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A critical study of certain physiological, emotional, and motivating factors as determining elements in a remedial reading program

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A critical study of certain physiological, emotional, and motivating factors as determining elements in a remedial reading program

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Content A CRITICAL STUDY OP CERTAIN PHYSIOLOGICAL, EMOTIONAL, AND MOTIVATING FACTORS AS DETERMINING ELEMENTS IN A REMEDIAL READING PRO G RA M A D is s e rta tio n P resen ted to the F acu lty o f the Graduate School The U n iv e rsity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia c j''-— '■'-v Ct In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of the Requirements f o r the Degree Doctor of Philosophy by S i s t e r Mary Vera N iess S i s t e r o f Notre Dame F ebruary 19lj.l UMI Number: DP23459 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI DP23459 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346 This dissertation, written by S is te r Mary Vera N iess S.ls. t.e.r...o.f.. Notre. ..Dame................ under the guidance of h .3 X Faculty Committee on Studies, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council' on Graduate Study and Research, in partial ful fillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Secretary Februar y , 1941... Committee on Studies Chairmt TABLE O F CONTENTS CHAPTER I . THE PROBLEM AND EXPLANATION OF TERM S USED . . . . The p r o b le m .............................................................................. Statem ent of the problem ......................................... Importance of the study ......................................... L im itatio n s of the study ......................................... Type of stu d y ..................................................................... D e fin itio n and ex p lan atio n of terms used . . . O rganization o f the rem ainder o f the stu d y . . I I . RELATED INVESTIGATIONS ....................................................... In v e s tig a tio n s p e rta in in g to techniques and m o tiv atio n ......................................................................... In v e s tig a tio n s p e r ta in in g to p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs In v e s tig a tio n s p e r ta in in g to d e fe c ts o f v is io n In v e s tig a tio n s p e rta in in g to co n d itio n s of l a t e r a l i t y ........................................................... .... L im itatio n s of previous s tu d ie s ................................ I I I . FACTORS A N D TECHNIQUES USED IN THE EQUATING OF SU B JECTS......................................................................... Need fo r a new c r i t e r i o n of probable s c h o la s tic achievem ent ......................................................................... I n te r r e la t io n s h ip between accomplishment and i n t e l l i g e n c e .......................* ............................... . In flu en ce o f the law of uneven d i s t r ib u t io n o f the e f f e c ts of s p e c if ic f a c to rs . . . . Attempts to improve the AQ ......................................... PAGE 1 2 2 7 13 19 21 2? 29 29 35 4l k 7 51 54 55 55 56 58 i i i CHAPTER PAGE I I I . (c o n tin u e d ) The X A aa a c r i t e r i o n o f probable s c h o la s tic a c h ie v e m e n t................................................................... 59 N ature of th e r e g re s s io n e q u a t i o n ................. 59 S u p e rio rity o f X A to re a d in g i n d e x ............ 6l P upil f a c to rs c o n tro lle d in equation o f s u b je c ts 66 Use of X A and read in g a c h ie v e m e n t................. 66 Low m e n ta lity as a f a c to r ....................... 67 O rganization of g r o u p s ............................................ 68 G eneral n a tu re and purpose o f group types . . 68 D esc rip tio n of equated groups ................................ 70 E ducative fa c to rs c o n tro lle d in a d m in is tra tio n o f e x p e r im e n t.............................................................. 85 I n s tr u c tio n a l t e c h n i q u e s ................................... 85 Z eal o f te a c h e r and s k i l l in c a rry in g out in s tr u c tio n a l t e c h n i q u e s ............................... 85 I n s tr u c tio n a l m a t e r i a l s ........................................ 8If. Time spent in the le a rn in g a c t i v i t y ............ 8 I4 . IV. MATERIALS USED AND PROCEDURE OF INVESTIGATION . . 86 S e le c tio n o f s u b je c ts ....................................................... 86 The c h i l d r e n ................................................................ . 86 The s c h o o l s ...................... 87 F acto rs in te a c h e r s e le c tio n ..................................... 89 A d m in istratio n o f t e a t s ............................................ 90 Tests of in te llig e n c e , achievem ent, and p e r s o n a l i t y ............................................................... 90 tv CHAPTER PAGE IV. (c o n tin u e d ) Teats o f v i s i o n ...................... 90 Teats of l a t e r a l i t y .......................................................... 90 The sources o f d a t a ............................................................ 93- In te llig e n c e t e s t a ...................... 93- Reading t e s t a .................................... 92 P e rs o n a lity m e a s u r e ......................................... 95 T ests of v i s i o n ................................................................ 97 I n t e r e s t in v en to ry ....................................................... 100 T ests fo r d isc o v erin g n a tiv e eyedness . . . . lOlj. T ests fo r d isc o v e rin g n a tiv e handedness . . . 110 T est fo r d e te c tin g r e v e r s a l te n d en cies in r e a d i n g . 116 O rganization o f programs .............................................. 118 Types o f p r o g r a m s ................................................................. 118 Design o f the e x p e r i m e n t ......................................... 12Ij. C la s s if ic a tio n of p u p ils ......................................... 125 Planning of in s t r u c tio n a l m a te ria ls ................... 128 Procedure in rem edial c la sse s ..................................... 133 General o rg a n iz a tio n .................................................. 133 Manner o f conducting read in g a c t i v i t i e s . . . 13lj. Method of assem bling d a t a ................................................... I39 V. RESULTS OP THE MOTIVATING A N D PHONETIC TECHNIQUES l)f2 E xperim ental s e t t i n g fo r the problems of th is ch a p ter ................................................................................... l! 0 V CHAPTER FAGE V. (c o n tin u e d ) Equating b a s is ................................................................ 143 O b j e c t i v e s ........................... lijij. O rganization and p r o c e d u r e .......................................... 11^4 D eterm ination o f g ain in a c h i e v e m e n t ........................l 45 Formula fo r second X A ........................................ . lif.5 F inding the' n e t gain over expectancy . . . . lij.7 Use of S tu d e n t’s technique to determ ine the s ig n ific a n c e of d iffe re n c e s in the mean gains of the v ario u s programs ......................................149 Import o f ,!t ,! t e c h n i q u e ................................................... lIj-9 A p p lic atio n o f ^ t ” s t a t i s t i c to th e d a ta o f th is s t u d y .......................................................................... 151 Data obtained re g a rd in g m o tiv atin g and phonetic t e c h n i q u e s ...............................................................................154 S u p e rio rity o f m o tiv atin g techniques . . . . 154 Value o f phonetic t r a i n i n g .......................................... 158 E v alu atio n of exp erim en tal data by means of th e a n a ly s is of v aria n ce .................................................. 162 P urport of th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e . . . . . 162 V ariance a n a ly sis o f programs employing m otivating techniques .............................................. 163 V ariance a n a ly s is o f programs g iv in g phonetic t r a i n i n g ............................................................ 171 E v alu atio n o f th e g e n e ra l b a s ic technique used to a d m in ister th e rem edial read in g in the vario u s programs ........................................................... 175 The purpose and the essence o f the technique 175 E v alu atio n o f the t e c h n i q u e .......................................... 178 Vi CHAPTER PAGE V. (c o n tin u e d ) Summary o f r e s u l t s o b tained f o r m o tiv atin g and ph o n etic t e c h n i q u e s ...................................................... . l 81j. VI. RELATIONSHIP OF PERSONALITY FACTORS TO READING ACHIEVEMENT................................................................................... 187 E xperim ental s e t t i n g fo r the problems o f th is c h a p t e r ........................................................................................189 Equating b a s is fo r the i n i t i a l s tu d ie s . . . 189 Equating b a s is fo r the s tu d ie s conducted a t the end o f the rem edial re a d in g programs . 190 C r i t i c a l stu d y o f th e p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of problem v ersu s non-problem cases in read in g b efo re the a d m in is tra tio n of the rem edial re a d in g p r o g ra m ......................................................................192 Comparison of the p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of equated problem and non-problem re a d e rs 192 Comparison o f the read in g achievem ent o f problem' read in g cases in the low est q u a r tile ranges of the v ario u s p e r s o n a lity components w ith th a t a tta in e d by those in the h ig h e st q u a r til e r a n g e s ...................... 198 Comparison of the re a d in g achievem ent o f non problem read in g cases in the low est q u a r tile ranges of th e v ario u s p e rs o n a lity components w ith th a t a tta in e d by those in the h ig h e s t q u a r til e r a n g e s ........................... *.................................. 201 Summary of r e s u lt s obtained in the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g ............................... 205 C r i t i c a l study of th e p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s ti c s o f problem versus non-problem cases in read in g a f t e r the a d m in is tra tio n of the rem edial read in g p r o g r a m ...............................................207 E ff e c t o f the rem edial read in g program upon the p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f the problem read in g c a s e s ................................................... 208 v i i CHAPTER PAGE VI. (continued) Comparison o f the changes in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s as e ff e c te d by the I n te r e s t versus the F a c tu a l Programs in rem edial r e a d i n g ........................................................................ . 211 Comparative study o f the p e rs o n a lity ch a ra c t e r i s t i c s of the non-problem read in g cases as rev ea led in the i n i t i a l and f i n a l te a ts 2llf Study of th e degree of p e rs o n a lity "improve ment of problem versus non-problem p u p ils in read in g a t the clo se o f th e rem edial reading p r o g ra m ................................................................. 2l 8 Comparative study of d e v ia tio n s from e x p e c t ancy in read in g fo r problem read e rs a t the end of the rem edial read in g program in the low est and h ig h e s t p e r s o n a lity q u a r tile r a n g e s .................................... 227 Summary of r e s u l t s o b tain ed in th e f i n a l t e s t i n g ................................................................................... 228 Summary o f the r e s u l t s o b tain ed in th e stu d ie s of th e r e la tio n s h i p between p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs and read in g achievement ............................ 23I V II. RELATIONSHIP O F VISUAL FACTORS TO READING ACHIEVEMENT................................................................................... 23I4. Experim ental s e t t i n g f o r the problems o f th is c h a p t e r ........................................................................................235 Types of groups used fo r th e s tu d ie s based on the r e s u lts o f the f i r s t t e s t i n g ........................235 E quating b a s is fo r the study o f the in flu e n c e of v ario u s types o f eye d e fe c ts on the achievem ent of the problem cases during the rem edial read in g p r o g r a m .......................................... 236. N ature o f group used to stu d y the r e la tio n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs and eye d e fe c ts 236 v i i i CHAPTER PAGE V II. (continued) Incidence o f eye d e fe c ts among the pu p ils te s te d f o r th is i n v e s t i g a t i o n ......................................237 C r i t i c a l a n a ly s is of th e r e la tio n s h ip between eye d e fe c ts and read in g achievem ent as ob ta in e d from the r e s u l t s o f th e f i r s t te s t i n g 2lj.l C o rre la tio n between s p e c if ic eye defects and average read in g grade scores of problem cases in reading w ith and w ithout eye d e f e c t s ...................................................................................2I4.I R e la tio n sh ip between average read in g grade sco res and expectancy grades f o r groups w ith and w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts . . . . . . . 2ljlj. Comparative study of the d e v ia tio n from ex pectancy f o r s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups and groups having no eye d e f e c t s .................................2I4.7 Summary of th e r e s u lt s o b tain ed from the s tu d ie s based on the r e s u l t s of the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g of v is u a l f a c t o r s ..........................................257 In flu en ce o f eye d e fe c ts on achievem ent in a rem edial re a d in g program ............................................ 259 C r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f the r e la tio n s h ip between eye d e fe c ts and read in g achievem ent as shown in the d ata o b tained fo r th e s u p e r io r ity o f m o tiv atin g and p h o n etic t e c h n i q u e s ........................263 Comparison of the data obtained in th e p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n w ith those o b tain ed by o th e r in v e s tig a to r s ....................................................................... 268 V isu al e f f ic ie n c y d e fe c ts ............................................ 268 Muscle imbalance and fu sio n d e fe c ts ................ 270 Monocular v is io n ................................................... 2711- C o -o rd in atio n le v e l d e f e c t s ..........................................27^ The t o t a l number of eye d e fe c t cases . . . . 275 i x CHAPTER ^G E V II. (continued) Comparative stu d y of the p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t i c s of s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups and groups having no eye d e f e c t s ......................................276 Summary o f r e s u l t s o b tain ed fo r the stu d y of the r e la tio n s h ip between v is u a l fa c to rs and reading a c h ie v e m e n t............................................................ 288 V III. RELATIONSHIP OF LATERALITY TYPES TO READING ACHIEVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . ............................291 E xperim ental s e ttin g f o r th e problems o f th is c h a p ter .................................................................291 Study of the incidence o f handedness types among problem and non-problem p u p ils in re a d ing and of the r e la tio n s h ip between th ese types and re a d in g a c h i e v e m e n t .................................292 Incidence o f handedness types among problem and non-problem p u p ils in read in g . . . . 292 E xtent of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d ing fo r th e v a rio u s handedness types . . . 296 C o rre la tio n between handedness and average read in g grade scores .............................................. 297 Study of the in cid en ce of eyedness types among problem and non-problem p u p ils in re a d in g and of the r e la tio n s h ip between th ese types and re a d in g a c h i e v e m e n t ...............................................297 Incidence o f eyedness types among problem and non-problem r e a d e r s .......................................... 297 E xtent of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d ing f o r th e v ario u s eyedness types . . . . 301 C o rre la tio n between eyedness and average read in g grade sco res .............................................. 303 X CHAPTER PAGE V III. (continued) Study of the incidence of v ario u s m anual-ocular dominance types among problem and non-problem read e rs and o f the r e l a t i o n between th e se types and read in g a c h i e v e m e n t ...................................3^3 Incidence of v ario u s m anual-ocular dominance types among problem and non-problem read e rs 303 E xtent o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d ing f o r the various m anual-ocular dominance t y p e s .............................................................. 506 Study of th e r e la tio n s h i p between handedness and e y e d n e s s .......................................................................... 307 Study of the r e la tio n s h ip between eyedness and eye d e f e c t s .......................................................................... 309 Incidence o f eye d e fe c ts among th e v ario u s eyedness types ............................................................ 309 Average d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g of the v ario u s eye d e fe c t and eyedness g r o u p s ....................................................................................313 Study o f the r e la tio n s h ip between the v ario u s eyedness and handedness types and th e major p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs ................................................... 315 P e rs o n a lity adjustm ent and e x te n t of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g fo r the handedness groups .................................................. 315 P e rs o n a lity adjustm ent and e x te n t o f dev ia tio n from expectancy in read in g fo r the eyedness groups ....................................................... 317 P e rs o n a lity adjustm ent and e x ten t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g fo r the various m anual-ocular dominance groups . . 317 Study of the r e la tio n s h ip between r e v e rs a l e rro rs and l a t e r a l i t y tendencies ....................... 321 R eversal te n d en cies among the handedness, eyedness, and m anual-ocular dominance g r o u p s ................................................................................... 321 x i CHAPTER PAGE V III. (continued) R eversal ten d en cies in th e v ario u s grades . 527 Summary of the r e s u l t s o b tained in the study of the r e la tio n s h ip between l a t e r a l i t y types • and read in g a c h i e v e m e n t ...............................................3^9 IX. SU M M A RY AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................... 532 General procedure o f th e in v e s tig a tio n . . . . 332 F indings and c o n c l u s i o n s ....................................... 338 P e rta in in g to t e c h n i q u e s .....................................338 P e rta in in g to p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs . . . . . 339 P e rta in in g to p h y sio lo g ic a l f a c to rs . . . . 3I4.3 E d u catio n al i m p l i c a t i o n s ....................................................3I1.6 Problems fo r f u r th e r re s e a rc h ................................. 3^9 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................352 D iagnosis, rem edial read in g , and r e la te d m a te ria ls . 353 L a te r a lity and v is io n . ...................................................... 360 P e r s o n a l i t y .................................................................................................366 S t a t i s t i c a l background fo r d iag n o sis and i n t e r p r e t a tio n ..........................................................................................................369 APPENDIX A. O rig in a l t e s t s ................................................................. 37O APPENDIX B. I n s tr u c tio n a l m a t e r i a l ...............................................14.12 LIST OP TABLES TABLE PAGE I . General D e sc rip tio n o f E xperim ental and C ontrol G r o u p s ....................................................................................... 69 I I . D e sc rip tio n of the E quating C h a ra c te r is tic s of the P upils Composing the E xperim ental and C ontrol G r o u p s ..................................................................... 71 I I I . "Matching One" in Which the P upils in Groups A, B, C, and D a re Equated fo r Expectancy, Sex, and School . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 IV. "Matching Two” in Which the Problem Reading Cases in Groups A and C a re Equated f o r Program, Expectancy, and Sex .. . . .. . . 75 V. "Matching Three" in Which the Problem Reading Cases in Groups A and C are Equated fo r Expect ancy, Sex, and School w ith the Non-Problem Reading Cases in Groups B and D ............................ jQ VI. "Matching P o u r," The Equation o f S p e c ific Eye D efect Problem Reading Cases in Group A w ith Problem P upils in Group C as to Program, Expectancy, a n d Sex . . . . . . 80 VII. Average IQ o f the P u p ils in th e Twelve Schools Used in th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n ......................................... 88 V III. R e la tio n sh ip Between V isu al E ffic ie n c y Tests and S n ellen C hart Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 IX. R e l i a b i l i t y of V isual E ffic ie n c y T ests and o f the S n e lle n T est . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 X. T etrac h o ric C o rre la tio n s f o r Eyedness T ests . . 109 XI. D is tr ib u tio n of Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 X II. Sample o f a C l a s s if ic a tio n o f Problem P upils in Reading and M a terials to be Used fo r Reading Levels as i t Was Prepared f o r a S in g le Teacher I30 X III. Data fo r D eterm ining the S ig n ific a n c e of the D iffe re n ce in Mean Gains fo r Program I Over I I I , Group A ...............................................................................I53 x i i i TABLE PAGE XIV. S u p e rio rity o f the I n t e r e s t Versus the F a c tu a l P ro g ra m s ................................................................................... 156 XV. Value o f the P honetic T ra in in g in the Remedial Reading P ro g ra m s ................................................................. 160 XVI. Data fo r the V ariance A nalysis of the Gains Over Expectancy o f the I n t e r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs I6I4. XVII. V ariance A nalysis of the Gains Over Expectancy f o r the Two C o n tra stin g Phonetic Programs and the Two C o n tra stin g Non-Phonetic Programs . 170 XVIII. V ariance A nalysis of C o n tra stin g Phonetic and Non-Phonetic Programs to A sc e rta in S i g n i f i cance o f School V a r i a b l e ...............................................172 XIX. V ariance A nalysis of th e Value o f P honetic T ra in in g in the Remedial Reading Programs . 17ij- XX. V ariance A nalysis to Determine the S i g n i f i cance o f the School V ariab le in th e Study o f th e Value o f Phonetic T r a i n i n g ........................176 XXI. Average Gains Over Expected Gains f o r Equated P u p ils in the S p e c ific Schools o f the Four P ro g ra m s ............................................................................. 180 XXII. Average Gains Over Expected Gains f o r Equated P upils in the Four Grades o f the Twelve S c h o o l s ............................................................... l 8 l XXIII. Comparative Study o f the P e rs o n a lity Charac t e r i s t i c s of Problem Versus Non-Problem R e a d e r s ................................................................................... 195 XXIV. C o rre la tio n s Between Reading Achievement and P e rs o n a lity F acto rs ................................................. 200 XXV. Comparative Study of the Reading Achievement A tta in e d by Problem Readers in th e H ighest and Lowest Q u a rtile Ranges o f the Various P e rs o n a lity Components ............................................ 202 XXVI. Comparative Study o f the Reading Achievement A tta in e d by Non-Problem Cases in Reading in x iv TABLE PAGE ' the H ighest and Lowest Q u a rtile Ranges o f th e Various P e rs o n a lity Components . . . . . 20ij. XXVII. E ffe c t o f the Remedial Program Upon the P e rs o n a lity C h a ra c te r is tic s o f the Problem Reading Case3 ................................................................... 209 XXVIII. Comparative A nalysis of the In flu en ce o f the I n t e r e s t Versus the F a c tu a l Programs in Teaching Remedial Reading on P e rs o n a lity C h a ra c te ris tic s ........................................................... 21^ XXIX. Comparative Study o f the Changes th a t Took Place in the P e rs o n a lity C h a ra c te r is tic s of the Non-Problem Reading Cases Between the I n i t i a l and the F in a l T e s t i n g s ....................................215 XXX. Comparative Study of the Improvement in P e rs o n a lity C h a ra c te ris tic s of Both Problem and Non-Problem Reading Cases a t the Close of the Remedial P r o g r a m ...............................................217 XXXI. Comparative Study o f the P e rs o n a lity Charac t e r i s t i c s of Problem and Non-Problem Cases in Reading a t the End o f the Remedial Reading P r o g r a m .................................................................220 XXXII. R esults Obtained f o r P upils in Both the I n te r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs Regarding the S u p e rio rity in P e r s o n a lity .C h a ra c te ris tic s of Problem and Non-Problem Readers a t the. End of the Remedial Reading Program . . . . 222 XXXIII. P re se n ta tio n o f R esults Obtained f o r the P e rs o n a lity S tu d ies of Problem and Non- Problem Readers Before and a t th e Close o f the Remedial Heading P ro g ra m ......................................225 XXXIV. Comparative Study o f D eviations from Expect ancy in Reading fo r Problem Readers a t th e End of the Remedial Heading Program in the H ighest and Lowest P e rs o n a lity Q u a rtile R a n g e s ........................................................................................229 XXXV. P ercentages of Eye D efects Among Problem and Non-Problem Reading G ro u p s ..........................................259 XV TABLE XXXVI. PAGE XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. X LIII. XL IV. XLV. XLVI. B i - s e r i a l C o rre la tio n C o e ffic ie n ts Between the Average Reading Grade Scores of the S p e c ific Eye D efect Problem Reading Groups and Those o f the Problem Reading Groups W ithout Eye D efects .............................................. Pearson C o rre la tio n C o e ffic ie n ts Betv/een Expectancy Grades and Average Reading Grades o f Eye D efect Groups and o f Groups Having No Eye D efects ......................................... 2ijZ 2lj.6 Comparison of the Mean D eviations from E xpect ancy fo r Each Eye D efect Group W ith th e Mean D eviation from Expectancy fo r the T otal Eye D efect Group Minus the R espective D efect D eviations ....................................................... 21$ Comparison of the Mean D eviations from Expect ancy fo r Each Eye D efect Group W ith the Mean D ev iatio n from Expectancy fo r th e T o tal Group W ithout Eye D e f e c t s ..........................................255 A nalysis o f the Net Gains Over Expectancy a t the End of the Remedial Reading Programs f o r Equated Problem Reading Groups W ri t h and W ithout Eye D e f e c t ........................................................260 The R e la tiv e In flu en ce of Eye D efects on th e S u p e r io rity o f the Programs ............................ The R e la tiv e In flu en ce o f Eye D efects in the Programs With Phonetic T ra in in g .................. Comparative Study o f the P o ssib le In flu en ce o f Eye D efects on the P e rs o n a lity Charac t e r i s t i c s of Problem Groups in Reading Comparative Study of the P o ssib le In flu en ce o f Eye D efects on th e P e rs o n a lity C h a ra c te ris tic s of the Non-Problem Groups in Reading ................................................................ Incidence of Handedness Types Among Good and Poor Readers and E xtent of D eviation from Expectancy in Reading f o r Both Groups . . , Incidence o f Eyedness Types Among Good and Poor Readers and E x ten t o f D eviation from 265 267 278 282 295 TABLE PAGE Expectancy in Reading f o r Both Groups . . . 299 XLVII. Comparison of th e R e su lts Obtained in the P resen t In v e s tig a tio n fo r the Incidence of Eyedness With the Data Obtained by Other In v e s tig a to rs ........................................................ 302 XLVIII. Conditions of M anual-Ocular Dominance and T heir R e la tio n sh ip to Reading Achievement . . . . 305 XLIX. Incidence o f Eye D efects Among the Various Types o f Eyedness G r o u p s ...............................................311 L. Study o f the Average D eviations from E xpect ancy f o r th e Eyedness and Eye D efect Groups LI. Study of th e P e rs o n a lity Adjustment and E xtent o f D eviation from Expectancy in Reading of Various Types of Handedness Groups ................... 318 L II. Study of th e P e rs o n a lity Adjustm ent and E x ten t o f D eviation from Expectancy in Reading of the Various Types of Eyedness Groups . . . . 319 L II I . Study o f the P e rs o n a lity Adjustm ent and E xtent of D eviation from Expectancy in Reading of the V arious Types of Manual-Ocular Dominance G r o u p s ............................... 320 LIV. Study o f th e R e la tio n sh ip Between Types o f Handedness and R eversal Tendencies ................... 323 LV. Study of th e R e la tio n sh ip Between Types o f Eyedness and R eversal Tendencies ....................... 3^4 LVI. Study of R e la tio n sh ip Betv/een Types of Manual- Ocular Dominance and R eversal Tendencies . . 325 LVII. Average Number o f R eversals Made by the P upils in th e V arious Grade L e v e l s ......................................328 LV III. Basis f o r C la s s if ic a tio n of T est R e su lts: f,H elping Y o u rself With W o r d s " ................................. 389 LIX. Summary of the C la s s if ic a tio n o f T est R esu lts f o r "Helping Y o u rself With Words” ........................391 LX. Model Record Sheet f o r Major C enters o f In terestifD l LIST OP FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1 . Range f o r C la s s if ic a tio n o f Ocular Dominance T e s t s ..................................................................................... 108 2 . Ranges f o r C la s s if ic a tio n of the Performance Manual Dominance T e s t s ............................................................113 3. Ranges f o r th e C la s s if ic a tio n o f th e Q u estio n n aire Manual Dominance T e s t s ............................................. 115 !{.. O rganization fo r In d iv id u a l Summary o f Data . . . lij.1 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM A N D EXPLANATION OP TERM S USED Success In le a rn in g to read is v i t a l l y im portant in the e d u c a tio n a l c a re e r o f every c h ild . S ch o la rsh ip is im p a ire d by read in g d i s a b i l i t y on the elem entary school le v e l as w e ll as on the h ig h school and c o lle g e le v e ls . The re c o g n itio n of th is f a c t i s evidenced by the la rg e number of re a d in g c lin ic s which a re being e s ta b lis h e d n o t only by co lle g e s and u n iv e r s i tie s but a lso as community e n te r p r is e s . This e v e r-in c re a s in g i n t e r e s t in and re c o g n itio n o f the im portance o f read in g which is m anifested by educators and stu d e n ts a lik e is f u r th e r evidenced by the w ell a tte n d e d courses which are o ffe re d by co lle g e s of education in the d ia g n o sis o f read in g d i s a b i l i t y and the improvement of read in g on the elem entary, h ig h school, and co lleg e le v e ls . E ffe c tiv e re a d in g a b i l i t y is as v i t a l l y im portant to the layman as to th e s tu d e n t. Even the minimum d u tie s of c itiz e n s h ip cannot be performed i n t e l l i g e n t l y w ithout the a b i l i t y to read . Moreover, e f f e c tiv e read in g h a b its f u rn is h one of the most s a tis f y in g media fo r the p erso n a l enrichm ent and r e c r e a tio n of the a d u lt. The f a c t th a t popular a r t i c l e s d e a lin g w ith the s u b je c t of read in g are appearing w ith g re a t frequency in n o n -p ro fe a a io n a l m agazines1 shows th a t laymen are becoming more and more conscious and a p p re c ia tiv e of the im portant p lace which a b i l i t y to read w ell holds in t h e i r d a ily liv e s . The e f f e c ts of the tre n d toward an ever in c re a s in g i n t e r e s t in read in g a re r e f le c te d in th e f i e l d o f re s e a rc h . Since 1925 the number o f s tu d ie s devoted to re se a rc h in read in g has exceeded 1 , 2 00. This number is more than tw ice p th a t re p o rte d during the preceding ce n tu ry . D espite the co n sid erab le progress a lre a d y made th e re a re many problems in the f i e l d of read in g d iagnosis and rem edial treatm en t th a t s t i l l rem ain unsolved. I t was th e purpose of the p r e s en t in v e s tig a tio n to fu rn is h e m p iric a l d ata toward a more complete u n d erstan d in g of a few o f th ese problems and thus to make a p o s itiv e c o n trib u tio n toward th is f i e l d o f p a ra mount s ig n if ic a n c e . I . THE PROBLEM S tatem ent of the problem . This study had a tw ofold major purpose. The f i r s t was to e v a lu a te c r i t i c a l l y two 1 H. A. Clay, nHow Well Do You Read?” The S c rib n e r Quiz, S c r ib n e r ’s Magazine, 103:89-90, February, 1938. 2 W . S. Gray, ”A Decade o f P ro g r e s s ,” T h irty -S ix th Yearbook of the N atio n al S o cie ty fo r the Study o f E ducation, - P a rt I (Bloomington, I l l i n o i s : Public School P u b lish in g Company, 1937), P- 15* m o tiv atin g techniques in conducting rem edial read in g in o rd e r to d isc o v e r, in terms o f su p e rio r achievem ent, t h e i r r e l a t i v e values as m o tiv atin g in stru m e n ts. One technique involved ex ten siv e re a d in g o f m a te ria l f a n c i f u l, r e a l i s t i c , and f a c tu a l in n a tu re , p re se n te d according to in d iv id u a l in t e r e s t s w ith a m o tiv atio n designed to e s t a b l i s h a sense of s e c u r ity and s a t i s f a c t i o n and a common bond of u nderstanding and a p p re c ia tio n between te a c h e rs and p u p ils ; the o th e r, e x ten siv e read in g o f m a te ria l fundam entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re , p resen ted according to th e planning o f the te a c h e r w ithout reg ard f o r in d iv id u a l in t e r e s t s and w ith a m otiva tio n designed m erely as an in tro d u c tio n to the re a d in g of the s e le c tio n . The second major purpose was to s tu d y c r i t i c a l l y the r e la tio n s h ip , bo th s in g ly and c o lle c tiv e ly , of p e rs o n a lity f a c t o r s , of handedness, eyedness, and o f o c u la r d e fe c ts to su c c e s s fu l achievem ent in a rem edial read in g program. In p a r tic u la r , answers were sought to the fo llo w in g q u e stio n s: P e rta in in g to Techniques 1 . W ill those problem cases in read in g who are given m a te ria l th a t is in accord w ith t h e i r i n t e r e s t s achieve more than those who a re given m a te ria l chosen a t random w ith no reg ard fo r in d iv id u a l i n te r e s ts ? 2 . Do problem cases in read in g who experience the s e c u r ity and encouragement of knowing th a t the te a c h e r understands and makes use o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s and needs to t h e i r advantage e ra d ic a te t h e i r d e fic ie n c ie s more ra p id ly than those c h ild re n who do n o t experience th is assurance? 3. Is the awareness o f achievem ent coupled w ith the sense of bein g approved a s u f f i c i e n t and as eq u a lly an e f f e c tiv e a stim ulus as th a t d escrib ed in problem two? I).. May th e type o f m a te r ia l used f o r rem edial re a d ing, e s p e c ia lly m a te ria l fundam entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re , even though adapted to the c a p a c ity le v e l o f the re s p e c tiv e cases, be a hindrance to p ro g ress? 5. In terms of f i n a l achievem ent, is e x te n siv e re a d ing supplemented by phonetic d r i l l more e f f e c tiv e than e x te n siv e re a d in g alone? 6. In terms of achievem ent, is phonetic p r a c tic e e q u a lly as p r o f ita b le in a program employing e s s e n ti a ll y f a c tu a l reading m a te r ia l as in a program u t i l i z i n g f a c tu a l, r e a l i s t i c , and f a n c if u l m a te ria l given to th e c h ild re n acco rd in g to th e d ic ta te s of t h e i r re s p e c tiv e in te r e s ts ? 7 * Is i t p o s s ib le to e s t a b l i s h a program in rem edial read in g which an o rd in a ry classroom te a c h e r can handle e f f e c tiv e ly w ith a group of from te n to f i f t e e n cases w ith out d is ru p tin g the o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e school? 8. In the type of group s it u a ti o n mentioned in prob lem seven is i t p o ssib le to organize a rem edial reading program th a t w ill s a t i s f a c t o r i l y meet each in d iv id u a l’s needs? P e rta in in g to P e rs o n a lity F acto rs 9. Do c h ild re n who have read in g d i f f i c u l t i e s s u f f i c ie n tly severe to be c la sse d as problem cases in read in g d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s from c h ild re n who a re n o t problem cases in reading? 10. In terms of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g , do problem cases in th e low est q u a r til e ranges of th e v a r i ous p e r s o n a lity components d i f f e r s ig n i f ic a n t ly from those cases in th e h ig h e st q u a r tile ranges? 1 1 . In terms of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g , do c h ild re n who a re n o t problem cases in read in g and who a re in the h ig h e s t q u a r til e ranges o f the v ario u s p e rs o n a lity components d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th o se case3 In the low est q u a r til e ranges? 1 2. Does the encouragement and s a t i s f a c t i o n e x p e ri enced by problem cases in read in g who have p a r tic ip a te d in a rem edial read in g program e f f e c t a s ig n i f ic a n t change in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s ? 13. Do problem p u p ils in read in g a t the end o f the rem edial program d i f f e r s ig n i f ic a n t ly in p e rs o n a lity ch arac t e r i s t i c s from c h ild re n who a re n o t problem cases in reading? llj.. In terms o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g , do problem cases, who a re in th e low est q u a r tile p o s itio n as reg ard s the v ario u s p e r s o n a lity components a t th e end o f a rem edial read in g program, d i f f e r s ig n i f ic a n t ly from those cases who a re in th e h ig h e s t q u a r tile p o sitio n ? 15. Do c h ild re n in a rem edial program who read m a te r ia l th a t is in accord w ith t h e i r i n t e r e s t s gain s i g n i f i c a n tly in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s over those c h ild re n who a re in a fa c tu a l program th a t d isre g a rd s in d iv id u a l in t e r e s t s in the choice of s e le c tio n s to be read? P e rta in in g to P h y sio lo g ic a l F acto rs 16. Do various types o f eye d e fe c ts when considered s e p a ra te ly a f f e c t achievem ent in a rem edial re a d in g group? 17. Do various types o f eye d e fe c ts when s tu d ie d c o l l e c t i v e l y a f f e c t achievem ent in a rem edial re a d in g group? 18. Are eye d e fe c ts when stu d ie d c o n jo in tly w ith p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s , types o f hand and eye dominance, as w e ll as various com binations o f m anual-ocular dominance concom itant fa c to ra o f la c k of achievem ent in a rem edial read in g program? 7 19. Is there a relationship between types of eyedness and types of eye defects? 2 0 . Is th e re a r e la tio n s h ip between types of hand and eye dominance and achievem ent in reading? 2 1 . Is the tendency to make re v e rs a ls a s s o c ia te d w ith p a r t i c u l a r types o r com binations o f manual and o c u la r dominance? Importance of s tu d y . Numerous in v e s tig a tio n s have been conducted to determ ine th e r e l a t i v e value o f s p e c if ic techniques in te a c h in g rem edial reading as w ell as the r e la tio n s h ip of various concom itant fa c to rs to progress in read in g achievem ent. A glance a t s e v e ra l c o lle c tio n s of b ib lio g ra p h ie s w ill r e a d ily confirm t h i s s ta te m e n t. 5 Beginning w ith 1925, Oray re p o rte d in h is annual 3 w . S. Gray, Summary of I n v e s tig a tio n s R e la tin g to Reading. (Supplementary E d u catio n al Monograph No. 2d. Chicago: U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago P re ss, 1925), 276 pp. W * S. Gray, “Summary of Reading I n v e s tig a tio n s ," Elem entary School J o u rn a l. 2 6 :449- 59* 507-18, 574- 84, 662-72. February, March, A p ril, May. 1926; 27:456-60, 495- 510, F ebruary, Mg.rch, 1927; 2 8 :443- 59* 496- 510, 587-602, February, March, A p ril, 1928; 3 9 5I4J4.5-57, 496-509, February, March, 1929; 30:11.50-60, [$6-508, F ebruary, March, 193Q; 31: 531- 4 6, 592-606, March, A p ril, 1931; 3 2:447- 63, 510- 20, 587-94, F ebruary, March, A p ril, 1932. W . S. Gray, "Summary of Reading I n v e s tig a tio n s ," Jo u rn al of E d u catio n al R esearch. 2 6:401- 24, F ebruary, 1933: 2 7 : 564- 91* F ebruary, 1934; 2 0 :401- 24, F ebruary, 1935; b ib lio g ra p h ie s o f HIVESTIGATIONS RELATING TO READING a p p ro x i m ately lj.50 s tu d ie s th a t p e rta in e d to the s p e c if ic problems o f backward re a d e rs . Tinker l i s t e d l 8 l s im ila r t i t l e s in h is two a r t i c l e s on d ia g n o stic and rem edial re a d in g . B e tts p u blished a b ib lio g ra p h y on "The A n aly sis, P rev en tio n , and C o rrectio n of Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s ” in which he l i s t e d over 1,000 such t i t l e s . These th re e re p o rts a re b u t a few of many s im ila r ones th a t in d ic a te the d e f i n i t e need th a t has been and is s t i l l f e l t throughout the country n o t only fo r e s ta b lis h in g the b e s t of techniques to use in rem edial programs but a ls o fo r d isc o v e rin g p o ssib le c o r r e la te s of re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . I f the c o r r e la te s of re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y are known adequate p rev en tiv e measures can then be taken to f o r e s t a l l f a i l u r e . The p re se n t stu d y was a n o th e r attem p t undertaken to c o n trib u te d a ta toward accom plishing these same o b je c tiv e s . D espite the in c re a s in g e f f o r t made to study and to a m elio rate the read in g f a i l u r e problem, la rg e percentages of March, 19^0. ' ' ' M . A. T inker, "D iagnostic and Remedial Reading, 1 1 Elem entary School J o u r n a l, 33:293-307, December, 1932: 33:346-57, January, 1933. E. A. B e tts , The A n a ly s is , P revention and C o rrectio n of Reading D i f f i c u l t i e s , (M ead v ille: Keystone View Company, I9 3 5 I7 0 6 pp. 2 9 :407- 32. February. 1936: 3 0:k 03- 30. A n rll. 19^7 : -Jim s e rio u s ly re ta rd e d read e rs are s t i l l re p o rte d a t v ario u s le v e ls from the lower and middle grades to the se n io r c o lle g e . For example, i t was found in a stu d y r e c e n tly made of approxim ately 6,000 n in th grade p u p ils in a Chicago sub urban a re a th a t 22 per cen t o f the p u p ils ranked below a grade sco re of seven; 7 Pe r cen t of th e se reached a s ix th grade le v e l; 6 per c e n t, a f i f t h grade le v e l; 5 Pe r cent a fo u rth grade le v e l; and I4 . p er c e n t a second and th ir d grade l e v e l .^ In a survey of 12,000 p u p ils in grades fo u r, f iv e and s ix , Oates found th a t about JO p e r c e n t of them had n o t reached fo u rth grade a b i l i t y in re a d in g . 5 Gates a lso found th a t about 25 per cen t of the p u p ils in the ju n io r and s e n io r h ig h school lack th e read in g a b i l i t y c a lle d f o r a t th a t le v e l.^ In a study made by F itz g e r a ld , one th ir d o f the c h ild re n were re ta rd e d and n e a rly one f o u rth of them were re ta rd e d a year or more in re a d in g .^ Monroe re p o rte d th a t e stim a te s have been made th a t between 10 and 15 per cent ^ W . S. Gray, ”The N ature and E xtent o f the Reading Problem in American E d u c a tio n ,” E d u catio n al Record Supplement 11, 19:87-10!]., January, 193^. 5 A. I . G ates, ”The P sy ch o lo g ical B asis o f Remedial R eading,” E d u catio n al Record Supplement 10, 17: 109- 23, October, 1936. 6 I b id . . p. 112. ' J . A. F itz g e ra ld , "The A d m in istratio n of a Diagnos- t i c and Remedial Reading Program on the Elem entary School L e v e l,” School Board J o u rn a l, 95:29-30, August, 1937. 10 of elem entary school c h ild re n a re re ta rd e d in read in g helow o the le v e l expected from t h e i r m ental a g e s . 0 B e tts placed 9 the percentage o f re ta rd e d read ers a t 25. These s tu d ie s vary in the re p o rts they give of the incidence of re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s and f a i l u r e because each study depends upon i t s own a r b i t r a r y d e f in itio n o f the s e v e r ity and th e n a tu re of the d y sfu n ctio n . The p ercentages o f re p o rte d f a i l u r e s which they g iv e, however, a re s u f f i c i e n t l y la rg e to cause grave concern and to s tim u la te concerted e f f o r t toward m itig a tio n . S everal s tu d ie s have e s ta b lis h e d the f a c t th a t re a d in g is c lo s e ly r e la te d to school progress in g en eral and th a t p u p ils who f a i l in read in g u s u a lly f a i l in th e co n te n t s u b je c ts th a t depend upon read in g s k i l l s . Lee, fo r example, concluded from her in v e s tig a tio n undertaken to determ ine the im portance o f read in g f o r a c h ie v in g in grades fo u r, f iv e , and s ix th a t th e re is a high r e la tio n s h ip between read in g and achievem ent. Although she found th a t t h i s r e la tio n s h i p was n o t so h ig h in th e f i f t h and s ix t h grades as i t was in the fo u rth , she s t i l l found th a t i t averaged w e ll above a M. Monroe, "D iagnostic and Remedial Procedures in Reading, 1 1 E d u catio n al Record Supplement 11, 1 9 :1 05- 1 3 , January, I93H. 9 E. A. B e tts , "Some B asic C o n sid eratio n s in Re c o n s tru c tin g the Reading Program," N atio n a l Elem entary P r in c ip a l s . 17:578-85, A p ril, 1938. 1 1 c o r r e la tio n o f . 6 0. ” ^ M c C allister lik e w ise concluded from h is experim ent th a t r e ta r d a tio n in read in g blocks g en eral e d u c a tio n a l p ro g re ss. Pinck re p o rte d th a t in a c o n tro lle d experim ent he found th a t improvement in a b i l i t y to read was accompanied by improvement in those s u b je c ts which involve a -i p good deal of re a d in g . Bond found in h e r c a re fu l study o f 300 n in th grade p u p ils th a t g e n e ra l read in g comprehension was s ig n i f ic a n t ly r e la te d to average s c h o la rs h ip and to a l l s e p a ra te s u b je c ts except m athem atics.^3 These stu d ie s are only a few of a la rg e group which have shown read in g to be a to o l the m astery of which is e s s e n ti a l to the le a rn in g of n e a rly every o th e r s u b je c t. Some have a t t r i b u t e d the r e l a t i v e l y la rg e percentage of poor re a d e rs , e s p e c ia lly in the upper grades and in the high sch o o l, in la rg e p a rt to developments which a re o th e r wise h ig h ly d e s ira b le such a s , g r e a te r s e n s itiv e n e s s to D. M . Lee, The Importance o f Reading fo r A chieving in Grades Four, F iv e ,~ and S ix (Teachers C ollege Contribu tio n s to Education, No. 55*57"” New York: Teachers C o lleg e, Columbia U n iv e r sity , 1933), P- 61}.. J . M . M c C a lliste r, !lReading D i f f i c u l t i e s in Study ing Content S u b je c ts ," Elem entary School J o u m a l, 31: 191- 201, November, 193^- 12 E. A. F inck, "R elatio n o f A b ility in Reading to Success in Other S u b je c ts ,” Elem entary School J o u rn a l, 3 6 :2 6 0 - 6 7 , December, 1935* 15 E. Bond, Reading and N inth Grade Achievement (Teachers C ollege C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No. 756, New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1938), pp. 22- - 5k, 56-59- read in g d e f ic ie n c ie s , w ider p ro v isio n f o r in d iv id u a l needs, an in c re a sin g p ro p o rtio n of p u p ils who remain in sch o o ls, and stan d ard s o f promotion th a t a re based on t o t a l ac h iev e ment r a th e r th a n on e x c ellen ce in one p a r tic u la r s u b je c t such as re a d in g .^ - Although th is a n a ly sis o f th e q u estion, may be c o r r e c t, i t is n e v e rth e le s s n ec essary to m ain tain a vigorous c o n s tru c tiv e a t t i t u d e toward re a d in g m a tte rs in o rd er to cope w ith th e s it u a ti o n th a t has r e s u lte d from th ese otherw ise h ig h ly d e s ira b le developm ents. Experiments and stu d ie s of v a rio u s types a r e , th e re fo re , needed so th a t th e se problems may be met and handled w ith e f f ic ie n c y and accuracy. Many s tu d ie s re g a rd in g s a t i s f a c t o r y methods o f te a c h ing rem edial re a d in g have been and are s t i l l being c a rr ie d on. In re c e n t y e a rs , a new challen g e of b a s ic techniques has been made by some members of the p ro g re ssiv e sch o o l. I t has long been an accepted p r in c ip le th a t le a rn in g is enhanced i f p u p ils a re I n te r e s te d in what they are doing. C e rtain members of the new school, however, reg ard th e i n t e r e s t f a c to r from a new p o in t of view. They claim th a t e f f e c tiv e achievem ent can be a tta in e d only I f the program and m a te ria ls given to rem edial cases be w ell a ttu n e d to t h e i r p re se n t 13 b a sic i n t e r e s t s and d r iv e s . 3 * 5 one o f the purposes of th is d is s e r ta ti o n is to determ ine w hether th is new ch allen g e is as v i t a l as i t s au th o rs claim ; whether the employment of the b a s ic i n t e r e s t s and d riv es o f problem read in g cases as a guide f o r the s e le c tio n o f t h e i r re a d in g m a te ria ls augments t h e i r achievem ent co n sid erab ly o r w hether success can be as e f f e c tiv e ly a tta in e d through o th e r types o f m o tiv atin g te ch n iq u e s. The concensus o f opinion today is th a t read in g d i s a b i l i t y is c h a ra c te riz e d by a c o n s te lla tio n o f d i f f i c u l t i e s .^ ^ No one a s s o c ia tiv e f a c to r is h e ld accountable f o r the type or degree of d i f f i c u l t y th a t p u p ils encounter in t h e i r re a d in g problem s. New s tu d ie s a re needed, th e re fo r e , th a t co n sid er the probable a s s o c ia te d f a c to rs o f read in g d i s a b i l i t y from th e view point of a t o t a l i t y . The p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n was undertaken from such a view point. Although the v ario u s fa c to rs are s tu d ie d in d iv id u a lly , a d e f in ite attem pt is made to e v a lu a te the i n te r r e l a ti o n s h ip o f these f a c to rs as c o r r e la te s of re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . L im itatio n s of the stu d y . The p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n ■ 15 P. A. W itty and D. Kopel, "M otivating Remedial Reading: The I n t e r e s t F a c to r," E d u catio n al A d m in istratio n and S u p e rv isio n , 2 2 : 1- 19, January, 1936. 