u b lic a tio n s have been summarized under nine main
h ead in g s.
ffrac tio n alism and the c r e d it- h o u r system . The
most fre q u e n t and th e most severe c r i t i c i s m of c o lleg e edu
c a tio n i s d ir e c te d a g a in s t the c r e d i t system , th e system of
counting e d u c a tio n a l p ro cesses and r e s u l t s i n terms of
courses and h o u rs. The c r e d it-c o u rs e -h o u r system and the
e le c t iv e system a r e p a r t s of the same scheme. S tudents work
toward th e degree by th e g ra d u al accum ulation of co u rses,
c r e d i t s and p o in ts ; having accum ulated th e necessary number
of c r e d i t s and p o in ts , they a re alm ost a u to m a tic a lly awarded
a degree and g iv en the r e c o g n itio n t h a t they have s a t i s f a c
t o r i l y ac q u ire d a fo u r-y e a r co lle g e ed u c a tio n . I t i s tru e
t h a t th e re are u s u a lly r u le s governing d i s t r i b u t i o n and con
c e n tr a tio n , but th e s e ag a in a re s t a t e d in term s of courses
and c r e d i t s , the stu d e n ts being l e f t t o put to g e th e r w hatever
l i e s w ith in easy reach f o r th e f u l f i l l m e n t of th e r e g u la tio n s .
The courses chosen are o fte n q u ite u n r e la te d to each o th e r;
th e re is lacking any i n t e l l i g e n t plan of p a t t e r n f o r th e
c o lle g e course. The b lin d choice of co u rse s i s c r i t i c i z e d
by Upton S i n c l a i r a s fo llo w s:
31
S tudents are supposed to choose co u rse s, but no
p ro v is io n i s made f o r them to sample the wares
and make an i n t e l l i g e n t s e le c tio n . I f anybody
f a i l s he has made a m istake, he i s in the same
p l i g h t as i f he has m arried th e wrong g i r l ; he
can not g e t out w ith o u t h u r tin g th e g i r l * s
f e e l i n g s , and I , unhappy b lu n d e re r in th e u n d er
g rad u ate machine, had to h u r t th e f e e l in g s of
P ro f e s s o r. . . . J-
Since every c r e d i t a t t a i n e d and every course passed
e n te r s in to the re c o rd of th e r e g is tr a r ; and marks t h a t much
advance toward the degree, s tu d e n ts do not have to give any
thought to what has been s tu d ie d once a course i s com pleted.
The c o lle g e asks no q u estio n s a s to vdiether the stu d e n t sees
any r e l a t i o n s h i p between the courses he ta k e s , or ’ whether he
remembers an y th in g about th e courses once the f i n a l grades
have been a s s ig n e d . The system encourages " s c a t t e r e d
o
le a rn in g and prompt f o r g e t t i n g . 1 1 The le a rn in g i s s c a tte r e d
and piecem eal because th e d iv is io n of the cu rricu lu m in to
fragm entary courses m i l i t a t e s a g a in s t th e u n d ersta n d in g of
wholes and th e a p p r e c ia tio n of r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; prompt f o r g e t
t in g i s encouraged because a course i s "completed" once th e
f i n a l grade i s tu rn ed in to the r e g i s t r a r s o f f i c e .
The degree, to which th e c r e d it- h o u r system has r e -
Upton S i n c l a i r , The G oose-Step, a Study of American
E d u ca tio n , (Pasadena: Upton S i n c l a i r , 1923), p. 10.
^ Kathryn McHale, "E ducation f o r Women," Jo u rn a l of
H igher E ducation, 6:462, December, 1935.
32
s u ite d in the m echanization of c o lle g e ed u catio n i s in d ic a te d
by L. B. R ichardson in the fo llo w in g d e s c r ip tio n :
Our machinery i s now so complicated,. By p assin g
co u rses men accum ulate c r e d i t fo r "h o u rs." But
t h a t i s not enough: the minimum p a ssin g sta n d ard
i s too low; i t i s necessary th a t the g e n e ra l q u a lity
of work be h ig h e r than th a t* So we give p o in ts as
w ell a s h o u rs, th e number of p o in ts f o r each hour
depending upon the grade of work, and then vje s e t
up a sta n d ard of p o in ts which must be reached
b efo re the degree can be a tta in e d * So i f th e man
has 122 hours and 220 p o in ts , th e degree i s his*
He re g a rd s h im s e lf, and the community re g a rd s him,
a s an educated man; but i f he has 121 hours and 250
p o in ts or 130 hours and 219 p o in ts , i t i s not enough.
He must r e t u r n , not f o r more e d u c a tio n , but f o r more
c r e d i t s ; not f o r more le a rn in g , but f o r a degree.
Or the system may be one in which a c e r t a i n p o rtio n
of the marks must have reached a d e f i n i t e grade i f they
a r e to count; so th a t a given course passed a t 69fo
a v a i l s i f th r e e o th e r courses of th e same sem ester
are graded 70ji, but of no value i f one of the th re e
f a l l s below t h a t fig u re
Thus we have rlan e d u c a tio n a l system which tu rn s out
thousands o f d e g re e -h o ld ers and only a few educated men and
4
women." Many s tu d e n ts ru sh to c o lle g e not to g e t an educa
t i o n b u t to win a degree, The degree i s won by a m echanical
and ro u tin e p ro cess of tim e -se rv in g and hour-counting*
S aid Henry Suzzalo:
® L* B. R ichardson, A Study of th e L ib e ra l C o lle g e ,
(Hanover, H. H: Dartmouth CoTlege,
J . R. T unis, "Human Waste, i n th e C o lle g e s,"
S c r ib n e r 1s Magazine 96:138, September, 1934*
33
I s th e re anything more r id ic u lo u s th a n our p re se n t
p la n of measuring the s tu d e n t1 s c r e d i t by th e time
th e p ro fe s s o r p u ts in ? This i s e x a c tly the s i t u a t i o n
we. a re in , The hours th e p ro fe s s o r works i n th e
presence of th e stu d e n t have more to do w ith th e
stu d e n t f s c r e d i t than any o th e r s in g le f a c t o r .
Our surveys show, where we tak e a s tu d e n t1s t e s t i
mony on th e b a s is of d i a r i e s of time sp e n t, th a t i t
i s a poor stu d e n t who cannot meet th e average course
requirem ent w ith about an hour of tim e o u tsid e fo r
every hour i n class*
There w ill be no s o lu tio n to our problems so long
as we count the number of m inutes i n the p r o f e s s o r 1 s
h o u r. How much th e stu d e n t works i n t h a t hour nobody
knows, • . . Unless we a re p rep ared to scrap th e
whole tim e-m achinery, we s h a l l have no s u b s t a n t i a l
reform .^
How u n s a tis f a c to r y t h i s method of tim e -se rv in g i s
has been c l e a r ly shown i n th e study of the P ennsylvania
c o lle g e s conducted under th e a u sp ic e s of th e Carnegie
Foundation f o r th e Advancement of Teaching. C a re fu l t e s t i n g
of the knowledge of stu d e n ts showed th a t !fmany of th e se
s tu d e n ts , in s p ite of co lle g e diplom as, a r e n e v e rth e le s s no
b e t t e r infoirm^d,on, fhe .s u b je c ts ,.te s te d th a n .a la rg e number
of p u p ils s t i l l in h ig h school; alm ost o n e - s ix th even l o s t
6
ground academ ically during a tw o-year t r i a l p e r io d *n %7hat
^ Henry Suzzalo, nThe I n t e l l e c t u a l L ife of th e C o lle g e s ,w
B u l le t in of th e A sso c ia tio n of American C olleges 16:59, March
t j s o ; --------------------------------------------------------------
^ Carnegie Foundation f o r th e Advancement of Teaching,
The Student and His Knowledge (Hew York: The Carnegie Foundation,
19'38) , p. 4 4 .
i s th e ro o t of th e tro u b le ? "The study p la c e s the blame
f o r the p re s e n t s t a t e of h ig h e r ed u c atio n ♦ • • on the so-
c a lle d c r e d i t system, one germane to th e c o lle g e s and u n i
v e r s i t i e s of th e U nited S tates* This system whereby one
ta k e s a c e r t a i n number of courses and r e c e iv e s a fix e d
number of p o in ts f o r every course p assed , a u to m a tic a lly
e n t i t l e s one to a degree when the n ec essary number of p o in ts
7
a re ac q u ire d * ”
^ke low l e v e l of i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e in th e c o l l e g e s *
Mien ro u tin e methods a r e follow ed in the accum ulation of
c r e d i t s , i t i s no wonder t h a t genuine i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y
i s a t a low le v e l in th e c o lle g e s . S tudents show very l i t t l e
i n t e r e s t and i n i t i a t i v e in t h e i r s tu d ie s ;, th e !tside-show s”
ap p eal much more than the courses i n th e curriculum ; the
o cc asio n al r e a l stu d e n t i s laughed a t by h i s f e l l o w - s tu d e n ts ,
he i s c a lle d a "p rig " o r a " g rin d ." A cadem ically, the main
i n t e r e s t seems to be i n the degree; a l l kinds of sh o rt cu ts
a re welcome and become very p o p u la r,
Coe speaks of "th e overwhelming prominence of the
p ro fe s s o r or i n s t r u c t o r in th e c la ssro o m ,” where "the
stu d e n ts s i t , l i k e a p a t ie n t in a d e n t i s t * s c h a ir , w aitin g
s i l e n t l y to have something done to them; and th e te a c h e r
* 7 J* R. T unis, op * c i t *, p* 143.
35
8
a c c e p ts t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . " But, even th e c o lle g e t e a c h e r 1s
a c t i v i t y i s not of the h ig h e s t q u a l ity . "A c o n sid e ra b le
p o r tio n of c o lle g e te a c h e rs , probably a co n sid e ra b le m a jo rity ,
assume th a t t h e i r job c o n s i s t s , not in awakening i n t e l l e c
t u a l i n t e r e s t s , not even in feed in g i n t e r e s t s a lre a d y h e re ,
but in g e t t i n g a r i g i d l y determ ined b a tc h of m a te ria l f a r
enough in s id e th e s t u d e n t s 1 mind to enable him to reproduce
9
i t in t e s t s and exam in atio n s."
Much c r i t i c i s m has been made of th e l e c t u r e method.
I t does not engender any h igh degree of i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y
on the p a r t of e i t h e r the s tu d e n ts or the i n s t r u c t o r s . Says
Hamilton H olt:
H e ith e r th e p ro fe s s o r nor the stu d e n t needs t o be
more th an h a l f awake f o r t h i s p ro cess to go on:
th e p ro fe s s o r may re g a rd i t a s a n ecessary e v i l in
the way of h is p et occupation of re s e a rc h or
w ritin g ; the student f e e l s t h a t i f he f i l l s h is
s e a t and makes some show of ta k in g n o te s , he i s
doing h i s p a r t . H eith er has to be quickened,
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y or em o tio n a lly , by th e su b je c t
i n hand# ^
8 G r. A. Coe, "B y-Products of th e College Classroom ,"
R e lig io u s Education 24:276, March, 1929.
9 r b i d . , p. 274.
■ * •0 Ham ilton H o lt, "We Venture on Hew P a th s, Jo u rn a l of
Higher E ducation 1: 504, December, 1930.
Such being th e process of ed u catio n , i s i t any wonder t h a t
i t s products a re c r i t i c i z e d for s u p e r f i c i a l i t y , f o r th e lack
of i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s , and fo r i n a b i l i t y to do independent
1 1
and o r i g i n a l th in k in g ?
3. Mass ed u catio n methods ig n o re the i n d i v i d u a l * The
American c o lle g e or u n i v e r s i t y i s d is tin g u is h e d by i t s s iz e .
C olleges a re proud of t h e i r in c re a s in g e n ro llm e n ts; in th e
enthusiasm t o grow n u m e ric a lly , they te n d to th in k in term s
of q u a n tity ed u c a tio n , r a t h e r than q u a l i t y .
One of the most im portant f a c t s brought out in th e
13
study of P ennsylvania c o lle g e s r e f e r r e d to p re v io u s ly , i s
the wide v a r i a b i l i t y in the a b i l i t i e s o f stu d e n ts in c o lle g e .
The com plicated machinery o f th e c o lle g e , however, imposes
th e same sta n d a rd s on a l l s tu d e n ts , c a l l i n g upon them T lto
produce the same r e s u l t s , s t a r t i n g them o ff w ith an equal
amount of c r e d i t and demanding th a t a l l a t t a i n an average o f,
13
l e t us say, seventy per cent? Since th e e n t i r e program i s
planned in term s o f the a b i l i t y of the f i c t i t i o u s average
s tu d e n t, m ed io crity becomes a dominant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
^ E. C. Lincblom, ”D iscouraging the Yes-Man, u The
S tu d en ts Speak Out (A Symposium) , (Hew York: Hew R e p u b lic, Inc
192$), p. 40.
12 See p. 24.
W. M. le w is , "M ediocrity and the C o lle g e s ," School
and S o ciety 34:714, November 38, 1931.
of c o lle g e education# Mass ed u catio n methods impose mechani
c a l sta n d a rd s to which a l l must conform# The s tu d e n t of
e x c e p tio n a l a b i l i t y i s not encouraged to go beyond th e m in i
mum s ta n d a rd s; he e i t h e r lo s e s i n t e r e s t i n f u r th e r develop
ment or d i s s i p a t e s h i s energy i n n o n - i n t e l l e c t u a l a f f a i r s ;
in e i t h e r c a se , h i s t a l e n t s a r e l o s t to h im s e lf and to
s o c ie ty .
curriculum la c k s d esig n and u n i t y . The
c o lleg e curriculum has been d e s c rib e d as na sw eet-sour
m ixture of c r e d i t courses le ad in g to a degree but not to an
e d u c a t i o n . I t i s a flhodge-podgen of d i s c r e t e courses
and u n r e la te d s u b je c ts in which th e in d iv id u a l members of
the f a c u lty happen to be in te re s te d #
A c r i t i c a l exam ination of th e courses announced a few
y e a rs ago i n any one of two dozen departm ents i n alm ost
any c o lle g e shows t h a t perhaps h a l f of the co u rse s in
a ty p i c a l departm ent could not j u s t i f y them selves in
any ground save one—they o f f e r e d th e i n s t r u c t o r s
o p p o r tu n itie s to pursue p et hobbies in a very lim ite d
p a r t of a f i e l d —and th a t th e course o f fe r in g s of the
departm ent were not p ro p erly r e l a t e d and b a la n c e d .15
The s u b je c ts a co lle g e man s tu d ie s are lik e th e heaps
of b ric k s and stones and m ortar and lumber of an un
begun b u ild in g ; nay, a re th ey even t h i s ? Are th e re
h ere m a te r ia ls of th e s o r t th a t could be assem bled
i n to any b u ild in g what so e v er— tem ple or p alace or hut?*.
14 Sidney Hook,1 1 A c h a lle n g e to th e l i b e r a l - A r t s C ollege,
Jo u rn a l of Higher E ducation 10:21, Jan u ary , 1939.
15 C. S. Boucher, "C urrent Changes and Experim ents i n
L ib e r a l-A r ts C o lle g e s ,” T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of th e H .S.S .E .
(Bloomington, I l l i n o i s : P u b lic School P u b lish in g C o ., "1932),
P a rt I I , p. 16.
38
Has th e average stu d e n t* s cu rricu lu m th e m e rit even
of a k a le id o sc o p e , which, w i l l a l l i t s c h a o tic
v a r i e t y , does a t l e a s t form p a t te r n s ? R a th er, i s
i t not to genuine ed u catio n something a s v au d e v ille
i s to the le g itim a te drama?3-6
The American c o lle g e began w ith a fix e d curriculum of
lim ite d o f f e r in g s , With the adm ission o f new s tu d ie s and
new s u b je c ts and th e ad o p tio n of the e l e c t i v e system, new
problems of s e l e c t i o n and o rg a n iz a tio n a r o s e . The curriculum
grevj by a c c r e tio n u n t i l th e re i s l i t t l e coherence and no
i n t e l l i g i b l e , p a t t e r n of o rg a n iz a tio n in the numerous courses
o ffe re d i n the v ario u s departm ents in a ty p i c a l c o lleg e of
to -d a y . Wrote Glenn Frank i n 1926: nW e a re w itn e ssin g to -d ay
both th e c o lla p s e of our c u r r ic u la from overlo ad in g and th e
beginnings o f a stu d e n t r e v o lt a g a in s t the s t e r i l i t i e s of
17
c u rre n t academic p ro ced u re♦"
An eminent a u t h o r it y d e s c rib e s th e c o lle g e curriculum
in the fo llo w in g words:
A c a r e f u l s c ru tin y of th e program o f study of most of
th e c o lle g e s in d ic a t e s th a t they a re c o n s tru c te d very
much as a t a r i f f b i l l i s c o n s tru c te d i n th e Congress
of th e U nited S t a t e s . The f i n a l r e s u l t i s th e outcome
of c e r t a i n s t r a i n s and te n s io n s , o f concessions and
exchanges as between dep artm en tal r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
The evidences th a t u n ify in g p r i n c i p l e s are a c tu a l ly
3*6 j v w . Hudson, The College and Hew America {Hew York:
D. Appleton & Co., 1920), p . '5'9‘.
3-^ Glenn Frank, "The Revolt A gainst E d u ca tio n ," School
and S ociety 23: 729, June 12, 1926.
39
fu n c tio n in g in the development of the c o lle g e
curriculum a re d i f f i c u l t to d is c o v e r.
R ichardson d e s c rib e s th e p ro cess of cu rricu lu m making
in the c o lleg e a s fo llo w s:
As th e m a tte r a c t u a l l y works o u t, each f a c u l ty member
i s h o n e s tly convinced of th e n e c e s s ity of h i s own
s p e c ia lty to the equipment of th e educated man. He
may, even, through la c k of p e r s p e c tiv e , be in c lin e d
to overestim ate# He i s a ls o in flu e n c e d , perhaps un
c o n sc io u sly , by th e d e s ire to in c re a s e the numbers and
p r e s ti g e of h is own departm ent. So he p u ts f o r t h h i s
b e s t e f f o r t s to convince h i s co lle a g u es th a t h is p a r
t i c u l a r s u b je c t should come w ith in th e charmed c i r c l e .
Those whose departm ents a r e not a f f e c t e d by the m a tte r
te n d to decide th e q u e stio n , and the d e c is io n of i n
d iv id u a ls does not in a l l case depend e n t i r e l y on the
m e rits of th e ease# Even i f such m e rits a re the only
f a c t o r s ta k en in to ac co u n t, who can r e a l l y decide the
q u e s tio n of r e l a t i v e v a lu e s 4 ? The in d iv id u a l i n ques
t i o n may win or he may lo s e , but when he w in s, he i s
l i k e l y to u n ite w ith those who opposed h is demands,
through the f e a r t h a t t h e i r own work would be a f f e c t e d ,
i n the defense of the p re s c rib e d l i s t a g a in s t o th e rs
who t r y to in tr u d e . « • • W e have such d e c isio n s a s
t h a t r e c e n tly made a t one c o lle g e by which in Freshman
y e a r E n g lish was made o p tio n a l w ith a new course in
American R a tio n a l Problems; not because th e re was any
in c o n g ru ity between the two which made a choice between
them re a s o n a b le , but because the only o th e r s u b je c t
which might be made o p tio n a l w ith the new one was
L a tin , and th e re was a d e s i r e on th e p a r t of the
m a jo rity of th e f a c u lty to sa fe g u ard a t a l l odds th e
study of the c l a s s i c s . I t i s upon such reaso n s t h a t
curriculum b u ild in g o fte n r e s t s .
. ^ R. 1# K elly , "Report of th e Commission on the Organi
z a tio n of th e .C o lle g e C urriculum ," B u l le t in of A sso c ia tio n of
American C olleges 9 :7 1 , A p ril, 1923.
^ R ichardson, 0 £. c i t . , p# 170-171
40
Compromise "between d epartm ents, between t r a d i t i o n and
new demands, and between c o n f l i c t i n g p h ilo s o p h ie s o f educa-
20
t io n r e s u l t s , th u s , in a cu rricu lu m of l?shreds and p a tc h e s 1 1
showing no i n t e l l i g e n t p la n or d e sig n . The fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e
course has l i t t l e c o n tin u ity i n th e minds of most s tu d e n ts .
Too o f te n , i t i s a case of 1 1 fo u r months o f t h i s , s ix weeks
of t h a t , so many hours h e re , so many p o in ts th e r e , . • .
u n t i l . . . a t the clo se of fo u r y e a r s , he. has won th e number
of C r e d i t s * or j o i n t s 1 t h a t e n t i t l e him to the b a c h e lo r1 s
21
d e g r e e .n
ffke e v i l s of narrow s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . The e v i l s of
the c r e d it-h o u r system and the d i s i n t e g r a t e d curriculum a r e
a c c e n tu a te d by th e shortcom ings of narrow s p e c i a l i z a t i o n .
S p e c ia liz a tio n i s an im p o rtan t means o f modern p ro d u ctiv e
s c h o la rs h ip , but i t s e d u c a tio n a l l i m i t a t i o n s a re obvious. I t
m i l i t a t e s a g a in s t th e b re a d th of u n d ersta n d in g fo r which
l i b e r a l ed u c atio n s ta n d s . The s o - c a l l e d academic mind, im
p ly in g i n th e minds of the p u b lic a la c k of p e rs p e c tiv e due
to m icroscopic v ie w p o in ts, i s la r g e ly th e r e s u l t o f narrow
IM d. , p. 174.
21
Abraham F lex n e r, U n i v e r s i t i e s : American, E n g lis h ,
G-erman (New York: Oxford U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1930), p. 53.
41
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . "Burning the w hite flam e of h is devotion
upon the a l t a r of h i s S u b je c t,"22 ana unable to see the
r e l a t i o n s o f h i s s u b je c t to o th e r s u b je c ts and f i e l d s of
knowledge and human endeavor, the academic sc h o la r becomes
p r o v in c ia l, a b s t r a c t , and removed from th e r e a l i t i e s of
contemporary l i f e .
The narrow s p e c i a l i s t i s o f te n i l l i b e r a l . He i s not
a t home in any s i t u a t i o n o u tsid e of h i s own narrow f i e l d of
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; he i s both bored and b o rin g i n ordinary con
v e r s a tio n ; he i s s in g u la r ly lack in g in a genuine sense of
humor, which i s one of th e d is tin g u is h in g marks o f a c u ltu re d
-and l i b e r a l person.
Harrow s p e c i a l i z a t i o n in the c o lle g e i s r e -e n fo rc e d
by th e system of d e p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n and the t r a d i t i o n of
departm ental autonomy i n c o lleg e a d m in is tr a tio n . The devas
t a t i n g e f f e c t s of d e p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n on the curriculum have
a lre a d y been r e f e r r e d t o . College p r o fe s s o r s a re so con
cerned w ith the development o f t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e departm ents
t h a t they f a i l to see th e program of th e c o lle g e as a whole.
S p e c i a li z a t io n i s o l a t e s them from o th e r departm ents on th e
one hand, and from the v i t a l is s u e s of l i f e on th e other*
Says R ichardson:
Too many c o lle g e te a c h e rs are not r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d
i n the v i t a l problems of th e c o lle g e . Each i s keenly
2% Hudson, £g. c i t . , p. 13.
42
i n t e r e s t e d in M s own departm ent. . • • His liv e
i n t e r e s t , when m a tte rs of cu rricu lu m a re co n sid ered ,
i s to see th a t h is departm ent s h a l l not s u f f e r . W e
go la r g e ly on th e ab su rd p r in c ip l e th a t an e f f e c t i v e
u n i f i e d c o lle g e can he b u i l t by th e maximum develop
ment of in d iv id u a l departm ents, each proceeding on
i t s way w ithout much re g a rd to a n o t h e r . ^
S p e c i a li z a t io n i s c a r r i e d even f u r t h e r when d e p a rt
ments are d iv id e d in to s u b -d iv is io n s w ith in th e departm ent.
These s u b -d iv is io n s i n time become s e lf - c o n t a in e d u n i t s , so
th a t th e s p e c i a l i s t s are not even ab le to see the work of
th e e n t i r e departm ent.
F o rg e ttin g the u n ity o f knov/ledge, th e c o lle g e s and
u n i v e r s i t i e s have m u ltip lie d departm ents. Even sub
d iv is io n s have been made w ith in d ep artm en ts. In some
o f th e la rg e u n i v e r s i t i e s , one i s no lo n g e r p r o fe s s o r
of zoology, but p ro fe s s o r of embryology, g e n e tic s ,
b io -c h e m is try , g e n e ra l physiology, e t c . , and th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between th e s e su b d iv is io n s are o fte n
n e g le c te d . In th e government of th e c o lle g e s and
u n i v e r s i t i e s th e departm ents have become p r a c t i c a l l y
autonomous u n i t s , fu n c tio n in g f i r s t of a l l f o r t h e i r
own i n t e r e s t s , and hence c o -o p e ra tin g but l i t t l e w ith
o th e r departm ents i n c a rr y in g forw ard any g e n e ra l
program f o r the good of s t u d e n t s . ^
When knowledge i s thus cu t up i n t o l i t t l e segments and
a d m in is te re d to s tu d e n ts i n u n r e la te d frag m en ts, i t lo s e s sig
n if ic a n c e and v i t a l i t y and f a i l s to a p p e a l t o the i n t e r e s t s
of y o u th , because i t seems so f a r removed from th e problems
of l i f e , th e s o lu tio n o f which c a l l s f o r th e b read th
^ R ichardson, o|>. c i t . , p. 261.
S. Payne and E. W. S p e ith , An Open L e tt e r to C ollege
Teachers ( Bloomington, In d ia n a : Ihe P r i n c i p i a P re s s , 1935) ,
p. 39-40.
of knowledge and th e depth of "understanding which go "beyond
the a r t i f i c i a l "boundaries "between s u b je c ts and departments*
I t i s tr u e t h a t the whole f i e l d of knowledge i s so v a s t th a t
i t i s n ec essary f o r th e purposes of study to d iv id e i t in to
s e c tio n s , examining each a t a tim e. The tro u b le is t h a t , in
th e p re se n t s t a t u s of r i g i d dep artm en tal o rg a n iz a tio n , th e
s e c tio n s a re never put to g e th e r ag ain and th e stu d e n ts are
not given d e f i n i t e help', to organize th e p a r ts in to i n t e l l i
g ib le w holes. fT Compartmentalism breeds th e n o tio n t h a t , in
study and course work, they a re looking not a t human l i f e ,
i n t e g r a t e d , complexly u n i f i e d , v i t a l , and in f lu x , but r a t h e r
25
a t fragm ents o f a long-dead c a d a v e r.’1
For example, th e stu d e n t s tu d ie s th e v a rio u s s o c ia l
s c ie n c e s . Presumably, th e se a r e sc ie n c e s about a
very co n c re te th in g c a lle d S o c ie ty . But where and
when does th e stu d e n t le a r n of t h a t l i v i n g S o c ie ty ,
of which each s o c ia l science p r e s e n ts only one
lim ite d a s p e c t? True, he le a r n s of th e economic
sid e of s o c ie ty ; of th e s o c io lo g ic a l s id e , the
p o l i t i c a l s i d e , the e t h i c a l s id e , but r a r e ly o f t h a t
s o c ie ty which i s a l l of th e se t h i n g s , and so no one
of j u s t th e se th in g s a lo n e . . . . For th e r e a l
problems and is s u e s of S o c ie ty . . . . are never
m erely economic, or a n th ro p o lo g ic a l, or p o l i t i c a l ,
or e t h i c a l . They a,re the human sy n th e ses of all*, th e se •
p a r t i a l th in g s . I s th e re no p la ce in c o lle g e s f o r
th e se problems? When do s o c ia l s c i e n t i s t s g e t
to g e th e r to c o r r e l a t e t h e i r fu n c tio n s and r e s u l t s ?
To what would they be c o r r e la te d , i f they d id meet?
2® W. S. MacLean, flThe G-eneral C ollege: the U n iv e rsity
of M in n eso ta ,1 1 W. S. G-ray, e d . , G-eneral E d u c a tio n , I t s U a tu re ,
Scope, and Essen t i a l Elem ents. P roceedings of th e I n s t i t u t e
ToF~ddm inisTraEva O ffic e rs of Higher I n s t i t u t i o n (Chicago:
U n iv e rs ity of Chicago P re s s , 1934), 6:125.
26 Hudson, op. c i t . , p. 53-54.
44
Divorce from th e v i t a l problems of l i f e * Behind
the s h ie ld of !t sc h o la r ship f o r i t s own s a k e ,” c o lle g e
te a c h e rs te a c h a b s t r a c t i o n s 'which have no v i t a l connections
w ith th e liv e is s u e s which co n fro n t young people i n t h e i r
in d iv id u a l and s o c i a l l i f e . The fo llo w in g words of condem
n a tio n came from an ex p erien ce d co lle g e a d m in is tra to r:
The t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e i s s ic k unto d eath to -d ay
because i t has made l i t t l e or no a tte m p t t o stuby
i t s problems s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i n any e f f o r t to
adapt i t s e l f to tw e n tie th ce n tu ry l i f e . Every
th in g e ls e in s o c ie ty might change, but not th e
l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e . I t s p o s it io n and o b je c tiv e s
in th e scheme of th in g s must not be c h a lle n g ed .
L ib e ra l ed u catio n has become t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o l a s t i
cism* 27
Facing new s o c ia l and economic c o n d itio n s and ad m it
t in g in to the campus a new and en larg ed stu d e n t p o p u la tio n
much more heterogeneous than th e c o lle g e s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n
of a p rev io u s epoch, the c o lle g e c lin g s to old m a te r ia ls
and methods of ed u catio n which were adequate f o r th e old
days but le a v e much to be d e s ire d in th e p re s e n t day* With
modern democracy demanding new o b lig a tio n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i
t i e s of i t s educated c i t i z e n s and c h a lle n g in g th e t r a d i t i o n a l
l e i s u r e - c l a s s conception of c u l tu r e , th e c o lle g e f a i l s to
adopt a philosophy of l i b e r a l ed u catio n i n harmony w ith the
^ H. P* R ainey, "The C r is i s in L ib e r a l E d u catio n ,"
School and S o cie ty 28:249, September 1, 1928.
45
s p i r i t of the modern age. I n a s o c ia l o rd er c o n fro n ted w ith
p e rp le x in g problems of s o c i a l change and economic d i s l o c a
t i o n s , the co lleg e co n tin u e s to d e a l w ith vague a b s t r a c t i o n s
in i t s c l o i s t e r e d classroom s and pro v id es no le a d e rs h ip in
th e s o lu tio n of the p re ssin g problems of the day.
A b s tra c t ghost f i g h t s a b s t r a c t g h o st; phantom q u a l i
f i c a t i o n s t h r u s t and p arry w ith phantoms of t h e i r
k in d ; d e f i n i t i o n s jo u s t w ith d e f i n i t i o n s , u n t i l the
opposing minds are w earied and r e t i r e w ith t h e i r
unvanquished a rm ie s, Thus, th e academic mind i s
more a p t to debate what an a b s t r a c t i o n c a l l e d j u s t i c e
i s th a n what i s a j u s t s o c ie ty of human b ein g s, under
d e f i n i t e and r e a l c o n d itio n s , more l i k e l y to t a l k
about id e a tio n and v o l i t i o n than ab o u t id e a s and
deeds.^®
ho wonder, s tu d e n ts are found to be i n d i f f e r e n t to
such vague a b s t r a c t i o n s . They seek l i g h t on th e problems
which p erp lex them, but the co u rses they take do not deal
w ith th o s e . They want in fo rm a tio n about the ¥iorld they liv e
in , but the curriculum does not s a t i s f y t h e i r need. A
c o lle g e p r e s id e n t wrote a s fo llo w s:
The g e n e ra l type o f in tro d u c to ry course in a l l l i b e r a l
a r t s s u b je c ts i s aimed to arouse a te c h n i c a l and p r o f e s
s io n a l i n t e r e s t i n th a t f i e l d . The o rg a n iz a tio n of
s u b je c t m a tte r and th e emphasis i n a f i r s t course i n
zoology a re alm ost always d ir e c te d r a t h e r towards the
f a c t t h a t th e re may be m a te r ia l f o r a few f u tu r e
p ro f e s s io n a l z o o l i g i s t s i n th e group th a n they are
towards th e g e n e ra l c u l t u r a l needs of th e f a r l a r g e r
number of stu d e n ts who, w ithout d e s irin g to s p e c ia liz e
28 Hudson, 0£ . c i t . , p. £5.
46
in th e s u b je c t, would a p p r e c ia te a glim pse in to the
study o f anim al lif e * An elem entary course in
p h y sic s w i l l almost a t once begin to shape i t s
approach to i t s v a rio u s problems w ith a view to
b u ild in g en g in eers or p h y s i c i s t s , fhe same s o r t
o f th in g w i l l be encountered i n departm ent a f t e r
depa.rtment.29
fh u s , four y e a rs of c o lle g e f a i l to o r ie n ta te stu d e n ts
to the problems of modern l i f e and s o c ie ty . Upon t h e i r
g ra d u a tio n , young people ste p in to a w orld to which they are
not f a m il ia r and, c o n se q u e n tly , net a b le to a d j u s t w ith
i n t e l l i g e n c e .
The average stu d e n t g rad u a te s from c o lle g e c h ro n o lo g i
c a lly q u a l i f i e d a s a c i t i z e n of th e p o l i t i c a l community,
endowed by v i r t u e of h i s youth and id e a lis m w ith more
energy f o r good or e v i l th a n any o th e r age-group,
conscious .of th e l i m i t a t i o n s of e x i s t i n g le a d e rs h ip ,
and y e t t r a g i c a l l y unprepared to o r ie n t h im se lf to
the stormy winds of d o c trin e blowing from a l l p o in ts
of the compass. He may be in p o sse ssio n of oddly
a s s o r te d item s of in fo rm a tio n of v a ry in g degrees of
accu racy , but he has l i t t l e u n d e rsta n d in g of th e
a c t u a l fu n c tio n s of th e s o c i a l o r d e r— i t s te n s io n s ,
tr e n d s , and b a s ic problem s. He may be i n d i f f e r e n t ,
b ew ild ered , or a v ic tim of slo g a n ize d thought*
Finding t h a t th e classroom , h i s te a c h e r s , h i s t e x t
books, do n o t make the w orld i n t e l l i g i b l e to him, he
i s a p t to p ick up a u n iv e rs a l form ula panacea from
th e pamphlet of a z e a lo t . He probably knows more
about the e ig h te e n th and n in e te e n th c e n tu r ie s th a n
about th e tw e n tie th — sin c e he l i v e s i n th e p r e s e n t,
he a p p a re n tly does not have to study i t . He probably
th in k s th a t science i s " g re a t s t u f f " but has l i t t l e
knowledge of th e elem ents of the s c ie n ti f i c - method,
and a p p lie s i t to problems of c u rre n t l i f e and s o c ie ty
even le ss.^ Q
pq . '
0, G, L i t t l e , The Awakening C ollege (Hew York: W.E.
Horton, 1930), p. 36-37.
30
Hook, op. c i t . , p. 18.
In c rim in a tin g te s tim o n ie s of C ollege G raduates,
T estim onies of c o lle g e g ra d u a te s g iv e ample evidence of the
disappointm ent they experience in l i f e because t h e i r co lle g e
education; t e s . not g iv en them the needed in fo rm a tio n and
i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r th e m eeting of l i f e , problem s, and th e
needed re so u rce s f o r r i c h liv i n g in modern s o c ie ty . They
f e e l , upon le a v in g c o lle g e , " lik e in ad eq u ate m ariners who
31
have put out to sea in c r a f t too f r a i l , ” The re c o rd s of
more th a n 500 Harvard g ra d u a te s tw e n ty -fiv e y e a rs a f t e r
g ra d u a tio n re v e a l the a s to n is h in g f a c t " t h a t approxim ately
o n e -e ig h th of t h i s group of g ra d u ate s of a supposedly r ic h
u n iv e r s i ty a r e , tw e n ty -fiv e y e a rs from c o lle g e , l i v i n g e i t h e r
32
o f f the government or o f f t h e i r f a m i l i e s , " Tw enty-five per
cen t of them r e p o r t disappointm ent w ith t h e i r c a re e r; many
were s t i l l u n ad ju sted v o c a t i o n a l l y .
The brokers have fo rsa k e n t h e i r t i c k e r s to study law,
th e lawyers have plunged in t o the sto c k exchange, the
businessm en have skipped from r e a l e s t a t e to in su ra n c e ,
to m anufacturing, and then back to in su ran c e a g a in ,
exchanging one l in e f o r a n o th er as th e y e a rs passed,
a l l to no ap p a re n t purpose. A te a c h e r a f t e r eleven
y e a rs in e d u c a tio n a l work s tu d ie d e n g in e e rin g , took
a job, and te n y e a rs l a t e r r e tu rn e d to te a c h in g , A
man who has worked as c le r k in a departm ent s t o r e ,
and has so ld r a d i o s , washing m achines, and in su ra n c e ,
i s now on r e l i e f ,
Bon Gordon, "C o lleg e —Five Years L a te r," Horth
American Re vie?/ 228:244, August, 1929,
J , R. T unis, Was C ollege Worth W hile? (Hew York:
H arc o u rt, Brace & Company, 1936), p* 14,
33 I b i d . , p. 18.
48
I t may be argued t h a t the c o lle g e d id not propose to'
p rep are th e se s tu d e n ts f o r t h e i r v o c a tio n s (an argument,
however, which i s not very convincing to th o se who m ain tain
t h a t v o c a tio n a l su ccess i s an im p o rtan t p a r t of l i f e and
cannot th e re f o r e be ru le d out of a h a l l - r o u n d education)*
Do th e g ra d u a te s , th e n , l iv e th e k in d of r e f in e d and c u ltu re d ,
l i f e o u tsid e of t h e i r v o c a tio n s which t h e i r c o lle g e educa
t io n had t r i e d to c u l t i v a t e ? The H arvard g ra d u a te s r e p o r t
t h a t "th e s p o rts pages of th e newspapers s t i l l outweigh a l l
the o th e rs in i n t e r e s t , and sp o rt as a to p ic of co n v e rsa tio n
34
a l l too o fte n o u tran k s m a tte rs w o rth ie r of d i s c u s s i o n .”
As to m usic, "only a han d fu l r e f e r to i t a s an in flu e n c e in
t h e i r l i v e s . T 1 *^ In th e d u tie s of c i t i z e n s h i p , they "have
been badly educated in th e fundam ental problems of th e modern
s t a t e , ” and "th e m a jo rity have liv e d up to the t r a d i t i o n of
H arvard in d if f e r e n c e '1 ^ to c iv ic and p u b lic a f f a i r s .
The Harvard g ra d u a te s a r e n o t, e i t h e r , a p e c u lia r
group of m aleontented peo p le. T heir o p in io n s have been r e
p eat ed by o th e r c o lle g e g ra d u a te s .a n d alum ni,
I knew n o th in g w hatever about hygiene and h e a lth ;
ev e ry th in g of t h a t s o r t I had to le a r n by p a in f u l
e r r o r . I knew n o th in g about women; I had met only
th r e e or fo u r b esid e my m other, and had no id ea
how t o .d eal w ith them. I knew as much about sex
^ Xbid. , p. 98.\
35 » p * 10°*
I'bid. , p. 92.
49
as was known to the a n c ie n t r e l i g i o u s a s c e tic s ,,
but nothing of modern d is c o v e r ie s or th e o r ie s
on th e subject., 37
Most of us do not th in k of c o lle g e a t a l l any more*
A ll of i t s m a n ife s ta tio n s seem to have, o cc u rred on
a n o th e r plane from th a t upon which we now b re a th e .
W e have gone e i t h e r above or.below i t , as you w i l l ,
but c e r t a i n l y away from i t . Those th in g s which
once , were the p o le s of th e e a r th nov/ mark the
boundaries of a secluded g a r d e n . 38
The f a i l u r e o f c o lle g e ed u c atio n to fu n c tio n i n l i f e
a f t e r g ra d u a tio n i s , in d eed , a severe in d ic tm en t of the
c o lle g e curriculum and c o lle g e methods of i n s t r u c t i o n ,
8. C r itic is m s of s t u d e n t s . A number of th e c r i t i c i s m s
i n p rev io u s pages were co n tain ed i n stu d e n t r e p o r ts a sk in g f o r
changes i n c o lle g e education* B esides th e s e o f f i c i a l stu d e n t
39
r e p o r t s , th e re are o th e r evidences of stu d e n t d i s s a t i s f a c
t i o n and disappointm ent w ith 'what they g e t i n c o lle g e . The
com plaint i s o fte n made th a t c o lle g e s tu d e n ts la c k purpose
in t h e i r s tu d i e s . Do they r e a l l y la c k any s e rio u s purpose,
or do they fin d th a t th e e d u c a tio n a l program of th e c o lle g e
f a i l s to r e l a t e to any of t h e i r purposes? I t i s a common
o b se rv a tio n th a t s tu d e n ts in v o c a tio n a l and p r o f e s s io n a l
c o lle g e s do take t h e i r s tu d ie s more s e r io u s ly , in g e n e ra l,
^ S i n c l a i r , op. c i t . , p. 16.
38 Gordon, l o c . c i t ,
ry Q
ov For example: th e r e p o r t of stu d e n t committee a t
Dartmouth, a t Bowdoin, a t Chicago, a t H arvard, and o th e rs .
50
than s tu d e n ts in l i t e r a l a r t s co lleg es* In the form er,
s tu d e n ts have d e f i n i t e aims c l e a r ly in view and take an i n
t e r e s t in s tu d ie s because- of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h e i r
aim s. I n th e c o lle g e , however, s tu d e n ts f in d in the c u r r i
culum hazy g e n e r a l i t i e s which have no d i r e c t r e l a tio n s h i p
w ith th e purposes they conceive or w ith the problems they
perceive* F inding so l i t t l e t h a t i s v i t a l and a p p e a lin g in
the s t u d i e s , they tu r n elsew here f o r r e a l tfl i f e rf and become
absorbed i n a t h l e t i c and s o c i a l f u n c tio n s which have come t o
mean c o lle g e f,l i f e . n
Many of our stu d e n ts a r e am b itio u s and they are
th o u g h tf u l. They w i l l be moved from w ith in —th e only
way—when they see th e r e l a t i o n of t h e i r s tu d ie s to
t h e i r f u t u r e . I doubt whether an a p p e a l can be made
on th e ground th a t th e stu d e n t should become c u ltu re d ;
th e conception i s too i n d e f i n i t e and many of the
s tu d e n ts have not come in c o n ta c t w ith t h i s con
c e p t i o n . ^
The c o lle g e s can not be a l t o g e t h e r u n d istu rb e d by the
h ig h r a t e of student m o r ta l ity . Bean Hawkes r e p o r te d in 1927
th a t f i f t y - s e v e n per cent of e n te r in g Freshmen in Columbia
41
C ollege succeeded i n com pleting the B. A. co u rse . A study
of stu d e n t s u r v iv a l a t the U n iv e rs ity of M innesota showed
^ L. P. E is e n h a rt, "The I n t e l l e c t u a l L ife in th e
C o lle g e s ,n B u l le t in of A s s o c ia tio n of American C olleges 16:51,
March, 1930.
^ H. E. Hawkes, C o lleg e—What* s the Use? tGarden C ity ,
New Y^rk: Poubleday, Page, & Co., 1927), p. 12.
51
th a t s e v e n ty -s ix p er cen t of an e n te rin g c l a s s of 1,6?£
4g
f a i l e d to g ra d u a te . The U n iv e rs ity of Chicago re p o r te d
43
s ix ty per cent m o r ta l ity . I f a l l th e .m o rta lity cases were
cases of e lim in a tio n due to d e f i c i e n t s c h o la r s h ip , the s i t u a
t i o n would not be so bad; but such i s not th e c a se . ffQut
of tw o -th ird s or ' th re e -a s s a rte rs of the c o lle g e p o p u la tio n
who f a l l by the ro a d sid e r i s e thousands who conquer w ithout
44
a degree and p r e v a i l w ith o u t a s h e e p s k in .” In view of th e
demand of modern dem ocratic s o c ie ty t h a t th e school system
should give th e in d iv id u a l, f u l l o p p o rtu n ity to develop h is
s p e c ia l a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t s , i t i s h ard to j u s t i f y a
P ro c ru ste a n program which does not meet the needs of such
a la rg e p o r tio n of modern y o u th .
Coflf’ asio n of aim s. The c o lle g e i s u n c e r t a i n of
i t s aims and f u n c tio n s . Yaguely, c o lle g e s commit them selves
to the i d e a l of libers*! e d u c atio n , but as to what t h a t means
in term s of curriculum and methods, th e re i s l i t t l e agreem ent.
4% R. M. West, "Student M o r ta lity , S tudent S u rv iv a l
and S tudent A c c o u n tin g ,1 1 Hudelson, ed. , op. e i t . , p. £04.
43 G* R. Moon, "The Student Who Drops Out of C o lle g e ,n
School and S o ciety £7:576, May 12, 1928.
44 P h ilip Wylie, "Why C olleges F a i l S tu d e n ts ,” Saturday
Evening P o s t , December 15, 1950, p. 130.
52
Says S. P. Capen:
The o b je c tiv e s of the c o lleg e of l i b e r a l a r t s a re ex-
^eeedihgly-.yague.IfeY? c o l le g i a te i n s t i t u t i o n s , except
those th a t are s t r i c t l y d e n o m in a tio n a l, can say what
they a r e t r a i n i n g student's f o r or can o f f e r any .
r e a l l y v a l i d defense f o r many of t h e i r requirem ents* 5
The same thought was expressed by F lex n e r:
* . . The c o lle g e s do not know'what they w ish: do they
wish b ra in s ? do they wish in d u s try ? do they wish
s c h o la rsh ip ? do they wish c h a r a c te r , or do they wish
Q u a l i t i e s t h a t f i t f o r leadership?^®
The co n fu sio n of aims i s evidenced by v a c i l l a t i o n
between c o n f l i c t i n g p h ilo s o p h ie s of e d u c a tio n , by clumsy
patch-up compromise between the old and th e new* There i s ,
f o r example, u n c e r ta in ty w hether th e c o lle g e should be con
cerned w ith only th e i n t e l l e c t u a l growth of th e s tu d e n t o r
w ith th e a l l- r o u n d development of h is p e rs o n a lity * Says
W. E. Cowley:
Side by s id e , two p h ilo s o p h ie s have grown up i n th e
c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s * One fo llo w s th e German
s c h o la rly i d e a l * * * , the o th e r th e t r a d i t i o n a l
American i d e a l of the broad, sym m etrical ed u catio n
of the in d iv i d u a l. The German n o tio n sees the
s c h o la rly c a re e r as the r a is o n d f <§tre of th e e n t i r e
secondary s c h o o l-u n iv e r s ity p ro ce ss. . . . The
American concept, c o n v e rse ly , envisages th e high
school and c o lle g e not as a g rad u ated s e r i e s of
sie v e s to shake out th e m u ltitu d e s and r e t a i n a
sm all s e l e c t group f o r the e r u d ite p r o fe s s io n s ,
but r a t h e r as a s e r i e s of i n s t i t u t i o n s , a r t i c u
l a t e d but in d e p e n d e n t, s e t up to c u l t i v a t e the
^ S* P. Capen, flThe Dilemma of th e C ollege of A rts
and S c ie n c e ,” E d u c a tio n a l Review 61:277, A p r il, 1921.
F lex n e r, op* c i t *, p. 44
53.
stu d e n t to th e u ltim a te of h i s capacity*
The rumbles of the c o n f l i c t between th e se two th e o r ie s
r e v e r b e r a te a l l through American h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . . .
The r e s u l t i n g chaos i s p a te n t to everyone. The a r t s
c o lle g e s in s te a d of s t r i v i n g to l i b e r a l i z e t h e i r
s tu d e n ts and to send them f o r t h c u l t i v a t e d , s e n s i
t i z e d men, have la r g e ly become annexes of g rad u ate
schools even though they a re working w ith stu d e n ts
th e g r e a t m a jo rity of whom have no i n t e n t i o n ever
to e n t e r upon g rad u ate c o u rs e s . . • *47
So, w hile from one d i r e c t i o n we h ear the v o ices of
F le x n e r, H u tc h in s, ' and o th e rs u rg in g t h a t th e -c o lle g e should
devote i t s e n t i r e re s o u rc e s to th e c u l t i v a t i o n of th e i n
t e l l e c t , from a n o th er d i r e c t i o n we h ear th e words of the
h o st of modern ed u cato rs who i n s i s t t h a t the c o lle g e must
d e a l w ith th e whole p e r s o n a lity of th e s tu d e n t.
The q u o ta tio n by 17. H. Cowley, j u s t c i t e d , su g g ests
a n o th e r c o n f l i c t which c e n te rs around th e q u estio n of w hether
and to what e x te n t the c o lle g e should be a s e l e c t i v e i n s t i
t u t i o n . Should the c o lleg e open i t s doors to a l l tiig h -seh o o l
g ra d u a te s who are d e s iro u s of com pleting t h e i r g e n e ra l educa
t i o n , or should i t s e l e c t only th o se who give promise of
becoming the e l i t e of s o c ie ty ? The c o lle g e i s not sure ‘ where
i t s ta n d s . On th e one hand, we are t o l d th a t uour system
w i l l never work one b i t b e t t e r th an i t i s working now u n t i l
we f a i r l y and sq u arely face th e f a c t th a t. £0 per cent o f our
47
W. H. Cowley, 1fThe U n iv e rs ity and th e I n d i v i d u a l , 1 1
Jo u rn a l of H igher E ducation 2:392, O ctober, 1931.
c h ild r e n a re in e d u c a b le , and t h a t the tim e, energy, and
re so u rc e s spent on tr y in g to educate them a r e viciously*
48
w asted*11' On th e o th e r hand, we w itn e ss the s p e c ta c u la r
growth of ju n io r c o lle g e s in response to th e demand t h a t
American s o c ie ty should provide a l l eager you th th e opportu
n i t y to advance a s f a r as p o s s ib le i n p o st-se co n d ary educa
t i o n .
I t s u f f i c e s merely to mention th e c o n f l i c t s between
c la s s ic is m and v o c a tio n a lis m ,between th e te a c h in g and r e s e a r c h
fu n c tio n s of the fa c u lty , and between th o se who c r i t i c i z e th e
c o lle g e s f o r having " th o u g h tle s s ly and e x c e ss iv e ly c a te re d
to f l e e t i n g , t r a n s i e n t and immediate demandgy^ 9 and those
who c r i t i c i z e the c o lle g e s f o r f a i l u r e to respond to s o c i a l
change, between those who urge "th e p u r s u it o f knowledge f o r
50
i t s own sake" and those who advocate a b o ld , d i r e c t a t ta c k
upon th e p e rp le x in g problems of contemporary l i f e . V a c i l l a
tin g between extrem es, th e c o lle g e s la c k th e d i r e c t i n g fo rc e
of c l e a r l y conceived p u rp o se s'a n d f u n c tio n s .
A. J . hock, "C ollege I s ho P lace to G-et an E ducation,
The American Mercury 46:£12-213, F ebruary, 1939.
^ F le x n e r, op. c i t . , p. 44.
^ H,. M. H u tch in s, The H igher Learning i n America (Hew
Haven: Yale U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1936) , (Jhap. I!7
She c r i t i c i s m s summarised in t h i s c h a p te r serve to
b rin g i n t o r e l i e f the shortcom ings of th e t r a d i t i o n a l
program of c o lle g e ed u c a tio n . C o lleg es in tro d u c in g new
changes and new cu rricu lu m p la n s have t r i e d to overcome
th e s e shortcom ings. I n the d is c u s s io n of the d i f f e r e n t
p a tte rm s of the cu rricu lu m i n P a r t I I of t h i s r e p o r t ,
attem p t w i l l he made to ash i n each ease what s p e c i f i c
c r i t i c i s m s have not "been met by each cu rricu lu m p la n .
PART TW O
DEVELOPING PATTERNS OF THE COLLEGE CURRICULUM
CHAPTER
IV. The R evolt A g ain st the Lockstep System
of C r e d its , L e c tu re s, and th e M echanization
of Education
V. Breaking Down R ig id D e p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n
VI. Curriculum R e c o n stru c tio n by the C la s s ic a l Approach
V II. Curriculum i n Terms of Broad F ie ld s o f Knowledge:
the Best Judgment Approach
V III. Curriculum in Terms o f Functions of L iving:
th e Survey-of-N eeds Approach
IS . E ducation Based upon th e Needs, I n t e r e s t s ,
and A b i l i t i e s of the I n d iv id u a l: The
I n d iv id u a l Approach
CHAPTER 1 7
THE REVOLT AGAINST THE LOCK-STEP SYSTEM OF CREDITS
EECTORES, AND THE MECHANIZATION OF-EDUCATION
"'Of a l l th e new v e n tu re s in c o lle g e ed u c atio n i n t h i s
c o u n try , 1 1 ,says K athryn McHale, rf experim ents to promote the
1
i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e have "been th e l e a s t ephem eral*" The
f i r s t ste p i n th e promotion of i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e i s to move
away from th e c r e d it- h o u r system and th e fragm entary le a rn in g
which the system engenders* The names of th e c o lle g e s which
have jo in e d t h i s r e v o l t a g a in s t the t r a d i t i o n a l lo c k -s te p
system a r e legion* They r e p r e s e n t a cu rricu lu m p a tte rn ,
marked "by th e in tr o d u c t io n of new methods and d e v ic e s to
break down th e lo c k -s te p system of c r e d i t s , l e c t u r e s , and the
m echanization of e d u c atio n . This c h a p te r w i l l d e s c rib e a
few conspicuous examples.
1. H arvard C ollege, Cambridge, M assachusetts*
H arvard C o lleg e, an und erg rad u ate c o lleg e f o r men, i s
th e nu cleu s of Harvard U n iv ersity * I t p rovides a fo u r-y e a r
course le a d in g to the degrees B achelor of A rts and B achelor
K athryn McHale, "C ollege V entures in th e S tim u la tio n
of th e I n t e l l e c t u a l L i f e , ” T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of the
N. jS. jS* E* , P a rt I I (Bloomington, I l l i n o i s : P u b lic School
P u b lish in g Company, 1933), p* 202.
58
of S cien ce.
There a re th re e ways of gaining adm ission i n t o Harvard
C ollege: fa) hy exam inations, p rep ared hy th e College En
tra n c e Board, (b) hy the H ighest Seventh P la n , and (e) h y ‘
t r a n s f e r . The most im portant is the f i r s t method; the
second method i s a p r o v is io n made p rim a rily to accomodate
s u p e rio r s tu d e n ts from p u b lic schools i n r u r a l communities
or remote re g io n s where i t is in co n v en ie n t fo r c a n d id a te s
to ta k e the exam inations of the College E ntrance Board.
C andidates of the second category may e n te r w ith o u t examina
t i o n provided t h a t they rank among the h ig h e s t se v en th of
th e g rad u a tin g c l a s s i n h ig h school and p re s e n t c r e d e n t i a l s
c e r t i f y i n g t h e i r sc h o la rs h ip sta n d in g in sch o o l.
There a re two p la n s fo r adm ission by exam inations*
Under Plan A, a ca n d id ate must p re s e n t a t l e a s t f i f t e e n
u n i t s of school wark, as p r e s c rib e d , and take exam inations
in p r a c t i c a l l y every s u b je c t s tu d ie d in h i s school co u rse .
Among the u n i t s p r e s c rib e d a re E n g lish , f o r e ig n lan g u ag es,'
h i s t o r y , m athem atics, and s c ie n c e . P lan B, known a s the
Hew P la n , allow s f o r more f l e x i b i l i t y . Under t h i s p la n , can
d id a te s w ith an e x c e lle n t school re c o rd and the good recommen
d a tio n of the school p r i n c i p a l may s e l e c t fo u r s u b je c ts fo r
exam ination; no fix e d number of u n its of school work i s p r e s
c rib e d .
S ix tee n co u rses in a d d itio n to p r e s c rib e d E n g lish and
p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g a r e re q u ire d f o r th e B a c h e lo r’ s degree; f o r
59
s tu d e n ts under f u l l t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n , only f i f t e e n
co u rses a re req u ired * There a r e , s t r i c t l y speaking, no r e
q u ire d co u rses ex c ep tin g a course i n p h y s ic a l t r a i n i n g which
does not count toward th e degree* A course i n R h e to ric and
E n g lish Composition i s re q u ir e d of Freshmen, hut exemptions
a re g ra n te d to those who p ass the en tra n ce exam ination i n
E n g lish and to th o se o th e rs who re c e iv e th e grade A a t th e
m id-year exam ination of the course* S tu d e n ts na re r e q u ir e d
to show a re a d in g knowledge of e i t h e r French or German, and
2
a re ad v ise d to a c q u ire a knowledge of "both languages 1 1 ; hut
i t i s not n e c essary to ta k e courses to f u l f i l l t h i s r e q u i r e
ment* The requirem ent may he met e i t h e r hy p assin g the
en tran ce exam ination i n one of th e languages or hy p a s sin g a
s p e c ia l tw o-hour exam ination to dem onstrate re a d in g a b i l i t y *
There a r e , however, d e f i n i t e r u l e s i n re g a rd to con
c e n tr a tio n and d i s t r ib u t io n * Every Freshman must hy March
d e s ig n a te h i s chosen f i e l d of c o n c e n tra tio n and submit a
g e n e ra l p lan of study’ f o r th e n ex t th r e e y e a r s . The p lan of
study must in c lu d e a t l e a s t six co u rse s i n the f i e l d o f con
c e n t r a t i o n , w ith fo u r co u rses w ith in one departm ent and th e
o th e r two courses e i t h e r i n th e same departm ent or in r e l a t e d
s u b je c ts approved hy the Committee on t h e choice o f S tudies#
^ Ru^es R e la tin g to C ollege S tu d ie s ( O f f i c i a l R e g is te r
of H arvard U n iv e r s ity , Yol. XXY, Ho* 6 , March 2, 1938), p.- 13.
60
Of the rem aining courses which count tow ards the d eg ree , fo u r
must be o u tsid e th e f i e l d of c o n c e n tra tio n .
H arvard re q u ire m e n ts, a s oast n o te d , a re not s t a t e d
in term s of c r e d i t s . Requirem ents fo r g ra d u a tio n and promo
t i o n a re s t a t e d in term s of co u rses and minimum g rad es f o r
th e courses* Courses of i n s t r u c t i o n are c la s s e d as f u l l -
co u rse s and h a l f courses* A s tu d e n t* s program c o n s is ts
norm ally of f iv e courses in th e freshm an y e a r, fo u r co u rses
in th e sophomore y e a r, and fo u r o r few er courses in th e ju n io r
and s e n io r y e a rs . S e le c tio n of co u rses i s made under th e
guidance of an A dviser a s s o c ia te d w ith th e Committee on the
Choice of E le c tiv e s .
I n a d d itio n to th e s ix te e n co u rse s r e q u ir e d f o r
g ra d u a tio n , w ith a minimum of elev en g rad es of C or h ig h e r,
th e stu d e n t must pass a g e n e ra l exam ination i n th e f i e l d of
co n cen tratio n * This exam ination, ta k e n a t th e end of th e
c o lle g e co u rse , i s perhaps th e most im p o rtan t f e a t u r e of th e
H arvard cu rricu lu m and marks a s h i f t from the le a rn in g of
fragm entary co u rses to th e m astery of a f i e l d of k n o w led g e.■
The g e n e ra l exam ination i s now re q u ir e d i n every departm ent,
ex c ep tin g chem istry and e n g in e e rin g . I t i s designed to t e s t
the u n d e rsta n d in g of a whole f i e l d , and c a l l s fo r an o rg a n i
z a tio n of knowledge over and beyond th e c o n te n t of se p a ra te
c o u rse s.