3 * 6 s . A. B e tts , "Reading D is a b ility C o rre la te s ," E d u ca tio n , 5 6: l 8- 2lj., September, 1935* was d e lim ite d to a c r i t i c a l study of achievem ent in a rem edial read in g program in grades fo u r to seven as a ff e c te d by two m o tiv atin g d e v ic e s, by p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s , by o c u la r d e fe c ts , and by c o n d itio n s of l a t e r a l i t y . The rem edial read in g program was r e s t r i c t e d to a p erio d of fo u rte e n weeks in twelve C a th o lic schools o f Cleveland and a d jo in in g d i s t r i c t s . F ourteen weeks was the maximum amount o f time th a t could be devoted to th e rem edial re a d in g program as i t was n o t p o s s ib le to begin the rem edial work u n t i l th e second week o f December. A g re a t number of i n i t i a l t e s t s had to be given, c o rre c te d , recorded and e v a lu a te d previous to th is tim e. No doubt more s a t i s f a c t o r y and r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s could have been o b tained i f the program had been o f lo n g er _ d u ra tio n . The two m o tiv atin g devices were chosen f o r purposes of determ ining t h e i r r e l a t i v e values as p sy c h o lo g ica l and p r a c t i c a l instrum ents in conducting a rem edial re a d in g p ro gram o f the type and o rg a n iz a tio n used in th is experim ent. The term INTEREST PROGRAM is used throughout the in v e s tig a tio n to d e sig n a te the program u sin g the i n t e r e s t f a c t o r as the m o tiv a tin g d ev ice; however, the program as an i n t e r e s t program was n o t ad m in istered in the o rd in a ry sense > of th e term, namely, as a program in which th e p u p ils read t h e i r s e le c tio n s each day acco rd in g to choice. In the i n t e r e s t program, as i t was developed in th is experim ent, a d e sig n a te d tim e was s e t a sid e each day fo r the p u p ils in which they read th e s to r ie s th a t were given to them. A l though the choice of s t o r i e s read was c o n tro lle d by th e te a c h e r, th is choice was determ ined f u l l y by the re s p e c tiv e i n t e r e s t s of each p u p il as they were m an ifested in the in t e r e s t in v en to ry given them p re v io u sly . While the p u p ils were n o t fo rced to read the type of s to ry given to them i f i t h e ld no immediate ap p eal, th ey were g e n e ra lly shown how to d isc o v e r worthwhile q u a l i t i e s in those s t o r i e s . I f th is su g g e stio n , however, f a i l e d to a ro u s e i n t e r e s t then the p u p ils were given a n o th e r s to r y . The o b je c tiv e of th is program was to conduct an i n t e r e s t program in rem edial re a d ing, n o t by having p u p ils choose t h e i r own s t o r i e s and books each day, b u t r a th e r by having them read s t o r i e s which were in accord w ith t h e i r s ta te d i n t e r e s t s and which the p u p ils , a t the same tim e, knew were given to them commensurate w ith th ese i n t e r e s t s . In th is way th e p u p i l s 1 I n te r e s t s were n o t allow ed to become narrowed and confined. The second c o n tra s tin g m o tiv a tin g device was r e s t r i c t e d to g iv in g the p u p ils f a c tu a l s e le c tio n s fo r each read in g p e rio d . No e f f o r t was made to a d ju s t th e se s e le c tio n s to the pupils* re s p e c tiv e i n t e r e s t s n o r to give the p u p ils the s a t i s f a c t i o n of f e e lin g th a t th e te a c h e r under stood and sym pathized w ith t h e i r wants and in c lin a tio n s . The c o n te n t o f the s e le c tio n s was n o t n e c e s s a r ily u n in te re s tin g . Moat f a c tu a l m a te ria l th a t is w ritte n fo r c h ild re n a t the elem entary school le v e l today has a c e rta in elem ent of appeal alth o u g h the appeal may n o t be s t r i c t l y comparable to th a t contained in a n a r r a tiv e . One o f the p rin c ip le s of the technique used in th e stu d y was to give the cases d e f ic ie n t in read in g m a te ria l adapted to t h e ir c a p a c ity le v e l. I t was n e c essary , th e r e f o r e , to use m a te ria l o f f a i r l y re c e n t co pyright date in o rd er to o b tain a c o n tro lle d vocabulary in the s e le c tio n s . A b e t t e r con t r a s t i n g s it u a ti o n may have been secured i f m a te ria l could have been used th a t contained le s s ap p eal. The p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs stu d ie d in th is experim ent were those obtained by a d m in iste rin g The C a lifo rn ia T est o f P e rs o n a lity , Form A, o f the elem entary s e r ie s designed fo r grades four to n in e , 1939 e d itio n , by L. P. Thorpe, W . W . C lark and E. W . T ie g s. Although th is m easuring in strum ent is h ig h ly r e l i a b l e , according to i t s r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n ts , i t s r e s u l t s are n e c e s s a r ily a product n o t only o f the many in d iv id u a l, s o c ia l and environm ental f a c to rs th a t in flu en ced th e p u p ils a t the time they took th e t e s t b u t a lso of the i n te r p r e t a ti o n which the re s p e c tiv e i n d iv i duals may have given to the v ario u s item s o f the t e s t . The in v en to ry , fu rth erm o re, a t th e p re s e n t tim e, has only one form. Although th e r e t e s t was given a f t e r an in te r v a l o f approxim ately s ix months, undoubtedly such fa c to rs as p ra c tic e and f a m il ia r ! t y w ith the in stru m en t in flu en c ed the r e s u l t s . The P e rs o n a lity p r o f ile s th a t were o b tain ed , th e re fo re , had t h e i r lim ita tio n s , f i r s t o f a l l , because of the f a c to rs j u s t d e sc rib e d and, second, because of the f a c t th a t a t the p re se n t time opinions s t i l l d i f f e r as to w hether or n o t p e r s o n a lity can be o b je c tiv e ly measured. P e rs o n a lity i s one o f the in ta n g ib le s and i t s tru e n a tu re is n o t as y e t d e f i n i t e l y determ ined. The C a lifo rn ia T est o f P e rs o n a lity , however, is a product of c a re fu l thought and re s e a rc h . I ts o rg a n iz a tio n and content a re in agreement w ith the b e s t opinion on the s u b je c t today and i t s r e s u l t s give a com prehensive a sp e c t o f the t o t a l p e r s o n a lity r a th e r than a s e le c tiv e p ic tu re o f only one a s p e c t. The o th e r o b je c tiv e te s ts used in the in v e s tig a tio n , namely, the in te llig e n c e and re a d in g t e s t s , lik e w ise have th e i r lim ita tio n s , f i r s t o f a l l , because they a re group t e s t s , and second, because of t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y , alth o u g h the r e l i a b i l i t y o f the two t e s t s has been f a i r l y w ell e s ta b lis h e d . N a tu ra lly , th e r e s u l t s of a group in te llig e n c e t e s t must be accepted w ith r e s e r v a tio n s . The use o f a group t e s t was im perative f o r th is in v e s tig a tio n b e cause o f the la rg e number of c h ild re n involved. I t was hoped th a t th e com prehensiveness of the t e s t and the v a r ie ty of i t s t e s t s itu a tio n s would supply to some e x te n t f o r i t s d e fic ie n c ie s as a group t e s t . 18 The o c u la r d efec ts in v e s tig a te d in cluded r e f r a c tiv e e rro rs as w e ll as m uscular d is o rd e rs - They were those de te c te d through u sin g the Ophthalmic T ele b in o cu lar and the D. B. S e rie s of S lid e s o f the B e tts Heady to Head T e sts, 1938 e d itio n . These t e s t s a re s u b je c t to c e r ta in in h e re n t w eaknesses. They depend much upon b o d ily tonus and th e time of the day th a t they are given. As i t was n o t p o s s ib le to give these te s ts in the v ario u s schools a t the same p erio d o f the day the r e s u l t s were n e c e s s a r ily somewhat a f f e c te d by th e se f a c to r s . F urtherm ore, th e B e tts t e s t s are scre en in g t e s t s and are n o t designed f o r d ia g n o s tic purposes. The de gree of d e fe c t as used in the stu d y was d esig n ate d upon re q u e s t by the Keystone Company Bureau of R esearch in o rd e r to f u r n is h a b a s is fo r the a n a ly s is of th is stu d y . These d e s ig n a tio n s , th e re fo r e , n e c e s s a r ily have t h e i r lim ita tio n s . The l a t e r a l i t y s itu a tio n s in cluded in the study were those of handedness and eyedness. Although th e t e s t s used were s e le c te d c a re fu lly they were the l e a s t r e l i a b l e o f a l l the t e s t s used in the in v e s tig a tio n . The eyedness t e s t s in p a r t i c u l a r proved to be v ery u n r e lia b le . The c h ild re n had to be watched most c a r e f u lly as the l e a s t movement o f th e head in v a lid a te d th e r e s u l t s . In bo th the performance and handedness t e s t s e f f o r t was made to s e l e c t item s th a t would have been the l e a s t a f f e c te d by environm ental f a c t o r s . T ra in in g , however, undoubtedly im pregnated the handedness 19 p referen ce e s p e c ia lly of those c h ild re n o r ig in a lly in c lin e d to he left-h an d ed * Because of th is f a c t the handedness in d ic es secured were r e a l l y n o t tr u e in d ic e s and the r e l a tio n s h ip s subsequently analyzed w ith these in d ic e s , th e r e fo re , have t h e i r consequent lim ita tio n s . Because the experim ental procedure included fo u r d if f e r e n t types o f programs i t was im possible fo r the in d iv id u a l te a c h e rs in the fo u r grades of each re s p e c tiv e school to a d m in iste r each o f the ty p e s. C onsiderable confu sio n would have r e s u lte d in the classroom s and th e d a ily p re p a ra tio n on th e p a r t o f th e te a c h e rs would have been an im possible ta s k . Furtherm ore, th e unconscious p sy ch o lo g ical e f f e c t upon the r e s t o f the group of h e a rin g and w atching the manner in which the o th e r p u p ils were tau g h t may have had a d e trim e n ta l e f f e c t upon the r e s u l t s o b ta in ed . Con se q u en tly , only one program was taught throughout the four grades o f each r e s p e c tiv e sc h o o l. Although each program was ad m in istered in th is manner in a t l e a s t two d if f e r e n t schools th e lim ite d number of te a c h e rs and schools may, n e v e rth e le s s , have in tro d u ced sy ste m a tic e rro rs in to the r e s u lt s o b tain ed . Type of s tu d y . The method used in t h i s stu d y was the ex p erim en tal. The s p e c if ic technique was th a t o f matched p a ir s . Because of the complex n a tu re o f th e problem, two 20 experim ental groups and two p a r a l l e l c o n tro l groups were employed. Each in d iv id u a l in each experim ental group was matched as c lo s e ly as p o ssib le fo r expectancy c a p a c ity in read in g w ith a p a ire d in d iv id u a l in the c o n tro l groups. More s p e c if ic a lly , the method was th a t of comparing s t a t i s t i c a l l y , f i r s t , the r e l a t i v e e f f e c t of two m o tiv atin g devices upon the achievem ent in read in g o f problem re a d in g cases in grades fo u r to seven who were equal in read in g expectancy; second, of comparing s t a t i s t i c a l l y the r e l a t i o n sh ip between such fa c to rs as s p e c if ic p e rs o n a lity c h a ra c te r i s t i c s , v is u a l d e fe c ts , and types o f handedness and eyedness upon the achievem ent in read in g of th e se same problem re a d ing c a s e s . The experim ental fa c to rs were two types of m o tiv atin g d e v ic e s, p e rs o n a lity components, p h y sic a l eye d e fe c ts , and v ario u s co n d itio n s o f l a t e r a l i t y in c lu d in g eyedness and handedness. The groups were equated n o t only by s e le c tin g p u p ils of the same sex, in th e same sc h o o l, and o f the same m ental and c h ro n o lo g ic a l age b u t a lso by w eighting the c o n trib u tio n s which th e two l a s t mentioned c r i t e r i a y ie ld e d in determ ining expectancy c a p a c ity . The p u p ils were equated, th e re fo re , a cco rd in g to an expectancy c a p a c ity th a t was le s s s u b je c t to e rr o rs o f re g re ssio n than a c r i t e r i o n would have been th a t made use s o le ly of m ental c a p a c ity or of the r a t i o of achievem ent to m ental c a p a c ity . C onsequently, th is 21 in v e s tig a tio n , by making use o f c a r e f u lly c o n tro lle d experim ental te ch n iq u es, has fu rn ish ed r e l i a b l e o b je c tiv e d ata showing the r e la tio n s h ip o f c e r ta in p h y s io lo g ic a l, em otional, and p sy c h o lo g ica l fa c to rs to achievem ent in a rem edial read in g program. I I . DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OP TERM S The d e f in itio n s of the o cu lar terms given in the fo llo w in g s e c tio n co in cid e w ith those given by A tkinson, May,1^ S o u te r ,1^ and o th e r recognized o p h th alm o lo g ists. Accomodation. An a c t by which the len s of the eye is so a d ju ste d th a t a sh a rp ly focused image i s kept on the r e t i n a . A m b id e x tra lity . A s t a t e in which a person can use b o th hands w ith equal ease to perform unimanual a c t i v i t i e s . A m etropia. A d e fe c t In the shape o f the e y e b a ll, the le n s , or the cornea o f the eye which causes d e fe c tiv e * * * ? T. G. A tkinson, E s s e n tia ls of R e fra c tio n (Chicago: G. P. Engelhard Company, I91I4.), 23d pp. 18 C. H. May, Manual o f the D iseases o f the Eye (New York: W . Wood and Company, I9O7T, 391 pp. yy# S o u ter, The R e fra c tiv e and Motor Mechanism of the Eye (P h ila d e lp h ia : The Keystone P u b lish in g Gompany, 191077 353 pp. 22 r e f r a c tio n and consequently d e fe c tiv e form ation o f th e r e t i n a l image. A stigm atism . A term a p p lie d to an eye whose r e f r a c tiv e media is i r r e g u la r ly shaped thus producing uneven fo cu sin g . The c o n d itio n im plies an uneven ra d iu s of curva tu re u s u a lly of the cornea which should be approxim ately s p h e ric a l in form and which i s , by th is d e fe c t, more s tro n g ly curved in one ax is or m eridian than in a n o th e r. The eye is thus double-focused. B inocular v is i o n . A term a p p lie d to two-eyed v is io n . Convergence. The a c t o f d ir e c tin g o r tu rn in g the eyes inward by means of the in te r n a l r e c t i muscles so th a t the r e t i n a l images f a l l on corresponding p a rts in both eyes and thus e f f e c t sin g le n e ss of b in o c u la r v is io n . For d is t a n t o b je c ts , th e eyes a t r e s t a re a d ju s te d so as to accom plish th is phenomenon b u t f o r o b je c ts a t a c lo s e r range i t is n ec essary to d i r e c t the yellow sp o t in each eye toward the same p o in t in o rd er to cause the image to f a l l on c o r re s ponding p a r ts . This is done by th e a c t o f converging. P e x t r a l l t y . A term a p p lie d to th e co n d itio n o f r i g h t - handedness . D ip lo p ia . A d iso rd e r o f s ig h t in which th e re is double v is io n of a s in g le o b je c t. 23 Emmet r o p ia . An id e a l co n d itio n of the eye in which th e re is p e rf e c t r e f r a c tio n causing p e r f e c t v is io n . E so p h o ria. A co n d itio n of the eyes in which they tend to d ev iate inward. E s o tro p ia . A co n d itio n o f the eyes in which they p o s itiv e ly and v is ib ly d e v ia te inward. E xophoria. A co n d itio n o f the eyes in which they tend to d e v ia te outw ard. E x o tro p ia . A co n d itio n of the eyes in which they p o s itiv e ly and v is i b ly d e v ia te outward. Eye c o -o r d in a tio n . The harmonious adjustm ent and fu n c tio n in g of the two eyes fo r th e a tta in m e n t of s in g le v is ion. Eyedness. The co n d itio n of eye p re fe re n c e . F u sio n . The process by which the two d i s t i n c t v is u a l im pressions conveyed to th e c o rte x from the r i g h t and l e f t eye are merged in to a s in g le sensory im pression. Handedness. A term a p p lie d to the c o n d itio n of hand p referen ce in an in d iv id u a l fo r unimanual o r bimanual a c t i v i t i e s . H e te ro p h o ria . The l a t e n t c o n d itio n in which the eyes tend to d e v ia te l a t e r a l l y e i t h e r outw ardly or inw ardly b u t a re s u c c e s s fu lly a d ju ste d by m uscular e f f o r t f o r b in o c u la r v is io n . H e te ro tro p ia . A co n d itio n o f-th e eyes in which th e re is a c tu a l o r m a n ife st l a t e r a l asymmetry o f eye movement. This is o fte n known as strabism us o r s q u in t, H yperm etropia. A d e fe c t known as fa rsig h te d n e ss which is produced by too s h o rt an e y e b a ll and in consequence of which th e rays o f l i g h t a r e in te rc e p te d b efo re they are brought to a normal focus thus causing the image to be formed behind the r e tin a . H yperopia. A term meaning f a r s ig h te d n e s s . See hyperm etropia fo r d e ta ile d e x p la n a tio n . H yperphoria. A co n d itio n in which one of the eyes tends to d ev iate upward. L a t e r a l i t y . A term r e f e r r i n g to b o d ily b eh av io r showing u n i l a t e r a l p referen ce when those organs are con cerned in which such p referen ce is p o ssib le a s, fo r example, th e eyes, th e f e e t , th e hands. L a te ra l muscle im balance. A term r e f e r r in g to th a t tendency o f e i t h e r one or both eyes to d e v ia te inward o r outward from t h e i r normal p o s itio n . 25 L e g a sth e n ia . A term a p p lie d to a c o n d itio n of re a d ing d i s a b i l i t y . Mixed d e x t r a l . A c o n d itio n of rig h t-h an d ed n ess and le f t- e y e d n e s s • Mixed s i n i a t r a l . A co n d itio n o f le ft-h an d e d n ess and rig h t-e y e d n e a s . Monocular v is u a l p e rc e p tio n . A term r e f e r r i n g to the adequate v is u a l p e rc e p tio n in one eye alo n e. Myopia. A c o n d itio n o f n ea rsig h te d n e ss a t t r i b u t a b l e to an ey e b a ll which is too long thus cau sin g the ray s of l i g h t to focus b efo re reach in g the r e t i n a and thereby p ro ducing a b lu rre d image when they f i n a l l y impinge upon the r e t i n a . Ocular dominance. A term a p p lie d to th e p r e f e r e n tia l use o f one eye whenever occasion is given f o r any type o f f ix a tio n a c tio n . O cular muscle im balance. A term r e f e r r in g to an in c lin a tio n e i th e r v e r t i c a l , h o r iz o n ta l, o r b o th , to which the v is u a l ax is of the eyes r e v e r t when they a re d is s o c ia te d from c o -o rd in a te d movement. O rth o p h o ria. A term d e s ig n a tin g a normal l a t e r a l p o s tu ra l p o s itio n o f the eyes. 26 P h o rla. A term used to d e sig n a te a tendency. R e fra c tiv e e r r o r . The c o n d itio n o f b lu r rin g o f the via ion caused hy improper fo cu s. S i n i s t r a l i t y . A term ap p lie d to th e co n d itio n of le ft-h a n d e d n e ss . S te re o p a ia . A term meaning depth p e rc e p tio n . S te r e oscopic v is io n is v is io n which produces an image o f th re e dim ensions. S tra b ism u s. A v is u a l d e fe c t caused by in c o -o rd in a - tio n of the muscles o f the e y e b a lls and r e s u l t i n g in the i n a b i l i t y to d ir e c t bo th eyes to the same o b je c t. S u p p re ssio n . A term r e f e r r i n g to th e ig n o rin g of v is io n in one eye because o f p sy c h o lo g ica l b lo ck in g . T ro p ia . A term used to d e sig n a te an observable d e v ia tio n . V e r tic a l muscle im balance. A term r e f e r r i n g to th a t tendency o f one of the eyes to d e v ia te upward from i t s normal p o s itio n . V isu al e f f ic ie n c y . A term r e f e r r in g to th e a b i l i t y of the eye to see as expressed in terms of acuteness or keenness o f v is io n . 27 I I I . ORGANIZATION OF REMAINDER OF THE STUDY The rem ainder o f the stu d y is devoted to two m ajor c o n s id e ra tio n s ; the f i r s t , to a p re s e n ta tio n and e x p lan atio n of such r e la te d p relim in ary f a c to rs as are n ecessary f o r a complete u n d erstan d in g and a p p re c ia tio n of th e r e s u l t s of the study; the second, to a re p o rt and c r i t i c a l e v a lu a tio n of th e r e s u l t s o f the in v e s tig a tio n . The p relim in ary f a c to r s co n sidered are those of r e la te d in v e s tig a tio n s , f a c to r s c o n tro lle d in the e x p e ri m ental procedure, eq u atio n and o rg a n iz a tio n o f groups, n a t e r i a l s used, and procedure o f th e in v e s tig a tio n . Chapter I I Is devoted to r e la te d in v e s tig a tio n s ; Chapter I I I , to the eq u atin g procedure; and C hapter IV, to the m a te ria ls used and the procedure of the in v e s tig a tio n . As a new technique was used f o r the eq u a tio n of su b je c ts co n sid e ra b le d e t a i l is given in C hapter I I I to i t s ex p lan atio n and to a j u s t i f i c a tio n of i t s u se. D e ta ile d a t t e n t i o n is lik e w ise given in the same ch a p ter to the s e v e ra l types of matchings and groupings th a t were r e q u is i te because o f the v a rie d and com p lex n a tu re o f the problem In v e s tig a te d . Chapters V to V III in c lu s iv e a re used to re p o r t the r e s u lt s of th e in v e s tig a tio n . The to p ic s a re d isc u sse d in the o rd e r o f prime im portance in th e stu d y . The e n tir e i n v e s tig a tio n was c e n te re d around a c r i t i c a l e v a lu a tio n of s e v e ra l types of f a c to rs to determ ine t h e i r r e la tio n s h ip to achievem ent in re a d in g . The m ajor f a c to rs v/ere those of technique and m o tiv atio n in a d m in iste rin g a rem edial read in g program. The r e s u lt s r e f e r r in g to th ese fa c to rs a re given f i r s t c o n s id e ra tio n in Chapter V. D e ta ile d d e s c rip tio n s and analyses fo llo w , in Chapters VI, V II, and V III, o f the r e s u lts obtained through the stu d y of p e r s o n a lity , v is io n , and l a t e r a l i t y types as f a c to r s r e la te d to achievement in re a d ing. A g e n e ra l summary o f the study is given in Chapter IX as w ell as a summary o f th e conclusions drawn from th e st^d y . In th e b ib lio g ra p h y th e re fe re n c e s used in the d i s s e r ta tio n a re given as w e ll as o th e r s e le c te d re fe re n c e s th a t were found to be p a r t i c u l a r l y h e lp f u l. The appendix co n tain s copies n o t only of a l l o r ig in a l t e s t s and in v e n to r ie s used but a ls o of d ir e c tio n s , su g g e stio n s, and book an aly ses s e n t to those te a c h e rs o f the experim ental schools who were engaged in th e rem edial program. CHAPTER I I RELATED INVESTIGATIONS The g en e ra l n a tu re o f the p re se n t In v e s tig a tio n is n o t n o v e l. In th is ch a p ter a survey is given o f a number of s e le c te d s tu d ie s a lre a d y conducted th a t a re c lo s e ly r e la te d to th e se v e ra l themes inclu d ed in th e p re se n t study. For convenience the survey is d iv id ed in to fo u r main s e c tio n s to correspond to th e fo u r major to p ic s developed in the r e mainder o f th e stu d y , namely, techniques and m o tiv atio n , p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s , d e fe c ts o f v is io n , and co n d itio n s of l a t e r a l i t y . The ch ap ter is clo sed w ith a sum m arization of the lim ita tio n s found in th e in v e s tig a tio n s h e re to fo re conducted. I . INVESTIGATIONS PERTAINING TO TECHNIQUES AND MOTIVATION Because the theme o f th is d is s e r ta ti o n is r a th e r com plex in n a tu re only se le c te d in v e s tig a tio n s b e a rin g clo se r e la tio n s h ip to th e to p ic under c o n s id e ra tio n a re surveyed. As f a r back as 1922 Gray re p o rte d ,fla ck of i n t e r e s t ” as a p o ssib le cause o f poor r e a d in g .1 The la c k of i n t e r e s t shown 1 W. S. Gray, Remedial Cases in Reading: T h eir Diag n o sis and Treatm ent (Supplementary E du catio n al Monographs, No. 22, Chicago: U n iv e rsity o f Chicago P ress, 1922), p. 19. 30 by the c h ild re n in G ray's in v e s tig a tio n , however, was r a th e r a c o r r e la te o r consequence of poor read in g than i t s cause. F urtherm ore, h is i n te r p r e t a ti o n o f the i n t e r e s t f a c to r was from the view point of i t s n e c e s s ity as a fundam ental con com itant of s u c c e s s fu l le a rn in g . He was n o t concerned w ith th e b a s ic in t e r e s t s and d riv e s of the c h ild re n them selves and the use o f th e se fa c ts as m o tiv atin g fa c to rs in rem edial work. There are v ery few s tu d ie s th a t c r i t i c a l l y compare the use of b a s ic i n t e r e s t s w ith o th e r types of m o tiv a tin g te ch n iq u e s. G ates, as a r e s u l t of various s tu d ie s which he engineered, dem onstrates th e u rg en t need f o r c a p tu rin g the i n t e r e s t of poor read e rs and ad a p tin g methods and m a te ria ls to those i n t e r e s t s as th e f i r s t s te p in rem edial read in g . His conclusions were n o t drawn from com parative re se a rc h , however. S ev eral in v e s tig a tio n s have stu d ie d th e i n t e r e s t p A. I . G ates, ^Diagnosis and Treatment o f Extreme Cases o f Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” T h irty - S ix th Yearbook of the R a tio n a l S o cie ty f o r the Study of E d u catio n , P a rt I (Bloomington, I l l i n o i s : P ublic School P u b lish in g Company, 1 9 3 7 ), pp. 14.08-9. A. I . G ates, The Improvement o f Reading (New York: The Macmillan Company, 193° ) , PP* 26- 2 7 * A. I . Gates, ,fThe P sychological B asis of Remedial R eading,” E d u catio n al Record, Supplement 10, 17:109-23, O ctober, 1936. f a c to r by showing the r e la tio n s h ip between p ro g ress in re a d ing and the amount o f time spent in re a d in g . For example, M c C allister re p o rte d lim ite d read in g experience as the m ost im portant s in g le c a u sa tiv e f a c to r in read in g d i f f i c u l t y w ith ju n io r h ig h school p u p ils .^ Lipscomb attem pted to determ ine i n t e r e s t in re a d in g by th e amount of v o lu n ta ry read in g doneA She o b ta in ed a p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n o f . 30 between read in g achievem ent and th e number o f books read in a y e a r. A c o r r e la tio n o f . 30 denotes th a t a r e la tio n s h ip is p re se n t but th a t i t is v ery s l i g h t . 5 One would expect c o r r e la tio n s of th is n a tu re to be p r a c t i c a l l y in s i g n if i c a n t because of the v a r ie ty of f a c to r s which e n te r in to such a s it u a ti o n . Ladd obtained r e s u l t s s im ila r to th o se o f Lipscomb when she a ls o found p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between read in g achievem ent and the time sp en t in r e c r e a tio n a l re a d in g . Ladd, f u r t h e r more, found a p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between read in g * 5 j . M . M c C a lliste r, "C haracter and Causes o f Re ta rd a tio n Among P upils o f the Seventh and E ighth G ra d es,” Elem entary School J o u rn a l, 3 1*35~4 3* Septem ber, 1930. ^ L. E. Lipscomb, "Study o f th e Reading of a S ix th G rade,” Elem entary E n g lish Review, 8:60-63, March, 193I. 5 h. E. G a rre tt, S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and Educa tio n (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 193877""P* 342* 6 M . R. Ladd, The R e la tio n of S o c ia l, Economic, and P ersonal C h a ra c te r is tic s to Reading A b ility (Teachers C ollege C o n trib u tio n to E ducation, No. 582, New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1921), pp. 61-62, 3 2 achievem ent and the number o f books o w n e d . ? W itty and Kopel a re the le a d in g advocates o f b asin g the co n ten t to be used in rem edial re a d in g upon the c h i l d r e n ^ problems, needs, and i n t e r e s t s . They decry the methods h e re to fo re used fo r determ ining th ese i n t e r e s t s , claim ing th a t th ese methods have been " in c id e n ta l and poorly co n c eiv e d .” In o th e r in sta n c e s they have found th a t the q u estio n s upon which the g e n e ra liz a tio n s have been based were ”le a d in g ” q u estio n s which have in v ite d th e responses q which th e te a c h e r d e s ire d . They have, a c co rd in g ly , de veloped an I n t e r e s t Inventory th a t can be used w ith c h ild re n from th e f i r s t through th e e ig h th grade In o rd e r to a s c e r ta in in an a p p ro p ria te and p r a c t ic a l way t h e i r p re se n t im p e llin g i n t e r e s t s . Although W itty and Kopel have w ritte n s e v e ra l a r t i c l e s ^ a n a ly zin g t h e i r in v en to ry and dem onstrat ing i t s value they have n o t p resen ted e m p iric a l evidence to j u s t i f y i t s p r a c tic a l value and s u p e r io r ity as an instrum ent in m o tiv atio n over o th e r m o tiv atin g devices which base t h e i r 7 Loc. c i t . ® P. W itty and D. Kopel, ”The I n t e r e s t Inventory in D ire c tin g C h ild re n 's R eading,” E d u catio n , 5 9: 11- 16, September, 1938. 9 Loc. c i t . P. W itty and D. Kopel, "M otivation and R eading,” E d u catio n al Administ r a t i o n and S u p erv isio n , 2k :257- 6 E .. A p ril, 193b. 35 m e rit upon the c h i ld r e n ’s a p p re c ia tio n o f the i n t r i n s i c value of the co n ten t m a te ria l i t s e l f . The p re se n t i n v e s t i g atio n attem pted such a com parative stu d y . While Dearborn and D u rre ll a re s tro n g advocates of m o tiv atio n th e ir method o f a tta c k in g th e problem is d i f f e r e n t from th a t o f W itty and Kopel. Dearborn suggests applying fre s h m o tiv atio n during rem edial reading through changing the !fs e t o f mind o r in te n tio n o f the le a r n e r ." He fin d s th is device more e f f e c tiv e than p a r t i c u l a r methods and m a te ria ls of i n s t r u c t i o n . ^ His ideas le a n toward u t i l i z i n g , as d escrib ed in th e preceding paragraph, th e i n t r i n s i c value o f the m a te ria l i t s e l f f o r c a p tiv a tin g i n t e r e s t r a th e r than in u t i l i z i n g the p u p ils * immediate needs and in n e r d riv e s fo r th is purpose. Although D u rre ll a p p re c ia te s the power and im portance o f e f f e c tiv e m o tiv atio n he emphasizes th a t tr a in in g in s p e c if ic s k i l l s is the only technique th a t w ill r e s u l t in permanent h a b its and u ltim a te su c cess. Vtfhile "p ro v isio n f o r s p e c ia l in te r e s ts " and "e sta b lish m e n t o f purpose" have t h e i r d e f in ite p lace in a rem edial program, he claim s th a t t h e i r overemphasis is l ik e ly to r e s u l t "in a so lo f l i g h t of the te a c h e r w ith th e passengers l e f t behind. ^ W. F. D earborn, "M otivation v ersus ’C o n tro l’ in Remedial R eading,” E ducation, 5 9: 1- 6, September, 1938. ^ D. D. D u rre ll, "Basic A b ilit ie s in In term ed iate Grade R eading,” E d u catio n , 59:I|_ 5— 50, September, 1938. 3k Like W itty and Kopel, n e ith e r Dearborn nor D u rre ll have e s ta b lis h e d t h e ir claim s through e m p iric a l evidence. 1 p The in v e s tig a tio n conducted by Lamoreaux was con cerned w ith techniques of rem edial in s tr u c tio n although from an a lto g e th e r d if f e r e n t angle than those thus f a r analyzed. Lamoreaux attem pted to determ ine to what e x te n t h e a lth i s a f a c to r in read in g achievem ent. She found th a t p h y sic a l d e fic ie n c ie s a re p re se n t in b o th good and re ta rd e d re a d e rs and t h a t the group th a t was given p h y sic a l a tte n tio n b u t no rem edial h elp made co n sid erab le progress in re a d in g p o ssib ly because o f improved h e a lth . However, th e g r e a t e s t amount of growth in re a d in g was found in th e group th a t had been given rem edial read in g c o rr e c tio n . T h erefo re, these c h ild re n pro g ressed s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e s p ite the p h y sic a l handicaps. Lamoreaux a ls o in v e s tig a te d th e r e la tio n s h ip between c e r ta in s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s , w ishes, and am bitions to achievem ent in read in g . This s e c tio n o f h er in v e s tig a tio n , however, does n o t seem to be developed upon a r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c a l b a s is . Her conclusions re g a rd in g th e se to p ic s a r e , consequently, lik e w ise n o t r e l i a b l e and a c c e p ta b le . 12 L. A. Lamoreaux, “H ealth as a F a c to r in R ead in g ,” (unpublished D o cto r's d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e rsity o f Southern C a lif o rn ia , Los A ngeles, 1938), 20i| pp. I I . INVESTIGATIONS PERTAINING TO PERSONALITY FACTORS In the study of p e rs o n a lity th e evidence i s s t i l l very u n c e rta in reg ard in g the r e la tio n s h ip o f p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs to read in g f a i l u r e . The a n a ly s is of p e r s o n a lity components and the n e g a tiv e c h a r a c te riz a tio n of such compo n e n ts in th e case of poor read ers has always been n o t only a complex and s u b tle problem b u t u n t i l r e c e n tly , i t has a ls o been la rg e ly based upon the in d iv id u a l i n v e s t i g a t o r ’s i n t e r p r e ta tio n o f what he has observed. Some in v e s tig a to r s have suggested th a t p e rs o n a lity d iso rd e rs are the cause o f read in g f a i l u r e ; o th e rs , th a t they a re a r e s u l t a n t of the f r u s t r a t i o n and c o n f l i c t which grew o u t of the re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y . Hincks d e f i n i t e l y a s s o c ia te d ,!e c c e n tric , i r r a t i o n a l and a n t i s o c i a l ” b eh av io r w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y # ^ Her study, however, was based upon only f i f t e e n c l i n i c a l cases and was p u rely s u b je c tiv e in n a tu re . B ird re p o rte d an in v e s tig a tio n o f one hundred c h ild re n between fo u r and s ix y e a r s . ^ She s tu d ie d them throughout t h e i r experience in le a rn in g to read w ith a k in - a e s th e tic method. She found th a t about one t h i r d o f them • * * 3 e . M. Hincks, D i s a b i l i t y in Reading and I t s R ela tio n to P e rs o n a lity (Harvard Education Monographs No. 7 , Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rsity P ress, 1926), p. 1 . lj+ G. E. B ird, " P e rs o n a lity F actors in L e a rn in g ,” Personnel Jo u rn a l, 6:56-59? June, 1927* had d e f in it e p e r s o n a lity handicaps, such a s, unusual crav in g f o r a t te n t io n and p r a is e , d i s t r a c t i h i l i t y , ex cessiv e love f o r showmanship, and shyness. The diagnoses of th e se p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s was done s u b je c tiv e ly , however. B ird observed th a t th ese c h ild re n , alth o u g h n o t i n f e r i o r to the rem aining c h ild re n in in te lli g e n c e , took lo n g er than the o th ers in le a rn in g to re a d . She im p lied , th e re fo r e , th a t the re s p e c tiv e p e rs o n a lity problems were th e cause o f the read in g d i s a b i l i t y . This assum ption was n o t w ell founded fo r s e v e ra l re a so n s. F i r s t , th e se c h ild re n may have been p e r f e c tly balanced em o tio n ally and s t i l l n o t have been in te r e s te d in tra c in g emery c lo th l e t t e r s and p r a c tic in g phonetic sounds. Second, B ird re p o rte d l a t e r th a t th e se same c h ild re n , a f t e r a few months e n te re d in to the a c t i v i t i e s o f the group and le a rn e d to re a d . Judging from th is l a t t e r f a c t , the d i f f i c u l t y th e se c h ild re n ex perienced was caused r a th e r by im m aturity than by em otional i n s t a b i l i t y . B lanchard p rese n ted c o n f lic tin g p o in ts of view r e garding th e s ta tu s of p e r s o n a lity fa c to rs and read in g d i s a b i l i t y . ^5 B asing h e r statem en ts upon th e a n a ly s is of c l i n i c cases, she f i r s t contended th a t p e rs o n a lity and b e h av io r problems were the r e s u l t of read in g d i s a b i l i t y ; l a t e r , however, in th e same a r t i c l e , she claim ed th a t d i s a b i l i t y 15 P. B lanchard, "Heading D i s a b i l i t i e s in R e latio n to M aladjustm ent,1 1 Mental Hygiene. 12:772-78, O ctober, 1928. 37 was o f t e n ca u sed by th e 1 1 e m o tio n a l c o n d it io n s * 1 in e a r ly s c h o o l e x p e r ie n c e s . She has c l a r i f i e d h e r p o s it io n in a more r e c e n t r e p o r t. S t i l l b a s in g h e r g e n e r a liz a t io n s upon s t u d ie s o f c l i n i c c a s e s , sh e has now s u g g e s te d th a t b o th p e r s o n a lit y and r e a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s have t h e i r g e n e s is in d i f f i c u l t y in e m o tio n a l d e v e lo p m en t.-^ Hardwick m a in ta in e d an in te r m e d ia te p o s it io n in h e r d ia g n o s is by c o n c lu d in g th a t e m o tio n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s may be e i t h e r th e c a u se or th e r e s u l t o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . ^ W hether cau se o r r e s u l t , sh e em p h a siz e d th e n e c e s s i t y o f a l l e v i a t i n g th e d i f f i c u l t y b e fo r e e x p e c tin g th e r e s p e c t iv e in d iv id u a ls to im prove. Monroe has found th a t poor r e a d e r s , when compared w ith o th e r c l i n i c c a s e s , more f r e q u e n t ly show s c h o o l m alad ju stm e n ts, tem per tan tru m s, la c k o f c o n c e n tr a tio n , and day dream ing. She c la im e d th a t th e s e d is o r d e r s , how ever, w ere more the r e s u l t than th e c a u se o f r e a d in g f a i l u r e . M onroe’s r e p o r t i s in agreem ent w ith t h a t o f O rton who l i k e w ise found from h i s s t u d ie s th a t p e r s o n a lit y m alad ju stm en ts l6 P. B lanchard, trReading D is a b ilitie s ' in R e la tio n to D if f ic u ltie s , of P e rs o n a lity and Em otional Developm ent,1 1 Mental Hygiene. 2 0 r 38i4.-i4.i3, Ju ly , 1936. • * ■ 7 r . Hardwick, f’Types o f Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” Childhood E d u catio n . 8 :l|23- 27, A p ril, 1932. 1 P M. Monroe, C hildren Who Cannot Read ( Chicago2 U n iv e rsity o f Chicago P ress, 1932), pp. IO3-5. 3 8 SLre o fte n the r e s u lt o f read in g d i f f i c u l t y .^9 Gates has g en e ra liz e d from a s e r ie s of s tu d ie s th a t se rio u s re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y w ill in the course o f time ”be the cause o f v a r i- out types o f se rio u s m isconduct, p e rs o n a lity d is o rd e rs , and c rim in a l a c t i v i t i e s . ”2^ Quoting from an unpublished stu d y , by F endrick and Bond, of 187 d e lin q u e n t boys between the ages s ix te e n and n in e te e n in the Hew York S ta te Reform atory, Gates s ta te d th a t n o t a s in g le boy could read as w e ll as the average person of h is m ental age and th a t few could read 21 w ith ease m a te ria l of middle grade d i f f i c u l t y . He f u r th e r s ta te d th a t as th e i r s c h o la s tic a b i l i t y improved t h e i r emo ti o n a l and s o c ia l adjustm ent lik e w ise im p ro v e d .^ Damereau made a study s im ila r to the one ju s t quoted by Gatea.^5 She s e le c te d twenty-two cases from the I n s t i t u t e Orton, ”An Impediment to Learning to Read - A n e u ro lo g ic a l E xplanation of the Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” School and S o c ie ty , 2 8 :286- 90, September, 1928. S. T. Orton, ”The !S ig h t Reading* Method of Teaching Reading as a Source of Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al Psychology, 2 0 :135— 1 |_ 3, F ebruary, 1929. 2^ A. I . G ates, M a lad ju stm e n ts Due to F a ilu re in R ead in g ,” The School E xecutive, 5 5s379~80, June, 1936. 21 A. I . Gates and G. L. Bond, " F a ilu re in Reading and S o c ia l M aladjustm ent,” Journa l o f The R a tio n a l Educa- tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n , 2 5 : 205- 6 , O ctober, 1936^ 22 I b id ** p. 206. R. Damereau, " in flu e n c e o f Treatm ent on the Read ing A b ility and Behavior D isorders o f Reading D is a b ility C a se s,” Smith College Studie s in S o c ia l Work, 5 : l 60- 83. December, 193^* fo r Ju v e n ile Research who were b o th b eh av io r problems as w e ll as re a d in g problem s. These c h ild re n were given a two fo ld type of rem edial trea tm en t, one to improve t h e i r re a d in g handicaps; the o th e r, t h e i r p e rs o n a lity a b e r r a tio n s . Damereau concluded from h e r experim ent th a t progress in read in g has no c o r r e la tio n w hatsoever w ith improvement in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Her r e s u l t s are in d ir e c t o p p o sitio n to those q io te d by G ates. Of the twenty-two case3 in Damereau’s study only fo u r improved n o ta b ly in bo th re s p e c ts , p e rs o n a lity and re a d in g , e ig h t showed improvement in behavior but l i t t l e progress in re a d in g w hile f iv e im proved in reading b u t n o t in b eh av io r and th e rem aining f iv e made l i t t l e or no improvement in e i th e r re s p e c t. Another study showing lack o f r e la tio n s h i p or a t l e a s t n e g lig ib le r e la tio n s h ip between read in g d i s a b i l i t y and m aladjusted be h av io r is th a t by Ladd who made one of the few attem p ts to apply s t a t i s t i c a l techniques to th e problem. She obtained as low a c o r r e la tio n as .11 bet?/een an a b b re v ia te d form of the M ailer C h aracter Sketches and re a d in g age. In g e n e ra l, most stu d ie s in v e s tig a tin g the a s s o c ia tio n between re a d in g and p e r s o n a lity fa c to rs have been based 2k , M . R. Ladd, The R e la tio n o f S ocial, Economic, and P ersonal C h a ra c te ris tic s to Reading A b ility (Teachers College C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No. 582, New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1935), p. k 5 * ko on su b je c tiv e techniques which n a tu r a lly have rendered them p r a c t ic a lly u n r e lia b le as s c i e n t i f i c in stru m e n ts. There are a number of s tu d ie s on the h ig h school and co lle g e le v e l more r e l i a b l e in n a tu re th a t have in v e s tig a te d p o ssib le a s s o c ia tio n between g en eral s c h o la s tic achievem ent and p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .^5 The la rg e m a jo rity of these experim ents have reported, n e g a tiv e r e la tio n s h ip . Judging from th is survey, th e re f o r e , th e re is e v id e n t need fo r s tu d ie s more s p e c if ic in n a tu re than those re p o rte d and a ls o more r e l i a b l e through th e use o f more r e l i a b l e in stru m e n ts. ^5 S ev eral r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s tu d ie s o f th is n a tu re are as fo llo w s : N. E. Drought, ”An A nalysis o f E ight Measures of P e rs o n a lity and Adjustm ent in R e la tio n to R e la tiv e S ch o las t i c A chievem ent,” Jo u rn a l of A pplied Psychology, 2 2 :5 9 7 “6o6, December, 193&. T. L. Engle, ,fA P e rs o n a lity Study o f a Group of High School Honor S o cie ty P u p i l s ,” Jo u rn al o f A pplied Psychology, 1 8 :2 9 3 -9 6 , A p ril, 1 9 3 I1 .. —----“ --------- ---------------- C. W . Flemming, A D e ta ile d A nalysis of Achievement in The High School (Teachers College C o n trib u tio n to E ducation, No. 1 9 6 , New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1 9 2 5 ), 209 pp. A. R. G illila n d and W . H. Voss, P e r s o n a l i t y Tests and S c h o la s tic A tta in m e n t,” P ersonnel J o u rn a l, 9 : 3 0 5 - 8 , December, 1930. J . B. Young, ”How Em otional T ra its P redispose to C ollege F a i l u r e , ” Jo u rn a l of E d u catio n al Psychology, 1 8 : 6 3 1 - 3 6 , December, 1 9 2 7 * I I I . INVESTIGATIONS PERTAINING TO DEFECTS OF VISION The re p o rts to d ate on the r e la tio n s h ip between v is u a l d e fe c ts and f a i l u r e in read in g a re as c o n f lic tin g as those between p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs and re a d in g f a i l u r e . Eames, S e lz e r, B e tts , Blake, Dearborn and many o th e rs have subm itted re p o rts showing p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between th ese f a c to rs w h ile o th e rs such as P a r r is , C lark, P endrick, Swanson and T if f in , W itty and Kopel, and Stromberg have accum ulated co u n ter evidence and have, ac co rd in g ly , denied th a t any such r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s . Eames was th e f i r s t in v e s tig a to r to r e p o r t the p o s i tiv e r e la tio n s h ip between th e eye d e fe c t known as h e te ro - phoria and read in g d i s a b i l i t y . ° He compared the o c u la r c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f 1 lip read in g d i s a b i l i t y cases w ith li|3 u n se le c te d school c h ild re n and found th a t the re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y group e x h ib ite d a g r e a te r tendency toward poorer v is io n , and g r e a t e r degrees o f exophoria in d ista n c e and n ear v is io n . Although Eames d eclared th a t h is fin d in g s were h ig h ly r e l i a b l e and very s ig n i f ic a n t they have been s e r io u s ly questioned by o th e r in v e s tig a to r s e s p e c ia lly by W itty and Kopel who f e l t th a t the s u b je c ts used were a s e le c te d group 26 T. H. Eames, ,fA Comparison o f the Ocular Charac t e r i s t i c s of U nselected and Reading D is a b ilit y G roups,” Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al R esearch, 25: 211- 15, March, 1932. 1|2 and th a t the study as a whole was n o t a c c e p ta b le because such im portant item s as the c r i t e r i a used fo r se g re g a tin g the groups was n o t s t a t e d , e t c . 2? S e lz e r used ste re o sc o p ic t e s t s of h is own c o n s tru c tio n f o r stu d y in g eye-m uscle im b alance and poor fu sio n in t h i r t y - t h r e e poor re a d e rs and one pO hundred u n se le c te d c h ild re n . ° He found th a t .90 per cent o f the t h i r t y - t h r e e cases of read in g d i s a b i l i t y showed eye- muscle imbalance w hile only n in e out o f the one hundred un- s e le c te d c h ild re n showed th is d e f e c t. He concluded, th e r e fo re , th a t rimuscle imbalance in a d d itio n to a la c k of fu sio n account fo r such re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y as a re n o t accounted fo r by g e n e ra l m ental d i s a b i l i t y . ”2^ B etts developed a s e t o f ste re o sc o p ic s lid e s to t e s t the c o -o rd in a te a c tio n of the eyes. He found through the use of h is t e s t s th a t 1 1 approxim ately 90 Pe r ce n t of non re a d e rs and se v e re ly re ta rd e d read e rs re q u ire d m edical a t te n t io n befo re re c e iv in g pedagogical h e l p . 1 1 3® He claim ed 27 p. A. W itty and D. Kopel, "S tudies of Eye-Muscle Imbalance and Poor Fusion in Reading D is a b ility : An Evalua t i o n , ” Jo u rn al of E d u catio n al Psychology, 27:603-71, December, I936• 28 0, a . S e lz e r, L a te ra l Dominance and V isu a l F u sio n , (Harvard Monographs in E ducation, Ho. 112, Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rsity P re ss, 1933)> P* 119• 29 I b id . , p. 85. 30 E. A. B e tta , "A P h y sio lo g ic a l Approach to th e A nalysis o f Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s , " E ducational R esearch B u l l e t i n . 13:163-75, O ctober, 19314.. — — : th a t th is h ig h percentage was r e l i a b l e because h e re to fo re only " r e f r a c tiv e e rro rs had been th e c h ie f c o n sid e ra tio n " and fu rth erm o re, th a t "convenient t e s t s fo r b in o c u la r co o rd in a tio n had n o t been a v a ila b le fo r r e s e a r c h e s . ” 51 W itty and Kopel ev a lu ated ex p e rim en ta lly the apparent r e la tio n s h ip to poor read in g o f the eye co n d itio n s re p o rte d by Eames, S e lz e r, and B e tts , They concluded from t h e i r study th a t the v ario u s v is u a l f a c to r s which had been h e re to fo re regarded as cau sal f a c to r s of read in g d e fic ie n c y were n o t a t a l l r e la te d to th is d i s a b i l i t y . 5^ While W itty and Kopel were n o t ab le to fin d an a l l - s u f f i c i e n t ex p lan atio n o f poor read in g in th e v is u a l are a th ey , n e v e rth e le s s , concluded f i n a l l y th a t normal v is io n is in d u b ita b ly e s s e n ti a l to maximum a t t a i n ment, 53 The l a s t stu d y f o r th is survey re p o rtin g p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between eye d e fe c ts and poor re a d in g is th a t by Blake and D e a r b o r n . 5t These authors analyzed two groups of c o lle g e freshman g i r l s each of which contained lOlj. s u b je c ts , 51 I b id ., p. 165. 32 p # W itty and D. Kopel, "H eterophoria and Read ing D is a b ilit y ," Jo u rn al of E ducational Psychology. 27: 222- 30, March, 1936. ““ 53 I b i d ., p. 230. 5^ * M . B. Blake and W . F. Dearborn, "The Improvement o f Reading H a b its ,” Jo u rn a l o f Higher E ducation, 6:83-88. F ebruary, 1955. : — They concluded from t h e i r an aly ses th a t w hile no s in g le t e s t gave r e s u l t s th a t c le a r ly d if f e r e n t i a t e d the poor re a d e rs from th e good re a d e rs , the former e x h ib ite d a la r g e r p ro p o r tio n o f d e fe c tiv e v is io n . They f e l t th a t they had con v in c in g evidence th a t v is u a l d e fe c ts are ”a c o n trib u tin g i f n o t a prim ary cause o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . ” P a r r is conducted an in v e s tig a tio n w ith approxim ately 1,500 seventh grade p u p ils in o rd e r to determ ine th e r e la tio n s h ip between v is u a l a c u ity , astigm atism , accommodation, convergence, fu sio n , muscle b alan ce , and progress in re a d in g . 55 He used matched groups and compared the achievem ent o f c h ild re n w ith and w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts b o th a t the b eg in n in g and a t the end o f the stu d y . His conclusions were th a t eye d e fe c ts o th e r than myopic, hyperopic, and stra b ism ic have very l i t t l e e f f e c t upon progress in read in g . On the whole th is stu d y follow ed good experim ental tech n iq u es; however, no mention was made o f th e manner in which the re a d in g was taught d u rin g th e in te rim between the i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t i n g . Although the p u p ils used in the stu d y were equal in a b i l i t y and ch ro n o lo g ic a l age, th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r progress were n o t s t r i c t l y comparable because com p a ra b le methods of teach in g them were n o t used. 55 L. P. F a r r is , "V isual D efects as F acto rs In flu e n c ing Achievement in R eading,” Jo u rn a l of E xperim ental E d u catio n , 5:58-60, September, 1936. In o rd er to determ ine w hether i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in eye movements a re caused by anom alies o f b in o c u la r b alan ce , C lark compared a group o f co lle g e freshmen having normal b in o c u la r balance w ith a group having marked ex o p h o ria .3 ^ While h is su b je c ts read two paragraphs o f m a te ria l from the f i e l d o f psychology he recorded both th e h o riz o n ta l and v e r t i c a l movements of the eye by means o f eye-movement camera re c o rd s. His fin d in g s showed no in sta n c e s of momen ta ry overlappings which could have caused confusion of l e t t e r s and words such as Eames re p o rte d in h is stu d y . The d iffe re n c e s which C lark found between "normal" read e rs and the exophores were a l l very sm all and s t a t i s t i c a l l y in s i g n i f i c a n t . Clark used only two paragraphs of read in g m a te r ia l. Whether or n o t t h i s was s u f f i c i e n t in le n g th to y ie ld v a lid measures o f eye-movements may be q u e stio n a b le . F urtherm ore, as C lark h im se lf concludes, w hile the study as conducted showed no evidence of momentary o verlappings caus ing d ip lo p ia , " i t is e n t ir e ly p o ssib le th a t such movements may have occurred a t the end o f long read in g p erio d s or when fa tig u e was p r e s e n t . "57 A nother stu d y o f co lleg e freshmen, alth o u g h from a 36 B. C lark, "The E ffe c t o f B inocular Imbalance on th e Behavior of the Eyes During R eading," Jo u rn al o f Educa tio n a l Psychology, 26:550-38, O ctober, 1935. 37 I b id . . p. 535. ij-6 d i f f e r e n t angle was made by Swanson and T i f f i n . 5^ They used the B e t t s 1 b a tte r y in o rd e r to o b ta in the c o r r e la tio n s be tween the re s p e c tiv e t e s t s in th a t b a tte r y and read in g achievem ent. They concluded " th a t even w ith in te llig e n c e ru le d out the B etts* sensory t e s ts a re n o t a p p re c ia b ly r e la te d to re a d in g a b i l i t y a t the c o lle g e freshmen l e v e l . "59 Swanson and T if f in wished by th is conclusion to show th a t "sensory d e fic ie n c ie s a re r e l a t i v e l y unim portant to read in g a b i l i t y as compared w ith c e n tr a l and more g e n e ra liz e d h a b its and c a p a c i t i e s . " ^ According to t h e i r own sta tem en t, they d id n o t w ish, by t h e i r co n c lu sio n s, to discourage the use of th e Betts* t e s t s fo r purposes o f eye exam inations in the sc h o o ls. On the c o n tra ry , they recommended th a t th ese t e s t s be used as a convenient means f o r surveys and p re lim in a ry d iag n o ses. The r e s u l t s , however, as they s a id , should n o t be used as a c r i t e r i o n f o r the need of rem edial trea tm en t in r e a d i n g . ^ The f i n a l stu d y to be considered in t h i s se c tio n is Swanson and J . T if f in , "B etts* P h y sio lo g ic a l Approach to th e A nalysis o f Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s as A pplied to College L ev el," Jo u rn a l o f E d u catio n al Research. i|£, February, 1 9 3 6 .-----------* -------------------------------------------: — L 7 ^ 59 I b id . , p. I 4J 4 .6 . I b id . , p. i|l{.8. Loo• c i t * k l th a t o f F endrick ^2 who te s te d th e v is u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s ix ty - f o u r p a irs o f good re a d e rs and poor readers in the second and th ir d grades of s e v e ra l New York C ity sch o o ls. A lthough F endrick did n o t fin d eye-m uscle imbalance to be a d is c rim in a tin g f a c to r among the poor re a d e rs he d id no te th a t th e re were more im paired v is u a l a c u ity cases among the poor readers- e s p e c ia lly when th e r ig h t eye was te s te d . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in th is stu d y was the f a c t th a t methods of te a c h in g re a d in g th a t were p rep o n d eran tly v is u a l m i l i ta te d a g a in s t the success of th e v is u a lly handicapped. IV. INVESTIGATIONS PERTAINING TO CONDITIONS OP LATERALITY There have been r a th e r fre q u e n t attem p ts e s p e c ia lly In re c e n t y ears to in v e s tig a te the problem o f th e r e l a t i o n between hand and eye dominance, r e v e r s a ls , and re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y . In .1925 Dearborn re p o rte d tw en ty -fiv e cases of read in g d i s a b i l i t y o f whom " a t l e a s t e ig h t" or 52 per cent were e i t h e r le ft-h a n d e d o r am bidextrous.^3 in 1 9 2 9 Dearborn confirm ed h is opinion o f e a r l i e r d ate and f u r th e r In d ic a te d ^ P. P endrick, V isual C h a r a c te r is tic s o f Poor Read ers (Teachers College C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No. 6 5 6 , New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1935), 5I 4 . pp. b-3 E. E. Lord, L. Carm ichael and W . F. Dearborn, S p e c ia l D i s a b i l i t i e s in Learning to Read and W rite (Harvard Monographs in E ducation, ¥ 0 . 6, Cambridge, M ass.: Harvard U n iv e rsity P re ss, 1 9 2 5 ), p. 6 7 . 1 + 8 th a t th e re was a s p e c ia l r e la tio n s h ip between emphasis on s i l e n t read in g and th is ty p e .o f d i f f i c u l t y . ^ - In h is re p o rt of 1933 of one hundred cases o f d y sle x ia , he again found a high percentage (29 per cent) of le ft-h a n d e d i n d i v i d u a l s . ^ His emphasis a t th is tim e, however, was upon mixed and do u b tfu l dominance, the hand and eye b o th bein g co n sid ered . Monroe d id n o t fin d any more le ft-h a n d e d c h ild re n among poor re a d e rs than among normal re a d e rs alth o u g h she d id fin d more le f t- e y e d c h ild re n among the poor read e rs and hence more cases of mixed dominance, i . e . , rig h t-h a n d e d and le ft- e y e d c h ild re n in th a t g r o u p .^ Orton re p o rte d d e f in ite r e la tio n s h ip between la c k o f c le a n -c u t dominance, i . e . , rig h t-h an d ed n ess w ith rig h t-e y e d n e ss and le ft-h a n d e d n e ss w ith le ft-e y e d n e s s , and re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y . ^ The co u n ter evidence fo r determ in in g th e r e la tio n s h i p between types of dominance and re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y was ^ W . F. Dearborn, "Teaching Heading to Non-Headers," Elem entary School J o u rn a l, 3 0:266- 69, December, 1929. b-5 W . F. Dearborn, " S tru c tu r a l F acto rs Which Condi tio n S p e c ia l D is a b ility in R eading,1 1 Proceedings and Addresses o f th e F i f t y -Seventh Annual S essio n of th e American A sso c ia tio n on M ental D e fic ie n c y , pp. 268- 86, May-June, 1933* W M . Monroe, C hildren W ho Cannot Read (Chicago: U n iv e rsity o f Chicago P re ss, 1932), p. 8 1+. S. T. Orton, "An Impediment to Learning to Read— A N eu ro lo g ical E xp lan atio n of the Reading D i s a b i l i t y , 1 1 School and S o c ie ty , 2 8 : 286- 90, September, 1928. p rese n ted by such in v e s tig a to r s as Woody and P h illi p s , H aefner, and G ates. Woody and P h illip s conducted a con t r o l l e d experim ent w ith 136 matched p a i r s . T h e y made s p e c ia l e f f o r t to o b ta in p u p ils w ith pure handedness. The r e s u lt s of t h e i r stu d y showed th a t the le ft-h a n d e d c h ild re n were n o t i n f e r i o r to the normal rig h t-h a n d e d c h ild re n in read in g achievem ent. H a e fn e r^ reached p r a c t i c a l l y th e same conclusions as Woody and P h i l l i p s . He found no r e l i a b l e d iffe re n c e s between the school achievem ent o f the l e f t - handed group and th a t of the rig h t-h an d ed group. He did suggest however, th a t the le ft-h a n d e d group seemed to be s l i g h t l y more v a ria b le in t h e i r school achievem ent than the rig h t-h a n d e d group; Gates and Bond found among 250 poor read e rs only 9 Pe** c e n t who were le ft-h a n d e d and t h i s number included those who had been "changed o v e r . f,50 Evidence pro and con is a v a ila b le from many o th e r ^ G. Woody and A. J . P h illi p s , " E ffe c ts of Handed ness on R eversals in R ead in g ,” Jo u rn al o f E ducational R esearch, 27:651-62, May, 193I4.. R. H aefner, The E d u catio n al S ig n ific a n c e o f L e f t- Handedness (Teachers College C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No. 360, New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 19291, §2 pp. 50 A. I . Gates and G. L. Bond, "R ela tio n of Handed n e ss, E y e-S ig h tin g and A cuity Dominance to Heading," Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al Psychology, 27:14.50-56, September, 1956. 50 in v e s tig a tio n s e s p e c ia lly from those o f Parson , 5^ H il d re th , 52 C u ff,55 P e n d ric k ,5^ W itty and K o p e l , 55 Gates and B e n n e tt,5^ and L a d d . 57 i n g e n e ra l, th e r e s u l t s o f th e se s tu d ie s show, f i r s t , th a t v a rio u s types o f dominance as w ell as la ck of clean c u t dominance occurs w ith no g r e a te r f r e quency among poor read e rs than among good re a d e rs ; second, th a t hand and eye p referen ce s are u n r e lia b le as in d ic e s o f re a d in g a b i l i t y . Many in v e s tig a to r s have re p o rte d r e v e r s a l te n d e n c ie s in co n ju n ctio n w ith problems o f dominance. Gates and B ennett made a s p e c if ic study o f r e v e r s a l ten d en cies and found th a t dominance did n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e the r e v e r s a l from the n o n -re v e rs a l g ro u p .5^ W itty and Kopel found th a t 51 B. S. Parson, Lefthandedness (New York: The Mac m illa n Company, 1924), pp. 36-69; 121- 132. 5^ Q. H ild re th , “R eversals in Reading and W r itin g .” Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al Psychology, 2 5 : 1- 20, January, 1934. 55 n . B. Cuff, “A Study o f Eyedness and H andedness,1 1 Jo u rn a l of E xperim ental Psychology, 1I4.2l6i|_— 75> A p ril, 1931. 5k P en d rick , op. c i t . , p. 47. 55 p. A. W itty and D. Kopel, “S i n i s t r a l and Mixed M anual-Ocular Behavior in Reading D i s a b i l i t y , 1 1 Jo u rn a l of E d u catio n al Psychology, 27:119-34, F ebruary, 1936. 5^ A. I . Gates and C. C. B ennett, R eversal Tendencies in Reading (New York: Bureau o f P u b lic a tio n s , Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1933)> PP* 11- 17* 57 Ladd, op. c i t . , pp. 63-64, 85. 58 Gates and B ennett, lo c . c i t . 51 alth o u g h the poor read e rs in t h e i r stu d y made more re v e r s a ls than the good re a d e rs th e re seemed to be no s i g n i f i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip between r e v e r s a l tendency and d o m i n a n c e . 59 H ild re th re p o rte d from h e r in v e s tig a tio n th a t although "th e le ft-h a n d e d c h ild re n tended to make on the average s l i g h t l y more r e v e r s a l e rr o rs than th e rig h t-h a n d e d c h ild re n ” the d iffe re n c e was in s i g n if i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l l y . ^ She concluded, th e re fo re , th a t " le ft-h a n d e d and rig h t-h a n d e d c h ild re n tend to make p r a c t i c a l l y the same number o f r e v e r s a l e r r o r s . ” Orton, in h is l a t e s t a r t i c l e , s t i l l m aintains th a t r e v e r s a ls a re caused by la c k o f c e re b ra l dominance. ¥ . LIMITATIONS O P PREVIOUS STUDIES The a rd e n t advocates o f the I n t e r e s t program as w ell as the prom oters of i n t r i n s i c m o tiv atio n cen tered around an i n t e r e s t in th e m a te ria l I t s e l f r a th e r than in the d riv e s and needs o f the p u p ils have n o t produced r e l i a b l e e m p iric a l d a ta to su p p o rt t h e i r claim s. Although th e se in v e s tig a to r s have conducted rem edial programs in which t h e i r techniques have been used s u c c e s s fu lly they have n o t produced o b je c tiv e 59 w itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , p. 131. H ild re th , op. c i t . , p. 19* fi l S. T. Orton, "A n e u ro lo g ic a l E xplanation o f the Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” E d u catio n al Record Supplement No. 12. 2 0 : 58- 68, January, 1939^ : : -------------- “ -------- e v id e n c e to j u s t i f y th e s u p e r io r it y o f t h e i r te c h n iq u e s o ver t r a d i t io n a l and o th e r c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s . I n v e s t ig a t io n s a re e s p e c i a l l y needed to show th e r e l a t i v e s u p e r io r it y , in term s o f a c h ie v e m e n t, o f v a r io u s ty p e s o f m o tiv a tio n u sed in a rem ed ia l program to s e c u r e th e i n t e r e s t o f th e p u p ils . In many o f th e p e r s o n a lit y s t u d ie s s u b j e c t iv e t e c h n iq u e s have been u sed in th e form o f R a tin g S c a le s and s im ila r d e v ic e s . F urth erm ore, many o f th e in v e s t i g a t io n s have b een lim it e d in sc o p e as w e ll as in th e number o f su b j e c t s . In o th e r in s ta n c e s c l i n i c c a s e s have b een u sed as th e s o l e b a s i3 o f th e stu d y and g e n e r a liz a t io n s have then been drawn from t h i s s p e c i a li z e d p o p u la tio n . As a r u le , s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e com p arisons have v e r y seldom been made b etw een th e p e r s o n a lit y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f problem c a s e s in r e a d in g and th o se o f n on -p rob lem c a se s in r e a d in g . Most s t u d ie s d id n o t probe t h e i r problem s th o r o u g h ly enough to j u s t i f y t h e ir c o n c lu s io n s . For exam p le, a lth o u g h n e g a t i v e d e v ia tio n s in some r e s p e c t s w ere fou n d in th e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f problem c a s e s in r e a d in g a ttem p ts w ere v e r y seld om made to d e term in e to w hat e x te n t th e d e v ia tio n s in p e r s o n a lit y p a r a lle le d th e d e v ia t io n s in r e a d in g a c h iev e m en t. F in a ll y , on th e w h o le , v e ry few a ttem p ts h ave b een made in th e p e r s o n a lit y s t u d ie s to a p p ly r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e s to the d a ta o b ta in e d . Some o f the s t u d ie s i n v e s t i g a t in g th e r e l a t io n s h ip b etw een v i s u a l a n o m a lies and r e a d in g a ch iev em en t a re s u b j e c t to th e same l i m i t a t i o n th a t was fr e q u e n t ly found in th e p e r s o n a lit y s t u d i e s , nam ely, t h a t th e problem was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y a n a ly z e d w ith r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e s . In W itty and K o p e lfs i n v e s t i g a t i o n , f o r exam p le, s t a t i s t i c a l c r i t e r i a w ere n o t u sed t o d eterm in e th e s i g n if i c a n c e o f th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d n or w ere a tte m p ts made to p r o v id e r e l i a b l e c r i t e r i a f o r th e sm a ll number o f p u p ils u sed in th e v a r io u s g ro u p s. A lth ou gh P a r r is u sed a c c e p ta b le s t a t i s t i c a l t e c h n iq u e s in h is s tu d y he a p p a r e n tly made no a ttem p t to c o n tr o l th e manner in w h ich th e r e a d in g was ta u g h t by th e v a r io u s te a c h e r s d u rin g th e in te r im b etw een th e i n i t i a l and th e f i n a l t e s t i n g . The r e s u l t s o f th e p u p ils ' p r o g r e s s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e n o t com parable b eca u se com parable m ethods o f te a c h in g w ere n o t u se d . The f i n a l l im i t a t io n ob serv ed in th e i n v e s t i g a t io n s su rv ey ed in t h i s c h a p te r was th a t v a r io u s ty p e s o f f a c t o r s were n o t s tu d ie d as a c o n s t e l l a t i o n . In m ost s t u d ie s p o s s ib le c o r r e la t e s o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y have been a n a ly z e d s in g ly and n o t as a u n if ie d or group in f lu e n c e . I n v e s t ig a t io n s a re n eed ed th a t w i l l a ttem p t to stu d y the problem o f r e ta r d a t io n in r e a d in g from th e v ie w p o in t o f an in te g r a t e d r e l a t io n s h ip r a th e r than a s a com partm ental or i s o l a t e d r e l a t io n s h ip o f s i n g le in f lu e n c in g f a c t o r s . CHAPTER I I I FACTORS A N D TECHNIQUES USED IN THE EQUATING OF SUBJECTS Every e f f o r t was made to in su re the equivalence o f the p a r a l l e l groups used in the experim ent. The s p e c if ic technique employed, as mentioned p re v io u sly , was th a t o f the m atched-pair technique in which each in d iv id u a l in each ex p erim en tal group was matched w ith an in d iv id u a l in the c o n tro l groups who possessed c e r ta in p a r a l l e l c h a r a c te r i s t i c s . These c h a r a c te r i s tic s were determ ined by complying as f a r as p o ssib le w ith the c r i t e r i a f o r c o n tro llin g the e q u a t ing of groups as given by Good, B arr, and S c a te s . ^ The p u p il f a c to rs c o n tro lle d in the group m atching were those of a b i l i t y , c h ro n o lo g ic al age, school, sex, grade, and previous achievem ent in the experim ental f i e l d used in th is d i s s e r t a tio n , namely, th a t of read in g . The ed u cativ e f a c to rs c o n tro lle d in th e a d m in is tra tio n o f th e experim ent were those of in s t r u c tio n a l te c h n iq u e s, s k i l l in c a rry in g out in s t r u c tio n a l te c h n iq u e s, z e a l o f the te a c h e r, in s t r u c tio n a l m a te r ia ls , and time spent in the le a rn in g a c t i v i t y . The c r i t e r i o n used fo r probable s c h o la s tic achievem ent • * - C. V. Good, A. S. B arr, and D. E. S c a te s, The Methodology of E d u catio n al R esearch (New York: AppleHon- Century Company, I9 3 6 ), pp.^ 2Off-1 0. w h ich was one o f th e c r i t e r i a u sed fo r c o n t r o llin g th e e q u a tin g o f groups i s a r e c e n t d ev elo p m en t. C o n sid e r a b le a t t e n t io n i s , t h e r e f o r e , g iv e n to e x p la in in g and j u s t i f y i n g i t s u s e . C o n sid e ra b le a t t e n t io n i s a l s o g iv e n t o an e x - . p la n a tio n and d e t a ile d d e s c r ip t io n o f th e fo u r ty p e s o f eq u a ted group o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ich w ere n eed ed fo r th e many k in d s o f a n a ly s e s th a t w ere c o n n e c te d w ith th e s e v e r a l problem s in c lu d e d in th e o b j e c t iv e s o f th e d is s e r t a t io n * On th e w h o le , the m a te r ia l g iv e n in t h i s c h a p te r i s d e t a ile d and e x te n s iv e b eca u se i t i s e s s e n t i a l to a c le a r u n d e rsta n d in g o f C hapters V to VIXX i n c lu s i v e as i t form s th e fo u n d a tio n upon w h ich th e s t u d ie s r e p o r te d in th e s e c h a p te r s a re b a se d . I . NEED FOR A N EW CRITERION O F PROBABLE SCHOLASTIC ACHIEVEMENT I n t e r r e la t io n s h ip s b etw een accom p lish m en t and i n t e l lig e n c e . P r a c t ic a ll y a l l s t u d ie s to d a te have u sed th e IQ o r M A as th e e q u a tin g c r i t e r i o n fo r p ro b a b le s c h o l a s t i c a c h iev e m en t. A c tu a l a ch iev em en t has th en u s u a lly been e v a lu a te d in term s o f i t s r e l a t io n to m en ta l c a p a c ity by th e u se o f an accom p lish m en t q u o t ie n t or an accom plish m en t d if f e r e n c e . A number o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s , h ow ever, have r e c o g n iz e d c e r t a in i n t e r r e l a t io n s h ip s b etw een m en tal a b i l i t y and a ch iev em en t th a t ren d er th e s e d e v ic e s u n r e lia b le , one o f which is th a t the IQ and AQ in the same in d iv id u a l occur in p in v e rse p ro p o rtio n . The cause o r ig in a lly a t t r i b u t e d to th is phenomenon was th a t d u lle r p u p ils a re stim u la te d more v ig o r ously to work up to t h e i r c a p a c ity w hile b r ig h te r p u p ils are p erm itted to la g b eh in d .^ Lee, however, w hile re co g n izin g the " e f f o r t concept” as a probable cause, b e lie v e d th a t the tru e cause was more fundamental.^- Although she claim ed th a t the s t a t i s t i c a l f a c t of re g re ssio n e n tered in to the p ic tu re she d id n o t in d ic a te th a t she understood th e r e a l s i g n i f i cance o f the cause o f the re g re s s io n . In flu en ce o f the law o f the uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the e f f e c ts of s p e c if ic f a c t o r s . A lic e McNulty Horn in h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n has analyzed the tru e n a tu re o f th e r e l a t i o n sh ip between m ental and achievem ent f a c to rs and h as, 2 S ev eral such r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in v e s tig a to r s a re as fo llo w s : D. M . Lee, The Im portance of Heading fo r A chieving in Grades Four, F ive, and S ix (Teachers C ollege C o n trib u tio n to E ducation, No. 556, New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1935)> P* 8. A. H. M acP h ail, "The C o r r e la tio n Betw een th e IQ and th e AQ,” S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , 16:586-88, November, 1922. T. L. Torgenson and I . Shuman, "The V a r ia b i lity of the Accomplishment o f P u p ils of the Same M ental L ev el," Jo u rn a l of E ducational R esearch, 11:152-56, February, 1925. 3 F* N. Freeman, Mental T ests (Boston: Houghton M ifflin Company, 1926), pp. 289Y£0 ". 57 furtherm ore, p rese n ted a new tech n iq u e, the r e s u l t s o f which can be used as a r e lia b le c r i t e r i o n f o r eq u a tin g purposes when m ental and accomplishment f a c to rs are i n v o l v e d . 5 Horn has given s p e c if ic proof th a t the fundam ental cause o f r e g re ssio n when two v a ria b le s are c o r re la te d has i t s source in the L A W OP THE UN EV EN DISTRIBUTION OP THE EPPECTS OP 6 SPECIFIC FACTORS. According to th is law, in a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f values r e p re s e n tin g the measurement of a given t r a i t possessed by a number o f in d iv id u a ls , r e l a t i v e l y g r e a te r amounts o f any s p e c if ic o r chance f a c to r o p e ra tin g p o s itiv e ly to cause the sc o re w ill be found in th e upper b ra c k e ts of th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f sc o re s, and r e l a t i v e l y sm a lle r amounts of any s p e c if ic or chance f a c to r o p e ra tin g p o s itiv e ly to cause the score w i l l be found in th e lower b ra c k e ts of sc o re s. S im ila r ly r e l a t i v e l y sm aller amounts of any s p e c if ic or chance f a c to r o p e ra tin g n e g a tiv e ly to cause the t r a i t w ill be found in th e upper b ra c k e ts of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of scores and la r g e r r e l a t i v e amounts in th e lower b r a c k e ts .7 Because o f the LA W OP THE UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OP THE EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC FACTORS f i r s t scores re g re s s on second scores and second scores on f i r s t u n le ss the o b tained f i r s t scores a re p e r f e c tly c o rre la te d w ith the obtained second o sc o re s. I f f i r s t sc o re s a re taken as c r i t e r i a , a s , f o r 5 A. McNulty Horn, "Uneven D is tr ib u tio n of the E ffe c ts o f S p e c ific F a c t o r s ,r f (unpublished D o cto r!s d is s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e rsity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , Los Angeles, 1937), 251 pp. 6 I b id ., p p . 27-3O, 36-38, i+O-75• ' 7 I b id ., pp. 29-3O. ® I b i d ., p. 132. example in th is d i s s e r t a t i o n , i f m ental ages or in te llig e n c e q u o tie n ts are taken and i f th e se m ental ages o r in te llig e n c e q u o tie n ts a re used as th e mount o f achievem ent to be ex pected in the achievem ent t e s t s , then the b r ig h t p u p ils who have f a l l e n in the h ig h e r b ra c k e ts on th e in te llig e n c e t e s t w i l l be p e n a liz e d . They w i l l be found as n o t working up to c a p a c ity . The d u ll p u p ils on the o th e r hand w ill be found as having achieved r e l a t i v e l y more than could be expected of them according to t h e i r n a tiv e c a p a c ity . In o th e r words, they w i l l be found to have ”ex e rted g r e a te r e f f o r t . T h e s e r e s u l t s , however, are due n o t to " e f f o r t ” or any s im ila r concept b u t r a th e r ”to the n a tu re o f m ental l i f e and to the m a n ife sta tio n s o f the L A W OF UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF THE EFFECT OP SPECIFIC FACTORS."10 I I . ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE THE AQ A number of attem pts have been made to Improve the accomplishment q u o tie n t as a s t a t i s t i c a l device. Horn has advanced evidence to show, however, th a t no s u b s t itu te de v ic e to d ate is adequate m ainly because no device as y e t is based upon the p r in c ip le th a t th e re is always re g re s s io n to the NATURAL M EA N o f the group. The mean o f the groups 9 I b i d ., p. 152. 10 I b id ., p. 13!).. 59 s t u d ie d i s alw ays u sed w ith o u t r eg a r d to th e n a tu r a l m ea n .H In some in s ta n c e s th e a c h iev e m en t d if f e r e n c e has been u sed to r e p la c e th e a ch iev em en t q u o t ie n t. The ach iev em en t d if f e r e n c e i s found by s u b tr a c tin g th e e d u c a tio n a l grade p lacem en t o r e d u c a tio n a l a g e from th e m en tal grade p lacem en t o r m en tal a g e . Horn shows a t le n g th t h a t the r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e ach ievem en t d if f e r e n c e and th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e 12 ach iev em en t q u o tie n t a r e i d e n t i c a l . The ca u se o f low r e l i a b i l i t y in th e c a s e o f th e a ch iev em en t q u o tie n t has been shown to be THE UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION O F THE EFFECT O F SPECIFIC FACTORS, The same c a u s e , t h e r e f o r e , i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e low r e l i a b i l i t y in a ch iev em en t d i f f e r e n c e s , I I I . THE XA AS A CRITERION OF PROBABLE SCHOLASTIC ACHIEVEMENT N ature o f r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n . Horn h as made a d e f i n i t e c o n t r ib u tio n by d e v e lo p in g a r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n f o r in t e r p r e t in g ach ievem en t th a t r e c o g n iz e s th e f a c t o f r e g r e s s io n tow ard th e n a tu r a l mean f o r c a s e s f a l l i n g in th e upper and lo w er b r a c k e ts o f i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s . By means o f t h is r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n th e ach iev em en t o f b r ig h t c h i l dren can be compared w ith th e ach iev em en t o f e q u a lly b r ig h t 11 I b id . , p. 117, ^ I b i d ., pp. H 9 - I 3 I . 6o c h ild re n of th e same age, and the achievem ent o f d u ll c h i l dren can be in te r p r e te d in terms of d u ll c h ild re n o f the same a g e . ^ * 3 The re g re s s io n equation^* is as fo llo w s: Xc - M x - (Y0 - M v ) 0 c yn xc equals the expected re a d in g age of the c h ild under c o n s id e ra tio n , equals the n a t u r a l mean fo r read in g fo r the c h ild , My^ equals the n a tu r a l mean fo r in te llig e n c e fo r the c h ild , Y. equals the m ental age o f the c h ild , and r y c y equals the c o r r e la tio n between in te llig e n c e and read in g which Horn found to be .6 7 * ^ Horn cancels out the two sta n d ard d e v ia tio n s because b o th th e re a d in g and i n t e l l i gence sco res a re expressed in terms o f age. She claim s th a t no a p p re c ia b le e r r o r is thereby intro d u ced by dropping the two d e v ia tio n s . Since the n a tu r a l means f o r bo th m ental age and re a d ing age a re equal to th e ch ro n o lo g ic al age i t s e l f , Horn sub s t i t u t e s th is term in the equation f o r the terms M Y and M L , T n and t h e e q u a t i o n ^ th e n r e a d s a s fo llo w s : Xc - C A - (M AC - CA)rx « y 13 I b id ., p. 13!).. ^ ^ I d . , p. ll^ l. • * ■ 5 Loc. . c i t . Loc. c i t . 6l According to th is e q u a tio n , the expected re a d in g age o f any c h ild under c o n s id e ra tio n is equal to h is m ental age times .67 plus h is c h ro n o lo g ic a l age tim es .33 o r, to two 1 7 th ir d s h is m ental age plus one th ir d h is c h ro n o lo g ic a l age. * This form ula fo r p r e d ic tin g a c h i l d ’s expectancy p ro duces r e s u l t s which perm it of f a i r comparison sin c e the achievem ent o f d u ll and b rig h t c h ild re n can be e v a lu ated in terms n o t only o f eq u al m ental m a tu rity b u t a lso of equal p h y sio lo g ic a l m a tu rity re s p e c tin g age. Because o f the w eight given in th e form ula to both m ental and c h ro n o lo g ic a l age such d i f f i c u l t i e s are e lim in a te d th a t would otherw ise be caused by the uneven d is t r ib u t io n o f the e f f e c ts o f s p e c if ic f a c t o r s . S u p e r io rity of X A to re a d in g in d ex . Before d e f i n i t e ly d ec id in g upon th e use o f the XA, as the above device is termed, f o r an eq u a tin g c r i t e r i o n a t e s t was made o f i t s s u p e r io r ity over the re a d in g index advocated by Marion Monroe. The read in g index, as used by Monroe, is a r a t i o of the c h i l d ’s composite re a d in g g rad e, and h is average chrono lo g ic a l m ental and a rith m e tic g r a d e . T h e very f a c t o f i t s bein g a r a t i o su b je c ts .the re a d in g index to the same type o f *7 I b i d ., p. 1I4.3. 18 M. Monroe, C h ild ren Who Cannot Read (Chicago: U n iv e rsity o f Chicago P re ss, 1932), pp. ll|_-15. 62 e rro rs as the accomplishment q u o tie n t, namely, to th e UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION O P THE EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC FACTORS. Monroe, however, claims th a t th e re a d in g index is very r e l i a b l e as she o b tain ed a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t o f .9lj-±*01 by r e t e s t ing f i f t y c h ild re n s ix months a f t e r the o r ig in a l te s tin g and then c o r r e la tin g the f i r s t in d ic e s w ith th e second i n d i c e s . ^ A check was made on th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f the re a d in g index by r e t e s t i n g I37 p u p ils of one o f the schools used in th is experim ent, approxim ately s ix months a f t e r the o r ig in a l t e s tin g . A r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t of only .671*03 was o btain ed even though th e re s p e c tiv e t e s t s used had a h ig h r e l i a b i l i t y o f over . 9 5* Although th is c o r r e la tio n is s i g n i f i c a n t in so f a r as i t shows t h a t the r e la tio n s h ip between the two s e ts o f in d ic es i s g r e a te r than chance, the c o r r e la - PO tio n is by no means hig h w and the read in g index, th e re fo re , is by no means h ig h ly r e l i a b l e b u t is s u b je c t to co n sid e ra b le e r r o r . On th e o th e r hand, when th e expectancy grade scores of th e same p u p ils o b tained through the Horn form ula, were c o r r e la te d , a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t o f .95+.01 was ob ta in e d . This c o e f f ic ie n t is n o t only s i g n i f i c a n t b u t h ig h ly 19 I b id . , p. 17. H. E. G a rre tt, S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and E ducation (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1938), P- 5^ 3- Pi r e l i a b l e . In o rd er to determ ine w hether th e re is any r e la tio n s h ip between the re a d in g index and th e XA, a c o r r e la tio n o f the two v a ria b le s was computed. The r e s u l t was a c o r r e la tio n of .12+.06 which is n o t only n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . b u t pp which a lso denotes n e g lig ib le r e la tio n s h i p . As measures f o r d eterm in in g a c h i l d fs probable achievem ent, th e re fo re , the two devices a re n o t o f equal v a lu e . The X A p re d ic ts what the c h ild is capable o f doing in the re s p e c tiv e achievem ent f i e l d . The d ata of the XA are based on what o th e r c h ild re n e q u a lly b r ig h t and e q u a lly mature ch ro n o lo g i c a lly a re capable of doing* The c h i l d 1s a c tu a l achievem ent in th a t r e s p e c tiv e f i e l d is n o t in cluded in the formula b u t is ev a lu a te d as a se p a ra te f a c t o r . Accomplishment q u o tie n ts and s im ila r measures such as the read in g index, in clu d e in one form ula the p re d ic tiv e measure as w e ll as the e v a lu a tin g measure o f a c tu a l accomplishment in terras o f p re d ic tiv e c a p a c ity . I t is th is f a c t th a t renders such devices s u s c e p tib le to the UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF THE EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC FACTORS. I t is th is f a c t a ls o which accounts fo r the la c k o f r e la tio n s h ip between the two d ev ices. In o rd er to s u b s ta n tia te the f a c ts given in the p re ceding paragraph d e v ia tio n s o f a c tu a l re a d in g accomplishment 2 1 i b i a * » p* i ^ 2 - ' 22 Loc. c i t . from expectancy were c a lc u la te d fo r the group used fo r ex p erim en tal purposes in e s ta b lis h in g a r e l i a b l e eq u atin g c r i t e r i o n . The expectancy ages were found by u sin g H orn's form ula; the d e v ia tio n s , by s u b tr a c tin g the a c tu a l re a d in g grades from th e expectancy g rad es. I t was assumed from the o u ts e t th a t the d e v ia tio n s thus o b tained were comparable to the scores or p ercentages obtained by means of the read in g index because, as i t has been shown in the preceding p a ra graphs, achievem ent d iffe re n c e s and achievem ent q u o tie n ts y ie ld comparable r e s u l t s . ^ A c o e f f ic ie n t o f r e l i a b i l i t y was then found between th e se d e v ia tio n s and th e read in g in d ic e s . For the i n i t i a l te s tin g th is c o e f f ic ie n t was .85+*02; fo r th e f i n a l te s t i n g , .8 6 + .02. Both th ese c o e f f i c ie n ts a re n o t only s i g n i f i c a n t b u t h ig h ly r e l i a b l e . ^ This evidence confirm s the conclusions of Horn and e s ta b lis h e s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the use o f the X A in p referen ce to th e EA alone o r to a r a t i o of any type as an eq uating c r i t e r i o n . Furtherm ore, th e c o e f f ic ie n t of r e l i a b i l i t y fo r the d e v ia tio n s found f o r i n i t i a l and f i n a l te s t i n g was . 60± .0l].. This c o e f f ic ie n t is comparable to th a t obtained f o r the read in g index and gives f u r th e r proof th a t the two devices give r e s u lt s th a t a re comparable. ^ S u p ra»» P* 5 9* G a rre tt, op. c i t . , p. 3^2. F in a lly i t is i n te r e s ti n g to n o te t h a t, although the expectancy grade found as p a r t of the re a d in g index hy averaging the m ental age grade, c h ro n o lo g ic a l age grade and a rith m e tic grade is n o t w eighted s t a t i s t i c a l l y as i t is in the Horn form ula, i t is h ig h ly r e l i a b l e and would be even a more a c c u ra te measure to use fo r e v a lu a tin g purposes, than the re a d in g index i t s e l f . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t found by c o r r e la tin g the r e s u l t s of the f i r s t and second te s t i n g fo r the expectancy grades o f Monroe*s index is . 97**0 0. This c o e f f ic ie n t is b o th s i g n i f i c a n t and h ig h ly r e l i a b l e . When the expectancy grades found as p a r t o f th e read in g in d ic es were c o rr e la te d w ith th e expectancy grades found by means of Horn’s form ula, th e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t was .96 +.01 fo r b o th i n i t i a l and f i n a l te s tin g . This c o e f f i c ie n t is lik e w ise n o t only very s ig n i f ic a n t b u t h ig h ly r e l i a b l e 0 and shows th a t the two types o f expectancy grades a re m easuring p r a c t i c a l l y the same f a c to rs in th e same way. This s ig n i f ic a n t c o r r e la tio n , however, does not n e c e s s a rily e s ta b li s h a b a s is fo r equal e f fic ie n c y o f bo th m easures. F i r s t o f a l l , the expectancy grade of th e read in g index in cludes an achievem ent grade in a r ith m e tic . Although achievem ent in a r ith m e tic and achievem ent in read in g are 2 5 G a rre tt, lo c . c i t . 66 p o s itiv e ly c o r re la te d as Monroe has s h o w n ,^ achievem ent as such is the r e s u l t of too many extraneous in flu e n c e s to be included as an item in a measure o f expectancy. Second, the expectancy grade of the re a d in g index is m erely an average o f m ental, ch ro n o lo g ic al a n d .a rith m e tic m a tu rity . Averages are n o t v a lid s t a t i s t i c a l devices f o r p re d ic tio n purposes. P re d ic tio n .o f one v a ria b le from a n o th e r v a ria b le is accom- pQ p lis h e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y by means o f a re g re s s io n eq u a tio n . ° H orn’s form ula, th e re fo re , because i t is based upon th e u su a l re g re s s io n eu q atio n fo r p re d ic tin g one v a ria b le from a n o th e r, ^ is a v a lid form ula w hile th e expectancy found by means o f an average is r e l i a b l e b u t n o t v a lid . IV. PUPIL FACTORS CONTROLLED IN EQUATION OF SUBJECTS Use o f X A and read in g achievem ent. A fte r th e problem of s e le c tin g a v a lid and r e l i a b l e c r i t e r i o n fo r eq u atin g purposes had been thus thoroughly analyzed, the X A was chosen. Since the X A in clu d es th e fa c to rs o f a b i l i t y , ch ro n o lo g ic al age, and grade, the p u p il fa c to rs in the matching c r i t e r i a were, in g e n e ra l, reduced to th r e e , namely, expectancy age, sch o o l, and sex. Achievement in read in g was Monroe, op . c i t . , pp. 12-13. G a r r e tt, op. c i t . , pp. 289-309. ^9 Horn, op. c i t . , p. llj.1 . 67 used only in d ir e c tly as a fa c to r in the c r i t e r i a . Those p u p ils who scored fo u r te n th s o f a grade or more below t h e i r expectancy grade were c la s s e d as problem cases in re a d in g . A ll o th e rs were c la sse d as non-problem cases in re a d in g . The choice of fo u r te n th s o f a grade as the lin e of demarca tio n between problem and non-problem p u p ils was an a r b i t r a r y one. Low m e n ta lity as a f a c t o r . F urtherm ore, p u p ils w ith an IQ below e ig h ty were elim in a ted from the stu d y . While i t is a recognized f a c t th a t c h ild re n below an IQ of e ig h ty can le a rn to re a d , i t is a lso a recognized f a c t th a t i t is d i f f i c u l t fo r th e se same c h ild re n to le a r n to read as re a d ing a b i l i t y and m ental a b i l i t y a re h ig h ly c o r r e l a t e d . 3® in 50 A. I . Gates, "D iagnosis and Treatm ent of Extreme Cases o f Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” T h irty - S ix th Yearbook o f the N a tio n a l S o cie ty fo r the Study of E d u catio n , P a rt I (Bloomington, I l l i n o i s : P ublic School P u b lish in g Company, 1 9 3 7 ), P. 395* C. C. B ennett, An In q u iry In to th e Genesis o f Poor Reading (Teachers C ollege C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No. 755> New York; Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rs ity , 1938), pp. 10-11. R. B. Browne, IfA C r i t i c a l E v alu atio n of Experim ental S tu d ies of Remedial Reading and the Report of an Experiment With Groups of Backward R e ad e rs,” (unpublished D o c to rfs th e s is , Harvard U n iv e rs ity , Cambridge, M ass., 1939), pp. I4.3-I4.6. G. W . W hipple, "Causes of R e tard atio n in Reading and Methods of E lim in a tin g Them,” Peabody Jo u rn al of E ducation, l 6 : 191“200, November, 1938* 68 o rd er to e s t a b l i s h a more v a l i d and r e l i a b l e b a s is fo r th e g e n e r a liz a t io n s th a t w ere to be drawn from t h is stu d y r e g a r d in g o th e r f a c t o r s a s s o c ia t e d w ith r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , m en tal d i f f i c u l t y a s a r e la t e d f a c t o r was e lim in a te d from th e v e r y b e g in n in g . V. ORGANIZATION O P GROUPS G en eral n a tu r e and purpose o f group t y p e s . In o rd er to stu d y th e v a r io u s ty p e s o f problem s p lan n ed fo r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n two e x p e r im e n ta l and two c o n tr o l groups w ere n e e d ed . In th e f i r s t e x p e r im e n ta l g rou p , c a ll e d Group A, w ere p la c e d th o s e p u p ils h a v in g b o th r e a d in g and eye d e f e c t s . In th e p a r a l l e l c o n tr o l grou p , c a ll e d Group B, were p la c e d th o s e p u p ils h a v in g ey e d e f e c t s b u t no r e a d in g d e f e c t s . In Group C, th e se co n d e x p e r im e n ta l grou p , t h o s e p u p ils w ere p la c e d who had r e a d in g d e f e c t s b u t no eye d e f e c t s w h ile in th e p a r a l l e l c o n tr o l Group D th o s e p u p ils w ere p la c e d who had n e it h e r r e a d in g n or eye d e f e c t s . A fu r th e r p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e n a tu r e o f th e s e groups i s g iv e n in T ab le I . As can be se e n from th e t a b l e , th e p u p ils in b o th Groups A and B had eye d e f e c t s . These groups w ere u se d , th e r e f o r e , to stu d y th o s e problem s con cern ed w ith th e in f lu e n c e o f d e f e c t s in v i s i o n upon a ch iev em en t in r e a d in g . In Groups C and D th e p u p ils d id n o t have d e f e c t iv e v i s i o n . T hese groups w ere u sed w henever p u p ils w ere n eed ed f o r th e stu d y o f problem s 69 TABLE I GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL A ND CONTROL GROUPS W ithout W ithout Eye d e fe c ts eye d e fe c ts Reading d e fe c ts re a d in g d e fe c ts Experim ental Group A • v H H C - C ontrol Group B X X X E xperim ental Group C C ontrol Group D V i'V v '" !!' in which normal v is io n was a r e q u is i te f a c to r . 70 D e sc rip tio n of equated groups. In Table I I is given a d e s c rip tio n of the eq u a tin g c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f the p u p ils composing the two experim ental and th e two c o n tro l groups. These groups include a l l p u p ils In g e n e ra l th a t were used f o r eq u atin g purposes. Pour d if f e r e n t s e ts of s p e c if ic p u p il matchings were needed in o rd er to study the d i s t i n c t types of problems Included in the in v e s tig a tio n . Whenever a com parative study in v o lv in g the f a c to rs in h e re n t in the group d iv is io n s was needed ir r e s p e c tiv e o f the method used fo r the rem edial read in g , the p u p ils equated in M ATCHING ON E were used. Those in M ATCHING T W O were used when the m o tiv a t ing and method fa c to rs employed w ith problem cases in read in g were s tu d ie d . When th e se same problem cases were compared w ith non-problem ca ses in re a d in g , MATCHING THREE was used, in M ATCHING POUR the problem cases w ith s p e c if ic types of eye d e fe c ts in Group A were equated w ith th e p u p ils in Group C who were lik e w ise problem cases in read in g but who had no d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith v is io n . The p u p ils tau g h t by various techniques were matched w ith p u p ils ta u g h t by means of s im ila r tech n iq u es. This m atching was used when a stu d y was made of the in flu e n c e o f eye d e fe c ts upon th e achievem ent of problem cases in read in g in s p e c if ic programs. A more com prehensive d e s c r ip tio n o f each type o f matched group is given in th e follow ing p aragraphs. TABLE IX DESCRIPTION OP THE EQUATING CHARACTERISTICS OP THE PUPILS COMPOSING THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS T o tal number of cases Average expectancy grade Number boya of g i r l s Group A iJ+7 5.3 95 52 Group B IJ+9 5-3 96 53 Group C 151 5-3 100 51 Group D 151 5.3 101 50 Matching one. The eq u a tin g c h a r a c te r i s tic s f o r ^Matching One? f are given in Table I I I . The p u p ils in th is m atching as w ell as in th e th re e th a t follow were equated in d iv id u a l w ith in d iv id u a l according to expectancy grade, sex, and sch o o l. In ^Matching One1 1 1^2 p u p ils in Group A were equated according to the th re e c r i t e r i a j u s t mentioned w ith p u p ils In Groups B, C, and D. Because of th e la rg e number of schools involved only th e average expectancy grade is given in th e ta b le fo r each group and th e number o f boys and g i r l s used. As the averages in th e ta b le in d ic a te the matchings were c lo se , equal in moat c a ses, w ith a d e v ia tio n o f one o r two p o in ts in some cases w hile in th re e o r fo u r cases the d e v ia tio n amounted to fiv e p o in ts . The p u p ils In th is m atching were used fo r one o f the i n i t i a l p e r s o n a lity s tu d ie s in which the p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of problem and non-problem read in g cases w ith eye d e fe c ts and problem and non-problem read in g cases w ith o u t eye d efec ts were c r i t i c a lly compared. I t was fo r th is study th a t !!M atching 0n e r f was organized as the f a c to rs in h e re n t in th e group d iv is io n s were needed, namely, problem and non-problem re a d in g cases w ith and w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts . M atching two. In ffMatchIng Two,f the problem cases In read in g in Groups A and C were equated fo r program, ex p e ct ancy grade, and sex. A summary o f the eq u atin g c h a r a c te r i s t i c s is given in Table IV. The programs r e f e r r e d to in th is TABLE I I I "MATCHING ONE" IN W HICH THE PUPILS IN GROUPS A, B, C, A N D D ARE EQUATED FOR EXPECTANCY, SEX, A N D SCHOOL T o tal Average Humber of number expectancy of cases grade boys g i r l s Group A 152 5.3 8 1 4 . 48 Group B 132 5-3 % 48 Group C 132 5-3 84 48 Group D 132 5-3 84 48 7k m atching a re explained in d e t a i l in Chapter IV.^ Only a b r i e f e x p lan atio n of th ese programs w i l l be given h e re so th a t the m atching s e t t i n g can be f u l l y understood. The fo u r programs were fo u r d i f f e r e n t ways of con d ucting rem edial re a d in g fo r the d e f ic ie n t read in g cases. One of the o b je c tiv e s of th e in v e s tig a tio n was to determ ine which of the techniques used in these fo u r programs was the s u p e rio r technique to use w ith problem re a d in g c a se s. In Programs I and I I the problem cases were given an I n te r e s t Program in which th e m a te r ia l they read was based upon t h e ir b a s ic i n t e r e s t s and d riv e s . In Program I I of th e I n te r e s t Programs a d d itio n a l phonetic d r i l l was given to the p u p ils w hile in Program I of the I n t e r e s t Programs the phonetic d r i l l was om itted. In Programs I I I and IV the m a te ria l given to th e problem cases was fundam entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re and was n o t a d ju ste d to th e p u p i l s ’ i n t e r e s t s and needs. The same kind of phonetic tr a in in g th a t was given in Program I I was given to th e p u p ils in Program IV. In Pro gram I I I the phonetic d r i l l was o m itted. "Matching Two" was used in those s tu d ie s th a t attem pted to determine th e s u p e r io r ity of the various te c h niques used in th e fo u r types o f programs. The p u p ils .u s e d fo r th is m atching, th e re fo re , were only the problem p u p ils ^ * p o a t, pp. Il8-2ij.. 75 TABLE IV 1 1 M ATCHING TW O ” IN W HICH THE PROBLEM READING CASES IN GROUPS A AND C ARE EQUATED FOR PROGRAM , EXPECTANCY, A N D SEX GROUP A _______ Num b e r Average Number P ro- of expectancy of gram cases grade boys g i r l s I 55 5-5 25 12 I I 55 5-5 23 12 I I I 55 5-5 23 12 IV 55 5’k 23 12 GROUP C Num b er Average Number o f expectancy of cases grade boys g i r l s 55 5.2 2k 11 55 5-5 2k 11 55 5-2 2k 11 55 5-5 2k 11 in read in g o r those in Groups A and G. Each p u p il w ith eye d e fe c ts in Group A in Program I was equated in d iv id u a l w ith in d iv id u a l, according to the c r i t e r i a given above, w ith the problem cases in Group A in Programs I I , I I I , and IV. As can be seen In Table IV, t h i r t y - f i v e cases were equated in th is manner in Group A, tw en ty -th ree boys and tw elve g i r l s . The average expectancy grades fo r th is group a re c lo se , ranging from 5*5 to 5*5* o rd er to determ ine, however, whether th is s l i g h t d iffe re n c e o f two te n th s between the average expectancy grades o f Programs I , I I I , and I I was s ig n i f ic a n t the c r i t i c a l r a t i o was found. The c r i t i c a l r a t i o was *77* This means t h a t th e re are only se v en ty - e ig h t chances in one hundred th a t the tr u e d iffe re n c e be tween the averages of th ese programs i s g re a te r than zero . The d iffe re n c e , th e re fo re , is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t as H i t is customary to take a c r i t i c a l r a t i o o f th re e as in d ic a tiv e of a s ig n i f ic a n t d if f e r e n c e . 1 1 3^ the averages of th e ex pectancy grades sta n d f o r Group A in Table IV, th e re fo re , they a re s u f f i c i e n t l y a lik e f o r eq u a tin g purposes. Besides equating th e problem read in g cases in Group A ' those w ithout eye d e fe c ts in Group C were a ls o eq u a ted so th a t s tu d ie s could be made o f the r e l a t i v e in flu e n c e o f eye d e fe c ts in g e n e ra l upon achievem ent in th e various types of G a rre tt, op. c i t . , p. 213. 77 programs. (Another m atching, th a t of 1 1 Matching Four1 1 had to he organized f o r the s tu d ie s th a t determ ined the in flu e n c e of s p e c if ic eye d efec ts upon th e achievement in the v ario u s program s.) For ^Matching Two1 1 each p u p il w ith o u t eye de f e c ts in Group C in Program I was matched, in d iv id u a l w ith in d iv id u a l, according to th e c r i t e r i a given above, w ith the cases in Group C in Programs I I , I I I , and IV. As Table IV shows, t h i r t y - f i v e cases were matched fo r th is group in each program, tw enty-four boys and eleven g i r l s . The average expectancy grades f o r each program in t h i s group were very c lo se , the range being 5*2 to 5*3* Matching th r e e . The eq u a tin g c h a r a c te r i s tic s fo r th is m atching are given in Table V. As th is m atching was needed fo r problems connected w ith p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs i t was p o s s ib le to merge both groups and programs. Bye d e fe c ts as fa c to rs were d isre g a rd e d ; th e re fo r e , a l l problem cases in read in g were combined in to one group and non-problem cases in to the o th e r. Only those problem cases were used, however, th a t had been p re v io u sly equated in M ATCHING TW O . A p u p il in Group A was always matched w ith a p u p il in Group B as th ese two groups c o n s titu te d the f i r s t type o f experim ental and c o n tro l groups. Since Groups C and D were included in the second type o f experim ental and c o n tro l groups, p u p ils from Group C were always matched w ith p u p ils from Group D. As method f a c to rs were n o t considered to be v i t a l in 78 TABLE V "MATCHING THREE" IN W HICH THE PROBLEM READING CASES IN GROUPS A AND C ARE EQUATED FOR EXPECTANCY, SEX, A N D SCHOOL, WITH THE NON-PROBLEM READING CASES IN GROUPS B AND D GROUPS A A N D C GROUPS B A N D D Pro gram Num b e r of cases Average expectancy grade Number of boys g i r l s Num b e r of cases Average expectancy grade Number of boys g i r l s I and I I llj.0 5-3 9k k& 1I4.0 5-1 + 9k I I I and IV X 1 4 .0 5.3 9k k.6 ij+o 5-3 9 k ¥> 79 the problems concerned w ith th is m atching, Programs I and I I as w ell as I I I and IV were combined. The non-problem re a d ing eases in Group B and D were n o t in cluded in any type of program d u rin g th e experim ent. When th e eq u atin g was done, however, the problem cases in re a d in g were matched w ith non problem cases in th e same sc h o o l. Only one type of program was c a r r ie d on in each school. This j u s t i f i e d the in c lu s io n in Table V of Groups B and D in the two program c a te g o r ie s . As Table V shows, 1 I4 .O p u p ils were equated in t h i s m atching, n in e ty -f o u r boys and f o r t y - s i x g i r l s . The average expectancy grades a re very close f o r b o th the problem and the non-problem groups as the range is only from 5.3 to 5 .lj_. The p u p ils , th e re fo re , were w ell matched. Matching f o u r . The eq u atin g c h a r a c te r i s tic s f o r "Matching Four1 1 are given in Table VI. In th is m atching the problem read in g cases w ith s p e c if ic eye d e fe c ts in Group A were equated p u p il by p u p il acco rd in g to expectancy grade w ith c h ild re n in Group C. The c r i t e r i o n o f program was used as an a d d itio n a l f a c to r in th is m atching. A ll p u p ils were equated w ith those in th e same kind of te ach in g program so th a t in flu e n c e s caused by types o f m o tiv atio n and technique were a u to m a tic a lly elim in a ted a t th e o u ts e t. This m atching was used f o r those problems in which i t was d e sire d to d e te r mine the in flu e n c e o f s p e c if ic eye d e fe c ts upon achievem ent in read in g in the rem edial program s. 8o TABLE VI ”MATCHING FOUR/1 THE EQUATION OF SPECIFIC EYE DEFECT PROBLEM READING CASES IN GROUP A WITH PROBLEM PUPILS IN GROUP C AS TO PROGRAM , EXPECTANCY, AND SEX Number Average Number o f expectancy o f Type of eye d e fe c t Group cases grade boys g i r l s I . A stigm atism A 5 5*? 3 2 C 5 5 4 . 3 2 I I . C o -o rd in atio n le v e l A. Mild A 25 5*2 16 7 C 25 5-2 16 7 B. Severe A 49 5*5 3§ 11 C 49 5-5 38 11 I I I . Fusion A. D istance 1 . Slow A 12 5*5 10 2 C 12 5-4 10 2 2 . None A 7 4.9 5 2 C 7 5.0 5 2 B. Reading d ista n c e 1 . Slow A 50 5.6 23 7 C 50 5-5 23 7 2 . None A 15 5.1 10 3 C 15 5.2 10 3 C. D istance and Reading d is ta n c e A 14 5-5 11 3 C 14 5-2 11 3 IV. Hyperopia A. R ight A 4 It. 6 3 1 C 4 4.6 3 1 B. L eft A 2 5 . 8 l 1 C 2 6.0 1 1 C. Both A • 6 5.2 5 1 C 6 .... 3 1 8 l TABLE VI (c o n tin u e d ) "MATCHING POUR," THE EQUATION O P SPECIFIC EXE DEFECT PROBLEM READING CASES IN GRO UP A WITH PROBLEM PUPILS IN GRO UP C AS TO PROGRAM , EXPECTANCY, AND SEX Type o f eye d e fe c t < Group Humber of cases Average expectancy grade Number of boys g i r l s V. L a te ra l Imbalance ESGPHORIA A. D istance 1. Mild — - - — — 2 . Severe A 10 5.0 8 2 C 10 5-1 8 2 B. Reading d is ta n c e 1 . Mild A 5 6.2 2 1 C 5 6.1 2 1 2 , Severe A 25 5-2 19 6 C 25 5-5 19 6 C. D istance and Reading dis tance A 8 H 7 l C 8 4.8 7 1 EXOPHORIA A. Dis tance 1 . Mild — — — ------ - - — 2 . Severe A 2 5.6 1 1 C 2 5-5 1 l B. Reading d ista n c e 1 . Mild — — — --- — 2 . Severe A k -9 3 1 C k k -9 3 1 C. D istance and Reading dis tance A 2 5.6 1 1 C 2 5-5 1 l VI. Monocular v is io n A 8 5*5 7 1 C 8 5-5 7 1 82 TABLE VI (c o n tin u e d ) "MATCHING POUR," THE EQUATION OP SPECIFIC EYE DEFECT PROBLEM READING CASES IN GROUP A WITH PROBLEM PUPILS IN GROUP C AS TO PROGRAM , EXPECTANCY, AND SEX Number. Average Number of expectancy o f Type of eye d e fe c t Group cases grade boys g i r l s V II. Myopia A. R ight 1 . Mild A 20 5-3 13 7 C 20 5-3 13 7 2 . Severe A 16 5-3 10 6 C 16 5*3 10 6 B. L eft 1 . Mild A |+7 5-3 30 17 C i+7 5-2 3° 17 2 . Severe A 11 5*6 8 3 G 11 5.6 8 3 C. Both 1 . Mild A 22 5-1 x\i- 8 C 22 5-1 lif 8 2 . Severe A 1 5-1 + 1 0 C 1 5-5 1 0 V III. V e r tic a l imbalance A. Mild A 8 5.2 6 2 G 8 5.2 6 2 B. Severe A 3 M 2 1 C 3 U.6 2 1 83 VI. EDUCATIVE FACTORS CONTROLLED IN ADMINISTRATION OF EXPERIMENT I n s tr u c tio n a l te c h n iq u e s . Besides c o n tr o llin g p u p il f a c t o r s , co n sid erab le e f f o r t was made to c o n tro l a number of ed u cativ e fa c to rs in o rd e r to p rev en t as many sy ste m a tic e r ro rs as p o ssib le from a f f e c t in g the r e s u l t s o f the e x p e ri ment. F o rty -fiv e te a c h e rs in tw elve d if f e r e n t schools re c e iv e d d e ta ile d mimeographed in s tr u c tio n s on how to p ro ceed on each o f the seventy days o f the e x p e r im e n t. 53 As a f u r th e r p re c a u tio n , a conference was h eld w ith th e te ach e rs in each school b efo re the experim ent in o rd e r to check upon t h e i r comprehension o f the n a tu re o f the rem edial work they were expected to conduct, to c l a r i f y problems, and to em phasize the im portant asp ects o f th e programs. By means of th e se conferences u n ifo rm ity in in s tr u c tio n a l techniques was assu re d . Zeal of te a c h e r and s k i l l in c a rry in g out i n s t r u c tio n a l te c h n iq u e s. The enthusiasm and f u l l c o -o p e ra tio n of each te a c h e r was n o t only app aren t but c e r ta in because th e re was a common i n t e r e s t on t h e i r p a r t in th e success of the e x p e ri ment and, fu rth erm o re, each te a c h e r, in view o f h er pro f e s s io n a l p r in c ip le s , was eager to use the b e s t of techniques ^ In -fr a > PP* 5llp -30. to b rin g h e r problem cases in read in g up to the standard* While th is enthusiasm and f u l l co -o p e ra tio n was ev id e n t a t the o u ts e t i t s unabated continuance was n o t taken fo r g ran ted but was stim u la te d throughout the p erio d by four p e rso n a l conferences w ith each te a c h e r during which she was helped and encouraged in h e r e f f o r t s . S k i l l in c a rry in g out in s t r u c tio n a l tech n iq u es was checked c a re fu lly during these conferen ces. I n s tr u c tio n a l m a te r ia l s . In o rd er to make c e r ta in th a t each program used th e same type o f m a te ria ls and those s u ita b ly adapted to th e needs o f each c h ild , th e books and m a te ria ls to be ordered were d e sig n a te d f o r each school from a c e n tra l so u rce. 3k A ll books were analyzed as to c o n ten t and d i f f i c u l t y and a d e ta ile d r e p o r t given to e ach te a c h e r as a g u i d e . ^5 The in s t r u c tio n a l m a te ria ls used were thus c o n tro lle d in a l l the sc h o o ls. Time spent in the le a rn in g a c t i v i t y . The time spent in th e le a rn in g a c t i v i t y a ls o was c o n tro lle d in d e t a i l . Each te a c h e r rece iv ed d e ta ile d d ir e c tio n s as to the amount of time to use each day and how to dispose of the time so d esig n ate d . D ire c tio n s were a ls o given reg ard in g the amount 3k I n f r a , pp. 130-32. 55 I n f r a , pp. lj.13-513. 85 of time to b© used during the experim ent fo r th e v a rio u s kinds o f read in g a c t i v i t i e s described* F in a lly , the number of days to be devoted to th e experim ent was g i v e n .5^ th is way u n ifo rm ity was e s ta b lis h e d . 36 I n f r a , pp. 5XI4.