In o rd er to h elp the stu d e n t f i l l i n th e gaps between
c o u rse s, and to av o id th e dangers of la s t- m in u te cramming fo r
th e g e n e ra l exam ination, t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n i s co n sid e re d
a very im p o rtan t p a r t of the program* T u to r ia l i n s t r u c t i o n
s t a r t s w ith -th e sophomore y e a r; th e stu d e n t r e g i s t e r s f o r
fo u r c o u rse s, le a v in g the r e s t of h i s time f o r t u t o r i a l work*
A fte r the sophomore y e a r , a stu d e n t may work under e i t h e r P lan
A, p ro v id in g f o r f u l l - t i m e t u t o r i a l work, or under P lan 33,
w ith l e s s time f o r t u t o r i a l work. F u ll t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n
c o n s is ts u s u a lly in weekly or biweekly co n feren ces i n which
th e stu d e n t r e p o r ts on re a d in g s , re a d s essay's b efo re th e
t u t o r , and d is c u s s e s w ith him in an in fo rm al way* A ttendance
a t such conferences i s not compulsory; th e whole r e l a t i o n
between th e t u t o r and th e t u t e e i s p e rso n a l and inform al*
T u to r ia l i n s t r u c t i o n aims to c o r r e l a t e th e co n te n t of the
c o u rse s, f i l l in th e g aps, and encourage independent read in g
and th in k in g in o rd e r to develop a wide o u tlo o k on the f i e l d
as a whole. Says Dean A. 0* Hanford:
The work a s s ig n e d by the t u t o r has f o r i t s purpose
th e c o r r e l a t i o n of the m a te r ia l a s s i m i l a t e d by the
stu d e n t from th e r e l a t e d co u rses w ith in h i s f i e l d
of c o n c e n tr a t io n , th e c lo s in g up of gaps between
th e se c o u rse s, th e f i l l i n g i n of background, and
th e development of independent re a d in g , so th a t
the stu d e n t may have a more complete g rasp and
sy stem a tic knowledge of h i s s u b je c t, and may
come to see i t as a u n if ie d whole and not a
s e r i e s of u n r e la te d groups of f a c t s or id e a s
or so many co u rses kejbt in w a t e r t i g h t com part
m ents. In o th er words, t u t o r i a l work i s a form
6 £
of in te n s iv e ind.ivid.ual i n s t r u c t i o n i n a "broad
s u b je c t a d ju s te d to the ca p ac ity and needs of
each in d iv id u al.:
Although th e re i s much danger of the t u t o r becoming
a coach to h elp pass the exam ination, i t i s re p e a te d ly
s t r e s s e d by th e c o lle g e a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t th e t u t o r i s not
supposed to help cram f o r th e exam ination; h is main ta s k i s
to encourage s e lf - e d u c a tio n and to s tim u la te a broad outlook
on th e su b je c t being s tu d ie d . The t u t o r in d ic a t e s a fu n c tio n
r a t h e r th a n an academic rank; f o r t u t o r s rank a l l th e m y
from i n s t r u c t o r s to f u l l p r o f e s s o r s , alth o u g h a t p re s e n t the
p ro p o rtio n of mature p ro fe s s o rs a r e s t i l l f a r to o low. Each
stu d e n t i s a s s ig n e d to a t u t o r a t th e end of th e Freshman
y e a r. A f u l l - t i m e t u t o r h a s , on th e a v e ra g e , tw e n ty -fiv e t o
t h i r t y tu t e e s a s s ig n e d to h is a t t e n t i o n . T u to r ia l co n feren ces
a re u s u a lly in d iv id u a l; sometimes two or th r e e t u t e e s may
meet as a group.
The g e n e ra l exam ination i s the h e a r t of the system.
Without i t , t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n would have no d i r e c t i o n .
In th e words of P re s id e n t Lowell, nth e t u t o r would be of
com paratively sm all u se , and i t has been so proved*w ithout
a f i n a l exam ination on a r e l a t i v e l y wide f i e l d . F o o tb a ll would
4
be an i n s i p i d a f f a i r w ith o u t g o al p o s ts or touchdowns . 1 1
^ T h ir ty - F i r s t Yearbook of H. F. , P a r t I I , p. 176.
4 A. L. Low ell, " S e lf-E d u c a tio n i n Harvard C o lle g e ,"
Jo u rn a l of Higher Educatiom 1:68, F eb ru ary , 1930.
63
The g e n e ra l exam ination s e t s a ta n g ib le g o a l f o r the s tu d e n ts ;
i t se rv e s as a u n ify in g f a c t o r f o r th e s tu d i e s of th e c o lle g e
co u rse . I t s n a tu re and i t s emphasis d eterm in e, more th a n
an y th in g e l s e , the p a t t e r n of th e cu rricu lu m and th e fu n c
t i o n s of t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n .
Since th e ad o p tio n and a d m in is t r a tio n of the g e n e ra l
exam ination and t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n a re l e f t - i n th e hands
of th e departm ents, th e r e a re c o n s id e ra b le d if f e r e n c e s in
p r a c t i c e between th e d ep artm en ts. U su a lly , th e exam ination
c o n s is ts of two or th r e e th re e -h o u r w r itte n e x e rc is e s giv en
n e a r the end of the se n io r y e a r . An a d d i t i o n a l o r a l examina
t i o n i s u s u a lly giv en f o r honors c a n d id a te s . S tudents who
pass th e g e n e ra l exam inations a re excused from f i n a l examina
t i o n s in co u rses w ith in th e f i e l d of c o n c e n tr a tio n . Although
i t i s the com plaint of th e s tu d e n ts th a t the exam inations
a re o fte n too f a c t u a l , w ith too much emphasis on th e memory
5
of s p e e e fic f a c t s , th e s t a t e d p o lic y i s , d e f i n i t e l y , to
av o id t h i s h in d o f exam inations and to make th e q u estio n s
t r u l y g e n e r a l , allo w in g f o r th e f r e e play of th e student* s
im a g in a tio n and c r e a tiv e th in k in g . Says Dean Hanford:
The g e n e ra l exam inations a re not g iv en f o r the
purpose of re-exam ining th e courses t h a t the stu d e n t
has tak en in h is f i e l d o f ~coneeht“ r a t i o n and i t s
a l l i e d f i e l d s , b u t a r e exam inations o f a whole
5
I . J . Lloyd, e t a l . , "The F a c t o r i a l System i n H arvard
C o lle g e ," H arvard Alumni B u l l e t i n , October 9, 1939, p. 13.
64
s u b j e c t , such a s E n g lish l i t e r a t u r e , economics,
h i s t o r y , government. . . . p h y s ic s , m athem atics,
geology, and so on, i n o rd er to determ ine how
thorough a m astery of the su b je c t th e stu d e n t
has o b ta in ed from h i s c o u rse s, t u t o r i a l work,
and independent reading* As e x p lain e d by
P r e s id e n t Lowell in a re c e n t annual r e p o r t , the
aim of th e g e n e ra l exam ination i s rfto measure
the power ■ o r-c a p a c ity to use and c o r r e l a t e
knowledge* The o b je c t i s h o t so much to fin d
out what f a c t s th e stu d e n t knows a s to f in d
out how f a r he has g rasp ed t h e i r meaning, how
f u l l y he can apply them, how f a r h i s s tu d i e s
have formed a p a r t of. h is being and developed
th e te x tu r e of h is mind; i n . s h o r t , not whether
he has been duly s u b je c te d to a p ro c e s s , but
what, as a r e s u l t of i t , he has become."
Because of t h e i r scope and n a tu r e , th e g e n e ra l
exam inations d i f f e r from course e x a m in a tio n s,
which cover a narrow f i e l d , p lace a g r e a t e r
emphasis on f a c t s , and too o fte n a re d esigned
p rim a r ily to determ ine w hether or n o t the
stu d e n t has done the a s s i g n e d , re a d in g .^
S e lf -e d u c a tio n i s th e c e n t r a l p r i n c i p l e of both the
g e n e ra l exam ination and t u t o r i a l work. To give f u r t h e r en
couragement to independent study and s e l f - e d u c a t i o n , Harvard
in tro d u c e s a re ad in g p e rio d each sem ester: one fo llo w in g
th e Christm as r e c e s s , and the o th e r i n May, j u s t b efo re th e
f i n a l exam ination. During th e s e p e r io d s , a l l co u rse s above
th e Freshman l e v e l and a l l t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n a r e suspended
f o r two or th re e weeks, and stu d e n ts a r e tu rn e d lo o se to work
by them selves on re a d in g s and essays a s s ig n e d by i n s t r u c t o r s
and tu to rs * They are t e s t e d on ^ueh re a d in g s during th e mid
y e a r and f i n a l exam in atio n s.
^ T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of IT. S. s. 22., P a r t I I , p. 17-7*
65
B esides th e p r i n c i p l e of s e l f - e d u c a t i o n and working
tow ard a ta n g ib le g o a l, H arvard b e lie v e s t h a t c o m p etitio n
has wholesome e f f e c t s on the i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e and makes
p r o v is io n consequently f o r i t i n th e B ean's l i s t of s tu d e n ts
of h ig h s c h o la rs h ip and in th e system of com peting f o r honors.
S tudents may work fo r th e B. A. or B, S. degree w ith Honors
(cum la u d e ), w ith High Honors (magna cum la u d e \ or w ith H ighest
Honors ( summa cum la u d e ) . Honors c a n d id a te s a re giv en a d d i
t i o n a l work under t u t o r i a l d i r e c t i o n and th e p r iv ile g e of
^courses re d u c tio n ," th a t i s , th e r e d u c tio n o f degree r e q u i r e
ments by two co u rses in o rd er to have tim e for independent
study*
I n s te a d of a l i n e of cleavage a t th e end of th e sopho
more y e a r , H arvard draws th e l i n e a t the end of the f i r s t y e a r.
The freshm an y e a r i s a y e a r of o r i e n t a t i o n and p r e p a r a tio n f o r
$he advanced work of th e l a t e r y e a r s , N hile the upper c l a s s
men work under t u t o r s , th e Freshmen a re under the guidance of
A d v ise rs, a s s ig n e d a t the time of e n tra n c e . The Freshmen
l i v e to g e th e r a s a u n i t , i n d o rm ito rie s in th e H arvard Yard.
S tu d en ts in the upper c l a s s e s l i v e i n r e s i d e n t i a l ho u ses, each
h o ld in g B50 to 300 s tu d e n ts . The House P la n , making p o s s ib le
even c l o s e r c o n ta c ts between stu d e n ts and t u t o r s , i s c o n sid ered
"th e c u lm in a tio n of th e p r i n c i p l e behind th e T u to r ia l and
7
G eneral Exam ination System s . 1 1
^ General In fo rm a tio n About H arvard College ( O f f i c i a l
R e g is te r of H arvard U n iv e r s ity , Vol. XXXV, No. 1, January 3,
1938), p . 36.
Dean Hanford summarizes fo u r ad v an tag es of th e H arvard
in n o v a tio n s: (a) emphasis i s l a i d on th e m astery of th e major
f i e l d as a i^hole, in s t e a d of j u s t a s e r i e s of c o u rse s; (b)
a g o al i s s e t f o r stu d e n t e f f o r t and*an in c e n tiv e provided
f o r co m p etitio n ; (c) th e g e n e ra l exam inations a r e found to
have e x e rc is e d a “ b e n e f i c ia l in flu e n c e on course i n s t r u c t i o n ,
whose e f f e c t iv e n e s s i s th u s s u b je c te d to a c r u c i a l t e s t ; (d)
th e system g iv e s a new stim u lu s to s c h o la r s h ip , and improves
i t s q u a l ity , as evidenced hy the in c re a s e of stu d e n ts s t r i v i n g
f o r h o n o rs.^
From th e sta n d p o in t of the cu rricu lu m p a t t e r n , the most
im p o rtan t r e s u l t i s th e s h i f t of emphasis from d i s c r e t e c o u r s e r t
organized? knowledge i n a f i e l d of c o n c e n tra tio n , There i s
th u s produced a more co h eren t p a t t e r n of s tu d ie s th a n what i s
u s u a lly found, in a c o lle g e where th e p a s sin g of se p a ra te courses
i s a l l t h a t i s re q u ired * The sta tem en t o f req u irem e n ts and
stu d e n t lo a d i n term s of f u ll- c o u r s e s and h a l f - c o u r s e s marks
a l s o a d e s ire d d e p a rtu re from the c r e d i t system w ith m is c e l la
neous courses of v ary in g u n it-v a lu e s *
At the same tim e, i t should he p o in te d out t h a t w hile
H arvard has made a s i g n i f i c a n t move away from the t r a d i t i o n a l
system, i t has not made a complete break from i t . Much of th e
® T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of N. S. S. E. , P a r t I I , p* 179 f
67
o ld machinery s t i l l rem ains, alo n g sid e of the new. Said
P re s id e n t Lowell i n 1930, T II n s e t t i n g up such a u n i v e r s i t y
honor course [ t h a t i s , the t u t o r i a l systemJ, w ith the g e n e ra l
exam ination as i t s g o a l, we do not propose to give up th e
u su al ihneriean system of courses of i n s t r u c t i o n follow ed hy
9
exam inations and graded m arks * 1 1 So, b e s id e s p a ssin g the
g e n e ra l exam ination, stu d e n ts a re r e q u ir e d to take a d e f i n i t e
number of co u rses and p ass them w ith a c e r t a i n minimum g ra d e .
Howard has not d isc a rd e d the (q u a n tita tiv e b a s is of ed u catio n .
The courses of i n s t r u c t i o n a re the, courses one womld
f in d i n any t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e in the c o u n try . Departments
rem ain a s autonomous u n i t s ; in te rd e p a rtm e n ta l g e n e ra l courses
a re consqjicuous by t h e i r absence. H arvard, thus, a c c e p ts the
cu rricu lu m co n te n t of th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e and t r i e s to
weave th e t r a d i t i o n a l co u rses in to a more u n i f i e d p a t t e r n by
means of g e n e ra l exam inations and t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n . Ho
a tte m p t i s made tow ard any fundam ental r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f the
cu rricu lu m .
That th e r e t e n t i o n of the o ld machinery o f courses
hampers th e development o f th e new in n o v a tio n s i s evidenced
by s tu d e n t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e r e s t r i c t i o n s of course
work. In d eed , th e work of th e co u rses can assume such im
p o rtan ce th a t th e s p i r i t of t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n i s choked
^ Low ell, lo c . c i t .
68
i n an unfavourable atm osphere. A committee of th e Student
Council making an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the t u t o r i a l system r e
p o rte d i n 1931 th a t * * the committee does not b e lie v e t h a t i t
i s e x c essiv e to say t h a t from 50 to 75 per cen t of th e
s tu d e n ts i n H arvard C o lleg e , f a r from r e g a r d i n g / t h i e r ^ t u t o r i a l
^
work as being the c e n t r a l fo cu s of the C ollege c a r e e r , look
a t i t a s h a rd ly more th a n a f i f t h course added to th e schedule
10
f o r th r e e y e a r s . ” The same d i f f i c u l t y was i n d ic a t e d by R. B.
P erry as fo llo w s:
The o th e r source o f doubt concerns th e r e l a t i o n of the
t u t o r i a l and g e n e ra l exam ination system to th e o r i g i n a l
system of ro u tin e course req u ire m e n ts, the l a t t e r having
been s l i g h t l y , but only s l i g h t l y , r e la x e d . The s tu d e n ts
who have been h e r e to f o r e the c h ie f exponents of t h i s
doubt, e v id e n tly f e e l t h a t th e re i s both an ex cessiv e
c o m p lic atio n of machinery and an in c o n s is te n c y of p r i n
c i p le in m a in ta in in g th e two system s sid e by s id e . They
g r e a t l y value th e t u t o r i a l system, but the more they
l i k e i t the more a re they d isp o sed to chafe a t compul
sory c l a s s a tte n d a n c e , course e x a m in a tio n s, and th e
o th e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f e a t u r e s of th e o ld e r system . 1 1
I n the fundam ental philosophy of c o lle g e e d u c atio n ,
H arvard has not made any c l e a r d e f i n i t i o n of the meaning of
l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n in p re se n t-d a y s o c ie ty . I n g e n e r a l, the
t r a d i t i o n a l concept i s a c c e p te d w ithout q u e s tio n in g . The
o b je c tiv e of l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n , i t i s m a in ta in e d , i s achieved
th rough such d i s c i p l i n e s a s fo re ig n languages and th e m astery
1 0 Lloyd e t a l . , op. c i t .
R. B. B erry, !lThe P r e c e p t o r i a l or T u to r ia l S ystem ,”
B u l le t in of American A ss o c ia tio n of U n iv e rs ity P ro f e s s o rs 10:
554-555. ‘
69
of a f i e l d , through th e channels of c o n c e n tra tio n and d i s
t r i b u t i o n . V o ca tio n al and p r o f e s s io n a l c u r r i c u l a a re avoided;
th e re a r e no com bination degrees w ith p r o f e s s io n a l sc h o o ls.
The d i s t i n c t i o n between th e B. A. degree and th e B. S. degree
on th e b a s is of language req u irem en ts i s s t i l l adhered to .
The s i t u a t i o n a t H arvard seems w e ll summed up by a
re c e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r a s fo llo w s:
That H arvard r e t a i n s i t s a b i l i t y to grow i s e v id e n t.
At th e same time one f in d s no r a d i c a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n
of the o b je c tiv e s and s u b je c t m a tte r of e d u c a tio n
i t s e l f ; th e emphasis i s on methods and approaches.
H arvard ta k e s a stu d e n t somewhat above the average
in a b i l i t y and t r a i n i n g , a n a ly se s him, h e lp s him
to choose w ise ly from th e e d u c a tio n a l b i l l of f a r e ,
encourages him to develop th e power of s e l f - i n i t i a
te d th o u g h t, f i n a l l y le a d s him tow ard one k in d of
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n or a n o th e r. But th e e d u c a tio n a l
provender o f fe re d rem ains f a i r l y s t a b l e . The
c a ta lo g u e s s t i l l r e v e a ls th e p i l i n g up of sub
j e c t s too o f te n r i g i d l y eompagtmented, which grew
up w ith th e e l e c t i v e system.
3. Swarthmore C o lleg e, Swarthmore, P ennsylvania
Swarthmore c o lle g e i s a c o -e d u c a tio n a l l i b e r a l - a r t s
c o lle g e of about seven hundred s tu d e n ts , w ith approxim ately
equal numbers of men and women. I t o f f e r s a f o u r- y e a r course
le a d in g to the degrees of B achelor of A rts and B achelor o f
S cien ce. The M aster*s degree in A rts o r Science i s awarded
^ R. L. D uffus, Democracy E n te rs C ollege (Hew York:
C harles Scribner* s S ons, 19’ 36) , p. 134.
to a sm all number of g ra d u a te s who complete a f u l l y e a r
of advanced study beyond the B a c h e lo r’ s d eg ree. The D iv isio n
of E ngineering g iv e s th e advanced degrees of M echanical
E ngineer, E l e c t r i c a l E n g in eer, and C iv il E ngineer.
To make a p p l i c a t i o n f o r ad m issio n , s tu d e n ts must
p r e s e n t f i f t e e n u n i t s of h ig h school s u b je c ts a c c o rd in g to
th e p re s c rib e d .re q u ire m e n ts * The r e q u ir e d u n i t s a re f o re ig n
language, E n g lis h , m athem atics, and h i s t o r y , making a t o t a l
of eleven and o n e -h a lf u n i t s ; the rem aining th re e and one-
h a l f u n i t s are in e l e c t i v e su b je cts# The en tra n ce examina
t i o n c o n s is ts o f, u s u a lly , one C ollege Board Exam ination,
e i t h e r th e S c h o la s tic A p titu d e Test or th e M athematics
Achievement T e st, I n th e s e l e c t i o n of c a n d id a te s , p re fe re n c e
i s g iv e n to c h ild re n of F rie n d s and Alumni of th e c o lle g e .
"S trong i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t and th e promise of ex c e lle n c e
in some p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n w i l l r e c e iv e more c o n s id e r a tio n
th a n a re c o rd which shows a h ig h e r average w ithout promise
13
of unusual a b i l i t y in any one f i e l d . ”
Much s t r e s s i s l a i d on the value of p e rso n a l in te rv ie w s
b e fo re adm ission* Dean Raymond h a l t e r s wrote a s fo llo w s:
With fo u r tim es as many m en‘and seven tim es as many
g i r l s ap p ly in g as we can a c c e p t, i t i s not p o s s ib le t o
in te rv ie w a l l c a n d id a te s . Those whose sch o o l re c o rd s
C atalogue of Swarthmore C o lle g e , 1937-1938, Vol.
XXXV, Bo* 2, p. 39.
71
place them i n th e h ig h e s t group a r e i n v i t e d to c a l l
a t Swarthmore d u rin g t h e i r s e n io r y e a r a t sc h o o l.
Members of an Admissions Committee conduct a s e r i e s
of in te rv ie w s a t hew York, W ashington, and o th e r
p la c e s . When c a n d id a tes l iv e at c o n s id e ra b le d i s
ta n c e s we arran g e f o r in te rv ie w s w ith alumni of
Swarthmore l i v i n g in those s e c t i o n s , and when t h i s
cannot be done, we seek th e h e lp of o th e r c o lle g e
alum ni. I t i s our in v a r ia b le r u le t h a t 110 ca n
d id a te i s a d m itte d w ithout an in te rv ie w w ith
members of our F a c u lty Admissions Committee or
some r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the C o l l e g e . ^
fhe cu rricu lu m of the c o lleg e i s d iv id e d in t o a low er
l e v e l of two y e a rs and an upper l e v e l of two y e a r s , fhe
f i r s t two y e a rs a re devoted to g e n e ra l co u rse s and p r e p a ra tio n
fo r f u r t h e r study; th e l a s t two y e a rs a r e devoted to a major
and r e l a t e d s u b je c ts . S tu d en ts are asked to i n d i c a t e t h e i r
p ro b ab le major a t th e tim e of en tra n ce and the choice w i l l
guide the s e l e c t i o n of e l e c t i v e s i n th e f i r s t two y e a r s .
The req u irem en ts f o r g ra d u a tio n a r e : f a c i l i t y in
E nglish, w ith th e need of making up en tra n c e d e fic ie n c y in
t h i s s u b je c t d uring th e f i r s t y e a r; one o r two f o re ig n l a n
guages; a major and a r e l a t e d minor (two r e l a t e d minors in
th e case of honors s t u d e n t s ) , both o f which must be i n the
same D iv isio n ; the com pletion of s ix te e n f u l l c o u rse s, w ith
a minimum average of C, f o r o rd in ary s tu d e n ts , and th e com
p l e t i o n of e ig h t sem inars in th e l a s t two y e a rs f o r honors
s tu d e n ts ; and comprehensive exam inations a t the end of the
14
Quoted i n th e T h x j^ - F jjc s t Yearbook of I7.S.S.E.
P a r t I I , p7 54-55.' ' ' ' ' ~
72
c o lle g e course.
The program f o r th e f i r s t two y e a rs i s th e same f o r'
a l l s tu d e n ts in th e college* The normal stu d e n t lo a d i s
fo u r h a l f - c o u r s e s each se m ester, each course m eeting u s u a lly
th re e tim es a week, The program f o r the f i r s t two y e a rs
must in c lu d e one y e a r f s work i n each o f th e th r e e D iv isio n s:
H um anities, S o c ia l S c ie n ce s, Ifa tu ra l Sciences* Other s tu d i e s
a re planned to meet th e language r e q u i r e m e n t s andf p r e r e q u i
s i t e s f o r major and minor s u b je c ts .
At th e end of th e second y e a r, th e g i f t e d s tu d e n ts are
a c c e p te d , upon a p p l i c a t i o n , f o r honors work, w hile the o th e r
s tu d e n ts continue w ith th e o rd in a ry program, vjith major and
minor req u irem en ts s im ila r to those in a* t y p i c a l American
c o lle g e . The cu lm in atin g p o in t f o r th e l a t t e r group of
s tu d e n ts i s a comprehensive exam ination in th e major su b je c t^
g iv e n by th e f a c u l ty o f the m ajor f i e l d .
The most d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e of Swarthmore e d u c a tio n
i s the p ro v is io n f o r "honors work" f o r g i f t e d s tu d e n ts in th e
l a s t two y e a r s . Under t h i s p r o v is io n , s tu d e n ts a r e r e le a s e d
from o rd in ary course work and from the system of g rad es and
course e x a m in a tio n s, and a r e g iv e n o p p o rtu n ity t o c a rry on
independent study w ith th e a s s i s t a n c e of i n s t r u c t o r s and th e
s tim u la tio n of fellow stu d e n ts i n group se m in ars. The b a s is
of s e l e c t i o n of honors s tu d e n ts i s d e s c rib e d a s fo llo w s:
73
At th e end of th e Sophomore y ear a stu d e n t may v o lu n te e r
t o read f o r Honors in s te a d of ta k in g h is degree in th e
o rd in a ry c o u rse . Each f i e l d of Honors work has a com
m itte e which p asses upon such a p p l i c a n t s . Admission to
Honors: work i s not determ ined on th e b a s is of th e s t u
d e n t s average grades i n a l l h i s s u b je c ts but r a t h e r on
th e q u a l i t y of h is work in th e s u b je c t i n which he p ro
poses t o s p e c i a l i z e or i n r e l a t e d f i e l d s . For in s ta n c e ,
i f a stu d e n t wished to read f o r Honors i n some l i t e r a r y
su b je c t no account would be ta k e n o f th e f a c t t h a t he
might have f a i l e d i n a m athem atics c o u rse . In th e case
of a s tu d e n t who wished to re a d fo r Honors i n one of th e
sc ie n c e s no p a r t i c u l a r account would be ta k e n of d e f i c
ie n c ie s i n l i t e r a r y c o u rse s. I n g e n e ra l he i s expected
to reac h a sta n d a rd of a t l e a s t B i n th e s u b je c ts of h is
c h o ic e. -* -5
The c e n t r a l purpose of th e honors program i s t o d e v is e
a method of e d u c atio n which w i l l develop more f u l l y th e a b i l
i t i e s of th e g i f t e d s tu d e n t. I t aims t o avoid th e m e d io c rity
t o which mass e d u c a tio n has led th e c o l le g e . I n th e w-ords of
P re s id e n t A y d elo tte:
Our co n v e n tio n a l academic system i s planned f o r th e average
s tu d e n t. We have i n th e p a s t been more concerned w ith min
imum th a n w ith maximum s ta n d a rd s . Our s p e c ia l e f f o r t s
have been expended more f re q u e n tly upon th o se wrho were be
low th e average th a n upon th o s e who were above. We have
been u n ju s t to th e b e s t . We have not made s u f f i c i e n t a l
lowance fo r th e wide gap which s e p a r a te s th o s e w r ho are r e
a l l y f i t t e d f o r th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e from th o se wrho are
n o t. We have f a i l e d to develop adequate methods fo r s e
l e c t i n g th e b e s t from th e average and fo r giving to th o se
b e s t a d i s c i p l i n e worthy of t h e i r a b i l i t i e s . The r e s u l t
has been t h a t academic sta n d a rd s i n our i n s t i t u t i o n s of
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n have been i n f e r i o r t o th o se of Europe,
15 Frank A d y e lo tte , tT Honors Courses a t Swarthm ore,”
H. E. Hawkes, e t a l . , F ive C ollege P lans (New York: Columbia.
U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1931) 9 P* 62-63*
and one of th e h a p p ie s t sig n s of th e tim es i s th e wide
spread d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith our c o n v e n tio n a l s ta n d a rd
iz e d academic system and th e e f f o r t s which a re being
made to s u b s t i t u t e something b e tte r *
The honors p la n a t Swarthmore i s an attem pt t o solve
t h i s v ery problem of th e e d u c a tio n of th e best* A fte r th e
s tu d e n t i s accepted fo r th e p la n , he or she i s g iv en an o u t
l i n e of th e ground which i s to be covered w ith in two y e a rs
i n p r e p a r a t io n f o r th e f i n a l exam inations coming a t th e end
of th e se n io r y e a r. Having been informed of th e to p ic s
which w i l l be in c lu d ed i n th e f i n a l ex am in atio n s, th e s t u
dent i s put on h is re s o u rc e s and h is own r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o
c a rr y on th e suggested re a d in g s and p a p e rs . He i s l e f t f r e e
t o a tte n d or not to a tte n d any o f the c o u rs e s . A ll t h a t he
i s expected to do i s to a tte n d two sem inars a week. There
a r e , however, no grades and no s e p a ra te exam inations given
i n th e se m in ars. The R e g i s t r a r ’ s o f f i c e m erely keeps a r e c
ord of th e f i e l d s in w hich each stu d e n t i s w orking. The
f i n a l exam inations a t th e end of th e c o lle g e course a re th e
so le c r i t e r i a of judgment concerning th e s t u d e n t ’ s q u a l i f i
c a t i o n f o r th e d e g re e , e i t h e r w ith Honors, or w ith High Hon
o r s , or w ith H ighest Honors.
Honors work i s given i n th e fo u r d iv is io n s i n th e c o l
le g e : E n g in e e rin g , H um anities, S o c ia l S c ie n c e s , and Mathema>
t i c s and N a tu ra l S c ie n c e s . The program of th e stu d e n t must
1 6 I b i d . . p. 59.
In c lu d e th r e e d e p a rtm e n ts, u s u a lly i n th e same d i v i s i o n .
U su a lly , one h a l f of th e tim e i n two y e a rs i s given f o r th e
stu d y of th e major s u b je c t; th e o th e r h a l f fo r th e two min
o rs r e q u ir e d . S ince a student ta k e s two sem inars a semes
t e r and e ig h t in th e two y e a rs , t h i s means fo u r sem inars i n
th e major s u b je c t and two sem inars i n each o f th e m inors. In
some c a s e s , a th r e e - th r e e - t w o com bination, in s te a d of f o u r -
two-two, i s a c ce p ted . A t h e s i s may be accep ted In l i e u of a
-sem inar, In which case o nly seven sem inars a re r e q u ir e d .
The sem inars a re claim ed t o be more s a t i s f a c t o r y th a n
in d iv i d u a l t u t o r i a l co n feren ces because of th e advantages of
group s tim u la tio n and d is c u s s io n and because ,lth e American
p ro fe s s o r knows how t o conduct a Seminar and has not o r d i n a r i l y
had ex p erien ce i n the f i n e a r t of in d iv i d u a l t u t o r i a l w ork.tT -^
The number of s tu d e n ts i n a seminar i s u s u a lly f iv e or s i x .
They meet f o r weekly conferences i n a f r e e and in fo rm al atmos
p h e re , o f te n i n th e home of a f a c u l t y member. P apers are
re a d , d is c u s s e d , and c r i t i c i z e d . The group ad journs f o r t e a
a f t e r two or more hours of conference and o f te n co n tin u es a f t e r
t e a . There is. no s t r i c t hour fo r adjournment s im ila r t o th e
d is m is s a l of c l a s s m eetings a t s p e c if ie d h o u rs . The i n s t r u c t o r
^ I b i d . , p. 6 5 .
i s th e more experienced member of th e group; he p a r t i c i p a t e s
i n d is c u s s io n and makes c r i t i c i s m s and s u g g e s tio n s , but he
does not l e c t u r e i n any form al way. Says R. C. Brooks? ftI t
i s perhaps not to o much t o say t h a t th e famous mot about Mark
Hopkins and th e i d e a l c o lle g e has been approxim ated a t Swarth
m ore,— indeed honors groups may even a s s e r t t h a t th e y have
a b o lish e d th e log which was in c lu d e d , u n n e c e s s a r ily , in t h a t
o f t- r e p e a te d fo rm u la .1 ’
The t o p i c s d e a lt w ith in th e sem inars a re bro ad er th a n
th o s e t r e a t e d in c o u rs e s . No s in g le te x tb o o k s a re used; s t u
d en ts a re g iv en l i s t s of re a d in g s which w i l l help i n th e -un
d e rsta n d in g of th e s u b je c t in hand. The l i s t s !!in c lu d e few
i f any c o lle g e te x tb o o k s ; c e r t a i n l y th e y in c lu d e none of th e
p r e - d ig e s te d v a r i e t y . Wherever p o s s ib le c l a s s i c s and o r i g
i n a l documents in each f i e l d are p r e s c r ib e d , most of th e sub
j e c t s fo r th e papers being based upon them . . . . I n a l l cases
honor s tu d e n ts a re ad v ised to re a d th e so u rces and t o m ature
t h e i r own opin io n s th e re o n f i r s t . Only a fte rw a rd s a re th e y
to c o n su lt com m entaries, c r i t i c i s m s , and te x t-b o o k r e n d e r in g s .
They a r e t o l d a ls o to watch v i g i l a n t l y fo r and to n o te any
d is c re p a n c ie s between o r i g i n a l s and com m entaries * 1 1 ^
R. C. B rooks, Reading f o r Honors a t Swarthmore (New York
Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1927), P. 3&.
19 I b i d . . p. 21.
A lthough departm ents v a ry in t h e i r success i n approaching
th e i d e a l procedure o u tlin e d i n th e ,a b o v e q u o ta tio n , i t
seems a g e n e ra l p o lic y on th e p a r t of a l l to encourage i n
dependent stu d y and o r i g i n a l judgment on th e p a r t o f th e s t u
d e n ts .
Honors work, th e n , i s o u tlin e d i n term s of books t o be
read and to p ic s to be covered. On th e b a s is of th e s e r e a d
in g s and r e f l e c t i o n on th e s u b je c t, a stu d e n t w r ite s h i s week
l y papers to be read i n the se m in a rs. Dorothy C a n fie ld F is h e r
d e s c r ib e s th e procedure as fo llo w s:
You are not given d a i l y assignm ents of tw enty pages i n
th e tex tb o o k s t o memorize b e fo re th e next r e c i t a t i o n .
You are given some s u b je c t a s , T tin s ta llm e n t s e l l i n g and
sta n d a rd s of l i v i n g , ” or !,fe u d a lism and th e m edieval to w n .”
You have a week to f in d out enough about t h a t s u b je c t t o
form an o p in io n about i t . Nobody t e l l s you th e u n d erly in g
f a c t s . There i s th e l i b r a r y . Here i s a l i s t of p u b lic a
t i o n s t r e a t i n g th e s u b j e c t . You can re a d . Go t o i t I 20
The i n t e l l e c t u a l process i s f u r t h e r quickened by th e methods
employed i n th e sem inar. They a re d e s c rib e d by Brooks as
fo llo w s :
Great c a re i s e x e rc is e d t o see t h a t papers are p ro p e rly
re ad i n group m e etin g s. Not only e r r o r s in f a c t but e r r o r s
i n th e use of words and of p ro n u n c ia tio n or e x p re s sio n are
i n s t a n t l y c o r r e c te d . Follow ing th e read in g of each paper
th e u n d erg rad u ate members o f a group a re c a lle d upon f i r s t
to c r i t i c i s e i t , th e r e s u l t o f te n being an anim ated c o l l o
quy between s tu d e n ts . Inasmuch as a l l members of th e group
have covered much th e same re a d in g as th e w r i t e r of th e
paper th e r e i s , as a r u l e , no la c k of d e f in it e n e s s i n th e s e
20 Dorothy C a n fie ld F i s h e r , ”M elting th e F a c u lty I c e , ”
World*s Work, May, 1929, p . 55.
78
d is c u s s in n s . A fterw ard the p r o fe s s o r s p re se n t ta k e up th e
. c r i t i c i s m of th e p a p e r, and i f th e case r e q u ir e s i t suggest
a d d i t i o n a l read in g and re w ritin g i n whole or i n p a r t . 2 1
”The assem bling of in fo rm a tio n and covering of th e ground,
says P re s id e n t A y d e lo tte , !Ieach stu d e n t does fo r h im se lf i n
h is room or i n th e l i b r a r y . The f u n c tio n o f th e sem inar i s to
guide him, to s tim u la te h is k eenness, and t o b rin g out d i f f e r
ent phases of th e s u b je c t which he may have n e g le c te d or missed
i n h is own r e a d i n g .fl 2 2
The f i n a l exam inations c o n s is t of e ig h t th re e -h o u r exam
i n a t i o n s co rresp o n d in g t o th e e ig h t sem inars of th e two y e a rs .
They a re given i n two weeks. The q u e s tio n s a re made and th e
papers read and graded by o u ts id e exam iners, whose judgment i s
f i n a l and i s th e b a s is of .the degree awarded. The w r i t t e n
exam inations are follow ed by an o r a l exam ination, given a ls o by
th e o u ts id e exam iners. Before th e exam iners come to th e campus
t o conduct th e o r a l s , th e papers of th e w r i t t e n exam inations
a re m ailed to them f o r read in g and g ra d in g . The o r a l , th e n ,
g iv es th e o p p o rtu n ity t o check up on th e papers and to c l a r i f y
d o u b tfu l p o in ts .
The a d m in is tr a tio n of f i n a l exam inations by o u ts id e exam
in e r s i s a d i s t i n c t i v e and im portant f e a t u r e of th e honors p ro -
21 Brooks, o£. c i t . , p. 37.
22 Hawkes, o p . c i t . , p. 6 $.
79
gram a t Swarthmore. I t changes th e p r o fe s s o rs from i n q u i s i
t o r s to c o l la b o r a to r s and makes f o r h a p p ie r r e l a t i o n s between
te a c h e rs and s tu d e n ts . I t has a wholesome e f f e c t , i t i s
claim ed, on th e g e n e ra l to n e of te a c h in g . Since o u ts id e ex
aminers o f te n r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t schools of thought and hold
p o in ts of view d i f f e r e n t from th o s e of th e campus i n s t r u c t o r s ,
i t i s n e c e ss a ry f o r honors s tu d e n ts and i n s t r u c t o r s to pay
more a t t e n t i o n t o d iv e rg e n t t h e o r i e s and view points and to
avoid o n e -sid e d tre a tm e n t of any s u b j e c t . . S tudents a re fo rc e d
t o "make w ider and more f l e x i b l e p re p a ra tio n " 23 **or th e ex
am inations •
The exam inations are based on th e work o f th e sem inars.
The assignm ent sh e e ts of th e sem inars a re sent to th e examin
e r s , who make out th e q u e s tio n s on th e b a s is of th e l i s t s of
re a d in g s and t o p i c s . A form l e t t e r addressed to th e examin- -
e rs c o n ta in s th e fo llo w in g statem en t i n reg ard to th e de
s ir e d n a tu re of th e exam inations:
S tu d e n ts are allow ed th r e e hours f o r each w r i t t e n exam
i n a t i o n . Most of th e honors exam inations given h i t h e r
t o average t e n q u e s tio n s , some running as low as e i g h t ,
o th e rs as h igh as tw e lv e . The purpose of th e exam ination
i s not so much t o d isc o v e r by means of a la r g e number of
d e t a i l e d q u e s tio n s what th e stu d e n t does not know, r a th e r
i t i s t o g iv e him an o p p o rtu n ity to show what he does
know, howl-.f u l l y he can d e a l w ith broad.er t o p i c s , make com
p a r is o n s , and th e l i k e ; i n s h o rt i t i s meant t o be a t e s t
of power as shown by grasp of th e s u b je c t and a b i l i t y t o
employ what has been le a r n e d . T h is i s not to be ta k e n as
23 B rooks, op. c i t . . p. 52.
meaning t h a t d e t a i l e d q u e s tio n s a re b a rre d ; on th e con
t r a r y th e y may be in c lu d ed under more g e n e ra l i n q u i r i e s
or a number may be s t a t e d s e p a r a te ly . F u r th e r , where
answers to b ro ad er q u e s tio n s e le c te d by th e c a n d id a te
show i n s u f f i c i e n t grasp o f d e t a i l , th e examiner i s , of
c o u rse , q u ite a t l i b e r t y to probe in t o th e m a tte r during
th e ensuing o r a l exam ination. 2-4
I t i s in te n d e d t h a t th e exam inations should not be the
k ind f o r which p r e p a r a tio n can be made th rough cramming. Ex
am in atio n q u e s tio n s of prev io u s y ears are a v a ila b le fo r s t u
dent c o n s u lta t io n . J u n io r s a r e , moreover, asked t o w r ite on
th e exam inations and submit t h e i r papers to the f a c u l t y fo r
c r i t i c i s m and gu id an ce. These a re th e only ” ex am in atio n s”
w ith which th e campus f a c u l t y have anything to do.
B efore concluding th e d e s c r i p t i o n of th e e d u c a tio n a l
program a t Swarthmore, a word should be s a id of th e program
i n a r t s and c r a f t s . $o supplement th e academic program,
p ro v is io n s a re made fo r n o n - c r e d it co u rses as w e ll as ac
t i v i t i e s in a r t s and c r a f t s . Under a f a c u l t y committee on
a r t s and c r a f t s , p la n s are made f o r th e o r g a n iz a tio n of
groups i n t e r e s t e d i n m usic, drama, w r i tin g , p l a s t i c and
g rap h ic a r t s , w oodcutting, p r i n t i n g , and o th e r c r a f t s .
The groups meet u s u a lly i n th e ev e n in g s. They a re non-com-
p u lso ry and am a te u rish . They are continued as long as i n
t e r e s t l a s t s ; some l a s t lo n g e r th a n o th e r s , th e e n t i r e a r
rangement being in fo rm al and based on spontaneous i n t e r e s t s .
I b i d . , p. 4.7-48.
There a re no grades g iv en , no re c o rd s k e p t; but as long as
s tu d e n ts a re i n t e r e s t e d th e y rem ain i n the groups and work
according t o assig n m e n ts.
As f a r as th e cu rricu lu m p a t t e r n i s concerned, th e
program fo r th e f i r s t two y ea rs and f o r g e n e ra l s tu d e n ts
th roughout th e c o lle g e course does not d e p a rt much from th e
t r a d i t i o n a l ty p e , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e f i n a l compre
hen siv e exam ination in th e major s u b j e c t . There i s , how
e v e r, no statem en t of req u irem en ts i n term s of c r e d i t s .
Like H arvard, req u irem en ts and stu d e n t load are s t a t e d i n
term s of f u l l - c o u r s e s and h a l f - c o u r s e s .
For t h e honors s tu d e n ts , one f in d s a cu rricu lu m p a t
t e r n which d e p a rts much f u r t h e r from th e t r a d i t i o n a l p ro
gram. In f a c t , more com pletely th a n i n H arvard, th e old
m achinery of g ra d e s , ex am in atio n s, and courses i s d is c a r d e d .
E ducation i s put com pletely on th e q u a l i t y b a s i s ; th e r e a re
no com plicated re c o rd s of courses ta k e n and. grades a s s ig n e d .
The sem inars d e a l w ith to p ic s which a re broad and g e n e ra l,
and knowledge i s not d iv id e d in to such sm all fragm ents as
i s done i n th e m u l t i c i p l i c i t y of s p e c i f i c courses of th e
t r a d i t i o n a l c u rric u lu m .
The honors system has undoubtedly given g re a t stim u
lu s t o th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e of th e honors s tu d e n ts . The
freedom and independence encouraged by th e system s tim u la te
stu d e n t* s i n t e r e s t and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Brooks remarks t h a t
" i t i s indeed a d u l l hour i n an honors group t h a t does not
s t a r t some h a re of d is c u s s io n which i s v ig o ro u s ly pursued
t h e r e and w hich, as I have le a r n e d , i s f r e q u e n tly pursued i n
th e c o r r id o r s o f th e d o rm ito rie s a fte rw a r d s , th e chase being
ta k e n up by th e o rd in a ry u n d erg rad u ates who h ea r th e honors
25
s tu d e n ts d is c u s s in g th e s e f a s c i n a t i n g and e lu s iv e t o p i c s . ”
I t i s f u r t h e r claim ed t h a t f a c u l t y s c h o la r s h ip has improved
under th e honors p la n ; f a c u l t y members a re c a lle d upon to
deepen as w e ll as broaden t h e i r s c h o la r s h ip ; th e y a ls o ta k e
a keener i n t e r e s t i n methods of te a c h in g .
The most commonly expressed m isgiving about th e Swarth
more program i s t h a t ” i t in tro d u c e s a cleavage i n t o u n d erg rad
u a te e d u c a tio n , opposing a m a n ife s tly s u p e rio r new method for
s u p e rio r s tu d e n ts t o a m a n ife s tly i n f e r i o r one fo r l e s s a b le
s t u d e n t s . ” I t seems t h a t th e c o lle g e i s t r y i n g to main
t a i n under th e same ro o f two prograns guided by two opposing
p h ilo s o p h ie s of e d u c a tio n . Even fo r the honors s tu d e n ts ,
t h e r e i s a c o n t r a d ic ti o n between th e cu rricu lu m and methods
o f th e f i r s t two y ea rs and th e honors work of th e l a s t two
y e a r s . T hat th e c o lle g e a u t h o r i t i e s are not aware of t h i s
in c o n s is te n c y between th e v e ry c o n v e n tio n a l program of th e
f i r s t two y e a rs and th e brave in n o v a tio n s of th e honors work
i s in d ic a te d by th e fo llo w in g remarks by P re s id e n t A y d e lo tte :
^ R. C. B rooks, ,fHonors Courses a t Swarthmore C o lle g e ,”
R. L. K e lly , e d ., The E f f e c tiv e C ollege (Nev? York: A s s o c ia tio n
o f American C o lle g e s, 1928), p. 151*
D u ffu s, o£, c i t . . p. 160.
83
I n to th e f i r s t tv^o y ears must th u s be packed a c e r t a i n
number of r a t h e r d iv e rs e e lem e n ts. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
give them such u n ity as would make i t p o s s ib le t o t r e a t
them by th e Honors p la n . . . . The b e s t stu d e n ts a re a
l i t t l e r e s t i v e under th e s e d isc o n n ec ted demands, but we
have as y e t not been a b le to a r r i v e a t what seems any
b e t t e r s o l u t i o n th a n th e p la n under which w eaare w orking. '
When f u r t h e r in q u ir y i s made i n to the fundam ental ap
proach i n th e s e l e c t i o n of cu rricu lu m m a t e r i a l , one f i n d s ,
t o o , t h a t th e r e i s r e a l l y no r a d i c a l change. The co n ten t
of th e t r a d i t i o n a l c u rric u lu m i s a c c e p te d , alth o u g h i t i s
o rg an ized i n la r g e r and bro ad er groupings such as th e sem
in a r o u t l i n e s r e p r e s e n t . There i s , a l s o , no r e - d e f i n i t i o n
o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l concept of l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n in term s o f
th e modern age. Swarthmore has made a unique c o n t r ib u t io n
i n experim enting Y/ith new methods of d e a lin g w ith su p e rio r
s tu d e n ts , but i t has not made any r a d i c a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n of
th e c o n te n t of e d u c a tio n i n view of newly d efin e d o b j e c t i v e s .
3. R o llin s C o lle g e , W inter P a rk , F l o r i d a .
R o llin s C o lleg e i s a c o -e d u c a tio n a l l i b e r a l - a r t s c o l
le g e w ith an enrollm ent of about fo u r hundred s tu d e n ts . I t
g iv es a f o u r-y e a r c o u rse , c o n s is tin g of a Lower D iv is io n and
an Upper D iv is io n , le a d in g to th e degree of B achelor of A r ts ,
B achelor o f S c ie n c e , or B achelor of M usic. T u itio n and f e e s ,
c a lc u la te d on th e b a s is of a c t u a l u n i t - c o s t , amount t o about
$ 1 4 0 0 . 0 0 a y e a r.
27
H av/kes, o p . c i t . , p. 6 9.
84
C andidates fo r adm ission must have completed a f o u r -
y ear h ig h school course of not l e s s th a n f i f t e e n u n i t s .
Ih e u n i t s a re not s p e c i f i c a l l y p r e s c r ib e d , th e only s t i p u
l a t i o n being t h a t ”th e major p o r tio n of th e secondary
school course accepted fo r adm ission must be d e f i n i t e l y
c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e c u rricu lu m o f R o llin s C o lle g e .” ^8
G raduates of a c c r e d ite d secondary schools are adm itted by
c e r t i f i c a t e ; c e r t i f i c a t e s of th e New York S ta te , Exam ination
B oard, th e C ollege E ntrance E xam ination Board, and th e acad
emic diplom as is s u e d by th e R egents of th e S ta te s of New
York are ac ce p ted a.s b a s is of adm ission; c a n d id a te s of non
a c c r e d ite d schools a re ad m itted on p assin g en tra n ce examin
a t i o n s ; o th e r s tu d e n ts are adm itted by t r a n s f e r from o th e r
c o l l e g e s .
R o l lin s C o lleg e claim s to have d isc a rd e d com pletely
th e system of c r e d i t s and h o u rs. I n th e words of th e C at
alo g u e , ” a R o llin s degree i s no lo n g e r e v alu ated i n term s
of c o u r s e s , g ra d e s , h o u rs, p o i n t s , or term s of r e s id e n c e
but depends upon th e stu d e n t* s f u l f i l l i n g th e re q u ir e d
achievem ents, w hich, when com pleted, w i l l be th e eq u iv a
l e n t of a fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e c o u r s e .” ^9 Under th e new /
R o llin s C ollege B u l l e t i n (Annual C atalogue, 1937-
1938), p. 74-.
29 I b i d . . p. 91.
T 1 Achievement P lan ^ T t a s tu d e n t advances from th e Lower D iv i- (
s io n not by m erely p assin g c o u rs e s , nor by m erely se rv in g a
s p e c if ie d p e rio d of tim e, b u t by making a p p l i c a t i o n to t h e
Board of Admissions to th e Upper D iv is io n and convincing
t h a t Board of h i s competency to un d ertak e the work of th e
Upper D iv is io n , On th e same p r i n c i p l e , th e degree i s g ran ted
a t th e end of th e c o lle g e course on th e b a s is of the recom
m endation of a s p e c i a l committee app o in ted f o r each stu d e n t
t o pass upon h i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n fo r g ra d u a tio n . Attempt i s
made, in o th e r w^ords, to judge each stu d e n t by h is a c tu a l
accomplishment i n c o l le g e .
The purpose of th e Lower D iv is io n i s to provide a
broad fundam ental t r a i n i n g as a background f o r th e s p e c i a l
iz e d stu d y of th e Upper D iv is io n . The stu d e n t* s load con
s i s t s i n t h r e e f u l l - c o u r s e s , a sem inar, and one p h y s ic a l ac
t i v i t y . each term.- ,A f u l l - c o u r s e r e q u ir e s about t e n hours of
work a week and u s u a lly meets f iv e tim es a week. A seminar
meets u s u a lly once a week. The s p e c i f i c req u irem en ts to be met
i n th e Lower D iv is io n a re : (a) competency in E n g lish ; (b) a t
l e a s t one f o r e ig n language; (c) m athem atical a n a ly s is ; (d)
g e n e ra l h i s t o r y ; (e) one y e a r f s p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s ; (f) g e n e ra l
b io lo g y ; (g) s o c i a l and economic i n s t i t u t i o n s ; (h) p h ilo so p h y ,
psychology, and r e l i g i o n ; ( i) th e f i n e a r t s ; ( j) p h y s ic a l
f i t n e s s . Although th e req u irem e n ts may be met by showing
competency i n t h e d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s w ith o u t a c t u a l l y ta k in g
86
th e c o u rs e s , th e normal procedure i s to pursue an elem entary
co u rse i n each of th e f i e l d s above in d ic a t e d . S tu d en ts are
ad m itte d to th e Upper D iv is io n when th e y a re Judged competent
by th e f a c u l t y Board of A dm issions. The Judgment i s made
on th e b a s is of r e c o r d s , in te r v ie w s , and recommendations of
te a c h e r s ; upon ev id en ce, i n o th e r words, t h a t th e a p p lic a n t
has s u f f i c i e n t knowledge of th e t o o l s u b je c ts and th e f i e l d s
o f knowledge re q u ir e d i n the Lower d i v i s i o n . A la r g e p e r
c en tag e of th e s tu d e n ts — from a t h i r d t o a h a l f — a re adm itted
t o th e Upper D iv is io n a f t e r one y ear and one or two q u a r te rs
i n th e Lower D iv is io n ; no stu d e n t i s p e rm itte d more th a n
t h r e e y e a rs fo r th e f u l f i l l m e n t of a l l Lower D iv is io n r e q u i r e
ment s .
I n th e Upper D iv is io n , th e stu d e n t p la n s h is work i n
o rder to a c q u ire competence i n a giv en f i e l d o f knowledge.
Each s tu d e n t ■works out a P la n Sheet w ith th e major p r o f e s s o r ,
o u tli n in g h i s p la n of stu d y i n th e D iv is io n , such a p la n t o
be co n sid ere d as a c o n tra c t and to serv e as one of th e b ases
f o r Judging th e achievement of th e s tu d e n t. A fte r th e con
t r a c t has been duly f u l f i l l e d , q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r g ra d u a tio n
a re determ ined by a s p e c ia l G raduation Committee appointed
f o r each stu d e n t by th e Dean of th e C o lle g e . The Committee
c o n s i s t s o f th e s t u d e n t f s major p r o f e s s o r , who se rv e s as
Chairman, one o th e r p ro fe s s o r under whom th e stu d e n t has
s tu d ie d , and a t h i r d under whom he has never s tu d ie d . I t i s
claim ed t h a t th e t h i r d examiner f u n c tio n s somewhat as anT !o u t
sid e exam iner."
The most im p o rtan t in n o v a tio n a t R o llin s i s th e Con
f e r e n c e , or "Work-Shop" P la n , a method of i n s t r u c t i o n de
signed t o f i t te a c h in g methods to th e i n d iv i d u a l stu d e n t and
t o "humanize education" by f o s t e r i n g c lo s e p e rso n a l c o n ta c ts
between stu d e n t and te a c h e r . By d iv id in g th e d a y ’ s schedule
i n t o four tw o-hour conference p e r io d s , w ith two i n th e f o r e
noon and two i n th e a fte rn o o n , th e c o lle g e in tro d u c e s th e
id e a of an " e ig h t-h o u r day" and p ro v id es f o r in fo rm al con
t a c t s between stu d e n ts and te a c h e rs a l l through th e day. Of
th e fo u r p e rio d s of th e day, th r e e a re f o r m ental work and
th e rem aining -two hours f o r p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t i e s .
I n accordance w ith th e emphasis on p ro g re s s iv e methods
of i n s t r u c t i o n , th e f a c u l t y i s s e le c te d w ith more a t t e n t i o n
t o te a c h in g a b i l i t y th a n to r e s e a r c h a b i l i t y . The o b je c t i s
t o seek th o s e who "have t h a t d iv in e g i f t f o r guiding and en -
30
couraging o th e rs which i s th e essence of good te a c h in g ."
The Conference P lan d isc o u ra g es form al l e c t u r e s and put a
premium upon independent and s e l f - i n i t i a t e d study on th e p a r t
of th e s tu d e n ts . P re s id e n t H olt d e s c r ib e s th e procedure
as fo llo w s:
A v i s i t o r t o a t y p i c a l classroom a t R o llin s w i l l fin d th e
s tu d e n ts se a te d i n co m fortable c h a ir s s c a tte r e d around a
b o o k -lin e d room or g ath e re d about a t a b l e . The room may
Ham ilton H o lt, "The R o llin s I d e a ," The N atio n 131:373
October 8, 1930.
be s i l e n t w ith everyone q u i e t l y rea d in g or w r i t i n g , or
t h e r e may be a buzz of c o n v e rs a tio n as v a rio u s groups
d is c u s s some asp ect of th e s u b je c t th e y are s tu d y in g .
He w i l l fin d the te a c h e r se a te d a t h is d esk , n e i t h e r
l e c t u r i n g nor h e a rin g a r e c i t a t i o n . The t e a c h e r ’ s p r i
mary f u n c tio n i s t o s i t s t i l l , keep q u i e t , and be ready
t o h elp anyone who needs h e lp . His job i s t o answer
r a t h e r th a n t o ask. q u e s tio n s , not to do th e work f o r th e
s tu d e n ts but to guide and s tim u la te t h e i r work. He may
even r e f u s e to answer q u e s tio n s i f he f e e l s t h a t i t w i l l
be more h e l p f u l fo r th e s tu d e n ts to work out th e answers
f o r th e m se lv e s. A lthough p a r t s of some p e r io d s , of
c o u rse , a re giv en over t o t a l k s by th e te a c h e r , a s s ig n
ment of work, group q u e s tio n in g , even o ld -fa s h io n e d q u iz
z e s, th e t e a c h e r ’ s work, fo r th e most p a r t , i s w ith i n
d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts , each of whom may be a t a d i f f e r e n t
sta g e of advancement i n th e c o u r s e .31
Most of th e courses a re scheduled i n the fo renoon,
l a b o r a to r y or f i e l d work and p h y s ic a l and r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v
i t i e s i n th e a fte rn o o n . The evenings a re l a r g e l y f r e e f o r
s o c i a l g a th e rin g s and e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s . Thus, by
a rra n g in g t o have th e major p a r t of a s t u d e n t ’ s study tim e
w ith in th e schedule of th e day, R o llin s makes d e f i n i t e p ro
v i s i o n fo r co m p arativ e ly f r e e evenings fo r d i f f e r e n t ty p e s
of c o lle g e a c t i v i t i e s . In t h i s r e s p e c t , R o llin s i s d i f f e r
ent from e i t h e r Harvard or Swarthmore; and one senses th e
d if f e r e n c e i n atmosphere when v i s i t i n g th e campuses.
f h e im portant c o n t r ib u t io n of R o llin s l i e s i n th e de
v is in g of a method of i n s t r u c t i o n which promotes c lo s e p e r
so n al c o n ta c ts and encourages independent stu d y . As f a r as
th e c u rric u lu m p a t t e r n i s concerned, e f f o r t has been made to
31 I b i d . . p. 372
89'
move away from th e system of c r e d i t s and p o in ts and to put
e d u c a tio n on a q u a l i t y b a s i s . There i s , a g a in , no r a d i c a l
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e c u rric u lu m . One f in d s a number of un
c o n v e n tio n a l c o u rs e s , but i n th e main th e c o n te n t o f th e c u r
ricu lu m does not d i f f e r from th e c o n v e n tio n a l p a t t e r n . That
no change has been made i n th e fundam ental p a t t e r n of th e
c u rricu lu m i s in d ic a te d i n the fo llo w in g r e p o r t by P re s id e n t
H o lt:
Most of th e s u b je c ts ta u g h t a t R o llin s C ollege i n th e
p a s t w i l l be o f fe re d under th e new cu rricu lu m p la n , but
re a rra n g e d w ith new emphasis on t h e i r human a p p lic a tio n s
and v a lu e s . I n a d d i tio n , new course w i l l be provided to
r e a l i z e th e l i b e r a l i z e d o b je c tiv e s agreed upon i n th e
four R o llin s curriculum -com m ittee r e p o r t s and th e C u rric u
lum C onference r e p o r t . . . .32
A tte n tio n i s c a l l e d to th e f a c t t h a t R o llin s does not
i n s t i t u t e any g e n e ra l exam inations a t any tim e d u rin g th e c o l
le g e co u rse . W ith co u rse s more or l e s s s i m ila r t o th e d i s
c r e t e courses of th e t r a d i t i o n a l c u rric u lu m and w ith th e ab
sence of any form of g e n e ra l exam ination to h e lp o rg an ize th e
co u rses i n to a more connected whole, i t i s open to q u e s tio n
w hether th e s tu d ie s p re s e n t such a u n i f i e d p a t t e r n as what i s
found i n H arvard and Swarthmore.
The re q u ire m e n ts fo r t h e Lower D iv is io n are s u b je c t even
more to t h i s c r i t i c i s m . To ask a stu d e n t t o show competence
i n nine d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s i n th e course of two y e a rs means,
32 H am ilton H o lt, " L ib e r a liz in g a L i b e r a l E d u c a tio n ,"
T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of N. S . S. E. . P a r t I I , p. 227.