-X5. CHAPTER IV MATERIALS USED AND PROCEDURE OF INVESTIGATION This ch a p te r fu rn is h e s the g en e ra l background f o r an u n d erstan d in g o f the many types o f s tu d ie s th a t were o r ganized fo r th is in v e s tig a tio n . The manner in which the s u b je c ts , sc h o o ls, and te a c h e rs were s e le c te d is d escrib ed in d e t a i l as w ell as th e many types o f o r ig in a l and sta n d a rd iz e d t e s t s th a t were given and the way in which they were ad m in istered . C onsiderable a t te n t io n is a ls o given to a d e ta ile d d e s c rip tio n of th e fo u r types o f programs th a t were used fo r the rem edial work, to th e manner in which the in s tr u c t io n a l m a te ria ls were planned, and to th e procedure th a t was follow ed in th e rem edial c la s s e s . The ch a p ter is clo sed w ith an account o f th e way in which the d ata fo r each c h ild were assembled fo r p r a c t ic a l use. I . SELECTION OF SUBJECTS The c h ild r e n . The c h ild re n used in th is study were p u p ils in Grades If., 5> 6, and 7 o f tw elve C a th o lic schools in C leveland, Ohio and a d jo in in g d i s t r i c t s . A lto g e th e r 1,86)4. c h ild re n were te s t e d , 927 boys and 957 g i r l s . Of th is t o t a l I4.62 were found to be problem cases in read in g accord in g to the c r i t e r i o n chosen fo r th is in v e s tig a tio n , namely, th a t of fo u r-te n th s d e v ia tio n in read in g achievem ent from 87 expectancy c a p a c ity in re a d in g . Of th ese c a se s, 288 were boys and I7I4- were g i r l s . The I4.62 problem cases were a l l placed in the s e v e r a l rem edial programs, h o t a l l these cases were used in the experim ental groups fo r the s t a t i s t i c a l stu d y in the in v e s tig a tio n , however, as a l l the cases were n o t a b le to be equated in one or more of the fo u r types of matched g ro u p s. The c h ild re n came from ty p ic a l w hite, American, co s m opolitan f a m ilie s , whose s o c ia l and economic s ta tu s was, to a la rg e e x te n t, on th e same p ar. Although th is f a c t was n o t determ ined o b je c tiv e ly , the schools were i n i t i a l l y chosen on th is b a s is . The sc h o o ls. The c h ild re n included in th e stu d y were from twelve d if f e r e n t schools r e f e r r e d to in th e d isc u ssio n as Schools A, C, E, G, J, L, M, Q, R, S, W , Y. Schools G, J, and S a re lo c a te d in C leveland proper; Schools A and Q in the immediate v ic in ity o f C leveland, and Schools C, E, L, M , R, W , and Y w ith in a ra d iu s o f from f i f t y to se v e n ty -fiv e m iles from C leveland. As shown in Table V II, the average IQ o f the c h ild re n was in th e normal range w ith th e exception o f School J whose average of 113 placed those c h ild re n s l i g h t l y above th e normal range. At the time the d ata were assembled the ed u cativ e p o lic ie s of the sc h o o ls, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f School S, r e f le c te d 88 TABLE VII AVERAGE iq OP THE PUPILS IN THE TW ELVE SCHOOLS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION School Average iq A 101 C 101 E 10li G 106 J 113 L 103 School Average IQ M 100 q 102 R 96 s 100 w 103 Y 98 89 to some e x te n t the stim ulus o f the " a c t i v i t y 1 1 movement. The schools on th e whole were r e p r e s e n ta tiv e alth o u g h the educa tio n a l sta n d ard s may have been a l i t t l e above the average fo r School S. Reading in s tr u c tio n follow ed the ty p ic a l p ro cedures of c o n se rv a tiv e urban sc h o o ls. . I I . FACTORS IN TEACHER SELECTION In s e le c tin g the te a c h e rs fo r the experim ental groups care was taken as f a r as p o s s ib le to p rev en t any group from b ein g favored or handicapped by the in flu e n c e o f the te a c h e r. Teachers were chosen on th e b a s is of the fo llo w in g q u a lify ing f a c t o r s : sex, amount of tr a in i n g , type of tr a in in g , ex p erien ce, success in the te a c h in g f i e l d , and such p erson a l i t y q u a l i t i e s as c o -o p e ra tiv e n e ss, enthusiasm , r e l i a b i l i t y , accuracy, lo y a lty , u n d erstan d in g , and sympathy. F o rty -fo u r te a c h e rs in a l l were engaged in th e ex perim ent. This la rg e number of te a c h e rs helped to le sse n the e f f e c t of c e r ta in types of sy stem a tic e rro rs which may have c re p t In had a sm a lle r group of te a c h e rs been used. In Program I th e re were n in e te a c h e rs ; in Programs I I and I I I , twelve te a c h e rs each; and in Program IV, eleven. Even when the f o r ty - f o u r te a c h e rs were thus d is t r ib u t e d th e re was s t i l l a s u f f i c i e n t number in each program to b alan ce the f a c to r o f te a c h e r In flu e n ce to a f a i r l y s a tis f a c to r y degree. I I I . ADMINISTHATION OF TESTS 90 Teata o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, and p e r s o n a lity . These t e s t s were given in the sta n d a rd way by the re s p e c tiv e classroom te a c h e rs . U niform ity and e x a c titu d e of procedure was ensured by assem bling a l l te a c h e rs fo r a con feren ce b e fo re the a d m in is tra tio n o f the t e s t s and d i s cu ssin g th e procedure in d e t a i l . The t e s t s were given on the same days in th e v ario u s sc h o o ls. In o rd er to o b v iate any e f f e c t which re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y might have had upon the un d erstan d in g o f the q u e s tio n s, the p e rs o n a lity in v en to ry was read aloud to the c h ild re n , each o f whom had a copy b e fo re him, and each c h ild then marked on h is paper the answers item by item as they were read by the exam iner. Items were re re a d i f the c h ild re n so d e s ire d . T ests of v is i o n . The B e tts 1 V isu al S en satio n and P ercep tio n Tests given w ith th e te le b in o c u la r were admin is t e r e d by two tr a in e d examiners who gave them in the re s p e c tiv e schools b e fo re the rem edial program was launched. A secluded room, fre e from a l l d is tu rb a n c e , was ■used fo r the purpose and each c h ild was te s te d in d iv id u a lly , s t r i c t l y acco rd in g to recommendations in th e manual. The c h i l d r e n s responses were recorded s e p a r a te ly , e v a lu a te d and then f i l e d f o r fu tu re u se . R e te sts were given f o r a l l d o u b tfu l c a ses. T ests o f l a t e r a l i t y . The th re e te s ts f o r d isc o v e rin g 91 n a tiv e eyedness were given in d iv id u a lly by the in v e s tig a to r and an o th er tr a in e d exam iner. The r e s u l t s were e n tered on in d iv id u a l reco rd s h e e ts . The p u p i l s ’ w ritte n r e p o r t on handedness was read o r a lly by the r e s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs w hile th e p u p ils in d ic a te d t h e i r responses item by item . The fiv e performance t e s t s f o r determ ining n a tiv e handedness were given in d iv id u a lly by two tra in e d exam iners. The t e s t fo r d e te c tin g r e v e r s a l tendencies in re a d in g was given to a l l p u p ils by one examiner tr a in e d fo r th is purpose who recorded responses according to d ire c tio n s on in d iv id u a l te s t- r e c o r d b o o k le ts provided fo r each c h ild as th a t c h ild re a d the t e s t o r a lly from h is p e rso n a l copy. IV. THE SOURCES OP DATA I n te llig e n c e t e s t s . Because of th e la rg e number o f s u b je c ts included in the in v e s tig a tio n , a group t e s t was used as the measure o f in te llig e n c e . The t e s t chosen was THE CALIFORNIA TEST OF M ENTAL MATURITT—ELEMENTARY SERIES1 by E. T. S u lliv a n , W . W . C lark, and E. W . T iegs. This t e s t "c o n ta in s m a te ria ls o f s u f f i c i e n t range and d iv e r s i ty to in d ic a te the degree of m a tu rity o f the major fa c to rs 1 P ublished by The Southern C a lifo rn ia School Book D ep o sito ry , Los A ngeles, C a lifo rn ia . 92 p involved in a p titu d e and c a p a c ity ” and fu rn is h e s a diagnos t i c e v a lu a tio n o f th ese major f a c to r s . Furtherm ore, only four out of the th ir te e n t e s t s itu a tio n s involve re a d in g . The t e s t was, th e re fo re , w ell adapted to purposes o f th is in v e s tig a tio n . The r e l i a b i l i t y of the T o tal Mental F a c to rs sco re fo r grades fo u r to e ig h t as obtained by the s p lit- h a lv e s method and c o rre c te d by the Spearman-Brown form ula is . 97* ^ or the major t e s t item s, the r e l i a b i l i t y even f o r in d iv id u a l grades is no lower than .87. Regarding v a l id ity , th e au th o rs fin d th a t alth o u g h the T o tal Mental F acto rs IQ’s are comparable to those of o th e r in te llig e n c e t e s t s , such comparison alone does n o t c o n s titu te the sole j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r the v a l id ity of th is t e s t as ”d e a lin g only w ith m ental ages and i n t e l l i gence q u o tie n ts obscures and ignores the s e p a ra te im portant fa c to rs which c o n s titu te m e n t a l i t y . U n t i l more evidence is secured about the n a tu re o f th e se f a c to rs and o f m ental m a tu rity , the au th o rs w ithhold evidence re g a rd in g th e t e s t ’s tru e v a l i d i t y . Reading t e s t s . The elem entary s e rie s of the 2 E. T. S u lliv a n , W . W . C lark, E. W . T iegs, Manual o f D ire c tio n s fo r C a lif o rn ia T est o f M ental M a tu rity —Elemen- ta ry S e rie s (Los A ngeles: Southern C a lifo rn ia School Book D epository, 1936), p. 2 . 3 Loc.. c i t . P ro g ressiv e Achievement T est in Reading by B. W. Tiegs and W . W . C lark^ was used fo r grades fo u r, f iv e , and s ix , and the in te rm e d ia te s e r ie s of the same t e s t f o r grade seven. The t e s t measures four d if f e r e n t asp e c ts o f read in g vocabu la r y and th re e major and e s s e n ti a l types o f a b i l i t i e s needed in read in g com prehension. For the elem entary s e rie s the c o e f f ic ie n ts o f r e l i a b i l i t y obtained by c o r r e la tio n of the two forms of the t e s t are .86 and *9^- re s p e c tiv e ly fo r grades fo u r to s ix and f o r the in te rm e d ia te s e r ie s they a re .92 and .89 r e s p e c tiv e ly fo r grades seven to n in e . The v a l i d i t y o f the te s t is based on the claim th a t the t e s t co n ten t was prepared by re fe r e n c e to re c e n t courses of study th a t re p re s e n t p ro g re ssiv e e d u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e . A ll problem cases in re a d in g were a ls o given a d ia g n o s tic group t e s t devised by the in v e s tig a to r and c a lle d HELPING YOURSELF WITH W ORDS. 5 The purpose o f the te a t waa to determ ine how much s k i l l the problem c h ild re n had in a tta c k in g and analyzing words. The r e s u l t s were used fo r d ia g n o s tic and rem edial purposes in those programs g iv in g phonetic p r a c tic e as one of t h e i r o b je c tiv e s . The vocabulary used in the t e s t was so c o n tro lle d P ublished by C a lifo rn ia Test Bureau, Los A ngeles, C a lifo rn ia . ^ fn fp a , pp. 371-87 fo r complete copy o f t e s t and manual of d ir e c tio n s . th a t the m a jo rity o f words was n o t above a th ir d grade le v e l of d i f f i c u l t y . In o rd er to provide a m eaningful s e t t i n g , a l l words were f i r s t used in co n tex t by b e in g p re se n te d in a s to ry s i t u a t i o n . A fte r a g e n e ra l check on comprehension, th e p u p i l ’s s k i l l in a tta c k in g words was analyzed in a th re e fo ld manner. The f i r s t type o f t e s t s it u a ti o n enabled the c h ild re n to dem onstrate t h e i r a b i l i t y in u sin g th e f i r s t method o f word a tta c k , namely, th e re c o g n itio n of words through c o n te x t. The p u p i l ’s s k i l l in u sin g the second method o f word a tta c k , the a n a ly s is o f words, was diagnosed in d e t a i l by checking t h e i r knowledge of consonants, b le n d s, vowels, the use o f long and s h o rt vowels, s y ll a b ic a tio n , p re fix e s and s u f f ix e s . The l a s t type o f t e s t s it u a ti o n diagnosed the p u p il’s s k i l l In u sin g the th ir d method o f re co g n izin g words through the use of the g lo ss a ry and d ic tio n a ry . In o rder to enable th e te a c h e rs to compare the e rro rs made by t h e i r problem read in g cases w ith those made by a normal group o f th e same grade le v e l and in th is manner to determ ine the se rio u sn e ss o f th e se e r r o r s , means and s ta n d ard d e v ia tio n s were c a lc u la te d f o r each o f th e s p e c if ic components o f th e t e s t .7 Ranges of scores f o r th re e L ' I n f r a , pp. 576-87. 7 I n f r a , pp. 388-90. 95 c la ss i f i c a t i o n a , good, average, and poor, were then d e t e r m ined.^ By the use of th e se t e n ta t iv e norma, i t was p o s s ib le to compare the s ta tu s o f the c h ild re n in each of the s p e c if ic types o f a b i l i t y w ith th a t o f a normal group a t the p a r tic u l a r grade le v e l and the se rio u sn e ss of t h e i r co n d itio n could then be r e l i a b l y determ ined. P e rs o n a lity m easure. The Elem entary S e rie s o f the CALIFORNIA TEST OF PERSONALITY by L. P. Thorpe, W. W . C lark and E. W . T ie g s9 was used as the m easuring ins trument fo r diagnosing th e c h i ld r e n !s p erso n al and s o c ia l adjustm ent. The major purpose of the in v en to ry is to " re v e a l the e x te n t to which th e p u p ils a re a d ju s tin g to th e problems and condi tio n s which c o n fro n t them and a re developing a norm al, happy, ■ I and s o c ia lly e f f e c tiv e p e r s o n a l i t y .” u The two s e c tio n s of th e t e s t in d ic a te how the p u p ils ” f e e l and th in k about them s e lv e s ” and how they "fu n c tio n as s o c ia l b e in g s .” The sub t e s t s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s in each s e c tio n a re " f u n c tio n a lly r e la te d groups” developed in such a manner as to " d e te c t a re a s and s p e c if ic types of ten d en cies to th in k , f e e l , and ^ P . » * 391 • 9 Published by C a lifo rn ia T est Bureau, Los Angeles, C a lifo rn ia . 10 L. P. Thorpe, W . W . C lark and E. W . T iegs, Manual of D ir e c tio n s , C a lifo rn ia T est o f _P ersonality-“Elem entary S e rie s [Los A ngeles: C a lifo rn ia T est Bureau, 1939), p. 1 . a c t which re v e a l u n d e sira b le in d iv id u a l ad ju stm e n ts."* ^ The in v en to ry is organized in the form o f q u estio n s so d isg u ise d th a t the c h ild re n are le s s l ik e ly to d e te c t t h e i r purpose and thus be tem pted to s h ie ld themselves* Norms are pro vided so t h a t p u p ils ' s p e c if ic scores f o r the v ario u s com ponents can be tr a n s l a te d in to p e r c e n tile ra n k s. With th e se r e s u lt s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c responses o f each p u p il can be compared v/ith ty p ic a l responses from la rg e re p r e s e n ta tiv e groups o f s im ila r p u p ils . The c o e f f ic ie n ts o f r e l i a b i l i t y are s u r p r is in g ly high fo r a measure of th is n a tu re , s u b je c t as i t i s to the f l u c tu a tio n s of immature, im pressionable growing organism s. The c o e f f ic ie n ts obtained by the s p li t- h a lv e s method a re .95 fo r t o t a l adjustm ent s c o re s , .89 f o r s e l f adjustm ent sc o re s and .87 fo r s o c ia l adjustm ent s c o r e s . ^ The r e l i a b i l i t i e s of th e v a r io u s s p e c if ic components of the t e s t range from .60 15 to . 80. J The v a l i d i t y o f the g en eral o rg a n iz a tio n of the in v en to ry in to tw elve major components r e s ts upon the f a c t th a t the elem ents c o n s titu tin g th e se components " re p re s e n t fundam ental a c tio n p a tte rn s " and t h a t the names of th ese components "correspond to some o f the most im portant p re se n t ^ i b i d . , pp. 2, ij.. 12 i k i d . » P* k ' ^5 Loc. c i t . 97 day p e r s o n a lity adjustm ent concepts which a re v i t a l to normal growth and developm ent.”1^- The in v en to ry items were s e le c te d on th e b a s is o f th e judgments o f te a c h e rs and p rin c ip a ls as to t h e i r s ig n ific a n c e , upon th e re a c tio n s of p u p ils , upon a com parative study o f th e agreement between te a c h e r and p u p il r e a c tio n s , and upon a stu d y o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e s ig n ific a n c e by means o f the b i - s e r i a l r te c h n iq u e. 15 T ests o f v is io n . The c h ild r e n ’s v is u a l s ta tu s was determ ined by a d m in iste rin g one of the b a s ic u n its in the B etts Ready to Head Tests known as the VISUAL SENSATION AND PERCEPTION TESTS. These t e s t s were designed to a p p ra ise the c o -o rd in a te a c tio n o f th e eyes. The m a te ria l o f the te s ts is mom ted on ste re o sc o p ic s lid e s which a re used in a s p e c ia lly designed ste re o sc o p e c a lle d an OPHTHALMIC TELE- 16 BINOCULAR. As a knowledge of o p tic s is n o t re q u ire d to give the t e s t s , they can be ad m in istered in from s i x to tw elve minutes by a te a c h e r o r nurse who has had tr a in i n g in th e g en eral technique o f t h e i r a d m in is tra tio n and in the use of the in stru m en t. Loc. c i t . 15 I b id ., p. 2 . ^ The Keystone Ophthalmic T ele b in o cu lar and the B e tts Ready-to-Read Testa a re published by th e Keystone View Company, M eadville, P ennsylvania. The b a tte r y which is a p a r t o f the V isu al S en satio n and P ercep tio n T ests includes t e s t s f o r s ix d if f e r e n t v is u a l fu n c tio n s . Three of the s lid e s measure th e v is u a l e f f i c i e n cy of the eyes s e p a ra te ly and in com bination by r e q u ir in g the s u b je c ts to d isc rim in a te a s e r ie s o f " d o t s .” Two s lid e s determ ine power of fu sio n by re q u ir in g th e p u p ils to fuse b in o c u la rly fo u r v a rie g a te d c o lo r d isc s in to th re e , a t both d is t a n t and n ea r p o in t f ix a tio n s . S te re o p s is , o r le v e l of depth p e rc e p tio n is a s c e rta in e d by means o f a s lid e which n e c e s s ita te s a s e r ie s o f d isc rim in a tio n s on th e p a r t o f the s u b je c ts through th e medium of the tri-d im e n s io n a l e f f e c t . Adequacy o f m uscle-balance, both l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l , is determ ined by means o f th ree s lid e s which re v e a l th e p u p i l ’s a b i l i t y to e s ta b li s h c e r ta in p re sc rib e d r e la tio n s between fig u re s viewed on th e s l i d e s . The presence o f astig m atism is checked w ith a s lid e which t e s t s the c h i l d ’s a b i l i t y to d isc rim in a te a s e r ie s o f b lack lin e s , a t both near and f a r p o in t f ix a ti o n s , th a t are arranged in a v a r ie ty of a x ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . 'U n til very r e c e n tly the v a l id ity and r e l i a b i l i t y of the t e s t s composing th e V isual S en satio n and P ercep tio n u n it had n o t been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y determ ined. Recent d ata show, however, th a t the t e s t s a re more v a lid and r e l i a b l e than c r i t i c s have m aintained. As a measure o f v a l i d i t y the r e la tio n s h ip has been determ ined between th e l a t e r a l imbalance t e s t as given in th e B e t t s ’ u n it and two o th e r measures of l a t e r a l im balance, namely, th e R isley Rotary Prisms and the Maddox Rod. The c o r r e la tio n s between the te le b in o c u la r and the R isley Rotary Prisms range from . 72± .0i| to .781.03 a t n e a r p o in t and from .7O+.O3 to .761.02 a t f a r p o i n t . * ^ 7 Those between the Maddox Rod and the te le b in o c u la r range from .7I1.1.O3 to .78**05 p o i n t . C o n s i d e r i n g the f a c t t h a t the te le b in o c u la r t e s t s are sc re e n in g t e s t s and th a t the o th er two are d ia g n o s tic t e s t s these c o r r e la tio n s denote f a i r l y high r e la tio n s h ip s . The c o e f f ic ie n ts o f r e l i a b i l i t y f o r the te le b in o c u la r t e s t s are p r a c t i c a l l y as high as those f o r the o th e r two t e s t s . The former range from .75±*03 to *93±*01 a t n e a r p o in t and from .831.02 to a t f a r p o in t w hile those fo r the R isley R otary Prisms range from . 82i .02 to .851.02 and . 8l i .02 to .8 6 1 .02 and th a t fo r the Maddox Rod i s .7 5 *-03 a t ^a n p o in t. Data have lik e w ise been p u b lish ed r e c e n tly on the v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o f the V isual E ffic ie n c y T e s ts . *9 F or v a l i d i t y d a ta , the r e la tio n s h i p between th e V isu al 3-7 E. A. B e tts , " L a te ra l Im balance, 1 1 Data on V isu al S en satio n and P ercep tio n T e sts, P a rt I (M eadville, P a .j Keystone View Company, 1939)9 p. 20. k ° c « c i t . 19 E. A. B e tts , "V isual E f fic ie n c y , ,!. Data on V isual S en satio n and P ercep tio n T e s ts , P art I I (M eadville, P a .: Keystone View Company, 19^ 0 ), 66 pp. 100 E ffic ie n c y T ests and the S nellen C hart t e s t s was found. The d ata given in Table V III are expressed in percentages r a th e r than in c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts as the assum ptions re q u ire d by Pearson r do n o t hold fo r th ese d a ta . The measures o f r e l i a b i l i t y o f the te s ts a re given in Table IX and a r e a ls o expressed in percentages as the pro p o rtio n of passes and f a ilu r e s i s a more v a lid index than a c o r r e la tio n in t e s t s o f th is n a tu re . For purposes of com p a riso n the r e s u l t s f o r b o th the V isu al E ffic ie n c y Tests and f o r th e S n e lle n Chart T est are given in th e same ta b le . In view o f the f a c t th a t the V isual E ffic ie n c y T ests are only sc re e n in g t e s t s w hile the S n ellen C hart T ests are d ia g n o stic in n a tu re th e s i m i l a r i t y in percentage ranges between the two is s i g n i f i c a n t . I n t e r e s t in v e n to ry . As an i n t e r e s t in v en to ry was to be an in te g r a l p a r t o f the experim ental procedure, i t was n ecessary to secure one th a t could be used e f f i c i e n t l y and co n v en ien tly from the a d m in is tra tiv e p o in t of view. The published in v e n to rie s of c h ild r e n ’s i n t e r e s t s were found to be cumbersome, le n g th y , and ir r e le v a n t, to a la rg e e x te n t, f o r purposes of the experim ent. A ccordingly, an inv en to ry was devised to produce evidence of the c h i ld r e n ’s im p ellin g and v i t a l i n t e r e s t s in a way th a t could be checked o b jec tiv e ly and q u ic k ly . Ideas were o b tain ed and some q u estio n s 1 0 1 TABLE V III RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN VISUAL EFFICIENCY TESTS AND SNELLEN CHART TEST20 Passed or f a i l e d b o th t e s t s Passed B e tts , f a i l e d the S n ellen t e s t F a ile d B e tts passed the S n elle n t e s t (per cen t) (per c e n t) (p er cent) Naked v is io n W ithout occlu sio n 86 - 90 3 - 6 5 - 9 Wearing c o rre c tio n Without o cclusion 82 - 90 5 - 1 2 k - 7 Naked v is io n With o cclu sio n r “ J os i ON CO 7 - 1 1 0 - 2 ’ Wearing c o rre c tio n With o cclu sio n 89 9 - 11 0 - 2 2 0 I b i d ., pp. I4.7-I4.8. 102 TABLE IX RELIABILITY OP VISUAL EFFICIENCY TESTS AND OF THE SNELLEN TEST2* Test Passed or f a i l e d both t e s t s Passed B e tts , f a ile d the S n ellen t e s t F a ile d B e tts , passed the S n ellen t e s t (p er cent) (p er cen t) (per cent) V isu al e f fic ie n c y w ith and w ithout o cclu sio n Naked v is io n 90 - 95 3 “ k C orrected v is io n 92 - 95 1 - k 1 - I S n ellen w ith .an d w ithout o cc lu sio n Naked v is io n 90 - 95 0 - k 5 - 6 C orrected v is io n 91 - 97 1 - k 2 - 6 ^ Ib id * , pp. 39- 1 ^2 . 103 op were adapted from the W itty and Kopel in v e n to ry . The in v en to ry as f i n a l l y developed was ad m in istered as a group e x e r c is e . ^ A ll sta te m e n ts, q u e stio n s, and t i t l e s were read by the te a c h e r so th a t no c h ild was hampered by d i f f i c u l t i e s in re a d in g . The c h ild re n were assu red from th e o u ts e t th a t the in v en to ry was n o t a t e s t and t h a t the in fo rm atio n they gave would n o t only be tr e a te d co n fid en t i a l l y but th a t i t would a ls o be used to h elp them in d iv id u a lly . F ig u res in sm all p r in t were appended to e a c h q u estio n , t i t l e and sta tem en t. These numbers were score numbers to a id the te a c h e r in qu ick ly and co n v en ien tly in te r p r e tin g and o rg an iz in g the c h i l d r e n s resp o n se s. The score numbers were the code numbers fo r the tw en ty -fiv e major c l a s s i f ic a ti o n s of c h ild r e n fs in t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s th a t were given in the te a c h e r* s manual and around which the in ventory was o r ganized. 2k The score number fo r each resp o n se was w ritte n in the rig h t-h a n d margin o f the page. These score numbers were t o t a l l e d a t the bottom o f each page and the grand t o t a l recorded in a s p e c ia lly provided ta b le . The c la s s to ta ls 22 P. W itty and D. Kopel, Pupil Report of I n te r e s ts and A c t i v i t i e s . D iag n o stic C hild Study Record, Form I I I , (Evanston, I l l i n o i s : N orthw estern U n iv e rs ity Psycho- E d u catio n al C lin ic , 1936), 5 PP* I n f r a , pp. 392-lj.OO. I n f r a , pp. 5 9k-~5 > 396- 1 ^00. lolf. were en te re d on a c la s s re c o rd s h e e t 5 arran g ed in such a way th a t the te ach e r could co n v en ien tly use the r e s u l t s fo r guidance purposes. T ests fo r d isc o v e rin g n a tiv e eyedness. Pour d i f f e r e n t t e s t s were a d m in is te re d . in d iv id u a lly to d isc o v e r the n a tiv e eyedness o f th e p u p ils . P arso n !s manoptoscope was used to give two of the t e s t s . The manoptoscope is a co n ic a l shaped s ig h tin g tube about n in e inches long, the wide end of which is la rg e enough to cover both eyes. The sm a lle r a p e rtu re is two inches in diam eter. The ta r g e t, cu sto m arily placed about two f e e t from th e s u b je c t, c o n s is ts of an exposing device and a s lid in g c h a rt c a rry in g the t a r g ets and t e s t o b je c ts . The exposing device has a c e n tr a l f ix a tio n d isk flanked by two square a p e rtu re s . The c h a rt b e a rin g the l e t t e r s flRn and 1 1 L” is moved back and f o r th so th a t the l e t t e r s a r e e ith e r exposed or hidden. For the f i r s t t e s t , the s ig h tin g tube was h eld in p la c e * a g a in st the c h i l d fs face by means o f a p iece of e l a s t i c fa ste n e d to th e tube and around the head of the c h ild . This elim in a ted the tendency on the p a rt of the c h ild to a d ju s t the s ig h tin g tube a t w ill during the te s t i n g procedure. The s u b je c t s a t a t a ta b le and d ire c te d h is gaze to th e c e n te r of the blan k ta r g e t p laced two f e e t in fro n t of him. He was I n fr a , P* ^-01* 105 I n s tr u c te d n o t to move h i s h ead . The exam in er exp osed th e l e t t e r s and a sk ed the p u p il w h ich l e t t e r he saw . The i n stru m en t i s so c o n s tr u c te d t h a t th e f i e l d o f v i s i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d p e r m ittin g o n ly one e y e , and t h a t presum ably th e dom inant e y e , to s i g h t th e l e t t e r s . The p u p il was g iv e n th r e e t r i a l s and h is answ ers r eco rd ed as e i t h e r r i g h t - , l e f t - , o r e m b i-ey e d . The l a t t e r c a te g o r y was reco rd ed as a c o n d itio n o f no dom inance w henever th e c h i ld a lt e r n a t e d from r ig h t t o l e f t eye p r e fe r e n c e o r v i c e v e r s a in h is r e s p o n s e s . In th e secon d m anoptoscope t e s t th e p u p il sto o d e r e c t w ith h e e ls t o g e t h e r , h e ld th e m anoptoscope w ith two hands in o p p o s ite p o s it io n f a r enough away from th e e y e s so th a t a s m a ll p ie c e o f paper c o u ld be p la c e d b e fo r e one eye a t a tim e as a s h i e l d , and lo o k e d th rou gh th e in str u m e n t, w ith b o th ey es open, a t a sm a ll red box on th e f l o o r tw en ty f e e t away. The exam iner co v ered ea ch eye a l t e r n a t e l y and ask ed th e p u p il w h eth er or n o t he c o u ld s e e th e b o x . When the p u p il resp on d ed p o s i t i v e l y , th a t eye was r e c o r d e d as th e dom inant e y e . I f th e p u p il c o u ld s e e th e box w ith e it h e r ey e he was reco rd ed as b e in g a m b i-ey ed . The t h ir d t e s t used was th e p a p e r -h o le t e s t . A c a r d board 8 J x l l w w ith a sm a ll round h o le in i t s c e n te r ab ou t th e s i z e o f a penny was g iv e n to th e p u p ils who th e n fo llo w e d th e same i n s t r u c t io n s as th o s e g iv e n fo r th e se co n d manop to sc o p e t e s t e x c e p t th a t th e y h e ld th e cardboard about 106 twelve inches from t h e i r f a c e . The sm all red box was again used fo r the ta r g e t and the eyes were covered a l t e r n a t e l y . V arious procedures a re recommended f o r th is t e s t . That p / d escrib ed by Scheideman was adopted as the sta n d a rd p ro cedure in th is experim ent. Because of i t s h ig h r e l i a b i l i t y the new m irro r t e s t ^ was used as the fo u rth t e s t fo r m easuring o c u la r dominance. A c i r c l e one inch in diam eter was drawn w ith b la ck ink in the c e n te r of a pocket m irro r. The p u p ils h eld the m irro r a t armfs le n g th , kept both eyes open, and attem pted to g e t the end of t h e i r nose in the b la c k c i r c l e . The examiner was a b le to t e l l which eye was b ein g vised by the p o s itio n in which the m irro r was p laced . When d o u b tfu l, the examiner to ld the s u b je c t to "keep h is nose in th e rin g " w hile he sim u lta n eo u sly w ith th e se in s tru c tio n s covered one o f the eyes w ith an opaque d is k . I f the eye covered was the s i g h t ing eye the s u b je c t then, a c tin g according to in s tr u c tio n , a d ju ste d the m irro r in o rd er to b rin g i t in to alignm ent w ith the o th e r eye. The examiner rep ea ted th is t e s t th re e times and recorded the p u p il's responses in th e same manner as in the previous t e s t s . N. V. Scheidemann, The Psychology of E x cep tio n al C h ild re n , Vol. I (Boston: Houghton M ifflin Company, 1931), P« 134- b. C rid e r, "A Hew T est o f Eye Dominance," The American Jo u rn al o f Psychology, [1.9:669-70, O ctober, TF57. In3tead of the u su al c l a s s i f i o a t i o n of o c u la r domi nance in to r i g h t - , l e f t - , and ambi-eyed the f iv e f o ld c l a s s i - pO f i c a t i o n adopted by W itty and Kopel was used, namely, R ( r i g h t ) , R^ ( r ig h t w ith le ft- e y e d te n d e n c ie s ), A (am bi-eyed), L ( l e f t ) , and LR ( l e f t w ith rig h t-e y e d te n d e n c ie s ). The p u p ils were assig n ed to th e se c l a s s i f ic a ti o n s according to the fo llo w in g sta n d a rd iz e d procedure. A lto g e th e r 1,728 p u p ils had been given tw elv e s e p a ra te t e s t s , each t e s t being • given th re e tim es. The number of d e x tra l responses fo r each p u p il was found as w ell as the mean and sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n of th ese resp o n se s. The mean was 8.6 and th e sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n , Ij..5 * By usin g one h a l f sta n d ard d e v ia tio n fo r each s te p th e sc o re ranges fo r the f iv e f o ld c l a s s i f i c a t i o n were determ ined. These ranges are given in F igure One. A ll p u p ils except 179 w^o could n o t focus t h e i r eye w ith in the c i r c l e drawn on the m irro r were grouped according to the sta n d ard c l a s s i f i c a t i o n given in F igure One. These 179 passed only n in e t e s t s s u c c e s s fu lly ; th e re fo re , th is sta n d a rd c l a s s i f i c a t i o n did not hold fo r them. A ccordingly, te tr a c h o r ic c o r r e la tio n s were found between each t e s t and a l l o th e r t e s t s . The r e s u l t s are given in Table X. As the c o r r e la tio n s between the Paper Hole T est and 28 p. a . W itty and D. Kopel, " S i n i s t r a l and Mixed M anual-Ocular Behavior in Reading D is a b ilit y ," Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al Psychology, 27:119— 3I4., F ebruary, 1936• M 8.6 6 2.► 9 5. 2 7 .5 9. 7 IB i r i r -1 2 ® 1 2 i r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 FIGURE I RANGES FOR CLASSIFICATION OF OCULAR DOM INANCE TESTS Code fo r C la s s if ic a tio n 0 - 2 = L 6 - 7 = A 3 - 5 = L r 8 - 9 = r l 10 - 12 = R O 00 109 TABLE X TETRACHQRIC CORRELATIONS FOR EYEDNESS TESTS (N ■ 1, 14-74 cases) Tests Manoptoscope I Manoptoscope I I Paper Hole M irror Manoptoscope I •92±.01 •90±.01 .78+ .02 Manoptoscope i — i o • + i C M ON • H H .97±.ooi|, .90 1 .0 1 Paper Hole *90±.oi • 97^ • 0 0 I 4 . .9 7 1 .0 0 ^ M irror • CO 1 + • o ro •90± .o i • 97±.ool). 110 the o th e r in d iv id u a l te a ts were the h ig h e s t, taken as a s e r i e s , th is t e s t was chosen from among the fo u r to r a t e the 179 who could not be c l a s s i f i e d acco rd in g to th e g en e ra l sta n d ard grouping. I f the c h i l d ’s th re e responses on th is t e s t were uniform he was c l a s s i f i e d ac c o rd in g ly . I f two of the responses were given as r ig h t and one as l e f t or vice v ersa the c h ild was d esig n ate d as am bi-eyed. Tests f o r d isc o v e rin g n a tiv e handedness. Five p e r formance t e s t s and a w ritte n q u e stio n n a ire were given to th e p u p ils in d iv id u a lly in ord er to determ ine th e i r type of manual dominance. A b a tte r y o f t e s t s was used f o r d isc o v e r ing both o cu lar and manual dominance because i t has been found th a t a s in g le t e s t does n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e a c c u ra te ly between the various dominance ty p e s. ^ The fiv e performance t e s t s were chosen from among the many d escrib ed In l i t e r a t u r e . 5^ Those used were CUTTING, b. H. Ojemann, ’’S tudies in Handedness: I. A Tech nique fo r T e stin g Unimanual H andedness,” Jo u rn a l of Educa- tio n a l Psychology, 21 : 597- 6 l l , November, 1930* S. T. Orton, Rea d in g , Wri t i n g and Speech Problems in C hildren (New York: W . W. Norton and Company, 1937), p . 5^7 5° P. F endrick, V isu al C h a ra c te ris t i c s of Poor Headers (Teachers C ollege C o n trib u tio n to E ducation, No. 656,’ New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rs ity , 1935)* P* 15* R. H aefner, The E d u catio n al S ig n ific a n c e of L e ft- Handedneas (Teachers C ollege C o n trib u tio n ‘ ”to E ducation, No. 560, New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1929), pp. 1I4.-I7. Scheidemann, op. c i t ., pp. 137-38. Ojemann, lo c . c i t . I l l WINDING, THROWING, HAMM ERING, and BATTING. They w ere g iv e n in t h e f o llo w in g manner: p la c e d d i r e c t l y b e fo r e th e c h i l d who was ask ed t o c u t c a r e f u l l y a lo n g a l i n e drawn upon th e p a p er. The hand th a t h e ld ther s c i s s o r s was r e c o r d e d . s t i l l unwound was p la c e d d i r e c t l y b e fo r e th e c h ild who was in s t r u c t e d to wind the cord upon th e b a l l . The hand th a t d id th e w in d in g was r e c o r d e d as th e dom inant hand. t a b le d i r e c t l y b e fo r e th e c h ild who was th en t o l d t o throw i t to th e exam iner s ta n d in g s e v e r a l f e e t away. The hand u sed to throw th e b a l l was r e c o r d e d . Hammering t e a t . A hammer, n a i l and board was p la c e d on th e t a b le b e fo r e th e c h ild w ith th e h a n d le o f th e hammer p o in t in g d i r e c t l y in f r o n t o f him . The c h i ld was th e n ask ed to d r iv e th e n a i l in t o th e b o a rd . The hand t h a t h e ld th e hammer was reco rd ed as th e p r e fe r r e d hand. B a ttin g t e s t . The c h ild was r e q u e ste d to h o ld a b a t rea d y to s t r i k e a b a l l w h ich th e exam iner was a b o u t to p i t c h . The hand th a t was n e a r e r th e b a t t in g end o f th e b at was r eco rd ed as th e dom inant hand. t e s t . A s c i s s o r s and p ie c e o f paper w ere t e s t . A b a l l o f cord w ith a p ie c e o f cord t e a t . A sm a ll rubb er b a l l was p la c e d on th e 112 Each performance t e s t was given th re e tim es thus giv in g each c h ild f i f t e e n o p p o rtu n itie s to dem onstrate h is manual p re fe re n c e . A lto g e th e r 1,883 c h ild re n were te s te d . A sta n d ard c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r the various types of handed ness was organized by re c o rd in g th e number of d e x tra l p re fe re n c e s, fin d in g the mean and stan d ard d e v ia tio n o f th ese responses and u sin g one sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n as the u n it fo r e s ta b lis h in g the ran g es. The mean f o r the performance te s t s was ll}..21 and th e sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n , 2.99* The same fiv e f o ld c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as th a t used f o r o c u la r dominance was employed. The ranges a re given in F ig u re Two. As most o f th e handedness q u e s tio n n a ire s used h e r e to fo re contained s itu a tio n s fo re ig n to the experience o f c h ild re n in th e a g e -le v e l used f o r t h is experim ent, an o r ig in a l q u e s tio n n a ire was organized fo r th e p u p i l s ’ w r itte n re p o rt of handedness. Ideas fo r th e q u e s tio n n a ire were o b tained mainly from the K och^ and W itty 3^ q u e s tio n n a ire s . The re p o rt as f i n a l l y organized contained th irty -tw o q u e stio n s, th ir ty - o n e o f which checked the p u p il’s common H. L. Koch, A Study of the N a tu re , Measurement, and P eterm in atio n o f Hand P referen ce (G enetic Psychology Monographs, Vol. 1 J, No. 2 , W orcester, M ass.: C lark U n iv e rsity P re ss, 1 9 3 3 PP* 117- 217• 32 p. w itty and P. Kopel, P u p il Report o f Handedness and L a t e r a l i t y , P ia g n o stic C hild Study Record, Form IIA, (Evanston, I l l i n o i s : N orthw estern U n iv e rsity Psycho- E d u catio n al C lin ic , 1936), 3 pp. 14 3.8 l r 6.7 9.7 1 r i <r 12 l <r> 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 FIGURE 2 RANGES FOR CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERFORM ANCE M A N U A L DOM INANCE TESTS Code fo r C la s s if ic a tio n 0 - 3 * L 7 - 9 = A Ij. - 6 » Ljj 1 0 - 1 2 a Rl 13 - 15 a R .2 15.7 r 15 H H * V M unimanual a c t i v i t i e s .53 Only the one q u estio n re g a rd in g th e h an d lin g of the b a t concerned a bimanual a c t i v i t y . The p u p ils answered the q u estio n s by e n c ir c lin g an R i f they h a b itu a lly used th e i r r ig h t hand to perform the r e s p e c tiv e a c t i v i t y ; an L _if they h a b itu a lly used t h e i r l e f t hand, and an E i f they used e i t h e r hand. When checking the re p o rts the te a c h e r recorded only rig h t-h a n d resp o n se s. These she used l a t e r f o r purposes of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . In o rd er to f o r e s t a l l in a c c u ra c ie s due to i n a b i l i t y to read , th e te a c h e r read the q u e s tio n n a ire to th e c la s s w hile each p u p il follow ed usin g h is own copy. A fte r each q u estio n was req.d the p u p ils recorded t h e i r answer. In o rd er to e s ta b li s h a sta n d a rd c l a s s i f i c a t i o n fo r th e f iv e f o ld handedness types based on th e c h i l d r e n s i n d iv id u a l r e p o r t, a frequency ta b le f o r a l l d e x tra l responses was organized and the mean and sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n f o r th ese responses was then found. The mean was 85*63 and th e s ta n d ard d e v ia tio n , 20.96. One sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n was ag ain used as the u n it f o r e s ta b lis h in g the ranges o f the c l a s s i f i c a tio n . The r e s u lt s are given in F igure Three. Each p u p il was thus given two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of handedness, one fo r th e r e s u l t s o f th e perform ance t e s t s and the o th e r f o r the r e s u l t s o f the q u e s tio n n a ire . I f th e two ^ I n f r a , pp. !}.02-i4.. 85 106.6 - 64 43 100 80 90 FIGURE 5 RANGES FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE M A N U A L DOM INANCE TESTS Code fo r C la s s if ic a tio n 0 - 22 r L !fl|- - 6 I4 . = A 23 - If.3 - Lpj 65 - 85 - Rl 85 - X06 = R r e s u l t s coincided th a t grouping was used fo r the f i n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . I f they did n o t co in cid e the r e s u lt s o f the q u e s tio n n a ire alone were used. J u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r th is l a t t e r procedure was based upon th e f a c t th a t the c o r r e la tio n between the r e s u l t s of the-perform ance t e s t s and the q u e s tio n n a ire was . 77±*01* This r e l a t i v e l y high c o r r e la tio n showed th a t a f a i r l y clo se r e la tio n s h ip e x is te d between th e two measures and t h a t , th e re fo re , th e above procedure was j u s t i f i a b l e . As a f u r th e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n , the c o r r e la tio n was found between the r e s u lt s o f the f iv e items in the q u e s tio n n a ire th a t corresponded to the fiv e handedness t e s t s and the r e s u l t s of th e se same t e s t s . The c o r r e la tio n of . 82+.01 is f a i r l y h ig h . I t in d ic a te s th a t in a c tu a l p r a c tic e the use of th ese fiv e items as a q u e s tio n n a ire is as v a lid and r e l i a b l e as a d m in iste rin g performance t e s t s of eq u iv a le n t c o n te n t. T est f o r d e te c tin g r e v e r s a l te n d e n c ie s in re a d in g . This t e s t was an o r ig in a l t e s t developed f o r purposes of the in v e s tig a tio n . ^ The t e s t was so co n stru c te d th a t p u p ils were given 150 occasions to m an ifest th e r e v e r s a l tendency in four d if f e r e n t types o f s i t u a t i o n s . Moreover, the m a te ria l was p resen ted in both is o la te d and co n tex t forms. ^ T nfra, pp. I4.O5-II f o r a com plete copy o f t e s t and accompanying manual. 117 As the t e s t was inten d ed to be read by the p u p ils them selves and n o t by the te a c h e r, the words had been p re v io u sly checked w ith the G a te s’ Prim ary Word L is t. In th e f i r s t type of t e s t s it u a ti o n , l e t t e r s capable of b e in g rev ersed were p rese n ted as s in g le l e t t e r s , in words, in the words o f s h o rt se n te n c e s, and f i n a l l y , in the words composing paragraphs of connected d isc o u rse . Words capable of being t o t a l l y rev erse d were p resen ted in the second type of t e s t s i t u a t i o n . These words were lik e w ise given in both is o la te d and co n tex t form s. The th ir d type of t e s t s i t u a tio n included words capable of b ein g p a r t i a l l y re v e rse d , th a t i s , words in which one o r two l e t t e r s could be re v e rse d but n o t the whole word. The l a s t type of t e s t s i t u a t i o n p rese n ted connected d isc o u rse and is o la te d sentences in which i t was p o ssib le fo r the p u p ils to re v e rse the sequence of words. Both the examiner and the c h ild had a t e s t in hand. While the c h ild read from h is copy, the examiner made n o ta tio n s in the t e s t which he had in hand. D e ta ile d d ir e c tio n s fo r g iv in g and sc o rin g the t e s t were given in th e manual of d i r e c t i o n s .55 The t o t a l scores f o r each type of re v e rs a l were reco rd ed in the space provided in the t e s t b la n k . ^ pp. 14.05-7. 118 V. ORGAHIZATIGM OF PRO G RA M S Types of program s. There were two major and two minor types of programs used f o r rem edial purposes in the in v e s tig a tio n , making in a l l fo u r d i s t i n c t types o f programs. The major programs were the INTEREST and FACTUAL PROGRAM S and the minor programs were the INTEREST^ PRO G RA M su p p le mented w ith phonetics and the FACTUAL PRO G RA M supplemented w ith p h o n e tic s. In the in v e s tig a tio n the programs were d if f e r e n t i a t e d as fo llo w s: Program I : I n t e r e s t Program Program I I : I n t e r e s t Program With P honetics Program I I I : F a c tu a l Program Program IV : F a c tu a l Program With P honetics The d is tin g u is h in g c h a r a c te r i s tic between the two m ajor programs was one o f m o tiv atio n and m a te ria ls used r a th e r th an one of method o f conducting the rem edial c la s s e s . In f a c t , the a c t i v i t i e s used day a f t e r day and the technique follow ed were the same f o r both m ajor program s. The te c h nique in g en eral c o n s is te d in g iv in g the c h ild re n the o p p o rtu n ity to read e x te n siv e ly on the le v e l a t which they were capable o f re a d in g w ith f a c i l i t y w ithout bein g h a n d i capped by m echanical d i f f i c u l t i e s o f word re c o g n itio n and sim ple comprehension. D ire c t d r i l l , as i t is g e n e ra lly understood, was n o t given; th a t i s , the c h ild re n were n o t su b je c te d to f la s h c a rd word and phrase e x e rc ise s and s im ila r 119 a e a t work and blackboard e x e rc is e s . The d r i l l , as used in the two major program s, was r a th e r given i n d ir e c tly by a ffo rd in g th e p u p ils the o p p o rtu n ity o f m eeting the words o fte n in co n tex t and each tim e in a new and a t t r a c t i v e s e t t i n g through the e x ten siv e re a d in g . This g en eral te c h nique as ju s t d esc rib e d was the sam e.fo r both the INTEREST and B ’ A CTTJA L PROGRAMS. As the technique conforms to pro g re s s iv e e d u c a tio n a l p r in c ip le s i t did n o t i n t r i n s i c a l l y h in d e r the e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f the programs. In the INTEREST PRO G RA M the m a te ria l given to the c h ild re n was r e a l i s t i c , f a n c if u l or f a c tu a l in n a tu re . The type and s p e c if ic s e le c tio n given to each in d iv id u a l day by day was based on th e i n t e r e s t s of th a t in d iv id u a l as they were re v e a le d through th e I n t e r e s t in v en to ry . Each day, th e re fo re , the p u p ils read m a te ria l th a t they i n t r i n s i c a l l y lik e d and th a t was w e ll adapted to t h e i r p re se n t im p ellin g d riv e s and i n t e r e s t s . A ccordingly, a double sense of s a t i s fa c tio n and p le asu re accompanied the re a d in g . The f i r s t was caused by an awareness of achievem ent and a f e e lin g o f w e ll b eing and approval which r e s u lte d from the p u p ils being given m a te ria l th a t they could han d le. The second developed as a r e s u l t of the p u p ils being given m a te ria l th a t coincided w ith t h e i r im p ellin g i n t e r e s t s and d riv e s . This l a t t e r g r a t i f i c a t i o n was f u r th e r enhanced by th e knowledge th a t the te a c h e r understood and, above a l l , a p p re c ia te d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s and d e s ir e s . The employment of th e double stim ulus of g r a t i f i c a tio n in re a d in g m a te ria l a ttu n e d to p re s e n t in t e r e s t s and of encouragement and s a t i s f a c t i o n in knowing th a t a common bond of u n d erstan d in g and a p p re c ia tio n e x is te d between te a c h e r and p u p ils was the d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c between the I n t e r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs. In o rd er to ac ce n tu ate th is tw ofold stim u lu s a s p e c ia l type of m o tiv atio n was used each time the te a c h e r gave the in d iv id u a l c h ild re n t h e ir assignm ent. The m o tiv atio n was s h o rt b u t i t contained the tw ofold ap p eal of lin k in g the co n ten t o f the m a te ria l to be read w ith the re s p e c tiv e ch ild * s expressed in t e r e s t s and of g iv in g th e c h ild th e s a t i s f a c t i o n of knowing th a t the te a c h e r understood and a p p re c ia te d h is ta s te s and lik e s . A ty p ic a l m o tiv atio n o f the type d escrib ed above is given in the follow ing example. Teacher; “Tom, I found a very good s to r y about a l o s t dog fo r you. I know you are fond of dogs so I am sure you w ill be in te r e s te d in read in g th is sto ry and in fin d in g out how Jack recovered h is p e t . ” In the FACTUAL PRO G RA M the c h ild re n were given no im p ellin g m o tiv atio n fo r re a d in g the m a te r ia l given to them o th e r than a few remarks designed merely as an in tro d u c tio n to the re a d in g o f the s e le c tio n . The fo llo w in g is an example o f t h i s type of m o tiv a tio n ; “Here is a s to r y fo r you Tom, th a t t e l l s how paper is made.” The s e le c tio n s were 121 fundam entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re . They were n o t baaed on th e p u p ils ’ in te r e s ts b u t were m erely chosen a t random by the te a c h e r and then assig n ed to be read . The f a c t , however, th a t the m a te ria l was new and th a t i t was capable of being read w ithout hindrance from m echanical d i f f i c u l t i e s en gendered w ithout doubt in the p u p ils a sense of achievem ent which'was n a t u r a lly accompanied by a f e e lin g o f w e ll-b e in g and ap p ro v al. One o f the o b je c tiv e s of the in v e s tig a tio n was to a s c e r ta in w hether problem read in g cases encouraged m erely by the c e r t a in ty o f achievement and approval improved as r a p id ly in terms of achievem ent as those c h ild re n who f e l t t h i s same sense of s e c u r ity plus the a d d itio n a l s tim u la tio n s of reading what appealed to t h e i r ta s te s and o f s a t i s f a c t i o n re g a rd in g fav o rab le r e c ip r o c a l r e la tio n s w ith the te a c h e r. Although the m a te r ia l used in the FACTUAL PRO G RA M was fundam entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re i t was not always in h e re n tly dry re a d in g . In o rd er to o f f s e t as many f a c to rs as p o ssib le th a t might unfavorably in flu e n c e the r e s u l t s o f the programs, the m a te ria l used f o r the rem edial read in g c la s s e s was new m a te ria l th a t had never b efo re been read by the groups con cerned. I t is p r a c t i c a l l y im possible today to o b ta in m a te ria l even though f a c tu a l in n a tu re , th a t is w r itte n in an u n a ttr a c tiv e s t y l e . In o rd e r, furtherm ore, to ensure a p p ro p ria te vocabulary c o n tro l f o r the group le v e ls only 122 m a te ria l of re c e n t copyright d ate was used. In o th e r words, the co n ten t of the s e le c tio n s read in th is program was fundam entally f a c tu a l; however, i t was w r itte n in the s ty le g e n e ra lly used today in w ritin g such m a te ria l f o r c h ild re n o f the elem entary school le v e l. Another o b je c tiv e of th e d i s s e r t a t i o n was to d e t e r mine w hether or n o t tr a in in g in p honetics was of s u b s ta n tia l b e n e fit in ad m in iste rin g e i th e r type o f rem edial program. A ccordingly, each type of program was conducted w ith and w ith o u t the a d d itio n a l tra in in g in p h o n e tic s. Problem cases in Programs I I and IV were given fifte e n -m in u te e x e rc ise in phonetics th re e tim es a week. Those in Programs I and I I I were allow ed to do more ex ten siv e read in g during th a t f i f t e e n minute p erio d . The technique used fo r tr a in i n g th e c h ild re n in phonetic s k i l l s was not th e most d e s ira b le and the r e s u lt s obtained w i l l have to be ev a lu ated in terras of th is handicap. In o rd er to keep in s t r u c tio n a l techniques w e ll c o n tro lle d , a method had to be used th a t could be handled uniform ly by each te a c h e r w ithout p e rm ittin g h e r to i n j e c t in to th e ex e r c is e too much of the p erso n al elem ent. C onsequently, s i l e n t seatw ork e x e rc is e s were chosen in p referen ce to o ra l te ch n iq u es. These e x e rc ise s were given from EYE AND EAR PUN, Books I , I I , and I I I , which are phonetic workbooks w ritte n 125 toy-C. E. S t o n e . 36 The th re e hook a e rie s of EYE A N D EAR FUN p re se n ts a w ell sy stem atized and graded development o f the rudim ents of p h o n etic s k i l l s in p r a c t ic a l c o n te x t s i t u a t i o n s . The ex er c is e s in th e se workbooks are designed to he used in connec tio n w ith o r a l .development e x e rc is e s . The o r a l work was om itted in t h i s experim ent, however, fo r the reasons s ta te d ahove. The pupil3 were given the m a te ria l from th ese b o o k lets according to t h e ir in d iv id u a l needs as rev ea led through the d ia g n o stic t e s t H O W W ELL C A N YOU READ. Each p u p il worked h is e x e rc ise s s i l e n t l y and pro g ressed as ra p id ly as h is a b i l i t y p e rm itte d . During the f i f t e e n minute perio d devoted to phonetic p ra c tic e the te a c h e r gave th e p u p ils as much In d iv id u a l a t t e n t i o n and h e lp as they needed. As each e x e rc ise was com pleted, she gave the r e sp e c tiv e p u p ils a b r i e f o r a l check on th e co n ten t o f the e x e rc ise in o rd e r to make c e r ta in th a t they had achieved i t s o b je c tiv e . A fte r the p u p ils com pleted the e x e rc ise s in EYE A N D EAR FUN th e y were given a second s e r ie s of workbooks, ADVENTURES IN DICTIONARY LAND, by A. L. Lewis e t a l .,^ 7 36 These workbooks a re pub lish ed by The W ebster P u b lish in g Company, S t. L ouis, M issouri. 37 These workbooks a re published by The American Book Company, New York. 12k designed fo r developing in p u p ils a t middle grade le v e l the b a s ic s k i l l s needed to use the d ic tio n a ry e f f i c i e n t l y . The s k i l l s e s ta b lis h e d through the e x e rc ise s in these workbooks were an e x c e lle n t complement to th e rudim entary p h o n etic s k i l l s developed through the f i r s t s e r i e s . Design of the experim ent . The o b je c tiv e s o f the in v e s tig a tio n re q u ire d th a t fo u r d i s t i n c t types o f rem edial programs had to be conducted w ith p u p ils in fo u r se p a ra te grades. Furtherm ore, in compliance w ith the o b je c tiv e s of the in v e s tig a tio n , each te a c h e r in each grade had to d ir e c t the rem edial program w ith h e r own problem cases in re a d in g . I t was n o t considered f e a s ib le , because of the v a rie d n a tu re of the programs, to conduct each type of program in each grade o f the same sc h o o l. The complex n a tu re o f the s e t-u p would have been n o t only too confusing fo r th e average te a c h e r, but a ls o , and above a l l , too d i f f i c u l t to a d m in iste r w ith e f f ic ie n c y . The amount of d a ily p re p a ra tio n would, fu rth erm o re, have been unduly ta x in g and th e p sy c h o lo g ical e f f e c t upon the c h ild re n of the v a rio u s types o f appeal p re sen ted in th e same classroom would have d efea ted the o b je c tiv e s o f the in v e s tig a tio n . Because of the f a c to r s ju s t d e sc rib e d , i t was decided to conduct one type of program throughout the c la sse s in th e same sc h o o l. In o rd er to o f f s e t sy stem a tic e r r o r s ■ which may have thereby c re p t in f o r any one type of program, a t l e a s t 125 two schools were used f o r each type of program. In some cases the same program was ad m in istered in fo u r sch o o ls. This was made p o s s ib le through th e process of e q u a liz in g the groups in the fo u r programs. The s e le c tio n o f th e schools and the number o f schools used in each program was done merely on a b a s is o f s iz e of p o p u latio n as a s u f f i c i e n t number of schools w ith equal p o p u latio n s was n o t a v a ila b le . In Table XI is given the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f programs according to schools w ith the number o f p u p ils o r ig in a lly te s te d in each sc h o o l, the r e s u lt in g number o f problem cases in read in g , and th e number of te a c h e rs conducting the program in each sc h o o l. This d is t r ib u t io n was organized on the basis of the o r ig in a l te s tin g and th e problem cases th a t r e s u lte d and n o t on the b a s is of th e f i n a l matched groups which were, a f t e r a l l , n o t used f o r a d m in is tra tiv e purposes b u t only f o r a b s tr a c t a n a ly s is . C la s s if ic a tio n of p u p ils . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of th e p u p ils in the r e s p e c tiv e programs was done a t a c e n tr a l o f f ic e to ensure e x a c titu d e and u n ifo rm ity . As s t a t e d be fo re , i f p u p ils were found to be fo u r te n th s d e v ia tio n , which is th e same as fo u r m onths’ d e v ia tio n , below th e i r expectancy grade they were considered as bein g problem cases in read in g and w ere, ac co rd in g ly , assig n ed to a rem edial c la s s . I f a p u p il, f o r example, had an average read in g grade of 2.8 and an expectancy grade of 3 .3 , he was 126 TABLE XI DISTRIBUTION OP PR O G R A M S Schools T otal number of p u p ils te s te d Problem cases in read in g Teachers G irls Boys G irls Boys Program I School W I l k 129 2ij. 39 5 School E 88 90 20 21 To t a l 202 219 lilj. 70 , 9 421 114 Program I I School S 182 145 38 48 8 School Y 71 69 19 20 T o tal 255 212 57 68 12 465 125 Program I I I School M 94 103 34 5 School J 51 57 u 11 3 School R 59 55 15 20 3 School A 27 _1§ _5 11 . 1 T o tal 231 243 , , 55 76 12 474 111 Program IV School C 110 30 52 k School G «4 79 12 18 k School Q 33 26 5 10 1 School L 41 38 J> _7 2 T o tal 251 253 , 38 74 11 504 112 127 co n sid ered as b ein g a problem case in read in g because he d e v ia te d fiv e te n th s below h is expectancy grade. The p u p i l s ’ d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g de term ined t h e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as problem o r non-problem c a se s. The average read in g grade which they obtained from the sta n d a rd iz e d re a d in g l i s t determ ined the re a d in g le v e l and s p e c if ic group in to which they were p la ced . By read in g le v e l was meant th a t stag e a t which the p u p il was a b le to read w ith as much f a c i l i t y as o th e r normal c h ild re n . P upils in le v e l one were capable of read in g m a te ria l of f i r s t grade d i f f i c u l t y ; those in le v e l two, o f second grade d i f f i c u l t y , e tc . I f a c h ild , fo r example, re c e iv e d an average read in g grade o f 2 .8 he was placed a t le v e l two which meant th a t he was to be given books c o n ta in in g second grade vocabulary. I f the c h ild rece iv ed an average re a d in g grade of 3 .2 he was p laced a t le v e l th re e and was given books co n ta in in g t h ir d grade vocabulary. A lthough the p u p ils were assig n ed to p a r t i c u l a r read in g le v e ls th e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was n o t m aintained as a r i g i d one. The te ach e rs were expected to r e a d ju s t the p u p ils as they evidenced a need f o r such read ju stm e n t. Rec ommendations to th is e f f e c t were in d ic a te d on each te ach ers c l a s s i f i c a t i o n l i s t . P u p ils, th e re fo re , passed in to a lower or h ig h e r le v e l acco rd in g to t h e i r in d iv id u a l needs. This was done w ithout the re s p e c tiv e p u p il’s knowledge and w ithout 1 2 8 the g ro u p T s knowledge by merely giv in g those p u p ils books a d ju ste d to the new le v e l of d i f f i c u l t y . In o rd er to p re serve in the classroom an atmosphere of s e c u r ity , encourage ment, and ap p ro v al, the le v e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f the problem cases in read in g were n o t m anifested e x t e r i o r l y .i n any way. Each te ach e r had as many re a d in g le v e ls in h er reme d i a l c la ss as were re q u ire d by the needs of her group. The number of le v e ls as w e ll as the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of h e r p u p ils in to the re s p e c tiv e le v e ls was o rganized, ty p ed , given and explained to each te a c h e r p e rso n a lly , The average re a d in g grade, expectancy grade, and d e v ia tio n from expectancy was lik e w ise reco rd ed fo r the t e a c h e r ’s in fo rm atio n . 38 Planning of in s t r u c tio n a l m a te r ia l s . As the type of in s t r u c tio n a l m a te ria ls used in the programs was one of the ed u cativ e f a c to r s c o n tro lle d in the eq u atin g procedure of the in v e s tig a tio n th e books to be used fo r each le v e l in each grade of the v a rio u s schools were se le c te d by the i n v e s tig a to r and a s s i s t a n t s . In th is way b o th the co n ten t and the vocabulary were ad eq u ately re g u la te d and books and s e le c tio n s were re se rv e d and used s o le ly f o r th a t type of program fo r which they were s u ite d . Each te a c h e r receiv ed a d e ta ile d l i s t o f m a te ria ls c l a s s i f i e d fo r each o f the ^ on PP« 130“52 a sample of the c l a s s i f i c a tio n sh e ets is given. 129 s p e c if ic groups in h e r charge. An example of one such l i s t as i t was prepared fo r a s in g le te a c h e r is given in Table X II. The l i s t a ls o included the names o f th e p u p ils in each of the groups plus a d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e i r p re se n t s ta tu s reg ard in g read in g a b i l i t y . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of th e m a te ria ls was done in the fo llo w in g manner. F i r s t o f a l l , a la rg e c o lle c tio n of books was made c o n ta in in g r e a l i s t i c , f a n c i f u l and f a c tu a l m a te ria l o f re c e n t copyright date and of recognized a u th o rsh ip . These books were then c l a s s i f i e d acco rd in g to vocabulary and grade by co n su ltin g o f f i c i a l l y graded book l i s t s . ^ As the f i n a l s te p , each s to ry or s e le c tio n in each book ?/as a llo c a te d to one o r se v e ra l of th e fo llo w in g tw en ty -fiv e d iv is io n s used fo r the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f c h ild r e n ’s i n t e r e s t s : A c ti v itie s of C hildren A rt Adventure C ity L ife 39 s. Andrews, com piler, C h ild re n ’s C atalog ( f i f t h re v is e d e d itio n ; New York: H. W . Wilson Company, 1936), 979 PP* (Supplements published each y e a r . ) N. E. B uest, com piler, 500 Books fo r C hildren (B u lle tin 1939 > W ashington: O ffice o f E ducation, U nited S ta te s Department of the I n t e r i o r , 19lj.0 ). E. Ramsey, e d ito r , Reading f o r Fun (Chicago: N a tio n a l Council of E n g lish T eachers, 1937)* M . S. W ilkinson, V. Weedon, and C. Washburne, com pilers, The R ight Book f o r the R ight C hild (New York: John Day Company, 1933T, 357 pp. TABLE X II SAMPLE O F A CLASSIFICATION O F PRO BLEM PUPILS IN READING AND MATERIALS T O BE USED FOR READING LEVELS AS IT W A S PREPARED FOR A S ENGLE TEACHER School E____________ Grade I4. Teacher S l a t e r B. Program I Average D eviation read in g Expectancy from Pupils______ grade grade expectancy Level One Paul D. (2 )* 1.8 3.6 - 1.8 REQUIRED BO O K S AUTHOR PUBLISHER UNIT STUDY BOOKS (1 copy each) Nos, 101- 110; 151-155 Johnson e t a l . Am,Ed.Press PLAYING TOGETHER Buckingham Ginn COUNTRY DAYS Dearborn Macmillan Level Two Paul D, 1.8 3.6 - 1.8 M argaret C. 2.8 3*3 " *5 K athleen K. (3)* 2.9 4.1 - 1.2 James P, 2.2 2.6 - » 4 REQUIRED BOOKS AUTHOR PUBLISHER UNIT STUDY BOOKS (1 copy each) Nos. 201- 210; 25I-255 Johnson e t a l . Am.Ed.Press WINTER TIME Dearborn Macmillan CHILDREN A N D THEIR'HELPERS School Srs.ND. Heath EVERYDAY FRIENDS Hahn Houghton M UNCHING PETER & OTHER STORIES Buckingham Ginn G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY P ennell Ginn W A G S AND W O OF IE A ldredge Ginn IN T O W N A N D COUNTRY Buckley Am. Book Co. PETS AND' FRIENDS Myers Heath 151 TABLE X II ( c o n tin u e d ) SAMPLE O P A CLASSIFICATION O P PROBLEM PUPILS IN READING AND MATERIALS TO BE USED FOR READING LEVELS AS IT W A S PREPARED FOR A SINGLE TEACHER P upils Average re a d in g grade Expectancy grade D eviation from expectancy Level Three C lara Ann K. 5*5 Mary Gath. U. 5 Donald B. 3*3 Donald G. 3.6 A rth u r G. 3 .L f. Donald R. (1 +)* 3.7 M ichael R. 3*5 R obert R. 3.3 K athleen K. 2.9 REQUIRED BOOKS it..2 lj.,0 I4..O j+rl 1 1 4 .1 •7 SURPRISES YESTERDAY AND TODAY HELPERS AT W O R K THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S SCOTTIE A N D HIS FRIENDS THE PET CLUB CITY FRIENDS THE GREAT IDEA & OTHER STORIES FOLLETT PICTURE STORIES O F TRAINS FOLLETT PICTURE STORIES OF BOATS UNIT STUDY BOOKS Nos. 3OI-3IO; 351-355 HOOT O W L La Rue HERE AND THERE Buckley PRACTICE EXERCISES IN READ.Type C ,G r.3(5 copies PRACTICE EXERCISES IN READ.Type D ,G r.3(5 copies AUTHOR P atch 8 c Howe Smith School Srs.N .D . P ennell Johnson M asters Dearborn Buckingham - 1.1 - 1.5 - -9 - 1.2 PUBLISHER Macmillan S ilv e r B. Heath Ginn Am. E d.Press Heath Macmillan Ginn F o l l e t t Pub.Co. F o l l e t t Pub.Co. . Am.Ed.Press Macmillan Am. Book Co. )Bureau o f Pub. )Bureau of Pub. *^OTE: The numbers in p a re n th e sis a f t e r th e names of th e c h ild re n r e f e r to the recommendations re g a rd in g the grouping o f the re s p e c tiv e p u p ils . The tftwo” means th a t no doubt th a t p u p il w i l l be able to do second grade work a f t e r a s h o rt tim e; the ff three," th a t th a t p u p il w ill be ab le s h o r tly to attem p t th ir d grade work; th e "four,” th a t th e p u p il w ill be able to do f o u rth grade work. The p u p ils w ith these numbers a re l i s t e d in both groups. 132 TABLE X II (c o n tin u e d ) SAMPLE O P A CLASSIFICATION O F PROBLEM PUPILS IN READING AND MATERIALS TO BE USED FOR READING LEVELS AS IT W A S PREPARED FOR A SINGLE TEACHER P upils Average read in g grade Expectancy grade D ev iatio n from expectancy Level Four George G. 1+.5 - .k Donald R. 4 .8 -1 .1 A lb e rt P. k .o 5 .2 - 1 .2 Edwin S. k .o 5*5 - 1.3 Donald C. k - i 4.. 6 - ^5 REQUIRED BOOKS AUTHOR PUBLISHER THE ELEPHANT!S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES SCIENCE STORIES, Book I I I TRAILS O F ADVENTURE NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR CENTERVILLE WILD ANIMALS AT H O M E ADVENTURE TRAILS UNIT STUDY BOOKS Nos. ij.01-it.09; !!-51-it-55 PRACTICE EXERCISES IN READ. Typ© 0 , Gr. 3 (3 copies) PRACTICE EXERCISES IN READ. Type D, Gr. 3 (3 copies) Buckingham Beauchamp Level W ahlert & Hahn Hanna Johnson G ates-Peardon G ates-Peardon Ginn Ginn Ginn Houghton S c o tt,F o r e s . F o lle t Pub.Co. Am.Ed.Press Am.Ed. P ress Bureau of Pub. Bureau of Pub. Magic, Mystery Occupations Other C ountries Our Country Outdoor A c tiv itie s Outdoor L ife Pets Plays Reading Sports T ra n sp o rta tio n Each te a c h e r rece iv ed a d e t a il e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the s t o r i e s in a l l the hooks which she used fo r h e r rem edial c la s s e s . A complete c l a s s i f i e d l i s t as given to th ese te ach e rs is given in Appendix B . ^ The te a c h e rs in Programs I and I I , the INTEREST PROGRAM S, were p erm itted to use th e books c l a s s i f i e d in a l l the d iv is io n s ; those te a c h e rs , how ever, in Programs I I I and IV, the FACTUAL PROGRAM S, were p erm itted to use only those s to r ie s c l a s s i f i e d in Number S ix , the E d u catio n al o r F actu al L is t. This l a t t e r l i s t Included only those s e le c tio n s and s to r ie s from a l l the books th a t were f a c tu a l in c o n t e n t . ^ VI. PROCEDURE IN REMEDIAL CLASSES General o rg a n iz a tio n . In b o th major programs, the I n te r e s t and the F a c tu a l, the c h ild re n engaged In th re e types of read in g a c t i v i t i e s each week, s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l read in g , Comedy Education (F actu al) E l e c t r i c i t y Fantasy Good Times H isto ry Hobbies Home I n te r e s t s In d iv id u a ls Indoor A c tiv itie s I n f r a , pp. ij. 13-513. ^ T nfra, pp. [j.31-51. s i l e n t w ork-type re a d in g , and o ra l r e c r e a tio n a l re a d in g and d is c u s s io n . Three f o r ty - f iv e minute periods on su c cessiv e days each week were devoted to s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l re a d in g , one f o r ty - f iv e minute p erio d each week was devoted to s i l e n t read in g of the w ork-type, and one to o ra l r e c r e a tio n a l re a d ing and d is c u s s io n . In th is manner the time spent in in s t r u c tio n a l tech n iq u es was s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o n tro lle d . F u rth e r c o n tro l was secured by d e sig n a tin g s p e c if ic days on which the re s p e c tiv e types o f a c t i v i t i e s were to be taken. On Wednesday the p erio d was devoted to s i l e n t w ork-type read in g ; on Thursday, F rid ay , and Monday, to s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l read in g , and on Tuesday, to o ra l r e c r e a tio n a l read in g and d is c u s s io n . W ritten d e ta ile d in s tr u c tio n s re g a rd in g the g en e ra l o rg a n iz a tio n of the rem edial program were given to a l l t e a c h e r s . ^ Manner of conducting re a d in g a c t i v i t i e s The G ates- Peardon P ra c tic e E x ercises In Reading^* were used to develop a b i l i t y in SILENT READING OF. THE W O R K TYPE. The P ra c tic e E x ercises a re organized in to fo u r booklets each one o f which ^ j £ f r a , pp. 5114.-15. ^ PP« 516-30 £°r d e ta ile d d ir e c tio n s given to a l l te a c h e r s • P ublished by th e Bureau o f P u b lic a tio n s , Teachers G ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , New York. 1 3 5 is designed to develop one o f the fo llo w in g m ajor type of a b i l i t i e s : a b i l i t y to a p p re c ia te the g e n e ra l s ig n ific a n c e of a s e le c tio n , a b i l i t y to a n tic ip a te outcomes, a b i l i t y to u nderstand p re c ise d ir e c tio n s , and a b i l i t y to n o te d e t a i l s . As a m a tte r of economy, only the b o o k lets designed to develop the l a s t two mentioned types of a b i l i t y were used. During t h i r t y minutes the p u p ils worked as many of the se p a ra te e x e rc ise s as they could complete a c c u ra te ly . During the l a s t f i f t e e n m inutes of th e p erio d they checked t h e i r responses o r a lly as a group. The P ra c tic e E x ercises were used in th is way fo r a l l four types of programs in o rd er to provide a w ell-b a lan c ed a e rie s o f a c t i v i t i e s . The major type of a c t i v i t y f o r both I n te r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs was SILENT RECREATIONAL READING. Each te a c h e r planned the c la ss e x e rc ise f o r Program I of the I n t e r e s t Program in the fo llow ing manner. A fte r examining the dominant in t e r e s t s o f a re s p e c tiv e p u p i l ^ she looked fo r a s to ry about one o f h is i n t e r e s t s by c o n s u ltin g the a p p ro p ria te d iv is io n in the READING LISTS. For example, i f a c h ild on le v e l th re e was in te r e s te d in Outdoor L ife she m ight s e le c t the s to r y , THE BLACK BEARS on page I4 .6 of VISITS HERE A N D TIIERE^ from among th e many a v a ila b le s t o r i e s l i s t e d ^ 1 1 1 f r a * p* gives a sample reco rd sh e e t on which the in t e r e s t s of each p u p il were summarized. ^ In fra , p. I4.98. 136 fo r Grade T h r e e ^ In the Outdoor L ife d iv is io n . Then she w rote the c h i l d ’s name on a work sh e e t plus the name o f the s to ry she had s e le c te d fo r him as w e ll as the page and the hook in which the sto ry was to he found. The work sh e et was a sh e e t co n ta in in g the in d iv id u a l assignm ent fo r the day which the te a c h e r gave the p u p il a t the beginning of the rem edial p e rio d . The assignm ent included the s to ry or s to r ie s to be read and a few g e n e ra l q u estio n s which the p u p ils were to answer as a b r i e f check on comprehension. Five d if f e r e n t kinds of checks were organized to provide v a r ie ty and s t i m u l a t i o n . ^ A d i f f e r e n t kind was used each week. The te a c h e r fs planning fo r Program I I was fundamen t a l l y the same as th a t d escrib ed f o r Program I . Besides the read in g m a te ria l the te a c h e rs a lso s e le c te d a p p ro p ria te e x e rc ise s from EYE AND EAR FUN and ADVENTURES IN DICTIONARY LAND f o r each p u p il. The e s s e n ti a l d iffe re n c e in the hq te a c h e r ’s p re p a ra tio n fo r Programs I I I and B/*7 c o n s is te d in th is th a t the in t e r e s t s of the re s p e c tiv e c h ild re n were n o t co n su lted as the b a s is f o r the s e le c tio n o f the read in g m a te ria l. For Program I I I the te a c h e r m erely took Number 6, ^ I n f r a , pp. ij.91-505. I n f r a , pp. 526-50. [lQ InlnQ-j PP« 521-25 gives th e d e ta ile d d ir e c tio n s follow ed by the te a c h e r. 1 3 7 the EDUCATIONAL or FACTUAL BOOK LIST, s e le c te d a s to ry from one of the hooks she had in h er classroom lib r a r y , and w rote the assignm ent on the c h i l d ’s work s h e e t. For Program IV, the same procedure was follow ed plus the a d d itio n a l s e le c tio n of e x e rc is e s from EYE AND EAR FUN and ADVENTURES IN DICTIONARY LAND. The teach ers conducting a l l fo u r programs kept a sy ste m a tic account in the manner most convenient to them of the assignm ents they gave to each c h ild . For te ach e rs in the INTEREST PROGRAM S th is account enabled them to b alance t h e i r assignm ents so th a t a l l the in t e r e s t s of each c h ild were re p re se n te d a t some tim e. For te ach e rs in the FACTUAL PROGRAM S th is account not only enabled them to avoid d u p li c a tin g assignm ents b u t a lso helped them to d i s t r i b u t e the assignm ents so th a t each c h ild read in a l l the books a v a i l ab le fo r h is le v e l. The g en eral procedure in the c la s s p erio d s was the same fo r a l l fo u r programs* A fte r the assignm ents were given to the c h ild re n in d iv id u a lly , each p u p il found h is book and s to ry and then began to re a d . In Programs I and I I I the p u p ils read fo r t h i r t y - f i v e m inutes; in Programs I I and IV, fo r tw enty m inutes. A fte r the read in g was com pleted, te n m inutes was used fo r a g en e ra l check on comprehension. During th is time the p u p ils completed t h e ir work s h e e ts . For th e p u p ils in Programs I I and IV the rem aining f i f t e e n 138 minutes was used fo r the phonetic p ra c tic e e x e rc is e s . As mentioned b e f o r e , ^ the d is tin g u is h in g c h a ra c te r i s t i c between the I n t e r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs was one of m o tiv atio n and m a te ria ls used r a th e r than one of method. The m a te ria ls p e c u lia r to each program were planned and assig n ed as d escrib ed above. The m o tiv atio n was given in d iv id u a lly as the te a c h e r handed each p u p il h is assignm ent. For the I n t e r e s t Program th e m o tiv atio n co n tain ed the two fo ld appeal of lin k in g the co n ten t o f the m a te ria l to be read w ith th e re s p e c tiv e c h i l d ’s in te r e s ts and o f g iv in g the c h ild the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f f e e lin g th a t a bond o f u n d erstan d ing and a p p re c ia tio n e x is te d between th e te a c h e r and h im se lf. For the F a c tu a l Program, however, th e m o tiv atio n served m erely as a s h o rt in tro d u c tio n to th e read in g of th e s e le c tio n . While the c h ild re n read , th e te a c h e r guided and helped them according to th e i r re sp e c tiv e needs. She a s s is te d them w ith vocabulary d i f f i c u l t i e s and provided o th e r m a te ria l fo r them i f the vocabulary burden was too heavy o r, i f , In the I n t e r e s t Program, the c h ild was n o t in te r e s te d in th e s to ry . She managed to speak to each c h ild in d iv id u a lly once during a n te , . pp. II8 -2 3 . 5^ Supra, p. 120 f o r examples o f bo th types o f m o tiv a tio n s . 1 3 9 each c la ss p erio d in o rder to check b r i e f l y on the c h i l d ’s stan d in g and to make c e r t a in th a t he was p r o f i t i n g by the le v e l o f work th a t was given to him. The ORAL RECREATIONAL READING AND DISCUSSION a c t i v i t y was taken once a week to fu rn is h the p u p ils w ith the oppor tu n ity to share w ith th e group the s t o r i e s th a t they lik e d the b e s t and to enable them to discu ss w ith o th ers what they read thus I n d ir e c tly s tim u la tin g them to read w ith thought, and to r e t a i n and o rg an iz e. During t h i s p erio d each p u p il to ld the group b r i e f l y about the sto ry he lik e d the b e s t, made p erso n al comments about the s to r y , and read b r i e f in t e r e s t i n g p a r ts . This was follow ed by a g en e ra l group d is c u s s io n . The o ra l r e c r e a tio n a l a c t i v i t y was taken in th is manner f o r a l l fo u r programs. V II. M ETHOD OP ASSEMBLING D ATA A ll sta n d a rd iz e d t e s t s , the o r ig in a l t e s t in read in g fo r phonetic s k i l l d ia g n o sis, the i n t e r e s t in v e n to ry , and the t e s t f o r d isc o v e rin g n a tiv e handedness were c o rre c te d and scored by the re s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs . The v is io n t e s t s were scored and ev a lu a te d by the a s s i s t a n t tr a in e d f o r th a t purpose and the handedness and r e v e r s a l tendency te s ts were scored by o th e r tr a in e d a s s i s t a n t s . The d a ta f o r a l l the te s t s except the v is io n t e s t s were assem bled p e rso n a lly from each school by one a s s i s t a n t . To in su re accuracy the d a ta lij.0 fo r th e v is io n t e s t s were recorded by the v is io n exam iner. A fte r th e f i r s t assem bling, the d a ta were f i n a l l y organized f o r s t a t i s t i c a l and com parative purposes on Ipc6f f cards a .^a^pl-e-o f w hio h -fo llo w s. — Colors were u s e d -fo r emphasis and f o r ra p id lo c a tio n of s p e c if ic types o f d a ta . The upper tr ia n g l e on the cards was re se rv e d fo r m iscellaneous d a ta , the two upper corner s e c tio n s f o r v is io n d a ta , and the e n t i r e lower h a l f of the card f o r p e rs o n a lity d a ta . The p e r c e n tile s fo r the p e r s o n a lity se lf-a d ju s tm e n t components were e n te re d to the l e f t and th o se fo r th e s o c ia l adjustm ent components to the r i g h t . A ll v is io n sc o re s u n d er lin e d in red in d ic a te d mild d e fe c ts ; those boxed in red , se rio u s d e fe c ts ; and those w ith no mark, a normal c o n d itio n . The eyedness and handedness c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s were boxed m erely fo r em phasis. The c a p i t a l l e t t e r a t th e apex o f the u p p e r -tr ia n g le * in d ic a te d -th e --g r o u p -to -w h ic h th e ’ C h ild b e - $ l,on4 ged and the fig u re in p a re n th e sis a f t e r th e school " * » * ■ m .. ■ t-f— tmirrr"r<r- . * . « . t A w * ’*'"* - - . * - -■-*«*' -n'w * * ” '* * * in d ic a t e d th e grade. k l School C LATERAL IMBALANCE \ D I S T . - 7 '/* , HANDEDNESS PROGRAM IYEDNESS Deviation 'ers. W orth. Social Skills 'ersonal Freedom SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT SELF ADJUSTMENT • . HYPER.- I VERT. IMBAL. ft COORD. LEVEL. m SHARP. IMAGE DIST.- (\| Rosemary M. \ R D|$T. x Self. R. W . Tendon. A.-Soc. Tend. School R. Nerv. Symp. Community Rel. Belonging Social St. FIGURE If. ORGANISATION FOR INDIVIDUAL SUMMARY OF DATA 124-1 ^ V} HYPER.- COORD. LEVEL SHARP. IMAGE Kosemary m. \ R DIST _ f x| A ^ ’ I ' V LATERAL IMBALANCE ^ DIST.- / ^ CA- Hu £ \ R . DIST - PRO GRAM / , HANDEDNESS-I D eviation — , ^ Expec. Gr.- „ " ■ ? YEDNESS-1 v. R. Gr.- W . Tendon. A.-Soc. Tend Self. R S ch o o lR ers. W o rth ersonal Freedom Fam. Rel. Com munity Rel. Nerv. Symp. Social Skills Belonging Social St. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT SELF ADJUSTMENT FIGURE I f. ORGAHIZATIOi-i FOR INDIVIDUAL SUlaKARY OF DATA CHAPTER V RESULTS OP MOTIVATING AND PHONETIC. TECHNIQUES C hapter V is the f i r s t o f a s e rie s of fo u r ch ap ters devoted to re p o rtin g and c r i t i c a l l y e v a lu a tin g the d ata secured through the in v e s tig a tio n . In th e p re se n t ch a p ter outcomes a tta in e d in the v a rio u s types of rem edial programs a re p resen ted and in te r p r e te d . C onsiderable a t te n t io n is a ls o given to d e t a il s of th e b a s ic s t a t i s t i c a l techniques used n o t only in t h is c h a p te r b u t a ls o throughout the r e mainder o f th e study. The r e s u l t s of the v ario u s m o tiv atin g and phonetic programs f o r the rem edial work are ev a lu ated from two d i f f e r e n t a n g le s. F i r s t , “S tu d e n t’s t “ technique, by which the s ig n ific a n c e of the d iffe re n c e s obtained fo r the v a rio u s programs may be determ ined, is p re se n te d . The second te c h nique used is th a t o f the a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e . This technique is an a d a p ta tio n by L in d q u ist f o r e d u c atio n al re s e a rc h o f the F is h e r technique which has been used w idely in a g r i c u l t u r a l ex p erim en tatio n . The a lle g e d s u p e r io r ity of the a n a ly s is of v aria n ce over o th e r techniques i s supposed to be ce n tered in the p ro v isio n which i t makes f o r e lim in a t ing the d iffe re n c e of the method and school f a c to rs on the v a r ia n c e s . The ch a p ter is concluded w ith an ev a lu a tio n of the l l j . 3 g en eral “ b asic technique used to a d m in iste r th e rem edial read in g in the v ario u s program s. I . EXPERIMENTAL SETTING FOR THE PROBLEM S OF THIS CHAPTER . E quating b a s i s . For the problems in t h i s ch ap ter M ATCHING T W O was used."*" The fa c to rs c o n tro lle d were group, program, expectancy grade, and sex. A ll problem cases in reading w ith eye d e fe c ts in PRO G RA M I , th a t i s , a l l p u p ils in Group A in PRO G RA M I , were matched f o r expectancy grade and sex w ith p a r a l l e l problem cases in Group A in PROGRAM S I I , I I I , and IV. A ll problem cases in re a d in g w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts in PRO G RA M I , th a t i s , a l l p u p ils in Group C in PRO G RA M I, were matched f o r expectancy grade and sex w ith p a r a l l e l Problem cases in Group C in PROGRAM S I I , I I I , and IV. The matched p a ir technique was used, th a t I s , the p u p ils were matched in d iv id u a lly , p u p il w ith p u p il, and n o t by means of group averages alo n e. The c h ild re n in Groups B and D were n o t included in the matched groups fo r th is ch a p ter because th ey were n o t problem cases in read in g and, a c co rd in g ly , were n o t members o f the groups in the rem edial read in g programs. No attem pt was made to re p o rt the r e s u lt s f o r Groups 1 Supra, pp. 72-77. lijH- A and C s e p a ra te ly in th is c h a p te r as th e r e la tio n of v is u a l fa c to rs to achievem ent in re a d in g is tr e a te d as a se p a ra te to p ic in Chapter V II and d e ta ile d c o n s id e ra tio n is given th e re to th e problem. Although in t h i s ch ap ter the r e s u l t s fo r the two groups a re not re p o rte d s e p a ra te ly they were n o t amalgamated when making the v ario u s a n a ly se s; the r e s u l t s were m erely added to g e th e r to give a common t o t a l f o r p u r poses of g e n e ra l i n te r p r e t a ti o n . O b je c tiv e s. The d a ta in th is ch a p te r were obtain ed in o rder to determ ine f i r s t , th e r e l a t i v e v a lu e s, in terms of su p e rio r achievem ent, of two m o tiv atin g tech n iq u es used in rem edial re a d in g and, second, to determ ine th e v alu e, in terms of su p e rio r achievem ent, o f the phonetic tr a in in g given in th e rem edial c la s s e s employing the two m o tiv a tin g te c h n iq u e s. O rganization and p ro ced u re. The f i r s t m o tiv atin g technique used fo r rem edial reading c o n s iste d in the te a c h e r ^ g iv in g the problem re a d in g cases m a te ria l to re a d th a t was in accord w ith t h e i r expressed i n t e r e s t s . In th is way an e f f o r t was made to engender in the c h ild re n a f e e lin g , n o t only of p le a su re in being p erm itted to do what s a t i s f i e d them, b u t a ls o of s e c u r ity , belonging and ra p p o rt In knowing th a t the te a c h e r understood and a p p re c ia te d t h e i r wants and needs. The Programs using th is m o tiv atin g tech n iq u e, namely, ik5 PROGRAM S I AND I I , were c a lle d the INTEREST PROGRAM S. Both Programs were conducted on th e same fundam ental b a s is . In PRO G RA M I I , however, th e p u p ils were given th e a d d itio n a l tr a in in g in p h o n e tic s. The second m o tiv atin g technique used f o r the rem edial re a d in g c o n s iste d in th e te a c h e r ’s g iv in g the problem read in g cases m a te ria l to read which was fundam entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re and which had been planned f o r them w ith o u t reg ard f o r t h e i r in d iv id u a l i n t e r e s t s . The m a te ria l was given to them w ithout any p a r t i c u l a r em otional s tim u la tio n . PRO G RA M S I I I and IV, taiown as the FACTUAL PROGRAM S, employed th is m o tiv atin g te ch n iq u e. In PRO G RA M IV the p u p ils were given the a d d itio n a l tr a in in g in p h o n e tic s. O therw ise, both programs were conducted on th e same fundam ental b a s is . I I . DETERMINATION OF GAIN IN ACHIEVEMENT Formula fo r th e second XA. Although the in te llig e n c e t e s t used in th is in v e s tig a tio n was given a t th e beginning and a t the end o f the experim ent the r e s u lt s o f the f i n a l t e s t were n o t used in fin d in g th e p u p i l ’s second XA (e x p e c t ancy age in reading) a t the end of th e experim ent. This was because the t e s t had only one form. In o rd er to e lim in a te th e f a c to rs of p r a c tic e and f a m i l i a r i t y in e v ita b ly p re se n t when th e same form of a t e s t is rep e a te d , a formula was de v ise d th a t used the f i r s t X A as i t s b a s is . The form ula as lJ+6 i t was f i n a l l y developed is as fo llo w s: Second X A = F i r s t X A + 2/3 c o rre c tio n fo r M A + Time d iffe re n c e 3 The f i r s t X A had been found by ta k in g two th ir d s of the M A (in months) and adding to th a t amount one t h i r d of the C A (in m onths). The second X A form ula as given above included th e same fundam ental procedure. To the f i r s t X A was added two th ird s o f the c o rre c tio n fo r th e f i r s t M A (in months) and one th ir d o f the time d iffe re n c e (in months) be tween the fin d in g o f the f i r s t X A and the second XA. One th ir d o f the time d iffe re n c e r a th e r than one t h ir d o f the f u l l C A was added to th e f i r s t X A because the f i r s t X A had a lre a d y included the pupil*s c h ro n o lo g ic a l age. The middle term o f the form ula, namely, the c o rre c tio n f o r th e M A, was found by m u ltip ly in g the p u p il's f i r s t IQ by th e number of months th a t elap sed fo r th a t p u p il between the f i r s t and second t e s tin g . For example, i f the p u p il's f i r s t IQ was IO5 and i f f iv e months had elap se d between th© f i r s t and second t e s t i n g f o r th a t p u p il, th e c o rre c tio n in months fo r h is M A was 5.25. Or, i f the p u p il* 3 f i r s t IQ was 90 and s ix months had elap se d between the f i r s t and second te s tin g , in h is case, the c o rre c tio n in months fo r h is M A was 5• Ip. In the f i r s t example, a f t e r having o b tain ed a c o rr e c tio n o f 5.25 in months f o r the M A the second X A was found by ta k in g two th ir d s of th is c o rre c tio n and adding to th a t ' product one th ir d o f the time d iffe re n c e . The sum thus l l j - 7 o b tained was 5.16. The decim als were dropped and th e r e m aining fiv e months, changed to fo u r te n th s o f a grade, were added to I4..9, the f i r s t expectancy g rad e. This sum e q u a lle d 5 .3 , which was th e second X A fo r th is pupil* In the second example, two th ir d s of the c o rre c tio n 5*^- was determ ined and to t h i s amount was added one th ir d of th e tim e d iffe re n c e , which in th is case was s ix months. The r e s u lt in g sum was 5 .6 . As the s ix te n th s o f a month is over one h a l f month i t was taken to equal a whole month. The s ix months which equals fiv e te n th s o f a grade was added to 5 . 8 , the f i r s t expectancy g rad e. This sum equalled 6 .3 9 which was the second X A f o r th is p u p il. Finding the n e t gain over expectancy. In o rd er to analyze c r i t i c a l l y the r e l a t i v e values o f the two m o tiv atin g tech n iq u es, as w e ll as the value o f the phonetic tr a in in g , the n e t gain over th e expected g ain was needed f o r each p u p il. The expected g ain was found by s u b tr a c tin g th e f i r s t X A from th e second XA. The form ula f o r the expected g ain , th e re fo re , was as fo llo w s: Expected Gain = Second X A - F i r s t X A A fte r the proper s u b s titu tio n s fo r th e second X A were made, the form ula became as fo llo w s: Expected Gain = F i r a t X A t 2/3 cor. fo r M A + Time D i f f . - F i r s t X A 3 The " F i r s t XA's" were c a n c e lle d out and the fo llo w in g r e s u lt s lij.8 were o b tain ed : Expected Gain = 2/3 c o r. f o r M A + Time D if f . 3 To sh o rte n the procedure, the expected gain was found d i r e c t ly acco rd in g to the form ula ju s t developed w ith o u t f i r s t fin d in g th e second X A and then s u b tra c tin g the f i r s t XA. This was done because the expected gain was eq u al, in f i n a l terms according to th e form ula developed above, to th a t amount in the formula f o r th e second X A which was to be added to the f i r s t XA. A fte r the expected gain was found fo r the re s p e c tiv e p u p ils , t h e i r a c tu a l g ain in read in g achievem ent was d e te r mined by s u b tra c tin g the r e s u l t s o f the i n i t i a l and f i n a l sta n d a rd iz e d t e s t s . These a c tu a l gains were then s u b tra c te d from th e expected g a in s. The r e s u l t s showed the p o s itiv e or n e g a tiv e n e t gains over expectancy. For example, i f a p u p il* s expected g ain , found according to th e form ula de sc rib e d above, was .5 o f a grade, and i f th e d iffe re n c e between the i n i t i a l t e s t of lj.*9 and the f i n a l t e s t o f 5.7 wa3 . 8, th a t p u p i l ’s n e t gain in achievem ent was + .3 , o r plus th re e te n th s of a grade. The n e t gains over expectancy were found in th is manner f o r each p u p il and were uaed l a t e r to determ ine the s u p e r io r ity o f the v a r io u s programs. l i j . 9 III. USE OP STUDENT'S TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES IN THE M EA N GAINS OF THE VARIOUS PROGRAM S Import o f ”t ” te c h n iq u e . S e v e r a l tech n iq u es were a v a ila b le fo r determ ining the s ig n ific a n c e o f th e d iffe re n c e 2 in means of r e la te d m easures. S tu d e n t's tech n iq u e, or the Ift ” s t a t i s t i c , as d escrib ed by L i n d q u i s t , ^ was used fo r ev alu atin g -p u rp o se s in th is d i s s e r t a t i o n sin ce in many i n sta n ce s the " e q u iv a le n t g ro u p s” o r samples used were sm all and sin ce the ”t ” s t a t i s t i c involves a technique e s p e c ia lly designed f o r experim ents employing sm all sam ples. L in d q u ist shows^ th a t when the sample used in an experim ent is sm all the r a t i o D is n o t norm ally e s t 'd d is t r ib u t e d and th a t, th e re fo re , the u su a l e v a lu a tio n o f the s ig n ific a n c e of th is r a t i o from th e normal p r o b a b ility 2 H. E. G a rre tt, S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and Educa tio n (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1938), p. 219. E. F. L in d q u ist, "The S ig n ific a n c e of a D iffe re n ce Between 'Matched G ro u p s ,'” Jo u rn a l of E d u catio n al Psychology, 22:197-2014., March, 1931. S, S. W ilks. "The S tandard E rro r o f th e Means of 'Matched S a m p le s,'” Jo u rn a l o f E ducational Psychology, 2 2 :205- 8, March, I9 3 I. 5 E. F. L in d q u ist, S t a t i s t i c a l A nalysis In Educa tio n a l Research (New York: Houghton M ifflin Company, I9I1O), pp. 5I-5I4:, 58-59. ^ I b id . , p. 51. 150 in te g r a l ta b le cannot be made. L in d q u ist shows f u r th e r , however, th a t the r a t i o can be used i f an improved e stim a te o f the (th e sta n d a rd e r r o r o f the mean) is used and i f the r a t i o !s ex a ct sam pling d i s t r i b u t i o n is k n o w n .5 This im proved r a t i o fo llo w s. I t was o r ig in a l ly developed by an E n g lish s t a t i s t i c i a n w ritin g under the pen name o f “S tu d e n t.” M 0 - M H , = r u z ^ n ( n - l) S tudent c a lle d the r a t i o the ”t fl s t a t i s t i c . ^ "Mq” is the mean o f th e d iffe re n c e s o b tain ed from th e sample, and "m h" is th e tr u e mean o f th e d iffe re n c e s fo r the p o p u la tio n , ”d” is th e d e v ia tio n from the mean and ”n ” equals th e number o f p u p ils used in the experim ent. S tudent lik e w ise developed a formula f o r g iv in g the sam pling d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ” t ri f o r random samples drawn from the p o p u l a t i o n . 7 F is h e r has p re pared a ta b le showing th is sam pling d is tr ib u tio n .® As th e exact sampling d is t r ib u t io n must be known f o r each r a tio of 5 I b id ., p. 51. ^ k°c « c i t . ^ koc« c i t . o R. A. F is h e r and F. Y ates, S t a t i s t i c a l Tables fo r B io lo g ic a l, A g ric u ltu ra l and M edical Research (London: O liv er and Boyd, I93B), p. 26. A p a r t i a l d u p lic a te of th is ta b le is found in E. F. L in d q u ist, S t a t i s t i c a l A nalysis in E d u catio n al R esearch, p. 53. 151 th© ftt lf s t a t i s t i c , in th is ta b le a d if f e r e n t d i s t r ib u t io n of t is given f o r each value o f n , o r f o r each number of de grees of freedom. By number o f degrees of freedom fo r any v alue o f t is meant th a t number which i s one le s s than the number o f cases involved. (This is tru e f o r d iffe re n c e s in means•) In o rd er to fin d the mean o f the d if fe re n c e s , f i r s t th e d iffe re n c e in n e t g ain over expected gain was found fo r the samples in each matched p a i r . One o f the samples was thus made up o f th e f i r s t members o f th e p a irs and th e second sample was made up of th e second members o f the p a i r s . Then th e mean of th e r e s u lt in g d is t r ib u t io n of d iffe re n c e s was found. F in a lly , in order to determ ine whether t h is mean d iffe re n c e d iffe re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from zero, th e rft ” s t a t i s t i c d esc rib e d above was used. A p p lic atio n of wt w s t a t i s t i c to th e d a ta o f th is s tu d y . In th is study the 1 1 1,! s t a t i s t i c was used to fin d the s i g n i f i cance o f the mean d iffe re n c e between the n e t gains over expected gain s f o r v ario u s s p e c if ic arrangem ents of th e four types o f programs. The a c tu a l g ain over the expected gain was f i r s t found fo r each c h ild in th e manner d escrib ed above. Then the d iffe re n c e in the gains over expectancy was found f o r each matched p a ir in the re s p e c tiv e programs, as w e ll as fo r each group s e p a ra te ly . Each of th ese d iffe re n c e s in gain over expectancy was then squared. The sum of th ese squares was found, as w e ll as the mean of th e d iffe re n c e s . The manner in which t h is was done fo r Group A, in o rd e r to determ ine the s u p e r io r ity o f Program I over I I I , is shown in Table X III. A fte r the p re lim in a ry d ata were assembled in the manner shown in Table X III, the H t ,f technique was a p p lie d to them. In o rd er to conserve time the raw sco re form ula as shown below was s u b s titu te d in the denom inator o f th e Ift r r s t a t i s t i c in ste a d of th e d e v ia tio n form ula. This was done f o r purposes of o b ta in in g th e estim ated sta n d a rd e r r o r of the mean. For the d ata given in Table X III, the mean o f the d iffe re n c e s was .077; the mean squared was .006; the sum of the squared d if fe re n c e s , 21 . 77; the number o f c a se s, 35* When th ese fig u re s were s u b s titu te d in th e form ula fo r the rlt ,f s t a t i s t i c , the v alu e of t f o r th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d iffe re n c e s was as fo llo w s : In o rd e r to determ ine w hether th is ttt tt was s ig n i f ic a n t f o r th e s iz e o f sample used ( d .f . a 3W the F is h e r ta b le was M q — Mg M 0 - Mg Mq - Mg t t M q - M h 077 - 0 SX2 - M 2 n(n-X) 21.77-.006 35(5U) 153 TABLE X III D A TA FOR DETERMINING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE IN M E A N GAINS FOR PRO G RA M I OVER I I I , GROUP A Net gain over P a ir Program I expected gain Program I I I D iffe re n c e s D ifferen ces squared 1 2 i i 9 10 11 12 15 Ik 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2 2 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 3 3 35 0 4 k 4 +1 2 4 5 - + 7 - 1 - - 9 +1 0 +1 4 3 4 2 - 4 4 4 7 4 4 2 +1 0 4 4 7 4 & - - k 4 8 + 1 4 7 +1 2 4 + 1 3 4 3 -1 4 7 4 9 4 4 9 +1 6 4 4 +1 + 1 4 4 9 4 + 1 0 4 2 - 4 8 +1 2 4 4 2 4 9 4 - 3 4 + 1 4 6 4 4 + 1 0 4 3 - 4 ' 2 4 il 4 4 5 4 9 4 4 1 - 6 - 4 9 4 5 - 4 1 0 - 4 l 4 5 4 0 4 4 4 4 7 4 3 - 4 7 4 2 - 4 7 0 - 4 3 -1 2 --1 4 6 +2 0 + 1 4 7 '■*1 0 4 + 1 0 - li- - 1 +2 Mean = k 3 2 5 0 2 7 1 1 8 k 7 2 2 7 2 I 1 it S 5 7 7 077 := 21.77 ■13k c o n s u l t e d . ' This ta b le was used w ith the su p p o sitio n th a t th e tr u e d iffe re n c e f o r the a iz e o f sample used was zero . This su p p o sitio n is known as the n u ll h y p o th e sis. According to th e ta b le i t was found th a t a t o f .57 £°r th ir t y - f o u r cases would be exceeded in 57 P®r ce n t o f s im ila r samples i f the n u ll h y p o th esis th a t the tr u e d iffe re n c e is zero were tr u e . Since i t i s customary to use the 5 Per ce n t and 1 per i n c e n t le v e ls as the le v e ls o f s ig n ific a n c e , the h y p o th e sis was n o t r e je c te d . This means t h a t th e observed d iffe re n c e between Programs I and I I I was not s ig n i f ic a n t , or th a t the observed divergence from zero was probably th e r e s u l t of chance. A ll the problems reg ard in g the s u p e r io r ity of pro grams were solved in t h i s manner. Only the summarized r e s u lt s are given in th e n ex t s e c tio n . IV. DA TA OBTAINED REGARDING- MOTIVATING A N D PHONETIC TECHNIQUES S u p e r io rity of m o tiv a tin g te c h n iq u e s . The f,t f f s t a t i s t i c was f i r s t found fo r b o th I n t e r e s t Programs com bined versus both F a c tu a l Programs combined. The purpose in combining the programs was to determ ine, as a whole, whether 9 F is h e r, op. c i t . , p. 2 6 . ^ L in d q u ist, op. c i t . , p. 16. the programs u t i l i z i n g m a te ria l based on th e b a s ic i n t e r e s t s and d riv e s o f the c h ild re n plu s the a d d itio n a l s tim u la tio n of ra p p o rt between te a c h e rs and p u p ils were s u p e rio r, in terms of f i n a l achievem ent, to those programs th a t did n o t c o n sid er p u p il in t e r e s t s in s e le c tin g m a te ria l to be read and th a t u t i l i z e d only the s tim u la tio n o f power in terms of achievem ent as t h e i r m o tiv atin g tech n iq u e. A f u r th e r a n a ly s is o f the problem was made by comparing the n e t gains over expected gains o f Programs I and I I I , the two c o n t r a s t ing programs w ith o u t phonetic tr a in i n g , and o f Programs I I and IV, the two c o n tra s tin g programs which gave th e a d d i tio n a l phonetic tr a in i n g . The r e s u lt s o f th e se th re e an aly ses a re given in Table XIV. The t^ f o r the two I n t e r e s t Programs combined v ersu s th e two F a c tu a l Programs combined was 2 .Ip. For lij.0 cases an a b s o lu te value o f t would exceed 2.Ip in only 2 per c e n t of a l l s im ila r sam ples. Or, s ta te d in an o th er manner, i f the n u ll h y p o th esis th a t the tru e mean of th e d iffe re n c e s is zero were tr u e , th is observed divergence o f 2.Ip from zero would be exceeded in le s s than 2 per c e n t o f a l l s im ila r sam ples. I t can be p o s tu la te d , th e re fo re , a t the 2 p er cent le v e l, th a t the n u ll h y p o th esis f o r th is problem was f a ls e and th a t the observed d iffe re n c e was s ig n i f ic a n t and n o t due to chance. The f a c t th a t t h i s d iffe re n c e between the two programs was s ig n i f ic a n t did n o t e s t a b l i s h the cause o f the 156 TABLE XIV SUPERIORITY OP THE INTEREST VERSUS THE FACTUAL PROGRAM S* Program Mean gain of the programs Mean o f the d iffe re n c e s t S ig n i fic a n c e le v e l N I and I I • 5 .2 2.1+ 2 140 I I I and IV .7 I •5 .1 1-3 20 70 I I I .6 I I . 6 .2 2 .0 5 70 IV . 8 %QTE: The com putation fo r the e n t ir e d is s e r ta ti o n was done by means of the Monroe autom atic e l e c t r i c c a lc u la to r , through the co u rte sy o f the Monroe C a lc u la tin g Company, Inc. 157 d if fe re n c e . The cause of the d iffe re n c e may have been the r e s u l t o f a r e a l d iffe re n c e in the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of the techniques used o r i t may have been th e r e s u l t of o th e r ex traneous f a c to r s which were n o t ad eq u ately c o n tro lle d in the e x p e rim e n t.^ A d e ta ile d a n a ly s is o f th e se extraneous fa c to rs is given in the f i f t h s e c tio n o f th is c h a p te r. When the I n te r e s t Program devoid o f phonetic tr a in in g , namely Program I , was c o n tra s te d w ith Program I I I , the F ac tu a l Program devoid of p h o netic tr a in in g , a t of 1.3 was o b ta in ed . This d iffe re n c e was n o t s ig n i f ic a n t as a t o f 1.3 f o r seventy cases would be exceeded in 20 per cent of a l l s im ila r samples i f the n u ll h y p o th esis were tr u e . In the case o f these two programs, th e re fo re , the observed d iv e r gence from zero was probably due to th e f lu c tu a tio n of chance f a c to r s . When th e two c o n tra s tin g phonetic programs were analyzed, however, (Programs I I and IV) a t o f 2.0 was o b ta in ed . For seventy cases a t as la rg e as 2.0 would be exceeded in le s s than 5 per c e n t o f a l l s im ila r sam ples. This d if fe re n c e , th e re fo r e , was s i g n i f i c a n t and thus n o t due to chance alo n e. According to th e d a ta so f a r p re se n te d , a p p a re n tly n e ith e r one o f the m o tiv atin g tech n iq u es when used in programs w ithout p h o n etic p r a c tic e had s u f f i c i e n t 11 I b i d . , pp. 16-17. s tim u la tin g power to e f f e c t s u p e rio r achievem ent in the p u p ils tra in e d by means o f the re s p e c tiv e tech n iq u e s. This n e g a tiv e outcome may have been the r e s u l t o f se v e ra l f a c to r s . Perhaps, f i r s t , the mere sense of achievem ent plus the con com itant sense of belonging were o f more v i t a l and m ajor im portance than e ith e r type o f s tim u la tin g tech n iq u e. In o th e r words, perhaps th e technique was n o t as im portant a f a c to r in the a d m in is tra tio n o f the rem edial re a d in g program as the awareness of success th a t r e s u lte d from a c tu a l achievem ent. Second, perhaps the techniques used were n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n tra ste d to produce a n o tic e a b le d iffe re n c e in r e s u l t s . T hird, perhaps a lto g e th e r d i f f e r e n t r e s u lt s may have been forthcom ing i f the experim ent had been of longer d u ra tio n . Value of p h o n etic t r a i n i n g . As s ta te d above, when th e n e t gains over expected gains f o r Programs I I and IV were c o n tra s te d , a s ig n i f ic a n t d iffe re n c e between the mean d i f f e r ence of the two programs was o b ta in ed . The d is tin g u is h in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c between th e se programs and th e p a r a l l e l Programs I and I I I was th a t the former programs employed the a d d itio n a l tr a in i n g in phonetic a n a ly s is . Program I I was the I n t e r e s t Program in which a d d itio n a l p h o netic tr a in in g was given and Program IV was th e F a c tu a l Program in which the same a d d itio n a l tr a in in g was given. A pparently i t was th is a d d itio n a l tr a in in g in p honetics th a t produced su p e rio r 159 r e s u lt s in Program IV, In o rd er to a tudy th ia ap p aren t cause in g r e a te r d e t a i l th e phonetic programs were con tr a s t e d w ith a l l o th e r s p e c if ic programs. Table X V gives the r e s u l t s o f th ese a n a ly se s. According to the r e s u l t s summarized in Table X V the mean d iffe re n c e of Program IV was s i g n i f i c a n t l y su p e rio r only to th a t o f Program I I and n o t to th a t o f any o th e r p ro gram. For the seventy c a se s, th e _t o f 2.0 f o r Program IV would be exceeded in le s s than 5 P © ** c e n t of s im ila r sam ples. A pparently, th en , the F a c tu a l Program w ith p h o netic tr a in in g produced r e s u l t s th a t were su p e rio r In term s o f f i n a l achievem ent, to those o f the p a r a l l e l I n t e r e s t Program w ith p h o netic tr a in in g . Although Program IV d id n o t produce r e s u l t s th a t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e rio r to those produced in Program I, th e I n t e r e s t Program w ith o u t phonetic tr a in in g , the r e s u lt s showed th a t the gains in Program IV had a tendency to be s u p e rio r to those o f Program I . For the seventy cases th e _t of 1.7 f o r Program IV would be exceeded in le s s than 7 P©r cent o f s im ila r sam ples. Vifhen th e two F a c tu a l Programs IV and I I I were con tr a s t e d w ith each o th e r, the p h o n etic t r a i n i n g d id n o t seem to produce su p e rio r r e s u l t s as the jb of 1.3 is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t. I t would be exceeded in 20 per c e n t o f a l l s im ila r sam ples. Furtherm ore, when Program I I I , the F a c tu a l Program w ithout p h o n e tic s, was c o n tra s te d w ith b o th I n t e r e s t Programs i6 o TABLE X V VALUE OF THE PHONETIC TRAINING IN THE REMEDIAL READING PROGRAM S Program Mean gain of the programs Mean of th e d iffe re n c e s t S ig n i fic a n c e le v e l N I •5 •3 1-7 7 70 IV • 8 II • 6 .2 2 .0 5 70 IV .8 I I I . 6 .2 1-3 20 70 rv • 8 I I I I •5 . 6 .1 1.3 20 70 I I • 6 .0 «... 70 I I I . 6 I I I •5 . 6 .1 .6 57 70 l6 l I and I I s e p a ra te ly no s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u l t s were o b tain ed . The _t fo r Programs I and I I I was 1.3* which would have been exceeded in 20 per ce n t o f a l l sam ples. I t was n o t n ecessary to fin d a f,t n fo r Programs I I and I I I as the means f o r th ese two programs were eq u al, b o th being . 6 . This clo se s i m i l a r i ty in mean gains in d ic a te d th a t both programs seemed to be eq u a lly e f f e c tiv e in prom oting achievem ent. T herefore, the F a c tu a l Program as such did not seem to produce r e s u l t s th a t were su p e rio r to those produced by means o f th e I n t e r e s t Program. When th e F a c tu a l Program, however, was supplemented w ith pho n etics the gains o f the p u p ils over expectancy seemed s u p e rio r to the gains of the p u p ils given p honetics in th e I n t e r e s t Program. These gain s lik e w ise showed a tendency to be s u p e rio r to th o se o f th e p u p ils tau g h t by the I n t e r e s t Program w ithout the p h o n etic tr a in in g . A pparently the p h o n etic tr a in i n g given as a supplem ent to th e I n t e r e s t Program was of l i t t l e p r a c t i c a l v alu e, as the mean of th e d iffe re n c e s fo r th e two programs was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . The t f o r th e c o n tra s tin g programs, I and I I , was . 6 . For sev en ty cases a t th is sm all would be exceeded in 57 pe** cent o f a l l s im ila r sam ples. The type o f phonetic tr a in i n g given in the two programs is ex p lain ed in d e t a i l in 12 C hapter IV. I t had obvious w eaknesses. Perhaps i f the ^ Supra, pp. 122- 2l{.. 162 phonics had been ta u g h t more thoroughly and i f more d e f in it e attem p ts had been made in both programs to t r a n s f e r the t r a in i n g to p r a c t i c a l use more fa v o ra b le r e s u l t s would have been o b tain ed , V. EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA BY M EA N S OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE P urport o f the a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e . The a n a ly s is of v aria n ce is e s s e n t i a l l y a method by which the r e s u l t s o f a s e r ie s o f d u p lic a te d experim ents can be c o lla te d in such a way th a t the c o n tro l o f the "sc h o o l” v a ria b le s may be taken in to c o n s id e ra tio n in th e estim a te of e r r o r, ^ The system a t i c d iffe re n c e s in tro d u ced in to the experim ent through th e se school v a ria b le s are e lim in a te d from the e stim a te of e r r o r , f i r s t by fin d in g a se p a ra te v a ria n c e , n o t only fo r the methods used in the experim ent, b u t a ls o fo r the schools and fo r the c la s s e s , A rem ainder v a ria n c e is subsequently found by e lim in a tin g from the c la s s v aria n ce the d iffe re n c e s or p a rts caused by method and school d if fe re n c e s . This r e mainder v a ria n c e is used as the b a s is f o r the e r r o r e stim a te in o b ta in in g the P f o r the t e s t o f s ig n if ic a n c e . The F found in t h i s way is co n sid ered , according to L in d q u ist, a g r e a t improvement over the s t a t i s t i c a l procedures h e re to fo re V5 L in d q u ist, op. c i t . , pp. 8 I4 .— 85• 163 employed in ed u c atio n al re se a rc h b ecause, n o t only p u p il v a r ia b le s b u t a ls o school v a ria b le s have been removed from i t s b a s ic e r r o r e s tim a te .