90
i n most c a s e s , ta k in g a number o f d i s c r e t e co u rses i n d i f f e r
ent f i e l d s , w ith the r e s u l t t h a t th e program of th e Lower
D iv is io n becomes as s c a tte r e d and as la c k in g i n u n i t y and o r
g a n iz a tio n as i t i s p o s s ib le under th e w orst form of th e e l e c -
t i v e - c r e d i t - s y s t e m .
While t h i s i s being w r i t t e n , however, R o llin s i s mak
ing p la n s fo r a new e x p e rim e n ta l cu rric u lu m which may be put
i n t o t r i a l i n th e fo llo w in g y e a r . I n th e new cu rricu lu m p la n ,
th e work of th e Lower D iv is io n w i l l c o n s is t of a few b a s ic
co u rses running th ro u g h a number of q u a r t e r s . When such a
p la n i s put i n t o e f f e c t and i t s fundam ental id e a a m p lifie d ,
one may hope t o see a more u n i f i e d program of stu d y i n th e
Lower D iv is io n .
4-. Summary and Comments.
T his ch a p te r has d e s c rib e d th e e d u c a tio n a l program
of t h r e e c o lle g e s which have made an e f f o r t to move away
from th e t r a d i t i o n a l lo c k - s te p system of l e c t u r e s , c r e d i t s ,
and u n r e la te d c o u r s e s . T here a r e , t o be s u r e , im portant
d if f e r e n c e s i n p r a c t i c e and i n th e d e t a i l s o f a d m in is tr a tio n ;
no two c o l l e g e s , even i n th e case of one d e l i b e r a t e l y t r y in g
to i m i t a t e th e o th e r , can be e x a c tly th e same; but th e funda
m ental id e a s behind th e t u t o r i a l system , th e honors c o u rse ,
and th e two-hour conference p la n a re v ery much th e same.
91
Raymond W alters proposes th e fo llo w in g b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s com
mon t o b o th t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n and honors works
a . The c o lle g e stu d e n t should le a r n t o educate h im s e lf.
b . The student s h a l l re c e iv e stim u lu s and guidance from
h i s te a c h e r s , but he needs a good d e a l of tim e t o
h im s e lf t o accom plish h i s t a s k of s e l f - e d u c a t i o n .
c . The o b je c tiv e f o r th e c o lle g e stu d e n t should be a
thorough knowledge of some one f i e l d , a la r g e su b je c t
of a group of r e l a t e d s u b je c ts .
d. The stu d e n t should be t e s t e d a t th e c lo s e of h is c o l
le g e course i n exam inations co v erin g th e whole f i e l d
of h is c o n c e n tra te d stu d y .33
The c o lle g e s which have adopted some form o f t u t o r i a l
or honors p la n are to o numerous to m ention. The Independent
Study P la n a t S ta n fo rd , V assar, George W ashington U n iv e r s ity ,
and o th e r c o lle g e s , th e P r e c e p t o r i a l P la n a t P rin c e to n and
Bowdoin, th e Autonomous P lan of Study a t A ntioch, th e S enior
Fellow s P la n a t Dartmouth: th e s e a re only some examples of
th e many v a r i a t i o n s i n names and i n p r a c t i c e . D iffe re n c e s
a re found i n th e ty p e s of s tu d e n ts in c lu d ed in th e p la n s , in
th e e x te n t t o w hich s tu d e n ts a re exempted from o rd in a ry
co u rse work, i n th e methods of i n s t r u c t i o n a l guidance i n th e
scope of g e n e ra l ex a m in atio n s, and o th e r d e t a i l s . I n many
c o lle g e s one f in d s i n o p e ra tio n a t the same tim e some form
o f t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n and some form of honors work, th e
l a t t e r being r e s t r i c t e d to th e su p e rio r s tu d e n ts .
The most s a l i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e cu rricu lu m
p a t t e r n re p re s e n te d by th e s e c o lle g e s may be summarized as
fo llo w s:
^ T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of N .S .S .E . . P a rt I I , p. 165
9 2
1. The in n o v a tio n s c o n s is t c h i e f l y i n th e in tr o d u c t io n
o f new methods of te a c h in g t o supplement o r , i n some c a s e s ,
t o su p p lan t th e form al l e c t u r e method.
2. The purpose of th e new methods i s t o encourage s e l f -
e d u c atio n by means of independent and s e l f - i n i t i a t e d stu d y
on th e p a r t of th e s tu d e n ts .
3. Means a re d ev ise d to promote c lo s e p e rs o n a l c o n ta c ts
between stu d e n t and te a c h e r .
4. Requirem ents and stu d en t lo a d a re s t a t e d i n term s of
c o u rs e s , in s te a d of c r e d i t s and p o in ts .
£ > .. Student achievement i s judged on th e b a s i s of a c tu a l
d e m o n stra tio n of a b i l i t y , r a t h e r th a n th e mere accum ulation
of c r e d i t s or th e mere passing of co u rse ex am in atio n s.
6. Emphasis i s l a i d on o rg an ized knowledge and broad un
d e rsta n d in g of a whole f i e l d , as t e s t e d i n comprehensive or
g e n e ra l e x a m in a tio n s, r a t h e r th a n on th e f a c t u a l in fo rm a tio n
of fragm entary c o u rs e s .
Among r e c e n t re a d ju stm e n ts i n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , th e
in n o v a tio n s d e s c rib e d i n t h i s c h a p te r a re perhaps th e most
p o p u la r. D if f e r e n t forms of t u t o r i a l or honors work and
com prehensive ex a m in a tio n s, given e i t h e r a t th e end or a t
some o th e r tim e of th e c o lle g e co u rse , have been w idely
adopted by c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s over a l l p a r t s of th e
c o u n try . A lim ite d stu d y conducted by K athryn McHale fo r
th e American A s s o c ia tio n of U n iv e r s ity Women d is c lo s e d t h a t
f!honors co u rses or co u rses of independent study i n s t i t u t e d
t o encourage th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e are o ffe re d i n a l l hut
fo u r of th e t h i r t y - s i x c o lle g e s s t u d i e d ."34 P e rry r e f e r s
to th e t u t o r i a l method, "w ith i t s a l l i e d ag encies and im
p lie d p u r p o s e a s " th e next g r e a t experim ent i n American
e d u c a tio n ." ^ Out of th e 168 i n s t i t u t i o n s in c lu d e d i n th e
stu d y r e p o r te d i n th e T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of th e N. S. S. E
more th a n a hundred i n s t i t u t i o n s were found t o have adopted
some form o f t u t o r i a l or honors work.3^
One re a s o n why th e s e changes a re so popular i s t h a t
th e y can be in tro d u c e d w ithout, u p s e ttin g th e old m achinery.
They do not n e c e s s a r ily - in v o lv e any r a d i c a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n
of th e c u rricu lu m or a re s ta te m e n t of th e o b je c tiv e s of
c o lle g e e d u c a tio n . They a r e e s s e n t i a l l y i n s t r u c t i o n a l de
v ic e s which can f i t in to any scheme and which can be i n t r o
duced w ith o u t d is t u r b in g th e g e n e ra l p a t t e r n of co u rses and
th e fundam ental n a tu re o f th e c u rric u lu m . They are a c c e p t
a b le t o i n s t i t u t i o n s guided by q u ite d i f f e r e n t p h ilo s o p h ie s
of e d u c a tio n .
I t must be re c o g n iz e d , however, t h a t th e s e changes
have made im p o rtan t c o n tr ib u tio n s i n h e lp in g to b re a k down
34 K athryn McHale, "Changes i n th e C o lle g e s ," J o u rn a l
of H igher E d u catio n 2:291, Ju n e , 1931.
35 P e r ry , op. c i t . , p. 556.
3^ T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook o f th e N. S'. S. E. P a r t I I ,
P. 33-34.
94
th e lo c k - s te p system of c r e d i t s and l e c t u r e s , and t h a t in
c o lle g e s which have adopted th e s e in n o v a tio n s one does fin d
a marked change i n the a t t i t u d e s of th e s tu d e n ts , who show
more i n i t i a t i v e and assume g re a te r, r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r
own s t u d i e s . S tu d e n ts i n H arvard, Sw rarth m o re, and H o llin s
a re seen t o be engaged i n stu d y or d is c u s s io n long a f t e r th e
d e s ig n a te d h o u rs; th e y do n o t work acco rd in g t o th e c lo c k .
I n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e i s g iv e n a new im petus. R e la tio n s between
stu d e n t and te a c h e r a r e , on th e whole, a good d e a l b e t t e r
th a n in o rd in a ry c o l le g e s . E ducation i s reco g n ized as an
in d iv id u a l a f f a i r , which means, i n th e f i r s t p la c e , a r e v o l t
a g a in s t th e m e ch an izatio n of e d u c a tio n , and, a l s o , a r e v o l t
a g a in s t mass e d u c a tio n . The r e c o g n itio n of e d u c a tio n as an
in d iv id u a l a f f a i r means a ls o more a t t e n t i o n to th e g i f t e d
s t u d e n t s .
The c o lle g e s c l a s s i f i e d in t h i s group have n o t, how
e v e r, ta k e n d i r e c t s te p s t o meet th e c r i t i c i s m s ^ t h a t th e
c o lle g e c u rric u lu m i s not r e l a t e d to th e v i t a l problems of
l i f e , t h a t i t la c k s th e u n i t y of an o rg a n iz in g p r i n c i p l e and
th e d i r e c t i o n of c l e a r l y s t a t e d o b je c tiv e s i n term s of modern
l i f e . The c o u rs e s , i n th e main, a re d ep a rtm e n ta l co u rses of
th e t r a d i t i o n a l k ind which a re more s u i t a b l e fo r th e t r a i n
ing of s c h o la rs th a n f o r i n t e l l i g e n t c i t i z e n s h i p and th e un
d e rs ta n d in g of l i f e problem s. G eneral exam inations toward
th e end of th e course seem t o have met th e common c r i t i c i s m
95
of th e p a tc h in e s s of c o lle g e e d u c a tio n ; hut th e q u e s tio n may
w e ll he asked whether t h e re su ltin g p a t t e r n of s tu d ie s r e p r e
s e n ts a t i e i n g to g e th e r of lo o se p a r ts hy a r t i f i c i a l means
or whether th e r e i s any i n t r i n s i c u n i t y produced hy a con
s i s t e n t o rg a n iz in g p r i n c i p l e . S tu d e n ts work toward a t a n
g ib le g o a l, hut i t may he a s k e d ‘w hether or not s tu d e n ts i n
th e s e c o lle g e s a re working to pass exam inations or i n r e
sponse t o e x t r i n s i c in c e n tiv e s such as honors and h ig h e r
h o n o rs, r a t h e r th a n from an i n t r i n s i c d r iv e due to a r e a l
i z a t i o n of th e v i t a l r e l a t i o n s between th e s tu d ie s and th e
needs of l i f e .
CHAPTER V
BREAKING D O W N RIGID DEPARTMENTALIZATION
Narrow s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i s one of th e d e f e c ts f o r which
th e c o lle g e has been much c r i t i c i z e d . Narrowr s p e c i a l i z a t i o n
i s f o s te r e d i n th e system of d ep a rtm en ta l o r g a n iz a tio n , w ith
r i g i d l i n e s of d em arcatio n between th e d ep a rtm e n ts. T his
c h a p te r w i l l d e s c rib e a few c o lle g e s which have made an e f
f o r t t o break down th e r i g i d d e p a r tm e n ta liz a tio n of th e t r a
d i t i o n a l c o l l e g e . In g e n e r a l , th e e f f o r t s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n
f a l l under two c a te g o r ie s : th e a d m in is tr a tiv e approach and
t h e c u r r i c u l a r approach. The d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f de
p artm ents i s h ere d e s c rib e d as an example of th e f i r s t ap
proach and t h e development of in te rd e p a r tm e n ta l c o u rse s as an
example of th e second approach. Each i s i l l u s t r a t e d by two
c o l l e g e s .
(A) The A d m in is tra tiv e Approach
1. C a rle to n C o lle g e , N o r t h f i e l d , M innesota
C a rle to n C ollege i s a l i b e r a l - a r t s c o lle g e of th e "New
England ty p e,?1 w ith an en ro llm en t of over 850 s tu d e n ts and. an
a p p ro x im ately eq u al number of men and women s tu d e n ts . I t o f f e r s
a fo u r- y e a r c o u rs e , which c o n s t i t u t e s a continuous u n i t w ith no
l i n e o f cleavage between lower and upper y e a rs , le a d in g to th e
degree of B achelor of A r ts . G raduate work i s provided fo r a
sm all group of g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts working tow ards th e degree of
M aster of A r t s . With h a l f of i t s s tu d e n ts from o u ts id e th e
s t a t e o f M innesota, C a rle to n can no lo n g e r be c o n sid ered a
l o c a l c o l le g e . C om paratively sm all i n s i z e , th e c o lle g e i s
a b le t o pro v id e f o r th e c lo s e p e rs o n a l c o n ta c ts p o s s ib le i n
sm all com m unities. Favored w ith f a i r l y ample f i n a n c i a l r e
s o u rc e s , i t i s a b le t o b rin g t o i t s s e r v ic e a f a c u l t y of q u a l
i f i e d te a c h e r s and th u s m a in ta in a h igh s ta n d a rd of work.
C an d id ates fo r adm ission must p re s e n t a t o t a l of f i f t e e n
u n i t s , e lev e n of which must be i n T T academic s u b j e c t s . 1 ’ These
must in c lu d e th r e e u n i t s of E n g lis h , two u n i t s of a f o r e ig n
lan g u ag e, twro u n i t s of m athem atics, and o th e r u n i t s i n n a t u r a l
and s o c i a l s c ie n c e s . As a r u l e , only s tu d e n ts i n th e upper
h a l f of th e g ra d u a tin g c l a s s in high sc h o o l are a c c e p te d . S tu
d e n ts are ad m itte d -by c e r t i f i c a t e i f th e y a r e g ra d u a te s of
approved h ig h s c h o o ls . Other s tu d e n ts a re adm itted by exam
i n a t i o n or by cum ulative re c o rd .
The c r e d i t system i s th e b a s is on which s tu d ie s are
o rg a n iz ed . One hundred and tw e n ty -fo u r c r e d i t h o u rs, w ith
th e same number of ”grade c r e d i t s , ” a re r e q u ir e d fo r gradu
a t i o n , i n a d d i tio n to s i x hours i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n . Re
q u ire d s u b je c ts t o t a l about f o r t y h o u rs, d iv id e d among two
y e a rs o f f o r e ig n la n g u ag es, a year of E n g lis h , a year of
98
l i t e r a t u r e , a year of la b o ra to r y s c ie n c e , and a year of p h i l
osophy. There must be a f i e l d o f c o n c e n tr a tio n to which t h i r t y -
s ix c r e d i t hours a re a s s ig n e d , tw e n ty -fo u r hours i n a major sub
j e c t and th e o th e r s ix i n r e l a t e d d ep artm en ts. B e s id e s , th e r e
a re s p e c i f i c r e g u la tio n s governing a d d i t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of
s t u d i e s , depending on th e D iv is io n i n which th e f i e l d of con
c e n t r a t i o n i s chosen.
Courses of i n s t r u c t i o n a re o ffe re d w ith in d ep a rtm en ts,
b u t th e departm ents a re f u r t h e r grouped in to D iv is io n s . The
D iv is io n s a re : th e D iv is io n of Language and L i t e r a t u r e , con
s i s t i n g o f th e d ep artm en ts o f E n g lish , L a t i n , Greek, German,
and Romance Languages; th e D iv is io n of P h ilo so p h y , Psychology,
and E d u ca tio n , c o n s is tin g o f th e departm ents of P h ilo so p h y ,
Psychology and E d u catio n , and Biography; th e D iv is io n of P o l i t
i c a l and S o c ia l S c ie n c e , c o n s is tin g of th e departm ents of H is
t o r y and P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e , I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e la t io n s , Economics,
and S ociology and A nthropology; th e D iv is io n of S c ie n c e , w ith
departm ents i n M athem atics, Astronomy, P h y s ic s , C hem istry, Ge
ology and Geography, B otany, and Zoology; th e D iv is io n of F ine
A r t s , w ith departm ents i n A rt, M usic, Speech, Dramatic A rts ;
th e D iv is io n o f H ea lth and P h y s ic a l E d u catio n , w ith d e p a r t
ments i n Hygiene and P u b lic H e a lth , H e a lth and P h y s ic a l Edu
c a t i o n fo r Men, and H e a lth and P h y s ic a l E d u catio n fo r Women.
There a r e , th u s , tw e n ty -s ix departm ents grouped i n s ix
D iv is io n s . The d iv is io n s have an im portant f u n c tio n i n th e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t u d i e s . For example, a stu d e n t w ith a f i e l d
99
^of c o n c e n tr a tio n i n D iv is io n I must ta k e a t l e a s t s ix hours i n
D iv is io n IV and tw elv e hours i n D iv is io n I I or I I I ; a f i e l d of
c o n c e n tra tio n i n D iv is io n I I must be accompanied by s ix hours
i n D iv is io n IV and an o th er s ix hours i n 'D i v i s i o n I , IV, V, or
VI; and so on. M oreover, th e d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n fa v o rs
more c o - o p e r a tio n between i t s c o n s titu e n t departm ents and en
courages more a t t e n t i o n t o th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between them.
In th e D iv is io n of P h ilo so p h y , P sychology, and Educa
t i o n i s a Department of Biography which i s claim ed to be th e
f i r s t of i t s kind i n th e U n ited S t a t e s and i s d u p lic a te d only
a t Dartm outh. The purpose i s " to f o s t e r th e stu d y of ! g re a t
men1 i n a f r e e , h u m a n istic manner.""** The departm ent o f f e r s
co u rses such as " R e p re s e n ta tiv e A m ericans," "G reat A d v e n tu re rs,"
" R e p re s e n ta tiv e M o r a li s ts ," " R e p re s e n ta tiv e P e r s o n a l i t i e s of
th e Middle Ages," and o th e r s . The c o n te n t, i t can be r e a d i l y
seen , c u ts a c ro ss th e t r a d i t i o n a l d e p a rtm e n ta l b o u n d a rie s.
As f a r as th e g e n e ra l p a t t e r n of th e cu rric u lu m i s con
ce rn e d , C a rle to n has not made any s i g n i f i c a n t in n o v a tio n s .
The c r e d i t system rem a in s. There i s a stro n g t r a d i t i o n of de
p a rtm e n ta l autonomy ,which i s not -favorable ?to; th e development
of in te r d e p a r tm e n ta l c o u rs e s , except when a s e p a r a te departm ent
i s e s ta b li s h e d such as th e one J u s t r e f e r r e d t o . The r e q u i r e
ments r e f l e c t th e co n tin u an c e of c o n s e rv a tiv e t r a d i t i o n s and
an e f f o r t to impose checks and b ala n ce s on th e system of f r e e
e l e c t i v e s . A p r o v is io n i s made f o r I n d iv id u a liz e d Programs of
C a rle to n C ollege B u l l e t i n (C atalogue Number fo r 1937- .
1938), p . 147
100
Study whereby a lim ite d number of s tu d e n ts may, w ith s p e c ia l
p e rm is sio n , be exempted from th e exact r e g u la tio n s of concen
t r a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n , but th e s u b s t i t u t i o n s p e rm itte d are
made .w ith in th e s e t-u p of t r a d i t i o n a l co u rse s and c r e d i t h o u r s •
A somewhat d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n of s tu d ie s i s s e t up fo r
th e c a n d id a te s fo r h o n o rs. They a re given more o p p o r tu n itie s
f o r independent stu d y and are r e q u ir e d to ta k e a f i n a l g e n e ra l
exam in atio n in the f i e l d o f c o n c e n tr a tio n . Honors c a n d i d a t e s .
a re awarded th e degree w ith cum la u d e , magna cum l a u d e . and
summa cum la u d e .
Much a t t e n t i o n i s p aid t o p e rso n n e l work. About seventy
per cent o f th e new s tu d e n ts are v i s i t e d a t t h e i r homes by th e
D ir e c to r of P e rso n n e l, b e fo re th e opening of th e f a l l sem ester.
Programs o f freshm en s tu d e n ts are approved i n d i v i d u a l l y b e fo re
th e opening of c o l le g e . There a re p ro v is io n s f o r s tu d e n t coun
s e l i n g , f o r t e s t i n g and placem ent s e r v i c e s , and v o c a tio n a l
gu id a n ce. An e la b o r a te C ollege H e a lth S e rv ic e i s w e ll equipped
fo r com plete p h y s ic a l exam ination of s tu d e n ts .
The t r a d i t i o n a l concept of l i b e r a l e d u c atio n i s accepted
and guarded a g a in s t th e c o n ta m in a tio n of v o c a tio n a lis m . The
c l a s s i c s , la n g u a g e s, and m athem atics are th e core o f th e pro
gram o f l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n . M ental d i s c i p l i n e and th e h i s t o r i c
background a re th e means th ro u g h which l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n i s
ac h ie v e d . The !Iim personal a t t i t u d e ” tow ards s tu d ie s i s h eld
t o be th e mark of l i b e r a l s t u d i e s , as^ c o n tra s te d w ith v o c a tio n
a l s t u d i e s .
2. Reed C o lleg e , P o rtla n d , Oregon
Reed C ollege i s a c o -e d u c a tio n a l l i b e r a l - a r t s c o l le g e ,
w ith an en ro llm en t of abount f iv e hundred s tu d e n ts , s i x t y per
cent of whom a re men. I t s fo u r-y e a r c o u rs e , w ith a Lower d i
v i s i o n of two y e a rs and an Upper D iv is io n of two y e a rs , c u l
m inates in th e degree of B achelor o f A r t s . The degree of
M aster of A rts i s awarded i n r a r e ca se s t o g rad u ate a s s i s t a n t s
who have pursued s a t i s f a c t o r y g rad u ate work.
No s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n of h ig h school s tu d ie s i s p re s c rib e d
f o r ad m ission in t o th e c o lle g e . I t i s recommended, however,
t h a t th e high school s tu d i e s in c lu d e E n g lis h , e i t h e r F rench or
German, h i s t o r y , s o c i a l s c ie n c e , m athem atics, and n a t u r a l sc ien c e
S tu d e n ts are ad m itted by c e r t i f i c a t e , or by exam ination, or by
cum ulative r e c o r d .
There is a d e f i n i t e l i n e o f cleavage between th e Lower
D iv is io n and th e Upper D iv is io n . The s tu d ie s i n th e Lower Di
v i s i o n serv e to in tro d u c e the stu d e n t to th e d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s
o f knowledge, b o th f o r th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f s o c ie ty and i t s
f
c u l tu r e and as background fo r th e s p e c ia liz e d study of th e
i i
Upper D iv is io n . The c r e d i t system p ro v id es th e g e n e ra l b a s is
f o r th e o r g a n iz a tio n of co u rses of i n s t r u c t i o n , but i t i s not
adhered to v ery s t r i c t l y , and i s of n e g l i g i b l e im portance i n
th e Upper D iv is io n p a r t i c u l a r l y . Course v a lu e s range from one
or two u n i t s t o fo u r or f i v e u n i t s . The normal stu d e n t load
i s f i f t e e n u n i t s each se m este r. Most c o u rse s run th ro u g h th e
1 0 2
y e a r, so t h a t a program of s tu d ie s e l e c t e d i n September i s con
tin u e d u n t i l Ju n e , a t which tim e grades a re recorded fo r th e
e n t i r e y e a r T s work♦
A scheme of a s s ig n in g c r e d i t v a lu e s according to th e
q u a l i t y of s c h o la rs h ip i s employed i n th e Lower D iv is io n . Nor
m ally , f i f t e e n u n i t s of s tu d i e s should e a rn tw e n ty -fiv e c r e d i t -
p o in ts a y e a r . To be adm itted u n c o n d itio n a lly in to th e Upper
D iv is io n a stu d e n t must have com pleted t h i r t y u n i t s of work
and f i f t y c r e d i t - p o i n t s . In th e Upper D iv is io n , however, th e r e
i s no req u irem en t i n term s of c r e d i t - p o i n t s and u n i t s , except
t h a t a s tu d e n t should p la n for a t l e a s t fo u rte e n u n i t s f o r
each of th e two y e a rs . The program of th e Upper D iv is io n is
planned under th e guidance and ap p ro v al of th e major p r o f e s s o r ;
i t adm its of f l e x i b i l i t y and in d iv i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s .
The Lower D iv is io n makes group req u irem e n ts to in s u r e
proper d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t u d i e s . They in c lu d e a y e a r-c o u rs e
i n th e h i s t o r y of l i t e r a t u r e from Homer t o th e middle of th e
e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry ; a y e a r-c o u rs e i n th e h i s t o r y of ?/estern
c i v i l i z a t i o n from i t s o r ig in s t o th e m iddle of th e e ig h te e n th
c e n tu ry , or a y e a r-c o u rs e i n Contemporary S o c ie ty ; two y e a r-
co u rse s chosen from m athem atics and n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s ; and any
y e a r-c o u rs e chosen from a l i s t of in tr o d u c to r y courses in
o th e r f i e l d s . S ince a re a d in g knowledge of French or German
i s r e q u ire d fo r g ra d u a tio n , i t i s custom ary t o tak e a language
i n th e freshm an or sophomore y e a r. W ith th e ex c ep tio n of th e
course in Contemporary S o c ie ty , which i s i n th e charge of a
103
committee of te a c h e r s from s e v e ra l d e p a rtm e n ts, a l l th e i n t r o
d u c to ry co u rses a re d e p a rtm e n ta l in n a t u r e , alth o u g h e f f o r t is
made to make them broad and g e n e ra l.
The s tu d ie s i n th e Upper D iv is io n a re grouped in fo u r
d i v i s i o n s . The D iv is io n o f L i t e r a t u r e and Language in c lu d e s
F rench, German, Greek, L a ti n , and I t a l i a n ; th e D iv is io n of
H is to ry and th e S o c ia l S ciences in c lu d e s economics, p o l i t i c s ,
so c io lo g y ; th e D iv is io n of M athematics and th e N a tu ra l Sciences
in c lu d e s b io lo g y , c h e m istry , and p h y sic s; th e D iv is io n o f P h i l
osophy, Psychology, and E ducation i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y . The
d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n i s m aintained !tto avoid th e i s o l a t i o n
of s p e c ia liz e d f i e l d s of le a rn in g " so t h a t th e s tu d ie s may be
2
"broadened by emphasis upon t h e i r m utual r e l a t i o n s h i p s . " I t
f a c i l i t a t e s f a c u l t y c o -o p e ra tio n w ith in d iv is io n s and makes
d i v i s i o n a l re q u ire m e n ts which se rv e as a check upon narrow
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . F u rth erm o re , i t opens th e way f o r t h e organ
i z a t i o n of broad in tr o d u c to r y co u rses f o r th e d i v i s i o n ; a l
though most of th e in tr o d u c to r y co u rses a t Heed a re s t i l l de
p a rtm e n ta l in n a t u r e , th e y do in c lu d e m a te r ia l s which would
not be in c lu d e d in s t r i c t l y d ep a rtm en tal c o u rs e s . As one
f a c u l t y member p u ts i t , " c o -o p e ra tio n w ith in th e d i v i s i o n
makes us not so wary l e s t we should ste p on some o th e r p ro
f e s s o r ^ t e r r i t o r y i n our te a c h in g ."
The p a t t e r n of th e c u rric u lu m in th e Upper D iv is io n
2
Reed C ollege B u l l e t i n . V ol. 17, No. 1, (Jan u ary ,
1938) p. 15.
104
p r e s e n ts o th e r d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . There a re no s p e c i f i c
re q u irem e n ts o u ts id e of th e language requirem ent f o r th e d eg ree .
Each s tu d e n t works out a program to s u i t h is needs and i n t e r e s t s ,
w ith th e guidance and ap p ro v al of th e major p r o f e s s o r . The f i n a l
a p p ro v al of th e program r e s t s w ith th e d i v i s i o n ; i n th e case of i n
t e r - d i v i s i o n a l m a jo rs, an i n t e r - d i v i s i o n a l committee i s i n ch a rg e .
At th e end of th e ju n io r year a q u a lif y in g exam ination i s given
T T t o t e s t th e s t u d e n t f s g e n e ra l grasp of th e chosen f i e l d of stu d y
and a b i l i t y t o u n d erta k e a t h e s i s . I t i s in te n d e d to t e s t th e
s t u d e n t f s g e n e ra l f i t n e s s f o r th e work of th e se n io r y ear and not
t o be r e s t r i c t e d to th e c o n te n t o f th e c o u rs e s . The independent
stu d y of th e s e n io r year cu lm in ates i n a t h e s i s . The f i n a l t e s t
i s made i n a s e n io r o r a l exam ination on th e t h e s i s and on th e gen
e r a l knowledge of th e stu d en t i n h i s major and r e l a t e d s u b je c ts .
The Reed f a c u l t y p o in t w ith much p r id e t o th e h ig h q u a l i
ty of s e n io r th e s e s subm itted by t h e i r s tu d e n ts , as an evidence
of th e h ig h l e v e l of i n t e l l e c t u a l work produced under th e s y s
tem of in fo rm a l, in d iv i d u a li z e d e d u c a tio n a t Reed.
Not a few of th e th e s e s have gained r e c o g n i tio n beyond th e
bounds of th e c o lle g e ; one was p r in te d e n t i r e by th e C arne
g ie F oundation f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Peace;- an o th er was d i s
cussed a t le n g th by S tu a r t Chase i n T ,The New R e p u b lic .f’ A
t h e s i s i n th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f m athem atics t o an economic
problem by a member of th e c la s s of 1930 was l a t e r su b m itted
i n th e H a r t, S ch affn er and Marx u n d erg rad u ate c o n te s t and
r e c e iv e d f i r s t p r i z e . O thers have been r e p r in te d i n whole
or i n p a r t i n jo u r n a ls of n a t i o n a l c i r c u la t io n .4
3 I b i d . , p. 16.
4 E, 0 . S is s o n , nAn E xperim ental C ollege i n I t s Twen
t i e t h Y e a r ,1 1 School and S o c ie ty 33:292-3 F eb ru ary 28, 1931.
105
Much s t r e s s i s l a i d on th e - development of te a c h in g meth
ods to s ti m u la te independent study a n d .c r e a ti v e th i n k i n g . The
sm all c l a s s e s a t Reed len d them selves to th e use of in fo rm al
methods of c l a s s d is c u s s io n , g iv in g ample o p p o rtu n ity f o r a
f r e e and m utual g iv e -a n d -ta k e between te a c h e r and s tu d e n ts .
T here i s no one s p e c ta c u la r plan or method comparable to th e
C onference P lan of R o llin s or th e t u t o r i a l system o f H arvard,
but i n s t r u c t o r s i n th e c o lle g e make f r e e use of t u t o r i a l work,
group c o n fe re n c e s, d is c u s s io n s e s s io n s , and o th e r methods.
Reed C o lleg e has fo r some y e a rs been known as an e x p e rim en ta l
c o l l e g e . While t h e r e has been no e x p e rim e n ta tio n w ith th e
b a s ic m a te r ia l s or c o n te n t o f th e c u rric u lu m , th e r e has been
a g r e a t d e a l of open-minded e x p e rim e n ta tio n i n te a c h in g methods.
I n f a c t , a v i s i t o r could not h e lp being im pressed \¥±th th e
keen i n t e r e s t of th e f a c u l t y in te a c h in g and t h e i r r e a d in e s s to
t r y new methods.
Commenting on th e p r a c t i c e a t Reed of fT t r e a t i n g a l l
s tu d e n ts as i f th e y were honors s t u d e n t s , n P ro fe s s o r C e r f , who
has been a t Reed s in c e 1921, says:
From th e day o f h is adm ission th e stu d en t i s throw n upon
h is own r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . He i s t o l d t h a t no re c o rd of h is
c l a s s a tte n d a n c e w i l l be kept and t h a t he i s f r e e t o a t
te n d or not as he p le a s e s ; t h a t he i s p laced e n t i r e l y on
h is honor (e x a m in a tio n s, fo r example, are i n v a r i a b l y un
su p erv ised ) ; t h a t he w i l l never be prodded t o work; t h a t
h is i n s t r u c t o r s w i l l be a t hand to guide and h e lp , but
not t o s c o ld , t h r e a t e n , or c a j o l e ; t h a t , i n s h o r t , he
w i l l be looked upon as an a d u lt capable of ed u catin g
h im s e lf , eager to l e a r n r a t h e r th a n t o be ta u g h t , and
10.6
w illi n g to f in d w ith in h i n s e l f th e d i s c i p l i n a r y power n e c e s
sa ry i n su ch a p ro c e s s . Under th e s e circu m stan ces th e r i g h t
kind of stu d e n t d evelops s e l f - r e l i a n c e , r e s p o n s ib le in d e
pendence, and i n t e l l e c t u a l i n i t i a t i v e . *
In pursuance o f th e p o lic y of p u ttin g th e s tu d e n ts on
t h e i r own r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , th e r e g u l a t i o n of campus l i f e o u ts id e
o f academic m a tte rs i s l e f t in th e hands o f th e s tu d e n ts . The
stu d e n t c o u n c il d e a ls w ith problems of d i s c i p l i n e . Even i n
academic m a tte r s , e f f o r t i s made to e n l i s t stu d e n t c o - o p e ra tio n .
A S tudent E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s Committee of t e n b rin g s stu d e n t
re q u e s ts and recommendations to th e F a c u lty E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s
Committee, w ith which i t holds o c c a s io n a l j o i n t m eetin g s.
E f f o r t i s made t o put th e c e n t r a l emphasis i n c o lle g e
l i f e on i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s . F r a t e r n i t i e s and i n t e r - c o l -
l e g i a t e a t h l e t i c s have been avoided. The r e s u l t i n g campus a t
mosphere has been d e s c rib e d as followrs;
The one c o lle g e i n th e t e r r i t o r y th e N orth P a c i f i c
re g io n j which has d ep a rte d most w idely from t r a d i t i o n a l
s ta n d a rd s , namely, Reed C o lle g e , i s h e ld by p r a c t i c a l l y
a l l th e sch o o ls t r a i n i n g stu d e n ts fo r c o lle g e t o be th e
school where s tu d e n ts , provided th e y have th e a b i l i t y and
w illin g n e s s to work, can o b ta in a b e t t e r g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n
th a n i n most o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . They a re not ag ree d , how
e v e r, as t o t h e reaso n s f o r t h i s s u p e r i o r i t y . Some hold
t h a t th e com prehensive exam inations a re r e s p o n s i b le , and
o th e rs t h a t th e c lo s e c o n ta c t between p ro fe s s o r and p u p i l ,
made p o s s ib le by Reedf s sm all c l a s s e s , i s r e s p o n s i b l e .°
5 T h ir tv - F ir s t, Yearbook of N. S. S. E. , P a rt I I (Bloom-
in g to n , I l l i n o i s : P u b lic School P u b lis h in g Company, 1932)
p. 169.
^ I b i d . , p . 141*
107
Owing, p erh ap s, to th e ex p e rim en ta l a t t i t u d e of th e
f a c u l t y , th e dominent concept of l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n a t Heed i s
somewhat d i f f e r e n t from th e t r a d i t i o n a l . There i s l e s s c e r
t a i n t y i n re g a rd t o th e " d i s c i p l i n a r y s u b je c ts " which should
form th e core of l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n . There i s a ten d en cy to
put in c re a s in g emphasis on th e u n d ersta n d in g of the e n v iro n -
mentment and t o make th e g e n e ra l s tu d ie s of th e lower d i v i s i o n
c o n t r ib u t e toward t h i s end. E f f o r t i s being made to b rin g the
s tu d e n ts more and more i n t o d i r e c t c o n ta c ts w ith l i f e and
problems o u ts id e of th e c o lle g e and to encourage d i r e c t stu d y
of th e c o n d itio n s of th e surrounding environm ent. Reed i s un
dergoing changes; th e ex p e rim e n ta l a t t i t u d e i s i t s b e s t g u a r
a n te e of i t s a b i l i t y to grow.
3. Summary and Comments.
The above a re two examples o f howr th e c o lle g e s a re t r y
ing t o g et awray from th e narrow ing e f f e c t s of r i g i d d ep artm en t
a l i z a t i o n . The d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n has a lre a d y become a
popula.r movement in c o lle g e e d u c a tio n . Of th e 6 3 4 c o lle g e s
in c lu d e d i n th e Sm all C ollege Study of th e A s s o c ia tio n o f
American C o lle g e s , s i x t y per cent were found to have adopted
7
some form of d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n .
^ R. L. K e lly , "C urrent C urriculum T rends; U n ific a --
t i o n and B i f u r c a t i o n ," B u l l e t i n of A s s o c ia tio n of American
C o lleg e s 21:54-7, December, 1935.
103
The e s ta b lis h m e n t of such new departm ents as th e D ep art
ment of Biography a t C a rle to n and Dartmouth i s a p a r t of th e
g e n e ra l tr e n d to o rg a n iz e knowledge on o th e r l i n e s th a n th e
t r a d i t i o n a l d e p a rtm e n ts. S yracuse U n iv e r s it y , f o r example,
e s ta b li s h e d i n 1924- a School of C itiz e n s h ip and P u b lic A f f a i r s
as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e C ollege of L i b e r a l A r t s , fo r th e
stu d y of problems p e r ta in in g t o c i t i z e n s h i p and le a d e r s h ip
i n a dem ocracy.^ A Department of American C itiz e n s h ip a t
Washburn C o lleg e in c lu d e s courses i n American government,
h i s t o r y , s o c i a l p h ilo s p h y , p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s and methods,
i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , and s o c i a l s c ie n c e s i n g e n e r a l.^
M ills C o lleg e combines s e v e r a l s c ie n c e s i n to an ”E n v iro n -
m ental S cie n c e ” group, i n order ”t o give t o u n d e rg ra d u a te s
/
a sense of th e r e l a t i o n of th e s c ie n c e s , t o remove from under
g ra d u a te s th e f e e l in g of s e p a r a tio n between c h e m istry , p h y s ic s ,
b io - c h e m is t r y .” -^ The I n s t i t u t e of Human A f f a i r s a t Y ale,
th e D iv is io n of E u th e n ic s a t V assar C o lle g e , and i n t e r - d e p a r t -
m ental m ajors a t Sweet B r ia r and o th e r c o lle g e s ( e . g . , a
major i n American P roblem s, -made up of co u rse s i n h i s t o r y ,
econom ics, and so cio lo g y ) are o th e r examples of th e attem pt
t o b rin g to g e th e r th e re s o u rc e s of d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s o f knowl
edge f o r th e study of r e a l i s t i c problems o f modern l i f e .
8 T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook of N. S. S. E. , P a rt I I , P . 58
9 I b i d . . p. 133-135
10 I b i d . . p. 149
109
The grouping of departm ents i n t o d i v is io n s and th e group
ing of co u rses belonging i n d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n a l departm ents
in to new departm ents a re only a b eg in n in g s te p toward th e i n
t e g r a t i o n of piecem eal knowledge th ro u g h th e study of l i f e
problem s. To th e e x te n t t h a t departm ents co n tin u e to f u n c tio n
as u n i t s i n th e d i v i s i o n and th e c o u rse s i n th e new departm ents
c o n tin u e to be ta u g h t i n th e same old way, th e new d iv isio n -” ' :
a l o r g a n i z a t i o n becomes a mere name. U n fo rtu n a te ly , t h i s
s t a t e of a f f a i r s i s e x a c tly what i s found i n many c o lle g e s
which have adopted th e d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n . The d i v i s i o n a l
o r g a n iz a tio n i s an a d m in is tr a tiv e d e v ic e which opens th e way
f o r d e p a rtm e n ta l c o -o p e ra tio n and f o r th e i n t e g r a t i o n of sub
j e c t m a tte r i n d e fia n c e of d e p a rtm e n ta l b o u n d a rie s; i t i n
v o lv es no c u rric u lu m r e c o n s t r u c t i d n d i r e c t l y . The advantages
of th e d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n may be summed up as f o l l o w :
1. The d i v i s i o n a l f a c u l t y under a d i v i s i o n a l chairm an can
d is c u s s th e problems of th e d i v i s i o n and a r e th u s enabled to
understand and a p p r e c ia te common problem s and d i f f i c u l t i e s .
ning
2 . D iv is io n a l p la n / can avoid much d u p lic a t io n and o v er
la p p in g of d e p a rtm e n ta l courses and e l im in a te un n ecessary
c o u r s e s .
3. D iv is io n a l req u irem e n ts fo r m ajors encourage b r e a d th
o f d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s e l e c t i o n of s t u d i e s .
4* D iv is io n a l conscio u sn ess on th e p a r t of th e f a c u l t y
as w e ll as s tu d e n ts fa v o rs th e a p p r e c ia t io n of th e i n t e r r e l a
t i o n s h ip between d e p a rtm e n ts.
1 1 0
5. I n te r d e p a r tm e n ta l m ajors become more common,
6v * A way i s opened f o r th e development o f broad in tr o d u c
t o r y c o u r s e s •
B. The C u r r ic u la r Approach: The O rg a n iz a tio n
of Broad In te r d e p a rtm e n ta l Courses of I n s t r u c t i o n s .
1. Columbia C o lle g e , New York C ity , New York.
Columbia C o lle g e , th e u n d erg rad u ate c o lle g e f o r men of
Columbia U n iv e r s ity , g iv e s a f o u r- y e a r co u rse le a d in g up to
th e degree of B achelor of A r t s . In c o - o p e r a tio n w ith o th e r
sch o o ls and :c o l l e g e s .i n Columbia U n iv e r s ity , th e C ollege
makes p ro v is io n s fo r co u rses p r e p a r a to ry t o advanced and
p r o f e s s i o n a l s tu d ie s and fo r combined co u rses whereby s t u
d e n ts may s t a r t work i n p r o f e s s io n a l schools a t the. same
tim e f u l f i l l i n g req u irem e n ts fo r th e B achelor*s d egree i n
th e C o lle g e .
C andidates fo r adm ission must p re se n t f i f t e e n u n i t s
i n E n g lis h , m athem atics, f o r e ig n language, s c ie n c e , h i s t o r y ,
and o th e r s u b j e c t s , acco rd in g t o th e p re s c r ib e d p r o p o r tio n s .
Two methods of adm ission a re i n use: th e o ld method of en
t r a n c e exam ination, and th e new method of p s y c h o lo g ic a l ex
am in a tio n . Under th e o ld method, a stu d e n t ta k e s e n tra n c e
exam inations e i t h e r i n f i f t e e n u n i t s covering a l l h ig h school
s u b j e c t s , o r , i n th e case of q u a l i f i e d c a n d id a te s , i n four
ill
s u b je c ts o n ly . The new method adm its s tu d e n ts of a b i l i t y and
prom ise by th e Thorndike I n t e l l i g e n c e E xam ination, w hich ” i s
desig n ed to s e l e c t th e s tu d e n ts q u a l i f i e d by g e n e ra l a b i l i t y
to p r o f i t by a c o lle g e c o u r s e ,” !,to t e s t m ental a b i l i t y and
g e n e ra l f i t n e s s f o r c o lle g e work r a th d r th a n p r e p a r a tio n i n
s p e c i f i c sub j e c t s I n a l l c a s e s , th e c a n d id a te 1 s moral
q u a l i t i e s and h e a l t h re c o rd a re im portant m a tte rs of c o n s id
e r a t i o n . With emphasis th ro u g h i t s e n t i r e program upon ac
c u r a te knowledge of th e i n d i v i d u a l , Columbia t r i e s t o find-
out a t th e tim e of adm ission as much as p o s s ib le about th e
m e n ta l, m oral, and p h y s ic a l q u a l i t i e s of th e c a n d id a te s .
The c r e d i t system i s th e b a s is on which co u rse s of i n
s t r u c t i o n a re a rra n g e d . Norm ally, a s tu d e n t may not r e g i s t e r
f o r l e s s th a n tw elve or more th a n n in e te e n p o in ts of academic
c r e d i t . The co m p letio n of 26 p o in ts i s r e q u ir e d f o r c l a s s i
f i c a t i o n as sophomore, 58 p o in ts fo r ju n io r s ta n d in g , and
88 p o in ts f o r s e n io r s ta n d in g . One hundred and tw e n ty -fo u r
p o in ts a re re q u ir e d f o r g ra d u a tio n .
R equirem ents fo r th e degree in c lu d e two y e a r s T stu d y
of Contemporary C i v i l i z a t i o n , two y e a rs i n H um anities, two
y e a rs i n S c ie n c e , E n g lis h , p r o f ic ie n c y i n a f o r e ig n language,
p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , and h y g ien e. G eneral survey co u rses are
a v a i l a b l e i n Contemporary C i v i l i z a t i o n , th e H um anities, and
S c ie n c e . E n g lish co m position does n o t c o n s is t i n a form al
11 Announcement of CQlumbia Csll&gjs, 1933-1939 (Columbia
U n iv e r s ity , A p ril 9, 1938), p. 17
1 1 2
course* I t s f l e x i b l e f e a t u r e s are in d ic a t e d in the fo llo w -
ing c a ta lo g u e d e s c r i p t i o n :
The E n g lis h C req u irem en t com prises assignm ents a g g re
g a tin g 5,000 words i n b o th th e freshm en and th e sopho
more y e a rs i n Contemporary C i v i l i z a t i o n A and B, or
H um anities A and B, or i n o th e r co u rse s by arrangem ent
w ith th e i n s t r u c t o r s concerned and th e Department of
English* No form al i n s t r u c t i o n in com position i s g iv e n ,
but co n feren c es upon th e w r i t t e n assignm ents a re o b lig a
t o r y , and s tu d e n ts whose com position i s s e r i o u s l y d e
f i c i e n t a re c a lle d upon fo r p r a c t i c e w r itin g under i n
s t r u c t i o n s a t r e g u la r p erio d s* The sta n d a rd of th e r e
quirem ent i s c l e a r , c o r r e c t , and l o g i c a l E n g lish i n th e
s t u d e n t ! s w r i t t e n work fo r a l l courses* . .12
The o th e r req u irem e n ts a r e not a b s o lu te ly r i g i d , e ith e r *
A stu d e n t who i s competent to s a t i s f y any of th e req u ire m e n ts
w ith o u t ta k in g a fo rm al co u rse i n th e f i e l d may make a p p l ic a
t i o n f o r an achievement t e s t t o d eterm in e h is competency. The
p a ssin g o f th e t e s t would be ac ce p ted as s u f f i c i e n t f u l f i l l
ment of th e req u irem en t and exempt th e stu d en t from ta k in g
th e co u rse o th e rw ise r e q u ir e d . No p o in t c r e d i t , however, i s
th u s earned tow ard th e d eg ree; th e stu d e n t i s m erely r e le a s e d
of th e requirem ent so t h a t he might devote more tim e to o th e r
s t u d i e s .
The fo u r- y e a r co u rse i s d iv id e d in to th e lower C ollege
of two y e a rs and th e upper C o lleg e of two y e a r s . "Columbia
C o lleg e re c o g n iz e s ro u g h ly the f i r s t two y e a rs as being p e rio d s
12 I b id . ♦ P- 59.
113
f o r o r i e n t a t i o n and su rv ey , f&r th e a c q u i s i t i o n of t o o l s fo r
i n t e l l e c t u a l work, and f o r th e d is c o v e ry of a permanent i n t e l
l e c t u a l b e n t . " -* -3 J?he most im p o rtan t method fo r a t t a i n i n g
th e s e purposes i s th e in te r d e p a r tm e n ta l survey c o u rs e s . S t a r t
ing w ith a y e a r-c o u rs e i n Contemporary C i v i l i z a t i o n i n 1918,
Columbia now o f f e r s two y e a rs of such g e n e ra l co u rse s i n th e
t h r e e f i e l d s of s o c i a l s c i e n c e ,n a t u r a l s c ie n c e , and th e human
i t i e s . The purpose of th e s e co u rse s i s not th e t r a i n i n g of
s p e c i a l i s t s or s c h o la rs i n th e p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d , but t o work
fo r a g e n e ra l u n d e rsta n d in g of a broad f i e l d of human endeavor.
The fundam ental view point of th e s e co u rses i s t h a t i t i s e r
roneous t o assume t h a t every stu d en t i n c o lle g e i s an "embryo
s c h o la r ." ^-4 but t h a t every stu d e n t i s to be a c i t i z e n and
le a d e r i n s o c ie ty and must be ab le t o u n d ersta n d w ith some de
g ree o f i n t e l l i g e n c e th e world i n which he l i v e s . The courses
a re not r e s t r i c t e d by d e p a rtm e n ta l b o u n d a rie s; th e y are organ
iz e d and ta u g h t th ro u g h th e c o - o p e r a tiv e e f f o r t o f s c h o la rs
from a number o f f i e l d s .
The most famous of th e survey co u rses i s th e tw o-year
course e n t i t l e d Contemporary C i v i l i z a t i o n , g iv en w ith th e co
o p e r a tio n o f fo u r d e p a rtm e n ts, namely, Economics, P h ilo so p h y ,
3-3 h .E. Hawkes , F iv e C ollege P l a n s » (New York: Columbia
U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1931), P- 22.
3-4 H. J . Carmen, "Ah Example of An I n te g r a te d Program
i n th e S o c ia l S tu d ie s ," B. Lamar Johnson, e d . , What About S ur
vey Courses (New York: Henry H olt and Company, 1937), p. 2^9.
Government, and H is to r y . The s y l l a b i f o r th e two y e a rs are
not based Ion any p a r t i c u l a r t e x t , but r e p r e s e n t th e j o i n t e f
f o r t of s e v e r a l departm ents to b r in g to g e th e r p e r t i n e n t ma
t e r i a l s " d e a lin g w ith th e i n s i s t e n t problems of s o c i e t y . T t^*^
"What i s of c h i e f i n t e r e s t in th e co u rses on contem porary
c i v i l i z a t i o n " says Coss, " i s th e i n t e g r a t i o n of m a te r ia l
from th e whole ran g e o f th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s , and th e co-op
e r a t i o n of th e s t a f f o f fo u r major departm ents i n th e p r e
p a r a t io n of m a t e r i a l and th e g iv in g o f i n s t r u c t i o n . " - ^ The
co u rse meets fo u r tim es a week d u rin g th e f i r s t y ear (g iv in g
fo u r u n i t s each sem ester) and th r e e tim es a week i n th e se c
ond y ear (g iv in g th r e e u n i t s each s e m e s te r). The work of th e
f i r s t y ear i s c e n te re d on th e i n s t i t u t i o n s of th e p r e s e n t,
w ith s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to th e European fo u n d a tio n s of contem-
pory American c u l t u r e and a h i s t o r i c a l vie?/ of v/estern c i v i l
i z a t i o n . Attempt i s a ls o made to a c q u a in t th e s tu d e n ts w ith
" th e contem porary developm ents i n psychology, s c ie n c e , l i t e r
a t u r e , a r t , and m u s i c . T h e second y ear o f th e course i s
devoted t o an i n t e n s i v e stu d y of economic and p o l i t i c a l prob
lems i n th e U n ited S t a t e s , w ith th e problem of economic se
c u r i t y as i t s c e n t r a l theme.
15 J . L* C oss, "A Survey C ourse," J o u r n a l of Higher
Educat ion 2 :1 1 8 . March, 1931-
1 6 I b i d . . p. 120.
^ Carmen, op. c i t . , p. 250.
115
The co u rse i s a d m in iste red by th e Committee on I n s t r u c
t i o n , not by any d ep a rtm en tal u n i t . I n s t r u c t i o n i s given i n
sm a ll c la s s e s o f about t h i r t y s tu d e n ts , each c l a s s i n th e
charge of an independent i n s t r u c t o r from one of th e c o -o p e ra
t i n g .departm ent s . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f an i n s t r u c t o r f o r a
s e c t i o n th ro u g h o u t th e y ear makes f o r more c o n t i n u i t y and
u n i t y w ith in th e co u rse and avoids th e s p l i t t i n g of t h e course
i n to sm all fragm ents each c o n s is tin g of a few l e c t u r e s by a
s p e c i a l i s t . Once a week th e i n s t r u c t o r s of th e d i f f e r e n t se c
t i o n s meet fo r th e d is c u s s io n of problems i n c o n n e c tio n w ith
th e te a c h in g of th e c o u rs e . The f u n c tio n s o f th e co u rse are
re p o r te d by Dean Hawkes as fo llo w s:
I t i s th e b e l i e f of th e departm ents mentioned t h a t t h i s
c o u rse se rv e s a double purpose fo r th e stu d e n ts o f th e
C o lle g e . I n th e f i r s t p la c e , i t p ro v id es an adequate and
d e s i r a b l e survey of p r e s e n t-d a y c i v i l i z a t i o n i n th e l i g h t
o f i t s o r i g i n , f o r th o s e s u td e n ts whose prim ary i n t e r e s t
i s i n o th e r f i e l d s th a n th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s . I t i s b e
lie v e d t h a t i t a ls o f u r n is h e s a b ro a d e r and more s a t i s
f a c t o r y b a s is f o r th e f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d work i n any one of
th e departm ents t h a t c o -o p e ra te i n i t s o f f e r in g th a n
would be a ffo rd e d by a,(narro w ly d e p a rtm e n ta l co u rse given
by a s in g le 'departm ent 118
The course has undergone c o n tin u a l r e v i s i o n s in c e th e
b e g in n in g . E f f o r t i s made to in c o rp o r a te stu d e n t su g g e stio n s
i n t o th e r e v is e d e d i t i o n s . Each s e c tio n of th e co u rse e l e c t s
a stu d e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , and th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e se c
t i o n s meet f o r an exchange of o p in io n s and p ass on t o th e
^ R. C. B rooks, Reading f o r Honors a t Swarthmore (New
York: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1927), p. 33.
116
f a c u l t y th e c r i t i c i s m s and su g g e stio n s of th e s tu d e n ts fo r
th e improvement of th e co u rse .
Elem entary co u rses i n sc ie n c e a re a d m in iste re d in
much th e same manner. T h e ir purpose i s to a c q u a in t s t u
d e n ts 1 1 w ith th e c h ie f f i e l d s of s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
a d is c u s s io n of t h e i r dominant problem s, c o n c e p ts, and
t h e o r i e s , and an i n tr o d u c t io n t o th e te c h n iq u e s of e x p e r-
19
im e n ta l m eth o d s.tT The f i r s t sem ester d e a ls w ith m a tte r,
en erg y , and r a d i a t i o n ; th e second sem ester w ith chem ical
changes i n m a tte r; th e t h i r d w ith th e o r i g i n and p h y s ic a l
h i s t o r y of th e e a r t h ; th e f o u r th w ith l i v i n g organism s.
C lass work c o n s i s t s i n two hours l e c t u r e s and t h r e e hours
la b o r a to r y work each week.
The co u rse i n Hum anities i s th e l a t e s t change i n th e
Columbia c u rric u lu m . The f i r s t year i s devoted t o re a d in g s
i n and d is c u s s io n s of European l i t e r a t u r e and philo so p h y
w ith th e purpose of dev elo p in g 1 1 i n th e stu d e n t l i t e r a r y t a s t e
and judgment, as w e ll as h a b its of p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n a l y s i s ,
th ro u g h a c a r e f u l ac q u ain tan ce w ith a s e r i e s , i n more or
l e s s c h ro n o lo g ic a l o r d e r , of th e o u ts ta n d in g m a ste rp ie c e s
20
i n th e l i t e r a t u r e and philosophy o f th e European t r a d i t i o n . ”
The second y ear i s an in tr o d u c t io n to music and p l a s t i c a r t s .
Announcement of Columbia C o lle g e . 193&-1939> p. 112.
2 0 I b i d . . p. 90.
The c u rric u lu m p a t t e r n of th e upper C ollege p r e s e n ts
much f l e x i b i l i t y . There a re no p r e s c rib e d req u ire m e n ts b e
yond t h a t a stu d en t must o b ta in s i x t y m a tu rity c r e d i t s i n
o rd er to q u a l if y f o r th e d e g re e . M a tu rity c r e d i t s a re given
f o r advanced c o u rs e s , and th e req u irem en t of a minimum num
b e r o f m a tu rity c r e d i t s "makes i t n e c e s s a ry fo r a stu d e n t to
devote th e l a s t two y e a rs of h is course alm ost e n t i r e l y to
v/ork of an advanced c h a ra c te r . . . and makes i t im p o ssib le
f o r one of th e sons of r e s t to emerge from c o lle g e w ith
fo u r Freshman y e a r s , or even one Freshman y ea r and th r e e
21
Sophomore y e a rs of c o lle g e work."
T here a re no re q u ire m e n ts concerning a major or con
c e n t r a t i o n , because s tu d e n ts i n a c o lle g e w ith in a b ig u n i
v e r s i t y , i t i s m a in ta in e d , th in k i n u n i v e r s i t y term s and
te n d t o s p e c i a l i z e a t any r a t e . The only c u r r i c u l a r r e
q u irem e n ts, t h e r e f o r e , a r e th o se o f th e lower C o lleg e i n s u r
ing b r e a d th of knowledge and i n t r o d u c t i o n t o d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s ,
and th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f th e n e c e s s a ry t o o ls of le a r n i n g . The
program fo r th e upper C ollege i s to be worked out f o r each
stu d e n t by c o n s u lta t io n between f a c u l t y a d v iso r and stu d e n t
and i s determ ined i n each case on th e b a s is of academic and
p e rso n n e l r e c o r d s .
21
Hawkes, ojo. c i t . . p. 24-.
118
In th e words o f Dean Hawkes, fT Columbia C ollege d u rin g
th e p a s t t h i r t y y e a rs has developed under th e o p e ra tio n of
th e f o r c e s of e v o lu tio n r a t h e r th a n o f r e v o l u t i o n , "^2 The
m achinery o f th e c r e d i t system has not been a b o lis h e d , but
w ith in th e framework of th e old system Columbia has made
commendable e f f o r t s to know th e i n d i v i d u a l stu d e n t and to
f i t th e e d u c a tio n a l program to h i s needs and a b i l i t i e s ,
"At th e p re s e n t tim e any req u irem en t fo r th e degree may be
waived when th e Committee on I n s t r u c t i o n i s convinced t h a t
th e stu d e n t would o b ta in a b e t t e r e d u c a tio n i f r e l i e f were
g r a n te d ." ^ The i n s t i t u t i o n of achievem ent t e s t s , th e sub
s t i t u t i o n of a f l e x i b l e program i n E n g lis h com position fo r
a form al freshm an c o u rse , th e e lim in a tio n of s p e c if ic r e
quirem ents f o r th e major study i n th e upper C o lle g e , and
th e emphasis on p e rso n n e l are a l l e x p re s sio n s of a c e n t r a l
p h ilo so p h y which re c o g n iz e s th e in d i v i d u a l as th e f o c a l
p o in t of e d u c a tio n .
Such a. p h ilo so p h y would not produce v ery g r e a t r e
s u l t s w ith in a t r a d i t i o n a l framework i f i t were not kept
a l i v e by th e p e r s o n a l i t y of Dean 'Hawkes, who "p o sse sse s
' 2 A
th o s e in d e f in a b le g i f t s which a l l good deans should hav e."
^ R eport of th e Dean of Columbia C o lle g e . Ju n e , 1937, p .4
^ Doc. c i t .
2-A R. L. D uffus, Democracy E n te rs C ollege (New York:
C h arles S c rib n e rs Sons, 1936), p. 153.
The a d v iso ry p la n a t Columbia i s not novel in i t s e l f ; even
th e p ro v is io n s f o r th e m-aiving of degree re q u irem en ts a re not
so u n iq u e , b u t a re d u p lic a te d i n one form or a n o th er i n many
o th e r c o l l e g e s ; * ^ but th e f i e r y enthusiasm of Dean Hawkes fo r
knowing th e in d iv id u a l stu d e n t and h e lp in g him so lv e h is i n
d iv id u a l probelms b r e a th e s in to Columbia an atm osphere i n which
th e s e d i f f e r e n t p ro v is io n s f o r in d iv i d u a l a t t e n t i o n and g u id
ance seem t o be f i t to g e th e r as a p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e p ro
gram of in d iv i d u a li z e d e d u c a tio n . Says th e Dean:
In Columbia C o lle g e , n o th in g t h a t c o n tr ib u te s to th e de
velopment of th e s t u d e n t , w hether i t have to do w ith h is
i n t e l l e c t u a l , h i s e s t h e t i c , or h i s s p i r i t u a l a s p e c t, i s
f o r e ig n t o th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of th e C o lle g e . To e f f e c t
i n a c o m p arativ e ly few y e a rs as com plete a r ig h t- a b o u t
fa c e i n th e d i r e c t i o n of c o l l e g i a t e work as t h i s te n d e n
cy r e p r e s e n t s , n e c e s s a r i l y in v o lv e s many changes i n a t
t i t u d e and te c h n iq u e . One can do a l i t t l e h ere a t t h i s
tim e , and a l i t t l e th e r e a t a n o th e r . But w ith th e d i r e c
t i o n c l e a r l y i n mind, and w ith th e confidence and h elp
of th e s tu d e n ts th e n s e lv e s , r e a l and s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s
a re c e r t a i n t o be r e a l i z e d .2 6
Thus, by slow d e g re e s , Columbia moves away from th e .
lo c k s te p t r a d i t i o n a l system . The concept of l i b e r a l educa
t i o n seems t o be undergoing s im ila r slow change. The i n s t i t
u t i o n of th e survey co u rses i n the lower C ollege in d i c a t e s
an emphasis on th e u n d ersta n d in g o f th e environment and th e
25
For example, th e I n d iv id u a liz e d Programs of Study
a t C a rle to n C o lleg e , th e ’’U n iv e r s ity C o lle g e ” of th e C ollege
of S c ie n c e , L i t e r a t u r e , and th e A rts i n th e U n iv e r s ity of
M innesota.
2 d
Hawkes. op. c i t . . p. 28.
1E0
surrounding: c u l t u r e , on the b r e a d th of u n d e rsta n d in g which i s
a n e c e s s a ry q u a l i t y of i n t e l l i g e n t c i t i z e n s h i p r a t h e r th a n on
th e d e t a i l e d s c h o la r s h ip c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of th e s p e c i a l i s t .
The emphasis on th e whole p e r s o n a lity of th e stu d e n t c a l l s f o r
sy ste m a tic a t t e n t i o n t o s o c ia l o p p o r tu n iti e s and d i f f e r e n t
forms of e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s on*the campus. In re g a rd
t o the problem of p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n , Columbia does not h e s
i t a t e to a rra n g e fo r p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l c u r r i c u l a and f o r com
bined d e g re e s. I t s stan d on t h i s m a tte r i s ex p lain ed as f o l
lows:
Columbia- C ollege cannot b rin g i t s e l f to b e lie v e t h a t th e
a c q u i s i t i o n o f pure c u ltu r e fo r c u l t u r e 1s sake i s a s u f
f i c i e n t l y a l l u r i n g m o tiv a tio n to keep two thousand l i v e l y
boys out o f m is c h ie f fo r fo u r y e a r s . We b e lie v e t h a t c u l
t u r e w i l l come as a b y -p ro d u c t, but t h a t nowadays th e aim
of a c o lle g e e d u c a tio n cannot be ex p ressed i n th e s e term s
alo n e w ith any chance of developing an in d u s tr io u s and en
t h u s i a s t i c stu d e n t body. The m o tiv a tio n which has been
used i n Columbia C o lleg e fo r a number o f y ea rs and which
i s re a s o n a b ly s u c c e s s f u l i n i t s o p e r a tio n i s one which i t
i s easy to m i s s t a t e , b u t which i n th e judgment of th o se
who have had ex p e rie n ce w ith i t i s an ex ceedingly funda
m ental d e v ic e . I t i s not n e c e s s a ry to make th e c o lle g e
v o c a tio n a l or to modify th e co n te n t of th e courses so as
e i t h e r to cheapen them or t o emphasize any m a t e r i a l i s t i c
p o in t of view i n o rd er to s e t up a cu rricu lu m t h a t w i l l
i n th e -mind of th e stu d e n t h elp him to become th e kind
o f p erso n v o c a t i o n a l l y , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , and s p i r i t u a l l y
t h a t he wants t o b e .
Every stu d e n t on e n te rin g Columbia C o lleg e i s asked to
s p e c ify what p r o f e s s io n or c a l l i n g he looks forw ard t o .
T his does not mean t h a t he cannot change h is mind; i t
m erely a f f o rd s him a t a r g e t a t which he may shoot u n t i l
a b e t t e r one i s d is c o v e r e d *”27
27
I b i d . , p. 10-11.
121
I t should not he i n f e r r e d from th e above, however, t h a t
Columbia has so lv e d , even t o i t s own s a t i s f a c t i o n , th e problem
of l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n i n i t s r e l a t i o n to p r o f e s s io n a l e d u c a tio n .
The fo llo w in g ex c erp t from th e Dean’ s r e p o r t i s notew orthy:
The r e l a t i o n of th e C ollege t o th e v a rio u s p r o f e s s io n a l
sch o o ls of th e U n iv e r s ity i s one of th e p e r e n n ia l problem s.
To m a in ta in a c o lle g e which i n s p i r i t and i n t r u t h i s a
l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e and a t th e same tim e to keep th e u l
tim a te p r o f e s s i o n a l g o a l of each stu d e n t i s not e a sy . Some
tim es it-becom es not u n lik e th e attem p t to r i d e two h o rse s
which a re going I n o p p o site d i r e c t i o n s .
2. C olgate U n iv e r s ity , H am ilton, New York.
C olgate U n iv e r s it y i s an independent l i b e r a l - a r t s c o l
le g e fo r men, w ith an enrollm ent of about 1,000 s tu d e n ts . I t
o f f e r s a fo u r- y e a r course lead in g to th e degree of B achelor
of A r t s .
The p a t t e r n of h ig h school s tu d i e s re q u ire d fo r admis
s io n i s f a i r l y f l e x i b l e . C andidates must p re se n t f i f t e e n
u n i t s of work, in c lu d in g s e q u e n tia l co u rses i n two or more
academic s u b j e c t s . G raduates of a c c r e d ite d secondary schools
are ad m itted by c e r t i f i c a t i o n ; o th e rs by ex am in atio n s. When
ever p o s s i b l e , a p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w i s a rra n g e d .
The c r e d i t system i s th e b a s is on which co u rse s of i n
s t r u c t i o n are arran g ed and req u ire m e n ts s t a t e d . 1 2 0 c r e d i t
hours and 1 3 2 " q u a l i t y p o in ts " a re r e q u ir e d fo r g ra d u a tio n ;
q u a l i t y p o in ts a re g iv en i n p r o p o rtio n t o th e grade o b ta in e d .
28
Report of th e Dean of Columbia C o lle g e « Ju n e, 1936,
p. 8 .
1EE
Course req u irem en ts in c lu d e f i v e survey co u rse s i n th e f r e s h
man y e a r, one to th r e e y ea rs of f o r e ig n language depending up
on th e amount of h ig h school p r e p a r a t io n , and a major of t h i r
t y c r e d i t hours i n th e departm ent of c o n c e n tr a tio n and r e l a t e d
s u b j e c t s . S tu d en ts o f e x c e p tio n a l achievem ent are recommended
fo r th e d egree w ith h o n o rs, cum la u d e , magna cum l a u d e . and
summa cum la u d e .
I n s te a d of d iv id in g th e fo u r-y e a r course in to two le v e ls
of two y e a rs each, C o lg ate adopts a one-one-tw o p la n of o rg a n i
z a tio n w ith th e freshm an year devoted t o an i n tr o d u c t o r y survey
of th e major f i e l d s of knowledge, th e sophomore year to b e g in
ning c o n c e n tr a tio n i n a sch o o l, and th e ju n io r and se n io r y e a rs
t o c o n c e n tr a tio n w ith in a d ep artm en t. The most d i s t i n c t i v e
f e a t u r e of th e cu rric u lu m i s th e survey c o u rses of th e f r e s h
man y e a r . Says P r e s id e n t C u tten : "C olgate i s aware t h a t i t
d id not in v e n t th e survey co u rse , but i t b e lie v e s i t i s th e
f i r s t to c a r r y t h e id e a t o i t s l o g i c a l c o n c lu s io n , and t h a t
i t s f i v e c o u rs e s , sp re a d in g over th e whole domain o f human
knowledge, and r e q u ir e d of a l l Freshmen, c o n s t i t u t e a new de
p a r t u r e i n c o lle g e educat i o n . f!^^
S tu d ie s a re grouped under d ep a rtm en ts, w hich a re i n
t u r n grouped in to T !s c h o o l s ." The seven sch o o ls a re th e school
of p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s , th e school of b i o l o g i c a l s c ie n c e s , th e
29
Quoted i n T h i r t y - F i r s t Yearbook o f N. S. S. E . ,
P a r t I I , p . .
school o f s o c i a l s c ie n c e s , th e school of p h ilosophy and r e
l i g i o n , th e school of f i n e a r t s , th e sch o o l of la n g u a g e s, and
th e school of p h y s ic a l ed u c atio n and a t h l e t i c s , A survey
co u rse has been o rg an ized fo r each sc h o o l, ex c ep tin g th e l a s t
two. The survey co u rse i n p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s g iv es a broad i n
tr o d u c ti o n t o th e f i e l d s of astronom y, c h e m istry , geology, and
p h y s ic s , and aims to enable th e s tu d e n t to have a g e n e ra l un
d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p h y s ic a l world and th e c o n tr ib u tio n s of th e
p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s t o modern l i f e . The survey course i n th e
b io lo g ic a .1 s c ie n c e s d e a ls w ith th e l i f e p ro c e sse s i n th e hu
man organism and i n th e p la n t and anim al w orld. The survey
co u rse i n s o c i a l s c ie n c e s aims a t an u n d ersta n d in g of th e ma
jo r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and problems of th e modern age. The
survey co u rse i n p h ilo so p h y and r e l i g i o n d e a ls w ith modern
p h ilo s o p h ic and r e l i g i o u s problems i n t h e i r h i s t o r i a l p e r
s p e c tiv e . The su rv ey course i n f i n e a r t s aims to give th e
stu d e n t an " a p p r e c ia tio n end u n d e rsta n d in g o f a r t i s t i c ex
p r e s s io n as m a n ife ste d i n a r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u lp tu r e , p a in tin g ,
30
m usic, l i t e r a t u r e and th e u s e f u l a r t s . "
Each survey co u rse i s given as a s e m e s te r-c o u rs e , r e
p ea ted i n each sem ester t o f a c i l i t a t e stu d e n t s e l e c t i o n .
Four c r e d i t s a re given fo r each c o u rse . I n s t r u c t i o n i s c a r
r i e d on i n sm all s e c tio n s of f i f t e e n t o tw en ty s tu d e n ts , w ith
one i n s t r u c t o r i n f u l l charge o f each s e c tio n . A lthough th e
30
C olgate U n iv e r s ity C a ta lo g u e . 1938-1939* P« 61.
124
s e c tio n s a re ta u g h t by d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t o r s , a l l th e stu d e n ts
ta k e th e same e x a m in a tio n s, which a re of th e o b je c ti v e ty p e .
The co u rses attem p t to give an na i r p la n e view" of broad f i e l d s .
"The view of each f i e l d i s r a p id ; i t re a c h e s t o wide h o riz o n s;
i t ig n o re s d e t a i l s i n fa v o r of th e g e n e ra l la y of th e la n d ."31
Ih e survey co u rse s a re n o t supposed to ta k e t h e p la c e of i n
t r o d u c to r y co u rses i n th e s p e c ia l f i e l d s ; th e y a re h e l p f u l not
o n ly t o s tu d e n ts who do not in te n d t o ta k e f u r t h e r m ro rk i n th e
f i e l d s , but a ls o t o s tu d e n ts who p la n to c o n c e n tr a te i n th e
f i e l d s . Says C. H. Thurber:
T h e s e ,survey c o u rse s attem pt two th in g s m ainly. F i r s t ,
through them, a l l th e f i e l d s of knowledge ta u g h t by th e
c o l le g e , which have been grouped in to sch o o ls w ith names
co rresp o n d in g t o th e survey c o u rs e s , a re to be i n t e g r a t e d .
Thus th e y may be reg ard ed as co u rses which round out th e
s t u d e n t ’ s g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n . Second, th e y se rv e as ex
p l o r a t o r y co u rse s by which th e stu d e n t i s aided i n a s c e r
t a i n i n g th e f i e l d of knowledge fo r which he has a f l a i r
and i n which he w i l l d e s i r e t o c o n c e n t r a t e .32
The c u r r i c u l a r p la n p ro v id e s fo r a slow pyram iding from
th e broad s tu d i e s of th e freshm an y e a r, th ro u g h th e sch o o l con
c e n t r a t i o n of th e sophomore y e a r , to th e d e p a rtm e n ta l concen
t r a t i o n of th e ju n io r and se n io r years* On th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t
c o lle g e s tu d i e s should be o rg an iz ed w ith a d e f i n i t e g o al in
vie?/, C olgate la y s much s t r e s s on a d e f i n i t e f i e l d o f concen
t r a t i o n as th e f o c a l p o in t of th e s t u d e n t ’ s e f f o r t .
31 G. B. C-utten, The Freshman E n te rs The F ie ld o f Knowl
edge (C o lg ate Papers Mo. 1. H am ilton, Mew York: C o lg ate U niver
s ity ^ P* 2 .
C. H. T h u rb e r, "The C olgate P la n ," J o u r n a l of Higher
E d u catio n 4 : &0, J a n u a ry , 1933.
125
Says P r e s id e n t C u tten :
Under th e p la n which we a re c a rry in g out a t C o lg a te , i t
i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t th e stu d e n t should make up h is mind b e
f o re th e end of h i s f i r s t y ear what he wants to focus h i s
e f f o r t s on during th e r e s t of h i s c o u rs e . B efore he en
t e r s h i s sophomore y e a r, we ask him t o s e l e c t , as h is
f i e l d of c o n c e n tr a tio n f o r th e r e s t o f h i s co u rse , one
of th e Schools i n to which th e C o lleg e i s d iv id e d . We do
not l e t him, as th e y ea rs go by, wander f o o tlo o s e as th e
fancy s t r i k e s him. He must commit h im s e lf t o a s in g le
f i e l d , so f a r as h is main e f f o r t s go, becoming a stu d e n t
of th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s , of th e b i o l o g i c a l s c ie n c e s , of
th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s , o f th e f i n e a r t s , of p h ilo so p h y and
r e l i g i o n , or of language, as h is i n t e r e s t and a b i l i t y may
i n d i c a t e . 33
At th e end o f th e c o lle g e c o u rse i s giv en a comprehen
s iv e exam ination i n th e f i e l d of c o n c e n tr a tio n , w ith s p e c i a l
emphasis on th e departm ent of c o n c e n tr a tio n . T his exam ination
must be passed w ith a minimum grade of C.
B esides th e c u rricu lu m in n o v a tio n s J u s t d e s c rib e d , C ol
g a te has in tro d u c e d new methods designed t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e edu
c a tio n and promote s e l f - e d u c a t i o n on th e p a r t o f th e s tu d e n ts .
Every freshm an i s a s sig n e d to a p re c e p to r w ith whom he i s ex
p e c ted t o hold weekly co n feren ces fo r guidance on g e n e ra l prob
lems of c o lle g e e d u c a tio n . The co n feren c es a re in d iv i d u a l and
l a s t about an h o u r. The purpose o f th e p re c e p to r i s T !t o stu d y
th e in d iv i d u a l co n fid ed to h i s c h a rg e, to gauge h is powers, t o
d is c o v e r h is weak s p o ts , to survey h is i n t e r e s t s , h i s t a s t e s ,
and h i s p o s s i b i l i t i e s . He w i l l s t r i v e t o c o n s id e r him as a
whole b e in g , t o guide h i s p ro g re s s , t o a id him i n le a rn in g how
33 -
C u tte n h o p . c i t . . p. 4 -5 .
126
t o s tu d y , to s tim u la te him to t h i n k . "34 In th e sophomore y e a r ,
a t u t o r i a l system i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r th e p r e c e p t o r i a l . Sopho
mores a re assig n ed to t u t o r s who give guidance i n th e chosen
f i e l d of c o n c e n tr a tio n . T u t o r i a l co n feren c es aim a t nth e d i s
covery and development of permanent i n t e r e s t s , th e b e t t e r p re p
a r a t i o n f o r upper c l a s s sem inar x ’ /ork, and th e com prehensive ex
a m in a tio n .1 ^ ^ In th e upper y e a r s , s tu d e n ts a re under th e d i
r e c t i o n of th e head of th e departm ent i n which th e y c o n c e n tr a te .
Independent stu d y in th e upper y e a rs i s encouraged th ro u g h th e
s e m i n a r - t u t o r i a l method of i n s t r u c t i o n . A sem inar i s a d is c u s
sio n group lim ite d to a sm all number of s tu d e n ts and allo w in g
much freedom t o th e s tu d e n ts and c lo s e p e rs o n a l c o n ta c ts between
s tu d e n ts and te a c h e r .
As i n Columbia,' th e C olgate program has developed by a
slow p ro c e ss of e v o lu tio n . Since th e r e have been no r e v o l u t i o n
ary changes, much of th e old m achinery i s r e t a i n e d in th e sy s
tem of c r e d i t s and p o i n t s . ,fI f you a re going t o r e b u ild a house
w h ile c o n tin u in g t o l i v e i n i t , " s a id P re s id e n t C u tte n , "you '
can c o n s tr u c t o nly a p ie c e a t a t i m e . "36 W ithin th e framework'
of th e t r a d i t i o n a l system , C o lg ate has t r i e d to in tro d u c e new
in n o v a tio n s i n th e d i r e c t i o n of broad f i e l d s of g e n e ra l educa
t i o n , in d iv i d u a li z e d methods of i n s t r u c t i o n and g u id an ce, and
34 C o lg ate U n iv e r s ity C a ta lo g u e , 1938-1939* P* 25*
35 L oc. c i t .
36 G. B. C u tte n , C o lg ate P a p e r s « No. 8 , (C olgate U n iv er
s i t y , 1932), p. 1.
127
l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n th ro u g h th e development of th e whole man.
3. Summary and Comments
The development of in te r d e p a r tm e n ta l survey courses i s
a movement s im ila r i n i t s fundam ental purpose to th e d i v i
s io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n d is c u s s e d i n th e f i r s t p a r t of t h i s chap
t e r . I t aro se from a r e a l i z a t i o n of th e inadequacy of d e p a r t
m ental s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and s e g re g a tio n ; i t r e p r e s e n ts an e f f o r t
t o emphasize th e u n i t y and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of knowledge.
There a re many ty p e s of in te r d e p a r tm e n ta l c o u rs e s . Columbia
and C olgate are examples of c o lle g e s which have developed gen
e r a l survey co u rse s i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . Other c o lle g e s o f f e r
" o r i e n t a t i o n c o u rs e s '1 f o r guidance i n p e rs o n a l and e d u c a tio n
a l a d ju stm e n ts; though l e s s "academic" i n c o n te n t, th e y are
a ls o in te r d e p a r tm e n ta l i n n a tu re . N o rth w estern U n iv e r s ity
and o th e rs have developed " c o r r e l a t i o n c o u rs e s ”^ f o r th e
purpose of h e lp in g s tu d e n ts t o s y n th e s iz e th e knowledge and
f a c t s of d i f f e r e n t departm ents and f i e l d s . From th e s ta n d
p o in t of cu rricu lu m p a t t e r n , th e c e n t r a l f a c t about a l l such
v a r i a t i o n s is. t h a t th e y cut ac ro ss t r a d i t i o n a l d e p a rtm e n ta l
l i n e s and t r y to o rg a n iz e knowledge i n ways more s u i t a b l e f o r
e d u c a tio n a l purposes th a n th e t r a d i t i o n a l in tr o d u c to r y co u rses
which th e s p e c i a l i s t s have produced.
37 Addison H ibbard, "The C o r r e la tio n Program i n th e
C ollege a t N o rth w e ste rn ," B. L. Johnson, e d ., opt. c i t ♦»
Chap. XIV.
128
P a r t l y because of th e v a r i e t y of meanings which have
been given t o "su rv e y courses" arid !to r i e n t a t ion c o u r s e s ," and
p a r t l y because of a d e s i r e to avoid th e m istak es o f th e e a r
l i e r a tte m p ts , many c o lle g e s now p r e f e r to u se such term s as
" g e n e r a l s tu d ie s " or using m erely th e s p e c if ic t i t l e s of th e
c o u rse s w ith o u t u sin g any g en e ric name. The most fre q u e n t
c r i t i c i s m i s t h a t such co u rse s a re s u p e r f i c i a l , t h a t t h e y t r y
t o skim over to o big a t e r r i t o r y , t h a t th e y a r e an "a ttem p ted
s h o r t- c u t to t r u t h . 5"he non-academ ic o r i e n t a t i o n co u rses
a re c r i t i c i s e d because th e y do n o t become an i n t e g r a l p a r t of
th e c u rric u lu m . Thus w rote Glenn Frank some y e a rs ago:
They a r e m a n ife s tly th in g s ta c k ed on to th e r e g u la r c o l
le g e p ro c e d u re . I suggest t h a t any genuine o r i e n t a t i o n
of th e stu d e n t to h is world must be re a c h e d , i f reached
a t a l l , i n th e r e g u la r c o lle g e p ro c ed u re , not o u ts id e i t .
O r i e n ta tio n and summary c o u rs e s , as i n most in s ta n c e s
a d m in is te re d , seem t o be l i t t l e more th a n porous p l a s t e r s
a p p lie d t o th e cu rric u lu m to r e d u c e i t s coherence. There
i s no need dodging th e f a c t t h a t our b e s t s c h o la rs sm ile
r a t h e r t o l e r a n t l y a t what th e y re g a rd as th e s u p e r f i c i a l
i t y of th e average o r i e n t a t i o n c o u r s e . ^
B. Lamar Johnson r e p o r t s " t h a t a lth o u g h survey co u rse s
have been i n e x is te n c e f o r more th a n tw enty y e a rs , t h e movement
gained headway co m p arativ e ly r e c e n tly ." ^ ^ W ith th e r a p id advance
o f th e movement i n r e c e n t y e a rs , th e e a r l y s k e p tic ism or " t o l e r -
^ 0. G. J o n e s , "Modern S c h o la s tic is m ," School and So
c i e t y 31:337, March 8 , 1930
Glenn F ran k , "The R evolt A gainst E d u c a tio n ," School
and S o c ie ty 23:734> June 12, 1926.
^ Johnson e d ., op. c i t . , p. 9.
129
ant sm ile 1 1 of flth e b e s t s c h o la r s 1 1 i s being g r a d u a lly overcome.
Broad in te r d e p a r tm e n ta l c o u rses a re today being developed not
o n ly as i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e c o lle g e c u rric u lu m but a ls o as
s t r a t e g i c p o in ts of o r i e n t a t i o n in th e s t u d e n t Ts i n t e l l e c t u a l
grow th. They are an im p o rtan t f e a t u r e o f alm ost every com
p re h e n siv e p la n o f c u r r i c u l a r r e o r g a n iz a tio n i n h ig h e r educa
t i o n to d a y .
Not a l l in te rd e p a r tm e n ta l co u rses have been s u c c e s s f u l.
Even i n Columbia and C o lg a te , two i n s t i t u t i o n s which have met
w ith conspicuous su c cess i n such c o u rs e s , th e r e a re c e r t a i n
co u rse s which a re not so w e ll in te g ra te d , i n c o n ten t as o t h e r s .
I n to o many in s t a n c e s , th e in te rd e p a r tm e n ta l co u rses found in
c o lle g e s to d ay a re m erely mergers o f d i s c r e t e u n i t s of s u b je c t
m a tte r from d i s t i n c t f i e l d s , w ith l i t t l e u n i t y between th e
u n i t s . The p h y s ic a l sc ie n c e s seem p a r t i c u l a r l y s u b je c t to t h i s
p r a c t i c e . & g e n e ra l co u rse i n p h y s ic a l sc ie n c e o f te n devotes
a few weeks to p h y s ic s , a few weeks to c h e m istry , a few weeks
t o geology, and so on. The s i t u a t i o n i s w orst when th e d i f
f e r e n t s e c tio n s a re i n th e charge of d i f f e r e n t s p e c i a l i s t s ,
who give condensed l e c t u r e s from th e m a te r ia l of th e t r a d i t i o n a l
c o u rs e s . Even when th e e n t i r e co u rse i s i n th e hands of a
s in g l e i n s t r u c t o r , however, th e r e i s a ls o th e danger of keep
ing th e d i f f e r e n t u n i t s so d i s t i n c t t h a t th e y are t r e a t e d by
s tu d e n ts as j u s t so many sh o rt co u rses i n d i s t i n c t s u b je c ts .
One of t h e most s e rio u s d i f f i c u l t i e s i s th e d e a rth of
b ro a d ly t r a i n e d te a c h e rs who are them selves ab le t o see th e
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f knowledge and have th e c r e a t i v e a b i l i t y
t o o rg a n iz e c o n ten t along l i n e s d i f f e r e n t from th o se t o which
th e y have become accustom ed. The su ccess of th e i n t e r d e p a r t
m ental co u rse s i s p r o p o r tio n a l to th e a b i l i t y of th e i n s t r u c
t o r s t o s y n th e s iz e knowledge from d i f f e r e n t departm ents and
t o see th e broad r e l a t i o n s o f s u b je c ts to one an o th er and to
th e v i t a l is s u e s of contem porary l i f e .
P o s s ib le advantages of w e ll o rg an iz ed in te rd e p a r tm e n t
a l c o u rse s may b e summed up as fo llo w s:
1, They emphasize th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of d e p a rtm e n ts,
2, They p o in t a way toward th e s y n th e s is o f ■ knowledge.
m 1
3. They meet thefcteeds of th e layman and the c i t i z e n ,
r a t h e r th a n th e s c h o la r . They;-serve th e purpose of g e n e ra l
e d u c a tio n .
4 . They are n o t a s u b s t i t u t e 'f o r d e t a i l e d .knowledge'.of
th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o u rs e s , but p ro v id es a background fo r deeper
u n d e rs ta n d in g s . They enable s tu d e n ts " to ascend to th e moun
t a i n to p and t o survey the promised land b e fo re th e y go down
t o occupy i t . tT ^ l
3 . ^hey h elp th e stu d e n t t o d is c o v e r h is i n t e r e s t s ,
th u s le a d in g t o a more i n t e l l i g e n t choice of a f i e l d of con
c e n t r a t i o n .
4 1
Hawkes, op. c i t . . p. 23.
6 . They make p o s s ib le th e d i r e c t stu d y of r e a l i s t i c
l i f e problem s, th e u n d e rsta n d in g of which r e q u ir e s th e i n t e
g r a t i o n of knowledge from d i f f e r e n t academic f i e l d s .
CURRICULUM RBCOHSIHUCTIOH BY THE CLASSICAL APPROACH
The c o lle g e c u rric u lu m la c k s u n i t y . I t Is* a s p r e
v io u s ly noted* a *hodg e-podge 1 1 of d i s c r e t e co u rses and 'sub
je c ts * knowledge i s s p l i t up i n t o l i t t l e fragm ents* and a l l
sen se o f u n i t y and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s l o s t *
An attem p t was made to so lv e t h i s problem by an exper
iment a t th e U n iv e r s ity of W isconsin a decade ago* under th e
d i r e c t i o n o f A lexander M eiklejohn. To av o id th e c o n fu sio n o f
d i s c r e t e u n r e la te d s u b je c ts and to emphasize th e u n ity of
knowledge* th e E xperim ental C o lleg e of t h e U n iv e rs ity of Wis
c o n sin proposed and put in t o t r i a l a c u rricu lu m o f s tu d i e s
r e l a t e d to one c e n t r a l purpose* namely* th e u n d e rsta n d in g and
a p p r e c ia t io n of ^some s t r i k i n g and s i g n i f i c a n t ep iso d e In hu—
1
man experience** W ith an e n t i r e y earn s program devoted t o
th e stu d y o f A thenian c i v i l i z a t i o n or n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y Am
e r ic a n l i f e , i t was hoped t h a t s tu d e n ts would be le d not o n ly
t o th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f c i v i l i z a t i o n "a s a whole*n but a l s o
to a p p r e c ia te t h e b a s ic u n ity of a l l knowledge*
^he s e a rc h f o r u n i t y In th e cu rric u lu m has r e c e n t l y
le d a group of people to th e b e l i e f t h a t t h e most f r u i t f u l ap -
1 T h i r t v - F i r s t Yearbook: of N. S. E . , P a r t I I , (Bloom-
In g to n , I l l i n o i s ; P u b lic School P u b lis h in g Company* 1932),
p* 163 *
1 3 3
proach would be t o r e s t o r e th e u n ity of th e c u rric u lu m of th e
m ediaeval u n i v e r s i t y . A ttem pt i s th e r e f o r e made to r e v iv e th e
c l a s s i c s and th e o r i g i n a l l i b e r a l a r t s , th u s avoiding th e mul
t i p l i c i t y of s u b je c ts and co u rse s which c h a r a c t e r i z e th e d i s
i n t e g r a t e d c u rric u lu m of th e t y p i c a l c o lle g e of to d a y . The
one conspicuous example of such an attem pt i s th e newly i n i t i
a te d program of S t.J o h n ’ s C o lleg e a t A n n ap o lis, M aryland. Be
f o re a d e s c r i p t i o n i s made of th e S t.J o h n 1s program , a b r i e f sum
mary w i l l be made of th e p h ilo so p h y of th e c l a s s i c a l c u rric u lu m .
1. The P h ilo so p h y of th e C l a s s i c a l C urriculum .
The le a d in g spokesman of t h i s school i s R obert M. Hutch
i n s , who i s b e s t known as th e P r e s id e n t of th e U n iv e r s ity of
Chicago but whose more im p o rtan t o f f i c e , so f a r as th e p r e s e n t,
d is c u s s io n i s concerned, i s th e Chairmanship of th e Board of
v i s i t o r s and Governors of S t .J o h n ’ s C o lleg e .
The dilemmas of th e h ig h e r le a rn in g i n America, says Hutch
i n s , a re due to p r o fe s s io n a lis m and v o c a tio n a lis m and. th e e a g e r
ness- of th e c o lle g e or u n i v e r s i t y t o be an in stru m e n t of s e r
v ic e to s o c ie ty . Higher e d u c a tio n i s le d a s t r a y by th e f a l s e
i d e a l o f p re p a rin g men and women f o r t h e i r l i f e work w ith th e
r e s u l t t h a t T T th e p u r s u it of knowledge fo r i t s own sake i s being
r a p i d l y obscured i n u n i v e r s i t i e s and may soon be e x tin g u is h e d . T !^
R. M. H u tc h in s, The Higher L earning i n America (New
Haven: Yale U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1936), p. 36.
134
V O cationalism debases pure le a r n in g . " I t d ep riv e s th e u n i
v e r s i t y of i t s only excuse fo r e x i s te n c e , which i s to p ro
v id e a haven where s e a rc h f o r t r u t h may go on unhampered by
3
u t i l i t y or p r e s s u r e f o r T r e s u l t s 1 ." F o rg e ttin g i t s i n t e l
l e c t u a l p u rp o se, th e u n i v e r s i t y has become !,an overgrown
c o lle g e where th e su ccess o f a p r o fe s s o r i s determ ined by h is
a b i l i t y to keep s tu d e n ts awake and h is e x tra -c u rr ic u lu m i n
flu e n c e on t h e i r m orals and manners.
To o f f s e t th e s e e v i l s , h ig h e r le a r n in g should concern
i t s e l f w ith th e p u r s u it of t r u t h f o r i t s own sake. T ru th Is
th e same everywhere and a t a l l tim e s . "The n o tio n of e d u c a t
ing a man t o l i v e i n any p a r t i c u l a r tim e or p la c e , to a d ju s t
him t o any p a r t i c u l a r environm ent, i s t h e r e f o r e f o r e ig n t o a
t r u e co n c ep tio n of ed u cation ." ^ I n o rd er to c u l t i v a t e i n t e l
l e c t u a l v i r t u e s and t r a i n i n t e l l e c t u a l pov/ers, th e c l a s s i c s
and th e l i b e r a l a r t s should be made th e c e n te r of g e n e ra l
e d u c a tio n . "Our erroneous n o tio n of p ro g re s s has throw n th e
c l a s s i c s and th e l i b e r a l a r t s out of th e c u rric u lu m , over-em
p h asize d th e e m p iric a l s c ie n c e s , and made e d u c a tio n th e s e r
vant of any contem porary movements i n s o c i e t y ." ^
^ I b i d . , p. 4 3 .
4 I b i d . , p. 8 .
5 I b i d . , p . 6 6 .
^ I b i d . , p. 6 5 .
135
The c l a s s i c s and th e l i b e r a l a r t s a re !fpermanent s tu d
i e s which every p erso n who w ishes t o c a l l h im s e lf educated
should m a s te r . " 7 The c l a s s i c s c o n s is t* i n !,th e g r e a t books
of th e w e ste rn w ro r l d ," which ’’cover every departm ent of knowl
e d g e ."^ The l i b e r a l a r t s develop th e mind. "Grammer d i s c i p
l i n e s th e mind and d evelops th e l o g i c a l f a c u l t y . M athem atics,
c h i e f l y E u c lid , should be given an im p o rtan t p la c e , because
" c o r r e c tn e s s i n th in k in g may be more d i r e c t l y and im p re s s iv e ly
ta u g h t th ro u g h m athem atics th a n i n any o th e r way.
Such an e d u c a tio n a l program would be concerned only
w ith th e development o f t h e i n t e l l e c t . E x p erien c e, im p o rtan t
as i t may b e , can .b e o b ta in e d i n o u t- o f - s c h o o l l i f e ; so "we
may w is e ly leav e e x p e rie n c e to l i f e and s e t about our job of
i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a i n i n g . " ^ ! The permanent s tu d i e s which con
s t i t u t e th e new cu rricu lu m w i l l "not be expected to develop
th e body or th e c h a r a c t e r , t o give s o c i a l g race or im part a
1 2
u t i l i t a r i a n s k i l l . " H e a lth and c h a r a c te r a re not th e con
c e rn of h ig h e r l e a r n i n g .
7 I b i d . . p. 70.
® I b i d . . p. 81.
^ I b i d . , p. 82.
^~ I b i d . , p . 84 •
H Ibid,. , p . 70.
12 HV'M. Hut c h i n s , "What i s th e Job o f Our C olleges*? ^
P ro g r e s s iv e E d u ca tio n 14:313, May, 1937
136
T here a re o th e r spokesmen of th e c l a s s i c a l e n t h u s ia s ts
b e s id e s H u tc h in s. One of them i s Norman F o e r s t e r , who, to o ,
has v ig o ro u s ly a tta c k e d th e T ts e r v i c e - s t a t i o n ” concept of h ig h
er le a r n in g . He asks:
Can i t be s e r i o u s l y d en ied t h a t th e l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e s
w ith in th e s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s have been g r a d u a lly made
over i n t o s e r v ic e c o l le g e s , or s e r v i l e c o l le g e s , meekly
se rv in g th e ends of v o c a tio n a l knacks and p r o f e s s io n a l
s k i l l ? Can i t be s e r i o u s l y denied t h a t th e sm all l i b e r a l
c o l le g e s , im ita tin g th e s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s , have more
and more lik e w is e a s p ire d to be servile?^3
F o e r s te r u rg es w ith H utchins t h a t th e c o lle g e should
devote i t s re s o u rc e s to i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent, to l i b e r a l
e d u c a tio n i n i t s t r u e se n se . He, to o , proposes as th e means
of i n t e l l e c t u a l development th e stu d y of g r e a t books i n o rd er
t o have " d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith th e f i r s t minds of th e a g e s ." - ^
2. S t . Jo h n f s C o lle g e , A nnapolis, M aryland.
S t.Jo h n * s C o lle g e , th e t h i r d o ld e s t c o lle g e in th e
U nited S t a t e s , i s a l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e f o r men, w ith an en
ro llm e n t of about two hundred s tu d e n ts . I t g iv e s a f o u r- y e a r
c o u rse le a d in g to th e degree of B achelor of A r ts . G raduates
of a c c r e d ite d secondary sch o o ls a re ad m itted by c e r t i f i c a t e ;
o th e rs by e n tra n c e ex am in atio n s. C andidates f o r adm ission
must p re se n t f i f t e e n u n i t s of w o rk ,in c lu d in g th r e e u n i t s i n
13 Norman F o e r s t e r , The F u tu re of th e L ib e r a l C o lleg e
(New York: D. A ppleton-C entury Company, 1938), P* 74-75
1^ Norman F o e r s t e r , The American S t a t e U n iv e r s ity
(Chapel H i l l : U n iv e r s ity o f N orth C a ro lin a P r e s s , 1937), p . 259.
137
E n g lis h , two i n f o r e ig n la n g u ag es, one and a h a l f i n m athem atics,
one i n s o c i a l s c ie n c e , one i n s c ie n c e , and e l e c t i v e s i n approved
s u b j e c t s .
A "New Program 1 1 was i n i t i a t e d a t S t .J o h n ’ s C ollege i n
1937, under a new c o lle g e a d m in is t r a tio n , w ith S tr in g f e iio w
B arr as p r e s i d e n t , S c o tt Buchanan as dean, and R. M. H utchins
as th e chairm an of th e Board of V i s i t o r s and Governors. The
program c o n s is te d in 1 1 a f o u r-y e a r a l l - r e q u i r e d c u rric u lu m ,
based on th e stu d y of some hundred g re a t books from th e Greeks
to th e p r e s e n t . 1115 entering freshm an i n 1937 were p e rm itte d
t o choose between th e new program and th e old program, which
t h a t
i s i n i t s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t fro m /o f-th e
t y p i c a l d o lie g e of to d a y ; but i t was decided in 1 9 3 8 t h a t a l l
e n te r in g s tu d e n ts should s t a r t w ith th e new program. The
o r i g i n of th e new c u rric u lu m i s d e s c rib e d as follow s i n th e
c a ta l o g u e .
A few decades ago, S t . Jo h n ’ s C o lle g e , along w ith co u n t
l e s s o th e r American c o lle g e s , follow ed th e le ad of Har
v ard under P re s id e n t E l i o t and in tro d u c e d the " e l e c t i v e
sy ste m ,” under which w ith in c r e a s in g l y few r e s t r i c t i o n s
th e stu d e n t chose which s u b je c ts he would study and which
he would n o t. During th o se decad es, th e many s e p a ra te
co u rses one to o k in o rd er t o secu re a b a c h e lo r ’ s degree
became more and more s p e c ia liz e d and l e s s and l e s s r e
l a t e d u n t i l th e American u n d erg rad u ate wandered in a maze
of scheduled " o f f e r i n g s ” choosing th o s e co u rses which
were ta u g h t by men he lik e d or 'which came a t a conven
i e n t hour of th e morning or which seemed l i k e l y in some
way to in c r e a s e h is chances of g e t t i n g r i c h i n l a t e r l i f e .
C atalogue of S t .J o h n ’ s C ollege i n A n n a p o lis, f o r
1937-1938 (A n n ap o lis, M aryland, J u l y , 193^7, p. 17.
128
The c u rricu lu m a t S t . J o h n 's , l i k e th e c u rricu lu m of o th e r
American c o l le g e s , s u f fe r e d t h i s decay. But i n 1937 th e
Board of V i s i t o r s and Governors of S t . J o h n 's , re c o g n iz in g
t h i s d ecay , tu rn e d fo r guidance to th e Committee on tip.©
L ib e r a l A r t s , which P re s id e n t R obert Maynard H utchins .had
s e t up a t th e U n iv e rs ity of Chicago f o r th e purpose of
i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e p roper c o n te n t of a l i b e r a l a r t s c u r r i
culum. The r e s u l t o f t h e i r c o n s u l t a t i o n was t h a t fo u r
members of th e Committee consented to u n d erta k e a t S t .
J o h n 's a r e s t o r a t i o n . o f th e l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n which i t s
C h a rte r c a l l s f o r . Of th e s e f o u r , S tr in g f e llo w B arr a s
sumed th e P re s id e n c y . of th e C o lle g e , and S c o tt Buchanan
became Dean of S t .J o h n i s . To
The purpose of th e new c u rric u lu m i s th e c u l t i v a t i o n
of th e i n t e l l e c t by means of th e stu d y of th e l i b e r a l a r t s .
The l i b e r a l a r t s a re " th e a r t s o f apprehending, u n d e rs ta n d in g ,
and k no w in g. "T h e c l e a r e s t h i s t o r i c p a t t e r n of th e l i b
e r a l a r t s f o r th e modern mind i s . . . t o b e found i n th e
t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry ."T ^ They c o n s is t of th e tr iv iu m , v i z . ,
grammer, r h e t o r i c , and lo g ic ; and th e quadrivium , v i z . , a r i t h
m e tic , geom etry, m usic, and astronom y. For th e stu d y of th e s e
a r t s , a l i s t of more th a n a hundred " g re a t books" a re s e l e c t e d .
"The e n t i r e p e rio d w ith th e books and th e p a t te r n s of th e a r t s
can be r e c a p i t u l a t e d i n th e f o u r- y e a r c o lle g e c o u rse , th e y e a r
l y d i v is io n s f a l l i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y a t th e end o f th e A lexan
d r i a n p e r io d , a t th e end of th e m iddle ag e s, i n th e m iddle of
th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , and ending w ith contem porary w r i t e r s ."T9
T6 I b i d . , p . 19•
17 I b i d . , p. 21.
I b i d . , p. 28.
19 I b i d . . p. 29.
139
The l i s t of g r e a t books r e p r e s e n ts the f r u i t o f ”c e r
t a i n diag n o ses and c e r t a i n prognoses as w e ll as about f i f t e e n
y e a rs of r e s e a r c h . ”20 S e le c tio n and c o m p ila tio n of th e books
began as e a r l y as th e tim e of th e World War when John E rsk in e
and h is a s s o c ia te s un d erto o k t o c o n s tru c t a c u rric u lu m fo r
th e American E x p e d itio n a ry Force U n iv e r s ity i n Beaune a t th e
end of th e War. The e a r l y r e t u r n of the E x p e titio n a r y Force
p reclu d ed th e o p p o rtu n ity of usin g th e l i s t of books which
had been s e l e c t e d , but when E rsk in e went to Columbia he
brought th e l i s t w ith him, and th e r e i t was adopted f o r use
i n co n n e c tio n w ith honors c o u rs e s . At th e same tim e , S c o tt
Buchanan made use of such a l i s t Y v r it h a d u lt re ad in g courses
i n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e P e o p le 1 s I n s t i t u t e and th e New York
P u b lic L i b r a r i e s . Buchanan l a t e r went to th e U n iv e r s ity of
V ir g in ia , where he worked f u r t h e r on the p r o je c t w ith S t r i n g -
fe llo w B a rr; w h ile h i s a s s o c i a t e s a t th e P e o p le 1s I n s t i t u t e
c a r r i e d th e id e a t o th e U n iv e r s ity o f C hicago. Thus did S t.
John.Ts i n h e r i t th e l i s t of g r e a t books which now c o n s t i t u t e s
i t s cu rric u lu m .
The c a ta lo g u e of S t „J o h n T s s e ts f o r t h f iv e c r i t e r i a
which have guided th e s e l e c t i o n of g re a t books. F i r s t , a
g re a t book ”has been read by th e l a r g e s t number of p e r s o n s ,”
second, i t ”has th e l a r g e s t number of p o s s ib le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , ”
90
^ S c o tt Buchanan, ”A C r i s i s in L ib e r a l E d u c a tio n ,”
Amherst G ra d u a te sT Q u a rte rlv 27:112, F e b ru a ry , 1938.
140
t h i r d , i t r a i s e s !fth e p e r s i s t e n t unansw erable q u e s tio n s about
th e g r e a t themes i n European th o u g h t” ; f o u r t h , i t ”must be a
work of f in e a r t ” ; f i f t h , i t ”must be a m a ste rp ie c e of th e
l i b e r a l a r t s . ”2* ^ A fte r th e books have been s e l e c t e d , th e y
a re arran g ed i n a c h o n o lo g ic a l o rd er and th e n d iv id e d in to
fo u r p e rio d s co rresp o n d in g t o th e fo u r y e a rs of the c o lle g e
c o u rs e . The f i r s t year covers some tw enty books from Homer
to Nicomarchus; th e second year from Ptolem y and V i r g i l to
Montaigne and C erv a n tes; th e t h i r d y ea r from Shakespeare
th ro u g h Hume, M ontesquieu, Locke, and o th e r s ; and th e s e n io r
y ear s tu d ie s ”modern” w r i t e r s such as Darwin, G alton, B oole,
Jam es, F reu d , and o t h e r s . No modern te x tb o o k s are used fo r
”th e y a re th e b e s t examples we can f in d of books t h a t a re de-
tan h ed from th e t r a d i t i o n and t h e r e f o r e doomed to e a r l y d e a t h . ” 2 2
The e n t i r e cu rricu lu m i s r e q u ir e d of a l l s tu d e n ts ; th e r e
a re no e l e c t i v e s . ”We i n s i s t on seeing our books and our form al
d i s c i p l i n e s as n e c e s s a ry p a r ts of a whole which i s th e minimum
of b a s ic form al t r a i n i n g t h a t ev e ry human being should h a v e .” 2-^
Every stu d e n t must have”a working knowledge of fo u r languages:
Greek, L a ti n , F ren ch , and German,” 24 w ith a y e a r ! s study of each .
Languages and m athem atics being th e b e s t medium th ro u g h which
21 C atalogue of S t.J o h n T s C o lle g a , 193$-1938, p . 23-24-
2 2 I b i d . , p. 24-
2 3 Buchanan, l o c . c i t .
24 I b i d . , p. 111.
141
th e l i b e r a l a r t s can be "most econom ically a c q u i r e d , "25 th e y
must be pursued throughout th e c o lle g e c o u rs e . Every s t u
dent must have fo u r y e a rs of m athem atics ,T a lth o u g h h is high
school te a c h e rs had d i s t i n c t l y t o l d him he d id not have a
m ath em atical m in d ."26 The c l a s s i c s in c lu d e la b o r a to r y exper
im en ts; so every stu d e n t "has to go through a f o u r- y e a r l a b
o r a to r y b e fo re he can c a l l h im s e lf a b a c h e lo r of th e l i b e r a l
a r t s . He has to see and to u c h and hear some of th e th in g s
2.7
th e g r e a t s c i e n t i f i c c l a s s i c s have been ta l k i n g a b o u t .”
There a re no d e p a rtm e n ts, no s u b je c ts or c o u rse s;
j u s t one s in g l e - tr a c k e d cu rricu lu m of g re a t books, language
and m athem atics t u t o r i a l s , and la b o r a to r y work. The c r e d i t
system has no p la c e h e r e . I n s t r u c t i o n i s g iv e n i n fo u r d i f
f e r e n t ways: i n se m in ars, i n fo rm al l e c t u r e s , i n t u t o r i a l s ,
and i n l a b o r a t o r i e s . The semins.rs, i n which th e g r e a t books
a re r e a d , e l u c id a te d , and d is c u s s e d , meet tw ic e a week i n
sm all groups. Formal l e c t u r e s by th e s t a f f , on themes r e
l a t e d to th e books bein g re a d , a re given a t l e a s t a week.
A la b o r a to r y p e rio d l a s t s more th a n tv/o h o u rs . The sched
u le of th e week c o n s i s t s , th e n , i n two sem inar m e etin g s, two
form al l e c t u r e s , two t u t o r i a l s (one i n languages and one i n
m athem atics) and a la b o r a to r y .
25 S tr i n g f e llo w B a rr , "John Doe Goes to St.John* si1
P ro g re s s iv e E d u catio n 16:18, J a n u a ry , 1939.
2 6 I b i d . , p. 21.
2 7 I b i d . , p. 22.
The t u t o r i a l s a t t a c h much im portance to d r i l l and
memory work. Rote memory o f passag es i n th e o r i g i n a l language
a re c o n sid e re d a v a lu a b le e x e r c is e ; i t f a m i l i a r i z e s th e
stu d e n t w ith sen ten ce s t r u c t u r e and gram m atical form s. Says
Buchanan:
Modern im a g in a tio n i s n o to rio u s ly weah and s p a s t i c , th e
sense of humor shallow and p o rn o g ra p h ic , s p e c u la tio n
tim id and a p o lo g e tic . W e need th e w i t and the range
which v e r b a l memory gave th e a n c i e n t s . These a re the
engrams of th e im a g in a tio n , formed m a tte r t h a t w i l l
g iv e p r e c i s i o n to the s e n s e s , a r t i c u l a t e n e s s to the
im a g in a tio n , and v ig o r to the i n t e l l e c t . T his i s
the d i s c i p l i n a r y f u n c tio n of grammar in th e l i b e r a l
a r t s . Our t u t o r i a l s a r e aimed a t t h i s e f f e c t and we
are n o t ashamed to adm it t h a t we d r i l l our s t u d e n t s - -
and they a r e not always av e rse t o a d m ittin g th a t they
r e s p e c t and l i k e i t . 2^
Three k in d s of la b o ra to ry i^ork a re p ro v id e d . During
the f i r s t y e a r , s tu d e n ts le a r n the m a th em atical p r i n c i p l e s i n
in stru m e n ts of measurement: r u l e r s , b a la n c e s , w e ig h ts , e t c .
I n the second and t h i r d y e a r , c l a s s i c a l experim ents a r e r e
p e a te d . These a re E x p e rim e n ts which once uncovered p r i n
c i p l e s and l a i d th e fo u n d a tio n f o r whole f i e l d s of i n v e s t i g a
t i o n . Some of th e se go back to th e l e v e r and t h e ,b a l a n c e , some
of them l i k e G a l i l e o 1s experim ents w ith th e i n c l i n e d plane
founded c l a s s i c a l m echanics, o th e rs l i k e M ilik a n f s measurement
o f th e fo rc e on th e e l e c t r o n have s e t the themes f o r contem pora
ry s c ie n c e . S tu d en ts a r e f a m i l i a r i z e d w ith th e s e s c i e n t i f i c
28
Buchanan, op. e i t . , p. 114.
2 9
c l a s s i c s . " i n th e s e n io r y e a r ,
There w i l l be a la b o ra to ry l o r th e combining of
s c i e n t i f i c f in d in g s in o rd er to i n v e s t i g a t e con
c r e t e problems of c e n tr a l im portance. The b e s t
problems come-from the m edical s c ie n c e s , problems
of th e c e l l , problems of blood b a la n c e s , problems
of em bryology.30
S t. Jo h n r s a u t h o r i t i e s would deny t h a t th ey were not
concerned about th e m oral, r e l i g i o u s , and h e a l t h problems
of the s tu d e n ts . They would p o in t to t h e i r encouragement of
a t h l e t i c s and v a rio u s clubs and s tu d e n t o rg a n iz a tio n s as
evidences of t h e i r concern f o r o th e r phases of stu d e n t grow th
th a n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l . They would, however, a s s e r t t h a t th e
c e n t r a l purpose o f the c o lle g e i£ i n t e l l e c t u a l . To what
e x te n t t h i s c e n t r a l purpose excludes o th e r purposes i s not
c l e a r . Some s u g g e s tio n s , however, may be found i n th e
fo llo w in g words of the P r e s id e n t of th e c o lle g e .
I s h a l l l i s t some of the q u estio n s which we s h a l l as h
th e p a r e n t —and some which we s h a l l not a s h .
V ie s h a l l not ash: "Do you want your son to mahe f r ie n d s
and in flu e n c e p e o p le ? ” Ho**: "Do you want h i s p e r s o n a lity
developed?” Nor: "Do you want him to ex p ress h im s e lf? "
Ilor: "Do you want him to le a r n a tr a d e ? " Nor: "Do you
want him to succeed by b e a tin g h is neig h b o r?"
W e s h a l l ash : "Do you want him a b le to re a d , w r i t e , and
re chon?" And: "Do you want him a b le to grasp and d e a l
w ith id e a s and p r i n c i p l e s ? " And: "Do you want h is ima
g in a t i o n awakened, d i r e c t e d , and d is c ip li n e d ? " And:
pq
C atalogue of S t. John1s C o lle g e , 1937-1938, p. 33.
3 0 Loc. c i t .
144
"Do you want him a b le to make p r a c t i c a l d e c is io n s th a t
a re com petent, c l e a r , and in d e p en d en t?1 1 And: "Do you
want him a b le to d i s t i n g u i s h h i s knowledge, h i s o p in io n s ,
h i s ig n o ra n c e ? "31
One f in d s a t S t. Jo h n Ts no u n c e r t a in ty concerning the
o b je c tiv e s and c o n ten t of l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n . P r e s id e n t B arr
r e j e c t e d th e comment t h a t S t. Jo h n 1s program was "an i n t e r e s
t i n g experim ent i n p r o g re s s iv e e d u c a tio n ." "One does not
study m athem atics" he s a id , "one does not re a d S hakespeare,
to f i n d out i f th e re i s e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e i n th e m ."3 2 j^g
S t. Johnf s program i s but "th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f an a n c ie n t and
v i t a l t r a d i t i o n .
3 . Comments
The philosophy of th e c l a s s i c a l cu rric u lu m and th e
program of S t. Jo h n Ts College r e p r e s e n t a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t
some of th e commonly re c o g n iz e d d e f e c ts of modern c o lle g e
e d u c a tio n . Over a g a in s t th e e l e c t i v e system , which a ssu m es.
th a t one s u b je c t i s ju s t as good as any o t h e r , the proponents
of the c l a s s i c a l c u rric u lu m propose an a l l - r e q u i r e d c u r r ic u
lum of s tu d i e s of permanent v a lu e s . I n c o n t r a s t v^ith a e u r r i -
^ S trin g fe llo w B a rr, Radio t a l k over S ta ti o n WFBR in
B a ltim o re , March 20, 1938.
32 Radio T alk, November 20, 1937 i
33 Radio T alk , March 20, 1938,
145
culurn. o f u n r e la te d s u b j e c t s , th e y s e t up a s i n g l e - t r a c k
cu rricu lu m w ith a u n ita r y p la n running throughout th e f o u r -
y e a r c o u rse . I n p la c e of th e c o n fu sio n o f aims which c h a ra c
t e r i z e s th e c o lle g e o f today, they r e v iv e th e c l e a r - c u t con
cept of l i b e r a l a r t s of th e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y u n i v e r s i t y .
To av o id e x c e ssiv e v o e a tio n a lis m and “ad h o c” e d u c a tio n , th ey
advocate the o r i g i n a l " d i s i n t e r e s t e d s tu d i e s " u n ta in te d by th e
p r a c t i c a l and the u t i l i t a r i a n . To c o u n te r a c t th e over r e a d i
n ess of modern c o lle g e s to respond to f l e e t i n g s o c i a l changes
and to ad o p t "fad s and f r i l l s " to meet t r a n s i t o r y n ee d s, they
would remove the c o lle g e from d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the
c u r r e n t s o c i a l scene and devote i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t to the
u n d e rs ta n d in g of " f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s " and permanent t r u t h s a s
i l l u s t r a t e d i n c i v i l i z a t i o n s of th e p a s t .
f e a t u r e s . The c r e d i t system i s com pletely abandoned. There
i s no d e p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n , no s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . S tu d en ts and
f a c u l t y a l i k e a r e a l l fo llo w e rs o f the same common t r a d i t i o n ;
a l l must study th e same g r e a t books and th e seven l i b e r a l a r t s .
Teaching methods in c o rp o r a te much which has been g ain ed through
the ex p erien ce of o th e r c o lle g e s i n t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n ,
sem inar work, and independent s tu d y . The sem in ars, d e a lin g
w ith d i f f e r e n t phases of thought of a g r e a t a u t h o r —h i s p h ilo s o
phy, p o l i t i c a l th o u g h t, s c i e n t i f i c c o n t r i b u t i o n , e t c . —suggest
The c u rricu lu m p a t t e r n in i t s e l f has commendable
146
a method o f i n t e g r a t i o n w ell w orth th e c o n s id e r a ti o n of the
c o lle g e s which a r e tr y in g to a c h ie v e a more i n t e g r a t e d
p a t t e r n in th e s tu d i e s o f t h e i r stu d e n ts*
file c r u c i a l q u e stio n concerns the fundam ental p h ilo s o
phy o f education* I f one a c c e p ts th e philosophy of the
e la s s ie & l cu rric u lu m , th e program of St* John’ s i s th e
b r i g h t e s t l i g h t i n th e academic horizon* I f one r e j e c t s the
p h ilo so p h y , th e program ap p ears m isd ire c te d *
fh e re a r e , a t l e a s t , th r e e concepts in th e philosophy
of the c l a s s i c a l c u rric u lu m which must be c r i t i c a l l y examined:
namely, th e concept of form al d i s c i p l i n e , th e concept of
e t e r n a l t r u t h s , and the concept of a lo o fn e s s from contem porary
l i f e .
The concept of form al d i s c i p l i n e has been c l e a r l y enun
c i a t e d by H u tch in s, B a rr, Buchanan, and o th e r s . The l i b e r a l
a r t s a r e th e means of d i s c i p l i n i n g th e mind* ,rFor the mind,
l i k e th e body, can be f r e e d f o r i t s f u l l e s t use only th ro u g h
p a i n f u l d i s c i p l i n e . 1 1 ^ So, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f i n t e r e s t o r bent
or d if f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y , a l l s tu d e n ts must have fo u r y e a rs
o f m athem atics, fo u r y e a rs of lan g u ag e, fo u r y e a rs of l a b o r a
t o r y , and so on* M athem atics t r a i n s i n p re c is e th in k in g ; T T to
i
u n d e rsta n d E u c lid i s t o d i s c i p l i n e th e i n t e l l e c t f o r the
34 S trin g fe llo w B a rr, 1 1 John Doe Goes to S t. Jo h n ’ s , ”
P ro g re s s iv e E d ucation 1 6 :E l , J a n u a r y , 1939.
147
b u s in e s s o f l i v i n g . ”35 "This" says H. V /. Chase, ^whether
prom ulgated by P la to , by th e s c h o l a s t i c s , by John Locke,
or by H utchins i s th e view of ed u c a tio n as a p ro c e s s of
fo rm al d i s c i p l i n e . " * ^ " E s s e n t i a l l y , 1 1 he c o n t in u e s ," o f co u rse ,
th e d o c tr in e of form al d i s c i p l i n e i s , and always lias been,
one o f escape from r e a l i t y . "37
T ru th , says H u tch in s, i s always the same everywhere*
The c o lle g e cu rricu lu m should be devoted t o th e study of
" f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s " which a re a p p l ic a b le to a l l s it u a ti o n s *
P o in tin g out t h a t the ac ce p tan c e of e t e r n a l t r u t h s amounts
to a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , Dewey ask s how f r e e and c r e a tiv e th in k in g
can be developed by a u t h o r i t a r i a n methods* "Any scheme based
on th e e x is te n c e of u ltim a te f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s . . . • does n o t
escape a u t h o r it a r ia n i s m by c a l l i n g th e p r i n c i p l e s 1 t r u t h s *."38
Says Chase: "The w o rld 1s ex p e rien ce shows w e ll enough t h a t a
body of f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s g e n e ra lly re c o g n iz e d as v a l i d can
f e t t e r human thought a s w e ll as s tim u la te i t . * 1 ®^
35
S tr in g fe llo w B a rr, Radio T alk, November 20, 1937.
36 h . W . Chase, "H utchine 'H ig h er Learning* Grounded,"
The American S c h o la r * 6:239, S p rin g , 1937.
^ k o c. c i t *
John Dewey, " P re s id e n t Hutchins* P ro p o sa ls to Ramake
H igher E d u c a tio n ," The S o c ia l F r o n ti e r 3:104, J a n u a ry , 1937.