^ * V ariance a n a ly sis of programs employing m o tiv atin g te c h n iq u e s. The a n a ly sis of v arian ce as d escrib ed by L in d q u is t ^ had to be somewhat a d ju ste d so th a t the procedure could be a p p lie d to the experim ental design in t h is i n v e s t i g a tio n . The d e ta ile d procedure th a t was employed f o r determ ining the s u p e r io r ity o f the I n t e r e s t versus the F a c tu a l Programs was as fo llo w s. F i r s t , Table XVI was c o n stru c te d to show the n e t gain over the expected gain f o r each school and f o r each of the two m ajor programs. In th is ta b le th e g a in over expectancy in grade scores was l i s t e d s e p a r a te ly f o r each sch o o l. The t o t a l g ain , as w ell as the mean g ain , v/as found f o r each m ajor program. The mean g ain fo r the I n t e r e s t Program was .5 w hile th a t f o r the F a c tu a l Program was .7* The purpose o f the v aria n ce a n a ly sis was to determ ine w hether or n o t the d iffe re n c e in th ese two mean gains was s ig n i f i c a n t in fav o r of th e F a c tu a l Program. The l a s t item in the ta b le was the GTxGM which was the Grand T o tal m u ltip lie d by th e General Mean. This product I b id . , p. 112. 15 i b i d . . p p . 87-163. 164 TABLE XVI DATA FOR THE VARIANCE ANALYSIS OP THE GAINS OVER EXPECTANCY OP THE INTEREST A N D FACTUAL PROGRAM S Schools Gains over expectancy in grade sco res f o r Programs I and I I Number • o f p u p ils Schools Gains over expectancy in grade sco res f o r Programs I I I and IV Number of p u p ils E +lij..6 27 A + 4 .5 9 W +19.8 43 G + 6 .7 13 Y *llj..l 25 M 4114-3 23 S ♦23.9 45 R •*17.3 25 ft 4 4 .4 8 C *37-4 48 L ♦ 5-3 6 J ■ * 5-3 8 T otals +7 2 . k lk.0 495.2 140 Grand T o tal (GT) o f Gains f o r a l l Programs = 72.4 * 95-2 = 167.6 Mean Gains fo r Methods I and I I = >5; I I I and IV = .7 GTxGM (G eneral Mean) = GT§ . 167. 62 = 28089.76 = 100.3- N 280 280 165 was the common amount which had to be deducted from each sum o f squares when fin d in g the sum of the squared d e v ia tio n s in the form ula fo r the d eterm in atio n o f the s e v e ra l v a ria n c e s. A fte r the d a ta given in Table XVI were assem bled and organized the sum of squares and th e v a ria n c e s f o r methods and schools were found. The sum o f sq u ares f o r methods was found by sq u a rin g each methods t o t a l , adding th ese t o t a l s , d iv id in g the sum by th e number of p u p ils under each method, and s u b tr a c tin g the GTxGM. l. ^ .t .35^ _ 100 „ 1> 86 xJ+o The sum of squares fo r schools was found by sq u arin g each school t o t a l , d iv id in g the r e s u l t by the number of p u p ils in the re s p e c tiv e school, adding the r e s u lt s thus obtain ed and s u b tra c tin g the GTxGM 2kJ£ * * ik if * 2 ^ + ^ etc> _ _ 27 it-3 25 b -5 9 The sums o f squares fo r th e rem ainder was found by s u b tr a c tin g the sum of squares f o r methods from the sum of squares fo r schools. 3.63 - 1.86 * 1.77 The v a ria n c e fo r methods was found by d iv id in g the sum of squares f o r methods by one le s s th an th e number of methods.- The d iv is o r was the d . f . (degrees o f freedom) f o r M ethods. 166 1 . 86/1 = 1.86 The variance fo r schools was found by d iv id in g the sum o f squares f o r schools by one le s s than th e number of sc h o o ls. The d iv is o r was the d . f . fo r S chools. 3 . 6 3 / H » .33 In o rd er to get th e rem ainder v a ria n c e , known as the M X S v a ria n c e , th e sum o f squares fo r th e rem ainder was d iv id ed by the product o f the degrees o f freedom f o r M ETHODS and SCHOOLS. The d iv is o r .was th e d .f . fo r MXS. 1 *77/ ( 1x 11) = ,l 6 1 The follow ing is a summary o f the in fo rm atio n thus f a r o b ta in ed . Type of v a ria n c e d . f . Sum o f squares V ariance Methods (M) 1 1.86 1.86 Schools (S) 11 3*63 -33 Remainder (MXS) 11 1.77 .161 In o rd er to o b ta in the F which was used in the t e s t o f s ig n ific a n c e the v a ria n c e f o r methods was d iv id ed by the M X S v a ria n c e . P was th e v arian ce r a t i o which was used in s te a d of d e a lin g d i r e c t l y w ith th e d iffe re n c e between the sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s . P = 1 .8 6 /.X 6 ! = 11.55 l6 The F ta b le was then c o n su lted f o r 1 and 11 degrees o f freedom in o rder to determ ine the s ig n ific a n c e of the 16 I b id ., pp. 62-65. 167 methods d iffe re n c e s a f t e r the school fa c to rs had heen e lim i n a te d . According to th e ta b le fo r th e se d . f . an P o f 9*^5 was re q u ire d fo r s ig n ific a n c e a t the 1 per ce n t le v e l. Hence, th e F o f 11.55 was c le a r ly s i g n i f i c a n t . Since the F was s i g n i f i c a n t the sta n d a rd e r r o r o f d iffe re n c e between th e means o f the two programs was found in o rd er to e v a lu a te the in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s in th e methods means. This was found by d iv id in g the M X S v aria n ce by the t o t a l number of p u p ils under one method, m u ltip ly in g th e q u o tie n t by two, and e x tr a c tin g the square ro o t of the In o rd er to fin d the maximum e r r o r a t the 1 per cent le v e l f o r the d iffe re n c e in th e two methods means, th e value of _t was found f o r th e 1 per ce n t le v e l fo r the 11 d .f .' of the M X S v a r ia n c e .-*-7 This value was m u ltip lie d by the sta n d ard e r r o r of th e d if fe re n c e . t s 5.106 fo r 11 d . f . a t the 1 per c e n t le v e l. Hence, 5 *106 x .Oij.8 = . llj-9 which was the maximum e r r o r a t the 1 per cent le v e l fo r th e d iffe re n c e of th e two methods means• The d iffe re n c e o f the two means e q u a lle d (.7 - . 5 ) . 2 . S ince the maximum e r r o r was .1I4.9 th e mean o f th e F a c tu a l r e s u l t . 17 F is h e r, op. c i t . , p. 26 . 168 Program was s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ig h e r than the mean o f the I n t e r e s t Program. These r e s u lt s were p r a c t i c a l l y id e n tic a l ■ j O w ith the r e s u l t s obtained hy u sin g the trt n tech n iq u e. In o rd er to determ ine w hether th e school f a c to rs had a s ig n i f ic a n t b e a rin g on th e r e s u l t s o b tain ed F was found fo r the r a t i o o f th e school v a ria n c e to the rem ainder v a ria n c e . F = *35/ . 161 = 2.05 For 11 and 11 d . f . an F o f was needed fo r s ig n ific a n c e a t the 1 per cen t le v e l and an F of 2 .8 2 a t the 5 Per cent le v e l. Although the F of 2.05 was n o t s ig n i f ic a n t a t the 5 per c e n t- le v e l, i t tended to approach s ig n ific a n c e . The school v a r ia b le s , th e r e f o r e , may have In flu e n ce d the r e s u lt s to some e x te n t. Perhaps some of the schools In the F a c tu a l Programs were b e t t e r adapted to the techniques used in th ese Programs than were the schools in the I n t e r e s t Programs. F urtherm ore, perhaps th e te a c h e rs in the F a c tu a l Programs were more e f f i c i e n t in a d m in iste rin g t h e i r program than were the te a c h e rs o f the I n t e r e s t Programs. Both th e s e fa c to rs and o th e rs of lik e n a tu re may have c o n trib u te d c o n sid e ra b ly toward the s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u l t s o b tain ed fo r the F a c tu a l Program s. In o rd er to check upon the nt ! 1 s t a t i s t i c r e s u l t s of the two phonetic and the two non-phonetic programs, v aria n ce a n te , pp. 155“5&* analyses were a ls o made of th e se two s e t s of programs. The r e s u l t s are given in Table XVII. They a re e x a c tly s im ila r to the r e s u l t s o b tain ed when the f,t ” s t a t i s t i c was a p p lie d to these same c o n tra s tin g program s. ^ When the Bt tt s t a t i s t i c was used the mean g ain o f Program IV was s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ig h e r than th e mean gain o f Program I I . Program IV was the F a c tu a l Program w ith p honetics and Program I I was the I n t e r e s t Program w ith p h o n e tic s. For the v a r ia n c e a n a ly s is the same r e s u l t s were o b tain ed when F o r the v a ria n c e r a t i o was used. The F of lip, 0 was s i g n i f i c a n t a t the 5 Pe r cent le v e l. Since the F was s ig n i f ic a n t th e maximum sta n d ard e r r o r of d iffe re n c e was found fo r the M X S v a ria n c e . This was . 1 . The d iffe re n c e in mean technique gains was .3 . This d iffe re n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r than the maximum sta n d a rd e r r o r a t the 5 Pe r ce n t le v e l. According to th e r e s u lts obtained w ith th e nt n s t a t i s t i c , n e ith e r mean gain o f th e two non-phonetie programs I and I I I , was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r than the c o n tra s tin g program. When the v a ria n c e a n a ly s is was a p p lie d to th ese same programs s im ila r r e s u l t s were o b tain ed . The F or v a r i ance r a t i o was 5 *0 * An F o f 5*0 was n o t s ig n i f ic a n t fo r 1 and 5 d . f . a t e i th e r the 1 per cen t o r th e 5 Pe r c e n t le v e ls . Since the F was not s ig n i f ic a n t no f u r th e r a n a ly s is was made CJ\ a n t e , pp. 157-58. 170 TABLE XVII VARIANCE ANALYSIS OP THE GAINS OVER EXPECTANCY FOR THE T W O CONTRASTING PHONETIC PRO G RA M S A N D THE T W O CONTRASTING NON-PHONETIC PRO G RA M S (N * 70 cases in each program) S i g n i f i F sig - cance fo r n i f i - Maximum le v e l of technique cance < * 1 ) f o r D if f e r d iffe re n c e fa c to rs le v e l MXS Mean ence in in mean Pro (1 and S o f v a ria n c e technique technique technique grams d . f . ) F (5 d . f . ) _ gains gains gains ' II 14.0 • 5 5 .1 .8 •3 5 TV I 5.0 Not s ig n i f ic a n t III a t 1 nor a t 5 per cen t le v e ls 171 as the F t e s t is the g e n e ra l determ ining t e s t fo r s i g n i f i - p o cance of the technique d if fe re n c e s . v In o rd er to a s c e r ta in which o f the two s e ts of p ro grams was in flu e n c e d most by the school v a r ia b le s , the v a ria n c e r a t i o was found s p e c if ic a lly fo r the school v a r i ab le s in these programs. Table XVIII summarizes the r e s u l t s . For, 5 an^ 5 d . f . an F o f 10*97 ov more was re q u ire d a t the 1 per c e n t le v e l f o r s in g ific a n c e and a t the 5 Pe r c e n t le v e l an F of 5*^5 o r raore was re q u ire d . The variance r a t i o s o b tain ed fo r the two s e ts of programs were 3*8 and 2 .0 re s p e c tiv e ly . In the a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e , th e re fo re , the school v a ria b le was n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c to r , n o r was i t even clo se to s ig n ific a n c e f o r e i th e r s e t o f programs. These r e s u lt s d if f e r e d somewhat from th e v a ria n c e a n a ly s is r e s u lt s obtained when the programs were combined. However, the r e s u lt s o f the combined programs a ls o were n o t d e f i n i t e l y s ig n i f ic a n t even a t the 5 Pe r c e n t le v e l. They only approached s ig n ific a n c e . The in flu e n c e o f the school v a r i ab le was ag a in s tu d ie d when the value o f the p h o n etic tr a in in g was analyzed from v a rio u s v iew p o in ts. These r e s u lt s are given in the l a t t e r p a r t o f the follow ing s e c tio n . V ariance a n a ly s is o f programs g iv in g phonetic t r a i n i n g . A study p a r a l l e l to th a t made w ith the flt rf s t a t i s t i c was P 0 L in d q u ist, op. c i t ., pp. 122- 23. 172 TABLE XVIII VARIANCE ANALYSIS OP CONTRASTING PHONETIC A N D NON-PHONETIC PROGRAM S TO ASCERTAIN SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL VARIABLE (N » 70 cases in each program) Programs F fo r school fa c to rs (5 and 5 d . f . ) S ig n ific a n c e le v e l o f F I I versus IV 3.8 Not the per s i g n i f i c a n t a t 1 nor a t the 5 cent le v e ls I versus I I I 2.0 Not the per s i g n i f i c a n t a t 1 n o r a t th e 5 ce n t le v e ls . 175 undertaken w ith th e v a ria n c e a n a ly s is in o rd er to determ ine to what e x te n t the sch o o l v a ria b le in flu e n c e d the r e s u l t s o b tain ed in the programs th a t included phonetic tr a in in g . In Table XIX the r e s u l t s a re summarized. A glance a t the ta b le shows th a t th e v arian ce a n a ly s is r e s u lt s were p r a c t i c a lly i d e n tic a l w ith those r e s u l t s o b tain ed by means o f the ,ft w s t a t i s t i c . The F a c tu a l Program w ith phonetics showed s u p e rio r r e s u lt s over both I n t e r e s t Programs as th e d i f f e r ence in the mean technique gains f o r th is program was s u p e rio r to both Program I and Program I I . The r e s u l t s of Program IV, however, were n o t s u p e rio r to those o f Program I I I , the p a r a l l e l F a c tu a l Program w ithout p h o n e tic s. The com parative study of th e F a c tu a l Program w ith o u t p h o n e tic s, namely Program I I I , w ith th e two I n t e r e s t Programs, lik e w ise showed r e s u lt s t h a t were s im ila r to those o b tain ed by means o f the nt ,r s t a t i s t i c . The mean g ain o f Program I I I was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e rio r to e i t h e r I n t e r e s t Program. F in a lly , the l a s t com parative study between the two I n t e r e s t Programs, I and I I , a ls o brought r e s u l t s th a t were s im ila r to those obtained by means o f the rlt n s t a t i s t i c . The p h o n etic tr a i n i n g in the I n t e r e s t Program did n o t seem to be of p r a c t ic a l a s s is ta n c e to th e p u p ils as f a r as achievem ent was concerned because the gain s in Program I I were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r than those of Program I . A f u r th e r study was made o f the s ig n ific a n c e of the 1 71 } . TABLE XIX VARIANCE ANALYSIS OF THE VALUE OF PHONETIC TRAINING IN . THE REMEDIAL READING PROGRAM S (N * 70 casea in each program) S i g n i f i S ig - cance n i f i - le v e l of F cance Maximum D if f e r d iffe re n c e fo r le v e l f t for Mean ence in in mean Pro technique o f M X S technique technique technique grams fa c to rs F v aria n ce gains gains gains I IV (1 and ) (5 d . f . ) 18.6 (5 d . f . ) .5 1 .2 .8 •3 1 I I IV (X and ) (5 d . f . ) l!j..O (5 d . f . ) .5 5 -1 .8 •3 5 I I I IV (1 and ) (7 d . f . ) 5-1 Not s i g n i f i c a n t a t the 1 nor a t the 5 Per cen t le v e ls I I I I (1 and ) (5 d . f . ) 5.0 Not s ig n i f ic a n t a t the 1 nor a t the 5 Per cent le v e ls I I I I I (1 and ) (5 d . f . ) 2.1 Not s ig n i f i c a n t a t the 1 n o r a t the 5 P®r cen t le v e ls •I (1 and ) (3 d . f . ) Not s i g n i f i c a n t a t the I I 2 .3 1 nor a t the 5 Per ce n t le v e ls 175 school f a c to rs th a t may have a ffe c te d th e achievem ent in th e programs ju s t c o n tra s te d . The r e s u lt s are given in Table XX. None o f the v arian ce r a tio s fo r the school v a r ia b le s was s i g n i f i c a n t . A pparently, th en , the school v a r ia b le in the in d iv id u a l programs was n o t a s ig n i f ic a n t f a c to r in in flu e n c in g the gains pro o r con. I t was only when the two I n t e r e s t Programs were tak en as a u n it and were c o n tra ste d w ith the two F a c tu a l Programs taken as a u n it th a t the school v a ria b le seemed to have a tendency to approach s ig - 21 n ific a n c e as an in flu e n c in g f a c to r a t the 5 Pe r cent le v e l. VI. EVALUATION OF THE GENERAL BASIC TECHNIQUE USED TO ADMINISTER REMEDIAL READING IN THE VARIOUS PRO G RA M S The purpose and the essence o f th e b a s ic te c h n iq u e . In an e f f o r t to c o n tro l as many f a c to rs as p o ssib le in the experim ental procedure o f th is in v e s tig a tio n , and thus to e lim in a te sy stem a tic e r r o r s and e rr o rs caused by v arious ex traneous f a c to r s , a g e n e ra l b a sic technique was used to a d m in iste r the rem edial re a d in g in the v a rio u s programs. The c h a r a c te r i s tic s th a t d is tin g u is h e d the programs were ce n tered in th e m a te ria ls used and in the m o tiv atin g te c h niques employed r a th e r than in th e b a s ic manner in which the rem edial re a d in g was ad m in iste re d . This b a s ic technique was ^ C f. a n te , p. 168. 176 TABLE XX VARIANCE-ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCHOOL VARIABLE IN TEE STUDY OF THE VALUE OF PHONETIC TRAINING (N = 70 cases In each program) Programs F f o r school fa c to rs S ig n ific a n c e le v e l o f F I v ersus IV (5 and 5 d . f . ) 4.7 Not s ig n i f ic a n t a t the 1 n o r a t the 5 Pel* c e n t le v e ls I I versus IV (5 and 5 d . f . ) 3 .8 Not s ig n i f i c a n t a t th e 1 n o r a t the 5 Per c e n t le v e ls I I I versus IV (7 and 7 d . f . ) 1.7 Not s ig n i f ic a n t a t the 1 n o r a t the 5 Pel> c e n t le v e ls I v ersus I I I (5 and 5 d . f . ) 2.0 Not s ig n i f ic a n t a t the 1 n o r a t the 5 Per c e n t le v e ls I I versus I I I (5 and 5 d . f . ) l.Ij. Not s ig n i f i c a n t a t th e 1 n o r a t the 5 Per cent le v e ls (3 and 3 d . f .) 1.8 Not s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e 1 nor a t the 5 Pe r ce n t le v e ls planned c a r e f u lly and was d e lib e r a te ly organized acco rd in g to w e ll reco g n ized fundam ental p r in c ip le s in o rd er th a t as a technique i t could be used by the o rd in ary classroom te a c h e r in a p r a c t i c a l classroom s it u a ti o n w ithout d is ru p tin g the o rg a n iz a tio n o f the school. Furtherm ore, the technique was o rganized in such a manner t h a t each in d iv id u a l p u p i l !s needs in rem edial re a d in g could be e f f e c t iv e ly provided fo r in a group s it u a t i o n . The b e s t types of m a te ria l and m o tiv atio n to use w ith such a b a s ic technique in o rd e r to secure the most e f f i c i e n t r e s u l t s , in terms o f achievem ent, were determ ined by the experim ent i t s e l f . Fundam entally, the technique c o n s is te d in g iv in g each p u p il read in g m a te ria l th a t was s u ite d to h is p re se n t le v e l of a tta in m e n t. This le v e l was determ ined by an o b je c tiv e sta n d a rd iz e d re a d in g t e s t . I f the p u p il was capable of re a d in g m a te r ia l on a second grade le v e l he was given m ate r i a l to re a d on th a t le v e l. I f he could re a d f o u rth grade m a te ria l he was given fo u rth grade m a te ria l to read , e tc . The rem edial c la s s was n o t tr e a te d as a group b u t each in d iv id u a l p u p il was s tu d ie d and h elp ed acco rd in g to the needs he m a n ife ste d . Each p u p il read h is own in d iv id u a l s e le c tio n planned each day acco rd in g to th e se needs. The books were c a re fu lly chosen so th a t the vocabulary in th e re s p e c tiv e books was w e ll adapted to the le v e l f o r which they were used. The c h ild re n were n o t aware o f th e le v e l on which they read 178 as only those books were s e le c te d fo r them th a t had a d i s guised le v e l in d ic a tio n or th a t had a g en e ra l t i t l e in s te a d of a le v e l in d ic a tio n . F u rth e r e f f o r t was made to s e l e c t books f o r each c la s s th a t had n o t been used in form er grades. Thus the p u p ils always re a d m a te ria l th a t was new to them. During th e rem ed ial re a d in g p erio d each c h ild read the s e le c tio n or s e le c tio n s planned e s p e c ia lly fo r him in the manner d escrib ed above. As the c h ild needed h elp or guidance during the p erio d th e te a c h e r gave i t to him. In t h is way each c h ild was given, in a group s it u a t i o n , in d iv id u a l a t te n t io n corresponding to h is needs. The i n d iv i dual te a c h e r handled h e r own rem ed ial c la s s in h e r 0¥/n classroom . In th is way the school o rg a n iz a tio n was n o t d is ru p te d and the p u p ils were n o t sin g le d out as bein g ’’s p e c ia l cases in th e school who had to go to a s p e c ia l room in o rd er to l e a r n . ” E v alu atio n o f the te c h n iq u e . From the a d m in is tra tiv e p o in t o f view the b a s ic technique was su c c e s sfu l in so f a r th a t a l l te a c h e rs p a r tic ip a t in g in the experim ent t e s t i f i e d to i t s p r a c t i c a b i l i t y and to i t s success in a c h iev in g the o b je c tiv e fo r which i t had been planned. Each in d iv id u a l p u p il pro g ressed as r a p id ly as he was capable o f p ro g re ssin g on the le v e l a t which he was a c tu a lly ab le to a t t a i n a c h ie v e ment. A lthough the c la s s e s were handled in group s itu a tio n s each c h i l d ’s needs were s a t i s f i e d . I t was not p o s s ib le in th is in v e s tig a tio n to d e te r mine w hether the b a s ic technique used was su p e rio r to o th e r techniques th a t have been used in a d m in iste rin g rem edial read in g programs in o th er group s i t u a t i o n s . Furtherm ore, i t was n o t p o s s ib le to determ ine to what e x te n t the b a sic te c h nique en tered in to the p ic tu re of th e achievem ent a tta in e d by the p u p ils . The valu e of the technique as such, th e r e fo re , can n o t be s ta te d o b je c tiv e ly . The fo llo w in g ta b le s (XXI and XXII), however, show th a t as a b a s is fo r the rem edial work the technique must have been e f f i c i e n t . Table XXI gives the average gains over the expected gains fo r a l l equated p u p ils in the s p e c if ic schools of the fo u r programs. The gain s a re l i s t e d in f r a c tio n s o f a grade. The g e n e ra l average gain f o r a l l schools and a l l programs was s ix te n th s o f a grade, o r seven months. The rem edial c la s s e s were conducted fo r a perio d o f approxim ately four months. The n e t gain per month, th e re fo re , was one and th re e -fo u rth s month, o r alm ost two months. This n e t gain re p re s e n ts a r a th e r r e s t r i c t e d estim a te sin ce i t does not denote mere achievem ent in terms of grade u n its . I t r e p r e s e n ts , r a th e r , th e g ain in achievem ent over the g ain th a t was expected from each c h ild in terms o f h is c a p a c ity and c h ro n o lo g ic al age. I f the average g ain in a c tu a l a c h ie v e ment had been used in the manner employed in many s tu d ie s , the r e s u lt in g gain would have been much l a r g e r . As i t was, l 8 o TABLE XXI AVERAGE GAINS OVER EXPECTED GAINS FOR EQUATED PUPILS H THE SPECIFIC SCHOOLS OF THE FOUR PRO G RA M S Average g a in , in fra c tio n s o f a grade, over expected gain Program School I Program School I I Program School I I I School Y .6 A .5 Q s .5 G .7 C M .8 L R .5 J .6 .6 (7 months ) (7 months) (8 Program IV E .7 W .k (6 months) . 6 .8 •9 . 8 G eneral Average fo r a l l Schools b .6 o r 7 months 1 8 1 TA BLE XXII A V E R A G E GAINS O V E R EXPECTED GAINS FO R EQ U A TE D PUPILS IN T H E FO U R G R A D E S O F T H E T W E L V E SC H O O LS Average g ain , in fr a c tio n s o f a grade, over expected gain Program Grade I4 . Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 I •7 -5 •5 •7 II .6 .2 • 7 . 6 I I I •7 *7 • 1 |. 1.0 IV 1.0 .9 4 •9 General Average fo r each grade .7 *6 (8 months) (7 months) •5 (6 months) • 7 (8 months) 1 8 2 the r e s t r i c t e d gain used was even g r e a te r than th a t which could have been expected o f the group had the average gain in a c tu a l achievement been used. I f the l a t t e r had been taken as the c r ite r i o n the p u p ils would have been expected to make an average of four months gain du rin g the, fo u r months devoted to th e rem edial reading as th e i r average I.Q . was 101. The average gain over expected gain of seven months, th e re fo re , was alm ost tw ice as la rg e as th a t expected by the conventional c r i t e r i o n . T herefore, i t can be p o stu la te d th a t, on the whole, the g en e ra l procedure used produced good r e s u l t s . Table XXII gives the average gains over expected gains f o r th e equated p u p ils in each se p a ra te grade of the fo u r programs. Grade Pour achieved an average gain o f .7 or e ig h t months; Grade F iv e, .6 o r seven months; Grade S ix, .5 or s ix months; Grade Seven, .7 or e ig h t months. Both Grades Pour and Seven gained over expectancy tw ice as much as would have been a n tic ip a te d according to th e co n v en tio n al c r i t e r i o n of fo u r months fo r an average 101 I.Q . Grade F ive gained th re e fo u rth s more than th is c r i t e r i o n and Grade S ix , one h a l f more than th e e x p e c ta tio n . At l e a s t a l l grades a tta in e d more than the normal amount o f improvement th a t could have been expected of them. These r e s u lt s show th a t the b a sic procedure used was w orthw hile. J u s t how much of th i3 gain was due to -th e m o tiv atin g te c h n iq u e s, however, cannot be 183 determ ined. The f a c t th a t a l l grades w ith p u p ils o f I.Q . 1 s above 80 achieved on the average more than the normal amount of improvement a ls o shows th a t rem edial reading can be conducted e f f e c t iv e ly in a group s itu a tio n by the r e sp e c tiv e classroom teach ers who have receiv ed some guidance in such tr a in in g . This view has been held by a number o f in v e s tig a to r s and a u th o r itie s in the f i e l d o f rem edial read in g, such as B row ne,^ F itz g e r a ld, ^ G ates, ^ Monroe, ^ S ta r k e y ,^ ^ B. B. Browne, 1 1 A C r itic a l E valuation o f E xperi m ental S tu d ies o f Remedial Reading and the Report o f an Experiment w ith Groups o f Backward R ead ers,” (unpublished D octor’s t h e s is , department of ed u cation , Harvard U n iv er sity Cambridge, M ass., May, 1939)> P* 23 J. A. F itz g e r a ld , p sy c h o lo g y in the Reading C l in ic ,” Elementary E n glish Review, lU j T s 133“3T> A p r il, 1937* ^ A. I . Gates, d ia g n o s is and Treatment o f Extreme Cases o f Reading D i s a b i l i t y ,” T h irty- S ix th Yearbook of the N ation al S o c ie ty fo r th e Study o f E ducation, Part I , 1937* pp. 391-1P-9. ^5 m. Monroe, “D ia g n o stic and Remedial Procedures in R eading,” E ducational Record Supplement 11, January, 1938, I9JIO5-I3. 2° M . L. Starkey, “O rganizing B asic In s.tru ction in Reading According to L evels o f Achievement o f P u p ils ,” Supplementary E ducational Monographs, No. I 4 .9 , Recent Trends in Reading, compiled and e d ite d by W m . S. Gray (Chicago: U n iv er sity o f Chicago P ress, 1939)> PP* 61 -69 * iBk W h ip p le ,^ W i t t y , a n d W rights tone .^9 The r e s u lt s o b ta in ed in th is in v e s tig a tio n support t h i s view point. V I I . SU M M A RY OP RESULTS OBTAINED FOR MOTIVATING A N D PHONETIC TECHNIQUES In th e programs w ithout p h o netic p r a c tic e , th a t i s , in Programs I and I I I , n e ith e r the type of m a te ria l used n o r the type o f m o tiv atio n used seemed to have e f f e c te d su p e rio r achievem ent. This may have occurred because n e ith e r type of s tim u la tin g technique was as v i t a l in promoting growth as the mere sense o f achievem ent experienced by the rem edial cases plus the concom itant fe e lin g of belonging to the group. On the o th e r hand, i t may have o ccurred because o f the com p a r a tiv e ly s h o rt d u ra tio n o f the experim ent. In the long run, perhaps th e a d d itio n a l s tim u la tio n of ra p p o rt w ith the te a c h e r th a t was used in the I n t e r e s t Program plus the s a t i s fa c tio n experienced through re a d in g m a te ria l c o n ta in in g a p erso n al appeal may have e ffe c te d more ra p id growth than the F a c tu a l Program n o t employing th e se otherw ise im p ellin g 27 G. Whipple, "C auses.of R e ta rd a tio n in Reading and Methods of E lim in atin g Them," Peabody Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n , November, 1938* 16*191- 200. ^ P. W itty and D. Kopel, Reading and the E ducative Process (Boston: Ginn and Company” 19397* PP* 92- 118. 29 J . W . ?ifrightstone, "Diagnosing Reading S k ills and A b ilit ie s in the Elem entary S ch o o ls," E d u catio n al Method, F ebruary, 1937* l 6 :2l|.8- 5i4 -« 185 in c e n tiv e s . The type of phonetic tr a in i n g given in Program I I of the I n t e r e s t Programs and in Program IV o f the F actu al Programs did not seem to have helped the re s p e c tiv e p u p ils achieve more ra p id growth than th a t achieved by p u p ils in these same two types o f programs who did n o t have th is p r a c tic e . However, the phonetic tr a in i n g given in Program IV, the F a c tu a l Program, seemed to have been o f more m ate r i a l a id to th e p u p ils in th a t program than i t was to the p u p ils in Program I I , the I n te r e s t Program w ith phonetic tr a in in g , because th e r e s u lt s achieved in the form er program were s ig n i f ic a n t ly su p e rio r to those r e s u l t s achieved by the p u p ils In the l a t t e r program. Furtherm ore, th e r e s u l t s o f Program IV a ls o had a tendency to be s u p e rio r to the a t t a i n ment of the p u p ils in Program I , the I n t e r e s t Program w ith out p h o n etic tr a in i n g . Whether th e se outcomes fo r Program IV were the r e s u l t of th e tech n iq u e used in g en eral in the F actu al Program plus the added e f f e c t o f power in h an d lin g the mechanics of read in g caused by the p h o netic tr a in in g o r w hether the outcomes v/ere the r e s u l t o f the p h o n etic t r a i n ing i t s e l f could n o t be determ ined. Through the a n a ly s is o f v aria n ce I t was found th a t the s u p e rio r r e s u l t s were not caused by the school o r the te a c h e r f a c t o r s . The in d iv id u a l needs of p u p ils in rem edial read in g were s a t i s f a c t o r i l y handled in a group s i t u a t i o n by the re s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs in t h e i r classroom s. The o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e school was thus n o t d is ru p te d . At the same tim e, each p u p il read m a te ria l adapted to h is p e c u lia r needs and had an o p p o rtu n ity to progress a t h is own r a te on the le v e l a t which he could a t t a i n worthwhile achievem ent. In g en eral the programs appeared to be n o t only w ell adapted to p ra c t i c a l classroom use b u t, as judged by th e c r i t e r i o n of a c c e le ra te d progress in read in g (more than one month’s progress f o r one month’s tr a in in g ) they were a ls o su c c e s s fu l CHAPTER VI RELATIONSHIP OP PERSONALITY FACTORS TO HEADING ACHIEVEMENT An attem p t is made in th is ch a p ter to in v e s tig a te from a number of angles the r e la tio n s h ip between p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs and re a d in g achievement* Comparative d a ta are shown between equated problem and non-problem read in g groups, both b efo re and a f t e r the a d m in is tra tio n o f the rem edial read in g programs. The f a c to rs d is c lo s e d are analyzed from a tw ofold m ajor v ie w p o in t; f i r s t , from the view point o f a normal s it u a ti o n in o rd e r to show how the f a c to r s e x i s t in two types of c o n tra s tin g groups; second, from the view point o f concom itant improvement in o rd e r to show how p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs a re a f fe c te d when d e f in it e achievem ent in read in g is a tta in e d through a rem edial read in g program. The p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs s tu d ie d were those which c h a ra c te riz e d th e re a c tio n p a tte rn s of each c h ild !!in m eeting h is p erso n al and s o c ia l problem s. ”1 In o th e r words, those f a c to rs were s tu d ie d which dem onstrated th e "manner and e f f e c tiv e n e s s ” w ith which each c h ild a d ju s te d h im self p e rso n a lly and s o c ia lly . The p erso n al o r s e l f adjustm ent 1 L. P. Thorpe, W . W . C lark, and E. W . T iegs, Manual o f D ir e c tio n s . C a lifo rn ia T est o f P e r s o n a lity . Elem entary S e rie s (Los A ngeles: C a lifo rn ia T est Bureau, 1939), p. 1 . 1 8 8 fa c to rs thus in v e s tig a te d were those which were based on "fe e lin g s of p erso n al s e c u r i t y , 1 1 namely, the f e e lin g o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e , the sense o f p erso n al w orth, the sense of p erso n al freedom, th e fe e lin g o f belonging, the freedom from w ithdraw ing te n d e n c ie s, and th e freedom from nervous symp- p toms. The s o c ia l adjustm ent fa c to rs thus in v e s tig a te d were those which were based on " fe e lin g s o f s o c ia l s e c u r ity ." Such fa c to rs were th e re c o g n itio n of s o c ia l s ta n d a rd s, the use of s o c ia l s k i l l s , freedom from a n t i - s o c i a l te n d e n c ie s, and wholesome fam ily , school, and community r e l a t i o n s . 3 Each o f th ese s e l f and s o c ia l adjustm ent fa c to rs or compo n en ts was co n sid ered , n o t from th e a sp e c t o f each being a g en eral t r a i t , but r a th e r from the a s p e c t of each b ein g a "more o r le s s lo o se ly organized s e t of s p e c if ic d is p o s itio n s to a c t in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ways."^- The r e s u l t s and consequent su p p o sitio n s proposed in th is ch ap ter are p rese n ted only as te n ta tiv e su g g e stio n s. Although th ese r e s u l t s a re n o t based on s u b je c tiv e estim a tes but on as v a lid and r e l i a b l e an o b je c tiv e m easuring i n s t r u ment as can be obtained a t p re se n t they a r e , however, s u b je c t to the in h e re n t weakness of a l l p e r s o n a lity 2 3 - 5 Loc. c i t . b- l . P. Thorpe, P sychological Foundations o f P er s o n a lity (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I95BT, p* 307. 189 i n v e n to r i e s ,— th a t p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs vary from day to day according to the changing a t t i t u d e s , fe e lin g s and co nvic tio n s of the re s p e c tiv e s u b j e c t s . ^ Furtherm ore, th e person a l i t y measure used in the in v e s tig a tio n has only one form a t the p re se n t tim e. Allowances have to be made, consequently, f o r th e f a c to r s of p r a c tic e and f a m il ia r ity in the r e t e s t i n g even though the in te rim between i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t i n g was approxim ately fiv e m onths. The r e s u lt s o b tain ed , th e r e fo re , a re only approxim ate and alth o u g h they seem to show g en e ra l tre n d s and te n d e n c ie s they a re d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t . I . EXPERIMENTAL SETTING FOR TEE PROBLEM S OF THIS CHAPTER E quating b a s is fo r th e i n i t i a l s t u d i e s . The i n i t i a l s tu d ie s were those conducted w ith the r e s u lt s o b tain ed b efo re the p u p ils were given rem edial work in th e vario u s programs. Four i n i t i a l s tu d ie s were made. The fundam ental ma-tching technique employed fo r the f i r s t o f th e s tu d ie s was th a t o f M ATCHING ONE^ in vihich the p u p ils in Group A were c lo s e ly equated, in d iv id u a l w ith in d iv id u a l, according to expectancy grade, sc h o o l, and sex w ith the p u p ils in 5 Thorpe, C lark, and T iegs, op. c i t ., pp. ^ Supra, p. 72. 190 Groups B, C, and D. Groups A and B were the problem and non-problem reading groups r e s p e c tiv e ly having eye d e fe c ts ; Groups C and D were the problem and non-problem re a d in g groups w ithout eye d e f e c ts . In th e stu d ie s p re se n te d in th is ch a p te r the r e s u l t s f o r th e eye d e fe c t groups, namely Groups A and B, a re n o t given s e p a ra te ly b u t are included in the t o t a l u n it re p o rte d fo r each stu d y . The r e la tio n s h i p between eye d e fe c ts and p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs is s tu d ie d in d e t a i l in Chapter V II. For the o th e r th re e i n i t i a l s tu d ie s a l l th e problem and non-problem cases equated a t some time in one of the m atching s e ts were used. These s tu d ie s did n o t c a l l fo r groups equated s p e c i f i c a l l y fo r them. E quating b a s is fo r th e s tu d ie s conducted a t the end of th e rem edial re a d in g program . For the f i r s t two s tu d ie s conducted a t the end o f the rem edial read in g program MATCHING TW O ^ was used. In these s tu d ie s only the problem cases in read in g in Groups A and C were used to c o n tra s t the two major types o f Programs, namely, the I n t e r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs. In MATCHING T W O p u p ils in Group A, in Program One, were c a r e f u lly equated f o r expectancy g rad e, group, program, and sex w ith p u p ils in Programs I I , I I I , and IV. The p u p ils in Program I , in Group C, were a ls o c a re fu lly equated on the b a s is of the same c r i t e r i a w ith p u p ils in 7 Supra, pp. 72, 7I)., 76- 77 - 191 Programs I I , I I I , and IV. The r e s u l t s f o r the two groups were n o t kept se p a ra te in th is c h a p te r. Furtherm ore, th e r e s u lt s f o r the programs were combined in to the two major types of I n t e r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs as the e f f e c t o f the phonetic p r a c tic e was n o t co nsidered to be an im portant elem ent in the o b je c tiv e s o f th is c h a p te r. For those s tu d ie s in th e rem ainder o f th is ch a p ter th a t re q u ire d a m atching b a s is the problem read in g cases in Groups A and C were c o n tra s te d w ith th e non-problem read in g cases in Groups B and D. The m atching technique used was o th a t of MATCHING THREE in which p u p ils in Programs I and I I in Group A were equated f o r expectancy grade, sch o o l, group, and sex w ith p u p ils in Group B w hile those in Group C were equated acco rd in g to th e same c r i t e r i a w ith p u p ils in Group D. F urtherm ore, the same c r i t e r i a were used to equate the p u p ils in Programs I I I and IV in Group A w ith those in Group B and those in Group C w ith those in Group D. The aim in th ese s tu d ie s was to c o n tra s t the problem w ith th e non problem cases in re a d in g in th e two m ajor types of programs. Although the two e y e -d e fe c t and the two n o n -ey e-d efec t groups were kept s e p a ra te in th e m atching technique the r e s u lt s were n o t kep t se p a ra te in the re p o rts f o r these s tu d ie s because in sp e c tio n rev ea led th a t l i t t l e p r o f i t would 8 S upra, pp. 77, 79. 192 be gained from such i n t r i c a t e p a tte rn s o f com parison. For those stu d ie s in th e rem ainder o f t h i s .ch a p ter th a t d id n o t re q u ire a matching b a s is only th o se problem and non-problem cases were used th a t were included in MATCHING THREE. I I . CRITICAL STUDY OF THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS O F PROBLEM VERSUS NON-PROBLEM CASES IN READING BEFORE THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE REMEDIAL READING PRO G RA M Before the a d m in is tra tio n o f the rem edial read in g programs th re e s tu d ie s were made of the r e la tio n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs and re a d in g achievem ent. In the f i r s t study the p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f equated problem and non-problem read in g cases were c r i t i c a l l y compared. In the second study the r e la tio n s h ip was in v e s tig a te d from a two fo ld view point. F i r s t , the c o r re la tio n s between re a d in g achievem ent and the s p e c if ic p e rs o n a lity components were found. Then the e x te n t of d e v ia tio n from expectancy was analyzed fo r the problem read in g cases in the low est and the h ig h e st q u a r tile ranges o f the v ario u s p e rs o n a lity components. The f i n a l stu d y was comparable to th e one ju s t d e sc rib e d . In th is stu d y the achievem ent of the non-problem re a d in g cases in the two c o n tra s tin g q u a r til e ranges was s tu d ie d for each p e r s o n a lity component. Comparison of th e p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of equated problem and non-problem r e a d e r s . Evidence has been . p rese n ted by T inker and a number of o th e r in v e s tig a to r s , a lre a d y quoted in C hapter I I , to the e f f e c t th a t “em otional i n s t a b i l i t y is fre q u e n tly a s s o c ia te d w ith reading d i s a b i l i t y . ’^ T inker claim s th a t the em otional m aladjustm ent may be the cause of the read in g d i s a b i l i t y o r th a t the lack of success in read in g may be the cause o f the u n d e sira b le 10 em otional r e a c tio n s . Most of the stu d ie s p rese n ted by Tinker, Hincks, B ird, B lanchard, and o th e rs to support these conclusions have been based s o le ly on an aly ses o f the p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f problem re a d in g c a se s. F u rth e r more, th ese problem cases in read in g have very o fte n been c l in ic c a se s. In o rd er to o b ta in a more v a lid and r e lia b le e stim a te o f th is problem the p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of p u p ils d e f ic ie n t in read in g taken from the g e n e ra l school p o p u latio n 3hould be compared w ith the p e r s o n a lity c h a ra c te r i s t i c s of c h ild re n in the g en eral school p o p u latio n who are equated according to some reco g n ized c r i t e r i o n and who are n o t problem cases in re a d in g . Table XXIII p re se n ts the r e s u l t s o f a stu d y in which 261f problem cases in read in g were compared w ith 261j. non problem cases equated fo r expectancy grade, group, sex, and sch o o l. The o b je c tiv e of the study was to determ ine w hether ^ Supra, pp. 35“38* -* -0 M . A. T inker, “D iag n o stic and Remedial R eading,” I I , Elem entary School J o u rn a l, 33J3M>~57> January, 1933* 1914- or n o t the problem cases in read in g were c h a ra c te riz e d by s i g n i f i c a n t l y m aladjusted p e r s o n a litie s when compared w ith equated cases who were up to o r above the sta n d a rd in read in g achievem ent. The ,ft w s t a t i s t i c Was used in th is study to e v a lu a te the s ig n ific a n c e of th e mean d iffe re n c e s o f the two c o n tr a s t ing groups. The s ig n ific a n c e o f th e mean d iffe re n c e s was found n o t only fo r the t o t a l adjustm ent p e r s o n a lity f a c to r but a ls o fo r the s e l f and s o c ia l adjustm ent f a c to rs and f o r the v a rio u s components d e s c rib in g each of these s e ts o f major f a c t o r s . The le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e was a ls o found f o r each f,t ff s t a t i s t i c in o rd er to determ ine the im port o f the re s p e c tiv e means in t h e i r r e la tio n s h ip to the means of th e c o n tra s tin g groups. According to th e r e s u lt s obtained the non-problem re a d e rs seem to have b e t t e r a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s n o t only when th e p e rs o n a lity is co n sid ered as a whole b u t a ls o when the s e l f and s o c ia l adjustm ent o f th ese p u p ils is analyzed s e p a r a te ly . The flt f f s t a t i s t i c of 2.8 f o r t o t a l adjustm ent is in favor of the non-problem re a d in g group and is s i g n i f i c a n t a t the 1 per cent le v e l w hile the rft f f s t a t i s t i c s of 2.6 and 2 .5 f o r th e s e lf-a d ju s tm e n t and so c ia l-a d ju stm e n t components re s p e c tiv e ly are lik e w ise in favor of the non- 195 TABLE XXIII COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM VERSUS NON-PROBLEM READERS (N - 261} . cases) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile o f the problem read e rs Mean' p e r c e n tile o f the non problem read ers Mean o f the d i f f e r ences t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT k 3 1+ 6 5 2 .8 1 P ersonal Worth 39 1+5 1 + 1 .8 8 P ersonal Freedom 28 52 i+ 2 .1 1 + Nervous Symptoms 52 . 3k 2 • 9 59 Belonging 1 + 5 51 6 2 . 1 + 2 S e lf-R e lia n c e 5l+ 56 2 1 .2 20 W ithdrawal Tendency kZ I 4 .6 1 + 1 .8 8 SELF ADJUSTMENT 59 1 + 5 1 + 2 .6 1 Family R e latio n s 1+2 i+6 1 + 1 .9 7 S o c ia l S k ills 1 + 2 ' 1 + 1 + 2 1 .1 29 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 1 ^ .8 1+8 0 - - - - School R e latio n s 5l+ l+o 6 2 • ij. 2 Community R e latio n s 1 + 5 55 8 3 .3 1 S o c ia l Standards 51 55 1 + 1.8 8 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 1 + 5 50 5 2 .5 1 196 problem re a d in g group, and a re s i g n i f i c a n t a t the 1 per cent le v e l. These r e s u lt s in d ic a te th a t the. mean of the d i f f e r ences fo r a l l th re e fa c to rs i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a te r fo r those c h ild re n who m a n ife st no pronounced d i f f i c u l t i e s in read in g . The mean o f the d iffe re n c e s is s ig n i f ic a n t ly g r e a te r f o r a number of th e sub-components as w ell as f o r the major p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s . Among the sub-components o f the s e l f adjustm ent f a c to r the non-problem read in g group seem to have a b e t t e r sense o f p erso n a l freedom and a d i s t i n c t l y b e t t e r f e e lin g of belonging to the group than do the problem case3 in read in g . The jb of 2.1 f o r PERSONAL FREEDOM is s ig n i f ic a n t a t the Ij. per ce n t le v e l and th e j; o f 2 • I j_ f o r BELONGING- is s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e 2 per cen t le v e l. F urtherm ore, the non problem re a d in g group seem to have a tendency to be more fre e from W ITHDRAW AL TENDENCIES and to have a more fav o rab le SENSE OF PERSONAL W O RTH than th e problem group in re a d in g . The t of 1.8 fo r W ITHDRAW AL TENDENCIES approaches s i g n i f i cance a t the 8 per c e n t le v e l and the t o f 1.8 fo r PERSONAL W O RTH approaches s ig n ific a n c e a t the 8 p e r cen t le v e l. The non-problem read in g group, however, do n o t seem to be more s e l f - r e l i a n t nor to be more f r e e from nervous symptoms than the problem c a ses. The jb of 1.2 and the t of .9 are not s ig n i f ic a n t nor do they even approach s ig n ific a n c e . As f a r as the s o c ia l adjustm ent f a c to rs a re concerned, the non-problem re a d in g cases seem to be b e t t e r a d ju ste d b o th in t h e i r r e la tio n s w ith th e school and in t h e i r r e l a tio n s w ith th e community* The t of 2 *lj. f o r SCHOOL RELATIONS is s ig n i f ic a n t a t the 2 per cent le v e l and the t of 3*3 £°r COM M UNITY RELATIONS is s i g n i f i c a n t a t the 1 per c e n t le v e l. In t h e ir FAMILY RELATIONS and SOCIAL STANDARDS the non problem p u p ils in read in g seem to have a tendency toward s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r adjustm ent than th e problem p u p ils in re a d in g . The1 FAMILY RELATION component had a t o f 1,9 which approached s ig n ific a n c e a t the 7 c e n t le v e l and the SOCIAL STANDARDS component had a _t o f 1.8 which approached s ig n ific a n c e a t the 8 per c e n t le v e l. In SOCIAL SKILLS and in freedom from ANTI-SOCIAL TENDENCIES the non-problem cases in read in g seem to be no d i f f e r e n t from th e problem cases* The r e s u l t s obtained from th is f i r s t study seem to support in some re s p e c ts th e h y p o th esis proposed by a number of in v e s tig a to r s th a t "read in g d i s a b i l i t y cases a re o fte n c h a ra c te riz e d by m aladjustm ent problem s."*^ C ates, ^ P. B lanchard, "Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s in R e la tio n to M aladjustm ent," Mental Hygiene, 12: 772- 78, O ctober, 1928. 13 A. Cates and C. L* Bond, "F a ilu re in Reading and S o c ia l M aladjustm ent,” Jo u rn al of N atio n al Education A sso c ia tio n , 25 s205-o, O ctober, 1936. 198 M o n ro e ,^ and 0rton^5 agree to a la rg e e x te n t th a t puplla who a re unable to read u s u a lly m a n ife st fe e lin g s of in f e r i o r i t y , nervousness, a n t i - s o c i a l tendencies such as b u lly in g , e t c . , a t t i t u d e s o f in d iffe re n c e and i n a t t e n t i v e n e ss, h a b its of daydreaming, and various types of school problem s. The read in g d i s a b i l i t y cases in th is study a ls o m anifested s i g n i f i c a n t fe e lin g s o f i n f e r i o r i t y as w e ll as i n f e r i o r school r e la tio n s and w ithdraw al te n d e n c ie s; however, they were n o t c h a ra c te riz e d by undue h a b its of nervousness nor by s ig n if ic a n t a n t i - s o c i a l te n d e n c ie s. Comparison of the re a d in g achievem ent o f problem re a d ing cases in the low est q u a r tile ranges of the v ario u s p e r s o n a lity components w ith th a t a tta in e d by those in the h ig h e s t q u a r tile ra n g e s . In o rd er to analyze th e problem of p e r s o n a lity and re a d in g achievem ent more thoroughly th re e s tu d ie s were made from somewhat d if f e r e n t a n g le s. F i r s t , the c o r re la tio n s were found between re a d in g achievem ent and p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s . The r e s u l t s of t h i s study a re re p o rte d in Table XXIV. Then, the amount o f read in g achievem ent a tta in e d by p u p ils in the low est q u a r til e ranges of th e M . Monroe, C h ild ren W ho Cannot Read (Chicago: U n iv e rsity o f Chicago P re ss, 1933)> PP* lO Lf.— 5• ■ ^ * 5 s. T. Orton, tfAn Impediment to L earning to Read--A N eu ro lo g ical E xplanation of th e Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” School and S o c ie ty , 28:286- 90, September, 1928. 199 v a r io u s p e r s o n a lit y com ponents was compared w ith th e amount o f a ch iev em en t a t t a in e d by p u p ils in th e h ig h e s t q u a r t ile r a n g e s . T h is com parison was made f o r b o th problem and non- problem c a s e s in r e a d in g . The r e s u l t s o f th e s e s t u d i e s a re r e p o r te d in T ab les XXV and XXVI. The r e s u l t s fo r T ab le XXVI a re g iv e n and e x p la in e d in th e n e x t s e c t i o n . From th e d a ta o b ta in e d in T able XX III th e r e w ould be a ten d en cy to su p p ose th a t th e r e i s some r e l a t io n s h ip b e tw een r e a d in g and p e r s o n a lit y a d ju stm en t and th a t th e r e fo r e th e b e t t e r a d ju s te d p u p ils sh o u ld a c h ie v e b e t t e r r e s u l t s in r e a d in g th a n th o s e th a t a r e n o t so w e l l a d ju s te d . When th e c o r r e la t io n s betw een r e a d in g ach iev em en t and th e v a r io u s p e r s o n a lit y com ponents w ere c a lc u la t e d , how ever, i t was d i s c o v ered t h a t in m ost in s ta n c e s th e r e i s n e g l i g i b l e r e l a t i o n s h ip b etw een th e two v a r ia b le s and in some few in s ta n c e s th e r e i s o n ly a s l i g h t p o s i t i v e r e l a t io n s h ip . These c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t s are g iv e n in T able XXIV. The c o r r e la t io n s a r e r e p o r te d f o r b o th s e t s o f e x p e r im e n ta l and c o n tr o l groups and f o r ea ch s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a lit y com ponent, as w e ll a s f o r th e com bined r e s u l t s o f a l l groups and f o r e a ch s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a lit y com ponent. For th e s e com bined or t o t a l r e s u l t s a l l e x c e p t th r e e o f th e c o r r e la t io n s are s i g n i f i c a n t , th a t i s , a re i n d ic a t iv e o f a tr u e c o r r e la t io n g r e a te r th an z e r o . For th e s p e c i f i c c o r r e la t io n s b etw een th e fo u r groups and th e v a r io u s p e r s o n a lit y com ponents more 200 TABLE XXIV CORRELATIONS BETW EEN READING ACHIEVEMENT A N D PERSONALITY FACTORS (N - 132 cases in each group) P e rs o n a lity Group Group Group Group T otal component A B C D + • 20 + • O ij. +*25±*02 TOTAL ADJUSTMENT P ersonal Worth P erso n al Freedom Nervous Symptoms Belonging S e lf R eliance W ithdrawal Tendency SELF ADJUSTMENT Family R elatio n s S o c ia l S k ills A n ti-S o c ia l Tendency School R elatio n s Community R elatio n s S o c ia l Standards SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT + • 29 * • O lj. + • 2 7 * • 0 l|. + • 28+ • O ij. +.I8+.O5 + • 22± * 0 I4 . +.051.05 +.151*05 +. 3I- * O ij. +. lij.±. 05 +.101.05 +.121.05 + *23± . O ij. +.IO+.O5 +. 1 6 1 .0 5 + . 2 l4 .d k * O ij. + .l8± .05 +. 12+.05 + .27±. O ij. + . 3 5 - • oij- +. 30+. oij. +.06+.05 -.13+ .05 + .2 3 ± .O ij. - . 002+. 05 + . 1 1 1 . O ij. -.11+.05 +. 02+.05 + . 17+*05 +.17+.05 + .i o ± .05 + • 331 • Oij. + . i4. l 1 . Oij. +. 30+. O ij. + .32+. oij. + *15± •05 + .07+ * O ij. +. 07+ • O ij. + .311 • Oij. + *i6 ± •05 +.17+.05 +.01+.05 + .27+ .oij. +. 2I4.+ • Oij. + • 2 2 ± • Oij. +. 2 7 * . oij. + .i9±.oij, + • 21+ • O ij. +.16+.05 + .27+. oij. +.16+.05 +. 12+. 05 + .26+ .Oij. + .l8± .05 +. 12i . O ij. +•01+.05 + • 20± • O ij. +.06+.05 + • 22 ± • O ij. +.I31.O5 + • 194 • 02 +.27+.02 +.21+.02 +.22+.02 +•09+•02 +•09+•02 +.29+.02 +.18+.02 +.15±.02 + •011 • 02 +.191.02 +.151.02 +.181.02 +.184.02 201 than h a l f are n o t even s i g n i f i c a n t . Moreover, none of the tw en ty -six c o r r e la tio n s th a t a re s ig n i f ic a n t shows su b sta n t i a l o r marked r e la tio n s h ip s . Comparable r e s u l t s were o b tain ed when the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r the problem read in g cases in th e h ig h e s t q u a r tile ranges o f the v a rio u s p e r s o n a lity components were compared w ith the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r th e problem read in g cases in th e low est q u a r tile ranges of the p a r a l l e l p e r s o n a lity components. The nt ” s t a t i s t i c was used to compare the d iffe re n c e s in the mean d ev iatio n s from ex p e ct ancy fo r th e two opposing groups. The r e s u lt s o f th is p a rt o f th e study a re given in Table XXV. The m a jo rity o f the j ; ’s a re in fav o r o f the p u p ils in th e low est q u a r tile ran g es, thus dem onstrating th a t the p u p ils who a re th e most malad ju s te d had the g r e a t e s t n eg a tiv e mean d e v ia tio n s from expectancy. None o f th ese mean d e v ia tio n s is s ig n i f ic a n t , however, and none even approaches s ig n ific a n c e . According to th ese r e s u l t s th e re seems to be l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip between e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g and e x te n t of p e rs o n a lity m aladjustm ent among read in g problem c a se s. These r e s u l t s a re comparable to the c o r re la tio n s o b tain ed in the previous study. Comparison of the re a d in g achievem ent of non-problem read in g cases in the low est q u a r ti l e r anges o f the v ario u s p e r s o n a lity components w ith th a t a tta in e d by those in the 202 TABLE XXV COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE READING ACHIEVEMENT ATTAINED BY PROBLEM READERS IN THE HIGHEST A N D LOW EST QUARTILE RANGES O P THE VARIOUS PERSONALITY COM PONENTS (N = 66 cases in each q u a r til e range) Mean Mean d e v ia tio n d e v ia tio n of the o f the p u p ils in p u p ils in S ig - the h ig h e s t the low est n i f i - P e rs o n a lity components q u a r tile range q u a r tile range D if f e r ence t cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT - .8 -•9 -.1 - 1.1 26 P ersonal Worth -.8 -.8 0 - - — P ersonal Freedom -•9 - .8 - .1 -1 .3 20 Nervous Symptoms - .8 - .8 0 — - - Belonging - .8 - .8 0 — - - S e lf-R e lia n c e - .8 -•9 - .1 - . 