39 Chase, op. c i t . , p . 242.
148
F i n a l l y , the c l a s s i c a l cu rricu lu m removes the stu d e n t
from d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith th e contemporary l i f e and environm ent.
F inding co n fu sio n and p e r p le x ity i n th e com plicated problem s,
of contemporary l i f e , th e c l a s s i c i s t s withdraw i n t o a c l o i s
t e r e d haven where they study w ith t r a n q u i l i t y th e " f i r s t
p r i n c i p l e s " embodied i n books w r i t t e n i n an age of sim p ler
l i f e and problem s. The q u estio n i s w hether th e c o lle g e can
f u r n is h i n t e l l e c t u a l le a d e r s h ip in p re s e n t-d a y s o c ie ty by
w ithdraw ing from i t , and whether an e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n
which c u ts i t s e l f o f f from th e stream of contemporary l i f e
can long s u rv iv e . As Dewey p o in ts o u t, P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , and
S t. Thomas Acquinas (th e g r e a t minds w hich th e c l a s s i c i s t s
worship) d id not withdraw from t h e i r contem porary l i f e .
T heir work i s s i g n i f i c a n t p r e c i s e ly because i t does
not r e p r e s e n t w ithdraw al from th e sc ie n c e and s o c ia l
a f f a i r s of t h e i r own tim es. On th e c o n tr a r y , each
of them r e p r e s e n ts a genuine and p ro f ouna a ttem pt to
d is c o v e r and p r e s e n t i n o rg an ized form th e meaning
o f the sc ien c e and th e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t e x i s t e d in
t h e i r h i s t o r i c p e r io d s . The r e a l c o n c lu sio n t o b e
drawn i s t h a t th e t a s k of h ig h e r le a r n in g a t p re se n t
i s to accom plish a s im ila r work f o r th e confused an d
d is o rd e re d c o n d itio n s of our day. . • . The cure fo r
s u r r e n d e r of h ig h e r le a r n in g to imm ediate and t r a n s i
to ry p re s s u r e s i s not m onastic s e c lu s io n . H igher
le a r n in g can become i n t e l l e c t u a l l y v a l i d only by
coming to t h a t c lo se g r ip w ith our contemporary
sc ie n c e and contem porary s o c i a l a f f a i r s which P la to ,
A r i s t o t l e , and S t. Thomas exem plify i n t h e i r r e s
p e c tiv e wiays.^O
40
Dewey, op. c i t . , p. 104.
149
I t i s c l e a r t h a t S t. John*s program does not provide
f o r any d i r e c t study of contem porary l i f e . For fo u r y e a r s ,
s tu d e n ts th in k i n term s of th e p a s t and study g r e a t books
of the past* l o t u n t i l th e f o u rth y e a r a r e they g iv e n oppor
t u n i t y to study modern a u th o r s , and th e n only w ith lim ita tio n s *
Sidney Hook comments a s fo llo w s:
At th e end of th e t h i r d y e a r , th e s tu d e n ts have reached
a s th e f u r t h e s t p o in t in t h e i r s tu d y , a book p u b lis h e d
i n 1739. In the rem aining y e a r o f t h e i r ed u c atio n e v e ry r
th in g from 1739 to the p re s e n t i s covered, w ith only two
books c o n s id e re d i n the tw e n t ie t h c e n tu ry , both i n h ig h e r
m athem atics* l o t a s in g le book p u b lis h e d sin c e the World
War, a n o t unim portant event i n h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e , i s
even on the l i s t * Aside from th e v i o l a t i o n of, sound peda
g o g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s in v o lv e d in the whole c o n c ep tio n , t h i s
i s s o c i a l snobbery in r e v e r s e . A pparently th e s o c ia l
problems of a l l tim es a r e worthy of study but n o t our own.
The problems of unemployment a r e a l e g itim a te s u b je c t
of i n v e s t i g a t i o n i f only th e y b e a r on th e d e c lin e of th e
Homan Empire* Modern a r c h i t e c t u r e , h o u sin g , and p o l i t i c s
would w a rra n t a t t e n t i o n i n th e c u rricu lu m i f only they
could be shown to be continuous w ith th e problems of th e
G-reek c i t y s t a t e . The c r i t i c a l stu d y of th e speeches of
p o l i t i c i a n s i s v u lg a r u n le ss th e p o l i t i c i a n s have been
dead a t l e a s t two thousand y e a rs when they have a c q u ire d
th e d ig n it y o f s ta te s m e n .41
ITo doubt i t i s a sim p ler ta s k to study a n c ie n t c i v i l i
z a tio n s th a n contem porary l i f e . Ho doubt, i t i s e a s i e r to see
o rd er and u n ity i n G-reek c i v i l i z a t i o n th a n kn the complex en
vironm ent of th e tw e n t ie t h c e n tu ry . M eiklejohn found t h i s o u t
in h i s E xperim ental College* a decade ago. He wrote i n 1930:
^ Sidney Hook, ”A C hallenge to th e L ib e r a l- A f ts C o l le g e ,”
J o u rn a l of H igher E ducation 10:17, Jan u ary , 1939.
The o r g a n iz a tio n and s e l e c t i o n of th e Greek m a te r ia l
has q u ite n a t u r a l l y proved to "be much e a s i e r th a n th a t
of the American p e rio d . I n f a c t , i t . may now be s a id
t h a t a f t e r th r e e y e a rs we,have a freshm an course of
study d e f i n i t e enough i n o u tlin e to be u sa b le fox*
te a c h in g p u rp o se s. • • • The problem of th e second
y e a r i s much more d i f f i c u l t . To us who are i n th e
m idst of American l i f e i t seems f a r more co m p licated
and in c o h e re n t th a n th a t of a n c ie n t A thens, and the
books of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and in fo rm a tio n about America
a r e q u ite b e w ild e rin g i n t h e i r number and t h e i r
v a r i e t y of r e f e r e n c e .4 2
L ib e r a l e d u c a tio n in th e middle ag es did have u n ity ;
th e re was no u n c e r t a in ly about th e purposes and the content
o f l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n ; th e re was u n ity i n a c u rric u lu m c e n te re d
about th e c l a s s i c s . V/ith the in c re a s e of knowledge th e growth
o f p ro d u c tiv e s c h o la r s h ip , and th e m u l t i p l i c i t y of s u b je c ts
and c o u rs e s , the modern c u rricu lu m has become a n in c o h e re n t
mass of lo o se p a r t s . The se a rc h f o r u n ity i s im p e ra tiv e . But
i s i t p o s s ib le t o ach iev e u n ity a p a r t from an o rg a n iz in g p r i n
c i p le embedded i n th e c u rre n t s o c i a l scene? L ib e r a l eduea-
t i o n 9 i n th e words of Chase, fimust u n ify i t s e l f a g a in , not
about th e c l a s s i c a l c u l t u r e s , b u t about th e problems o f con-
43
tem porary l i f e . ”
4 2
A lexander M eiklejohn, " W is c o n s in ^ E x p erim en tal
C o lle g e ,” J o u rn a l o f H igher E ducation 1:485-486, December,
1930.
43
H. V /. Chase, “Doubts about L ib e r a l C o l le g e s ,”
American Mercury 33: 294, Hovember, 1934.
CHAPTER ¥11
0TORIOOTUM XH TBBMS OF BROAD
fx fd d s o f m m tm m m t
nm approach
U hile t h e c l a s s i c i s t s a r e t r y i n g to a c h ie v e u n ity i n
om ’rie u lu m by r e s t o r i n g th e d i s c i p l i n e s o f the m ediaeval
cu rricu lu m * o th e r c o lle g e e d u c a to r s , e q u a lly d i s s a t i s f i e d
w ith t h e chaos of the e l e c t i v e system and th e m u l t i p l i c i t y
o f s p e c i a l i s e d d e p a rtm e n ta l o f f e r i n g s , a r e se e k in g t o r e o r
g a n is e th e c u rricu lu m by o th e r m ethods. I n this eb&p^tei4
w i l l be d e s c rib e d th e e f f o r t made by a number of c o l le g e s a n d
u n i v e r s i t i e s t o adopt broad f i e l d s o f knowledge a s th e b a s is
o f curriculum reconstruction* I n s t e a d of tu r n in g t o p a s t
t r a d i t i o n s ' f o r g u id a n ce, th e s e c o l le g e s s e e k t o o rg a n ise
human knowledge i n a few m ajor divisions and to i n t e r p r e t
contem porary c u ltu r e i n t e r n s more i n t e l l i g i b l e to modern
youth* 2he new p la n a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago i s , p e r
h a p s , Idle b e s t known o f a tte m p ts i n t h i s d ir e c tio n * f h e re a r e ,
hoviever, a number of c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s which a r e r e o r
g a n is in g .their curricula along s im ila r lin e s *
1 * f he Uni ve r e i t y o f CM c a g e , Ghi eag o , I l l i n o i s .
She U n iv e rs ity of Chicago ad o p ted a new p la n i n 1930
wijtioh re o r g a n is e d the work I n a r t s , l i t e r a t u r e , and s c ie n c e
■ /
■ i
I
I
15 £
i n t o f i v e d iv is io n s : v iz . , the C ollege and the four upper
D iv is io n s . She C ollege r e p r e s e n ts the low er d i v i s i o n , o r
ju n io r c o lle g e , devoted to g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n and p ro v id in g
the "basic e d u c a tio n n e c e s s a ry f o r a d m issio n i n t o any of th e
D iv isio n s or p r o f e s s io n a l sc h o o ls . She D iv is io n s — B io lo g ic a l
S c ie n c e s , H um anities, P h y s ic a l S c ie n c e s , and S o c ia l S c ie n c e s --
combine the s e n io r c o lle g e w ith ^the g ra d u a te school and co n fer
th e B a c h e lo r’ s , M a s te r’s , and D o cto r’ s d e g re e s . There a re
seven p r o f e s s io n a l sc h o o ls i n th e U n iv e r s it y , g iv in g p r o f e s
s io n a l d e g ree s. For p r o f e s s io n a l sc h o o ls as w e ll as f o r the
d i v i s i o n s , th e C ollege p ro v id e s tine needed fo u n d a tio n .
The most im p o rtan t changes a r e made i n th e C o lleg e .
Completion of the work of th e C ollege e n t i t l e s the stu d e n t
to th e t i t l e of A sso c ia te i n A r ts , b u t th e t i t l e i s not
awarded on th e b a s i s of c r e d i t o r course re q u ire m e n ts, but on
a c tu a l d e m o n stratio n o f a tta in m e n t th ro u g h comprehensive
ex a m in a tio n s. The c r e d i t- c o u r s e system i s com pletely a b a n
doned. A lthough th e re i s a program o f co u rse s provided to
h e lp s tu d e n ts to g a in the knowledge needed f o r the p a s s in g
of the exam in atio n , i t i s by no means n e c e s s a ry to tak e th e
co u rses i n o rd er t o q u a lify fo r thi© A s s o c ia te in A rts . The
so le c r i t e r i a of judgment a re th e p a s sin g of th e seven com
p reh en siv e exam inations r e q u ir e d fo r com pletion o f th e C ollege
work.
S tu d e n ts a re a d m itte d in to the c o lle g e e i t h e r by c e r
t i f i c a t i o n or by ex am in atio n . No r i g i d p a t t e r n o f h ig h school
s tu d i e s i s p r e s c rib e d . G raduates o f f o u r- y e a r h ig h sc h o o ls
should p r e s e n t f i f t e e n u n i t s of work w ith m ajor and minor
sequences i n approved s u b j e c t s ; g ra d u a te s of s e n io r h ig h
schools p re s e n t tw elve u n its *
The re q u ire m e n ts of the C ollege a r e s t a t e d in term s
of e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n ts t e s t e d by seven com prehensive
ex a m in a tio n s. Four o f th e exam inations c o rresp o n d to th e
four f i e l d s o f knowledge which c o n s t i t u t e the co re of th e
curriculum . o f th e C o lle g e . They t e s t * T th e a tta in m e n t o f th e
minimum e s s e n t i a l s o f f a c t u a l in f o rm a tio n and an i n tr o d u c t io n
to th e methods o f th o u g h t and work i n each of four f i e l d s - -
the b i o l o g i c a l s c ie n c e s , th e h u m a n itie s , the p h y s i c a l s c ie n c e s ,
and the s o c i a l s c ie n c e s — such as may be ex p ected fo a s tu d e n t
who h as pursued th ro u g h an academic y e a r a g e n e r a l course a t
the ju n io r - c o ll e g e l e v e l in each o f the four fie ld s ." '* ' Two
exam inations a r e g iv e n t o t e s t "the a tta in m e n t of su c h m astery
o f th e s u b je c t m a tte r, te c h n iq u e s , s k i l l s , h a b i t s of th o u g h t,
and methods of work as may be expected of a s tu d e n t who has
pursued through an academ ic y ea r any two of t h e d e p a rtm e n ta l
2
or in te rd e p a r tm e n ta l sequences of t h r e e - q u a r t e r c o u rse s'1
^ e C ollege and the d iv is io n s fo r the S essio n s of
1938-1939"^ ["Chicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago, March 15, 1938) ,
P . 4 :i . _
g iv e n i n th e four f i e l d s . F i n a l l y , an exam ination i s giv en
to t e s t competency i n E n g lis h . I n a d d i t i o n to th e se seven
e x a m in a tio n s, th e C ollege r e q u i r e s o f a i l s tu d e n ts m astery of
a f o r e ig n language and o f m athem atics e q u iv a le n t to the a t t a i n
ment r e p r e s e n te d by two e n tra n c e u n i t s in each. S in c e .a lm o st
a l l s tu d e n ts have a lre a d y f u l f i l l e d t h i s re q u ire m e n t i n high
sc h o o l, few s tu d e n ts f i n d i t n e c e ssa ry t o ta k e any a d d i t i o n a l
3
exam ination i n f o r e ig n language o r m athem atics.
To h e lp s tu d e n ts meet th e above o b j e c t i v e s , th e College
o f f e r s in tr o d u c to ry g e n e ra l c o u rse s i n each of t h e four f i e l d s ,
dep a rtm en ta l or d i v i s i o n a l y e a r - e o u r s e s or t h r e e - q u a r t e r
sequence t o provide the needed p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r the s p e c ia liz e d
s tu d i e s of the D iv is io n s , a n d co u rses i n E n g lish ccm p o sitio n ,
la n g u ag e s, and m ath em atics. S tu d e n ts a r e fr e e to a v a i l them
s e lv e s of the se co u rses when i t i s found t h a t course work i s
needed f o r adequate p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e ex am in atio n s.
The core o f the C ollege c u rric u lu m c o n s is ts of t h e fo u r
in tr o d u c to r y g e n e ra l courses in th e B io lo g ic a l S c ie n c e s , the
H um anities, th e P h y s ic a l S cie n c e s, an d th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s.
The purpose o f such co u rses i s n o t p r im a r ily to la y a foun
d a tio n f o r ; -fu rth e r stu d y i n th e f i e l d , nor to t r a i n sp e
c i a l i s t s f o r th e f i e l d s , but to f u l f i l t h e o b je c tiv e s of
® C. S. Boucher, The Chicago C o lleg e P lan (Chicago:
U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago P r e s s , 19 35) , p. 22.
g e n e r a l education* The course in B io lo g ic a l S cien ces i s
planned w ith the fo llo w in g o b je c ti v e s i n mind:
(a) to c u l t i v a t e the s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e of mind through
re p e a te d i l l u s t r a t i o n s of the s c i e n t i f i c method of a t t a c h
upon n a t u r e 1s problem s; (b) t o im plant such p r a c t i c a l
in fo rm a tio n about b io lo g y as i s d e s i r a b l e f o r a c i t i z e n
i n th e modern w o rld ; and (c) to awaken i n t e r e s t i n th e
im p ressiv e m achinery of th e o rg an ic w o rld and i n the
m ajor concepts of biology*^
The course in H um anities o u t l i n e s " in c h ro n o lo g ic a l o rd er
the p o l i t i c a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g of each o f th e main
c u l t u r a l phases th ro u g h w hich W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n has passed
and in d ic a t e ^ th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c achievem ents of each p erio d
5
i n thought and i n l i t e r a r y and a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n .” The
course in P h y s ic a l S cien ces in tro d u c e s the s tu d e n t t o impor
ta n t f a c t s and co n c ep ts i n modern p h y s ic s , astronom y, mathe
m a tic s , ch e m istry , geology, and geography* The course in
S o c ia l S cience " c o n s id e rs economic, s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s i n th e p e r s p e c tiv e of the i n d u s t r i a l r e v o lu ti o n ,
and in c lu d e s "an exam ination o f the problems and methods of
&
i n v e s t i g a t i o n p e c u lia r to th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s ." With em
p h a s is on th e European background of the American s o c i a l
h e r i t a g e , th e course i s d esig n ed "to approach the c u r r e n t i n
t e r n a t i o n a l and American phases of th e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o lu tio n
^ C ollege and th e D iv is i o n s , 1938-1939, p. 52*
5 i S i S * * P *
6 I b i d * , p. 59.
156
th ro u g h a w e a lth of European i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e same
7
p r o c e s s . ”
*
The co n ten t of th e co u rses i s determ ined "by p o o lin g
to g e th e r th e "best judgment of s p e c i a l i s t s r e p r e s e n tin g the
departm ents in v o lv ed in each c o u rse , The p re lim in a ry o u t
lin e a t the beginning was p re p a re d by a committee and was
then su b m itted t o f a c u l ty members of the r e s p e c tiv e d i v i s i o n a l
f i e l d s f o r c r i t i c i s m s and s u g g e s tio n s . The f i n a l s y lla b u s
was th e r e s u l t o f many r e v i s i o n s . The committee in charge
of each course t r i e s to keep in mind the main o b je c tiv e s of
th e course and to a v o id th e predominance of th e view point of
any group of s p e c i a l i s t s .
P rocedures i n th e conducting of t h e co u rse s vary a c c o r
ding to th e n a tu re and needs of each c o u rse . The g e n e ra l
p rocedure is t o give th r e e l e c t u r e s a week i n la rg e c l a s s e s
and one or more sm all d is c u s s io n g ro u p s. The l e c t u r e s e c
t i o n s a re as la r g e as th e classroom s can accom odate; due to
the l i m i t a t i o n s of space, two or th r e e le c tu r e s e c tio n s , a re
p ro v id ed a t d i f f e r e n t tim es of th e day. P is c u s s io n groups
a re li m i t e d to 25 or 30 s tu d e n ts . To meet th e needs of
s p e c ia l g ro u p s, th e courses a re a d o p tin g th e p r a c t i c e of
h o ld in g "h o n o rs” s e c tio n s and "rev ie w ” s e c tio n s f o r groups
of f iv e to tw enty s tu d e n ts . The honors se c tio n s are given
^ H. P. Grideons.e, nThe S o c ia l S ciences in th e C ollege
a t the U n iv e rs ity of C h icag o ,1 1 B. Lamar Johnson, ed. ,What
About Survey C ourses? (lew York: Henry H olt and Co. , 1937) ,
p. 260~
f o r s tu d e n ts of e x c e p tio n a l a b i l i t y and achievem ent; the
review s e c tio n s a re u s u a lly announced i n c la s s and open t o a l l
s tu d e n ts , T e sts and q u iz z es giv en i n th e c o u rse s a r e fo r
i n s t r u c t i o n a l , purposes only; th e r e s u l t s a r e not re c o rd e d in
the R e g i s t r a r 5s o f f i c e .
E f f o r t i s made to se c u re d is t in g u is h e d s c h o la rs to
g iv e th e l e c t u r e s of th e - g e n e r a l c o u rse s. B esides members
o f th e s t a f f i n charge of th e c o u rs e s , g u e s t l e c t u r e r s a re
o f te n i n v i t e d to g iv e s p e c ia l l e c t u r e s . I n most of th e
c o u rs e s , th e l e c t u r e s are g iv e n by f i f t e e n t o twenty s p e c i a l
i s t s . As a g e n e ra l r u l e , the l e c t u r e r s do not conduct the
d is c u s s io n g ro u p s, which a re under th e charge of a d is c u s s io n -
group s t a f f of i n s t r u c t o r s from the c o o p e ra tin g d ep artm en ts.
M otion p i c t u r e s , la b o r a to r y d e m o n stra tio n s, museums and ex
h i b i t s a re used w ith good r e s u l t s in th e b i o l o g i c a l and phy
s i c a l sc ie n c e s t o ta k e th e p la ce of th e t r a d i t i o n a l la b o ra to ry
e x e r c is e s . Science f ilm s , p rep ared under th e d i r e c t i o n of the
Chicago f a c u l t y , a r e now a v a i l a b l e fo r o th e r c o lle g e s and
sc h o o ls .
S tu d en ts a r e a d v ise d not to ta k e more than two g e n e r a l
c o u rse s a t one tim e. The normal schedule of a stu d e n t c o n s is ts
of fo u r c o u rs e s , each course meeting four tim es a week. C lass
a tte n d a n c e i s v o lu n ta ry ; a student may r e g i s t e r f o r a course
and, f in d in g in th e s y lla b u s c e r t a i n s e c tio n s w ith which he i s
a lre a d y f a m i l i a r , sk ip th o se s e c tio n s and use h i s tim e i n more
p r o f i t a b l e ways* Other s tu d e n ts may f i n d i t unnecessary to
a t t e n d any of th e l e c t u r e s . Many of them a re s tu d e n ts of
e x c e p tio n a l a b i l i t y ; a s a group t h e i r sc o re s i n th e comprehen
siv e exam inations a r e even s u p e rio r to th o se of th e r e s t*
A s tu d e n t may ta k e any o r a l l o f th e comprehensive
exam inations a t any time when he i s ready* E xam inations
a re scheduled in d i f f e r e n t p e rio d s of th e y e a r . Says
B oucher:
A s tu d e n t may p r e s e n t h im s e lf f o r any exam ination
a t any r e g u l a r exam ination p e rio d , w hether he has
p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a l l or any p a r t of none of the
c l a s s work of any course* W e have found t h a t some
s tu d e n ts e i t h e r a re p re p a re d or can p rep are them
s e lv e s w ith o u t i n s t r u c t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e fo r one
or more e x a m in a tio n s ; o th e rs need only p a r t of
the r e g u la r work of a given co u rse ; w h ile th e
m a jo rity need a l l o f th e c l a s s work o f fe re d as
an a i d to t h e a tta in m e n t of the knew ledge and
i n t e l l e c t u a l power n e c e ss a ry to pass each p r e s
c rib e d and each e l e c t i v e exam ination.®
Each exam ination i s s ix h o u rs i n le n g th , d iv id e d i n t o
a morning s e s s io n and an a fte rn o o n sessio n * Exam ination q u es
tio n s a r e of d i f f e r e n t ty p e s ; the r a t i o of new-type and o ld -
type q u e s tio n s in any given exam ination i s determ ined by
agreement between the i n s t r u c t o r s and the exam iners of th e
c o u rse . A lthough th e c o n s tr u c tio n and a d m in is t r a tio n of th e
exam inations are in th e hands of th e e x a m in a tio n te c h n ic ia n s ,
the o b je c tiv e s and g e n e ra l form o f th e exam inations a s w e ll a s
p
B oucher, op* c i t . , p* 28.
the m a te r ia ls f o r th e exam inations are under th e c o n tr o l of
the f a c u l t y • The Board of E x am in atio n s, whose p erso n n el
c o n s is ts in f a c u l t y members r e p r e s e n tin g the d i v i s i o n s or
s c h o o ls, employs a C hief Examiner, who s e l e c t s a s t a f f of
te c h n ic ia n s and c l e r k s . For ea ch of th e four d iv is io n s is
a s s ig n e d a s p e c ia l t e c h n ic ia n , who b e g in s e a r l y i n th e
academic y e a r to co n sid er q u e s tio n s and m a te r ia ls fo r the
ex am in atio n . Q uestions a r e su b m itte d by s t a f f members and
d is c u s s e d in s t a f f m eetin g s; th e whole p ro ce ss in v o lv e s
c lo se c o o p e ra tio n between the exam iner and those re s p o n s ib le
f o r th e te a c h in g of th e c o u rse . Old e x a m in a tio n q u e stio n s
a re a v a i l a b l e to s tu d e n ts f o r re f e r e n c e i n th e l i b r a r i e s and
i n the u n i v e r s i t y bookstore*
For th e m a jo rity of the s tu d e n ts , the time needed f o r
ad equate p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e comprehensive ex am in atio n s i s
two academic y e a r s . I t sh o u ld be r e p e a te d , however, th a t th e
C ollege has d isc a rd e d the lo c k - s te p tim e -s e rv in g system where
by a l l s tu d e n ts must ta k e a c e r t a i n number of c o u rse s (o r
c r e d i t s ) i n a c e r t a i n number o f y e a r s . In order t o p ro v id e
a u n it o f lo n g e r d u r a tio n and to f a c i l i t a t e f u r t h e r c o o rd in a
t i o n w ith the high s c h o o l, Chicago in c o rp o r a te d i n t o th e
C ollege program the work of th e l a s t two y e a rs of the U niver
s i t y High School, th u s making a f o u r - y e a r C o lle g e . The f o u r -
y e a r C ollege o f f e r s courses t o s u i t th e l e v e l of i t s s tu d e n ts
1 6 0
but the fundam ental p r i n c i p l e of s u b s t i t u t i n g dem onstration
o f r e a l a tta in e m e n ts f o r e o u rs e -c re d i t re q u irem e n ts i s th e
same i n the f o u r - y e a r College as i n th e tw o -y e a r C o lleg e.
A f te r th e com pletion of th e work i n the C o lleg e, a
s tu d e n t may e n t e r one of the D iv isio n s or one of th e p r o f e s
s io n a l schools* W ith th e ex cep tio n of th e D iv isio n o f the
B io lo g ic a l S c ie n c e s , th e D iv isio n s re q u ire a comprehensive
exam ination b e fo re th e g ra n tin g o f th e B achelor*s d eg ree.
■The d e t a i l e d re q u ire m e n ts vary w ith th e D iv is io n s . In g e n e r a l,
s tu d i e s i n th e s e n io r c o lle g e a r e so d i s t r i b u t e d t h a t a t h i r d
o f the work f a l l s w ith in the chosen departm ent of c o n c e n tra
t i o n , a t h i r d i n r e l a t e d departm ent s i n th e d i v i s i o n , and th e
o th e r t h i r d in e l e c t i v e s . The cu rricu lu m o f the D iv isio n s
h as not undergone such r e c o n s tr u c tio n a s t h a t of th e C o lleg e .
The d i v i s i o n a l p la n has many a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ad v a n tag e s; so
f a r , not very much has y e t been done to th e cu rricu lu m beyond
such p r o v is io n s as. d i v i s i o n a l re q u ire m e n ts and d i v i s i o n a l
d e g re e s.
The r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e C ollege of the U n iv e rs ity
o f Chicago in v o lv e s a number of r a d i c a l ch a n g es. A com plete
break i s made w ith th e t r a d i t i o n a l system of c o u rs e s , c r e d i t s ,
and p o i n t s . C lass atten d a n c e i s made v o lu n ta ry . Competency
in d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s i s judged e n t i r e l y on th e b a s is of com
p reh en siv e ex a m in a tio n s. The l i n e o f cleavage between the
/more
lower y e a rs and th e upper y e a rs is/m ark ed h ere more th a n i n
161
o th e r c o lle g e s . By making the C ollege th e fo u n d a tio n f o r
a l l work i n th e D iv is io n s and the p r o f e s s io n a l sc h o o ls,, an d
by jo in in g the se n io r c o lle g e w ith the g ra d u a te sc h o o l, the
U n iv e rs ity of Chicago has made a b old experim ent w ith f a r -
re a c h in g e f f e c t s on the o r g a n iz a tio n of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
The most s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t of th e c u rric u lu m p a t t e r n
i s th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n w ith the u n d er
sta n d in g of broad f i e l d s of knowledge. The fo u r exam inations
i n broad f i e l d s and th e ex am in atio n i n E n g lis h , acco rd in g to
Boucher, Ifr e p r e s e n t a common core o f e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e
and background f o r a l l s tu d e n ts who com plete th e r e q u i r e
ments o f our C ollege; they c o n s t i t u t e th e m ajor p a r t of our
9
d e f i n i t i o n of the minimum e s s e n t i a l s of a g e n e ra l e d u c a ti o n .1 1
With th e purpose' of b u ild in g up na community of
s c h o l a r s ’1 w ith common i n t e r e s t s and common e x p e rie n c e , th e
c l a s s i c i s t s r e v o l t a g a in s t th e system of f r e e e l e c t i v e s and
i n s t i t u t e a fix e d c u rric u lu m b ased upon the l i b e r a l a r t s of
th e m ediaeval u n i v e r s i t y . The re q u ire m e n ts of th e C ollege
of the U n iv e r s ity of Chicago r e p r e s e n t , i n a wagr, a l s o a move
from f r e e e l e c t i v e s i n th e d i r e c t i o n of a f ix e d cu rricu lu m .
I n s te a d o f a r e s t o r a t i o n of the o r i g i n a l l i b e r a l a r t s , how
e v e r, Chicago r e q u ir e s o f each stu d e n t a minimum of knowledge
and u n d e rsta n d in g s co n cern in g the contem porary w o rld and
c u l t u r e . I n s te a d of a l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n b ased on th e g r e a t
9 I b i d . , p. 20.
books of the p a s t , Chicago proposes a g e n e ra l e d u c atio n in
term s of broad f i e l d s of human knowledge.
d u a liz in g of a f ix e d cu rricu lu m by allo w in g each stu d e n t to
proceed a t h i s own pace and t o map out a program of s tu d i e s
according to h i s p a s t background and p r e p a r a t io n . The product
i s s ta n d a rd iz e d , but th e p ro cess i s h ig h ly in d iv id u a liz e d *
the tendency to r e t a i n d ep a rtm en tal l i n e s i n th e g e n e ra l
courses* The course i n P h y s ic a l S c ie n c e s , f o r example, te n d s
to become a m erger of d i s t i n c t u n i t s i n astronom y, p h y sic s,
ch e m istry , geology, e t c . Another problem concerns the d ev elo p
ment o f an e v a lu a tio n program in harmony w ith th e o b je c tiv e s
of g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n . T h e o r e ti c a l ly , the exam inations should
t e s t u n d e rsta n d in g o f p r i n c i p l e s and a p p r e c ia t io n of broad
f i e l d s o f knowledge r a t h e r th a n th e memory of f a c t u a l inform a
t i o n , b u t th e re i s a tendency tT to confuse the command of a
d i a l e c t i c a l v o cabulary w ith the command of a f i e l d of knovjledge*
tT There a re many i n t a n g ib le s and imponderable s n says Boucher, ni n
th e development of th e m ental p ro c e s se s and th e m ental o u t-
and to the s o c ie ty i n which he l i v e s , y e t a r e to o
s u b tl e o r too i l l u s i v e to be caught and m easured f u l l y and
a c c u r a te ly i n th e w r i t t e n exam inations t h a t we now know how to
Another im p o rta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n l i e s i n the i n d i v i -
Among th e problems or shortcom ings to be overcome a re
look o f th e in d iv i d u a l t h a t are im p o rta n t
Gideonse, o jd. c i t . , p. 270
1 6 3
n
frame*
Uhen i t comes t o e v a lu a tin g th e n o n - i n t e l l e c t u a l
phases of s tu d e n t developm ent, th e in a d e q u a c ie s a r e s t i l l
more ohvious. Q,uoting Boucher a g a in :
Our m ajor e f f o rts a t p r e s e n t a re co n fin e d to the m easure-
,'intm ent o f some o f th e r e s u l t s i n m ental and i n t e l l e c t u a l
a tta in m e n ts from t h e p u r s u i t of our academic co u rse s of
study* Though we do a l l th a t we can t o provide a s e t
t i n g conducive t o th e wholesome development of the s o c i a l ,
m oral, and p h y s ic a l w e ll- b e irg of our s t u d e n t s , we have
not a s y e t s e t up a c c u r a te measurements of a tta in m e n ts
a lo n g th e se l i n e s f o r . the award of a d e g r e e . ^
I t i s , on th e whole, f a i r to say t h a t the e n t i r e p ro
gram a t Chicago te n d s to he predom inantly "academ ic1 1 in i t s
em phasis. I t s s t r e s s on i n t e l l e c t u a l a tta in m e n ts and on
13
"book le a rn in g " te n d s to r e s u l t in a n e g le c t of o th er
v a lu e s im p o rtan t i n g e n e ra l education*
2. The G eneral C ollege of the U n iv e rs ity of
F l o r i d a , G a in e s v ill e , F lo rid a
The General C ollege of the U n iv e r s ity of F lo rid a was
o rg a n iz e d to p rovide two y e a r s of g e n e r a l ed u c a tio n f o r a l l
s tu d e n ts who begin t h e i r study a t the U n iv e r s ity of F lo r i d a ,
which i s a s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y f o r men s t u d e n t s . The General
C ollege r e p r e s e n t s th e a tte m p t of a s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y to face
Boucher , op. c i t *, p. 78-79.
12 I b i d . , p. 78.
Gi&eonse, op. c i t . , p. 269.
r e a l i s t i c a l l y and i n t e l l i g e n t l y the new problems a r i s i n g
from the stead y in c re a s e o f stu d e n t e n ro llm e n t, the expan
sio n of th e e d u c a tio n a l program nby fra g m en ta ry f i e l d s , 1 1
and th e h ig h p erc e n ta g e of s tu d e n t m o r t a l i t y , o f s tu d e n ts
who drop o u t1 1 haying r e c e iv e d only S p e c i a l i z e d b i t s ’of
m eaningless f o u n d a tio n s .1 1 ^ The r e o r g a n iz a tio n p la n , inaugu
r a t e d i n 1935, put in one common program th e f i r s t two y e a rs
of th e seven c o lle g e s and p r o f e s s io n a l sc h o o ls of the
U n iv e rs ity so th a t a l l s tu d e n ts , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r l a t e r
choice of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n or p r o fe s s io n , would have th e same
b a s ic e d u c a tio n in th e G eneral C o lleg e . The U n iv e rs ity of
F lo rid a r?i s the f i r s t s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y t o r e q u i r e a l l s tu d e n ts
I K
to p ass th ro u g h the G eneral C ollege.
N e ith e r a d e f i n i t e number of u n i t s n o r a s p e c i f i c
p a t t e r n o f high school s tu d i e s i s r e q u ir e d f o r ad m issio n .
I t i s h e ld t h a t fT th e a tta in m e n ts now r e q u ir e d f o r U n iv e rs ity
adm ission a r e not g u a ra n te e d by th e a c q u i s i t i o n of h ig h school
c r e d i t s . On th e o th e r hand, the a tta in m e n ts a re p o s s ib le
w ith o u t s p e c i f i c h ig h sc h o o l a t t e n d a n c e . O n t h i s p r i n c i p l e ,
^ W . S. M aclean and o t h e r s , rfThe G eneral C o lle g e s ,”
T h irty - E ig h th Yearbook o f N.S.jS.E. , P a r t I I (Bloomington,
I l l i n o i s ! Pub l i c School P u b lis h in g Company, 1939), p. 153.
V /. J . M ath erly , r,A Hew G eneral C o lle g e ,1 1 Jo u rn a l
of Higher E ducation 6 : 4 0 1 ,-November, 1935.
B u l l e t i n o f I n f o m a t i o n f o r th e G eneral C o lle g e ,
1938-1939, (G a i n s v i l l e : U n iv e rs ity of F l o r i d a , Ju ly 1, 1938),
p. 228.
165-
e x c e p tio n a l s tu d e n ts and mature s tu d e n ts may "be a d m itte d
w ithout even g ra d u a tin g from h ig h s c h o o l• E f f o r t i s made
to judge every a p p l ic a n t on th e "basis of the t o t a l p i c t u r e
of h is p a s t p r e p a r a tio n and p e rs o n a l q u a l i t i e s . The h ig h -
school r e c o rd , the r e s u l t s of placem ent and m e n t a l - a b i l i t y
t e s t s , p e rs o n a l q u a l i t i e s , an d o th e r p e r t i n e n t d a ta a r e a l l
assem bled i n a p r o f i l e c h a rt which g iv e s a g e n e ra l p i c t u r e
of the a p p l i c a n t s competency. Those who a re judged to be
17
"d o u b tfu l e d u c a tio n a l r i s k s ” a r e a d v ise d not to e n t e r .
I t norm ally ta k e s two y e a rs to complete th e r e q u i r e
ments f o r th e A sso c ia te of A rts C e r t i f i c a t e , g ra n te d a t th e
tim e o f g ra d u a tio n from th e G-eneral C o lleg e , b u t s u p e rio r
s tu d e n ts may complete them i n l e s s than two y e a rs j u s t as
slow s tu d e n ts may r e q u ir e more tim e. "The G-eneral C ollege
has d isp e n se d w ith clock h o u rs, c la s s g ra d e s , and sem ester
hours c r e d i t as p r e r e q u i s i t e s . " - ^ To a c q u a in t s tu d e n ts w ith
th e m ajor f i e l d s of knowledge and w ith the changing c o n d i
t i o n s and problems o f contem porary l i f e , th e C ollege o f f e r s
a number o f g e n e ra l com prehensive c o u rs e s , some of which a r e
r e q u ir e d o f all- s tu d e n ts . B esides t h i s core program of
g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n , s tu d e n ts e l e c t co u rse s which a r e
17 W. J . M atherly, "A Hew V e n tu re ," J o u rn a l o f H igher
E ducation 7:481, December, .1936.
1® B u l l e t i n of In fo r m a tio n , 1938-1939, p. 230.
16 &
d esig n ed to f u l f i l l the n e c essary p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r work i n
th e Upper D ivision* A ttainm ent along th e d i f f e r e n t l i n e s
a re t e s t e d "by comprehensive examinat ions*
E ig h t o b je c tiv e s have "been s e t up for th e program of
th e G eneral C o lle g e s: v i z . ,
1. To a c q u ire and m a in ta in a maximum degree of p h y s ic a l
and m ental e ffic ie n c y *
2. To use e f f e c t i v e l y th e t o o l s o f thought and speech.
3. To sh are f u l l y in t h e changing d u t i e s and resp o n
s i b i l i t i e s of c i t i z e n s h i p .
4 . To u n d ersta n d th e s c i e n t i f i c method and to become
f a m i l i a r w ith th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among and the con
t r i b u t i o n s o f the v a rio u s s c ie n c e s .
5. To a p p r e c ia te th e b e s t i n r e l i g i o u s and p h ilo s o p h ic a l
th o u g h t.
6. To enjoy l i t e r a t u r e and the o th e r a r t s , and to grow
i n a p p r e c ia t io n o f e s t h e t i c v a lu e s .
7. To choose w ise ly an o ccu p atio n or a p ro fe s s io n .
8. To make i n t e l l i g e n t use o f l e i s u r e tim e *19
With th e aim of c o n s tru c tin g a u n ifo rm tw o-year program
which w i l l meet th e needs of s tu d e n ts who do not in te n d to go
beyond the General College a s w e ll a s th o se who p rep are fo r
f u r t h e r stu d y i n th e Upper D iv is io n , seven comprehensive
co u rses a r e p ro v id ed a s the r e q u ir e d co re f o r a l l s tu d e n ts .
The seven co u rses a re: (1) "Man and t h e S o c ia l World, (2)
"Man and the P h y s ic a l W o rld ,” (3) "R eading, S p eak in g , and
W r itin g ," (4) "Man and His T h in k in g ," (One sem ester only) (5)
"G eneral M athem atics," (one sem ester o n l y ) , (6) "The H u m an itie s,"
(7) "Man and th e B io lo g ic a l ‘ World." With th e ex c ep tio n of th e
19 W. J . M ath erly , "The Program, O rg a n iz a tio n , and
Achievements of F l o r i d a 's Hew General C o lle g e ," Johnson, op.
c i t . , p. 93.
167
f o u r th and th e f i f t h , a l l the above co u rses run th ro u g h th e
whole y e a r . The f i r s t f iv e co u rses must be ta k e n d u rin g th e
f i r s t y e a r; th e o th e r two i n th e second y e a r, w ith th e r e
m aining tim e f o r e l e c t i v e s e i t h e r i n a d d i t i o n a l comprehensive
co u rse s o ffe re d i n the G-eneral C ollege or i n co u rses n e c e s
sary f o r p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r th e Upper D iv is io n . The comprehen
s iv e co u rse s norm ally meet fo u r tim es a week. P ro v is io n s f o r
i n d iv i d u a l d if f e r e n c e s a r e made i n p e r m it tin g some s tu d e n ts
to postpone the course "Man and th e P h y s ic a l World" t i l l the
second y e a r , i n a c c e p tin g th e sta n d a rd sc ie n c e co u rse s in
l i e u of comprehensive co u rses in p h y s ic a l and b i o l o g i c a l
s c ie n c e s , and i n exempting s u p e rio r s tu d e n ts from th e co u rse s
"Man and His Thinking" and "G-eneral M athem atics." Thus
rem ain th e th r e e co u rses "Man and th e S o c ia l W orld," "The
H u m an itie s," a n d A Speaking, and Y /riting" as t h e i r r e d u c i b l e
minimum which a l l s tu d e n ts in the G eneral C ollege must have.
i s f a r a s p o s s i b le , th e com prehensive co u rses a re o r
g a n ize d around p re se n t-d a y problem s. The c e n t r a l purpose i s
to h elp s tu d e n ts to a d j u s t to the changing c o n d itio n s of con
tem porary l i f e . The methods of i n s t r u c t i o n c o n s is t in la rg e
l e c t u r e s e c tio n s and sm all d is c u s s io n g ro u p s. "Man and the
S o c ia l World" is a course which t r i e s t o i n t e g r a t e the s o c ia l
s c ie n c e s through th e study of s o c i a l problems a r i s i n g from
the p re se n t-d a y environm ent. "The u n ity of th e course i s
-n .
168:
m ain ta in ed by a s t r i c t adherence to th e fundam ental id e a of
how man, m o tiv ated by in c re a s in g needs and w ants, has had
co n tin u o u sly to r e a d j u s t h i s s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n t o make more
e f f e c t u a l use of th e in c r e a s in g l y s i g n i f i c a n t n a t u r a l and
20
human re so u rc e s a t h i s command." S o c ia l, economic, and
p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n s a r e c o n sid e re d one a f t e r a n o th e r; th e
fa m ily , the economic system s, government, and "changing r e
l i g i o u s , e d u c a tio n a l, a m e o li o r a t iv e , an d r e c r e a t i o n a l i n s t i
t u t i o n s * " ^ "Only th o se m a te r ia l s from p a s t h i s t o r y a re
op
used which a i d i n th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the p r e s e n t . " T h e
s o c i a l sc ie n c e s a r e used as means to an end, not a s ends in
th em selv es; h i s t o r y , geography, econom ies, p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e ,
and so c io lo g y , as w e ll as o th e r f i e l d s of knowledge, a r e
drawn on whenever the i n s t r u c t o r s b e lie v e th a t th e s e can
a s s i s t th e s tu d e n t r e a l l y t o u n d e rsta n d th e complex s o c ia li z e d
w orld, but c o m p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n o f s o c ia l knoviledge i s i g -
, rr23
n o r e d ."
The course "Man and th e P h y s ic a l World" draws m a te r ia ls
from th e f i e l d s of p h y s ic s , ch e m istry , astronom y, geology,
- - — - - — -------
W. J . M atherly and R. S. A tw o o d ," In te g ra tio n of the
S o c ia l S cie n ces i n th e G-eneral C ollege of th e U n iv e rs ity of
F l o r i d a ," S o c ia l Ed u c a tio n 2 :2 6 -2 7 , J a n u a ry , 1938*
^ I b i d . , p. 26.
W. J . M ath erly , "Comprehensive C o u rses," J o u rn a l of
H igher E ducation 7 :1 2 5 , March, 1936.
^ M atherly and Atwood, l o c . c i t .
169
and geography and "a ttem p ts t o survey th e phenomena of th e
p h y s ic a l u n iv e rse w ith p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to man1s imme
d ia te environm ent, to show how th e s e phenomena a re i n v e s t i
g a te d , to e x p la in the more im portant p r i n c i p l e s and r e l a
t i o n s which have been found to a id i n u n d e rsta n d in g them,
and to review th e p r e s e n t s t a t u s o f man* s dependence upon
and a b i l i t y to u t i l i z e p h y s ic a l m a t e r i a l s , f o r c e s , and r e l a
tio n s •
"Reading, Speaking, and W ritin g ” i s "a course in commu
n i c a t i o n whose b a s ic aims a r e to engender i n th e stu d e n t th e
a b i l i t y to g e t meaning from the p r i n t e d page vjith more th a n
av erag e r a t e of speed, to l i s t e n i n t e l l i g e n t l y and r e s p o n s iv e
ly , to t a l k e f f e c t i v e l y to a group, to w r i te c l e a r l y and
p s
a c c u r a t e l y , and to enjoy good w r i t i n g ." ^ The course m eets
f iv e hours a week: one hour i n l e c t u r e s e c tio n s , two in d i s
c u s sio n g ro u p s, and two i n th e v/riting L ab o rato ry . An i n
t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e of the co u rse i s th e W ritin g L ab o rato ry ,
which employs f l e x i b l e methods o f in d iv id u a l i n s t r u c t i o n .
There a r e no g e n e r a l theme assig n m e n ts, b u t "each stu d e n t
w r i te s what he has t o w r i t e , w hether t h a t be a l e t t e r to be
m a ile d , a book r e p o r t , an assignm ent f o r some other co u rse , or
som ething of a p u r e ly c r e a t i v e n atu re # Whatever th e c a s e , th e
^ W. J . MatMerly, " The Program, O rg a n iz a tio n , and
Achievements of F lo rid a * s Hew General C o lle g e ," Johnson, e d . ,
op. c i t . , p . 98#
2 5 Log. e it;
.170
i n s t r u c t o r i s p r e s e n t to se rv e as a g u id e , a c o u n s e l o r , and
a h e lp e r to enable th e s tu d e n t to overcome h is w eakness, l e t
i t be ig n o ra n c e o f fu n d am en tals or developm ent of s t y l e •
The above i l l u s t r a t i o n s give a g e n e ra l id e a ,of th e
n a tu re of the co u rse s and what they t r y t o ac co m p lish . I t i s
claim ed th a t the c o u rse s n o t only serve nto p re s e n t to th e
s tu d e n t overviews of a l l the major f i e l d s o f human a c t i v i t y , ”^
but a l s o t o a i d i n th e i n t e l l i g e n t choice of v o c a tio n or
p r o f e s s io n . Idle f u n c tio n s of th e G eneral C ollege a r e not
only to g iv e a te rm in a l g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n , not only to lay a
fo u n d a tio n f o r f u r t h e r stu d y i n the Upper D iv is io n , b u t a l s o
t o give v o c a tio n a l a n d e d u c a tio n a l guidance to th e s tu d e n t.
f? fThe m a te r ia l of th e com prehensive c o u rse s i s s e l e c t e d and
28
t e s t e d w ith guidance a s a prim ary f u n c t i o n . 1 1 C ounseling,
t e s t i n g , v o c a tio n a l co n feren ce a re a l l p a r t s of th e guidance
program. Since th e com prehensive ex am in atio n s a r e th e c r i
t e r i a o f e v a lu a tio n , q u izzes and g rade r e p o r t s g iv e n during
th e co u rses a re made f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l and guidance p u rp o ses.
D e s c rip tiv e p ro g re s s r e p o r t s , cheeked p a r t l y by th e stu d e n t
and p a r t l y by th e i n s t r u c t o r in conference w ith each o th e r ,
a re s e n t to th e p a re n t o r g u a rd ia n ; they are a form of
26 I b i d . , p. 99.
2 ^ I b i d . , p. 96.
^ B u l l e t i n of I n fo r m a tio n , 1938-1939, p. 2E7.
171
e v a lu a tio n used p r im a r ily f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l and guidance
p u rp o ses.
The comprehensive exam inations a r e i n the hands of th e
Board of U n iv e rs ity Exam iners, and d e s ig n e d t o "measure
m astery in term s of u n d e r s ta n d in g s , a p p r e c i a t i o n s , a b i l i t i e s ,
29
and s k i l l s . " .Each exam ination l a s t s s ix h o u rs , in 'tw o
s e s s io n s . A few s tu d e n ts of e x c e p tio n a l a b i l i t y a re p e r
m itte d to ta k e th e exam inations w ith o u t a tte n d in g th e c o u rse s.
Tw enty-six s tu d e n ts to o k comprehensive e x a m in a tio n s, in 1935-
1936, w ith o u t r e g u la r work i n co u rse s; of t h i s number, tw enty-
30
two were su c c e ssfu l* Exam inations f o r th e y e a r - c o u r s e s a r e
g iv e n a t . t h e end of th e y e a r; th o se f o r sem ester co u rse s a re
g iv e n a t th e end of th e se m ester.
In o r g a n iz a tio n and i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o o th e r u n i t s i n
th e u n i v e r s i t y , th e General C ollege of th e U n iv e r s ity of
F lo rid a i s not u n lik e th e C ollege of th e U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago*
H ere, to o , one f in d s t h a t th e t e s t i n g of a c t u a l a tta in m e n t
through comprehensive exam inations has s u b s t i t u t e d th e system
of c o u r s e - c r e d it re q u ire m e n ts; b u t comparing the two i n s t i t u
t i o n s , i t a p p e a rs th a t F lo rid a h a s not made such a complete
more
break a s Chicago. There i s / e f f o r t to check on c l a s s a t t e n
dance and on th e change or dropping o f courses* As f o r th e
^ M ath erly , op. c i t . , p. 97.
30 I b i d . , p. 106.
172
co u rses in th e c u rricu lu m , th e F lo r id a program seems l e s s
tT aeadem icrr i n i t s c e n t r a l em phasis a s the Chicago c o u rse s.
One fin d s i n F lo rid a a g r e a t e r e f f o r t t o fo llo w rlthe p r e s e n t-
day ap p ro ach ” and a more e x p l i c i t emphasis on guidance through
th e cu rricu lu m c o u rs e s .
3. The C ollege of L e t t e r s , A r t s , and S cie n ces
o f the U n iv e r s ity
of S outhern C a l i f o r n i a , Los A ngeles, C a lif o r n i a .
The C ollege o f L e t t e r s , A r ts , and S ciences of the
U n iv e rs ity of S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia i s a e o - e d u e a tio n a l u n d e r
g ra d u a te c o lle g e o f l i b e r a l a r t s . I t o f f e r s a f o u r-y e a r
course le a d in g to the B a c h e lo r1s degree in A rts , i n S c ie n c e ,
or i n Music; h ig h e r degrees a re awarded by th e g rad u a te
school and th e p r o f e s s io n a l s c h o o ls of the u n i v e r s i t y . A rrange
ments a r e made f o r combined degrees w ith p r o f e s s io n a l s c h o o ls ,
e . g . , d e n t i s t r y , m edicine, and law.
G raduates of a c c r e d i t e d s e n io r h ig h sc h o o ls a r e ad m it
te d by c e r t i f i c a t e , o th e rs by e x a m in a tio n s . C andidates f o r
adm ission must p r e s e n t f i f t e e n u n i t s of work, in c lu d in g th re e
u n i t s of E n g lis h , two u n i t s of a f o r e ig n language, one u n it
of U n ited S ta te s h i s t o r y and c i v i c s , one u n it of a n a t u r a l
sc ie n c e w ith la b o r a to r y , one u n i t of a lg e b r a , and one u n it of
geom etry. Uhen stu d e n ts a r e a d m itte d w ith o u t th e above
p a t t e r n o f high school p r e p a r a t io n , th e y must ta k e co u rse s to
173 ;
remove such tfe n tra n c e s u b je c t s h o r ta g e s . rl
The new p la n which i s new i n e f f e c t was adopted in
1938, The p la n o f r e o r g a n iz a tio n was th e r e s u l t of the r e c
ommendations of a f a c u l t y committee w hich had been a p p o in te d
to study th e u n d e rg r a d m te program o f the U n iv e rsity # The
committee was guided by the fo llo w in g p r i n c i p l e s i n i t s
re c ommendati on s :
1. I t i s the purpose of th e C ollege o f L e t t e r s , A rts ,
and S ciences to develop th e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l
competence of th e s tu d e n t, a s w e ll a s h i s p e r
so n a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e g r i t y .
2. The c o lle g e must p ro v id e for many h in d s o f s tu d e n ts
w ith v arying q u a lity and degree of p r e p a r a t io n .
3* Emphatic p ro v is io n should be made f o r the encourage
ment o f e x c e p tio n a l s c h o la rs h ip o r t a l e n t on the
p a r t of s tu d e n ts o f s u p e r io r endowment and commanding
purpose.
4. The program of th e f i r s t two y e a rs should seek to
round out the g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n o f th e s tu d e n t and
should i n c i d e n t a l l y in tro d u c e him to major d iv is io n s
of in te n s iv e study ( p r o f e s s io n a l or o th erw ise) th a t
may follow*
5. The t h i r d and f o u r t h y e a rs should a f f o r d o p p o rtu n ity
f o r in te n s iv e work i n broad D iv is io n s of c u l t u r a l
s ig n if ic a n c e or in more s p e c i a l i z e d D epartm ents,
ac co rd in g to th e needs and purposes o f th e s tu d e n t.
6. A ll re q u ire m e n ts sh o u ld serve a f u n c tio n a l purpose
i n th e program of th e s tu d e n t; req u irem e n ts t h a t
a re m erely h u r d le s sh o u ld not be to le r a te d # 1
The new P lan d id not abandon t h e c r e d i t system .
Courses of i n s t r u c t i o n a r e of v ary in g u n i t - v a l u e s . One
Report of t h e Committee on R e o rg a n iz a tio n of th e
C ollege of" L e t t e r s , A r t s , and S c ie n c e s , the U n iv e rs ity of
S out he rn~lTa 1 i f o r n i a . [Mime ogra plied; o b ta in a b le a t th e
o f f i c e of the Dean of the C o lle g e .)
174
hundred and tw e n ty -fo u r u n i t s a re r e q u i r e d f o r g ra d u a tio n ;
r e g u la tio n s governing ma.jor, m inor, and d i s t r i b u t i o n of
s t u d i e s a r e a ls o s t a t e d i n term s of u n i t s . The m ajor
f e a t u r e s of th e new p la n a re the dem arcatio n of a Lower D iv i
s io n and an Upper D iv is io n , a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of th e b a s ic
l i b e r a l a r t s courses i n th e Lower D iv is io n , a p ro v is io n fo r
d i v i s i o n a l a s w e ll as d e p a rtm e n ta l m ajors i n th e Upper D iv i
s io n , and an Honors Program f o r s u p e r io r s tu d e n ts .
The req u irem e n ts for th e Lower D iv is io n c o n s is t of two
u n i t s in American P o l i t i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n s (U. S. C o n s titu tio n
or American G overnm ent); two u n i t s i n a r t a p p r e c ia t io n or
music a p p r e c ia t io n ; s ix u n i t s o f E n g lis h ; tw elve -units of
f o r e ig n la n g u ag e, w ith allow ance made f o r h ig h sc h o o l ¥*ork
i n t h e lan g u ag e; f o u r u n i t s of l i t e r a t u r e (E n g lish , American ,
co m p arativ e, or B i b l i c a l ) ; a u n it of h e a l t h e d u c a tio n and
fo u r u n i t s of p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t i e s ; elev en u n i t s of s c ie n c e s ;
and f i f t e e n u n i t s i n g e n e ra l s t u d i e s .
The G eneral S tu d ie s a r e th e most im p o rta n t p a r t o f .
th e new c u rric u lu m . Four co u rse s a re o f f e r e d : a - o n e - u n it
s e m e ste r-c o u rse in " P r i n c i p l e s o f L earning,*1 an e i g h t - u n i t
y e a r course c a l l e d "Mian and C i v i l i z a t i o n , 1 * a t h r e e - u n i t
sem ester co u rse c a lle d "Problem s of Human B eh av io r," and a
t h r e e - u n i t se m e ste r-c o u rse c a l l e d "Problem s of Modern S o c ie ty ."
The f i r s t i s an o r i e n t a t i o n course aim ing to h e lp the stu d e n t
1 7 5
form p ro p er study h a b i t s such as n o t e - ta k in g , review and
exam ination te c h n iq u e s , the use o f th e L ib r a ry , etc* The
course in r T Man and C i v i l i z a t i o n ” aims Ift o o r i e n t th e s tu d e n t
to th e l i f e and th o u g h t .of th e contem porary w orld by tr a c in g
g e n e t i c a l l y the development of what we term modern c i v i l i z a -
3 2
t i o n . " The f i r s t se m ester b eg in s w ith the c u l tu r e of the
E a rly Man and th e G enesis o f C i v i l i z a t i o n i n Egypt and Mesopo
ta m ia , down to th e R enaissance and the R eform ation, The
second sem ester ta k e s up th e r i s e of c a p ita lis m , n a tio n a lis m ,
i n d u s t r i a l i s m , democracy, and th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and c u l t u r a l
achievem ents of th e 1 9 th and the EOth c e n tu ry . I n s t r u c t i o n
i s g iv e n in la rg e l e c t u r e s e c t i o n s , w ith l e c t u r e s given by
com petent s c h o la r s i n t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e f i e l d s , and in sm all
d is c u s s io n groups.
"Problems o f Human B ehavior” i s a co u rse which b r in g s
to g e th e r p e r t i n e n t p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t s d e a lin g w ith p e rs o n a l
and s o c i a l problem s. The te c h n ic a l m a t e r i a l c o n ta in e d i n a
s ta n d a rd course i n psychology i s reduced to a minimum* Problems
o f p e rs o n a l and s o c ia l b e h a v io r a r e s tu d ie d ; f o r example, th e
p s y e h o lo g ie a l b a ses of w ar, in d u s tr y , m a rria g e , e t c . are
p re s e n te d and d is c u s s e d .
"Problems, of Modern S o c ie ty ” draws m a t e r i a l from p o l i t i - -
S y llab u s f o r Man a n d C i v i l i z a t i o n (Los A ngeles:
U n iv e r s ity of S o u th ern C a lif o r n i a P r e s s , 1938), p. 5.
176
e a l s c ie n c e , economics and so c io lo g y i n th e study of th e
p o l i t i c a l , economic, and s o c i a l problems of to d a y . U n its of
th e course in c lu d e th e r e l a t i o n between the i n d iv i d u a l and
v a rio u s s o c i a l g ro u p s, such as th e fa m ily , the church, th e
sc h o o l, economic gro u p s, p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , th e s t a t e , e t c . ;
democracy v ersu s a u t h o r it a r ia n i s m a s ty p e s of o rg an iz ed group
li v i n g ; phenomena of s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ; p u b lic op in io n
and propaganda.; consumer1 s problem s; p ro p e r ty , f in a n c e , t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n ; economic and s o c ia l p la n n in g ; and problem s of 1
in te r n a l.; ( n a tio n a l) and e x t e r n a l ( i n t e r n a t i o n a l ) c o n f l i c t .
A tte n tio n i s c a l l e d to th e f a c t t h a t th e re a re no i n
te rd e p a rtm e n ta l co u rse s i n n a t u r a l or p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s .
I n s t e a d , each sc ie n c e departm ent o f f e r s a g e n e r a l course de
sig n e d to a c q u a in t th e s tu d e n t w ith th e s u b je c t m a tte r and
methods of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d . L e c tu re s a r e supplem ented
by d e m o n stra tio n -e x p e rim e n ts and, som etim es, some la b o ra to ry
work. The elev en u n i t s of sc ien ce s tu d i e s r e q u ir e d f o r g ra d
u a tio n must in c lu d e one com plete course w ith la b o r a to r y work.
L ab o rato ry sc ien c e in the t h i r d or f o u r th y e a r of h ig h school
may be a c c e p te d a s ad eq u ate f u l f i l l m e n t of the req u irem en t i n
la b o r a to r y s c ie n c e .
The sc ien c e re q u irem e n t may be met by ta k in g e i t h e r
th e g e n e ra l science co u rse s d esig n ed p r im a r ily f o r n on-m ajors,
o r th e s ta n d a rd la b o ra to ry co u rses which p rep are more d e f i n i t e -
* ly f o r f u r t h e r work i n th e s c ie n c e s . There i s , th u s »a r e c o g
177.
n i t i o n of d if f e r e n c e s i n th e needs of two groups of s tu d e n ts :
th o se who in te n d to go f u r t h e r in th e stu d y of sc ie n c e s and
th o se who do n o t.
Departm ents in th e Upper D iv is io n are grouped in t o
s ix d i v i s i o n s . A s tu d e n t may ta k e a .m a jo r e i t h e r i n a de
partm ent or i n a d i v i s i o n . A departm ent m ajor c o n s is ts of
tw e n ty -fo u r to t h i r t y u n i t s in upper d i v i s i o n c o u rse s; a
d iv is io n m ajor c o n s i s t s of e ig h te e n upper d iv is io n u n i t s i n
a departm ent and tw elve u n i t s i n r e l a t e d departm ents i n th e
d i v i s i o n . B esides a m ajor, a s tu d e n t must have a minor of
a t l e a s t tw elve u n i t s . Of the 124 -units re q u ir e d f o r g ra d
u a tio n , n o t more than f i f t e e n u n i t s of p r o f e s s io n a l o r voca
t i o n a l co u rses may be a c c e p te d .
S u p e rio r s tu d e n ts may, upon com pletion o f the work of
th e Lower D iv is io n , ap p ly f o r the Honors Program lead in g , to
the Honors Degree. Under t h i s p la n , the s tu d e n t i s f r e e d
from h a l f of the r e q u ir e d u n its o f c l a s s work f o r the ju n io r
and s e n io r y e a rs and i s giv en o p p o rtu n ity to c a rry on in d e
pendent study under th e d i r e c t i o n of a S u p e rv iso r of Study,
w ith whom he has weekly co n feren ces f o r g u id an ce. An i n t e r e s
t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s program i s t h a t th e s tu d e n t must ta k e a
J u n io r Exam ination a t th e end of the j u n i o r y e a r and a Senior
Exam ination a t th e end of th e s e n io r y e a r . A s tu d e n t i s r e c
ommended fo r f u r t h e r Honors work i n th e s e n io r y ear upon
s u c c e s s fu l p assin g of the J u n io r E xam ination. There were
f iv e honors stu d e n ts from f i v e d i f f e r e n t departm ents i n 1938-
1939. The experim ent h as proved s u c c e s s f u l , and th e Honors
Program Committee has d ecid ed to expand the program "by a d
m ittin g more s tu d e n ts in to th e experim ent.
I n some ways, th e new p la n of the College of L e t t e r s ,
A r t s , and S cie n ces of th e U n iv e r s ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n i a
has not in tro d u c e d sueh r e v o lu tio n a r y changes a s a r e found
in Chicago and F lo r i d a . There is. no sh arp "break "between the
Lower and Upper D ivision* The c o u r s e - u n it system has not
"been abandoned. The re q u ire m e n ts f o r the Lower D iv isio n
seem s c a t t e r e d and f r a c t i o n a l , w ith a 'fe w u n i t s r e q u ir e d i n
each o f s e v e r a l f i e l d s . However, t h e core of the l i b e r a l *
a r t s program i n th e Lower D iv is io n c o n s i s t s i n th e g e n e ra l
s t u d i e s , and th e fundam ental approach i n the o rg a n iz a tio n of
such co u rse s i s the same in a l l th e c o lle g e s c o n s id e re d i n
t h i s c h a p te r .
4. Goueher C o lleg e, B a ltim o r e ,M aryland.
Before summarizing th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e c u r r i c u
lum p a t t e r n r e p r e s e n te d by th e c o lle g e s i n t h i s c h a p te r , men
t i o n sh o u ld be made of th e c u rric u lu m of Goueher C o lleg e.
Goueher C ollege s t a t e s i t s re q u irem e n ts f o r d e g re e s, not in
term s of c r e d i t s or re q u ir e d c o u rs e s , b u t in term s o f p ro g re s s
179:
tow ard e i g h t o b je c ti v e s of g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n i n th e lower
d iv is io n and th e m astery o f a f i e l d i n t h e upper d iv is io n .
The e ig h t o b je c tiv e s of g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n a r e :
(1) To e s t a b l i s h and m aintain p h y s ic a l and m ental
h e a l t h ;
(E) to comprehend and communicate ideas.,; b o th in
E n g lish and i n fo re ig n languages;
(3) to u n d e rsta n d th e s c i e n t i f i c method in th e o ry and
a p p l i c a t i o n ;
(4) to u n d e rsta n d th e h e r ita g e of t h e p a s t i n i t s r e l a
t i o n to th e p r e s e n t;
(5) to e s t a b l i s h s a t i s f y i n g r e l a t i o n s w ith in d iv id u a ls
and w ith g ro u p s;
(6) to u t i l i z e re s o u rc e s w ith economic and a e s t h e t i c
s a t i s f a c t i o n ^
(7) to enjoy l i t e r a t u r e and th e o th e r a r t s ;
(8) to a p p r e c ia te r e l i g i o u s and p h ilo s o p h ic a l v a lu e s .
P ro g re ss i n the d i r e c t i o n o f th e s e o b je c tiv e s i s
t e s t e d a t th e end of the f i r s t two y e a rs of c o lle g e by tT an
exam ination on th e f a c t s and p r in c ip l e s u n d e rly in g such o f the
fo re g o in g e ig h t o b je c ti v e s a s a re s u s c e p tib le of academic
t e s t i n g . 1 1 ^4 The e v a lu a tio n program a t t h i s p e r io d of the
c o lle g e course a l s o in c lu d e ip an essay exam ination on a chosen
t o p i c , a w r i t t e n p r o j e c t in one f i e l d t e s t i n g th e a b i l i t y to
use t o o l s i n th e l i b r a r y , a re a d in g exam ination i n a f o re ig n
la n g u a g e , and a s u b je c tiv e e s tim a te o f th e s t u d e n t 1s p ro g re ss
tow ard th e e ig h t o b j e c t i v e s . S im ila r ly , in te n s iv e stu d y in th e
upper d iv is io n i s not judged i n term s o f co u rse s and c r e d i t s ,
B u l l e t i n o f G-oueher C o lleg e, Catalogue Humber , 1938-
1939, p. 9.
Loc. c i t .
180
but by- means of a comprehensive exam ination i n th e m ajor
f i e l d supplem ented by a r e c o rd of woric i n the f i e l d , and by
means of e s tim a te s of a tta in m e n t of the eig h t o b je c tiv e s *
U n f o r tu n a te ly , one does not fin d much fundam ental
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the cu rricu lu m i n harmony w ith th e se ob
j e c t i v e s . The co u rses of i n s t r u c t i o n a r e , i n th e main, of
t h e ,t r a d i t i o n a l d ep a rtm e n ta l ty p e ; o n ly , in th e p la n n in g of
each s t u d e n t 's program, e f f o r t i s made to s e l e c t the s tu d ie s
w ith th e o b je c tiv e s i n mind.
5. Summary an d Comments
The cu rricu lu m p a t t e r n r e p r e s e n te d by th e re o rg a n iz e d
p la n s d e s c rib e d in t h i s c h a p te r has many f e a t u r e s which were
a lre a d y n o te d in p rev io u s c h a p te r s . The'new p la n s have i n
c o rp o ra te d such in n o v a tio n s as th e dem arcation o f th e lower
y e a rs fo r g e n e r a l ed u catio n and th e upper y e a rs fo r in te n s iv e
stu d y , th e use of independent stu d y m ethods, the s u b s t i t u t i o n
of th e d em o n stratio n of a c t u a l a tta in m e n t through comprehensive
exam inations fo r th e mere accum ulation of c r e d i t s and th e
p a ssin g of d i s c r e t e c o u rs e s , th e d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n of
d ep a rtm en ts, and th e o r g a n iz a tio n of broad in te rd e p a r tm e n ta l
c o u rse s. Hot only have th e s e v a rio u s in n o v a tio n s been i n c o r
p o ra te d i n t o one s in g le scheme, b u t the concept of g en e ra l
e d u c a tio n has been c l a r i f i e d i n terms o f b ro a d f i e l d s of
knowledge or human a c t i v i t y and th e c u rric u lu m of th e lower
y e a rs h as been r e c o n s tr u c te d to p ro v id e fo r a core of broad
"comprehensive*1 g e n e ra l courses to a c q u a in t s tu d e n ts w ith
th e s e f ie ld s # I n p la ce of the o r i g i n a l l i b e r a l a r t s , the •
cu rricu lu m seeks t o develop i n t e l l i g e n t u n d e rsta n d in g of con
tem porary environment and cu ltu re *
The main doubt about t h i s c u rric u lu m p a t t e r n a r i s e s
from th e method by which the c o n te n t of th e co u rse s i s s e l e c
te d and o rg a n iz e d . In b o th the d e te rm in a tio n of the f i e l d s
o f knowledge and the s e l e c t i o n of course c o n te n t co rresp o n d
ing to th e s e f i e l d s , th e c o lle g e s d e s c rib e d i n t h i s c h a p te r
have r e l i e d upon th e judgment of th e f a c u l t y . The f i e l d s
which c o n s t i t u t e the scope of th e Chicago cu rricu lu m were ob
v io u sly in f lu e n c e d by the d i v i s i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n of the upper
y e a r s . A fte r such an a r b i t r a r y d e te rm in a tio n of the f i e l d s
was made, cu rricu lu m c o n s tru c tio n was made "w ith the e a rn e st
and e f f e c t i v e c o o p e ra tio n o f our b e s t s p e c i a l i s t s , working in
l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d g r o u p s , i n an e f f o r t to s e l e c t ju d ic io u s ly
a n d - to s y n th e s iz e m eaningfully th e most s i g n i f i c a n t knowledge
and methods of work in th e v a r io u s s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d s of
th o u g h t." 25 The l i m i t a t i o n s o f r e ly in g on the s u b je c tiv e
25 C. S. Boucher, "C urriculum P r o v is io n for the I n d i v i
dual i n th e U n iv e rs ity of Chicago," W. S. G-ray, e d . , P ro v is io n
f o r the I n d iv id u a l i n C ollege E d u c a tio n . P roceedings o f th e
I n s t i t u t e fo r A d m in is tra tiv e O ffie e r s of H igher I n s t i t u t i o n s ,
(Chicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago P r e s s , 19 32), 4 :1 0 4 .
judgment of subject-matter specialists are suggested in the
fo llo w in g remarks by a member of th e Chicago f a c u l ty who was
one of th e s p e c i a l i s t s c o o p e ra tin g in th e t a s k of cu rricu lu m
c o n s tr u c tio n f o r - t h e new C o lle g e .
A fte r months o f f e v e r is h d eb ate t h i s w in te r , our f a c u l ty
decided to adopt th e "Hew Chicago P la n ," a plan which
i s to p rovide " g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n " d u rin g Freshman and
Sophomore y e a r s . The n ex t ste p was to decide what
" g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n 1 1 i s . To f a c i l i t a t e t h i s d e c is io n ,
" g e n e ra l ed u catio n " was d iv id e d in t o fo u r main com
p o n e n ts. A team of s o - c a lle d e x p e rts was th e n
a s s ig n e d to each of th e se components. Today you are
to h e a r from each of th e s e fo u r team s. By s y n th e s iz in g
a l l fo u r r e p o r t s in y o u r own minds you may be su c c e s s
f u l i n d isc o v e rin g what a " g e n e ra l ed u catio n " i s . I f
you a r e s u c c e s s f u l, p le a s e t e l l u s , sin c e we are
an xious to l e a r n .
I speak f o r th e team which has been made r e s p o n s ib le
f o r th e b io lo g y component. There i s an obvious d i s
advantage i n t h i s a rra n g e m e n t: th e b i o l o g i s t l i v e s
so clo se to h is own domain th a t he sees the t r e e s
more c l e a r l y th a n the f o r e s t . Perhaps i t would be
w ise r f o r some n o n - b i o l o g i s t , who h as th e advantage
of g r e a t e r p e r s p e c tiv e , to decide what b io lo g y
should a tte m p t to c o n trib u te to g e n e ra l e d u c atio n .
Since t h a t was n o t the a rra n g e m e n t, however, a l l
th a t we can provide you a r e th e myopic views of
the b i o l o g i s t s th e m s e lv e s .3®
A lthough th e s p e c i a l i s t s t r y to keep i n mind th e ob
j e c t i v e s of g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n , y e t every one h as a d i f f e r e n t
id e a of what cu rricu lu m co n ten t g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n would r e q u i r e .
In th e absence of o b je c tiv e s ta n d a rd s t o serv e a s g u id e , and
r?fL
^ M. G. C o u lte r, "P lans f o r th e Biology General Course
a t the U n iv e rs ity of C hicago," W. S. Gray, e d . , Recent Trends
i n American C ollege E d u ca tio n . ..Proceedings o f the I n s t i t u t e
f o r A d m in is tra tiv e O ffic e rs o f Higher I n s t i t u t i o n s (Chicago:
U n iv e rs ity of Chicago P r e s s , 1931), 3 :6 1 .
183
l im ite d by t h e i r own p a s t t r a i n i n g and g e n e ra l p e r s p e c t i v e 9
th e d ep artm en tal r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s to o o f te n a r e moved by the
d e s i r e , unconscious though i t may be, t o g e t as much as
p o s s ib le of t h e i r d ep a rtm en ta l content in to th e g e n e r a l
courses* The r e s u l t i n g g e n e ra l co u rse th u s becomes a com
prom ise between the r i v a l demands of s p e c i a l i s t s .
CHAPTER V I II
CURRICUIiUM IH TERMS OF FUNCTIONS OF LIVI1IG-:
THE SURVEY - OF -21EEDS APPROACH
F e e lin g th e need of o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a f o r the
s e l e c t i o n o f th e a re a s of knoviledge w hich should form th e
m ajor t r u n k - l i n e s o f the cu rricu lu m and f o r th e s e l e c t i o n
o f a p p r o p r ia te c o n te n t f o r each of th e a r e a s , some c o lle g e s
have adopted th e method o f su rv ey in g stu d e n t and s o c i a l needs
as the means of se c u rin g d a ta to. he used a s .the b a s is o f c u r r i
culum c o n s tr u c tio n . The id e a of fin d in g out th e needs of
p re s e n t-d a y s o c ie ty i s not new. I t has been th e b a s is of
cu rricu lu m approach i n a number of low er sch o o ls and voca
t i o n a l s c h o o ls. I t i s p r e s e n t, to o , i n such p la n s o f co o p era
t i v e e d u c a tio n a s t h a t of A n tio ch C o lle g e , whereby s tu d e n ts
a r e s e n t out t o b u sin e ss and in d u s try to le a r n s o c i a l and
economic f a c t s through d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n and f i r s t - h a n d
c o n ta c ts . A ntioch C ollege d id n o t, however, t r y to make use
of s o c ia l needs as a b a s is f o r th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of i t s
academic program. From th e s ta n d p o in t of th e c u rricu lu m
p a t t e r n , t h e r e f o r e , t h e ”E xtram ural S chool” o f A ntioch C ollege
i s only an a d m in is t r a tiv e p ro v is io n f o r d i r e c t c o n ta c ts w ith
so c ial-ec o n o m ic l i f e , w ith o u t in v o lv in g i n any d i r e c t way
a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of th e academic program. The o r g a n iz a tio n
o f co u rses of i n s t r u c t i o n , th e a d o p tio n of th e "autonomous
185.
p l a n , 1 1 and th e use of comprehensive ex am in atio n s would p la c e
A ntioch, as f a r a s th e p r e s e n t study i s concerned, w ith th e
c o lle g e s c o n sid e re d i n C hapter IV*
This c h a p te r w i l l d e s c rib e two c o lle g e s which a tte m p t
to determ ine the scope and th e co n ten t of th e cu rricu lu m by
d is c o v e rin g th e a c t u a l needs of l i f e th ro u g h the survey of
a c t i v i t i e s and problem s.
1* The G eneral C ollege of the U n iv e rs ity
of M innesota, M in n eap o lis, M innesota.
The G eneral C ollege of th e U n iv e rs ity of M innesota was
o rg an ized i n 193B in th e endeavor o f s t a r t i n g a new e d u c a tio n
a l program t o meet th e needs of a r a p id ly in c r e a s in g stu d e n t
p o p u la tio n which th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e co u ld n o t f u l l y
s e rv e . The so c ial-ec o n o m ic changes which became so marked
a f t e r th e d e p re s s io n produced new-youth problem s which engaged
th e concern of many th in k in g people i n th e c o u n try . I t was
e s tim a te d th a t th e re were "more th a n f i f t e e n m il lio n s of young
people between s ix t e e n and tw e n ty -fiv e who were n e i t h e r em-
1
ployed n o r i n s c h o o l." High s tu d e n t m o r t a l i t y , e s tim a te d
^ 11* S. MaeLean, "The G eneral C o lleg e: the U n iv e rs ity of
M innesota," W . S. Gray , ed. ,- G eneral E d u c a tio n , I t s H a tu re ,
Scope, and E s s e n t i a l E lem en ts. P ro ceed in g s of the I n s t i t u t e
f o r A d m in is tra tiv e O ff ic e r s o f Higher I n s t i t u t i o n s (Chicago:
U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago P r e s s , 1934), 6:119*
186
to be f i f t y p er cen t f o r th e f i r s t two y e a rs a t th e U n iv e rs ity
of M innesota, fo rc e d th e c o lle g e s to examine t h e i r program
c r i t i c a l l y . Even th o se who were found f i t f o r th e t r a d i
t i o n a l c o lle g e program were found to be f!a ra c e of ig n o ra n t
and s o c i a l s p e c i a l i s t s . " Facing th e c h a lle n g e of such a
s i t u a t i o n , th e U n iv e rs ity of M innesota launched th e G eneral
C o lleg e , f o r th e fo llo w in g d e f i n i t e purposes:
One, t o provide an o p p o rtu n ity for the study of the
i n d iv i d u a l a b i l i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s , and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s
of a very co n s id e ra b le number of young people whose
needs were not being met elsew here i n th e U n iv e rs ity
and second, t o experim ent w ith a new program o f
i n s t r u c t i o n , a program which in v o lv e s th e revam ping,
r e o r g a n is i n g , and r e - e v a l u a t i n g o f m a t e r i a l s of i n
s t r u c t i o n w ith a view to f a m i l i a r i z i n g stu d e n ts more
w ith the w orld i n which they a r e to l iv e and which
uses te c h n iq u e s of i n s t r u c t i o n which have n o t been
reg a rd e d a s p e d a g o g ie a lly r e s p e c ta b le i n many c o lle g e s
and u n i v e r s i t i e s . 3
The cu rricu lu m of th e G eneral C ollege i s guided by th e
broad o b je c tiv e of p ro v id in g a l i b e r a l or g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n
which w i l l h elp s tu d e n ts to be " a t home and a t ease i n th e
wide v a r i e t y of environm ents and hpr&an c o n ta c ts i n which th e
4
contem porary American a d u l t must l i v e . ” The i n s t r u c t i o n and
guidance program of th e c o lle g e i s d esig n ed
2 I ^ i d * > P* 1 2 1 .
® L. D. Coffman, quoted by M. S. MaeLean in T h irty -E ig h th
Yearbook of X T . S. S. E . , P a r t I I (B loom ington, I l l i n o i s : P u b lic
School PuBTishing 'Company, 1939) , p. 139-140.
4 M. S. MacLean, "G eneral C ollege Courses a t th e U n iv e r s i
ty of M innesota, "B. L. Johnson, e d . , What about Survey Courses?
(Hew York: Henry H olt & Co., 1937), p. 152.
187
to make young people a t home i n t h e i r complex modern
w orld r a t h e r th a n to g iv e them an a n a l y t i c a l , m inute,
and com plete p i c t u r e o f the i n t r i c a c i e s of one phase
of i t ; to give them th e chance to make them selves
supple and a d a p ta b le to change r a t h e r th a n r i g i d l y
p rep a re d f o r a s in g le o cc u p atio n ; t o e n la rg e t h e i r
v i s i o n to see th e w holeness of human l i f e in s t e a d
of le ad in g them deep i n t o m icroscopy, and to l e t
them a c q u ire a sense of v a lu e s i n th e many phases
of a d u l t l i v i n g o u ts id e th e s t r i c t l y v o ca tio n a l*
So th e C ollege s e t out a t th e b eginning of i t s e x i s
te n ce to o rg an ize "over-view c o u rs e s ” to g iv e "a com prehensive,
0
r e a l i s t i c , v iv id p i c t u r e of th e modern w o r l d .” The co u rses
were n a t u r a l l y q u ite d i f f e r e n t from th e t r a d i t i o n a l departm en
t a l c o u rs e s . E f f o r t was made to o rg an ize th e co u rse s around
problems which th e s tu d e n ts would c o n fro n t i n t h e i r d a ily
l i v i n g , "w hether they be on th e job, i n th e home, a t l e i s u r e ,
7
or in th e s o c i a l g r o u p .” The mere names of th e co u rses give
some id e a of th e d e p a rtu re made from th e t r a d i t i o n a l type of
co u rse s: f o r example, "How To S tu d y ," "B asic W ealth," "Human
B io lo g y ," " E a rth and Man," "C u rren t Magazine R eading," e t c .
E ig h te en such co u rse s were o rg a n ise d in 1932-33, th e f i r s t
y e a r of th e e x is te n c e o f th e C o lleg e ; no a tte m p t was made to
group them i n to d epartm ents, s in c e every one of th e co u rse s
cut a c ro s s a number of d e p a rtm e n ts. L a te r , th e co u rses were
5 MacLean, i n Gray, ojd. c i t ., p. 120.
^ ^ke B u l l e t i n of th e U n iv e rs ity o f M innesota: General
C ollege of IThe U n i v e r s i t y , 193^T ^39 (Minneapo 1 i s : U n iv e r s ity
o f M innesota, August', 19$8) , p. 9.
^ W. S. M acL ean,"O rganization of th e G eneral C o lle g e ,"
The S f f e c t i v e G eheral C ollege Curriculum As Re v e a le d by Examina
tio n s (M inneapolis: U n iv e rs ity o f M innesota P r e s s , 1937),' p. 1§\
1 8 8
in c re a s e d to tw e n ty -fiv e and grouped i n nine a r e a s : e u th e n ic s ,
^psychology, h i s t o r y and governm ent, c u r r e n t a f f a i r s , economics,
E n g lis h , the p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s , th e "b io lo g ical s c ie n c e s , and
the f i n e a r t s . The f i e l d o f S o c ia l Problems was added i n 1935-
8
1936, making a t o t a l of te n a r e a s .
In i t s fundam ental approach, t h i s f i r s t cu rricu lu m of
th e General C ollege m s ■ not so very d i f f e r e n t from th e p a t t e r n
d is c u s s e d i n th e p rev io u s c h a p te r. The a re a s of l i v i n g were
9
determ ined IT by l o g i c , ” th e co n te n t of the co u rse s was chosen
and o rg an ized on th e b a s is of th e b e s t Judgment of th e f a c u l ty
i n re g a rd to what they c o n sid e re d to be the c r u c i a l problems
and needs of g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n . T ru e , the co u rses were very
d i f f e r e n t from th o s e o f fe re d in Chicago, F lo r i d a , and S outhern
C a lif o r n ia ; they were l e s s trammeled by d e p a rtm e n ta l t r a d i t i o n s
and were o rg an iz ed w ith a more e x p l i c i t emphasis on th e contem
porary problems which c o n fro n t th e i n t e l l i g e n t man of the
p re s e n t day. The fundam ental method of c u rric u lu m c o n s tru c
t i o n was, n e v e r t h e le s s , t h a t of th e best-Judgm ent approach.
With th e lau n ch in g o f s tu d ie s of a d o le s c e n ts i n c o lle g e
and alumni i n a c t i v e c a r e e r s , made p o s s ib le by a g ra n t o f th e
General E ducation Board i n ±9&§f c u rric u lu m development a t the
G eneral C ollege took a new t u r n . The s t u d i e s were expected
8 I M d . , p. 29.
9 MacLean, i n Johnson ed. , op. c i t . , p. 153.
to "bring to l i g h t im p o rta n t d a ta on th e n a tu re of the
s tu d e n ts and the n a tu re of th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s they would
he l i k e l y t o meet a f t e r c o lle g e , su c h ^ d ata to he used a s
im p o rta n t g u id es i n th e r e v i s i o n of th e c u rricu lu m . I n s te a d
of r e l y i n g on th e s u b je c tiv e judgment of th e f a c u l t y , the
G eneral C ollege undertook to survey th e needs of s tu d e n ts
and of s o c ie ty a s a f i r s t b a s ic ste p i n cu rricu lu m c o n s tru c
t i o n .
r fhe f i r s t stu d y was made of the c o lle g e p o p u la tio n
^y means of ”an a n a ly s is o f th e problem s, c a p a c i t i e s , i n
t e r e s t s , n e e d s, a t t i t u d e s and backgrounds o f each s tu d e n t,
by use of e x i s t i n g or new ly-developed te c h n ic s o f a n a l y s i s . !7*^
I t s purposes were e x p la in e d by D ir e c to r MacLean a s fo llo w s:
I f g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n i s to a t t a i n L itsJ end, i t must
o p erate on th e h y p o th e s is , n o t th a t 1 1 te a c h e r knows
b e s t , 5 1 but th a t we can not know what to te a c h , how
to te a c h , or when to te a c h u n t i l we know whom we a re
teaching* W e must te a c h p e o p le , n o t s u b je c t m a tte r.
T h e re fo re , a f t e r th r e e y e a rs of p re lim in a ry e x p lo ra
t i o n of s tu d e n ts and stu d e n t problem s, th e G eneral
C ollege i n 1935 launched a thorough study of i t s
s tu d e n ts . Since they a re in th e l a t e a d o le s c e n t
p e rio d ap p ro ach in g ad u lth o o d we have c a l l e d t h i s th e
A dolescent Study. We ex p lo red them in o rd er to know
them as they a r e i n t h e i r p e rs o n a l l i v e s , in t h e i r
f a m i l i e s , and i n t h e i r w ider s o c ia l and job r e l a t i o n
s h ip s , and th e im pacts of th e se upon them. W e search ed
out and a r e a tte m p tin g to i d e n t i f y t h e i r s k i l l s , a b i l i
t i e s , i n t e r e s t s , a t t i t u d e s , problem s, a c t i v i t i e s and
needs i n a l l of th e se modes of l i f e . H
10 U n iv e rs ity o f M innesota, The G eneral College P erso n n el
R esearch S tu d ie s (M inneapolis: U n iv e rs ity of M innesota, 1938},
B* 3*
I b i d . , Foreword.
1 9 0
A s t a t i s t i c a l survey was made o f more th a n 1300
s tu d e n ts i n th e freshman and sophomore y e a r s i n the c o lle g e .
S ev en ty -six item s o f in fo rm a tio n ab o u t t h i s group have been
a n a ly ze d and summarized, g iv in g a com posite p i c t u r e of the
fam ily and so cial-eco n o m ic backgrounds of th e s tu d e n ts , t h e i r
problems of m aladjustm ent, t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and achievem ents,
t h e i r i n t e r e s t s and m o tiv a tio n . To v a l i d a t e the g e n e ra l
f in d in g s , one hundred c a se s out o f th e 1300 were chosen f o r
a more e x h a u stiv e stu d y . E f f o r t was made to s e l e c t 100
s tu d e n ts , w ith f i f t y of each sex, who co u ld r e p r e s e n t the
whole range of th e 1300 eases covered i n th e i n i t i a l su rv ey .
”I n a l l , th e s tu d e n t, h i s p a r e n t s , and v a rio u s o th e rs of
h i s community and s o c i a l group who have c o n ta c t w ith him have
been s u b je c te d to more th a n one hundred pages of q u e s tio n n a ire -
in te rv ie w s , each case r e q u ir in g from a minimum of f i f t e e n to a
maximum of t h i r t y - f i v e hours of a s k i l l e d r e s e a r c h w o rk e r’s
IE
tim e*” V aluable in fo rm a tio n has been o b ta in e d wlaich i s
bein g in c o rp o ra te d in to th e guidance and p e rso n n e l as w e ll a s
th e c u r r i c u l a r program o f the c o lle g e .
fhe study of th e s tu d e n ts in c o lle g e does n o t, however,
y i e l d a l l th e d a ta needed f o r guide i n cu rricu lu m c o n s tr u c tio n .
^ W . S. MacLean and o th e r s , nThe General C o lle g e s ,”
T h irty -E ig h th Yearbook of IT. S. E . , P a r t I I , p. 144*
191
Says MacLean:
While the needs of stu d e n ts a s th e y are i n c o lle g e a r e
v i t a l ones and th e school has a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o serve
th e s e n eed s, n e v e r th e le s s any e d u c a tio n a l program worth
i t s s a l t must, i f i t i s t o have v i t a l i t y and meaning,
know a l s o and f o re s e e th e problem s, a c t i v i t i e s , and
a t t i t u d e s of th e s e s tu d e n ts as they e n te r upon and
co n tin u e i n t h e i r a d u l t l i f e . E d u catio n , we assum e,
cannot be only a p ro c e s s of p r e p a r a t io n f o r the f u t u r e .
I t must in c lu d e b o th i n c a r e f u l b a la n c e . T h e re fo re , in
o rd e r to u n d e rsta n d th e f u tu r e p e rs o n a l and s o c i a l a c
t i v i t i e s and problems of th e young a d u l t s most l i k e the
p erso n s our s tu d e n ts w i l l become, we s e t out t o f i n d
and t o study such a group of young a d u l ts .- 1 -3
The A dult Study was fo rm a lly launched i n th e f a l l of
1936; i t i s being com pleted i n th e p r e s e n t academic y e a r .
The o r i g i n a l sample in c lu d e d 1600 p ersons who e n te r e d th e
U n iv e r s ity as freshmen i n 1924, 19£5, 1928 and 1929. The
sexes were evenly repinesented; th ey were e n r o lle d i n fo u r
d i f f e r e n t c o lle g e s of th e U n iv e r s ity . The ages ranged from
tw e n ty -th re e to f o r t y - e i g h t , w ith th e median around t h i r t y -
one. S ix ty per cen t had not com pleted th e c o lle g e co u rse . I t
i s e s tim a te d th a t 1400 of th e group a c t u a l l y r e c e iv e d th e
f ifty - tw o - p a g e q u e s tio n n a ire s e n t out from th e U n iv e r s ity .
Seventy p e rc e n t of th e se were r e tu r n e d , p ro p e rly f i l l e d o u t.
F ollow ing th e method used i n th e f i r s t stu d y , a check v/as made
of th e g e n e ra l f in d in g s by choosing a sm all r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
group f o r in te rv ie w s and c l o s e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . - Two hundred
ca ses were s e le c te d among th o se l i v i n g in M inneapolis and S t.
P a u l, on th e b a s is of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam pling; a n in e te e n page
in te rv ie w schedule was used i n p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s w ith i n d i v i -
Loc. c i t .
1 9 2
duals in t h i s group.
The su rv ey s have been com pleted, b u t th e ta s k of i n
t e r p r e t i n g the survey d a ta and embodying them i n a program
of cu rric u lu m r e v i s i o n i s j u s t i n i t s b eg in n in g . So f a r ,
th e most im p o rta n t ste p has been th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of four
a r e a s of m ajor needs and the o r g a n iz a tio n of core courses
d e a lin g w ith th e problems w ith in th e s e fo u r areas* These
fo u r a r e a s of b a s ic needs a r e : v o c a tio n a l o r i e n t a t i o n , home
and f a m i l y - l i f e o r i e n t a t i o n , s o c ia l and c i v i c o r i e n t a t i o n •and
p e rs o n a l l i f e o r i e n t a t i o n . For each a r e a i s o rg an ised a two-
hour core course (or one out of two a l t e r n a t i v e s , i n th e case
of th e s o c i a l - c i v i c o r i e n t a t i o n area ) ru nning th rough the
y e a r . The core course i n v o c a tio n a l o r i e n t a t i o n d e a ls w ith
th e c o n d itio n s and req u irem en ts o f v a r io u s o cc u p atio n s as a
b a s is f o r i n t e l l i g e n t choice of an o c c u p a tio n ; i t seeks to
ftbroaden th e s t u d e n t 1 s' o u tlo o k , to in c re a s e h i s under sta n d in g
of the whole w orld of work, and to h e lp him r e a l i z e and a p p re
c i a t e f u l l y th e in te rd e p en d e n c e of a l l w orkers and the ¥;orth-
w h ilen ess and d ig n it y of a l l s o c i a l l y u s e f u l o ccu p atio n s w hether
they be p r o f e s s io n a l or n o n p ro fe s s io n a l i n n a t u r e . ” ^ The core
course i n home and fam ily l i f e d e a ls w ith $he home as an i n s t i
t u t i o n in s o c i e t y , the m aintenance a s p e c ts of fam ily l i f e , and
human r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n th e fa m ily . The course i n in d iv i d u a l
B u l l e t i n of the G-eneral C o lle g e , 1938-1939, p. 33
o r i e n t a t i o n d e a ls w ith th e g e n e ra l to p ic o f p e r s o n a l i t y and
p e r s o n a l i t y development a n d 'w ith such problem s of p e rs o n a l
l i f e as l e i s u r e and r e c r e a t i o n , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith
o t h e r s , r e l i g i o n , m o rals, philosophy of l i f e , e t c . For th e
s o c i a l - c i v i c o r i e n t a t i o n a r e a , tw o -y ear co u rse s a re p ro v id ed :
"C u rren t H is to ry " and "Contemporary S o c ie ty ." The form er
s t u d i e s th e f o r e ig n , g o v ern m e n tal, p o l i t i c a l , economic, s o c i a l
and o th e r ty p e s of news of th e p r e s e n t day and a tte m p ts to i n
t e r p r e t them i n the l i g h t o f th e p ast* The l a t t e r co u rse
d e a ls w ith th e c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f to d a y ,
b u s in e s s and economic t h e o r i e s , and forms o f government and
n a tio n a lis m .
The major req u irem e n t f o r t h e d egree of A s s o c ia te i n
A r ts , awarded on th e com pletion o f work i n th e General C o lleg e ,
i s th e p a s s in g of s ix com prehensive ex am in atio n s. Four o f
th e s e a r e r e q u ir e d ; th e y co rresp o n d to^ th e fo u r o r i e n t a t i o n
a r e a s ju s t d e s c rib e d , which now c o n s t i t u t e th e core o f th e
c u rric u lu m . The o th e r a r e a s a re e l e c t i v e , to be chosen from
the s ix s u b je c t- m a tte r a r e a s under which s tu d ie s a r e now grouped
v i z . , e u th e n ie s s t u d i e s , g e n e ra l a r t s s t u d i e s , human d e v e lo p
ment s t u d i e s , l i t e r a t u r e , speech, and w r i t i n g s t u d i e s , p h y s ic a l
sc ien c e s t u d i e s , and s o c i a l s c ie n c e s t u d i e s , norm ally a
s tu d e n t should ta k e co u rse s t o th e amount o f tw elve t o e ig h te e n '
h ours i n o rd e r to p re p a re h im s e lf a d e q u a te ly f o r the examina
t i o n i n any one a r e a . I n th e core a r e a s m entioned above, each
194
s tu d e n t I s expected to ta k e the core co u rse s ( s ix hours) p lu s
s ix or n in e or even more hours o f e l e c t i v e s c o n tr ib u tin g to
th e o r i e n t a t i o n i n each f ie ld * A program i s worked out f o r
each s tu d e n t, by c o n s u l t a t i o n between s tu d e n t and a d v i s e r ,
to meet h is needs and i n t e r e s t s * A co u rse which i s con
s id e re d v a lu a b le to one s tu d e n t in a c e r t a i n a r e a may not be
of v a lu e to an o th er stu d e n t in th a t f ie ld * The normal p e rio d
o f study i n the General C ollege i s two y e a r s , and th e s tu d e n t
ta k e s th re e exam inations a t the end of .each year* The c a t a
logue makes th e fo llo w in g emphatic sta te m e n t:
The General C ollege r e q u ir e s no fo rm al time or a t t e n
dance a s a b a s i s fo r th e se exam inations b u t stu d e n ts
who wish to ta k e a comprehensive i n any a r e a w ith o u t
f i r s t com pleting a s u i t a b l e group o f G eneral C ollege
co u rse s in t h a t a r e a must o b ta in co n sen t from t h e i r
program a d v is e r o r one of the c o u n s e lo r s * X ~ stu d en t1 s
course work and h i s o th e r e x p e rie n c e s i n and out of ~
school w i l l be c o n sid e re d i n judging w hether or noTT
h i s p r e p a r a tio n has been adequa t e*T5
The p r e p a r a tio n o f q u e s tio n s ' an d item s f o r th e examina
t i o n s i s a ta s k which in v o lv e s much t e c h n i c a l r e s e a r c h as
w e ll as c lo se co o p eratio n ' between th e i n s t r u c t o r s and members
of th e exam ining s t a f f over a long p e rio d o f tim e. The con
s t r u c t i o n of the ex am inations in v o lv e s , among o th er th in g s ,
c a r e f u l fo rm u la tio n of o b je c ti v e s , th e d e v isin g of T ,t e s t
I b i d . , p. 19*
195
item s c a l l i n g f o r s tu d e n t resp o n se s t o measure each o b je c ti v e ,
and the e v a lu a tio n of th e t e s t item s i n th e l i g h t o f th e ob
j e c t i v e s . Comprehensive exam inations are scheduled a t th e
c lo s e of the s p rin g q u a r te r . Each ex am in atio n l a s t s s ix
h o u rs: th re e hours i n th e morning and th re e i n th e a f t e r
noon.
B e lie v in g t h a t th e e f f e c t i v e c o lle g e cu rricu lu m i s
not what i s o f f e r e d to s tu d e n ts in co u rses of i n s t r u c t i o n
b u t " th e p a t t e r n of th e s t u d e n t ’ s mind as i t i s a l t e r e d by
17
c o n ta c t w ith ” th e program of the c o lle g e , th e General
College h as from i t s beginning l a i d g r e a t s t r e s s on th e im
p o rta n c e of e v a lu a tio n of changes which have been produced
i n the s tu d e n ts . I n te n s i v e r e s e a r c h has been d ir e c te d toward
th e d e v is ir g of exam ination methods " to t e s t a s tu d e n t f o r
something more th a n h i s a c q u i s i t i o n of d etach ed item s of
* 1 o
in fo rm a tio n " and aim ing " to measure a s t u d e n t ’ s power to
g e n e r a l i z e , to apply p r i n c i p l e s t o n o v e l s i t u a t i o n s , t o so lv e
problem s, to re n d e r judgment, to d is c o v e r p r i n c i p l e s i m p l i c i t
^ A. C. E urich and P. 0. Johnson, "The E xperim ental
Exam ination Program i n the G eneral C o lle g e ," The E f f e c tiv e
G eneral C ollege C urriculum (M inneapolis: U n iv e r s ity of
M innesota P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 7 } , p. 32.
M. E. H aggerty, "The E f f e c tiv e C ollege C urriculum ,"
I b i d . , p. 9 -1 0 .
i t 16
18 I b i d . , p. 7.
i n d a ta , and t o sane e x te n t to d e s c rib e a t t i t u d e s and changes
in a t t i t u d e s induced by i n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s i s , of co u rse ,
no easy t a s k . T e s tin g the fu n c tio n in g and a p p l i c a t i o n of
knowledge i s more d i f f i c u l t th a t th e t e s t i n g of o rg an ized
knowledge a s such; when i t comes to the e v a lu a tio n of changes
in a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r, th e d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e n a tu ra l l y
even g r e a t e r .
There a r e a t p re se n t a c tu a lly two phases of the
e v a lu a tio n program a t th e General C o lleg e . One p a r t of the
program se rv e s th e a d m in is t r a tiv e purpose of e n fo rc in g g ra d
u a tio n re q u ire m e n ts; i t m easures, so f a r , only th e na s te r y of
know ledge, and, t o some e x te n t, the a b i l i t y to use knowledge
i n novel s i t u a t i o n s . The o th e r p a r t of th e program i s an
i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e p ro c e s s o f c u rric u lu m development and
c u rricu lu m r e v i s i o n . Much o f i t is s t i l l i n the exp erim en tal
s ta g e . E f f o r t i s made to d is c o v e r th e e x t e n t of behavior
changes and changes in a t t i t u d e s and 1 1 s o c i a l co n sc ie n ce ”
by means of such methods a s beh av io r jo u r n a ls and a n e c d o ta l
r e c o r d s . This p a r t of th e e v a lu a tio n program , n e e d le s s to say,
i s a ls o in tim a te ly t i e d up w ith th e c o u n selin g and guidance
program.
During the p r e s e n t y e a r , when th e core cu rric u lu m of
197
th e fo u r b a s ic a re a s i s j u s t being in tr o d u c e d , an e la b o r a te
e v a lu a tio n program has been in a u g u ra te d t o determ ine th e
su c cess of the core c o u rse s i n th e a tta in m e n t of t h e i r ob
j e c t i v e s .
The concept o f g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n which i s fundam ental
to th e program of th e G eneral C ollege c a l l s f o r much a t t e n
t i o n to th e guidance program. T fI t i s th e b u sin e ss o f the
U n iv e rs ity and of th e G eneral C ollege to h e lp s tu d e n ts to
u n d erstan d th em selv es, to h e lp them f i n d out what g o als f o r
20
them a r e a c h ie v a b le , and to put them on t h e i r w ay.rt
Guidance i s c a r r i e d on b oth in th e co u rse s of i n s t r u c t i o n and
th ro u g h th e medium o f th e co u n se lin g and p e rso n n e l program
c o o rd in a tin g th e s e r v ic e s o f such ag e n c ie s as th e U n iv e rs ity
H e a lth S e rv ic e , th e U n iv e rs ity T est Bureau, th e Employment
Bureau, th e Speech C l i n i c , and th e a d v is o ry f u n c tio n s o f
c o u n s e lo rs .
One does not need to go very f a r in th e study of th e
G eneral C ollege program to be im pressed w ith i t s dynamic
n atu re* Having th e advantage of s t a r t i n g a s a new i n s t i t u
t i o n , th e General C ollege i s not w eighted down by o ld m achinery
which cannot be e a s i l y d isc a rd e d ; t h e r e i s , h e r e , no problem
of g ra d u a l s h i f t i n g from a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d old program to a
20 B u l l e t i n of th e G eneral C o lle g e , 1938-1939, p. 9.
198
newly in tro d u c e d re o rg a n iz e d p la n . I n the concept of the
g e n e ra l ed u catio n p re v io u s ly s t a t e d , the G eneral C ollege has
n o t only c o n trib u te d a r e d e f i n i t i o n o f l i b e r a l or c u l t u r a l
e d u c a tio n i n term s o f the modern age but has proposed a c u r r i
culum i n harmony i n i t s e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s n i t h the o b je c ti v e s .
The dynamic n a tu re of the program i s evidenced by the f a c t
t h a t i t i s undergoing c o n s ta n t r e v is i o n and re c o n s tru e tio n *
The d e t a i l s of req u irem e n ts and course o r g a n iz a tio n vary
from y e a r to y e a r. A v i s i t o r on th e campus i s im pressed w ith
th e open-mindedness as w e ll as the s p i r i t o f comradery among
the f a c u l t y , which make p o s s ib le a fra n k and c r i t i c a l d i s
c u s sio n of problems and a r e a d in e s s to in tro d u c e changes as
the needs a r i s e . Moreover, th e i n c o r p o r a ti o n of an e v a lu a
t i o n p la n in to th e program of cu rricu lu m r e v i s i o n h e lp s to
put th e e n t ir e experim ent on a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s .
The c h ie f d i f f i c u l t y under which th e General C ollege
la b o rs a r i s e s from the scheme of o r g a n iz a tio n a t th e U n iv e r s i
t y of M innesota. The General College i s p a r a l l e l e d by the
f i r s t two y e a rs o f th e C ollege of S cie n c e, L i t e r a t u r e , and
th e A r t s . The l a t t e r fo llo w s , i n th e main, th e program of
the t r a d i t i o n a l l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e . I n i t s q u e st f o r a
more dem ocratic program of g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n , s e rv in g the
v a rio u s needs of a l a r g e r p o p u la tio n , t h e G eneral C ollege has
sometimes been s tig m a tiz e d as an i n s t i t u t i o n fo r ”lame d u c k s .”
199
I n s p i t e of th e vehement d e n ia ls by th e a u t h o r i t i e s of th e
General C ollege and of the U n iv e r s ity , such a n im p ressio n
s t i l l p re v a ils * P erh ap s, t h i s d i f f i c u l t y was f o re s e e n by
th e l a t e P r e s id e n t L* P. Coffman, when he made th e fo llo w in g
s ta te m e n t:
F ra n k ly , I should hot be i n t e r e s t e d i n a c o lle g e o r a
u n i v e r s i t y which was m a in ta in e d s o le ly f o r morons and
backward s tu d e n ts . I am i n t e r e s t e d , however, i n a
r e o r g a n iz a tio n of our e d u c a tio n a l program which w i l l
serv e s tu d e n ts who d e s ir e t o come face t o fa c e w ith
th e problems upon which they must e x e rc is e judgment
l a t e r on* Such a c o lle g e w i l l not le av e th e sy n th e
s i s of le a r n in g to chance, b u t i t w i l l through i t s
very o f f e r in g s and th e manner of t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n
h e lp t o show t h a t le a r n in g i s n o t made up e n t i r e l y
of d is p a r a te ele m e n ts. I b e lie v e t h a t i t is; alm ost im
p o s s ib le f o r a stu d e n t to g e t a l i b e r a l e d u c atio n
any more, due la r g e ly to th e f a c t t h a t knowledge has
been so a t te n u a te d t h a t only frag m en ts and p ie c e s
a re p re s e n te d in any co u rse. So t h a t , w hile we
a re stu d y in g th e s tu d e n ts th em selv es and tr y in g t o
l e a r n what we can about them, vje a r e a t the same
time working w ith m a te r ia ls and te ch n iq u e s i n the
hope t h a t we can show t h a t l i b e r a l or g e n e ra l
e d u c a tio n i s n o t a myth but something th a t can be
r e a l i z e d . ^
The G eneral C ollege i s 1 1 the only c o lle g e in the U n ited
22
S ta te s where none but survey co u rse s a r e g i v e n . 7 1 The t h i r t y
odd co u rse s i n t a r e a s c u t a c ro s s a l l d ep artm en tal l i n e s .
They a r e desig n ed to h elp s tu d e n ts u n d e rsta n d th e w o rld they
l i v e i n . Methods of i n s t r u c t i o n a r e d e v ise d to c a p i t a l i z e
^ Quoted by M. 3. MacLean in T h ir ty -E ig h th Yearbook
o f U . S . S . s . , P a r t I I , p. 140..
S. MacLean, i n Johnson, ed. , o p . c i t p. 153.
soo
th e needs and i n t e r e s t s of th e s tu d e n ts . The l a b o r a t o r i e s
and th e s tu d io s f o r w r i t i n g , a r t , and music re p r e s e n t
v a lu a b le c o n t r ib u t io n s i n methods. L e c tu re -d e m o n stra tio n s
i n sc ie n c e s t u d i e s make use of motion p i c t u r e s and such
o th e r d ev ic es as have been employed to advantage a t th e
U n iv e r s ity of Chicago.
E. Stephens C o lleg e, Columbia, M issouri
Stephens College i s a ju n io r c o lle g e f o r women, g iv in g
a tw o-year course le a d in g to th e degree o f A s s o c ia te in A rts ,
or i n Music, or in F ine A rts . In 19S7 th e c o lle g e in c o rp o
r a t e d i n t o i t s program th e l a s t two y e a r s of th e h ig h school
so as to form a f o u r - y e a r u n i t . G raduates of a c c r e d i t e d high
sch o o ls a re a d m itte d i n t o the J u n io r c l a s s on p r e s e n t a t i o n of
f i f t e e n s a t i s f a c t o r y u n i t s of work. That th e fo u r-y e a r
program has not met w ith much su ccess i s e v id e n t from th e
folloY/ing ex cerp t from a re p o r t by th e D ir e c to r o f R esearch
o f th e c o lle g e ;
One r e s u l t o f th e experim ent of th e fo u r- y e a r ju n io r
c o lle g e i s t h i s . I t i s ap parent t h a t th e f o u r - y e a r
ju n io r c o lle g e h a s .g r e a t v a lu e f o r m un icip al ju n io r
c o l le g e s . I t has n o t, however, been h ig h ly s u c c e s s fu l
in S te p h e n s. C o lle g e , because i t has been im p o ssib le to
r e c r u i t s u f f i c i e n t l y la rg e numbers of high sc h o o l
s tu d e n ts i n t h e i r ju n io r and s e n io r y e a r s to le n d
s i g n i f i c a n t value to the r e s u l t s . P a re n ts a r e
g e n e r a lly u n w illin g , b o th fo r s o c ia l and economic
re a s o n s , t o send t h e i r d au g h ters away from home to
secure a h ig h sch o o l education when, i n most com-
m unites to d a y , i t can be o b tain ed w ithout t h e i r
le a v in g home. The experim ent has c l e a r l y in d ic a t e d ,
201
however, t h a t th e a r b i t r a r y d i v is io n s e t up between
ju n io r c o lle g e and h ig h school s tu d e n ts by a c c r e d i
t i n g a g e n cie s i s c o n tra ry to sound i n s t r u c t i o n a l
p o lic y , What e f f e c t th e r e s u l t s of th e experim ent
w i l l have in b re a k in g down t r a d i t i o n a l i n s i s t e n c e
upon a r b i t r a r y ”p r e r e q u i s i t e s n rem ains to be seen. ^
I n 1921, Stephens C ollege in a u g u ra te d a program of
cu rricu lu m r e s e a r c h , under th e d i r e c t i o n of W . W * C h a rte rs ,
aiming to b u ild up an e d u c a tio n a l program s p e c ia lly designed
f,to t r a i n women to pursue the a c t i v i t i e s of women, to s a t i s -
P4-
fy t h e i r needs and develop t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . ” The f i r s t
p r o je c t was a survey and a n a l y s i s , on a n a t i o n a l s c a le , of
the a c t i v i t i e s of women in p re s e n t-d a y s o c ie ty . Three
hundred women in t h i r t y - s e v e n s t a t e s were asked to keep
d i a r i e s of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , problem s, and th o u g h ts over a
p e rio d of time i n accordance w ith s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n s . A ll
of the women were c o lle g e g ra d u a te s , f i f t y from women1s
c o lle g e s and two hundred and f i f t y from e o -e d u c a tio n a l
c o lle g e s ; they were engaged in sev en teen d i f f e r e n t vocations*
About a t h i r d of them had been out o f c o lle g e l e s s th a n f iv e
y e a r s , a t h i r d had been out f iv e to t e n y e a r s , and the r e
maining group over te n y e a r s . More th an h a l f o f them ”had
23 y. \f# C h a rte r s , The Stephens C ollege Program f o r the
E ducation of Women (The Stepheris 'College B u l l e t i n , E ducation
S erv ice S e r ie s , Humber 4. Columbia, M isso u ri; Stephens
C o lleg e, 1938), p. 86.
20 2
two or more c h i ld r e n , liv e d i n t h e i r own homes, and had no
r egula r s e rv a n t s . n ^^
The d i a r i e s c o n ta in e d n e a rly 7,500 ite m s, T lwhieh i n
cluded a l l th e a c t i v i t i e s o f home makers and a l l th e a c t i
v i t i e s of p r o f e s s io n a l women which th e y c a r r i e d on o u ts id e
26
t h e i r r e g u la r v o c a t i o n s .n These w ere, upon a n a l y s i s ,
c l a s s i f i e d under tw e n ty -fo u r c a t a g o r i e s . F u rth e r a n a ly s is
r e v e a le d seven a r e a s of a c t i v i t i e s which were found to he
common to a l l women, i r r e s p e c t i v e of v o c a tio n . These seven
a r e a s , i t was decid ed , sh o u ld "become th e b a s is of the r e
q u ire d core of a f u n c tio n a l cu rricu lu m f o r women. They are:
(1) communication, o r a l and w r i t t e n ; (2) p h y s ic a l h e a l t h ;
(3) m ental h e a l t h ; (4) c i v i c r e l a t i o n s : s o c i a l , economic,
and p o l i t i c a l problem s; (5) a e s t h e t i c a p p r e c ia t io n ; (6)
m o ra ls, r e l i g i o n , and a p h ilo so p h y ; and (7) consum ption.
An e ig h th a r e a not i n d ic a t e d by the survey of needs b u t con
s id e re d im p o rtan t fo r g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n --n a m e ly , th e knowledge
of modern sc ie n c e--w a s l a t e r added. Thus, the survey approach
was supplem ented by a philosophy of g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n .
Having d ecided upon the b a s ic a r e a s of women*s needs,
th e next ste p was to develop c o u rse s which would e f f e c t i v e l y
meet th e s e n e e d s. I n t h i s t a s k , Stephens C ollege has follow ed
25 XtoicL., p. 19
26 Loc. c i t .
203
th e method of g r a d u a l change in s t e a d of a r e v o lu tio n a r y r e
c o n s tr u c tio n of th e e n t i r e cu rricu lu m . Courses were f i r s t
t r i e d w ith sm all s e c tio n s b efo re th e y were made a v a ila b le
27
f o r a l l s tu d e n ts an d "put on a p ro d u c tio n b a s i s . ” More
o v er, s in c e s i x t y - f i v e p e r ce n t of i t s g ra d u a te s co n tin u e
t h e i r e d u c a tio n i n h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s a f t e r g ra d u a tio n
from S tephens, th ey a r e , by the n a tu re of t h e i r c h o ic e ,
fo rc e d to pursue s tu d ie s i n f u l f i l l m e n t of th e re q u ire m e n ts
of th e h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . Thus, th e c o lle g e i s not a t
l i b e r t y to p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e a c u rric u lu m i n s t r i c t harmony
w ith i t s own philosophy of education*
An example or two sh o u ld s u f f ic e t o show how th e su rv ey -
o f-n eed s method i s employed not only i n t h e d e te rm in a tio n of
b a s ic a r e a s of a core c u rric u lu m but a l s o in th e s e l e c t i o n of
c o n te n t fo r s p e c i f i c co u rse s of i n s t r u c t i o n . Take th e area
of communication* A nalysis of the d i a r i e s and the i n v e s t i g a
t i o n of th e e x p r e s s io n a l a c t i v i t i e s of s tu d e n ts i n th e c o lle g e
showed t h a t th e re were e ig h t ty p e s of o r a l and w r i t t e n ex
p r e s s io n ¥\ihich should be xarovided fo r i n co u rse s i n communica
t i o n : v i z . , l e t t e r w ritiijg , c o n v e rs a tio n , s to r y t e l l i n g , r e
p o r t making, speech making, p e rso n a l memoranda (in c lu d in g
d i a r i e s ) , round t a b l e d is c u s s io n , and g iv in g d i r e c t i o n s ,
e x p la n a tio n s , and i n s t r u c t i o n s . To determ ine what m a te r ia l
27 I b i d . , p. 22.
£04
should be used in th e u n i t on l e t t e r w r i tin g , to give an
in s ta n c e , i n v e s t i g a t i o n was made a lo n g the fo llo w in g l i n e s :
1. One hundred women l i s t e d in n\3hol s v/ho in American1 1
were ask ed to submit the b e s t p e rs o n a l l e t t e r s i n
t h e i r f i l e s * T h eir p o in ts of e x c e lle n c e were then
analyzed*
£• B usiness l e t t e r s were lik e w is e re q u e s te d from
b u sin e ss firm s and e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s *
3. P u b lish e d l i t e r a r y l e t t e r s and c h a p te rs on l e t t e r
w r i t i n g i n com position t e x t s were examined.
4 . One thousand stu d e n t l e t t e r s were an aly zed to d i s
cover common e r r o r s and d i f f i c u l t i e s * ^
The same approach was fo llo w ed i n o rg a n iz in g th e course
on S o c ia l Problem s. To determ ine the p e r s i s t e n t m ajor problems
of modern s o c ie ty , an a n a ly s is was made of the R ead er1s Quide
f o r 1910, 1915, and 1920; of b i l l s p re s e n te d to th e L e g is la
tu r e of M isso u ri; of p la tfo rm s of p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , 'a n d of
a r t i c l e s and books on s o c i a l problem s. To find' out what prob
lems and a c t i v i t i e s would be of p a r t i c u l a r s ig n i f ic a n c e to
women, the d a ta o b ta in e d from th e d i a r i e s were supplem ented
fry su g g e stio n s and c r i t i c i s m s su b m itte d by stu d e n ts i n the
- _ 29
c o lle g e .
I n view of th e im portance of consumption a c t i v i t i e s i n
th e l i f e of th e woman and the d e a rth of a v a i l a b l e m a te r ia l fo r
consumerf s E d u ca tio n , S tep h en 1s C ollege m ain ta in s an I n s t i t u t e
f o r Consumer1 s E ducation, which 1 T aims to h e lp s tu d e n ts to de
velop a philosophy o f v a lu e s , to a c q u ire a d is c rim in a tin g
28 i m * > p* 3 1 ‘
P. \l, F a u s tia n , "A Problem Approach to a S o c ia l
S tu d ie s Survey C ourse, lf Johnson, ed. , op. c i t . , p. £77.
2Q b4
a t t i t u d e toward th e problems o f consum ption, to e x e rc is e
s h i l l and judgment i n p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s , and to secure
an i n t e l l i g e n t u n d e rsta n d in g and a p p r e c i a t i o n of th e s o c i a l
im p lic a tio n s o f th e e n t i r e problem of consumer econom ies.1 1 ^
B esides r e s e a r c h on a v a i l a b l e m a te r ia l f o r co u rses i n con
su m er's econom ics, t h e .I n s t i t u t e m a in ta in s a c l i n i c f o r
g iv in g stu d e n ts p r a c t i c a l help on t h e i r buying problems* The
I n s t i t u t e is s u e s news s h e e ts fo r the d is s e m in a tio n of h e lp
f u l in fo rm a tio n f o r consumers.
Courses of i n s t r u c t i o n i n the c o lle g e a r e grouped
s '
under fo u r d i v i s i o n s : th e D iv isio n o f S cien ce, the D iv isio n
o f th e H um anities, th e D iv isio n of S o c ia l S tu d ie s , and t h e
D iv is io n of S k i l l s and Techniques* There i s a l s o a D iv isio n
o f E x tr a - C u r r ic u la r A c t i v i t i e s , whose purpose i s ” to provide
an environm ent w herein th e stu d e n t may t e s t h e r s e l f and some
of the v a lu e s o f l i f e w hich she is th i n k i n g th ro u g h i n th e c l a s s ,
conference room, and la b o ra to ry ; to h e lp h e r develop avoca-
t i o n a l l e i s u r e - t i m e i n t e r e s t s ; and to a i d Ice r i n h er p e rs o n a l,
31
s o c i a l , and l i f e a d ju s tm e n t." Ah o r i e n t a t i o n course i s
o f fe re d i n each of th e fo u r d iv is io n s . The purx^osesof these
o r i e n t a t i o n co u rses are s t a t e d a s fo llo w s :
30 Stephens C ollege Catalogue and Announcements, 1938-
1939., p. 39. "
3 1 r b i a . , p. 66-67.