6 55 W ithdrawal Tendencies - .8 - .8 0 — - - SELF ADJUSTMENT - .8 - .8 0 __ Family R elatio n s - .8 -.9 - .1 -1 .2 22 S o c ia l S k ills -•7 - .8 - .1 - l • 2 22 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies - .7 - .8 - .1 - . 6 55 School R elatio n s -•7 -•7 0 Community R e latio n s - .8 -•9 - .1 -1 . k 17 S o c ia l Standards - .8 - .8 0 - - SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT -•7 - .8 - .1 - 1-7 9 h ig h e st q u a r tile ra n g e s . The r e s u lts of the f i n a l study u sin g the d ata of the i n i t i a l te s tin g and given in Table XXVI are n o t f u lly in harmony w ith the r e s u l t s of the l a s t two s tu d ie s but they f u rn is h a p a r t i a l l y p o s itiv e supplement to the r e s u l t s of the f i r s t i n i t i a l te s t i n g study which was re p o rte d in Table XXIII. In the f i r s t i n i t i a l study the non-problem cases in read in g seemed to m a n ife st, on the whole, s ig n i f ic a n t ly b e t t e r a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s than the problem c a s e s . In th e f i n a l study now being re p o rte d the non-problem re a d in g cases in the h ig h e s t q u a r til e ranges o f the th re e major p e rs o n a lity components, and in fo u r of the sub f a c to r s , achieved b e t t e r and more s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u lts in re a d in g than did the non-problem read in g cases in the low est q u a r til e ranges o f the same p e rs o n a lity components. I t is in t e r e s t i n g to n o te , however, th a t in the low est q u a r tile ranges none of the mean d e v ia tio n s was le s s than fo u r te n th s o f a grade above the expectancy le v e l. In o th e r words, even th e p u p ils in the low est q u a r til e ranges achieved more than could be norm ally expected of them. The s p e c if ic fa c to rs th a t seem to be r e la te d to h ig h e r achievem ent in read in g on the p a r t o f the non-problem read in g cases are FAVORABLE SCHOOL RELATIONS, FREEDOM FR O M W ITHDRAW AL TENDENCIES, FREEDOM FROM ANTI-SOCIAL TENDENCIES, and a FEELING- O F BELONGING. The _t’s f o r th e se fa c to rs are 2 .3 , 2 .3 , 2.3? and 2.2 r e s p e c tiv e ly and t h e i r le v e ls of 20k T A B LE XXVI COMPARATIVE STUDY.OF THE READING ACHIEVEMENT ATTAINED BY N O N PROBLEM READING CASES IN THE HIGHEST A N D LOW EST QUARTILE RANGES OF THE VARIOUS PERSONALITY COM PONENTS (N - 66 p u p ils in each q u a r til e range) P e rs o n a lity components Mean d e v ia tio n o f the p u p ils in the h ig h e st q u a r tile range Mean d e v ia tio n of the p u p ils in the low est q u a r til e range D if f e r ence t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT .8 •5 •3 2.5 2 P ersonal Worth .7 •5 .2 1-3 20 P ersonal Freedom .7 •5 .2 1*5 15 Nervous Symptoms .8 .6 .2 1-3 20 Belonging .8 .6 .2 2.2 3 S e lf-R e lia n c e • 7 .6 .1 •3 80 W ithdrawal Tendencies .7 •5 .2 2.3 2 SELF ADJUSTMENT •7 •5 .2 2.5 2 Family R elatio n s .8 .6 .2 1.2 2k S o c ia l S k ills •7 • 7 0 •» — A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies .7 •5 .2 2-3 2 School R e latio n s • 7 •5 .2 2.3 2 Community R elatio n s .6 .6 0 - - - - S o c ia l Standards .6 .6 0 - - — SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT .8 •5 •3 2.3 2 205 s ig n ific a n c e are 2 per c e n t, 2 per c e n t, 2 per c e n t, and 3 p e r cen t r e s p e c tiv e ly . These le v e ls a l l denote s ig n i f ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip o f th e se fa c to rs to corresponding high ac h iev e ment in re a d in g . The th re e major p e rs o n a lity f a c t o r s , namely, g en eral SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, g e n e ra l SELF ADJUSTMENT, and TOTAL ADJUSTMENT lik e w ise seem to be r e la te d to h ig h er achievement in re a d in g on th e p a r t o f non-problem read in g cases as th ese fa c to rs showed s ig n i f ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip w ith such a c h iev e ment. T heir _tfs were 2 .3 , 2.3# and 2 .5 and the le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e fo r a l l th re e ”t fs” was th e 2 per cen t le v e l. E ig h t s p e c if ic p e r s o n a lity components were n o t in harmony w ith th e g en e ra l tren d of the f i r s t p e rs o n a lity study th a t b e t t e r adjustm ent seemed to be a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c h ild re n who m an ifested few d i f f i c u l t i e s in le a rn in g to read . These r e s u l t s were r a th e r in harmony w ith the tendencies o f the o th e r two stu d ie s th a t achievem ent in read in g and p e rs o n a lity adjustm ent seemed to b ear l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip to each o th e r. Summary o f r e s u lt s obtained in th e i n i t i a l t e s t i n g . Although the d a ta obtained in the s tu d ie s based on the I n i t i a l te s tin g r e s u l t s a re somewhat c o n f lic tin g th e re a re some p o s i tiv e trends evident among them. The non-problem p u p ils in re a d in g seem to have b e t t e r a d ju s te d p e r s o n a liti e s . This tendency is co rro b o ra ted by the r e s u l t s o b tain ed in the f i n a l stu d y . The re a d in g achievem ent of non-problem p u p ils in read in g in th e h ig h e s t q u a r tile ranges o f a t l e a s t se v e ra l of the p e rs o n a lity components is s ig n i f ic a n t ly g r e a te r than th a t of p u p ils in th e low est q u a r tile ranges o f th e same components. On the o th e r hand, although the problem cases in read in g do n o t seem to have as w e ll-a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s as th e non-problem c a s e s , the e x te n t o f t h e i r d e v ia tio n from the expected norms fo r read in g is n o t consonant w ith the e x te n t of th e i r d ev iatio n from the norms fo r the v arious p e r s o n a lity components. In o th e r words, fo r problem cases in read in g , p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs 3@ em to have l i t t l e r e l a t i o n sh ip w ith th e e x te n t o f t h e i r achievement in read in g . The c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts o b tain ed fo r th ese two v a ria b le s c o rro b o ra te th is same tendency. Furtherm ore, in the f in a l study fo r th e non-problem re a d in g cases, e ig h t o f the p e rs o n a lity sub-components showed no tendency toward r e la tio n s h ip w ith e x te n t o f achievem ent. T herefore, alth o u g h th e problem cases in read in g seem to have p e r s o n a litie s th a t a re n o t as w ell a d ju ste d as the p e r s o n a litie s o f non-problem cases in read in g the degree of t h e i r m aladjustm ent seems to bear no r e la tio n s h i p to the degree o f t h e i r r e ta r d a tio n in read in g . 207 I I I . CRITICAL STUDY OF THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM VERSUS NON-PROBLEM CASES IN READING AFTER THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE REMEDIAL READING PROGRAM The f iv e s tu d ie s which were made o f th e r e la tio n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs and achievem ent in read in g a f t e r the com pletion o f the rem edial read in g program a re given in th is s e c tio n . The f i r s t study compares the p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of th e problem read in g cases b efo re and a f t e r the rem edial read in g program. The second study a t tempts to determ ine which type o f rem edial read in g program e ffe c te d the most b e n e f ic ia l r e s u lt s from the view point o f b e t t e r p e r s o n a lity ad ju stm en t. In th e th ir d study the p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f the non-problem read in g cases as rev ea led in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t s are compared. F u rth e r comparison i s then made between th e r e s u l t s o f th is study showing the s ta tu s of the non-problem read in g cases who had n o t been given rem edial treatm ent and the r e s u l t s of the f i r s t stu d y in th is s e r ie s showing th e improvement of the problem read in g cases who had been given th e rem edial tre a tm e n t. The l a s t two s tu d ie s in t h i s s e r ie s a re designed to supplement th e stu d ie s re p o rte d in Tables XXIII (page 195) and X X V (page 202). In Table XXIII a com parative study of the p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of th e problem v ersu s the non-problem p u p ils in read in g was p re se n te d . In the fo u rth 208 study of the p re se n t s e r ie s a comparable a n a ly s is is made in o rder to determ ine w hether o r n o t the non-problem read in g cases were s t i l l b e t t e r a d ju ste d a f t e r the problem cases had made a c c e le ra te d progress in re a d in g achievem ent. In Table X X V a com parative study of th e e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g f o r problem cases in re a d in g in the low est and h ig h e s t q u a r tile ranges o f the v arious p e r s o n a lity components was shown. A s im ila r a n a ly s is is made in the f i n a l study o f th is s e rie s in o rd er to determ ine th e s ta tu s o f the p u p ils in th e se two c a te g o rie s a f t e r they had been given rem edial tre a tm e n t. In th e f i r s t , th ir d , and f i f t h s tu d ie s the ^ t 1 1 technique fo r o b ta in in g the d iffe re n c e in th e means o f independent samples is used. ° E ffe c t o f the rem ed ial r eading program upon the p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f th e problem read in g c a s e s . The r e s u l t s obtained in th is p a r t of th e study a re re p o rte d in Table XXVII. The p u p ils d e f ic ie n t in read in g show s i g n i f i c a n t gains in a l l p e rs o n a lity components except SELF- RELIANCE. According to the i n i t i a l study made between d e f ic ie n t and n o n -d e fic ie n t c a ses, th e former were not I n f e r io r to the l a t t e r in SELF-RELIANCE.1? T herefore, sin c e E. F. L in d q u ist, S t a t i s t i c a l A nalysis in Educa- tio n a l R esearch (New York: Houghton M ifflin Company. 191x0 ). p'p- 56- 57- SuPr a » p p * 195-96. 209 TABLE XXVII EFFECT OF THE REMEDIAL PR O G RA M UPON THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM READING CASES (N = 280 c a s e s ) Mean p e r c e n tile fo r P e rs o n a lity i n i t i a l components te s t i n g Mean p e r c e n tile fo r f i n a l te s tin g D if f e r ence t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT kz 50 8 5.0 1 P ersonal Worth 39 h& 7 3 -k 1 P ersonal Freedom 27 31 10 k -9 1 Nervous Symptoms 32 39 7 3.0 1 Belonging k 5 50 5 2.0 5 S e lf-R e lia n c e 52 5k 2 • 7 k i W ithdrawal Tendencies 1)2 5k 12 5 .0 1 SELF ADJUSTMENT 39 k8 9 5-2 1 Family R e latio n s k8 7 3.1 1 S o c ia l S k ills Ij-l k 5 1 + 2.2 3 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies k9 5k 5 2.0 5 School R e latio n s 33 39 6 2.8 1 Community R e latio n s lf.6 51 5 2.3 2 S o c ia l Standards 52 57 5 2 .0 5 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 45 52 7 3-9 1 210 the d e f ic ie n t cases seemed to be f a i r l y s e l f - r e l i a n t a t the beginning of the in v e s tig a tio n , th e re was n o t much room fo r s ig n i f ic a n t improvement in t h is re s p e c t. The _tfs fo r s ix o f th e s p e c if ic components as w ell as fo r the th re e major components a re s ig n i f ic a n t a t the 1 per cen t le v e l. Hone of the o th e r fiv e components is below the 5 per cent le v e l. Such s ig n ific a n c e shows th a t the observed d iffe re n c e s between th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l te s tin g s were n o t caused by chance because such d iffe re n c e s would n o t be exceeded by more than 1 per cen t o f a l l s im ila r samples fo r the f i r s t group and 5 Pe3 ? cen t o f a i i s im ila r samples f o r the second group. S tu d ies by Blanchard and Gates and B ond^ show s im ila r tendencies f o r problem cases in read in g to e x h ib it marked improvement a f t e r rem edial tre a tm e n t. Both Blanchard and Gates seem to f e e l r a th e r c e rta in th a t the improvement in s c h o la s tic a b i l i t y produced in t h e i r s tu d ie s was the cause o f the improvement in p e rs o n a lity adjustm ent. Blanchard sa y s, ,f. . . the c o rre c tio n o f th e read in g d i s a b i l i t y and th e s u b s t itu ti o n o f success fo r f a i l u r e in school is u s u a lly follow ed by a c e s s a tio n o f the b ehavior d e v ia tio n .” Gates say s, ”. . . b e t t e r em otional and s o c ia l adjustm ent u s u a lly accompanied, or follow ed, the B lanchard, op. c i t . , p. 77^-* 19 Gates and Bond, op. c i t . , p. 206. 211 Improvement in s c h o la s tic a b i l i t y . ” However, th e cause fo r the improvement may n o t n e c e s s a r ily have been the improve ment in s c h o la s tic achievem ent. Other f a c to r s o p e ra tin g in the rem edial c la s s e s may a ls o have c o n trib u te d toward the changes in p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs as w ell as the in flu en c e of p ra c tic e and f a m i l i a r i t y w ith the m easuring in stru m e n t. For example, the f a c t th a t the p u p ils re c e iv e d in d iv id u a l a t t e n tio n from the te a c h e r may have engendered fav o rab le fe e lin g s o f p erso n al worth and o f belonging in th e se p u p ils . More over, th is same type of a tte n tio n may have changed the p u p i l s 1 unfavorable a t t i t u d e toward school and may have helped to f r e e them from w ithdraw al te n d e n c ie s. Perhaps the same type of r e s u lt s may have been secured i f in d iv id u a l a t te n t io n had been given to these c h ild re n in some o th e r manner than through th e rem edial read in g c la s s e s . More s p e c if ic s tu d ie s a re needed before d e f i n i t e In feren ces can be drawn from th e f a c t th a t s ig n i f ic a n t p e r s o n a lity improve ments were caused by the improvement in s c h o la s tic achievem ent. Comparison o f the changes in p e r s o n a lity c h a ra c te r is - t ic s as e ffe c te d by th e I n t e r e s t versus the F a c tu a l Programs in rem ed ial re a d in g . The previous se c tio n showed th a t the problem read in g cases were s ig n i f ic a n t ly b e t t e r a d ju ste d a t the end of the rem edial program than th ey had been a t i t s o u ts e t. An attem p t was made, in the meantime, to determ ine 212 the com parative in flu en c es of the two m ajor types o f programs upon the improvements in p e rs o n a lity f a c t o r s . The r e s u lt s of th is a n a ly s is are given in Table XXVIII. According to the ta b le , w ith th e exception of TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, BELONGING and SOCIAL STANDARDS, n e ith e r program e ffe c te d su p e rio r improve ment in th e s e v e ra l f a c to r s . For the th re e fa c to rs enumer a te d the INTEREST PRO G RA M seems to have e ffe c te d more s ig n i f ic a n t improvement than the FACTUAL PROGRAM . The t fo r TOTAL ADJUSTMENT is 2 . 0; fo r BELONGING, 2 . 0; and fo r SOCIAL STANDARDS, 2 . 0 . The le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e fo r a l l th re e fa c to rs is 5 P © * * c e n t. This means th a t f o r a l l th re e f a c to rs the r e s p e c tiv e d e v ia tio n s o f t h e ir _t!s from zero v/ould be exceeded in only 5 P © * * cent of a l l s im ila r sam ples. I t is in te r e s ti n g to n o te th a t perhaps the ra p p o rt and mutual u n d erstan d in g th a t e x is te d between p u p ils and teach e rs in th e INTEREST PRO G RA M may have helped to e s t a b l i s h the s i g n i f i c a n t mean d iffe re n c e in fav o r of th e INTEREST PRO G RA M fo r the BELONGING f a c t o r . This marked improvement in the fe e lin g of BELONGING in tu rn may have helped to e f f e c t the s i g n i f i c a n t change in a t t i t u d e toward o th e rs as e x h ib ite d through SOCIAL STANDARDS. These su g g estio n s are merely su p p o s itio n s . Perhaps i f the rem edial programs had been of lo n g er d u ra tio n more s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u l t s would have been o btained In favor o f th e INTEREST PRO G RA M as a l l except th re e of the mean d iffe re n c e s were h ig h e r f o r th e INTEREST PROGRAM . 213 TABLE X X V III COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OP THE INFLUENCE OP THE INTEREST VERSUS THE FACTUAL PROGRAM S IN TEACHING REMEDIAL READING O N PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS (N = ll}.0 easea) Mean gain Mean gain S ig fo r fo r Mean of n i f i P e rs o n a lity I n t e r e s t F a c tu a l d i f f e r cance components Program . Program ences t le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 10.3 6.3 If.. 0 2 .0 5 P ersonal Worth 7.2 9-1 1-9 .6 55 P ersonal Freedom 10.2 10.2 0 Nervous Symptoms 7-5 6.1 1 4 • Ij. 67 Belonging 9-8 2-5 7-3 2 .0 5 S e lf-R e lia n c e If.. 2 -1 .3 5-5 1-7 10 W ithdrawal Tendencies 12.0 l l . l • 9 •3 80 SELF ADJUSTMENT 9.8 7-9 1-9 •9 37 Family R elatio n s 9 . 2 5-3 3-9 1.2 23 S o c ia l S k ills 5.6 5 4 1.8 . 6 55 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 7-1 2 4 k - 7 1.2 23 School R elatio n s 8.3 5-3 3.0 1.0 32 Community R elatio n s 7.6 3.8 3.8 1.1 28 S o c ia l Standards 8.7 .8 7-9 2.0 5 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 9.2 5-3 3-9 1.6 10 Comparative study of the p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s o f the non-problem read in g cases as re v e a le d in th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t s . I t was found in Table XXVII th a t the problem cases in read in g had s i g n i f i c a n t l y improved in a l l p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s a t the end of th e rem edial read in g program* Whether th is improvement was caused because of the a c h iev e ment in re a d in g of th ese cases is d i f f i c u l t to determ ine. As mentioned b e fo re , i t may have been th e r e s u l t o f f a m ilia r i t y w ith the t e s t . The p re se n t study, given in Table XXIX and Table XXX, was undertaken to compare th e improvement in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of the non-problem cases In read in g , who had n o t p a r tic ip a te d in th e rem edial read in g programs, w ith th e improvement which had tak en place in the problem c a ses. The purpose o f th is p a r t of the study was to a s c e r ta in w hether the non-problem read in g c a se s, who had n o t been given rem edial trea tm en t and who had o r ig in a lly s u r- p o passed the problem read in g cases in p e rs o n a lity adjustm ent, had improved s i g n i f i c a n t l y in any p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs a t the end o f the rem ed ial program. Table XXIX shows th a t the non-problem read in g cases made a decided and s ig n i f ic a n t improvement in th e th re e major p e rs o n a lity c a te g o rie s of TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, TOTAL SELF- f t ADJUSTMENT, and TOTAL SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT and in a l l s p e c if ic ^ Supra, pp. 1914.-97. 215 TABLE XXIX COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE CHANGES THAT TOOK PLACE IN THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OP THE NON-PROBLEM READING CASES BETW EEN THE INITIAL A N D THE FINAL TESTINGS (N = 280 c a s e s ) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile f o r i n i t i a l t e s tin g Mean p e r c e n tile fo r f i n a l t e s tin g D if f e r ence t S ig - n i f i - cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT t o 53 6 3.8 1 P erso n al Worth k 3 52 9 3-5 1 P ersonal Freedom 32 k2 10 k.6 1 Nervous Symptoms 36 k2 6 2.6 1 Belonging 52 56 k 1-7 9 S e lf-R e lia n c e 56 60 k ‘ 1-5 13 W ithdrawal Tendencies to 53 7 3*1 1 SELF ADJUSTMENT 52 8 toil- 1 Family 'R elations t o 52 7 2.7 1 S o cia l S k ills t o 5 2.1 k A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies t o 55 6 2.1). 2 School R elatio n s • 40 t o X . t o 66 Community R elatio n s 53 56 3 1.0 32 S o c ia l Standards 55 58 3 i t o 18 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 50 55 5 2 .5 2 p e r s o n a lity components except BELONGING, SELF-RELIANCE, SCHOOL RELATIONS, COM M UNITY RELATIONS, and SOCIAL STANDARDS. The _tfs fo r the th re e m ajor p e r s o n a lity c a te g o rie s were 3.8, Ip.ip, and 2.5 r e s p e c tiv e ly and the corresponding le v e ls of s ig n ific a n c e were 1 per c e n t, 1 per ce n t, and 2 per c e n t. A ll th re e le v e ls show a high degree o f s ig n ific a n c e . The o th e r s p e c if ic components in which the non-problem re a d in g cases improved were PERSONAL W ORTH, PERSONAL FREEDOM, NERVOUS SYMPTOMS, FREEDOM FROM W ITHDRAW AL TENDENCIES, FAMILY RELA TIONS, SOCIAL SKILLS, and FREEDOM FROM ANTI-SOCIAL TENDENCIES. The _t?s fo r th ese re s p e c tiv e components were 3 *5> 2 . 6, 3*1, 2 .7 , 2 .1 , and 2.1^., and t h e i r le v e ls o f s ig n ific a n c e were a l l on the 1 per cent le v e l w ith the exception of the l a s t two which were on the Ij. and 2 per ce n t le v e ls . A ll th ese percentage le v e ls in d ic a te s ig n if ic a n t improvement. Table XXX gives com parative r e s u lt s fo r problem and non-problem case3 in re ad in g . The d a ta fo r the problem cases was p re v io u sly re p o rte d in Table XXVII. While the non problem cases showed no s i g n i f i c a n t improvement in fe e lin g s of BELONGING, the problem cases showed a decided improvement in th is f a c to r . The r e s u lt s f o r the SCHOOL RELATIONS com ponent and the COM M UNITY RELATIONS and SOCIAL STANDARDS components showed the same tr e n d s . The non-problem cases showed no improvement w hile th e problem cases showed d e f in it e and s ig n i f ic a n t improvement. 217 TABLE XXX COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE IMPROVEMENT IN PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF BOTH PROBLEM AND NON-PROBLEM READING CASES AT THE CLOSE OP THE REMEDIAL PROGRAM (N = 280 c a s e s ) Problem c a s e s N on-problem c a s e s P e r s o n a lit y com ponents t S i g n i f i can ce l e v e l t S i g n i f i can ce l e v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT V Jl • O 1 3.8 1 P e r so n a l Worth ^ • Ij. 1 3-5 1 P e r so n a l Freedom b -9 1 Ij.. 6 1 N ervous Symptoms 3.0 1 2 .6 1 B e lo n g in g 2.0 5 1.7 9 S e lf - R e lia n c e • 7 k-7 ' 1.5 15 W ithdraw al T en d en cies 5.0 1 3-1 1 SELF ADJUSTMENT 5-2 1 4 4 1 F am ily R e la tio n s 3 -1 1 2 .7 1 S o c i a l S k i l l s 2 .2 3 2 .1 k A n t i- S o c ia l T en d en cies 2 .0 5 2-k 2 S c h o o l R e la tio n s 2 .8 l •k 66 Community R e la tio n s 2 .3 2 1 .0 52 S o c i a l S tan d ard s 2 .0 5 i.U 18 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 3 -9 l 2.5 2 218 T h is im provem ent on th e p a r t o f th e problem r e a d in g c a s e s may have b e e n cau sed by th e s u c c e s s in r e a d in g a c h ie v e ment p lu s a l l th e su b seq u en t e f f e c t s and i t a l s o may have b een ca u sed by o th e r .f a c t o r s su ch a s , f a m i li a r i t y - w i t h th e m easu rin g in str u m e n t, changes in home c o n d itio n s or b e t t e r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . The r e l a t io n s h ip o f s u c c e s s in r e a d in g a ch iev em en t to th e im provem ent in p e r s o n a lit y c o u ld have been more e x p l i c i t l y shown in a stu d y o f tw o groups o f eq u a ted problem r e a d e r s , one group o f w h ich had r e c e iv e d r e m e d ia l tr e a tm e n t in r e a d in g w h ile th e o th e r group had n o t r e c e iv e d su ch h e lp . A stu d y o f t h i s n a tu r e was n o t u n d er taken in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t io n b e c a u se a l l th e problem r e a d e r s had r e c e iv e d rem ed ia l tr e a tm e n t. Stu dy o f th e d e g r ee o f p e r s o n a lit y im provem ent o f problem v e r su s non -p rob lem p u p ils in rea d in g a t th e c lo s e o f th e r em ed ia l r e a d in g program . In T ab le XXIII a stu d y was p r e s e n te d o f th e c o n t r a s t in p e r s o n a lit y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the problem and th e n on -p rob lem s u b j e c t s a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e r em ed ia l r e a d in g program . The stu d y in d ic a t e d th a t th e n on -p rob lem r e a d in g c a s e s had s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r a d ju s te d p e r s o n a l i t i e s in th e th r e e m ajor c a te g o r ie s o f TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, TOTAL SELF ADJUSTMENT, and TOTAL SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, and th a t th e y w ere a l s o b e t t e r a d ju ste d in a l l s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f P e r so n a l W orth, Freedom from N ervous Symptoms, S e l f - R e l i a n c e , S o c ia l S k i l l s , Freedom from A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies, and S o c ia l S tan d ard s. The p re se n t study was undertaken to determ ine w hether or n o t the non-problem p u p ils in re a d in g were s t i l l b e t t e r a d ju ste d in these f a c to r s a f t e r the problem p u p ils had re c e iv e d rem edial h elp f o r p r a c t i c a l l y fo u r months. The r e s u l t s of the p re se n t study a re given in Tables XXXI, XXXII, and XXXIII. In Table XXXI is given th e stu d y th a t p a r a l le ls Table XXIII ( i n i t i a l t e s t d a ta ) . The p e rs o n a lity c h a ra c te r i s t i c s o f the problem and non-problem p u p ils a t th e end of the rem edial program are c o n tra s te d . In Table XXXII the r e s u l t s a re shown f o r each Program s e p a ra te ly and in Table XXXIII the r e s u lt s o b tain ed fo r b o th the i n i t i a l and the f i n a l te s t i n g a re given f o r convenient comparison. Table XXXI shows th a t the non-problem p u p ils in read in g s t i l l surpass the problem cases in the th re e major p e r s o n a lity components of TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, TOTAL SELF ADJUSTMENT, and TOTAL SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, and in fiv e of the s p e c if ic components. The f iv e s p e c if ic components in ques tio n a r e SELF RELIANCE, BELONGING, PERSONAL W ORTH, PERSONAL FREEDOM, and COM M UNITY RELATIONS. The t !s f o r the major components are 2 .3 , 2 .2 , and 2,1 and the corresponding le v e ls o f s ig n ific a n c e a re 2 per c e n t, 3 per c e n t, and ij. per c e n t. The t^’s fo r the s p e c if ic components a re 2 .7 , 2 . 1 } ., 2 . 1 , 2 .2 , 2 . 1, and the corresponding le v e ls of s ig n ific a n c e a re 1 per c e n t, 2 p er c e n t, I} , per cen t, 3 P0* * c e n t, and i|. per 220 TABLE X X X I COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS O F PROBLEM A N D NON-PROBLEM CASES IN READINC AT THE END OP THE REMEDIAL READING PRO G RA M (N s 280 cases) P e r s o n a lit y com ponents Mean p e r c e n t ile o f th e problem r e a d e r s Mean p e r c e n t ile o f th e non problem r e a d e r s Mean o f d i f f e r en ces t S i g n i f i can ce l e v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 50 53 3 2 .3 2 P e r so n a l Worth k£ 52 6 2 .1 k P er so n a l Freedom 37 k2 5 2 .2 3 N ervous Symptoms 39 kz 3 1 .2 23 B e lo n g in g 50 56 6 2.1j. 2 S e lf - R e lia n c e 5k 60 6 2 .7 1 W ithdraw al T en d en cies 5k 53 1 •3 76 SELF ADJUSTMENT k8 52 k 2 .2 3 F am ily R e la tio n s k 8 52 k 1 .8 8 S o c ia l S k i l l s k5 . 1 4 -9 k 1 .6 12 A n t i- S o c ia l T en d en cies 5^ 55 l 70 S c h o o l R e la tio n s 39 k l 2 .8 Community R e la tio n s 51 56 5 2 .1 k S o c ia l Stan d ard s 57 58 1 •7 50 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 52 55 3 2 .1 k 221 c e n t. A ll th e se le v e ls of s ig n ific a n c e in d ic a te d e f in it e s u p e r io r ity on th e p a rt of the non-problem p u p ils . There is a ls o a tendency fo r the non-problems to have b e t t e r FAMILY RELATIONS than the problem c a se s . The jb o f 1.8 approaches s ig n ific a n c e a t th e 8 per cen t le v e l. A ll th e se s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u l t s , however, may have been due la rg e ly to p ra c tic e and f a m i l i a r i t y w ith the t e s t . In Table XXXII the c o n tra s t in p e rs o n a lity c h a ra c te r i s t i c s fo r th e problem and the non-problem read ers a t th e end o f the rem ed ial program i s given f o r th e INTEREST and the FACTUAL Programs s e p a r a te ly . This study was made fo r purposes of determ ining w hether the problem read e rs in one of the programs may have superseded the non-problem re a d e rs . The r e s u l t s in the ta b le show, however, th a t th e re was no tendency fo r th e problem re a d e rs to supersede the non problem cases in e i t h e r of the two programs. The l a s t data fo r t h i s p a r t of th e study (Table XXXIII) p re se n t the r e s u l t s of the p e r s o n a lity stu d y f o r problem and non-problem re a d e rs b o th b efo re and a t th e clo se of th e rem edial re a d in g program. The m a te ria l is given in one ta b le fo r purposes of convenient com parison. In th is ta b le the r e s u l t s are given only fo r the non-problem group as a l l the t'a w ith the ex cep tio n o f one were in favor of th is group. In both the i n i t i a l and f i n a l t e s t i n g the non-problem 222 TABLE X X X II RESULTS OBTAINED FOR PUPILS IN BOTH THE INTEREST A N D FACTUAL PROGRAM S REGARDING THE SUPERIORITY IN PERSONALITY CHARACTER ISTICS OF PROBLEM A N D NON-PROBLEM READERS AT THE END OF THE REMEDIAL READING PRO G RA M (N s 1 I4 .O c a s e s ) P e rs o n a lity components INTEREST PRO G RA M Mean p e r c e n tile fo r problem re a d e rs Mean p e r c e n tile fo r non- problem re a d e rs Mean of d i f f e r ences t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 50 55 3 1-5 15 P ersonal Worth I4 .6 51 5 1-5 15 P ersonal Freedom 38 b-3 5 1-5 15 Nervous Symptoms 38 1*1 3 1.0 33 Belonging 50 56 6 l.l). 16 S e lf-R e lia n c e 55 61 6 2 .1 k T Withdrawal Tendencies 55 52 3 • 7 k6 SELF ADJUSTMENT li.8 51 3 1.1 28 Family R e latio n s 1*8 51 3 1.0 33 S o c ia l S k ills kh k-9 5 1-7 9 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 5^ 4 - 55 X .2 83 School R elatio n s 38 ll-O 2 . 6 5k Community R e la tio n s k9 55 6 1.9 6 S o c ia l Standards 56 57 1 .2 81* SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 51 5k 3 1.1 28 225 TABLE X X X II ( c o n tin u e d ) RESULTS OBTAINED FOR PUPILS IN BOTH THE INTEREST A N D FACTUAL PROGRAM S REGARDING THE SUPERIORITY IN PERSONALITY CHARACTER ISTICS OF PROBLEM A N D NON-PROBLEM READERS AT THE END OF THE REMEDIAL READING PRO G RA M (N s 1 I4 .O cases) P en so n a lity components FACTUAL PR O G RA M Mean p e r c e n tile fo r problem read e rs Mean p e r c e n tile f o r non problem read e rs Mean of d i f f e r ences t S ig - n i f i - cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 50 5h 1 + 1.9 6 P ersonal Worth 1+ 7 52 5 1-5 15 P ersonal Freedom 37 1+ 2 5 1.7 xo N e rv ous Symp t oms ip- 1+ 3 2 • 7 1 + 6 Belonging 50 57 7 1.9 6 S e lf-R e lia n c e 53 58 5 1-7 X O W ithdrawal Tendencies 55 5h X • 3 75 SELF ADJUSTMENT i+8 53 5 2 .X h Family R e latio n s 1+ 8 52 h 1-5 15 S o c ia l S k ills hi 1+ 8 X •5 63 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 55 5h X • 3 75 School R elatio n s ho 1 + 2 2 • 6 57 Community R elatio n s 5h 57 3 l . l 27 S o c ia l Standards ■ 57 59 2 • 7 1 + 6 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 53 56 3 2 .0 5 22k read e rs showed s ig n i f ic a n t ly b e t t e r adjustm ent in the t o t a l p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs o f TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, TOTAL SELF ADJUST MENT, and TOTAL SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT. The non-problem group a ls o s t i l l showed b e t t e r adjustm ent in th e f i n a l t e s t i n g fo r the s p e c if ic fa c to rs o f P ersonal Freedom, Belonging, and Community R e latio n s than th e problem group. They showed th ese s ig n i f ic a n t ten d en cies d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t the problem group had improved s ig n i f ic a n t ly a t the 1, 5 anc* 2 per cent le v e ls in th e se same f a c to rs a t the end of the rem edial program. I t is n o t p o ssib le to determ ine, however, w hether th e se te n d en cies would have continued i f the rem edial program had been o f lo n g er d u ra tio n . There was only one f a c to r in which the Problem re a d ing group seemed to have made s u f f i c i e n t p ro g ress so th a t the non-problem p u p ils d id n o t supersede them and th a t was the f a c t o r of SCHOOL RELATIONS. In th e i n i t i a l te s tin g the non-problem re a d e rs were s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r in t h e ir school r e la tio n s th an the problems a t th e 2 per cent le v e l. At the end o f the rem edial program t h i s was not th e case. Although the non-problem re a d e rs had a h ig h e r mean d i f f e r ence in th is component than the problem read ers the t o f .8 f o r th is mean d iffe re n c e was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . T herefore, in th is one re s p e c t i t seems t h a t the problem re a d e rs made ra p id s t r i d e s . For the fo u r f a c to rs th a t showed a tendency toward 225 TABLE X X X III PRESENTATION OP RESULTS OBTAINED FOR THE PERSONALITY STUDIES OF PROBLEM AND NON-PROBLEM READERS BEFORE AND AT THE CLOSE OF THE REMEDIAL READING PRO G RA M . I n i t i a l te s t i n g Non-Problem re a d e rs (N * 26k c a s e s ) F in a l te s tin g Non-Problem re a d e rs (N * 280 cases) P e rso n a lity components t S i g n i f i cance le v e l t S i g n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 2.8 1 2.3 2 P ersonal Worth 1.8 8 2.1 k P ersonal Freedom 2.1 k 2.2 5 Nervous Symptoms •9 59 1.2 25 Belonging 2 .1 * 2 2 . 1 * 2 S e lf-R e lia n c e 1.2 20 2.7 1 W ithdrawal Tendencies 1.8 8 .3* 76 SELF ADJUSTMENT 2.6 1 2.2 3 Family R elations 1-9 7 1.8 8 S o c ia l S k ills 1.1 29 1.6 12 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 0 __ 4 70 School R e latio n s 2 . k 2 .8 ij-0 Community R e latio n s 3-3 1 2.1 b S o c ia l Standards 1.8 8 •7 50 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 2-5 1 2.1 -*This t was in fav o r o f the Problem Group. As i t was the only _t in fa v o r of th is group, th e Problem Group was not l i s t e d in th e ta b le . 226 s ig n ific a n c e in the i n i t i a l m easuring, only one f a c to r , th a t o f FAMILY RELATIONS, m aintained th a t same tendency in fav o r of the non-problem r e a d e r s . The f a c to r o f PERSONAL W O RTH changed from a tendency toward s ig n ific a n c e , to a le v e l of sig n ific a n c e * th a t i s , from th e 8 per c e n t to the I 4 . per cent le v e l. The fa c to rs o f FREEDOM FROM W ITHDRAW AL TENDENCIES and SOCIAL STANDARDS changed from a tendency toward s i g n i f i cance to no s ig n ific a n c e a t a l l . In the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g th e non-problem group in read in g were n o t more SELF RELIANT than th e problem group; however, in th e f i n a l t e s t i n g th e form er group showed a s ig n i f ic a n t tendency to be much more SELF RELIANT than the l a t t e r group. In b o th the i n i t i a l and the f i n a l t e s t i n g the non-problem group were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y su p e rio r to the problem cases in the f a c to r s of FREEDOM FROM NERVOUS SYMPTOMS, SOCIAL SKILLS, and FREEDOM FROM ANTI-SOCIAL TENDENCIES. D esp ite the f a c t th a t the problem reading cases had improved s ig n i f ic a n t ly in a l l p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs during the rem edial program t h e i r amount of improvement had n o t been s u f f i c i e n t to change t h e i r s ta tu s as compared w ith the non problem p u p ils except in th e case of SCHOOL RELATIONS. In the i n i t i a l te s tin g the non-problem re a d e rs had s ig n i f ic a n t ly b e t t e r school r e la tio n s than the problem re a d e rs . While th is r e la tio n s h i p was n o t re v e rse d in th e f i n a l te s t i n g i t was changed from s ig n ific a n c e to n o n -s ig n ific a n c e . And in 227 the case of FREEDOM FROM W ITHDRAW AL TENDENCIES and SOCIAL STANDARDS the r e la tio n s h ip was changed from a tendency toward s ig n ific a n c e in the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g to n o n - s ig n if i cance in the f i n a l te s tin g . These were the only changes o f im portance th a t occurred between the problem and non-problem s u b je c ts in read in g during the fo u r months o f rem edial tre a tm e n t. Comparative 3tudy o f d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g fo r problem read e rs a t th e end of the rem edial re a d ing program in th e low est and h ig h e s t p e rs o n a lity q u a r tile ra n g e s . This p a rt o f the study was undertaken to supplement the d a ta re p o rte d in Table XXV. In th is l a t t e r study the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy f o r the problem read e rs in the low est and h ig h e s t p e r s o n a lity q u a r til e ranges were analyzed w ith th e r e s u l t s o b tain ed from the i n i t i a l t e s tin g . I t was found th a t the e x te n t of r e ta r d a tio n in re a d in g did n o t correspond w ith the e x te n t of d e v ia tio n from the norms in p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s . In o th e r words, i t was found th a t p u p ils in th e low est q u a r til e ranges o f the v a rio u s p erson a l i t y fa c to rs did n o t d i f f e r in th e e x te n t of t h e i r d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g from those p u p ils in the h ig h e st q u a r tile ranges of the v a rio u s p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s . The p re se n t study was undertaken fo r the purpose o f d isc o v e rin g the co n d itio n of the pupil3 In th ese two c o n tra s tin g q u a r til e ranges a f t e r th e s a id p u p ils had rece iv ed rem edial 228 tre a tm e n t. The r e s u l t s o f th e p re se n t study a re re p o rte d in Table XXXIV. They show the same general t r e n d th a t was found in Table XXV. Although in many in sta n c e s the p u p ils in the h ig h e s t q u a r tile ranges d eviated from expectancy to a g re a te r e x te n t than th e p u p ils in the low est none o f th e _t's obtained was s ig n i f ic a n t . This study, th e re fo re , corrobo r a te s the conclusion reached in Table X X V th a t th e re seems to be p r a c t i c a l l y l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip between e x te n t of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g and e x te n t of p e rso n a l i t y m aladjustm ent f o r problem cases in re a d in g . . Summary o f r e s u l t s o b tain ed in th e f i n a l t e s t i n g . The stu d ie s o f p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs a t the c lo se of th e rem edial read in g program p re se n te d in t h is s e c tio n were d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t because o f the v a r ie ty of f a c to rs which may have in flu e n c e d th e r e s u lt s o b tain ed . The problem re a d in g cases in the rem e d ial programs improved s ig n i f ic a n t ly in a l l p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs except SELF-RELIANCE. In th e i n i t i a l t e s t s , however, th e problem cases had n o t been s ig n i f ic a n t ly in f e r i o r to th e non-problem cases in th is r e s p e c t. T herefore, the la c k o f improvement in th is component was n o t s u r p ris in g . With the excep tio n of TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, BELONGING, and SOCIAL STANDARDS, n e ith e r one of the two major types o f programs seems to have been a s s o c ia te d w ith more su p e rio r achievem ent than the o th e r. For these th re e f a c to r s , 2 2 9 TABLE XXXIV COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DEVIATIONS FRO M EXPECTANCY IN READING FOR PROBLEM READERS AT THE END OF THE REMEDIAL READING PRO G RA M IN THE HIGHEST AND LOW EST PERSONALITY QUARTILE RANGES (N = 66 cases in each q u a r tile ) Mean Mean d e v ia tio n d e v ia tio n o f the o f the p u p ila in p u p ils in S ig th e h ig h e st the lowes t n i f i P e rs o n a lity q u a r tile q u a r til e B iff e r - cance component range range ence t le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT - • 6 - 5 - .1 - -9 36 P ersonal Worth - . 6 - 6 0 - - - - P erso n al Freedom - . 6 - 5 - .1 - ,6 52 Nervous Symptoms -•? - 6 - .1 - .8 ko Belonging -•5 - 7 - .2 -1 .6 11 S e lf-R e lia n c e -•7 - 6 - .1 - .8 k.0 W ithdrawal Tendencies - . 6 - 6 0 - - — SELF ADJUSTMENT -•7 - 6 - .1 - *9 36 Family R e latio n s -•7 - 5 - .2 - l . l i 16 S o c ia l S k ills -•5 - 5 0 - - A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies - • 6 - 6 0 - - - - School R e latio n s - • 6 - 6 0 - - Community R e latio n s - . 6 - 5 - .1 - . 6 52 S o c ia l Standards - .6 - 6 0 - - — SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT -•7 - 5 - .2 - l . l 28 230 however, the INTEREST PRO G RA M seems to have engendered more improvement than the F a c tu a l Program, P o ssib ly i f th e experim ent had been of lo n g e r d u ra tio n , more fa v o ra b le r e s u l t s would have been secured fo r the I n t e r e s t Program in th e o th e r c a te g o rie s as w e ll. The non-problem re a d in g cases who had o r ig in a l ly showed s ig n i f ic a n t ly b e t t e r a d ju ste d p e r s o n a litie s th an th e problem cases made s ig n i f ic a n t improvement during the four months o f th e experim ent in a l l p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s except B elonging, S e lf-R e lia n c e , School R e la tio n s, Community R e la tio n s, and S o c ia l Standards d e s p ite the f a c t th a t they had n o t been given th e s tim u la tin g tre a tm e n t th a t the problem cases had been given. Perhaps the sa m e .fa c to rs th a t caused the improvement in th e se non-problem cases in read in g may a ls o have p a r tly caused the s i g n i f i c a n t improvement o f the problem cases d iscu ssed in th e preceding paragraph. I t is d i f f i c u l t , th e re fo re , to determ ine to what e x te n t the achievem ent in read in g was an in flu e n c in g f a c to r in causing the improvement of the problem re a d e rs . Furtherm ore, an o th er in flu e n c in g f a c to r may probably have been the e f f e c t o f p r a c tic e and f a m il ia r ity w ith the measuring in stru m e n t. When the degree of improvement between problem re a d e rs and non-problem read e rs was c o n tra ste d i t was found th a t the non-problem cases s t i l l had the s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ig h er averages in a l l p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s except NERVOUS SYMPTOMS, FREEDOM FROM W ITHDRAW AL TENDENCIES, SOCIAL SKILLS, FREEDOM FROM ANTI-SOCIAL TENDENCIES, SCHOOL RELATIONS, and SOCIAL STANDARDS, F u rth e r a n a ly s is re v e a le d th^it only in SCHOOL RELATIONS had th e problem re a d e rs made such d e f in it e improvement over the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g th a t th e non-problem re a d e rs did n o t m ain tain th e i r o r ig in a l s ig n i f ic a n t s u p e r io r ity . Although the problem p u p ils did n o t seem to have as w e ll-a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s in th e m ajor fa c to rs and in a t le a s t one h a lf o f th e minor sub-components as th e non problem p u p ils th e degree of t h e i r d e p a rtu re from th e norm fo r the p e r s o n a lity fa c to rs did n o t correspond to th e degree of t h e i r d e p a rtu re from t h e i r read in g expectancy. In o th e r words, the same tr e n d fo r the problem cases was shown In b o th the f i n a l and i n i t i a l t e s t i n g th a t e x te n t of p e rs o n a lity m aladjustm ent fo r th ese cases is n o t r e la te d to e x te n t of read in g r e ta r d a tio n . IV. SU M M A R Y OF TEE RESULTS OBTAINED IN THE STUDIES OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN PERSONALITY FACTORS AND READING ACHIEVEMENT There was a tendency fo r th e non-problem re a d e rs to have s ig n i f ic a n t ly b e t t e r a d ju ste d p e r s o n a litie s than th e problem read e rs in the th re e major p e rs o n a lity components of TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, TOTAL SELF ADJUSTMENT, and TOTAL SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT, as w e ll as in a t l e a s t one h a l f of the sub 2 ^ 2 components. This tendency kept th e same a sp e c t in b o th th e- i n i t i a l and the f i n a l te s tin g s . Moreover, the b e t t e r a d ju ste d p e r s o n a litie s among the non-problem p u p ils seemed to make more s ig n if ic a n t gains over expectancy in read in g than the same type o f p u p ils who had poorly a d ju ste d p e r s o n a liti e s , th a t i s , than th o se p u p ils who were in the low est q u a r til e ranges of th e various p e rs o n a lity components. T herefore, fo r the non-problem p u p ils in read in g th e re seems to have been some r e la tio n s h ip between p e rs o n a lity adjustm ent and achievem ent in re a d in g . The o p p o site r e s u l t s were obtained fo r the problem cases in re a d in g . Although these cases did n o t seem to have as w e ll-a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s as the non-problem c a se s , the e x te n t of t h e i r d e v ia tio n from th e expected norms in read in g was n o t consonant w ith the e x te n t o f t h e i r d e v ia tio n from the norms of the v ario u s p e r s o n a lity components. In o th e r words, th e p u p il3 in th e low est q u a r til e ranges of th e various p e rs o n a lity components d id n o t seem to be more r e ta rd e d in re a d in g than the p u p ils who had w e ll-a d ju s te d p e r s o n a liti e s . This tendency was co rro b o ra ted by s im ila r r e s u l t s o b tain ed in th e f i n a l te s tin g a f t e r these p u p ils had receiv ed rem edial tre a tm e n t. T herefore, f o r problem cases in read in g , alth o u g h th ese cases were n o t as w ell a d ju ste d as th e non-problem c a se s , th e re seemed to have been l i t t l e r e la tio n s h i p in the degree o f r e ta r d a tio n fo r both re a d in g 233 achievem ent and p e rs o n a lity m aladjustm ent. The c o r r e la tio n s o b tain ed between re a d in g achievem ent and p e r s o n a lity fa c to rs showed n e g lig ib le r e la tio n s h ip between th e se v a ria b le s fo r b o th problem and non-problem p u p ils . The c o r r e la tio n s , th e re fo re , were in agreem ent w ith the r e s u l t s obtained f o r the problem cases in read in g b u t were not in agreement w ith those obtained f o r the non-problem c a ses. The problem read in g cases made s ig n i f ic a n t gains in a l l p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs except SELF RELIANCE. As they were o r ig in a lly n o t i n f e r i o r to th e non-problem read in g cases in t h is re s p e c t t h e i r la ck o f g ain was n o t s u r p r is in g . The INTEREST PRO G RA M seemed to have e f f e c te d th e g r e a t e s t im provement in th e f a c to rs of TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, BELONGING, and SOCIAL STANDARDS. For the o th e r f a c to r s , n e ith e r program e ffe c te d su p e rio r improvement. The non-problem re a d in g cases seemed to have made s ig n i f ic a n t advances in a l l f a c to rs except f iv e d e s p ite the f a c t th a t they had n o t been su b je cte d to any s p e c ia l type of s tim u la tio n . T herefore, i t was n o t s u r p r is in g th a t, a t the end o f the rem edial program they s t i l l m aintained t h e i r s u p e rio r p o s itio n in having b e t t e r a d ju ste d p e r s o n a litie s in most o f the various c a te g o rie s although much of t h e i r apparent improvement may have been caused by f a m il ia r ity w ith the m easuring in stru m e n t. The only f a c to r in which th e problem re a d in g cases improved s u f- f ic e n tly w ell so th a t th e non-problem cases l o s t t h e i r o r ig in a l s u p e r io r ity was in SCHOOL RELATIONS. CHAPTER V I I RELATIONSHIP OP VISUAL FACTORS TO READING ACHIEVEMENT The second m ajor o b je c tiv e of th is in v e s tig a tio n was to study c r i t i c a l l y the r e la tio n s h ip o f p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs and o f c e r t a in p h y sio lo g ic a l f a c to r s to s u c c e s s fu l a c h iev e ment in read in g . In th is ch a p ter, one phase of the p h y sio lo g ic a l f a c to r s is d isc u sse d , namely, the in flu e n c e of eye d e fe c ts on achievem ent in read in g . The e f f e c ts o f th is f a c to r are analyzed from th e r e s u l t s obtained f o r b o th the i n i t i a l and the f i n a l te s tin g s . A fte r an e x p lan atio n of the experim ental s e t t i n g fo r th e v a r io u s problems o f the c h a p te r, the incid en ce o f eye d e fe c ts among the p o p u latio n in v e s tig a te d is compared w ith the r e s u lt s obtained by o th e r I n v e s tig a to r s . C o rre la tio n s are then found n o t only fo r the r e la tio n s h ip between the average re a d in g grade sc o re s of eye d e fe c t groups and groups f re e from eye d e f e c ts , but a lso f o r th e r e la tio n s h ip between the average re a d in g grades and the expectancy grades of th e se same groups. In the l a s t stu d y , based on the r e s u l t s of th e i n i t i a l t e s t i n g , th e d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in re a d in g fo r bo th eye d e fe c t and n o n -d e fe c tiv e groups are c r i t i c a l l y c o n tra s te d . In the l i g h t of the r e s u l t s obtained a t th e end of 235 the rem edial program the d iffe re n c e in achievem ent fo r equated p u p ils w ith and w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts is analyzed in an e f f o r t to d isco v er any p o ssib le in flu e n c e o f eye d efec ts on the achievem ent o f the former group d u rin g th e rem edial p e rio d . The gain s over expectancy are used as th e b a s is fo r th ese d iffe re n c e s . A ll the d a ta obtained f o r both the i n i t i a l and the f i n a l te s tin g a re then compared w ith the data obtained by o th e r in v e s tig a to r s . The l a s t stu d y re p o rte d in th is ch ap ter is somewhat d i s t i n c t from th e o th e rs . In th is study the p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of c h ild re n w ith v ario u s types of eye de fe c ts a re c o n tra ste d w ith the c h a r a c te r i s tic s of the group having no eye d e fe c ts , in o rd e r to determ ine w hether s p e c if ic types o f eye d e fe c ts a re a s s o c ia te d w ith c e r ta in p e rs o n a lity f a c t o r s . I . EXPERIMENTAL SETTING FOR THE PROBLEM S OF THIS CHAPTER Types o f groups used fo r the stu d ie s based on the r e s u l t s of the f i r s t t e s t i n g . Three s tu d ie s d e a lin g w ith v is u a l fa c to rs were made using the r e s u l t s o f the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g . In these s tu d ie s groups used f o r th e com parative an aly ses were n o t composed of equated p a irs b u t o f a l l those u n se le c te d p u p ils who had taken the complete b a tte r y o f t e s t s . E quating b a s is f o r the study o f the In flu en ce o f v a r i ous types of eye d e fe c ts on th e achievem ent o f the problem re a d in g cases during th e rem edial reading program. The purpose o f th is stu d y was to determ ine whether or n o t s p e c if ic types of eye d e fe c ts in flu e n c e d the achievem ent o f th e problem cases during the rem ed ial read in g program. Equated groups were used. The p u p ils were matched according to MATCHING FOUR.'*' In th is m atching c h ild re n in Group A (w ith s p e c if ic types o f v is u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ) were equated ac co rd ing to expectancy grade w ith c h ild re n in Group C. The c r i t e r i o n of type o f te a c h in g program was used as an a d d itio n a l f a c t o r in t h i s m atching. A ll p u p ils were equated w ith c h ild re n in th e same kind of te a c h in g program so th a t in flu e n c e s caused by types o f m o tiv atio n and technique might be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o n tro lle d . N ature of the group used to study the r e la tio n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s and eye d e f e c ts . In th is study equated groups were not used fo r th e various analyses b u t r a th e r a l l those u n se le c te d groups th a t had been a lre a d y used f o r the f i r s t th re e s tu d ie s o f t h i s c h a p te r. The p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of a l l problem read in g cases having s p e c if ic eye d e fe c ts were compared w ith th e p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of a l l problem re a d in g cases w ith o u t eye ^ S upra, pp. 79- 82. 2 5 7 defects* The same comparison was then made between the t o t a l number of p u p ils in the two c o n tra s tin g groups of non problem re a d in g ca se s. I I . INCIDENCE OP EYE DEFECTS A M O N G THE PUPILS TESTED FOR THIS INVESTIGATION In th is in v e s tig a tio n I4.7 p e r c e n t, i . e . , 889 o f the 1,864 p u p ils who were given the v is u a l t e s t s were found to have eye d e fe c ts o f various ty p es. These r e s u l t s a re s im ila r to th o se obtained by P a r ris who te s te d 1,685 sev en th grade p u p ils in the Oakland p u b lic schools and who found th a t 44 per cen t of the school p o p u la tio n a t th a t le v e l had eye de- o f e c ts of v ary in g degrees. The e stim a te given in the Report of the White House Conference on C hild H ealth and P r o t e c t i o n ^ is much lower than th a t o b ta in ed by th ese two s tu d ie s . They claim ed th a t approxim ately 19 per c e n t of the school popula tio n have eye d e fe c ts which can be remedied so th a t the c h ild re n so a f fe c te d may be brought w ith in the normal group fo r e d u c a tio n a l purposes. The re p o r t o f Berkowitz,^* however, ^ L. P. P a r r i s , "V isual D efects as F a c to rs In flu e n c ing Achievement in R eading,” Jo u rn al of E xperim ental E d u catio n . 5 : 58- 60, September,. 