F i r s t , a n over-view of th e m ajor f i e l d s of human
le a r n in g and endeavor; second, an u n d e rsta n d in g of th e
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s of human a c t i v i t i e s ; t h i r d , the
a b i l i t y t o choose more w isely h e r f u t u r e co u rses in
c o lle g e ; and, f o u r t h , in c re a s e d i n t e r e s t i n the g r e a t
f i e l d s o f le a rn in g .^ E
The o r i e n t a t i o n course in h u m a n itie s i s e n t i t l e d
" I n tr o d u c tio n t o L i t e r a t u r e , ? ! which i s r e a l l y a n in tr o d u c
t i o n to a r t , m usic, and l i t e r a t u r e * The co u rse i n s o c i a l
s tu d i e s i s c a l l e d " S o c ia l P roblem s," d is c u s s e d above. O rien
t a t i o n i n sc ie n c e i s g iv e n i n th e course "Human B io lo g y ,"
which "draws i t s i l l u s t r a t i o n s from a l l f i e l d s of scien ce
and emphasizes th o se p r in c ip l e s and co n cep ts which a r e most
b a s ic to an u n d e rsta n d in g of man and h i s environm ent, p a r t i
c u la r ly those phases o f environment which a re d eriv e d from
33
th e advance of s c i e n t i f i c knowledge and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . "
V o catio n al o r i e n t a t i o n i s p ro v id ed f o r i n a one-hour course
c a l l e d "C areers f o r Women," which surveys o p p o r tu n itie s and
c o n d itio n s of work i n v a rio u s o c c u p a tio n s. There a r e , b e s id e s ,
a number of " f in d in g courses" t o a i d th e s tu d e n ts i n the d i s
covery of i n t e r e s t s and e x p lo ra tio n of new f i e l d s .
I t should be n o ted t h a t not a l l th e s e co u rses have
fo llo w ed the survey~of-needs approach i n th e s e l e c t i o n and
o r g a n iz a tio n of content* As a m a tte r o f f a c t , only a sm all
32 36
33 I b i d .., p. 37
numer o f co u rses have been org an ized on th e "basis of r e s e a r c h
data* A number of c o u rs e s — f o r example, th e o r i e n t a t i o n
co u rses i n sc ien c e and in th e h u m a n itie s —a r e o rg an iz ed "by
th e b est-ju d g m en t method d e s c rib e d i n the l a s t chapter*
Other co u rse s fo llo w , in the main, t r a d i t i o n a l l i n e s of
o rg a n iz atio n *
Stephens C ollege c o n s id e rs i t im p o rta n t to know the
in d i v i d u a l s tu d e n t, not only fo r purposes of p e rs o n n e l and
c o u n s e lin g , b u t a ls o fo r the purpose of c u rric u lu m develop
ment. Teaching methods emphasize a d a p ta t io n to i n d i v i d u a l
needs and a b i l i t i e s * A comprehensive guidance program t r i e s
to h elp each s tu d e n t d is c o v e r h e r own i n t e r e s t s and n eeds,
and p la n her work to th e b e s t ad v a n ta g e . B efore e n tra n c e ,
each stu d e n t i s .v is ite d and in te rv ie w e d a t h e r home by an
adm issions co u n selo r* . In the c o lle g e , each te a c h e r i s a d v is e r
to te n or f i f t e e n s t u d e n t s . The f u n c tio n s of the a d v i s e r
a r e :
1. To know h is ad v ice
2. To be' 'the a d v i s e e ’ s b e s t f a c u l ty f r i e n d .
3* To a c t as th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of th e a d v i s e e ’ s p a r e n t s .
4 . To guide th e a d v ise e in h e r p e r s o n a l i t y development.
5. To r e f e r th e a d v is e e a t the proper time to the
proper p e rs o n s f o r ad v ice and in fo rm a tio n .
6. 'To p la n the a d v i s e e ’ s co u rse to meet h e r in d iv i d u a l
needs and i n t e r e s t s .
7. To guide th e a d v ise e toward p ro p er v o c a tio n a l a d
justm ent .
8. To check c o n s ta n tly on th e a d v i s e e ’ s adjustm ent to
the t o t a l c o lle g e s itu a tio n .*
so§
9. To a s s i s t th e a d v is e e i n an e v a lu a tio n of h e r
work and an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s e v a lu a tio n
f o r h e r p a r e n t s *34
Every s ix weeks, r e p o r ts on th e p ro g re ss of each
s tu d e n t are made by th e te a c h e r s , a d v i s e r s , and r e s id e n c e -
h a l l c o u n s e lo rs . On the b a s is of th e se r e p o r t s , the a d v is e r
h e lp s th e ad v isee make a s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n o f the achievem ents
and shortcomings of th e p a s t s ix weeks and to make a p la n f o r
th e next six weeks. The stu d e n t th e n w r i te s to r e p o r t t o
her p a r e n t s , and a copy o f t h i s l e t t e r i s k ep t in the
a d v i s e r 's f ile s *
Recognizing th a t the c o lle g e must meet a l l the needs
o f th e s tu d e n t and t h a t e d u c atio n sh o u ld aim a t the m o d ifi
c a tio n of "conduct and b e h a v io r r a t h e r th an the accu m u latio n
35
of in fo rm a tio n f o r i t s own sak e," th e c o lle g e m ain ta in s a
number o f c l i n i c s fo r c o n s u lta tio n on p e rs o n a l problems* The
Speech C lin ic a id s th e development of a p le a s in g v o ic e , the
removal of speech d e f e c t s , and th e improvement o f co n v e rsa
t i o n and speech. The Grooming C lin ic g iv e s e x p e rt ad v ice
about c lo th in g s t y l e and p e rso n a l appearance# S tu d en ts a r e
^ W. P. S h o f s t a l l , I n d iv id u a l S tu d en t Guidance a t
Stephens C ollege (Stephens College b u l l e t i n , E ducation E e rv ic e
S e r ie s , I'umber 3. Columbia, M isso u ri: Stephens C o lleg e, 1937),
p. 32.
^ C h a rte r s , op. c i t . , p. 11-12*
£09
free to take advantage of such services. In cases of special
need, th e y are r e f e r r e d to such a g e n c ie s by t h e i r ad v isers*
To encourage l i v i n g i n an a r t i s t i c environm ent, a C i r c u la t in g
P ic tu r e L ib rary keeps a supply of more th a n two hundred
p i c t u r e s , " re p ro d u c tio n s o f th e m a s te rp ie c e s of th e w o rld 1s
36
g r e a t e s t a r t i s t s i n p a in tin g and e t c h i n g , 1 1 which s tu d e n ts
may lo a n fo r th e d e c o ra tio n of t h e i r rooms. An a fte rn o o n
s i e s t a i s a p a r t of th e d a ily program of th e c o lle g e .
The most s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t of the Stephens cu rricu lu m
i s th a t i t s continuous development i s promoted by an a c t i v e
program of cu rricu lu m re s e a r c h . The c o lle g e m a in tain s an
a c t i v e r e s e a r c h departm ent w ith W. W. C h a rte rs a s th e D ire c to r
of R esearch. Under h i s g e n e ra l d i r e c t i o n and w ith th e te c h n i-
a
c a l h elp o f / r e s i d e n t r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t , in d iv id u a l members
of th e f a c u l t y have c a r r i e d on r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s on cu rricu lu m
and i n s t r u c t i o n a l problems* The D ir e c to r of R esearch r e p o r te d
i n 1938 t h a t over f iv e hundred problems had been proposed
37
f o r s tu d y .' Every academic y e a r b e g in s w ith a f o r t n i g h t of
f a c u l t y conference i n which r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s are re p o r te d
and d is c u s s e d , the p o l i c i e s o f th e c o lle g e a r e review ed, and
new p la n s a r e c o n s id e re d .
A s e rio u s o b s ta c le to a th o ro u g h ly f u n c tio n a l c u r r i c u
lum a t Stephens is th e n e c e s s ity of p r e p a r in g stu d e n ts f o r
^ Stephens C ollege Catalogue and Announcements, 1938-
1938, p. 83^
37 C h a rte rs , op. c i t *, p. 79*
£10
h ig h e r study* With th e m a jo rity of i t s s tu d e n ts p la n n in g
f o r f u r t h e r stu d y , th e p re p a ra to ry aim te n d s to dominate the
th in k in g of s tu d e n ts and of fa c u lty * The c a talo g u e l i s t s
many s p e c i f i c re q u ire m e n ts which must be met i n g ain in g ad
m issio n to u n i v e r s i t i e s * The e f f e c t of th e s e req u irem en ts
i s n o ted by C h a rte r s , a s 'f o l l o w s :
th e f l e x i b i l i t y of th e cu rricu lu m i s s e r io u s ly hampered
i n t h i s C ollege by the f a c t t h a t , f o r s i x t y - f i v e per
cent o f th e g r a d u a te s , the C ollege must meet, the r e q u i r e
ments of the h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s to which they go* This
i s a s e rio u s problem , b ecau se, over a p e rio d of f iv e
y e a r s , th e g ra d u a te s of th e C ollege e n te re d over one
hundred d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s of h ig h e r le arn in g * The
s tu d e n ts a r e , th e re fo re ,, o f te n r e q u ir e d to c a rry co u rse s
i n re s id e n c e ( to meet se n io r c o lle g e p r e s c r ip t io n ) which-
th e e d u c a tio n a l philosophy o f Stephens C ollege elassi^-
f i e s as e le c tiv e .^ ®
I t was e a r l i e r n o te d t h a t Stephens C ollege has n o t
e f f e c t e d any thorough r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f i t s e n t i r e cu rricu lu m
i n consonance w ith th e d a ta o b ta in e d from the c u rric u lu m r e
s e a rc h of the c o l le g e . The p re s s u re of the p r e p a r a to ry
f u n c tio n confirm s t h i s c o n s e rv a tiv e p o lic y . Courses of i n s t r u c
t i o n b ear th e t r a d i t i o n a l t i t l e s , so t h a t th e y would be more
r e a d i l y a c c e p te d by h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . The o r i e n t a t i o n
course i n th e h u m a n itie s, f o r example, i s c a l l e d " I n tr o d u c tio n
o f L i t e r a t u r e " ; th e g e n e ra l course i n scien ce i s c a l l e d
"G eneral B iology11: and so on. Most c o u rse s give th r e e hours
c r e d i t each sem ester; o th e rs g iv e one or two h o u rs. Since the
38 r b i a . , p. 25.
2 1 1
norm al schedule c o n s is ts of s ix te e n h o u rs, w ith an a d d i t i o n a l
h a l f - h o u r c r e d i t in p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , a stu d e n t c a r r i e s ,
a s a r u l e , six courses a t a time* I n t h i s r e s p e c t , one seems
to f i n d a t Stephens a p a t t e r n o f s t u d i e s c lo s e ly s i m i l a r to
th a t of th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e ; and one might w e ll a sk
w hether th e r e i s any more i n t e g r a t i o n th an i s p o s s ib le i n th e
f r a c t i o n a l cu rricu lu m o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l American c o lle g e .
3 . Summary and Comments
I n the fundam ental concept o f l i b e r a l o r g e n e ra l educa
t i o n , th e c o lle g e s d e s c rib e d in t h i s ch ap ter a re c lo s e a l l i e s
to the c o lle g e s d e s c rib e d i n the l a s t c h a p te r. Since th e
prim ary emphasis i s l a i d on fu n c tio n s of liv i n g r a t h e r than
a r e a s of knowledge, th e r e s u l t i n g program te n d s to be l e s s
academ ic, and i n s t r u c t i o n ten d s to lay more s t r e s s on contem
p orary problems and l i f e needs th a n on the l o g i c a l o rg a n iz a
t i o n of knowledge. Both c o lle g e s c o n sid e re d in t h i s c h a p te r
pay much a t t e n t i o n to th e development of a comprehensive
guidance program. Both rsake e f f o r t t o extend.,.the e v a lu a tio n
program beyond th e t e s t i n g of i n t e l l e c t u a l ach iev em en ts, t o
s h i f t "emphasis from g ra d e s to grow th and from s u b je c t m a tte r
39
to stu d e n t developm ent." Both have t r i e d to f i t i n s t r u c t i o n
to i n d i v i d u a l needs by such ag en cies as th e w ritin g la b o r a to r y ,
the a r t s tu d i o , the speech c l i n i c , e t c . In both, th e r e i s
S h o f s t a l l , op. c i t . , p. 20.
212
d e f i n i t e p ro v is io n f o r co n tin u o u s c u rric u lu m re s e a rc h and con
tin u o u s cu rricu lu m r e v is i o n .
The survey of n ee d s, of adolesce'nts i n c o lle g e a s w e ll
a s o f a d u l ts i n s o c ie ty , p ro v id es o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a fo r the
d e te rm in a tio n of th e b ro ad a r e a s which sh o u ld c o n s t i t u t e the
core of g e n e ra l ed u c atio n and f o r th e s e l e c t i o n and o rg a n iz a
t i o n o f course c o n te n t fo r each of the a r e a s . The presence
of o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a se rv e s a s a check upon th e d ep artm en tal
v iew p o in ts and o v er-en th u siasm s of s u b je c t- m a tte r s p e c i a l i s t s .
The approach, fu rth e rm o re , emphasizes the p o in t th a t knowledge
i s v a lu a b le to the stu d en t not f o r i t s oin s a k e , b u t f o r the
un d erstan d in g and th e s o lu t io n o f l i f e problem s.
I t th e same tim e , th e survey ap p ro ach has obvious l i m i
t a t i o n s . To ac ce p t th e d a ta of a survey as a b s o lu te guide
would be to assume a s t a t i c s o c i e t y . Moreover, a mere l i s t
of a c t i v i t i e s or surveyed needs c o u ld not be r e l i e d upon as
sa fe guide f o r cu rricu lu m c o n s tr u c tio n . Some a c t i v i t i e s ,
however fre q u e n tly th e y may ap p ear, a re not of the d e s ir a b le
k in d ; th e y should be e i t h e r m o d ified o r e lim in a te d in an
e d u c a tio n a l program f o r a b e t t e r s o c ie ty . The p o p u la r ity of
c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s may in d ic a te a need f o r curricula^? p ro v i
sio n s to c o u n te ra c t th e u n d e s ira b le in f lu e n c e s of o u t - o f
school l i f e . On th e o th er hand, th e r e may be needs which a r e
as y e t u n f e l t and a r e not d is c lo s e d by su rv ey , b u t f o r which
i t i s the d uty o f e d u c a tio n to c re a te a d e s i r e . I n o th e r words,
213
u n le ss and u n t i l surveyed needs and a c t i v i t i e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d
and e v a lu a te d i n term s of an adequate s o c i a l p h ilo so p h y , th ey
cannot serve as h e l p f u l guide f o r c u rricu lu m c o n s tru c t ion*
The o b je c tiv e approach of survey m ust, in o th e r words, be
accompanied by the s u b je c tiv e approach of b e s t judgment*
F in a ll y , th e w arning, p re v io u s ly n o te d , th a t reo rg a n iz e d
s u b je c t m a tte r may s t i l l rem ain f o r e i g n to th e s t u d e n t - l e a r n e r ,
i s j u s t as p e r t i n e n t here as elsew h ere. S t r i c t l y speaking, no
cu rricu lu m can be f u n c t i o n a l , u n le s s th e te rm ncu rrie u lu m ” i s
used t o in d i c a t e what goes on i n th e ex p e rien ce of th e l e a r n e r .
S u b ject m a tte r becomes ^ f u n c tio n a l” only when i t f u n c tio n s in th e
l i f e and experience of t h e le a r n e r . I n the end, t h e r e f o r e , i t
i s th e l e a r n e r —and th e le a r n e r o n ly — t h a t can and must make
s u b je c t m a tte r f u n c tio n . Curriculum m a t e r i a l s can be so o r
g an ized a s to f a c i l i t a t e t h i s p ro c e ss of f u n c tio n in g f o r l a r g e r
numbers o f s tu d e n ts , b u t i t must always be remembered t h a t no
c u rricu lu m r e c o n s tr u c tio n can leave out the n e c e s s i t y of
m ediating between th e s u b je c t m a tte r c o n ta in e d in courses of
i n s t r u c t i o n and the on-going ex p erien ce o f the s t u d e n t - l e a r n e r .
I t i s obviously n e i t h e r p o s s ib le n o r n e c e ssa ry f o r every
c o lle g e or u n iv e r s i ty to undertake a survey o f n eed s. The
f in d in g s o f th e M innesota s tu d ie s have been found to a g ree in
some im p o rta n t a s p e c ts w ith those o f o th e r s t u d i e s , such as
40
the M aryland s tu d ie s r e p o r te d by Howard B e l l . As more d a ta
40 Howard M. B e ll, Youth T e ll T h eir S to r y . W ashington,
D. C.: American Council on E d u e a tio n , 193&•
from surveys become a v a i l a b l e , and when p e r io d ic a l surveys
o f n a t i o n a l scope a r e conducted by a g e n c ie s i n command of
ample f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s , i t may become q u ite unnecessary
f o r in d iv id u a l i n s t i t u t i o n s to u n d ertak e s e p a r a te surveys
of t h e i r own to determ ine th e m ajor a r e a s of l i f e problems
which c o n fro n t modern youth*
0HAOTBR.1X
mmGA21QJ$ BASBB TOOK SHE 3H BP 3* IH tE R B S m * ABB A K IX E U S S
OF $HS XHDXfXBm^ SfOTM f i M X H D X V X X na& L J&BRCACH
Tim proponents of p r o g re s s iv e e d u c a tio n i n the low er
sc h o o ls used to speak of a chi I d -e o n te re d education* B teea^
txon, i t i s h e ld , mast b eg in , not w ith p red eterm in ed s u b je c t
matter.^ b u t w ith th e i n t e r o a t s and needs o f the a c t i v e c h ild *
Myezg c h i l d i s unique* .Each fo llo w s an i n d i v i d u a l p a t t e r n
o f growth and developm ent»
f ills c h a p te r w i l l d e s c r ib e a few 1 1 ex p erim en ta l c o l l e g e s 1 1
which have, t r i e d t o apply th e p r i n c i p l e s of p r o g re s s iv e educa
t i o n on th e c o lle g e level..* The c u rric u lu m i s designed t o
serve and f i t th e v a r i e d needs of i n d i v i d u a l stu d e n ts* fhe
p a t t e r n of s tu d ie s v a r i e s w ith in d iv id u a ls *
1* Sarah tewr&nee College#. Bronssville* Mm York*
Sarah tew rence College- opened i n 1928 a s a J u n io r
'■college d e s is te d t o g iv e two- ye■&r■s',' e d u c a tio n along th e l i n e s
o f p r o g re s s iv e education* fhe c o lle g e was g r a n te d an a b s o lu te
c h a r t e r i n 1931 and empowered to g r a n t th e A *. B* degree* I t
i s now a fo u r« y ear c o lle g e f o r women# w ith an en ro llm en t of
ab o u t 330 stu d e n ts* fh e catalo g u e s t a t e s th e aim of th e
c o lle g e a s fo llo w s:
216
Sarah. Lawrence C ollege was d esigned to meet the needs
of women stu d en ts* The c o n v ic tio n s on w hich i t r e s t s
a r e , b r i e f l y , t h a t i n e d u c a tio n a l procedure i n d i v i d u a l
d if f e r e n c e s must be tak en in to acco u n t; t h a t le a r n in g
proceeds e s s e n t i a l l y th ro u g h the e f f o r t o f th e le a r n e r ;
t h a t she m ust, w ith th e te a c h e r as g u id e , work w ith
m a te r ia l s and methods t h a t a re ~ f o r he r p ro d u c tiv e ,
develop her own sta n d a rd s of accompTTshment, a c q u ire
a s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e , i n t e g r a t e le a rn in g w ith ex p e rie n ce ,
f u n c tio n c r e a t i v e l y i n the s o c ie ty i n which she
liv e s .* 1 *
A p p lic a n ts f o r adm ission must p re se n t s ix t e e n u n i t s
of secondary sc h o o l work* ITo s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n of secondary
school p r e p a r a tio n i s p r e s c rib e d . I n the s e l e c t i o n of c a n d i
d a te s , th e C ollege
seeks evidence of a d e f i n i t e s e rio u s n e s s of. purpose,
a d e s ire and a b i l i t y to do in d ependent work, and a
sense o f p e rs o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y * I t seeks a ls o
a c e r t a i n m a tu rity as expressed i n th e a b i l i t y to
make d e c is io n s , to e x e rc is e some judgment and d i s
c r im in a tio n , and to c o n tr ib u te to the group in
which th e stu d e n t f in d s h e r s e l f w ithout being
unduly in flu e n c e d by i t . ^
With annual expenses:for each stu d e n t amounting to about two
thousand d o l l a r s —$1700 fo r c o lle g e fe e s and th e r e s t fo r
o th e r ex p en ses— i t i s easy to see how th e economic f a c t o r a l s o
o p e ra te s i n th e s e l e c t i o n o f s tu d e n ts .
fhe cu rricu lu m i s marked by f l e x i b i l i t y and in d i v i d u a l i
zation* f h e r e a r e no form al re q u ire m e n ts i n term s of co u rses
or c r e d i t s , no s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n of s tu d i e s t o which a l l th e
^ Sara-k Lawrence C ollege C a ta lo g u e, 1937-1938, p. 5.
^ I b i d * , p* 56*
217/
s tu d e n ts must conform, e i t h e r i n the low er or th e upper y e a rs
o f the c o lle g e . Some s tu d e n ts f in d i t wise to p la n f o r a two-
y e a r program, o th e rs f in d i t p r o f i t a b l e to stu d y th r e e y e a r s ,
s t i l l o th e rs complete th e fo u r- y e a r course le a d in g to the
B. A. degree. For each, an in d iv i d u a l c u rric u lu m i s planned
to meet h e r own need s, i n t e r e s t s , and a b i l i t i e s . B readth
of s tu d ie s i s a d v is e d , b u t i t i s r e a l i z e d th a t th e re a re
d i f f e r e n t approaches to l i b e r a l e d u c a tio n , w ith in te n s iv e
study and e x p lo ra tiv e study woven i n d i f f e r e n t p ro p o rtio n s
i n t o d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s a c c o rd in g t o th e v a r ie d background and
i n t e r e s t s of in d iv i d u a l s tu d e n ts .
The s tu d e n t who works f o r a degree may b e g in w ith an
i n t e r e s t in one a r e a of work; she may develop i t i n
t e n s iv e ly or she may pursue i t in i t s r e l a t i o n to
o th e r f i e l d s , le a d in g to g r e a t e r b r e a d th o f ex
p e rie n c e . She may on th e o th e r hand b eg in w ith a
d e s ir e to broaden h e r knovjledge and e x p e rie n c e .
This purpose may be m ain ta in ed o r, i n th e course of
h e r c o lle g e work, she may d is c o v e r where h e r r e a l
i n t e r e s t s l i e and begin t h e i r in te n s iv e c u l t i v a
t i o n , ^
I t i s not n e c e s s a ry , t h e r e f o r e , t o fo llo w any p r e s
c rib e d p a t t e r n of g e n e ra l s tu d i e s i n s p e c i f i c f i e l d s b efo re
the p u r s u it of s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t s . E d u catio n i s to beg in w ith
th e s tu d e n t, not w ith predeterm ined s u b je c t m a tte r.
Almost any i n i t i a l i n t e r e s t , however*. g e n e ra l or s p e c i f i c ,
so long as i t i s independent and g en u in e, may le ad to s i g
n i f i c a n t d is c o v e r ie s w ith in i t o r to f r e s h i n t e r e s t s ;
and th e se may be fo llo w ed w ith in c r e a s in g c l a r i t y through
3 I b i d . , p. 10.
218
the y e a rs of c o lle g e . X T o long te d io u s p r e p a r a tio n i s
n e c e ss a ry b efo re she i s p e rm itte d to b e g in ¥/ork she
wants to do. I f something must be m astered b efore
she can a t t a i n th e ends she lias s e t h e r s e l f , she i s
h e lp ed to see i t s im portance i n r e l a t i o n to h er g o a l.
Thus the aim i s t h a t e d u c a tio n s h a l l always c o n s is t
o f m eaningful e x p e rie n c e s .4
S tu d ie s a re grouped in fo u r f i e l d s : s o c i a l s c ie n c e ,
n a t u r a l s c ie n c e , th e a r t s , l i t e r a t u r e and modern languages.
The a r t s in c lu d e m usic, dance, d ra m a tic s , and th e v is u a l
a r t s , such a s drawing, p a i n tin g , s c u lp tu r e , t e x t i l e s , ceram ic s,
and o th e r media of e x p re s sio n . I t i s em phasized th a t th e a r t s
a re g iv en as much re s p e c t and p r e s t i g e a s o th e r s tu d ie s of
th e cu rricu lu m .
The normal schedule f o r a s tu d e n t c o n s is ts of th r e e
c o u rse s, which a re not th re e d i s c r e t e co u rses but " c o r r e l a t e d
5
a r e a s of w ork." " In any one of h e r c o u rse s she may a t tim es
be c a r r i e d in t o r e l a t e d f i e l d s ; she may do a s p e c ia l p ie c e of
work w ith a n o th e r f a c u l t y member; she may be checking f i e l d
o b se rv a tio n a g a in s t work i n the stu d io or i n th e l i b r a r y .
The s tu d e n tf s program during any sem ester i s co n sid ered as a
w hole. There i s no d e p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n i n the c o lle g e and no
s t r i c t boundary l i n e s between f i e l d s of stu d y . Every stu d e n t
i s encouraged to tak e f u l l advantage of a l l the a v a ila b le r e
so u rces of th e c o lle g e in th e p u r s u i t of h e r i n t e r e s t s o r i n - '
4 I b i d . , p. 8.
6 I b i d . , p. 12.
® L o g . c i t .
.219
d iv id u a l p r o j e c t s , For example, a d ram a tic s tu d e n t goes to
th e p h y sic s i n s t r u c t o r fo r a lesso n on th e o p e ra tio n of a
speech re c o rd in g machine; a group of dance s tu d e n ts c a l l on
the same i n s t r u c t o r f o r an e x p la n a tio n of th e laws of balance
i n r e l a t i o n to body m e c h a n ic s a n d so on. The lo c a ti o n of the
scien c e l i b r a r y r i g h t n ex t to th e a r t s tu d i o s i s symbolic of
th e e f f o r t of th e c o lle g e t o emphasize th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
o f d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of knowledge and work#
Methods of i n s t r u c t i o n a r e in fo rm a l and desig n ed to
encourage independent stu d y and th in k in g , A co u rse occupying
a t h i r d of the s t u d e n t Ts tim e meets only on te a week fo r two
h o u rs, fhe c l a s s m eeting i s u s u a lly conducted i n sem inar
s t y l e , w ith a minimum of form al l e c t u r e s . S tu d e n ts a r e en
couraged to pursue t h e i r s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s and to undertake
in d iv i d u a l p r o j e c t s in co n n e ctio n w ith c o u rs e s . I n i t i a t i v e
i s promoted in an atm osphere o f freedom .
In th e f i r s t y e a r, the th re e co u rses ta k e n by th e
s tu d e n t a r e u s u a lly i n th r e e d i f f e r e n t f ie ld s * One of them
i s an e x p lo ra to ry c o u rse , which i s a s p e c i a l l y designed f r e s h
man course se rv in g th e purpose of (a) g e n e ra l e x p lo ra tio n
w ith in a g iy e n f i e l d , (b) s t r e s s i n g i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith
o th e r f i e l d s , and (c) p e rso n n e l s tu d ie s of th e i n t e r e s t s ,
a b i l i t i e s , and needs of each s tu d e n t. The experim ent w ith
e x p lo ra to ry co u rses was i n i t i a t e d in 1935, under a g r a n t from
the G eneral E ducation Board, f o r th e s p e c i f i c purpose of na
SEO
d isco v ery of n ee d s, c a p a c i t i e s , and i n t e r e s t s of s tu d e n ts i n
th e f i r s t y e a r of c o lle g e to the end of a more e f f e c t i v e
program and procedure f o r each s tu d e n t, and, a s a secondary
7
r e s u l t , the r e c o n s tr u c tio n of the c u r r ic u lu m ,n There a re
some f i f t e e n e x p lo ra to ry co u rses o f fe re d in th e fo u r f i e l d s ;
only one c o u r s e , " In tro d u c tio n to th e N a tu r a l S c ie n c e s ,1 1 i s
a v a ila b le in th e f i e l d of s c ie n c e . There i s no uniform
procedure i n o rg a n iz in g th e c o n te n t o f the co u rse s. Some a re
d ep artm en tal in scope; o th e rs cu t a c ro s s s e v e r a l dep artm en ts.
Some a r e conducted by the p ro b le m -p ro je c t method; o th e rs
follow more of th e s u b je c t- m a tte r approach. F l e x i b i l i t y and
v a r i e t y c h a r a c te r iz e th e experim ent. I n a l l e x p lo ra to ry
c o u rse s, much time and e f f o r t a r e given t o th e d iscovery of
s tu d e n t i n t e r e s t s and a t t i t u d e s and th e r e a c tio n s of i n d i v i
d u al stu d e n ts to loric i n g e n e ra l and to p a r t i c u l a r to p ic s
under stu d y .
The su ccess of an in d iv i d u a li z e d program of ed u catio n
n a t u r a l l y depends much upon in d iv i d u a l guidance and c o u n s e l
l i n g . With a f a c u l ty of f i f t y - s e v e n t e a e h e r s - - t h e e q u iv a le n t
o f about f o r ty - s e v e n f u l l - t i m e t e a c h e r s — f o r a stu d e n t body o f
£80, i t is p o s s ib le to give much more in d iv id u a l a t t e n t i o n than
i s p o s s ib le in th e o rd in ary c o lle g e . Every stu d e n t has a
^ T e n ta tiv e Summry and A n a ly sis of Repox^ts of T eachers
of Freshman Courses, 1935-1956, (B ro n x v ille , New York: Sarah
Lawrence C ollege, 1956), I n tr o d u c tio n , p. i .
221
f a c u l t y a d v is e r , o r don, with, whom she has weekly c o n fe re n c e s.
I t i s th e f u n c tio n of th e don to h elp th e stu d e n t plan h e r
work a s a whole so t h a t d i f f e r e n t phases o f co lle g e l i f e may
be c o r r e la te d and d ir e c te d toward th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c ia l
growth of the s t u d e n t •
The e n t i r e m achinery of c r e d i t s , g ra d e s , and form al
exam inations has been abandoned. D e s c rip tiv e r e p o r t s of
s tu d e n t work under c lo s e o b s e rv a tio n o f te a c h e rs take th e
p la c e o f q u a n t i t a t i v e sta te m e n ts in grades and c r e d i t s .
Sarah Lawrence C ollege seeks to a p p r a is e stu d e n t
growth c h i e f ly i n term s of th e s p o n ta n e ity of
i n t e r e s t and th e g en u in en ess of achievem ent;
study h a b i ts ; a b i l i t y f o r s u s ta in e d work; s e l f
d i s c i p l i n e ; a b i l i t y to form independent judgments
and to s u s t a i n them; t o l e r a n t and fa ir-m in d e d
a t t i t u d e toward o th e r people and tovtfard i n
t e r e s t s o u tsid e one 1s own; p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e
a c t i v i t i e s o f th e c o lle g e community.
I n c o n s id e rin g h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r th e A. B.
d eg ree , th e f a c u l t y Committee on S tudent Work
seeks evidence of the s t u d e n t ’ s a b i l i t y to
fu n c tio n e f f e c t i v e l y ; o f re a so n a b le i n t e g r a
t i o n of thought and ex p erien ce ; of equipment
i n knowledge and te c h n iq u e s ; of q u a l ity o f
accom plishm ent; of i n t e r e s t and a c t i v i t y th a t
in d i c a t e a sense of d i r e c t i o n , a development
of i n t e l l e c t u a l and em otional m a tu rity .®
E v a lu a tio n i s based upon p e rs o n a l knowledge of each
s tu d e n t, upon co n feren ces and cum ulative re c o rd s of stu d e n t
and f a c u l ty r e p o r t s , upon t e s t re s u lts -, ad m issio n r e c o r d s ,
e t c . E f f o r t i s made to g et a g e n e ra l p i c t u r e of the s t u d e n t ’ s
p ro g re ss and development by comparing and combining a n a l y t i c
® Sarah Lawrence C ollege C atalogue, 1937-1938, p. 51.
zzz
and d e s c r ip tiv e r e p o r t s based upon in tim a te p e rs o n a l con
t a c t s . S tu d en ts a r e in fo m e d of t h e i r s t a t u s by means of
in d iv i d u a l w r i t t e n a n a ly se s made by t h e i r te a c h e rs th re e tim es
a year* The s tu d e n t, on h er p a r t , c o n t r ib u t e s to the cumu
l a t i v e re c o rd by su b m ittin g w r i tte n r e p o r t s of her course
work every s ix weeks. The Committee on S tudent Work s e ts
d e f i n i t e d a te s on the c o lle g e ca len d a r f o r th e su b m ittin g of
s t u d e n t s 1 r e p o r t s , of d o n sr r e p o r t s , and of f a c u l ty r e p o r ts
to stu d e n ts on t h e i r course work. A ctive e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s
being c a r r ie d on alo n g the l i n e s of r a t i n g b lan k s, t e s t i n g
m a t e r i a l s , and v a rio u s means of e v a lu a tin g s tu d e n t grow th.
The ih e u lty have a l s o drawn up some t e n t a t i v e c r i t e r i a fo r
th e diploma (fo r tw o-year and th r e e - y e a r s tu d e n ts ) and the
d egree. There i s no p r o v is io n f o r a degree w ith h o n o rs.
Says P re s id e n t Warren:
The c o lle g e aims to av o id co m p etitio n among s tu d e n ts
as a m otive f o r work and to s u b s t i t u t e the love of
work fo r i t s own sake i n co m p etitio n only w ith one
s e l f . T herefore th e re i s no g rad in g ^rstem . Re
p o rts c o n s is ts o f a c a r e f u l a n a ly s is of the work
of each stu d e n t by her i n s t r u c t o r and f a c u lty
a d v is e r . Ho s tu d e n t* s work i s c o n sid e re d s a t i s - «
f a c to r y i f she h a s f a l l e n below h e r own capacity*
R e a liz in g th e e d u c a tio n a l v alu e of o u t - o f \ - c o l l e g e ex
p e rie n c e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n , the c o lle g e encourages i t s s tu d e n ts
to c a rry on s tu d ie s i n n eig h b o rin g communities and to ta k e
^ Constance Warren, ,!The Sarah Lawrence Plan,** The
n a t i o n 131-550, November 19 , 1930*
223
advantage o f th e c u l t u r a l and e d u c a tio n a l re s o u rc e s of Hew
York C ity , which is only f i f t e e n m iles from th e c o lle g e .
P re s id e n t Warren r e p o r t s the fo llo w in g in s ta n c e s in a p e rso n a l
l e t t e r to the w r i te r .
An e x h a u stiv e "bibliography on North American In d ia n
a r t s and c r a f t s lias j u s t come to my desk, p u b lish ed
by th e Department of th e I n t e r i o r . Thi s was w r itte n
by two Sarah Lawrence u n d e rg ra d u a te s, working la r g e ly
i n th e Museum of N a tu ra l H is to ry , in New York C ity .
One of our s tu d e n ts whose g r e a t i n t e r e s t i s b ir d s
has been working fo r two y e a rs in th e Museum of
N a tu ra l H is to ry as p a r t of h e r c o lle g e work. S t i l l
an o th er stu d e n t who i s in te n s e ly i n t e r e s t e d in
economic# and sociology i s working p a r t of each
week in th e N a tio n a l Consumers1 League H eadquarters
making a com parative 'study o f s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n in
the d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s , f o r the use of the League.
fhe e d u c a tio n a l philosophy of Sarah Lawrence i s b r i e f l y
s t a t e d by i t s P r e s id e n t as fo llo w s:
To i t s f a c u l ty i t s main i n t e r e s t l i e s in th e f a c t t h a t
i t i s a tte m p tin g to put i n t o p r a c t i c e , on the c o lle g e
l e v e l , p r i n c i p l e s of ed u catio n long t e s t e d in the b e s t
of s o - c a lle d p ro g re s s iv e s c h o o ls. I t s prim ary o b je c t
i s ed u c atio n i n the a r t of l i v i n g r i c h l y through the
w ell-ro u n d ed development of a l l th e s t u d e n t ’ s powers.
This means t h a t th e ta s k of the i n s t r u c t o r i s to con
s id e r the s tu d e n t i n term s of h e r whole p e r s o n a l i t y ,
not s o le ly of h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent; to provide
th e b e s t p o s s ib le c o n d itio n s under which she s h a l l
become th e a c t i v e a g e n t of h e r own education r a t h e r
th a n th e i n c i p i e n t of an education c a r e f u l ly planned
f o r her by o th e rs ; to h elp her b u ild her i n t e l l e c t u a l
l i f e from her own i n t e r e s t s a s a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t , n o t
to d ecid e f o r her i n advance what th e s e i n t e r e s t s
^ P e rso n a l l e t t e r from P re s id e n t Constance Warren,
d ated December, 3, 1928.
■ £24
should he; and to h e lp her to i n t e r p r e t th e in fo rm atio n
she a c q u ire s i n term s o f i t s r e l a t i o n to l i f e in
g e n e ra l r a th e r than to a c q u ire i t fo r i t s own sake. 1
2 . Bennington C o lle g e , B ennington, Vermont.
Bennington College i s a l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e fo r
women which was c h a rte r e d i n 1925. and opened i n 1932 as "a
new i n s t i t u t i o n to t r a n s l a t e in to the c o lle g e f i e l d th e .s p i r i t
amd methods i d e n t i f i e d in th e sch o o ls "below by th e . term
'p r o g r e s s i v e , 1 , and to c re a te a cu rricu lu m e s p e c i a lly adapted
to th e a c t u a l needs o f women i n th e contemporary w o rld ."1^
The p la n s f o r th e c o l le g e , drawn up in broad o u t l i n e b e fo re
th e opening o f the c o lle g e ,; were T lthe r e s u l t of s ix y e a rs of
13
in te rv ie w s , co n fe re n c es, p u b lic m e etin g s, and s u r v e y s .”
The c o lle g e now e n r o l l s about £70 s tu d e n ts . The A, B.
degree i s g iv e n on com pletion of the f o u r- y e a r c o u rse . Can
d id a te s f o r adm ission must have s u c c e s s f u lly com pleted the
h ig h sch o o l co u rse, but a re not r e q u ir e d to p re se n t a s p e c i
f i e d number of u n its or a p r e s c rib e d p a t t e r n of s tu d i e s . The
most im p o rta n t q u e s tio n which Bennington a s k s of a p ro s p e c tiv e
0 £. c i t . , l a t i o n 131:549.
1® Bennington College B u l l e t i n , Announcemen t f o r the
Seventh Y e a r, 1938-1939', p • 5 •
13 E. D. Leigh, "The Bennington C ollege Program,"
Jo u rn a l of Higher E ducation 1:520, December, 1930.
225
stu d e n t i s whether she has a serio u s i n t e r e s t o r promise of
d i s t i n c t a b i l i t y i n one o r more f i e l d s of study o f fe re d i n
th e B ennington cu rricu lu m . F a ilu re i n a" s u b je c t or f i e l d
w i l l not d is q u a lif y th e c a n d id a te f o r ad m issio n provided t h a t
i t i s balaiiced by unusual a p t itu d e i n a n o th e r field*. "Indeed,
a s p e c i a l a p t itu d e i n one s u b je c t w i l l give a can d id ate
p re fe re n c e over a n o th e r whose re c o rd i s more uniform b u t
14
m ediocre i n q u a l i t y ." Expenses, however, are h ig h i n
Bennington. College f e e s t o t a l §>1,675; o th e r items, of s tu d e n t
ex p e n d itu res average about §500, so t h a t normal expenses f o r
th e y ea r run w e ll o v er §2,000.
The g u id in g p r i n c i p l e s of the e d u c a tio n a l program of
Bennington are s t a t e d a s fo llo w s: ,
1. E ducation i s a p ro cess c o n tin u in g through l i f e and I
p e r s i s t s most e f f e c t i v e l y in the y e a rs a f t e r c o lle g e /
when th e h a b i t of ed u c atin g o n e s e lf has been a c q u ire d .
2. The C ollege should accustom i t s stu d e n ts to th e h a b i t
of engaging v o lu n ta r i ly i n le a r n in g r a t h e r than of
su b m ittin g in v o lu n t a r ily a t c e r t a i n p e rio d s to form al
i n s t r u c t i o n .
3. Such e d u c a tio n a l self-d ep e n d en c e can be developed most
e f f e c t i v e l y i f th e student works a t ta s k s which have
meaning, s ig n if ic a n c e or i n t e r e s t to h e r.
4. Continuing e d u c a tio n , s e l f - i n i t i a t e d , i s most l i k e l y
to ta k e p la c e where the stu d e n t has a t t a i n e d e x p e rt-
n e s s , or a sense of m astery in a few f i e l d s of en
d u rin g i n t e r e s t or u se , r a t h e r th a n sn m tte rin g s a c
q u ire d in a g r e a t many f i e l d s .
5. E x te rn a l d i s c i p l i n e s , such a s compulsory c la s s a t t e n
dance, co m p etitiv e and p u b lic ly awarded grades and
p r i z e s , p e r io d ic w r i t t e n exam inations on fo rm a liz e d
blocks of knowledge , and n um erical accum ulation o f
c r e d i t s to earn d eg ree s, i n t e r f e r e s e rio u s ly w ith
14 I b i d . , p. 521.
'836
r e a l in c e n t i v e s and i n t e r n a l d i s c i p l i n e s r e l a t e d
to the s t u d e n t 1 s own d e v e lo p irg purposes and i n
t e r e s t s .
6. D ire e t e x p e rie n c e s —p la n n in g , o rg a n iz in g , manipu
l a t i n g , c o n s tru c tin g and i n v e s t i g a t i n g , i n con
ju n c tio n w itli re a d in g and th e a c q u i s i t i o n of
knowledge—a re v a lu a b le means f o r developing p e r
manent i n t e r e s t s pursued v o l u n t a r i l y .
7. f o o ls of le a rn in g such as s t a t i s t i c s , and th e use'
of E n g lish , to have meaning a s w e ll as t o be most
econom ically m a stered , should be connected imme
d i a t e l y , or i n th e p ro cess o f le a r n in g , w ith th e
ends fo r which they a r e in stru m e n ts r a th e r th a n
a c q u ire d as s e p a ra te d i s c i p l i n e s r e l a t e d vaguely
to p o s s ib le d i s t a n t u se .
8. Programs of c o lle g e work should a t a l l p o in ts
allow f o r th e f a c t th a t between d i f f e r e n t s tu d e n ts
and in th e same stu d e n t a t d i f f e r e n t tim es th e re
i s wide in d iv id u a l v a r i a t i o n i n the s u b je c t
m a tte r or problems which have s u f f i c i e n t meaning
to engage the s tu d e n t in a c t i v e le a r n in g le a d in g
to u n d ersta n d in g .
9. I n t e l l e c t u a l development cannot and should n o t be
i s o l a t e d from th e development of the whole p e r
s o n a l i t y , and ( th a t) g e n e ra l a rra n g e m e n ts , and
e s p e c i a lly i n d iv i d u a l g u idance, sh o u ld give proper
w eight n o t only to i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s in p e rso n a l
grow th, but a ls o to p h y s ic a l, em o tio n al, moral and
a e s t h e t i c f a c t o r s a s w e ll.
10. The c o lle g e should ac c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c u l t i
v a tin g in i t s stu d e n ts by a l l a v a i l a b l e means a t t i
tu d es of s o c i a l c o o p e ra tio n , p a r t i c i p a t i o n and r e s
p o n s i b i l i t y , r a t h e r than a lo o fn e s s ; I th a t) i t should
promote a sym pathetic but o b je c tiv e and r e a l i s t i c
u n d e rsta n d in g of th e w orld o f our own day as w e ll
a s a sense of p e rs p e c tiv e d e riv e d from an u n d er
sta n d in g of th e p a s t; an a t t i t u d e o f suspended
judgment towards th e stra n g e and th e new, and
to le ra n c e toward people and customs a l i e n to th e
s t u d e n t Ts own e x p e rie n c e . 15
The above o b je c tiv e s have not been a l l r e a l i z e d i n
p r a c t i c e . The f a c t , however, th a t th e y are h e ld up a s g u id e -
^ Announcement f o r the Seventh Y ear, 19 38-1939, p. 6.
227
p o sts in a c o lle g e where th e e n t i r e program i s f l e x i b l e and
i s being co n tin u o u sly re v is e d means t h a t th e r e s u l t i n g
program d i f f e r s in s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c ts from th a t of c o lle g e s
n ot committed to th e p o in t o f view e x p re sse d in the above t e n
p r in c ip le s *
The c u rricu lu m i s marked by f l e x i b i l i t y . I t is made
f o r each s tu d e n t to s u i t her in d iv id u a l needs and i n t e r e s t s .
P e rso n a l purposes, i n t e r e s t s , a p t i t u d e s , p re s e n t needs and
p re v io u s p re p a r a tio n a re a l l ta k e n i n t o account i n th e p la n -
n iig of an i n d iv i d u a l program o f work t o f i t each s tu d e n t.
Courses of i n s t r u c t i o n a r e grouped under f o u r broad
f i e l d s : l i t e r a t u r e , s o c i a l s t u d i e s , s c ie n c e , and th e a r t s . -
The f i e l d of the a r t s i s subdivided i n to f o u r m ajor groups:
space and p l a s t i c a r t s , drama, dance, and music* Every s tu d e n t,
no m a tte r what h er major f i e l d i s , w i l l norm ally have some
c o n ta c t w ith c r e a tiv e a r t during her c o lle g e course*
There is a d i s t i n c t l i n e of dem arcation betvjeen the
lovifer two y e a rs and the upper two y e a r s . The program o f the
J u n io r D iv isio n i s planned to help th e stu d e n t "to d isc o v er
the f i e l d or f i e l d s of human achievem ent in which she has
if 1 6
a marked and s u s ta in e d i n t e r e s t combined w ith d i s t i n c t a b i l i t y .
To accom plish t h i s end, a s tu d e n t norm ally ta k e s in tr o d u c to ry
co u rses i n each o f the fo u r f i e l d s o f study* The methods and
16 , p. xo.
££8
co n ten t of th e se in tr o d u c to r y c o u rses v ary from each o th e r .
I n some f i e l d s , a number of in tr o d u c to r y groups a re provided
i n p la c e of a g e n e ra l in tr o d u c to ry course* There a r e , fo r
example, four in tro d u c to ry groups i n s o c ia l s tu d ie s : two in
so cio lo g y and two i n psychology* The purpose of th e in tr o d u c
to r y co u rse s i s not to make a g e n e ra l survey of a broad f i e l d ,
but T ’to r e v e a l the s p e c ia l tec h n iq u e or way of working i n th e
p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t . lT -^ The s tu d e n t le a r n s to improve h er
method of w o rk 'through in d iv i d u a l p r o j e c t s , group d is c u s s io n s ,
and e x p e rie n c e s in th e s tu d io , the t h e a t r e , the community,
etc*
B esides in tro d u c to ry work i n th e d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s , the
s tu d e n t in th e Ju n io r D iv is io n chooses a f i e l d as a T ,t r i a l
m a jo r.tT In a d d i t i o n to th e in tr o d u c to r y co u rse s in t h i s
f i e l d , she, th e n , c a r r i e s on in d iv id u a l work under the
guidance of h er c o u n s e lo r, who i s a f a c u lty member i n the
f i e l d o f h e r t e n t a t i v e c h o ic e . These two phases of the t r i a l
maj or work— th a t i s , the in tr o d u c to ry courses and the i n d i v i
dual study under guidance o f c o u n s e lo r— occupy approxim ately
one h a l f o f the s t u d e n t ’ s tim e i n th e J u n io r D iv isio n . The
program of th e J u n io r D iv isio n i s a l s o planned t o in c lu d e
such to o l s u b je c ts a s may be needed by th e s tu d e n t, e. g . ,
17
I b i d . , p. IB.
.ES9
m athem atics, lan g u ag es, and s t a t i s t i c s * f?These t o o ls a r e not
r e q u ir e d of a l l s tu d e n ts ; th ey a r e p r e s c rib e d only in r e l a
t i o n to v i s i b l e need and u s e . n^
In the S enior D iv is io n , the stu d e n t devotes t h r e e -
f o u rth s of her time to th e m ajor f i e l d . What p r o p o rtio n of
the work should be i n r e g u la r courses and what p ro p o rtio n in
in d iv i d u a l p r o j e c t s depend upon the background and p re p a ra
t i o n of th e p a r t i c u l a r s tu d e n t. I n a l l c a s e s , c o n c e n tra tio n
i s made in a broad f i e l d , r a t h e r th an i n a .narrow departm ent
or s u b je c t. Where th e re i s a d e f i n i t e d e s ir e fo r v o c a tio n a l
p r e p a r a tio n , th e work of the Senior D iv is io n may be planned
t o in c lu d e t r a i n i n g i n th e necessaxy te ch n iq u es and s k i l l s ;
fo r Bennington frowns upon ”the type of i n t e l l e c t u a l a s c e t i
cism which f e a r s t h a t c o n ta c t w ith p r a c t i c e or r e a l i t y w i l l
19
d estro y the f i e l d f o r c u l t u r e . ” V o ca tio n al p r e p a r a tio n ,
however,, should not be u n d erta k en in such a manner i s to
p re c lu d e b re a d th of u n d ersta n d in g and a l i b e r a l o u tlo o k .
Requirements f o r promotion and g ra d u a tio n a r e not
s t a t e d in term s of c r e d i t s or courses or g ra d e s . Student
work i s e v a lu a te d on the b a s is of d e s c r i p t i v e and a n a l y t i c
r e p o r ts made by i n s t r u c t o r s and th e c o u n s e lo r, who, a s a r u l e ,
i s changed every y ear to promote w ider c o n ta c ts between f a c u lty
^ I b i d . , p. IS
I 9 I b i d . , p. 18
.230
and stu d en ts'. The student* s re c o rd i s "a cum ulation of sp e
c i f i c judgments on s p e c i f i c ach iev em en ts: r e p o r t s , p a p e rs ,
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , p r o j e c t s , d is c u s s io n s , p ie c e s of c r e a tiv e
20
work and w r i t t e n t e s t s when d e s i r e d . ” Every stu d e n t i s
g iv e n a t the end of the year a summary of h er re c o rd i n d i
c a tin g w hether she has passed i n every s u b je c t and in c lu d in g
a r e p o r t on her shortcom ings and achievem ents.
Before prom otion to th e S enior D iv isio n each s t u d e n t ’ s
,is
reeo rd /rev ie v ;ed by th e Committee on S tu d en t P e rso n n e l. Q u a li
f i c a t i o n fo r prom otion i s judged on the b a s is of evidence of
s u s ta in e d i n t e r e s t i n a f i e l d and d i s t i n c t a b i l i t y f o r in d e
pendent work in i t . The t o t a l r e c o r d of the s tu d e n t i s tak en
i n t o c o n s id e r a ti o n . M F a ilu r e in in tr o d u c to r y work or lim ite d
su ccess i n work o u tsid e the s t u d e n t ’ s m ajor choice need n o t
d i s q u a l i f y nor delay h e r ; th e e x p lo ra to ry o b je c t of in tr o d u c
to r y groups i s o f te n a t t a i n e d a s t r u l y by f a i l u r e as by
Ql
su c ce ss* 1 1 The A. B. degree, awarded a t the time o f g ra d u a
t i n g , w i s a c e r t i f i c a t e of t r a i n i n g and competence in a major
22
field.** I t i s emphasized th a t th e degree i s g iv e n f o r su c
c e s s f u l work i n th e m ajor f i e l d o n ly .
20 r b i d . , p. 13.
2^ > Ibid.. , p. 14-15.
22 I b i d . , p. 18.
The degree does not by any means r e p r e s e n t th e whole
o b je c tiv e of th e College# The aim i s to encourage
a way of l i v i n g i n which' th e p o s s e s s io n of a c e n t r a l
u s e fu l s k i l l , a v o c a tio n a l or a v o c a tio n a l competence,
i s only a part# The prom otion of h e a l t h , d e s ir a b le
h a b i ts and a t t i t u d e s , b re a d th of knowledge and a
v a r i e t y of am ateur i n t e r e s t s , em otional m a tu rity and
s ta b le c h a r a c te r , in d iv id u a l and s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i -
t y - - t h e s e a re th e fundam ental th in g s toward which th e
C ollege devotes i t s e f f o r t th roughout th e four y e a rs .
They are not m easurable, nor a r e th ey a l l d i r e c t l y
a t t a i n a b l e by many s tu d e n ts . I t i s not p r a c t i c a l l y
p o s s ib le to s e t up f o r them a minimum of a tta in m e n t
measured by th e degree; but th ey a re reco g n ized by
s tu d e n ts and f a c u l t y a s ends im p o rta n t in th em selv es.
Bennington t r i e s to encourage o u t- o f - c o l le g e study
and ex p erien ce by i n s t i t u t i n g a two-month w in te r r e c e s s p e rio d
in which s tu d e n ts a re g iv en o p p o rtu n ity to c a rry on s e lf- e d u c a
t i o n by independent stu d y , by t r a v e l , o r by tem porary a t t a c h
ment to i n s t i t u t i o n s or o r g a n iz a tio n s . S p e c ific p lan s f o r
th e use of t h i s p e rio d are made by each s tu d e n t i n c o n s u lta
t i o n w ith her c o u n s e lo r, to whom she subm its a w r i t t e n r e p o r t
a t the close of th e p e rio d . I t i s sa id t h a t such c o n ta c ts
and experiences o u ts id e of th e c o lle g e h e lp the stu d e n ts to
•see t h e i r own needs more c l e a r l y and ”to assume a more r e a l i s -
24
t i c and re s p o n s ib le a t t i t u d e toward t h e i r c o lle g e w o rk .n
The a c t i v i t i e s of th e p e rio d are u s u a lly planned i n r e l a t i o n
. to the work of th e m ajor o r t r i a l major f i e l d . The fo llo w in g
statem ent i n d i c a t e s some of th e problems in v o lv e d :
23 I b i d . , p. 18-19.
O A
The W inter F ie ld and Reading P e rio d (Bennington
C ollege B u l l e t i n , Vol. Three, Humber F our, May, 1935), p. 10.
232
I f any co n c lu sio n s can be drawn a t t h i s e a r ly s ta g e ,
the th r e e years* exp erien ce would su g g est t h a t a s s i g n
ments confined to re ad in g and w r i t i n g , a c o n tin u a tio n
of work s i m ila r to t h a t c a r r i e d on a t C o lleg e, a r e
not d e s ir a b le except fo r advanced s tu d e n ts , a lth o u g h
t h e i r u s e fu ln e s s i s g r e a t e r i n l i t e r a t u r e th a n in the
o th e r f i e l d s of stu d y ; t h a t c o n c e n tr a tio n on s o c i a l
l i f e , w hile i t may y i e l d v a lu e s which escape th e ob
s e r v a tio n of a c o lle g e f a c u l t y , c o n t r ib u t e s very
l i t t l e to academic p r o g re s s , and i s not a d v is a b le
f o r more th a n one of the two w in te r p e rio d s i n th e
J u n io r B iv isio n ; t h a t t r a v e l w ith th e fa m ily , though
a g a in i t may be d e s ira b le and p r o f i t a b l e , cannot
o r d i n a r i l y be combined w ith any s e rio u s study of
th e p la c e s or peoples v i s i t e d ; th a t o rg an iz ed work
i n g ro u p s, such as th e Mexican study group, th e
work i n Burrauda a t th e B io lo g ic a l S t a t i o n , and th e
work i n drama and i n dance in Hew York i s g e n e ra lly
s u c c e s s fu l; and t h a t an enormous v a r i e t y of i n d i v i
d u al p r o je c ts and jo b s , i f c a r e f u l l y and c o n s c ie n
ti o u s l y executed, can c o n trib u te v alu es to a young
women’ s c o lle g e e d u c a tio n which she would perhaps
a c q u ire i n no other way*25
3* Bard C ollege, Annandale-on-HucLson, Hew York
Bard C o lleg e, o r i g i n a l l y S t. Stephens C o lleg e, a f f i l i a
te d w ith the P r o te s ta n t E p isc o p a l Church, was re o rg a n iz e d in
1935 under i t s p re s e n t name, and is now a r e s i d e n t i a l c o lle g e
of Columbia U n iv e r s ity . I t i s a c o lle g e f o r men, w ith an
en ro llm en t of more th a n a hundred stu d en ts* The degree of
B achelor of A rts i s g ra n te d by Columbia U n iv e r s ity .
The e d u c a tio n a l program of Bard was a response to T ,an
i n s i s t e n t demand on th e p a r t of e d u c a to rs , p a r e n t s , and young
men a l i k e th a t our c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s provide among
25 I b i d . , p. 14
£33
'J ‘ v '
► V * ? i
o th e r th in g s f o r a g r e a t e r f l e x i b i l i t y i n th e academic c u r r i -
cultim, f o r more adequate a t t e n t i o n to in d iv id u a l needs and
a b i l i t i e s , f o r a l a r g e r r e c o g n itio n of th e a r t s i n th e
i n s t r u c t i o n a l program, fo r a r e a l i s t i c approach t o the
problems of contemporary life ., and w ith a l f o r an in c re a s in g
emphasis on q u a l ity and d i s t i n c t i o n i n the e d u c a tio n a l
program ,1 1 ^
C andidates f o r adm ission must p re s e n t f i f t e e n u n i t s
of work in c lu d in g th r e e u n i t s in E n g lish and two in fo re ig n
language* They a re s e le c te d on evidence of a b i l i t y f o r iin
dependent work in one of the f i e l d s of stu d y p rovided i n th e
Bard cu rricu lu m . Since the stu d e n t* s s tu d ie s i n co lleg e w i l l
be planned and org an ized i n r e l a t i o n to h is p a r t i c u l a r a b i l i
t i e s and p u rp o ses, a can d id ate fo r adm ission w i l l not be
r e j e c t e d on account of d e fic ie n c y in c e r t a i n f i e l d s provided
t h a t the d e fic ie n c y i s compensated fo r by unusual a b i l i t y in
o th e r f i e l d s .
The philosophy of th e curriculum i s s t a t e d a s fo llo w s:
I t i s g e n e ra lly recognized t h a t a t r u l y l i b e r a l educa
ti o n must have two c o n s t i t u e n t s : th e development of
depth of i n s i g h t and p e n e tr a tio n i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r
f i e l d of study, i n which a s t u d e n t 1s powers may
approach th e id e a l of m astery; and the a c q u i s i t i o n
of a b re a d th of o utlook and u n d erstan d in g in the
f i e l d of human c u ltu re a s a whole. I t i s e s s e n t i a l
t h a t th e se two c o n s titu e n ts be combined i n an o r
g an ic p ro c e s s . I n s te a d of pro ceed in g , as is
26 General In fo rm a tio n , 1938-1939 ( B u l l e t i n of Bard
C ollege, Y o i . ^9, Number £, December, 1938), p. 6.
234
eustomaiy i n most c o lle g e s , from g e n e r a l i z a t i o n
to s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , s p e c ia liz e d ex p erien ce along
th e l i n e s of the student* s p a r t i c u l a r a b i l i t i e s
and i n t e r e s t s w i l l be u t i l i z e d a t Bard, from the
very beginning, as a means of approach to g e n e ra l
c u l t u r e . Such a procedure im p lie s a r e v e r s a l of
the u su a l p r i n c i p l e s of o r g a n iz a tio n of a c o lle g e
cu rricu lu m *27
From th e very beginning of the c o lle g e course, th e n ,
a s tu d e n t i s encouraged to develop h is s p e c i a l l i n e s of
i n t e r e s t * His i n t e r e s t s and purposes a re im m ediately c a p i
t a l i z e d and not p e rm itte d to l i e dormant pending the comple
t i o n of g e n e ra l ed u c atio n th ro u g h r e q u ir e d s tu d i e s in p r e s
c rib e d a r e a s . I n s te a d of the u s u a l an alo g y of th e pyramid,
Bard proposes the p i c t u r e of a t r e e to i l l u s t r a t e th e p a t t e r n
of the cu rricu lu m . J u s t as a t r e e grows from a s in g le ro o t
to a tru n k w ith o u treaching b ra n c h e s, so the stu d e n t begins
w ith c o n c e n tra tio n in a f i e l d and develops by branching out
l a t e r i n t o r e l a t e d f i e l d s .
Courses of i n s t r u c t i o n a re grouped i n fo u r d iv is io n s :
(1) n a t u r a l sc ie n c e and m athem atics, {%) languages and l i t e r a
t u r e , (3) s o c i a l sc ie n c e s and h i s t o r y , and (4) f in e a r t s , m usic,
and drama. H ere, a g a in , th e a r t s a r e g iv e n an im portant p la c e
in th e program of l i b e r a l e d u c atio n . A n o rm a l.schedule con
s i s t s of fo u r co u rses a t a tim e. Courses a r e conducted by
methods conducive to i n i t i a t i v e and independent study on the
27 I b i d . , p. 10.
p a r t of the s tu d e n ts . Glass m eetings ta k e the form of a
weekly group sem inar f o r each c o u rse . Much time i s th u s l e f t
f r e e f o r th e independent study o f the s tu d e n ts , who a re f u r
th e r a id e d in the pro cess of s e lf- e d u c a tio n by bi-w eekly
t u t o r i a l conferences with the i n s t r u c t o r . To h e lp s tu d e n ts
in g e n e ra l e x p lo ra tio n , in tro d u c to ry co u rses a re o f fe re d in
each f i e l d of stu d y . Some of th e s e a r e in te rd e p a r tm e n ta l
in scope, o th e rs a re d e p a rtm e n ta l. They are a l l f l e x i b l e in
c o n ten t and in method, w ith th e double aim o f serv in g ex
p l o r a to r y purposes and of in tro d u c in g s tu d e n ts to f u r t h e r
study in th e f i e l d a t th e same tim e.
As soon a s a s tu d e n t e n te rs c o lle g e , he chooses a f i e l d
o f stu d y in which to t r y h i s a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t s . This i s
h i s 1 1 t r i a l m a jo r,tT I n th e f i r s t two y e a r s , the t r i a l m ajor
work occupies a h a l f of th e s t u d e n t ! s tim e. Before advancing
to th e upper y e a r s , th e stu d e n t must meet an in te rm e d ia te
c h a lle n g e known a s the Sophomore M oderations. At t h i s tim e ,
h i s work of th e f i r s t t?io y e a rs i s s u b je c te d to a comprehen
siv e review . He s e l e c t s a f a c u l t y a d v is o ry committee w ith
whom he plans the work of th e upper two y e a r s . The indepen
dent study of th e upper y e a rs cu lm in ates in th e S en io r P r o je c t.
The exact program o f s tu d ie s fo r each stu d e n t i s planned i n
d iv id u a lly according to needs and i n t e r e s t s . Each s tu d e n t,
in e f f e c t , makes h i s own cu rricu lu m . Each, " in choosing h is
own f i e l d of c o n c e n tra tio n and two or more r e l a t e d f i e l d s ,
£36
c r e a te s during th e course of h i s four y e a rs h is own p a t t e r n
or d iv is io n of s t u d i e s , which h e a rs the im p rin t and lo g ic of
28
h i s own mind r a t h e r than th a t of any p re a rra n g e d p a t t e r n . n
The e v a lu a tio n program t r i e s to rT make e x p l i c i t the
m u ltip le elem ents of achievem ents which a s i n g l e grade f a i l s
pQ ^
to r e v e a l . n A cum ulative re c o rd i s k e p t of r e p o r ts and
e s tim a te s of s tu d e n t 'work. The student; su b m its, among o th er
th in g s , a t the biw eekly t u t o r i a l c o n f e r e n c e s , fT conference
memoranda” r e p o r tin g p a s t achievem ents and f u t u r e p la n s . The
fa c u lty makes r e p o r ts on the b a s is of t e n g en e ra l c r i t e r i a of
achievem ent on a f i v e - p o i n t s c a le ( f a i l u r e , poor, medium,
good, e x c e l l e n t ) . The t e n g e n e ra l c r i t e r i a a re :
1. Prim ary re sp o n siv e n e ss to th e problems and is s u e s
in t h i s s u b je c t.
2. A c q u is itio n of the s k i l l s and te ch n iq u e s which are a
p a r t of the work of t h i s co u rse.
3. A c q u is itio n of the f a c t u a l in fo rm a tio n in c lu d e d in
the work of th e co u rse .
4. C r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of th e m a te r ia ls of study in t h i s
co u rse.
5. Use of c o n s tru c tiv e im a g in a tio n in d e a lin g w ith th e
s u b je c t- m a tte r o f th e course.
6. U nderstanding of th e meanings and im p lic a tio n s of the
f a c t s and p r i n c i p l e s of t h i s c o u rse .
7. C o n s id e ra tio n of a l t e r n a t i v e p o in ts of view b efo re
drawing c o n c lu sio n s .
8. C o rr e la tio n of th e work in t h i s course w ith o th e r
f i e l d s of stu d y .
9. A p p lic a tio n of knowledge g ain ed i n t h i s course to
p r a c t i c e l problem s.
10. C r i t i c a l a p p r e c ia t io n of th e m a te r ia l s of study in
t h i s f i e I d . 30
28 I f r i d - > P- 19*
29 p b id . , p. 16.
30 I b i d . , p. 17.
237
There i s a ls o a p ro v is io n f o r a w in te r f i e l d and
re a d in g p e rio d o f about six weeks to encourage d i r e c t f i r s t
hand c o n ta c ts w ith s o c i a l c o n d itio n s and problem s. P lan s a re
in d iv i d u a ll y made to meet s p e c i f i c needs and i n t e r e s t s . In
g e n e r a l, th e work i s planned in c o n n e ctio n w ith th e chosen
f i e l d of c o n c e n tra tio n ,
4, Black Mountain College/
Black M ountain, North C a ro lin a
Black Mountain College was founded in the f a l l of 19 33
by a group o f te a c h e rs and s tu d e n ts i n t e r e s t e d i n the
id e a of a c o e d u c a tio n al c o lle g e , unhampered by o u tsid e
c o n t r o l, where f r e e use might be made of t e s t e d and
proved methods of e d u c a tio n , where new methods might
be t r i e d o u t, and where th e re should be candid re c o g
n i t i o n of th e im portance of p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n re sp o n
s i b i l i t y by s tu d e n ts a s w e ll a s F a c u lty .
The experim ent was launched by a few persons who had
j u s t re s ig n e d from the f a c u l ty o f R o llin s College a t W inter
P ark, F lo r id a . With only a h a n d fu l of s tu d e n ts , w ith no en-
doviment and no group of persons b e s id e s them selves to r a i s e
money f o r the new u n d e r ta k in g , they found some unused b u ild in g s
on the h i l l s n e a r Black M ountain, An experim ental c o lle g e
was born*
I t i s a veiy unconventional c o lle g e ; by s t r i c t t r a d i
t i o n a l s ta n d a rd s , some might o b je c t to c a l l i n g i t a college*
Now in i t s f i f t h y e a r, i t s t i l l owns no b u ild in g s . The
b u ild in g s which house the c o lle g e belong to the Y. M. C, A.
31 Black Mountain College C atalogue, 1938-1939, p. 3*
238
and a re used i n the summer fo r camping p u rp o ses; they are
le a s e d hy th e c o lle g e f o r th e academic y e a r only, There a r e
only f o r ty - n in e s tu d e n ts i n th e c u rre n t y e a r; th e en ro llm en t
has "been lo?,;er in p rev io u s y e a rs . 'There i s , hovi/ever, an
e n t h u s i a s t i c f a c u l ty of some f i f t e e n p e rs o n s . L aboratory and
l i b r a r y equipment i s lim ite d . The c o lle g e g r a n ts no degrees;
on account of the la c k o f f i n a n c i a l r e s o u rc e s and adequate
p h y s ic a l p l a n t , i t has not been able to o b ta in , a c h a r t e r em
powering i t to g r a n t d eg ree s.
The most unique f e a tu r e of Black Mountain College i s
i t s bold experiment i n communal l i v i n g . The whole program
r e s t s on th e fundam ental p r i n c i p l e t h a t ed u catio n must d eal
w ith th e whole of l i f e and t h a t le a rn in g and liv i n g a r e
in s e p a r a b le . The c o lle g e i s a sm all community, or a la rg e
fa m ily , of which a l l a r e members w ith p r o p o rtio n a l r i g h t s and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , i n which they n o t only te a c h or study but
l i v e to g e th e r as u n i t s of a s o c i a l group, i n which perso n al
c o n ta c ts a re in fo rm al and in tim a te , and i n which dem ocratic
l i v i n g i s not only preached but p r a c t ic e d .
A v i s i t o r a r r i v i n g in the c o lle g e i s im m ediately im
p re s s e d w ith th e in f o r m a lity and f r i e n d l i n e s s of th e e n t i r e
atm osphere. S tu d en ts and f a c u lty a l i k e have on t h e i r work
c lo th e s . There a re no " c o lle g e a u t h o r i t i e s , " no a d m in is tra
t o r s to in te rv ie w . One f a c u lty member i s j u s t as competent to
answer q u e s tio n s a s any o th e r , e x c e p tin g , p erh ap s, th e new
members who a r e not f a m i l i a r w ith H t r a d i t i o n s . T T There i s a
R ector of th e c o lle g e , but he i s e le c te d an n u a lly by the
f a c u l t y and i s r e a l l y a member on a p a r w ith a l l o th e rs .
I f the v i s i t o r a r r i v e s i n th e f i r s t p a r t of th e a f t e r
noon, he i s t o l d th a t th e r e w i l l be no c l a s s e s u n t i l four
o 'c lo c k . The p e rio d between lunch and fo u r o 1 clock i s r e s e rv e d
f o r outdoors r e c r e a t i o n , such as a t h l e t i c s and games, and f o r
d i f f e r e n t forms of v o lu n ta ry s e rv ic e n e c e ss a ry f o r the w e lfa re
of th e community, such as farm ing, woodchopping, bookbinding,
road work, landscape p r o j e c t s , e t c . There i s no com pulsion
i n any of th e s e a c t i v i t i e s , but every one i n th e community
p a r t i c i p a t e s to some e x te n t. These r e c r e a t i o n a l and semi-
r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e a l l a p a r t of the d a y 's l i v i n g
and a r e th e r e f o r e provided f o r i n the d a ily sch ed u le. In
Black Mountain C o lleg e, th e v i s i t o r i s t o l d , 1 1 th e re i s n o t
th e same sharp cleavage t h a t o f te n e x i s t s between work and
32
p la y , between c u r r i c u l a r and e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s . ”
At supper, an even more i n t e r e s t i n g ex p erien ce a w a its
th e v i s i t o r . He walks in to the d in in g room t o fin d s tu d e n ts ,
f a c u l t y , and even the' f a c u l t y f a m ilie s (in c lu d in g c h ild r e n and
babies) a l l e a tin g in the one d in in g h a l l o f th e community.
There i s no d e f i n i t e s e a tin g arrangem ent; any one chooses any
s e a t a t any t a b l e . S tu d en ts and f a c u l ty a re mixed. There
a re no w a ite r s ; s tu d e n ts and f a c u l ty a l i k e h e lp them selves and
each o th e r. There i s no r e g u la tio n r e q u ir in g people t o ta k e
tu r n s i n h e lp in g to g e t food f o r o th e rs or to c l e a r th e t a b l e ;
a l l s e rv ic e i s v o lu n ta ry and th e re seems t o be no la ck a t a l l
of w illin g n e s s t o do o ne1 s s h a re . The only r u le in re g a rd to
s e l f - s e r v i c e a t t a b l e s i s t h a t no more th a n two persons should
r i s e from any one t a b l e a t a tim e. I n th e evening, th e re may
be a dance, or a music program, o r a drama p r e s e n t a t i o n , or
a g e n e ra l meeting f o r th e d is c u s s io n of community problem s.
The a d m in is tr a tio n of th e c o lle g e i s in the hands of
th e f a c u l t y . There i s no o u tsid e group t o r a i s e money or to
determ ine p o l i c i e s fo r th e c o lle g e . The f a c u l t y e l e c t s a
Board of F ello w s, which h an d les appointm ents and f i n a n c i a l
m a tte r s . The Hector i s e l e c t e d fo r o n e-y ea r term . S a la r ie s
are a s s ig n e d a c co rd in g to needs and circ u m sta n ces; some members
who have p r iv a te income of t h e i r own do not need very much from
th e c o lle g e tr e a s u r y . At p r e s e n t, s a l a r i e s range from $£00 to
$3-200. During the f i r s t y e a r of th e c o l le g e , th e average sa la ry
was seven and a h a l f d o l l a r s per month fo r each f a c u l ty member.
P ro v is io n s a r e made fo r stu d e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e
a d m in is tr a tio n of t h e c o lle g e . S tudent r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s s i t
in f a c u l t y m eetings. The c h ie f stu d e n t o f f i c e r i s a member
of th e Board o f F ellow s. There i s an e q u a l number of s tu d e n t
members and f a c u lty members on the adm issions com m ittees.
241
The G eneral M eeting, i n which a l l s tu d e n ts and f a c u l t y a r e
p r e s e n t, p ro v id e s an a d d i t i o n a l occasion f o r every person to
express h i s opinions on th e l i f e o f th e community. Since
th e re a r e no co lle g e re g u la tio n s -g o v e rn in g stu d e n t l i f e , a l l
" u n d e rsta n d in g s” concerning liv in g c o n d itio n s — f o r example,
whether hoys and g i r l s should v i s i t in t h e i r rooms—a re
reached hy d is c u s s io n i n m eetings.
S e l f - d i r e c t i o n i s the keynote to d a ily l i v i n g i n b o th
academic and non-academic m a tte r s . There a r e no form al c u r r i
c u la r req u irem e n ts; each s tu d e n t works out a program of
s tu d i e s to s u i t h is i n t e r e s t s and n eeds. Courses of i n s t r u c
t i o n f a l l w ith in fo u r f i e l d s : the s c ie n c e s , th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s ,
l i t e r a t u r e , and the a r t s . There a r e no courses r e q u ir e d of a l l
s tu d e n ts , but m usic, a r t , and drama a r e g iv en p r e f e r e n t i a l
tre a tm e n t in th e schedule so t h a t a l l may have o p p o rtu n ity to
ta k e them. The ca ta lo g u e d e s c rib e s th e se s u b je c ts a s
f o llo w s :
. . .M usic, d ra m a tic s , and the f in e a r t s a re reg ard ed
a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e l i f e of th e College and of
im portance equal to th a t of the courses t h a t u s u a lly
occupy -the c e n te r of th e cirruculurn. I n f a c t , in the
e a rly pa.rt of the s tu d e n t 1 s c a r e e r , they are co n sid ered
of p a r t i c u l a r im portance; b ec au se , i n th e f i r s t p la c e ,
they a r e , when p ro p e rly employed, l e a s t su b je c t to
d i r e c t i o n from w ith o u t and y e t have w ith in them a
sev ere d i s c i p l i n e of t h e i r own; and a ls o because, a s
one means f o r coming to a r e a l i s a t i o n of o rd e r in th e
w orld and to an i n s i g h t in to one1s s e l f , th e y h elp
to complete any such r e a l i z a t i o n a s i s reached through
a p u rely i n t e l l e c t u a l p ro c e s s . Since they a r e , by
n a t u r e , s u b je c t only to q u a l i t a t i v e e v a lu a tio n , ex
p erie n ce i n them tends to c o r r e c t the s o r t of q u a n t i t a t i v e
e v a lu a tio n s which the stu d e n t has only too fre q u e n tly
come to a c c e p t. F i n a l l y , the sensory and motor
t r a i n i n g in h e re n t i n th e se s tu d ie s i s not provided
hy work in the s t r i c t l y academic s u b j e c t s . 33
There i s a d e f i n i t e l i n e o f dem arcation between the
J u n io r D iv isio n and th e S enior D iv isio n . 'The- former i s a
p e rio d of e x p lo ra tio n i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of study so t h a t
th e stu d e n t may make acq u ain tan ce w ith each of the fo u r f i e l d s
o f the cu rricu lu m . There a r e no req u irem e n ts in term s of
co u rses or c r e d i t s or g rad es or minimum number of sem esters.
As soon as a stu d e n t f e e l s he has made s u f f i c i e n t e x p lo ra tio n
to make an i n t e l l i g e n t choice of a f i e l d of s p e c ia liz e d study,
he can apply f o r adm ission to th e S enior D iv is io n . Promotion
to th e Senior D iv isio n i s made on th e b a s is o f a cum ulative
re c o rd of r e p o r ts and evidences of work, and on the p assin g
of a comprehensive exam ination which " in c lu d e s a choice of
q u e stio n s on a l l s u b je c ts in th e c o lle g e cu rricu lu m and i s both
w r i t t e n and o r a l . 1 1 The exam ination i s f l e x i b l e i n scope;
no s p e c i f i c a re a s of knowledge a r e a b s o lu te ly r e q u ir e d . I t
le a v e s much room f o r choice of q u e s tio n s ; th e s tu d e n t chooses
th e q u estio n s he f e e l s competent to answer. The g e n e ra l
p r i n c i p l e of b re a d th i s kept i n mind in e v a lu a tin g the work of
th e Ju n io r D iv isio n , but no s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n i s p re s c rib e d .
Each ease i s judged on i t s own m e rit.
33 I b i d . , p. 7.
34 r b i d . , p. 8.
The S enior D iv isio n i s a p e r io d fo r more s p e c ia liz e d
stu d y . Each s tu d e n t draws up f o r h im s e lf a plan of work,
duly approved by th e f a c u l t y , and i s re s p o n s ib le f o r c a rry in g
out th e p la n . A f i n a l comprehensive exam ination i s g iv en
b efo re g ra d u a tio n ; o u tsid e exam iners a r e i n v i t e d . This
exam ination i s a g a in based on the in d iv i d u a l program of work
of the s tu d e n t. The purpose i s to f in d out what the stu d e n t
knows, n o t what th e o u tsid e examiners th in k he must know.
Members of a community who meet each o th e r every day
in c l a s s , i n s p o r ts , in outdoors work, in m eals, in dance,
e t c . g e t to know each o th e r w e ll. O ftentim es, stu d e n ts c a l l
t h e i r te a c h e rs by t h e i r f i r s t names. The in d iv id u a l i s th e
u n i t ; y e t he i s always a p a r t of an organic s o c ia l u n i t . His
ed u c atio n and h i s growth a re re co g n iz e d as in d iv id u a l a f f a i r s ,
fo llo w in g in d iv id u a l p a t t e r n s . The fo llo w in g examples i l l u s ^
t r a t e the p r i n c i p l e t h a t each fo llo w s h i s own p a t t e r n of
development.
A stu d en t e n r o lle d determ ined t o ta k e d ra m a tic s , and
n o th in g but d ra m a tics. I n th e course of th e y e a r he
f in d s h im s e lf c o n s id e rin g the d i r e c t i n g of th r e e
d i f f e r e n t p la y s , one d e a lin g w ith d o c to rs , one w ith
a h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e , and one concerning a la b o r
problem. He saw t h a t to d i r e c t th e s e plays i n
t e l l i g e n t l y he would have to le a r n something ab o u t
t h e i r background. In w atching d o c to rs i n h o s p i t a l s ,
in v i s i t i n g s trik e -b o u n d m i l l s , i n re ad in g about
th e l i f e and tim es of h is h i s t o r i c a l c h a r a c te r s , he
became so i n t e r e s t e d i n th e se new f i e l d s th a t the
next year he was ta k in g co u rses in b io lo g y , h i s t o r y ,
economics, and psychology. He probably got more
from those co u rse s than he would i f he had been
made to tak e them when he f i r s t came. He has con
tin u e d h is s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n d ram a tics and i s now
244
te a c h in g i t in a sc h o o l, , But he has seen th e broad
r a m if ic a tio n s o f d ram atics and i t s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
w ith o th e r s u b je c ts .
Another boy, a s t a r a t h l e t e , came w ith an unim pressive
i n t e l l e c t u a l re c o rd . I t soon became a p p a re n t to him
s e l f and to the whole community t h a t he had a d i s t i n c t
t a l e n t f o r drawing, which he approached w ith th e v ig o r
and rhythm of an a t h l e t e . He co n tin u ed h i s work i n
th a t f i e l d and a l s o d id e x c e p tio n a lly w e ll i n music
and d ra m a tic s . I t was not u n t i l h is t h i r d y e a r th a t
he began to s h o w .a b ility in more academic s u b je c ts such
as l i t e r a t u r e . He w i l l g rad u ate i n a r t and become a
te a c h e r. An i n t e r e s t i n g p o in t i s th a t the C ollege
allow ed him to approach th e s e s u b je c ts through h i s
in n a te sense of a t h l e t i c rhythm, so t h a t from t h i s
s p e c i f i c t a l e n t and i n t e r e s t he has become a person
of s e v e ra l i n t e r e s t s and a b i l i t i e s .
5. Summary and Comments
The c o lle g e s d e s c rib e d i n t h i s c h a p te r have t r i e d to
c a rry out thoroughly th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t ed u c atio n i s an i n d i
v id u a l a f f a i r . They a r e sm all c o lle g e s , u s u a lly charging
r a t h e r h ig h t u i t i o n , and th e r e i s a s u f f i c i e n t l y la rg e f a c u l ty
to g iv e the stu d e n t adequate p e rso n a l a t t e n t i o n and guidance.
The cu rricu lu m p a t t e r n i s in d i v i d u a l . I t i s m ain tain ed
t h a t in d iv id u a ls d i f f e r in t h e i r p a t t e r n of growth and d ev elo p
ment, i n t h e i r p rev io u s background and ex p e rien ce (academic as
w e ll as non-academ ic), and consequently in e d u c a tio n a l needs
and i n t e r e s t s . T h ere fo re , w hile i t i s ag ree d th a t the c u r r i
culum must provide f o r both g e n e r a liz a ti o n and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ,
35 D. W. B a ile y , ”The Student I s th e C u rricu lu m ,n
P ro g re ss iv e Education 16:41, J a n u a ry , 19 39.
the ex a ct p a t t e r n in which th e se two elem ents a r e woven t o
g e th e r must vary w ith in d iv id u als,. Moreover, sin c e le a rn in g
ta k e s p lace most e f f e c t i v e l y when th e le a r n e r sees th e s i g
n if ic a n c e o f the work in r e l a t i o n to h i s or her i n t e r e s t s
and needs, e d u c a tio n should c a p i t a l i z e w hatever i n t e r e s t s
a stu d e n t has and b u ild upon them. Hence th e i n s i s te n c e in
many of th e c o lle g e s t h a t c a n d id a te s f o r adm ission should
show i n t e r e s t or promise of a b i l i t y i n some s p e c ia l f i e l d
and th e p ro v is io n in the e a rly y e a rs of the co lleg e f o r ”t r i a l
m a jo rs” and in d iv id u a l p r o je c ts .
There a re no g e n e ra l req u irem e n ts concerning d i s t r i b u
ti o n and co n c en tratio n # In f a c t , th e re a r e no core s u b je c ts
o r core co u rses which a r e c o n sid e re d in d is p e n s ib l e elements,
in g e n e ra l e d u c atio n . L ib e ra l e d u c a tio n i s conceived in
th e se c o lle g e s , not i n terms of th e t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e s ,
n or in term s of major f i e l d s of knowledge, but i n term s of th e
a l l- r o u n d development of th e i n d iv i d u a l. E xpression through
a r t assumes a new im portance in the cu rricu lu m . S tudents a re
urged to tak e tim e to explore tMe d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of study
in th e cu rricu lu m , but th e purpose o f e x p lo ra tio n i s not so
much to a c q u ire in fo rm a tio n in th e s e f i e l d s a s to d isc o v e r
i n t e r e s t s and t e s t a b i l i t i e s i n o rd er to make an i n t e l l i g e n t
choise of a s p e c i f i c f i e l d f o r s p e c ia l stu d y . There i s no
sharp break between s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and g e n e r a liz a ti o n . I t i s
th e b u sin e ss of a l l good te a c h in g t o h elp stu d e n ts see
:?£6
r e l a t i o n s h i p s and g a in breadth.,of 'understanding,even in
d e a lin g w ith to p ic s of s p e c ia liz e d i n t e r e s t .
I n s t r u c t i o n a l methods a r e in fo rm al and c a lc u la te d to
encourage s e lf - e d u c a ti o n on the p a r t of the s t u d e n t s . Glass
m eetings a re m inim ized. S tu d en ts a re put on t h e i r own to
make the b e s t use of t h e i r time f o r independent stu d y .
The e v a lu a tio n program i s c h a r a c te r i z e d by (a) a s h i f t
from b r i e f q u a n t i t a t i v e sta te m en ts to d e s c r ip tiv e and a n a l y t i c
r e p o r ts of stu d e n t work and (b) an emphasis on th e a p p r a i s a l
of le s s ta n g ib le outcomes such a s i n t e l l e c t u a l and so c ie ty
m a tu rity , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r work, e t c . Q u a n tita tiv e s t a t e
ments i n terms of g rad es and marks a re r e p la c e d by more i n
form ative and comprehensive d e s c r ip tio n s of stu d e n t r e a c tio n s
and changes in the r e a c t i o n s . The c o lle g e s a re c o n tin u in g
a c tiv e ex p e rim en ta tio n w ith n o n - q u a n tita tiv e e v a lu a tio n re c o rd s
of v a rio u s ty p e s .
There i s no com plicated machinery of re q u ire m e n ts, r e
g u la t i o n s , g ra d e s , and course e x a m in a tio n s. P e rso n a l r e l a t i o n s
and p e rso n a l v a lu e s become c e n t r a l i n e d u c a tio n .
There i s , however, no sy ste m a tic e f f o r t made to r e
c o n s tru c t the cu rricu lu m . The courses of i n s t r u c t i o n and
t h e i r co n ten t a re determ ined la rg e ly by in d iv id u a l members
of the f a c u l t y , each of whom decides f o r h im s e lf w hat.he
wants to or ought t o te a c h . The r e s u l t i s much v a r i a t i o n i n
p r a c t i c e . There i s , f o r example, no c o n s is te n t p o lic y
in th e n a tu re and scope of th e in tr o d u c to ry or e x p lo ra to ry
co u rses fo r th e d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of stu d y , so t h a t one f in d s
in th e same co lleg e some in tro d u c to ry courses which cut
a c ro s s d ep artm en tal l in e s and o th e rs s t r i c t l y departm ental,
in scope. As a m a tte r o f f a c t , a g r e a t many of the courses
of i n s t r u c t i o n a re the sta n d ard co u rses of the t r a d i t i o n a l
c o lle g e , though i n a c t u a l te a c h in g much e f f o r t i s made to
ad ap t to in d iv id u a l d if fe re n c e s i n i n t e r e s t and a b i l i t y
w ith in the scope of t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t - m a tte r c o u rs e s . I t
may be s a id in defense t h a t , a f t e r a l l , th e way a course i s
ta u g h t counts much more th an th e t i t l e of th e courses o r th e
method of o rg a n iz in g i t s content* I t i s tru e t h a t in the
hands of a g r e a t te a c h e r th e most t r a d i t i o n a l s u b je c t m a tte r
could be made to be a l iv e and m eaningful to th e s tu d e n ts . I t
i s a ls o tr u e t h a t even i n the most c o n s e rv a tiv e t r a d i t i o n a l
c o lle g e a sm all m in o rity of b r i l l i a n t stu d e n ts have always
been a b le to make s u b je c t m a tte r fu n c tio n i n t h e i r l i v e s . The
q u e stio n today i s , whether or not th e curriculum can be so
r e c o n s tru c te d and co u rse s of i n s t r u c t i o n so organized t h a t
more te a c h e rs th a n the e x c e p tio n a lly g r e a t ones may be a b le
t o make t h e i r te a ch in g v i t a l to the s tu d e n ts , and more
s tu d e n ts th a n the b r i l l i a n t m in o rity may broaden t h e i r h o rizo n
and e n ric h t h e i r l i v e s th rough the c o lle g e s t u d i e s . Much as
they have c o n trib u te d to h ig h e r e d u c a tio n through th e i n d i v i
d u a liz a tio n and th e p e r s o n a liz a tio n o f e d u c a tio n , th e c o lle g e s
c o n sid ered I n t h i s ch a p ter have "been slow in u n d ertak in g any
sy ste m a tic program of cu rricu lu m re c o n s tru c tio n *
PART THREE
STJM M A RY AHD OOIfCLUSIOUS
r
CHAPTER X
SUM M ARY OF FINDINGS A ITD CONGiUSlOIIS OF THE STUDY
This study was made to d isco v er the d i f f e r e n t methods
o f approach which have been employed in the r e o r g a n iz a tio n of
th e l i b e r a l a r t s cu rricu lu m . The r e o r g a n iz a tio n of the
c o lle g e curriculum i s a movement which arose in re c o g n itio n
of se rio u s d e fe c ts and shortcom ings of th e t r a d i t i o n a l
c o lle g e program. The major d e fe c ts and shortcom ings, as
r e f l e c t e d in c r i t i c i s m s by educators and laymen, were found
to be the fo llo w in g :
1. The c r e d i t system and i t s r e l a t e d machinery have
mechanized education and i d e n t i f i e d th e e d u c a tiv e p ro cess
w ith such r o u tin e a c t i v i t i e s as th e accu m u latio n o f c r e d i t s ,
c o u rse s, and g ra d e s.
2. I n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e i s a t a low ebb i n th e c o l l e g e s ; .
s tu d e n ts show l i t t l e i n t e r e s t and i n i t i a t i v e in t h e i r s tu d ie s .
3. Mass ed u c atio n methods ignore the in d iv id u a l and
breed m e d io c rity .
4. The curriculum i s a hodgepodge of fragm entary
courses and lacks design and u n ity .
5. harrow s p e c i a l i z a t i o n d e fe a ts the purposes of
l i b e r a l ed u catio n .
6. College s tu d i e s f a i l to a t t a c h th e v i t a l problems
of modern l i f e .
25.1
7. College g rad u ates t e s t i f y t h a t t h e i r co lleg e edu
c a tio n has f a i l e d to n elp them to the p r a c t i c a l problems of
l i fe ,
8. S tudents in c o lle g e jo in th e chorus of c r i t i c i s m s ,
9. The co lle g e i s u n c e r ta in o f i t s aims and fundamen
t a l purposes,
A g e n e ra l survey of changes in l i b e r a l a r t s ed u c atio n
and a more in te n s iv e study of the cu rricu lu m of tw e n ty -th re e
c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s (in c lu d in g two te a c h e rs c o lle g e s)
re v e a le d s ix d i f f e r e n t p a t te r n s of the c o lle g e curriculum
which are c l e a r l y d is tin g u is h a b le am idst th e numerous c u r r i
c u la r changes which have been in tro d u c e d in the c o lle g e s of
th e co u n try , The six p a t te r n s are as fo llo w s,
f l . A cu rricu lu m marked by the in tr o d u c t io n of i n s t r u e -
i
t i o n a l methods and devices to break down the lo c k ste p system
of c r e d i t s , form al l e c t u r e s , and th e m echanization of educa
t i o n . C o n s p i c u o u s among such methods and d ev ices a re the
t u t o r i a l or honors p la n s fo r th e encouragement of indexoendent
study and th e i n s t i t u t i o n of comprehensive exam inations to
s h i f t th e emphasis from c r e d i t accum ulation and tim e -se rv in g
to organized knowledge w ith in a f i e l d ,
Hs. A cu rricu lu m marked by e f f o r t s to a v o id narrow
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and r i g i d d e p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n , J The e f f o r t may
be no more than a mere a d m in is tr a tiv e grouping o f departm ents
in to d i v is io n s , in v o lv in g no i n t e g r a t i o n of d e p a rtm e n ta liz ed
252
s u b je c t m a tte r and producing, in e f f e c t , no r e a l change in
the e s s e n t i a l p a t t e r n of the c u rricu lu m . Or, f u r th e r s te p s
may be tak en toward the f u s io n or i n t e g r a t i o n of s u b je c t
m a tte r i n in te rd e p a r tm e n ta l courses of v a rio u s ty p e s.
/s. A cu rricu lu m o f c l a s s i c a l s tu d i e s and " g re a t books"
of the ag esj The c e n t r a l aim i s th e r e v iv a l of th e l i b e r a l
a r t s and the t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e s of the m ediaeval u n iv e r
s i t y .
[ 4 . A curriculum organized around a few major f i e l d s
o f knowledge or human achievem ent, w ith a core o f g e n e ra l
in te rd e p a rtm e n ta l courses re p re s e n tin g the re q u ire d minimum
of g e n e ra l ed u c a tio n .^ The judgment of the f a c u l t y and of
e x p e rts r e p r e s e n tin g d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s p ro v id es th e c r i t e r i a
which guide the d ete rm in atio n of the m ajor f i e l d s o r a re a s
and the o rg a n iz a tio n o f courses f o r the d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s or
a r e a s .
fbm A cu rricu lu m b u i l t upon the m ajor fu n c tio n s of
modern l i v i n g determ ined by a survey of the a c t i v i t i e s and
needs of s tu d e n ts and o f alumni in a c tiv e c a r e e r s . ) The survey
d a ta , i n t e r p r e t e d and e v a lu a te d in the l i g h t o f a philsophy
of g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n in the p re se n t a g e , provide th e b a s is
not only f o r th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e m ajor a re a s of li v i n g ,
but a ls o f o r the o rg a n iz a tio n of course co n ten t f o r each o f
th e a r e a s .
fe. A cu rricu lu m based upon the i n t e r e s t s , a b i l i t i e s ,
2 5 3
and needs o f each in d iv i d u a l s tu d e n t. She i n t e r e s t s and
needs of th e s tu d e n t a re d isc o v ere d , n o t by any survey of
groups of s tu d e n ts , b u t by the in tim a te p e rso n a l knowledge
of each in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t. I n d iv id u a l ed u catio n r e p la c e s
mass ed u c atio n ; p e rs o n a l arrangem ents take th e place of
g e n e ra l requirem ents and sta n d a rd s; in fo rm al f l e x i b l e methods
su p p la n t the machinery of q u a n t i t a t i v e e d u catio n .
Each of th e s i x p a tte r n s in c o rp o ra te s in to i t s o rg a n i
z a tio n c e r t a i n d e p a rtu re s from the t r a d i t i o n a l curriculum
which are in te n d e d to remove some im p o rtan t d e fe c ts or s h o r t
comings of the t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e , The independent study
p lans ( in c lu d in g t u t o r i a l and honors systems) have q u ite
succe s s f u l l y met th e c r i t i c i s m s of low i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e , of
s tu d e n t p a s s i v i t y , and of mass ed u catio n which f a i l s to provide
f o r the development of e x c e p tio n a l a b i l i t y . Comprehensive/"
exam inations c a lli n g f o r organized Imowledge i n whole f i e l d s
a b o l is h the m echanical system of r o u tin e serv in g and the slow
accum ulation o f fragm entary c r e d i t s . The d i v i s i o n a l org an izac
tio n of the cu rricu lu m i s an e f f o r t to meet the c r i t i c i s m of
narrow s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , and th e development of in te rd e p a rtm e n t
co u rses re p r e s e n ts a f u r t h e r step in th e d i r e c t i o n of b ro ad er
knowledge and u n d e rs ta n d in g s , a t the same time opening th e way
fo r a r e a l i s t i c study o f l i f e problem s, untrammeled by d e p a rt-
m ental r e s t r i c t i o n s . The c l a s s i c a l c u rric u lu m i s a r e a c tio n
a g a in s t th e d i s i n t e g r a t e d cu rricu lu m of the modern c o lle g e ,
a g a in s t the system o f f r e e e l e c t i v e s and m u l t i p l i c i t y of
c o u rse s. ^While i t s d iv o rce from contemporary problems
a c c e n tu a te s an a lre a d y s e rio u s d e fe c t of the p re se n t-d a y
c o lle g e , i t s qarest f o r u n ity in th e cu rricu lu m and f o r a
c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the o b je c tiv e s of the l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e
i s e x p re ssiv e of an im p o rtan t need in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n to -d a y .
^ ih is quest fo r u n ity a ls o c h a r a c te r i z e s th e cu rricu lu m of
broad f i e l d s , whether the b road f i e l d s be a re a s of knowledge
or fu n c tio n s of liv i n g , ^ h e r e a re s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e s
between th e two ty p es of the b r o a d - f ie ld s curriculum : while
one s t a r t s w ith re o rg a n iz e d s u b je c t m a tte r, the other* s t a r t s
w ith a re a s o f l i f e problems; w hile one uses the method of
s u b je c tiv e judgment, the oth er employs the method o f o b je c tiv e
survey. In both ty p e s , however, l i b e r a l ed u catio n i s re d e fin e d
i n term s o f modern l i f e , and a new core of s tu d ie s i s developed
i n pursuance of the newly d e fin e d o b je c tiv e s of l i b e r a l or
g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n . Both, moreover, make use of such c o n t r i
b u tio n s a s have been made by c o lle g e s experim enting w ith i n
dependent study methods, comprehensive exam inations , th e d i v i - -
s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n of departm ents, and in te rd e p a rtm e n ta l
courses of i n s t r u c t i o n . They thus meet w ith g r e a t e r or le s s
su ccess not only th e c r i t i c i s m s a g a in s t the d i s i n t e g r a t e d c u r r i
culum and a g a in s t c o lle g e s tu d ie s u n r e la te d to l i f e ' s problem s,
but a ls o th o se which concern th e system of mechanized e d u c atio n ,
th e methods of mass ed u catio n , the entrenchm ent of d e p a r t
m ental s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , and th e u n c e rta in ty about the p u r
poses of l i b e r a l ed u c atio n in the modern ag e. x F in a ll y , th e
c u r r ic u lu m p a t t e r n _o.f-h;h,-a-Jlegperimental c o l le g e s ” i s an
answer to th e c r i t i c i s m s a g a in s t the m ech an izatio n of educa
t i o n , th e a d o p tio n of mass methods, th e lack of stu d e n t
i n t e r e s t and purpose i n s tu d ie s , and the f a i l u r e to r e l a t e
ed u catio n t o l i f e problems and o u t- o f - c o lle g e ex p erien ce.
The p a t te r n s a re n o t m utually e x c lu s iv e . In many a
c o lle g e , one f in d s elem ents of two or more d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s .
Elements of th e f i r s t two p a tte r n s --in d e p e n d e n t study methods,
comprehensive exam inations, d iv is io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n and i n t e r
d ep a rtm en ta l c o u rs e s —a re found, f o r example, i n every c o lle g e
d isc u sse d under th e o th e r p a t t e r n s . A c o lle g e may a t th e
same time make use of se v e ra l approaches in th e r e c o n s tr u c
ti o n of i t s cu rricu lu m : th e b est-judgm ent approach, th e s u r-
v ey -of-needs approach, the in d iv id u a l approach, and even some
elem ents o f the c l a s s i c a l approach.
‘ '''The above statem ent leads to th e f u r th e r o b se rv a tio n
t h a t the ex c lu siv e ad o p tio n of any s in g le curriculum p a t t e r n
i s apt to leave out im portant c o n tr ib u tio n s made by other
p a tte im s and t h a t , conseq u en tly , a wise program of cu rricu lu m
r e c o n s tr u c tio n w i l l t r y to in c o rp o ra te the c o n trib u tio n s of
each o f th e s ix p a t t e r n s . Z'The methods of independent study,
t u t o r i a l i n s t r u c t i o n , comprehensive e x a m in a tio n s,
256
and the d i v i s i o n a l o rg a n iz a tio n have been so \^idely a c c e p te d
th a t they have become im portant elem ents in alm o st every
r e o r g a n iz a tio n p la n . To say, however, t h a t th ey are, e sse n
t i a l l y , methods of i n s t r u c t i o n in v o lv in g no d i r e c t c u r r i c u
lum r e c o n s tr u c tio n i s only to r e i t e r a t e t h a t ^ h e y alone a r e^
not s u f f i c i e n t in removing the d e f e c ts of t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e
ed u c atio n . / I n methods of cu rricu lu m r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i t has
been p o in te d out ( in th e concluding s e c tio n of Chapter VII
and t h a t o t Chapter V III) t h a t n e i th e r the best-judgm ent
approach n o r th e su rv e y -o f-n e e d s approach i s in i t s e l f
s u f f i c i e n t and th a t th e r e i s need of t h e i r com bination so
th a t th e s u b je c tiv e judgment of s p e c i a l i s t s may be guided by
an o b je c tiv e p ic tu r e of l i f e needs and th e o b je c tiv e d ata of
the survey may be i n t e r p r e t e d and e v a lu a te d i n the l i g h t of
a s u b je c tiv e p h ilo so p h y . While th e philosophy of the c l a s s i c a l
cu rricu lu m i s not e a s ily a c c e p ta b le i n view of i t s w ithdraw al
from the burning is s u e s of contemporary l i f e , i t s emphasis on
d i r e c t c o n ta c ts w ith g reat minds th ro u g h the study of t h e i r
o r ig in a l books may prove to be a tim ely a n tid o te a g a in s t
undue r e l i a n c e on ”p re d ig e s te d ” tex tb o o k s and s y l l a b i which
a re so common in American c o lle g e s .
./ F i n a l l y , the emphasis on th e i n t e r e s t s and needs of the
in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t, so w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d by th e experim ental
c o lle g e s d isc u sse d in Chapter IX, should not be n e g le c te d i n
any program of cu rricu lu m r e c o n s tr u c tio n . E ducation must begin
w ith th e l e a r n e r , with h i s a c tiv e i n t e r e s t s , problem s, needs,
and a b i l i t i e s . ^Even i f cu rricu lu m c o n ten t has been r e o r
g an ized in view o f surveyed n e e d s .o f s tu d e n ts and alum ni, i t
w i l l s t i l l be n ecessary to bridge the gap (however sm all i t
may be) between th e g e n e ra l needs o f groups and the p a r t i
c u la r needs and i n t e r e s t s of the in d iv id u a l stu d e n ts found
in a given classroom s i t u a t i o n . Uo amount of cu rricu lu m
r e c o n s tr u c tio n can d isp en se w ith the needs of b rid g in g the
gap between th e le a r n e r and the s u b je c t m a tte r. On th e other
hand, j u s t as ed u catio n must begin with th e a c t i v e i n t e r e s t s
and problems of the s tu d e n t, i t must be d ir e c te d toward de
f i n i t e ends beyond the p re s e n t i n t e r e s t s and needs of th e
s tu d e n t, fhe i n t e r e s t s and needs of the stu d e n t a re th e
s t a r t i n g p o in ts of ed u c a tio n , but they pi*ovide no guide a s
th e ends t o which e d u c a tio n should le a d , ^ h u s the cu rricu lu m -
approach of th e ex p erim en tal c o lle g e s must be supplem ented by
o th e r curriculum approaches which c o n t r ib u t e , among o th e r
t h in g s , a c le a r d e f i n i t i o n of l i b e r a l ed u c a tio n in th e p rese n t
ag e .
The c o lle g e s a re on th e .m arch . I n c r e a s in g ly aware of
the shortcom ings o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l program, th e c o llg e s a re
experim enting w ith new ways and new methods. Everywhere,
changes and new p la n s a r e in p ro g re s s . In the m idst of th e se
£58
in n o v a tio n s, a r e th e re some g e n e ra l tre n d s which may in d ic a te
the g e n e ra l d i r e c t i o n toward which th e c o lle g e cu rricu lu m i s
moving? The fo llo w in g tre n d s a r e suggested by th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y •
1. The c o lle g e s a r e slowly moving away from the lo c k
ste p system of c r e d i t s , p o in ts , c o u rse s, and l e c t u r e s .
£• hew i n s t r u c t i o n a l methods and d e v ic e s a r e being
developed to supplem ent, o r, in some e a s e s , even to su p p lan t
th e t r a d i t i o n a l l e c t u r e method.
3. Independent study and s e lf - e d u c a ti o n a r e everywhere
encouraged. C lass m eetings a re m inim ized; la rg e blocks of time
a r e provided for the use of the s tu d e n ts in independent study.
4 . Comprehensive exam inations mark a s h i f t of emphasis
from th e accum ulation of c r e d i t s and th e p assin g of s e p a ra te
courses to org an ized knowledge w ith in a whole f i e l d .
5. R igid d e p a rtm e n ta liz a tio n i s av o id ed ; th e d i v i s i o n a l
o r g a n iz a tio n of departm ents and th e development of i n t e r d e p a r t
m ental co u rses a r e among th e e f f o r t s made to help th e stu d e n ts
see the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s u b je c ts and f i e l d s of
study.
6. By p erso n n e l and co u n selin g methods, the c o lle g e s
t r y t o pay more a t t e n t i o n to in d iv i d u a l s tu d e n ts , and to o th e r
phases of p e r s o n a lity development b e s id e s i n t e l l e c t u a l grow th.
7. In both i n s t r u c t i o n a l methods and curriculum o rg a
n iz a ti o n , more a t t e n t i o n i s being given t o in d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n -
259
ces in a b i l i t y , needs, and i n t e r e s t s .
S. Means a r e d ev ise d to promote c lo s e r p e rso n a l
r e l a t i o n s between s tu d e n ts and f a c u lty ,
9. L ib e ra l ed u catio n i s being r e d e f in e d i n t e r n s of
the a p p r e c ia tio n of contemporary c u ltu re and i n t e l l i g e n t
ad ju stm en t to the.problem s of modern l if e *
10. Many c o lle g e s mark o f f the f i r s t two y e a rs as a
p e rio d f o r e x p lo ra tio n and g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n , and th e l a s t
two y e a rs f o r c o n c e n tra tio n and in te n s iv e study w ith in a
chosen f i e l d , f h i s lin e of cleavage i s more marked in some
i n s t i t u t i o n s than in o th e r s .
11. A new core of l i b e r a l s tu d ie s is being developed,
not in terms of the t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e s , b u t in term s of
m ajor a re a s of human knowledge or l i f e problem s.
12. In c re a s in g e f f o r t i s being made t o develop new
e v a lu a tio n in stru m e n ts and re c o rd s f o r the a p p r a i s a l of
d i f f e r e n t phases of stu d e n t growth: exam inations to t e s t
u n d erstan d in g of p r in c ip l e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r than the
mere accum ulation of knowledge; t e s t s of a b i l i t y to apply
knowledge to new s i t u a t i o n s ; d e s c r ip tiv e re c o rd s f o r th e
a p p r a i s a l of l e s s ta n g ib le i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c ia l-m o ra l
growth; e t c .
CHAPTER XI
PROBLEMS FOR FURTHER IFVES TIG-ATIOH
This study was concerned, m ainly w ith th e g e n e ra l
p a t t e r n of the c o lleg e cu rricu lu m . Many problems were only,
touched, on th e su rfa c e . They re q u ir e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n
and re s e a r c h .
1. C losely lin k e d w ith th e problem of cu rricu lu m
o rg a n iz a tio n i s th a t of te a c h in g m ethods. D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
w ith th e le c tu r e method has le d c o lle g e s to ex p e rim en ta tio n
w ith o th e r te ach in g p ro ced u res. T u to r ia l i n s t r u c t i o n ,
sem inar groups, scien ce e x h i b its , m otion p i c t u r e s , d is c u s s io n
s e c tio n s : th e se a re some of the methods which have been t r i e d
w ith more or le s s su ccess. There is need of c r i t i c a l a n a l
y se s of the methods and tech n iq u es and of the r e l a t i v e r e s u l t s
ob tain ed under d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s ,
2, The p ersonnel and guidance program of c o lle g e s has
been re p e a te d ly r e f e r r e d t o i n th e s tu d y . C olleges and u n i
v e r s i t i e s a r e paying more and more a t t e n t i o n to the develop
ment of comprehensive guidance programs to supplement the
i n s t r u c t i o n a l program of the classroom . In many i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
counseling i s th e main channel by which the s tu d e n ts are h elp ed
to achieve some degree of i n t e l l i g e n t d esign in t h e i r s tu d ie s .
Numerous guidance tech n iq u e s are being developed. They aw ait
c r i t i c a l exam ination and evaluation*
3. The e v a lu a tio n program i s a n o th er f i e l d which
needs in v e s tig a tio n * C olleges and u n i v e r s i t i e s g e n e ra lly
p ro fe ss concern for the a i l - r o u n d development of the s tu d e n ts ,
f o r t h e i r c h a r a c te r and h e a lth and s o c ia l m a tu rity as w e ll
a s fo r t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l grow th. So f a r , however, due to
the la ck of in stru m e n ts f o r th e a p p r a i s a l of other outcomes,
the o f f i c i a l e v a lu a tio n program i s l a r g e l y r e s t r i c t e d t o the
t e s t i n g of knowledge* I t r e q u ir e s c a r e f u l r e s e a r c h to devise
d i f f e r e n t types of in stru m e n ts and re c o rd s f o r the a p p r a i s a l
of d i f f e r e n t phases of p e r s o n a lity grow th, and to examine
c r i t i c a l l y th e d i f f e r e n t e v a lu a tio n te ch n iq u e s which a re
being t r i e d in v a r io u s c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
4* C o -o rd in a tio n w ith lower and upper u n its in the
school system i s a phase o f curriculum r e o r g a n iz a tio n which
deserves more thought and study. When co u rses in th e lower
d iv is io n of the c o lle g e a re reo rg a n iz e d to Ground o u t” th e
g e n e ra l ed u catio n of the s tu d e n ts , more thought ought to be
g iv e n to th e q u e s tio n , ”How much g en e ra l' e d u c a tio n has been
ac h iev ed in th e secondary sc h o o l, before th e student e n te r s
c o lle g e ? ” I t i s easy to assume th a t in ta k in g th e g e n e ra l
courses i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s , th e s tu d e n ts are being in tro d u ce d
f o r the f i r s t tim e to th e se f i e l d s of knowledge, but th a t
would to be to ignore the value of g e n e ra l s tu d ie s in the
secondary sc h o o l. Some c o lle g e s which a r e i n c lin e d to r e
je c t in te rd e p a rtm e n ta l g e n e ra l co u rses are of th e opinion
th a t s tu d e n ts have had s u f f i c i e n t g e n e ra l in tr o d u c tio n to
broad f i e l d s o f knowledge in high sch o o l, so t h a t by th e
tim e they e n te r c o lle g e they would b e n e f it more from w e ll
planned departm ental in tro d u c to ry co u rses than from i n t e r
departm ental g e n e ra l c o u rse s. The argument sh o u ld not be
l i g h t l y d ism issed a s unworthy of c a r e f u l c o n s id e ra tio n . More
f a c t s and d ata a re re q u ire d * fo r i n t e l l i g e n t p lan n in g .
Likew ise, more th o u g h t should be given to th e c o o rd i
n a tio n o f th e re o rg a n iz e d curriculum in the lower d iv is io n ,
w ith th e work o f th e upper d iv is io n and higher u n i t s . In
many i n s t i t u t i o n s where the curriculum of th e lower d iv is io n
has been com pletely revamped, the cu rricu lu m of th e Lpper
d iv is io n has hot been changed very much. To what e x te n t do
th e g e n e ra l courses which a r e organized p rim a rily f o r the
purposes of g en e ra l ed u c atio n equip stu d e n ts f o r more advanced
s tu d ie s in th e f i e l d s ? How should the beginning courses in
s p e c ia liz e d study i n a f i e l d be organized so th a t they might
b u ild upon th e knowledge a lre a d y gained in the g e n e ra l courses
D u p lic a tio n of co n te n t may be of b e n e f i t w ith ih l i m i t s , but
too much d u p lic a tio n would be n o t only w a ste fu l of tim e but
a ls o d e trim e n ta l to stu d e n t i n t e r e s t .
5. F i n a l l y , the p e re n n ia l problem, the t e a c h e r s f
The nexv cu rricu lu m p la n s c a l l f o r a-'new type of te a c h e r s , more
263
broadly t r a i n e d than departm ental academ icians and more
s e n s itiv e to stu d e n t i n t e r e s t s and s'o cial needs than th e
ty p i c a l co lleg e p ro fe s s o r o f today. They a re not easy to
f in d . Old p ro fe s s o r s a r e . s o deeply en tren ch ed in o ld ways
of te ach in g t h a t c o lle g e s in tro d u c in g new te ach in g procedures
( e . g . , t u t o r i a l in s t r u c tio n ) and newly o rg an ized courses,
( e . g . , th e newly organized in te rd e p a rtm e n ta 1 courses) have
in most cases been compelled to depend on young i n s t r u c t o r s
w ithout much ex p e rien ce , who, because of t h e i r y outh, a r e
more open-minded and more w illin g to le a r n on the job. With
th e c o lle g e s making more and more e f f o r t in th e d i r e c t i o n of
broad un d erstan d in g s and i n a more r e a l i s t i c a t t a c k upon l i f e ,
problem s, i t behooves i n s t i t u t i o n s re s p o n s ib le f o r producing
c o lle g e p ro fe s s o rs to la y s p e c ia l em phasis on th e i n t e r r e l a
tio n s h ip s of f i e l d s o f knowledge on th e one hand, and th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between su b je c t m a tte r and the c r u c i a l problems
o f contemporary l i f e on th e o th e r; so t h a t a new type of
c o lle g e te a c h e rs may be produced who w ill'b e . more competent
t o carry out the o b je c tiv e s of g en e ral or l i b e r a l education
i n th e modern age.
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260
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N ational S o cie ty of College Teachers of Education. Seven
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2« 7 ©
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2?|
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27 £
C a rro th e rs , G. E . , "An Experiment at R o llin s C o lle g e ,"
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26, 1936 • — — — —— - ■ ■ ■
27&
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27?
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Dudley, Louise, " I n te g r a tio n of th e H um anities," What About
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F o e r s te r , Norman, "The L ib e ra l A rts College C urriculum ,"
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2 7 0
Frank, Glenn, "The Revolt A gainst E d u ca tio n ," School and
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________ , "The S o cia l Sciences in th e C ollege a t th e U n iv e rsity
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27®
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P roceedings of the I n s t i t u t e f o r A d m in istra tiv e O ffic e rs
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Harbeson, J. W., " C u rric u la r O rg an izatio n of Pasadena Ju n io r
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2?e
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1930.
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Proceedings of the I n s t i t u t e fo r A d m in istra tiv e O ffic e rs
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2VT
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2 S &
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX
QUESTIONS FOR GENERALUJUIDE IN VISITATION AND INTERVIEWS
I . Byroad Is s u e s of H igher Education:
1. What i s th e p o lic y concerning th e adm ission of stu d en ts?
On what p r i n c i p l e s should stu d e n ts be s e le c te d f o r h ig h e r
education?
2. Does th e c o lle g e have d i r e c t s o c ia l o b lig a tio n s to th e
s o c ia l order? I s th e American c o lle g e being tu rn e d in to
a M s e rv ic e s t a t i o n 1 * or ws e r v i l e i n s t i t u t i o n ”?
3* To what e x te n t a re contemporary s o c ia l- e c o n o m ic - p o litic a l
problems stu d ie d in th e curriculum ? How?
4. How a re th e scope and sequence o f th e curriculum d e t e r
mined? I s i n s t r u c t i o n organized in term s of u n i t s , t o p i c s ,
i n t e r e s t s , is s u e s , o r a c t i v i t i e s ?
5* How much i s th e c o lle g e concerned w ith o th e r phases of
stu d en t growth th a n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l ? How is th e id e al
implemented?
6. What p r o v is io n s , i f any, a re made f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and
s p e c ia liz a tio n ?
7* What p r o v is io n s , I f any, a r e made f o r f o r o c c u p atio n al
p re p a ra tio n ?
8. How is l i b e r a l ed u c atio n defined? What p a r t of th e educa
ti o n a l program in th e c o lle g e is co n sid ered most c r u c ia l
to a r e a l i z a t i o n of th e id e a l of l i b e r a l education?
9* What seems to be th e f u tu re o f th e American co lleg e? (In
aims, c o n te n t, methods, o rg a n iz a tio n , e t c .)
10. To what e x te n t i s th e re a com bination o f l i b e r a l a r t s and
p ro fe s s io n a l s tu d i e s in th e college?
I I . O rg a n iz a tio n and A dm inistration*
1. Is th e co lle g e d iv id e d in to a lower d i v is io n and- an upper
d iv is io n ? To what e x ten t i s th e re a c l e a r - c u t o rg a n iz a tio n
w ith d if f e r e n c e s in aim, methods, and content between th e
two le v e ls ?
2. What g e n e ra l p r i n c i p l e s govern th e poLicy of adm issions?
How a re stu d e n ts s e le c te d f o r th e low er d iv is io n ? For th e
upper d iv is io n ?
3* Is the c r e d i t system follow ed in th e statem ent o f r e q u ir e
ments?
4. What th e requirem ents f o r f o r major and minor? To what
e x te n t i s th e m ajor r e l a t e d to o cc u p a tio n a l p re p a ra tio n ?
295
5. What i s th e e v a lu a tio n program of th e college? Is i t
in harmony w ith th e aims of education?
6. What p ro v is io n s a r e made f o r th e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f th e
c o lle g e w ith h ig h ^z schools?
7. What s t a t i s t i c a l d a ta are a v a ila b le concerning th e p ro
p o r tio n o f stu d e n ts who b eg in p r o fe s s io n a l study a f t e r
one o r two y e a rs in th e co lleg e?
8. What methods of te ach in g a r e in use b e s id e s th e l e c t u r e
method?
I I I . (General Courses, Survey C ourses, O r ie n ta tio n C ourses, e t c . :
1. Does th e c o lleg e fav o r d ep a rtm en ta l g en e ra l co u rses or
in te rd e p a rtm e n ta l courses? What a r e t h e i r r e l a t i v e ad
v an tag es and disadvantages?
2. In what s p e c if ic ways are th e g en e ra l courses d i f f e r e n t
from th e t r a d i t i o n a l d ep artm en tal in tro d u c to ry courses?
3. How is th e co n ten t of th e courses determined? On th e
b a s is o f survey o f s o c ia l o r stu d e n t needs, o r th e the
r e s u l t of c o -o p e ra tiv e th in k in g on th e p a r t o f th e s t a f f ?
4. To what e x te n t i s th e g e n e ra l course a merger o f t r a d i t i o n
a l d epartm ental courses?
5* How a r e th e g e n e ra l courses r e l a t e d to more advanced
courses in r e l a t e d f ie ld s ? Do they serve as a c c e p ta b le
p r e - r e q u i s i t e s f o r aourses on h ig h e r le v e ls?
6. To what e x te n t i s la b o ra to ry work r e ta in e d o r s u b s t i t u t e d
in th e in tro d u c to ry sc ien c e courses? To what e x te n t is
la b o ra to ry ex p erien ce c o n s id e r e d 'e s s e n ti a l to an under
sta n d in g and a p p r e c ia tio n o f modern sience?
IV. The G-eneral C ollege and o th e r new p la n s:
1. Is th e program designed f o r a l l c o lle g e stu d e n ts o r is i t
f o r t h e non-academic or some s p e c ia l types o f stu d e n ts
only?
2. Does th e program f a l l sh o rt of th e t r a d i t i o n a l program
in s c h o la rs h ip and i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t a i n m e n t s ? I s depth
of study s a c r i f i c e d fo r b readth? O r, v ic e v ersa?
3* Does t h i s typ& o f co lleg e g iv e stu d e n ts adequate p rep a
r a tio n f o r advanced study on h ig h e r le v e ls ?
4. Was th e o r i g i n a l p lan p a tte r n e d a f t e r th a t of a n o th e r
college? How as i t drawn up?
5. What a r e the problems and d i f f i c u l t i e s of th e new
program?

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Creator Chen, Theodore Hsi-En (author)

Core Title Developing patterns of the college curriculum in the United States

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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