1956* 5 White House Conference on C hild H ealth and Pro te c tio n . S p e c ia l E d u catio n : The Handicapped and the G ifted (New York: Century Company, 195D" pp. 126-27 . ^ J . H. Berkow itz, E yesight o f C h ild re n , U nited S ta te s Bureau o f E ducation, B u lle tin No. 65 (Washington: Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 1919), p. 10. 238 i s c lo s e r to th e r e s u l t s obtained in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n . He re p o rts th a t e stim a te s approxim ate l\2 per cen t o f the school c h ild re n as having eye d e f e c ts . The manner in which th e d e fe c ts re p o rte d in th is in v e s tig a tio n were d is tr ib u te d b e tween th e PROBLEM and the NON-PROBLEM re a d in g groups is given in Table XXX?. The r e s u l t s o b tain ed agree to a la rg e e x te n t w ith those secured by W itty and Kopel who a ls o used the Keystone T e le b in o c u la r in t h e i r stu d y . These in v e s tig a to rs found th a t “poor re a d e rs a r e not c h a ra c te riz e d by a g r e a te r incidence of v is u a l d e fe c ts and anom alies than are good r e a d e rs. ”5 A lthough in th e p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n th e problem group of re a d e rs had a g r e a te r percentage of cases w ith myopia, v e r t i c a l im balance, c o -o rd in a tio n le v e l, fu s io n , and l a t e r a l imbalance than th e non-problem group of re a d e rs , w ith the exception o f the myopic and' fu sio n c a se s, the d i f feren ces between the p ercentages f o r the two groups was not s ig n i f ic a n t fo r any of th e fiv e types of d e f e c ts . For the l a t t e r cases the chances were 99 l n 100 anc^ 9® l n 100 th a t the d iffe re n c e s were g r e a te r than z e ro . T h erefo re, b o th 5 p. A. W itty and D. Kopel, "H eterophoria and Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” Jo u rn al o f E du catio n al Psychology, 27 *222- 30, March, 1936. 6 The formula used was th a t o f the sta n d a rd e r r o r o f the d iffe re n c e between two u n c o rre la te d percen tag es given in H. E. G a rre tt, S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and E ducation (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 193°)> PP* 226- 27, 470* 2 3 9 TABLE XXXV PERCENTAGES OF EYE DEFECTS A M O N G PROBLEM AND NON-PROBLEM READING GROUPS Type o f ey e d e f e c t Problem group in r e a d in g N Per c e n t Non group N •Problem in r e a d in g Per c e n t Myopia 167 29 296 23 V e r t ic a l Im balance 26 5 56 4 C o -o r d in a tio n L e v el 166 29 357 28 H yperopia 17 5 57 4 M onocular V is io n 12 2 25 2 A stig m a tism X X 2 28 2 Fus io n X02 X8 166 13 L a te r a l Im balance 63 X X XX2 9 Number o f c a s e s w ith and w ith o u t eye d e f e c t s 57^ X ,292 T o ta l eye d e f e c t c a s e s 266 46 623 48 2k0 th ese d iffe re n c e s a re considered s i g n i f i c a n t . W itty and Kopel lik e w ise found in t h e i r in v e s tig a tio n th a t th e re was a g r e a te r in cid en ce of fu sio n cases in th e problem group. They did n o t c l a s s i f y th e i r v is u a l a c u ity cases in to myopic and hyperopic ca se s. However, f o r t h e i r combined group of a c u ity and am etropia d e fe c ts , th e non-problem read in g group had the g r e a te r incidence o f ca ses. In the p re se n t i n v e s t i g a tio n , the only group which had the g r e a te r in cid en ce of <* cases in th e non-problem s e c tio n was the hyperopic group. The d iffe re n c e in the p ercen tag es of cases fo r th is d e fe c t among the problem and the non-problem re a d e rs , however, was n o t s ig n i f ic a n t . For th e t o t a l eye d e fe c t cases the non-problem group had the g r e a te r percentage o f p u p ils . The c r i t i c a l r a t i o fo r th e d if fe re n c e between th e two t o t a l percentages fo r the problem and non-problem read e rs was .83. S ince w ith th is c r i t i c a l r a t i o th e re a re only 79 chances in 100 th a t the d iffe re n c e is g r e a te r than zero , i t was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t.7 The d iffe re n c e between the lj.8 per cen t and the I4 .6 per cent f o r the t o t a l d e fe c tiv e cases was lik e w ise n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . The r e s u l t s obtained fo r th is in v e s tig a tio n v e r if y on the whole the h y p o th esis advanced by W itty and Kopel th a t t!th e re is n o t a g r e a te r incid en ce o f eye d e fe c t cases among 7 G a rre tt, lo c . c i t . 2lj.1 problem read e rs than among good r e a d e r s ." The only excep- tio n which could be made to th is h y p o th esis is th a t , in th is in v e s tig a tio n , th e re was a s i g n i f i c a n t l y la r g e r percentage o f fu sio n and myopic cases among the problem group than among the non-problem group. However, the f a c t th a t th e re was a la r g e r incidence of th e se cases among the problem group does n o t mean th a t these two d e fe c ts caused th e r e ta rd a tio n in read in g o f the p u p ils in th ese two groups. A more d e ta ile d exam ination and a n a ly sis o f th e r e la tio n s h ip between th e se d e fe c ts and the achievem ent in re a d in g fo r th ese groups is made in the fo llo w in g s tu d ie s . I I I . CRITICAL ANALYSIS OP THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN EYE DEFECTS A N D READING ACHIEVEMENT AS OBTAINED FROM THE RESULTS OF THE FIRST TESTING C o rre la tio n between s p e c if ic eye d e fe c ts and average re a d in g grade sco res of problem cases in read in g w ith and w ith o u t eye d e f e c ts . The r e la tio n s h i p between eye d e fe c ts and re a d in g achievem ent was analyzed from s e v e ra l v iew points. In th is study b i - s e r i a l c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts were found between th e average re a d in g grade scores o f e a c h o f th e problem reading groups w ith s p e c if ic eye d e fe c ts and average read in g grade sco res of Group C, the non-problem read in g group. The b i - s e r i a l c o r r e la tio n c o e ff ic ie n ts are shown in Table XXXVI. ?)lp TABLE X X X V I BI-SERIAL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETW EEN THE AVERAGE READING GRADE SCORES OF THE SPECIFIC EYE DEFECT PROBLEM READING GROUPS AND THOSE OF THE PROBLEM READING GROUPS WITHOUT EYE DEFECTS (N « 232 cases in Group C) Number B i - s e r i a l of Type o f c o r r e la tio n cases eye d e fe c t groups c o e f f ic ie n ts Group A Myopia R ight Eye -•11 + .06 58 L eft Eye -•05 + *°5 103 Both Eyes -.1 2 ± .06 ko T o tal Myopia -.09 ± .ok 201 V e r tic a l Imbalance 1 # 0 -j ± .08 21 C o -o rd in atio n Level 1 • 0 — '3 + .05 132 Hyperopia - . lij. .09 12 Monocular V ision -.1 5 .09 12 A stigm atism -.1 3 ± .11 7 Fus ion Near P oint -.0 5 ± .05 78 F ar Point -.1 0 + , .07 31 T otal Fusion -.0 8 ± .05 109 L a te ra l Imbalance Esophoria, F ar P o in t ■ * * 02 ± •09 15 Near P oint -.0 3 + .06 h5 Exophoria, F ar and Near Point -.0 9 + .11 6 T o tal L a te ra l Imbalance 1 • 0 t .06 66 TOTAL GROUP WITH EYE DEFECTS 1 • 0 CD ± .03 560 2k3 A ll the c o rre la tio n s obtained are very low (ranging from + .02 to -.1 5 ) and none o f them is s ig n i f ic a n t ly g re a te r than zero . This is tru e o f th e c o e f f ic ie n ts obtained fo r each o f the s p e c if ic groups c o r re la te d as w ell as f o r the group c o n ta in in g a l l th e p u p ils w ith eye d e f e c ts . The l a t t e r group contained a l l those s u b je c ts who f a i l e d on one or more of the te s ts in th e b a t te r y . These low and in s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts show th a t e ith e r the B etts Tests o f V isu al S en satio n and P ercep tio n a re n o t a p p re c ia b ly r e la te d to re a d in g a b i l i t y or th a t eye d e fe c ts o f the n a tu re te s te d by th is b a tte r y do n o t d is r u p t th e le a rn in g p ro cess in the case of re a d in g . In a study by Swanson and T iffin ^ b i - s e r i a l c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts were found between th e read in g sco res o f a non-problem re a d in g group and th e read in g sco res of groups w ith th e s p e c if ic d e fe c ts te s te d by th e B etts* b a t te r y . The su b je c ts used by Swanson and T if f in were freshmen of co lle g e le v e l. D espite the c o n tra s tin g le v e ls used the r e s u l t s of Swanson and T i f f i n fs study and th e p re se n t study a r e very s im ila r . The range of b i - s e r i a l c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts secured in the former stu d y was +.12 to -.1 7 w hile th a t o b tain ed in the p re se n t study was +.02 to -.1 5 . Furtherm ore, ® De. E. Swanson and J. T if f in , ‘’Betts* P h y sio lo g ic a l Approach to th e A nalysis of Beading D i s a b i l i t i e s as A pplied to th e C ollege L e v e l,” Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al R esearch, 29ib-3 5 ~k&f February, 193^. 2kk in both s tu d ie s th e r e s u l t i n g c o e f f ic ie n ts were very low. These low c o r r e la tio n s fo r b o th stu d ie s su g g est, th e re fo re , th a t the eye d e fe c ts measured by the B e t t s 1 t e s t s a re not s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d to read in g a b i l i t y a t the elem entary grade le v e l nor a t the co lleg e le v e l. R e la tio n sh ip between average read in g grade sc o re s and expectancy grades f o r groups w ith and w ith o u t eye d e f e c ts . In th is second stu d y the r e la tio n s h ip was found between ex pectancy grade sco res and average reading grade sco res f i r s t f o r Groups A and B, th e t o t a l eye d e fe c t group, then fo r Groups C and D, the t o t a l group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts , and f i n a l l y fo r each of the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups. In the f i r s t stu d y (d esc rib e d in the preceding paragraph) i t was found th a t eye d e fe c ts ap p a re n tly e x e rt l i t t l e n e g a tiv e in flu en ce on th e le a rn in g process in th e case o f re a d in g . I f th is h y p o th esis is c o rr e c t the fo llow ing h y p o th esis should lik e w ise be tr u e , namely, th a t the c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts between expectancy grades and average read in g grades fo r the e y e -d e fe c t groups and th e n o n -d e fe c tiv e group, in c lu d in g in bo th cases problem and non-problem p u p ils in re a d in g , should be very s im ila r . F urtherm ore, th e c o r r e la tio n s between ex pectancy grades and average read in g grades fo r each of the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups should a lso c lo s e ly approxim ate the c o r r e la tio n s f o r the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group and the t o t a l n o n -d e fe c tiv e group. In th e second stu d y p rese n ted in th is s e c tio n th ese in fe re n c e s were put to th e t e s t . The Pearson c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts o b tained are given in Table XXXVII. The c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts as given in Table XXXVII support th e hypotheses proposed In th e p receding paragraph. F i r s t , the c o e f f ic ie n ts f o r th e t o t a l eye d e fe c t group and the t o t a l n o n -d e fe c tiv e group are e x a c tly eq u a l, both being +.82 ± . 01. This was to be expected sin c e i t had been found t h a t eye d e fe c ts were n o t c lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith r e ta r d a tio n in read in g . Second, the c o e f f ic ie n ts f o r th e s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups a re a l l very clo se to +.82, w ith the ex c e p tio n o f those obtain ed fo r Near and Far P o in t Exophoria and f o r A stigm atism . That obtained fo r the form er was +.92 and f o r the l a t t e r , +.66. There were only fo u rte e n cases in the exophoric group. This may account fo r the extreme tre n d of th is c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t. Although th e c o e f f ic ie n t of +.66 is not so high as might be expected c o n sid e rin g the c o e f f ic ie n ts of the o th e r eye d e fe c t groups, i t s t i l l denotes a marked and s ig n i f ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip ^ between the expectancy grades and the average read in g grades o f th is group. I t does n o t seem s u f f i c i e n t l y low to show a tendency fo r a s t i g matism to a f f e c t read in g achievem ent. 9 G a rre tt, op. c i t . , p. 2 1 + 6 TABLE X X X V II PEARS O N CORRELATION CO EFFICIENTS BETWEEN EXPECTANCY GRADES AND AVERAGE READING GRADES OF EYE DEFECT GROUPS AND OF GROUPS HAVING NO EYE DEFECTS Type o f group Pearson c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t N T o tal Eye D efect Groups (A and B) +.82 ± .01 494 T otal N on-D efective Groups (C and D) +.82 + .01 506 Myopia Right Eye +.81 + .02 xi8 L e ft Eye +.82 ± .02 231 Both Eyes •*.82 + .03 82 T otal Myopia 4.81 ± .01 101 V e r tic a l Imbalance I — 1 C O • ± .03 49 C o -o rd in atio n Level 4.83 * .01 284 Hyperopia *.85 ± .03 34 Monocular V ision ♦•79 ± .05 23 Astigm atism +. 66 ± .08 22 Fusion F ar P oint 4.81 ± .03 69 Near P oint + .82 ± .02 152 T otal Fusion + .81 ± .02 221 L a te ra l Imbalance E sophoria, F ar P oint 4.83 ± .03 96 Near P oint 4.78 ± .03 43 Exophoria, F ar and Near P o in t + .92 4 . .03 14 T o tal L a te ra l Imbalance * 00 M 4 ; .02 153 2k7 Comparative study o f d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups and fo r the groups having no eye d e f e c t s . In th is phase o f the study, which is based on the r e s u l t s of the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g , the average d e v ia tio n s of the re a d in g sc o re s from the expectancy scores fo r each of the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups were c o n tra s te d w ith the average d ev ia tio n s of the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group and w ith the average d e v ia tio n s o f the group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts . In o th e r words, the achievem ent a tta in e d by c h ild re n w ith and w ithout eye d e fe c ts was compared and analyzed. The stu d y was undertaken as a check upon the r e s u l t s obtained in the two previous s t u d i e s . The f i r s t s te p in the study was to o b tain th e average d e v ia tio n from expectancy f o r Groups A and 3 3 , the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group. This was found to be - . 02. Then the average d e v ia tio n from expectancy f o r Groups C and D, th e t o t a l group w ith o u t eye d e f e c ts , was o b ta in ed . This was found to be + .02. A fte r se c u rin g th ese p re lim in a ry average d e v ia tio n s the s p e c if ic d ev ia tio n s f o r th e v a rio u s eye d e fe c t groups were found. The mean of the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r each s p e c if ic eye d e f e c t group was stu d ie d in a tw ofold manner. F i r s t , i t was c o n tra s te d w ith the mean of the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group. This mean o f the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group was the mean o b tained a f t e r the d e v ia tio n s fo r the re s p e c tiv e 248 eye d e fe c t group being s tu d ie d had been removed from the t o t a l . By th is is meant th a t the d e v ia tio n s fo r th e s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t group under c o n sid e ra tio n were withdrawn from the d e v ia tio n s o f the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group and the mean of th is l a t t e r group was then found a f t e r th e in flu e n c e of the p a r t i c u l a r eye d e fe c t on i t s d e v ia tio n s had been e lim in a te d . In th is way i t was p o s s ib le to a s c e r ta in the e f f e c t o f any p a r t i c u l a r eye d e fe c t upon achievem ent in read in g because the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r th a t p a r t i c u l a r eye de f e c t group were c o n tra ste d w ith the mean of the t o t a l group from which had been e lim in a te d the e f f e c ts of the re s p e c tiv e eye d e fe c t. A fte r th e means o f the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r the re s p e c tiv e eye d e fe c t groups had been c o n tra s te d w ith th e g en e ra l means o f the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group, a second study was made by c o n tra s tin g each o f the former means w ith the mean o f th e t o t a l group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts . This second study was made in o rd er to a s c e r ta in w hether th e two means v/ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y d if f e r e n t, and, th e re fo r e , whether the re s p e c tiv e eye d e fe c t had s i g n i f i c a n t l y ex erted a n eg a tiv e in flu en c e upon the achievem ent of the group. The r e s u lt s of th is study a re given in Tables XXXVIII and XXXIX. The form ula used was th a t given by L in d q u is t ^ E. P. L in d q u ist, S t a t i s t i c a l A nalysis in Educa tio n a l R esearch (New York: Houghton M ifflin Company, 19^ 0 )> pp. 56 and- 57* 21+9 TABLE X X X V III COMPARISON OP THE M EA N DEVIATIONS PROM EXPECTANCY FOR EACH EYE DEFECT GROUP WITH THE M E A N DEVIATION FROM EXPECTANCY FOR THE TOTAL EYE DEFECT GROUP MINUS THE RESPECTIVE DEFECT DEVIATIONS Mean of .d ev iatio n from expectancy fo r the Type of eye d e fe c t group T o tal eye d e fe c t group minus the S p e c ific re s p e c tiv e eye d e fe c t d e fe c t D if f e r - d e v ia tio n s group ence t S ig n i f i cance le v e l N MYOPIA R ight Eye Mild Severe -.0 1 -.03 -.07 + .03 - • 06 00 - . J4 .8 61+ 67 55 L e ft Eye Mild Severe -.Olj. -.0 1 + .02 — . lL j. -.0 2 -.13 - .81 73 1+ 2 189 1+ 5 Both Eyes Mild Severe -.0 1 -.0 3 -.0 8 + .26 -.07 + .23 - ' 5k + .90 59 57 68 ll+ T o tal Myopia Mild Severe -.0 2 -.0 2 -.0 2 00 00 -.0 2 - .21 83 521+ 112 VERTICAL IM BALANCE Mild Severe -.0 1 -.0I4. -.19 + .10 -.1 8 + .39 -1 .0 k +1.98 30 5 28 21+ CO-ORDINATION LEVEL Mild Severe -.0 3 + .01 + .0I4. -.07 + .01 - • 06 + .07 - .66 91+ 51 85 201 HYPEROPIA L e ft Eye Right Eye Both Eyes -.0 2 -.0 2 -.03 -.2 6 + .01 + .13 — • 2 I4 . -.0 1 + .10 - •1+ 9 - ■09 * . 62 63 1 1 17 29 M ONO CULAR VISION -.0 2 -.0 8 -.0 6 - .26 80 25 250 TABLE X X X V III ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARISON OP THE M E A N DEVIATIONS PROM EXPECTANCY FOR EACH EYE DEFECT GROUP WITH THE M E A N DEVIATION PROM EXPECTANCY FOR THE TOTAL EYE DEFECT GROUP MINUS THE RESPECTIVE DEFECT DEVIATIONS Mean of d e v ia tio n from expectancy fo r the T otal eye d e fe c t group minus the S p e c ific S ig Type o f re s p e c tiv e eye n i f i eye d e fe c t d e fe c t d e fe c t D if f e r - cance group d e v ia tio n s group ence t le v e l N ASTIGMATISM i • o V N 1 ro - .2 4 -1 .0 5 30 22 FUSION F ar P oint Slow Fusion No Fus ion -.0 2 -.0 2 -.0 3 +.02 -.0 1 00 - .10 92 1)£ 21 Near P oint Slow Fusion No Fusion + .02 -.03 -•17 f.1 1 -.1 5 +.08 -1.61 + .1+9 11 63 115 37 T otal Fusion Slow Fusion No Fusion- + .01 -.03 -.1.3 +. 08 -.1 2 +.05 -1 .6 2 + .ij.i 11 68 163 581 Far and Near Fusion -.0 2 - .06 - .0 4 - -32 75 b9 LATERAL IM BALANCE Far P oint Mild: Esophoria Exophoria -.0 3 * .4.1 +.38 ♦1.35 18 9 S evere: E sophoria Exophoria -.0 1 -.03 -.1 1 + .35 -.1 0 -.3 2 - .62 * -99 5b 32 Near P oint Mild: Esophoria Exophoria -.0 1 - . 28 -.2 7 -1 .3 0 20 llj- S evere: Esophoria Exophoria 00 -.0 3 “ * iij- +.33 -.x if +.30 -1.1I+ - 1-37 26 17 80 13 251 TABLE XXXVIII (c o n tin u e d ) COMPARISON OP THE M E A N DEVIATIONS FROM EXPECTANCY FOR EACH EYE DEFECT GROUP WITH THE M EA N DEVIATION FRO M EXPECTANCY FOR THE TOTAL EYE DEFECT GROUP MINUS THE RESPECTIVE DEFECT DEVIATIONS Mean of d e v ia tio n from expectancy fo r the Type of eye d e fe c t group T otal eye d e fe c t group minus the re s p e c tiv e d e fe c t d e v ia tio n s S p e c ific eye d e fe c t D if f e r - group ence S ig n i f i cance le v e l N LATERAL IM BALANCE T o tal Mild Esophoria -.02 Exophoria T o tal Severe Esophoria -.01 Exophoria -.0 3 Far and Near P oint Esophoria -.02 Exophoria -.0 3 07 95 23 -.1 3 + •33 - . 0' + .3! -.1 2 ♦ .30 -.0 5 + -35 -X.30 20 +1.72 9 ■ -5k 7 + .88 3 n il 19 31 15 fo r o b ta in in g the s ig n ific a n c e of a d iffe re n c e in the means of independent sam ples. In Table XXXVIII the mean d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups are c o n tra s te d w ith the mean d e v ia tio n from expectancy fo r th e t o t a l eye d e fe c t group minus the re s p e c tiv e d e fe c t d e v ia tio n s . In th e f i r s t column are given the g e n e ra l means fo r the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group c o rre c te d f o r each eye d e fe c t; in the second column, the means fo r the re s p e c tiv e d e fe c t groups; in the t h i r d column, the d iffe re n c e between th e means; in the fo u rth column, the t o b tain ed f o r each d i f f e r ence; in the f i f t h column, the le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e fo r each t; and in the f i n a l and s ix th column, the number of cases involved in each group. Wone of the d iffe re n c e s ob ta in e d approaches s ig n ific a n c e w ith th e ex cep tio n of the severe v e r t i c a l imbalance group which shows a s ig n ific a n c e on the 5 P0 r cent le v e l. Since the mean f o r t h is group was a p o s itiv e fo u r, the s ig n ific a n c e of the 5 Per cent does n o t in d ic a te th a t th e v e r t i c a l imbalance d e fe c t ex e rted a n e g a tiv e in flu e n c e on the achievement of th is re s p e c tiv e group. I t r a th e r in d ic a te s th a t th is group achieved s ig n i f ic a n t ly h ig h e r r e s u l t s than the o th e r d e fe c t groups. Why th is has happened cannot be determ ined. Table XXXIX p re se n ts the r e s u lt s o f th e comparison b e tween the mean d ev iatio n s from expectancy f o r the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups and the mean d e v ia tio n from expectancy fo r 2 5 5 TABLE XXXIX COMPARISON O P TH E M E A N DEVIATIONS FR O M EXPECTANCY FOR EACH EYE DEFECT GROUP W ITH TH E M E A N DEVIATION FR O M EXPECTANCY FOR TH E TOTAL GROUP W ITHOUT EYE DEFECTS Mean of d e v ia tio n from expectancy f o r th e S p e c ific S ig Type of T o tal group eye n i f i eye d e fe c t w ithout d e fe c t D if fe r- cance group eye d e fe c ts group ence t le v e l N MYOPIA Right Eye Mild + .02 -.0 7 -.05 - •37 71 67 Severe + .02 + .05 * + .01 + .11 91 55 L e ft Eye Mild + .02 + .02 00 --- 189 Severe + .02 -.llj. -.1 2 - • 73 47 43 Both Eyes Mild + .02 -.0 8 -.06 - •45 65 68 Severe + .02 + .26 + .2 If + • 94 35 14 T otal Myopia Mild + .02 -.0 2 00 — - - 324 Severe + .02 ' 00 + .02 + .20 84 112 VERTICAL IM BALANCE Mild + • 02 -•19 - •97 33 28 Severe + .02 -.4 3 + .1^1 +2 .09 4 24 CO-ORDINATION LEVEL Mild + .02 + .0l|. + .02 + .20 84 83 Severe + .02 -.07 -.05 - .58 56 201 HYPEROPIA L e ft Eye + .02 -.2 6 - .21}. - • 48 63 5 Right Eye + .02 + .01 + .01 + •59 93 17 Both Eyes + .02 + .15 + .11 + .67 51 29 M O N O CU LA R VISION • o ro 1 . 0 CO 1 • 0 ON - • 24 81 23 2 5 k TABLE XXXIX (c o n tin u e d ) COMPARISON O F TH E M E A N DEVIATIONS FR O M EXPECTANCY FOR EACH EYE DEFECT G RO UP WITH.THE M E A N DEVIATION FR O M EXPECTANCY FOR TH E TOTAL GROUP WITHOUT EYE DEFECTS Mean of d e v ia tio n from expectancy fo r the S p e c ific Type o f T otal group eye eye d e fe c t w ithout d e fe c t group eye d e fe c ts group D iffe r- ence t S ig - n i f i - cance le v e l N ASTIGMATISM + • 02 i ro 1 r o V J l -1 .1 0 27 22 FUSION F ar P oint Slow Fusion *.02 -.03 -.0 1 - .08 9k lj.8 No Fus ion + .02 + .02 00 — 21 Near P oint Slow Fusion + .02 -.17 -.15 -1.65 10 115 No Fusion + .02 + .11 + .09 * -3k 59 37 T o tal Fusion Slow Fusion + .02 -.1 3 -.1 1 -1.30 * 'kk 19 l 6 3 No Fusion +. 02 + .08 +. 06 66 58 F ar and Near Point + .02 -.0 6 0 • 1 - .28 78 k9 LATERAL IM BALANCE F ar Point M ild: Esophoria + .02 +. I4.I * • 3 9 +1.58 17 9 Exophoria + .02 — — — — — — S evere: Esophoria + .02 - .1 1 -.09 - - 3 7 57 3k Exophoria + .02 + .35 + .33 *1.00 32 6 Near P oint M ild: Esophoria + .02 C O O J • 1 -.2 6 -1.25 21 lk Exophoria + .02 — — “ T — — — — — — S evere: Esophoria + .02 - .1 4 -.1 2 - .97 3k 80 Exophoria + .02 * • 3 3 + .31 + 1.IJ.1 16 13 255 TABLE X X X IX ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARISON OP THE MEAN D EVIATIO N S PROM EXPECTANCY FOR EACH EYE DEFECT GROUP W ITH THE MEAN D E V IA TIO N PROM EXPECTANCY FOR THE TOTAL GROUP WITHOUT EYE DEFECTS Type of eye d e fe c t group Mean of d ev ia tio n from expectancy fo r the S p e c ific T otal group eye w ithout d efec t eye d e fe c ts group D if fe r ence t S ig n i f i cance le v e l N LA TER A L IM B A L A N C E T otal Mild Esophoria + .02 - .0 1 + .01 + .07 9b 25 Exophoria + .02 — — — — — — — — — ' — T otal Severe Esophoria + .02 -.13 - .1 1 -1 .0 7 29 Ilij. Exophoria + .02 + .33 + .31 +1.73 9 19 Far and Near Esophoria Point + .02 -.07 -.05 -.31 76 31 Exophoria + .02 +.38 + .36 + .89 57 5 the t o t a l group w ithout eye d e fe c ts . In th is ta b le f i r s t the mean fo r the t o t a l group w ithout eye d e fe c ts i s given , then the mean of the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t group. This is follow ed by the d iffe r e n c e between th e means, th e t, the le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e , and the number o f cases in each group. An examation of the ta b le shows that w ith the excep tion o f the sev ere v e r t ic a l imbalance group none o f the means o f d ev ia tio n from expectancy fo r any o f the eye d e fe c t groups d iffe r s s ig n if ic a n t ly from the mean o f the t o t a l group w ith out eye d e fe c ts . This means, in other words, th a t the ch ild ren w ith th e variou s types of eye d efects given in the ta b le achieved as much in reading as the ch ild ren who did not have eye d e fe c ts . I t a ls o means th a t the eye d efe c ts measured by the B e t t s ! Tests o f S en sation and P erception do not seem to be ap p reciab ly r e la te d to reading achievem ent. These r e s u lts confirm the r e s u lts obtained w ith the b i- s e r i a l c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t s between reading achievem ent and eye d e fe c ts th a t are given in the f i r s t study of th is s e r i e s . ^ They a ls o confirm the r e s u lts of the Pearson c o r r e la tio n co e f f ic ie n t s between expectancy and reading achievem ent th a t are given in the second study o f th is s e r i e s . ^ In th is second study the astigm atism group had a s li g h t ly low er Sugra, pp. 2lf2-l0. 12 Supra, pp. 2 5 7 c o r r e la tio n than the other eye d e fe c t groups which may have in d ica ted a s lig h t tendency fo r astigm atism to cause r e ta rd a tio n in reading. This tendency i s not confirm ed in the present study, however, as the d iffe r e n c e in mean d ev ia tio n from expectancy fo r the astigm atism group and for the t o t a l eye d e fe c t group is n ot s ig n if ic a n t and the d iffe r e n c e is a ls o not s ig n if ic a n t for the mean d ev ia tio n o f th a t group and the t o t a l group w ithout eye d e f e c t s . Summary of r e s u lts obtained from the stu d ie s based on the r e s u lts of the i n i t i a l t e s tin g of v is u a l f a c t o r s . The r e s u lts obtained from the i n i t i a l te s tin g were c r i t i c a l l y analyzed from a fo u rfo ld view point in order to d isco v er whether any r e la tio n s h ip e x is t s between eye d e fe c ts and reading achievem ent. B i- s e r ia l c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t s were found between the average reading grade sco res o f the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups and the non-problem group in reading. Pearson c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t s were found b e tween the expectancy grades and the average reading grades o f the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t groups and the groups w ithout eye d e fe c ts . The d ev ia tio n s from expectancy fo r the r e sp e c tiv e eye d e fect groups were a ls o compared w ith the d ev ia tio n s of the to ta l eye d e fe c t group and w ith the d e v ia tio n s o f the t o t a l group w ithout eye d e fe c ts . The r e s u lts o f the fo u r fo ld study were c o n s is te n t in showing th a t apparently no r e la tio n s h ip e x is ts between eye 258 d e fe c ts as measured by the B etts r V isu a l S en sation and Per cep tion T ests and achievem ent in reading. The d iffe r e n c e s in achievem ent for the r e s p e c tiv e groups having eye d efe c ts and the groups w ithout eye d e fe c ts were n ot s ig n if ic a n t fo r any of the s p e c if ic types o f d e fe c ts . While the r e sp e c tiv e d e fe c ts may be a hindrance to reading "in in d iv id u a l cases by causing e y e str a in and discom fort they do n ot n e c e s s a r ily d isru p t the lea rn in g p r o c e s s ." ^ However, even a fte r de t a ile d comparative s tu d ie s , comprehensive and co n clu siv e g e n e r a liz a tio n s cannot be made because of the im p o s s ib ility of determ ining how much more the non-problem reading group w ith eye d e fe c ts might have achieved i f they had n ot been handicapped by th e ir r e sp e c tiv e eye d e f e c t s . ^ Furthermore, i t is im possib le to determ ine to what ex ten t "capacity fo r com pensation1 1 has a ffe c te d both the problem and the non problem groups having eye d e f e c t s .^5 *5 M . Monroe, C hildren W ho Cannot Head (Chicago: The U n iv ersity o f Chicago P ress, 1933)> p. 8l . lij- R. M . Bear, "The Dartmouth Program for D iagn ostic and Remedial Reading w ith S p e cia l Reference to V isu al F actors," E ducational Record Supplement 2 0 , 12:69-88, January, 1939* ^5 E. A. B e tts , "Expectancy o f Achievement in Reading A c t iv it ie s ," V isu a l D ig e s t, September-November, 1939- W itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , p. 2 2 9 . H. A. Imus, J. W . RotEney, and R. M . Bear, An Evalua tio n o f V isu al Factors in Reading (Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth P rin tin g Company, 1939 )> P* 2 5 9 IV. INFLUENCE OF EY E DEFECTS O N A C H IEV EM EN T IN A R EM ED IA L READING P R O G R A M A f in a l study was made of the r e la tio n s h ip between eye d e fe c ts and achievem ent in reading w ith the r e s u lts ob ta in ed a t the end o f the rem edial reading program. While the program was in s e s s io n the ch ild ren w ith and w ithout eye d e fe c ts in the r e s p e c tiv e sch o o ls were taught according to - the same tech n iq u es. In order to determ ine whether any type of eye d e fe c t might have retarded the r e sp e c tiv e p u p ils in th e ir achievem ent, an alyses o f the n et gain over expectancy were made at the con clu sion of the program fo r the equated groups w ith and w ithout eye d e fe c ts . The j:’s and le v e ls o f s ig n ific a n c e are given fo r the mean d iffe r e n c e s of each s p e c if ic d e fe c t in Table XL. A ccording to the r e s u lts obtained in th is study the p u p ils in Group A (p u p ils w ith eye d e f e c t s ) , were not s i g n if ic a n t ly retarded in th e ir achievem ent because o f any type o f eye d e fe c t. Although the mean d iffe r e n c e , and con se quently the t, was g rea ter in many in sta n ces fo r Group C, the p u p ils w ithout eye d e fe c ts , in no in sta n ce was th is d iffe r e n c e s ig n if ic a n t a t e ith e r the 5 Per cen t or the 1 per cent le v e ls . The _t o f 2 .0 fo r the slow fu sio n group a t near p oin t was the only t th a t tended to approach s ig n ific a n c e . This _ t was s ig n if ic a n t a t the 6 per cen t le v e l in favor of the C group, th at i s , th e group w ithout eye d e fe c ts . 260 TABLE XL AN ALYSIS OF THE NET GAINS OVER EXPECTANCY AT THE END OF THE REMEDIAL READING PROGRAMS FOR EQUATED PROBLEM READING GROUPS W ITH AND WITHOUT EYE DEFECTS Type o f eye d e fect Mean gain fo r Group A Mean gain fo r Group C Mean o f the d if f e r ences t S ig n i f i cance le v e l N M Y O PIA Right Eye Mild . 6 • / .1 .h 69 20 Severe . 6 • o 0 - - 16 L eft Eye Mild . 6 . 6 0 1 + 7 Severe . 6 . 6 0 ■ - - - - 11 Both Eyes Mild • 5 • 7 .2 • 9 37 22 Severe 1-5 • 9 - . 6 1 .0 50 1 T otal Myopia Mild . 6 • 6 0 -- — 89 Severe .6 . 6 0 -------- — 28 VERTICAL IM B A L A N C E Mild • j • k .1 • 3 76 8 Severe • O .6 - .2 .6 63 3 CO-ORDINATION LEVEL Mild •5 •7 .2 l . k 17 Severe •5 .6 .1 71 1 + 9 HYPEROPIA L eft Eye .1 -•5 - . 6 1-5 57 2 R ight Eye •3 •5 .2 •5 & U Both Eyes •5 •4 - .1 •5 6 1 ). 6 M O N O C U L A R VISION -k • 5 .1 .8 lj.6 8 ASTIGM ATISM .8 l . l •5 1 .6 19 5 26l TABLE X L ( c o n tin u e d ) AN ALYSIS OF THE NET GAINS OVER EXPECTANCY AT THE END OF THE REMEDIAL READING PROGRAMS FOR EQUATED PROBLEM READING GROUPS W ITH AND WITHOUT EYE DEFECTS Type of eye d e fe c t Mean gain fo r Group A Mean gain fo r Group C Mean of the d i f f e r ences t S ig - n i f i - cance le v e l H FUSION F ar P oint Slow Fusion • [ • * 2 - . 2 .6 12 No Fusion • O • 0 .2 .8 48 7 Near P oint Slow Fusion • 3 . 6 •3 2 .0 6 50 No Fusion •7 . 6 - . 1 •5 64 13 T o tal Fusion Slow Fusion •4 •5 .1 1.1 27 b2 No Fusion •7 •7 0 — — 20 F ar and Near P o in t .5 . 6 .1 •4 67 ilf LATERAL IM BALANCE Fan P oint Mild: Esophoria Exophoria Exophoria SevererEsophoria .6 .6 0 - - - - - 10 Exophoria .8 1. Ip .6 .8 49 2 Near Point Mild: Esophoria .3 «3 0 — — 3 S evere:E sophoria .6 .7 .1 l.lj. 18 2 Exophoria .6 .7 *1 *4 68 262 TABLE XL ( c o n tin u e d ) ANALYSIS OF THE NET GAINS OVER EXPECTANCY AT THE END OF THE REMEDIAL READING PROGRAMS FOR EQUATED PROBLEM READING GROUPS W ITH AND WITHOUT EYE DEFECTS Mean Mean Mean S ig - , gain gain of the n i f i - Type of fo r fo r d i f f e r cance eye d e fe c t Group A Group C ences t le v e l N LATERAL IM BALANCE T o tal Mild Esophoria •3 •5 0 - - - - 3 Exophoria ~ — T o tal Severe Esophoria . 6 • 7 . i 1 .2 35 Exophoria .6 • 9 •3 1 .0 38 6 F ar and Near P oint Esophoria • [ • 7 0 - - — 8 Exophoria • U 1 .4 . 6 .8 k9 2 263 T herefore, the p u p ils who had tro u b le w ith slow fu sio n a t read in g d is ta n c e tended to show lower n e t gains over expect-, ancy than t h e i r equated p a irs who d id n o t have eye d e fe c ts . This is the only eye d e fe c t th a t seemed to r e ta r d the eye d e fe c t group in th e ir achievem ent du rin g the rem edial read in g program. The r e s u lts obtained in t h i s stu d y as w e ll as those obtained in the s tu d ie s p re v io u sly re p o rte d show th a t when the achievem ent in read in g of p u p ils w ith and w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts is compared ap p a re n tly the eye d e fe c ts do n o t r e ta r d the former group as t h e i r achievem ent is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d if f e r e n t from th a t obtained by th e l a t t e r group. V. CRITICAL. ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN EYE DEFECTS A N D READING ACHIEVEMENT AS SH O W N IN THE DATA OBTAINED FOR THE SUPERIORITY OF THE MOTIVATING A N D THE PHONETIC TECHNIQUES In Chapter V i t was found th a t fo r the programs w ith out p h o n etic p r a c tic e , th a t i s , f o r Programs I and I I I , n e ith e r the type of m a te ria l n o r the type of m o tiv atio n used seemed to have e ffe c te d s u p e rio r achievem ent. However, in Program IV, o f the two phonetic programs, e i t h e r the m a te ria l and m o tiv atio n used, or the phonetic p ra c tic e given, or the in flu e n c e o f a l l th re e fa c to rs combined enabled the p u p ils under t h i s program to achieve more s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u l t s than t h e ir equated p a irs in Programs I and I I . In Chapter V no attem p t was made to determ ine whether or n o t eye d e fe c ts had any p o ssib le r e la tio n s h ip w ith the r e s u l t s o b ta in e d . This problem i s , th e re fo r e , analyzed in the p re se n t s e c tio n . The d ata obtain ed fo r determ ining the r e l a t i v e i n f l u ence o f eye d e fe c ts on the s u p e r io r ity of the programs are shown in Table XLI. The d ata a re c o n s is te n t in showing th a t the group w ithout eye d e fe c ts (Group C) always a tta in e d s ig n i f ic a n t achievem ent. The t o f 1.2 fo r Group A was n o t s ig n i f i c a n t fo r the c o n tra s tin g a n a ly s is between the I n t e r e s t ( I and I I ) and th e F a c tu a l ( I I I and IV) Programs. However, th e t of 2.2 was s i g n i f i c a n t f o r Group C, the group w ithout eye d e fe c ts . I t was s i g n i f i c a n t on th e 3 Pe r cent le v e l. This percentage is c lo s e ly s im ila r to th a t o f 2 per ce n t which was o b tained fo r th e g en eral a n a ly s is in Chapter V .1^ In the a n a ly s is o f Program I versus Program I I I p rese n ted in Table XLI, n e i th e r t was s ig n i f ic a n t . These r e s u l t s a re a lso in harmony w ith those o b tained in Chapter V. ^ The l a s t study given in Table XLI lik e w ise c lo s e ly -j Q agrees w ith th e r e s u lt s obtain ed in Chapter V. F u rth e r more, i t in d ic a te s th a t ag a in the group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts Su£ra, p. 156. ■ * * ? S upra, p. 156. S upra, p. 156. 265 TABLE XLI THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF EYE DEFECTS O N THE SUPERIORITY OF THE PROGRAM S (N = 35 ca se3 in each group o f eaoh program) Mean gain of the programs Mean of the d iffe re n c e s t S ig n ific a n c e le v e l Program Group Group A C Group Group A C Group Group A C Group Group A C I arid I I I and 11 .5 .6 iv .6 .8 .1 .2 1.2 2 .2 25 3 I I I I • 5 -5 .6 .7 C \J • iH • .6 1.3 57 21 I I .5 .6 .2 .2 l . l 1 .8 29 8 IV .7 .8 has a tendency toward s u p e rio r achievem ent. Although the le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e o f 8 per c e n t does n o t show marked r e la tio n s h ip i t does in d ic a te a tendency toward r e la tio n s h ip . The d ata fo r determ ining th e r e l a t i v e in flu e n c e of eye d e fe c ts in th e programs w ith phonetic tr a in i n g a re given in Table XLII. The tendency f o r th e group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts to achieve th e superior r e s u lt s is ag a in shown in th is stu d y . When Groups I and I I were c o n tra s te d the means fo r Group A were equal and the t fo r Group C was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . When Groups I and IV were c o n tra s te d , Group C, the group w ith o u t eye d e f e c ts , had a t o f 2 .1 , which was s ig n i f ic a n t a t the I} , per c e n t le v e l. In the s tu d ie s of Group I I versus Group I I I and of Group I I I versus Group IV n e ith e r t was s ig n i f ic a n t . The r e s u lts fo r the l a s t study, namely the c o n tra s tin g a n a ly s is of Group I I versus Group IV were a lre a d y noted in th e preced in g paragraph. The r e s u lts fo r the s ig n ific a n c e of programs In the stu d ie s of t h i s s e c tio n ag ree c lo se ly with th e g en eral r e s u lt s obtained in Chapter V. These s tu d ie s show, f u r t h e r more, th a t th e re was a c o n s is te n t tendency fo r Group C, the group w ith o u t eye d e f e c ts , to have achieved the su p e rio r r e s u l t s . In th e study re p o rte d in the l a s t s e c tio n d e a lin g w ith the in flu e n c e of the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c ts on the achievem ent of the problem cases in read in g , i t was d i s covered th a t the p u p ils w ith slow fu sio n a t read in g d ista n c e 267 TABLE XLII THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF EYE DEFECTS IN THE PROGRAM S WITH PHONETIC TRAINING (N = 35 oases in each group of each program) Main gain o f Mean o f the S ig n ific a n c e the pr ograms d iffe re n c e s t le v e l Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Program A G A G A G A C I •5 «5 0 .1 .6 57 I I .5 .6 i •5 •5 k .8 .2 •5 1.2 2.1 25 IV • 7 I I •5 . 6 -k .1 .1 . 6 72 52 II I .6 •7 11 • 5 . 6 1.1 1.8 .8 .2 .2 29 8 IV •7 I I I .6 • 7 .1 .1 • 7 1.2 50 2k IV •7 . 8 seemed to have improved le s s during the rem edial read in g programs .than th e i r equated p a irs w ith o u t eye d e f e c t s . ^ Perhaps th is may ex p lain the r e s u l t s o b tained in the s tu d ie s ju s t re p o rte d . Perhaps i t may have been th is fu sio n group th a t caused th e p u p ils w ith eye d e fe c ts c o n s is te n tly to be i n f e r i o r to t h e i r equated p a irs in Group C. VI. COMPARISON O P THE DATA OBTAINED IN THE PRESENT INVESTI GATION WITH THOSE OBTAINED BY OTHER INVESTIGATORS V isu al e f f ic ie n c y d e f e c ts . The d ata obtained f o r the v is u a l e f f ic ie n c y r a tin g s in th is in v e s tig a tio n a re in clo se agreement w ith the r e s u lts secured by most in v e s tig a to r s . In th is in v e s tig a tio n the myopic d e fe c t occurred w ith more s ig n i f ic a n t frequency among th e problem cases in read in g PO than among the non-problem c a ses. Although F endrick and Pi Wagner^4 - have n o t in d ic a te d the type of d e fe c t they have re p o rte d a s im ila r tre n d , namely> th a t d e fe c ts in v is u a l a c u ity occurred-m ore fre q u e n tly among the poor read ers than •* ■ 9 Supra, pp. 259? 26l . P. F endrick, V isu al C h a ra c te ris tic s of Poor Readers (Teachers College C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No. 656, New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1935 P* hi* ^ G. W . Wagner, r,The M aturation o f C e rta in V isual F unctions and the R e la tio n sh ip Between These F unctions and Success in Reading and A rith m e tic ,” P sych o lo g ical Monographs, U n iv e rsity of Iowa S tu d ies in Psychology, No. XXI (Prince*- ton, New Je rse y : P sychological Review Company, 1930), p. 137* 2 6 9 among the normal read e rs of t h e ir in v e s tig a tio n s . As an a d d itio n a l a n a ly sis Fendrick found th e r e l a t i o n sh ip between th e v is u a l a c u ity d e fe c ts and the degree of read in g d i s a b i l i t y . Wagner d id n o t attem p t th is a n a ly s is in h is stu d y . In t h i s in v e s tig a tio n , however, th e r e la tio n s h ip was analyzed. The r e s u l t s obtained a re in harmony w ith those of F endrick which showed th a t th e re probably is no r e la tio n s h ip between any of the types o f v is u a l a c u ity de fe c ts and th e degree of r e ta r d a tio n in read in g . W itty and pp Kopel lik e w ise made a com parative study of the degree of r e ta r d a tio n of the d e f ic ie n t a c u ity and am etropia groups and the poor re a d e rs . Although th ey found th ese r e s p e c tiv e eye d e fe c t groups to have the la r g e s t d e v ia tio n s from th e grade norms of a l l the eye d e fe c t groups s tu d ie d , they claim th a t the d e v ia tio n o f -.1 2 grade was so sm all th a t i t could h a rd ly be s a id to in d ic a te the presence o f a g e n e ra l fa c to r th a t co n trib u te d to poor read in g . A ll the stu d ie s so f a r re p o rte d in d ic a te the same g en e ra l tr e n d ,— th a t alth o u g h re ta rd e d re a d e rs seem to have more v is u a l a c u ity d e fe c ts th an normal read e rs they a re not more s ig n i f ic a n t ly re ta rd e d in th e degree o f th e ir read in g d i s a b i l i t y than o th e r p u p ils . This tre n d is co rro b o ra ted by W itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , pp. 222- 30. M o n ro e ^ 3 who concluded from h er study " th a t la c k of v is u a l a c u ity was n o t found to be a h ig h ly fre q u e n t cause . . . and did n o t d is tin g u is h the re a d in g -d e fe c t groups from o th er groups of c h ild re n who did n o t have read in g d i f f i c u l t i e s . " Stromberg^* a ls o re p o rte d th a t a c u ity fa c to rs a re n o t r e la te d to re a d in g e f f ic ie n c y . The only study th a t d isa g re ed w ith th is g e n e ra l tr e n d is th a t made b y F a r r i s . ^5 He found in h is study th a t the c h ild re n w ith hyperopia and strabism us d e fe c ts made le s s than normal progress- in re a d in g and th a t the c h ild re n w ith myopia and myopic astig m atism made more than normal p ro g ress in re a d in g . P a r r i s 1 study was made w ith p u p ils o n .th e seventh grade le v e l only. This f a c t may account f o r the apparent d isc re p a n c ie s between h is r e s u l t s , those of the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n , and those o f the o th e r in v e s tig a tio n s in d ic a te d in th e previous paragraphs. Muscle imbalance and fu sio n d e f e c t s . Very few w orth w hile com parative d ata are a v a ila b le f o r the v e r t i c a l imbalance group. Most in v e s tig a to r s to d ate have found th is d e fe c t to occur in fre q u e n tly ; th e re fo r e , they have n o t 23 Monroe, op. c i t ., p. 80. E. L. Strom berg, "The R e la tio n sh ip of Measures o f V isu al A cuity and Ametropia to Reading Speed," Jo u rn al o f A pplied Psychology, 22:70-78, February, 1958. 25 L. P. B ’a r r i s , "V isual D efects as F acto rs In flu e n c ing Achievement in R eading," Jo u rn al of E xperim ental E d u catio n , 5 :58- 60, September^ 1936. 271 included re p o rts on th is d e fe c t in t h e i r s tu d ie s . The e f f e c t o f the l a t e r a l imbalance d e fe c ts o f exophoria and esophoria on read in g achievem ent i s s t i l l a moot q u e stio n . F e n d r ic k ^ and W itty and Kopel^? a re the only in v e s tig a to rs who have found no r e la tio n s h ip w hatsoever between l a t e r a l imbalance and r e ta r d a tio n in re a d in g . In o q h is f i r s t re p o rt C lark p rese n ted evidence th a t th e re were very sm all and s t a t i s t i c a l l y in s i g n if l e a n t d iffe re n c e s b e tween th e ’‘norm al” read e rs and th e exophores in h is study. In a second re p o rt published the n ex t y ea r G la r k ^ concluded th a t th e la rg e divergence movements of the s u b je c ts in h is study w ith high b in o c u la r imbalance probably would cause enough fa tig u e to be im portant in a rem edial re a d in g program. C lark, th e re fo re , f i n a l l y does admit th a t a severe exophoric c o n d itio n may have some b e a rin g on achievement in read in g . F a r r i s ^ found t h a t only the s tra b is m ic group among h is su b je c ts made le s s th a n norm al progress in read in g 26 F endrick, op. c l t . , p. lj.7. W itty and Kopel,- op. c i t . , pp. 226- 2 7 * B. C lark, “The E ff e c t of B inocular Imbalance on the Behavior of th e Eyes During R ead in g ,“ Jo u rn a l of E d u catio n al Psychology, 26:53-38, O ctober, 1935* 29 B. C lark, “A d d itio n a l Data on B inocular Imbalance and R eading,” Jo u rn al of E d u catio n al Psychology, 2 7 :i4 - 73* “ 75^ September, 193^ "* 3^ F a r r is , op. c i t . , p. 59* 272 whereas W agner^ re p o rte d th a t only th e eso p h o ric group in h is study were re ta rd e d in read in g . Although th e th re e in v e s tig a to rs ju s t mentioned have n o t a s s o c ia te d a l l types of l a t e r a l imbalance d e fe c ts w ith r e ta r d a tio n in re a d in g a l l th re e have found some r e la tio n s h ip e x is tin g between s p e c if ic a sp e c ts o f t h is d e fe c t and le s s than normal progress in read in g . Selzer^ and E a m e s , wk 0 m ade the p io n e er stu d ie s of th is problem, are both very d e f in it e in t h e i r co n c lu sio n s. S e lz e r claim ed th a t "c o n d itio n s of muscle imbalance and a lte r n a ti n g of v is io n , in a d d itio n to a la c k of fu sio n . . . accounts fo r such re a d in g d i s a b i l i t i e s as a r e not accounted fo r-b y g en e ra l m ental d i s a b i l i t y . " Eames showed very d e f in it e and " s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e and s i g n i f i c a n t ” d i f f e r ences fo r th e re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y cases who had an exophoric c o n d itio n a t read in g d is ta n c e . Good^-t- in a more re c e n t stu d y a ls o very d e f i n i t e l y claim s th a t imbalances accompany d i f f i c u l t y in le a rn in g to read and th a t a f t e r c o rre c tiv e Wagner, op. c i t . , pp. I3O-3I. C. A. S e lz e r, L a te ra l Dominance and V isual Fusion (Harvard Education Monographs, Ho. 12, Cambridge: Harvard Education P re ss, 1 9 3 5 P* $5 * 35 T. H. Eames, "A Comparison o f Ocular C h a ra c te ris t i c s of U nselected and Reading D is a b ility Groups," Jo u rn al of E ducational R esearch, 2 5 : 211- 15, March, 1932. 3^- G. H. Good, "R e la tio n sh ip of Fusion Weakness to Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” Jo u rn a l of Experim ental E d u c a tio n , 8 : 115- 21, September, 1959* 273 o c u la r trea tm en t for th is d e fe c t marked improvement in read in g fo llo w s. Marked muscle imbalances produce most of the fu sio n d i f f i c u l t i e s . Double or b lu rre d v is io n occurs because of the d e v ia tio n s on the r e t i n a l images. This n e c e s s ita te s com p en satio n which a p p a re n tly r e s u l t s in f a tig u e , s t r a i n , n ervousness, or confusion. These co n d itio n s in tu rn h a n d i cap the c h ild re n in t h e i r e f f o r ts to le a r n to re a d . In cases where th e re is no fu sio n a t a l l th e tro u b le is caused e ith e r by b lin d n e ss in one eye or by th e sup p ressio n o f one of the eyes. The r e s u l t s fo r the monocular v isio n group in th is in v e s tig a tio n are found in the n ex t s e c tio n . The groups w ith v ario u s types of l a t e r a l imbalance and the fu sio n groups in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n were n o t more s ig n i f ic a n t ly r e ta rd e d in t h e i r re a d in g achievem ent th an o th e r eye d e fe c t groups or than the non-problem read in g groups w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts . However, th e re was a s i g n i f i c a n t tendency f o r th e achievem ent o f th e fu sio n group during the rem edial reading program to be in f e r i o r when t h e i r r e s u lt s were c o n tra s te d w ith o th e r eye d e fe c t groups. The r e s u l t s of t h i s in v e s tig a tio n , th e re fo re , are more in agreement w ith the conclusions reached by F en d rick , W itty and Kopel, namely, th a t th e re is very l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip between l a t e r a l im balances and achievement in re a d in g . The n e g a tiv e r e la tio n s h ip s re p o rte d 27k by S e lz e r , Eames, Wagner, F a r r is , and Good were n o t found in th is in v e s tig a tio n . Monocular v is i o n . C hildren w ith monocular v is io n are e ith e r b lin d in one eye or they suppress one o f the eyes. In t h i s in v e s tig a tio n th e d iffe re n c e s in achievement fo r th is group and the fu sio n , l a t e r a l imbalance groups, as w ell as a l l o th e r eye d e fe c t groups and the group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts , a re n o t s ig n i f ic a n t . Farris 55 found in h is stu d y th a t the p u p ils whose v is u a l p erce p tio n was monocular made progress in re a d in g s u p e rio r to those n o t having c o rre c t c o -o rd in a tio n of the two eyes. I t is alm ost f u t i l e to attem p t a p o s s ib le ex p lan atio n f o r th e r e s u l t s F a r r is ob ta in e d . One might p o ssib ly wonder w hether c h ild re n approach ing the a d o le sc e n t le v e l have as much and as stro n g com pensating power as o th e r c h ild re n . C o -o rd in atio n le v e l d e f e c t s . A high degree of binocu l a r c o -o rd in a tio n enables the in d iv id u a l to have depth p e rc e p tio n or s te r e o p s is . r,Although depth p e rc e p tio n is n o t re q u ire d f o r read in g on the u su a l f l a t s u rfa c e , the degree of fu sio n re q u ire d f o r depth p e rc e p tio n is e s s e n ti a l to ra p id read in g on the u su al f l a t s u r f a c e . 1 1 ^ Strom berg found 35 F a r r is , op. c i t . , p. 59* 3^ E. A. B e tts , ”A P h y sio lo g ic a l Approach to the A nalysis of Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s , ” E d u catio n al R esearch B u l le t in . 1 3 : 1 6 5 - 7 O ctober, 1934« in h is s t u d y ^ of the r e la tio n s h ip between th e fa c to rs measured by the B e t t s 1 V isu al S en satio n and P ercep tio n T ests to speed in reading th a t depth p e rc e p tio n was n o t r e la te d to . reading e f f ic ie n c y . The d a ta o b tained in th is stu d y support the r e s u l t s obtain ed by Strom berg. No r e la tio n s h ip v/as found betv/een r e ta r d a tio n in read in g and lack of s te re o p s is power. T o tal number of eye d e fe c t c a s e s . In the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n , when a l l types of eye d e fe c ts were considered c o l le c tiv e ly , th e d iffe re n c e in th e means fo r th is group and the group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . S im ila r r e s u l t s were obtained by Imus,^^ Farris,59 an(^ W i t t y . ^ W agner^ is the only in v e s tig a to r who has reached an o th er co n clu sio n . Wagner in fe r re d as fo llo w s, the d iffe re n c e s in v is u a l fu n c tio n in g between good and poor read e rs a re sm all, and in some c a se s , perhaps, due to chance. However, the f a c t th a t in alm ost every case the d iffe re n c e fav o rs the good read e rs supports the gen eral hyp o th esis th a t v is u a l i n e f f i c i e n c i e s , as r e vealed by the B e tts b a tte r y , are b a s ic a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith poor reading a t the age le v e ls considered in th is stu d y . (K indergarten to Grade 6 in c lu s iv e ) 37 Strom berg, op. c i t . , p. 77. imus, op. c i t . , p. 122. 39 F a r r is , op. c i t . , P- 5 9- W itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , p. 227. When the r e s u lt s o b tained by Wagner are analyzed h is conclu sio n h ard ly seems j u s t i f i e d . The only group th a t showed s ig n i f i c a n t gains fo r the non-problem re a d e rs was the P ar P o in t Esophoric group. The Hear P o in t Fusion group and the V isu a l A cuity group m erely approached s ig n ific a n c e w ith 96 and 92 chances in 100 th a t the non-problem p u p ils in re a d in g had h ig h e r scores than the problem cases in re ad in g . A ll the o th e r groups te s te d did n o t show s ig n i f ic a n t d iffe re n c e s f o r th e problem and the non-problem cases n o r did they even tend to approach s ig n if ic a n c e . Seemingly, th en , when eye d e fe c ts a re considered c o l le c tiv e ly they a re not r e la te d to r e ta r d a tio n in read in g . V I I . COMPARATIVE STUDY O P THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIFIC EYE DEFECT GROUPS AND GROUPS HAVING HO EYE DEFECTS An attem pt was made in th is study to d isc o v e r w hether any of th e types of eye d e fe c ts s tu d ie d might be a s s o c ia te d in a s ig n i f ic a n t way w ith s p e c if ic p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s . I t has been suggested th a t perhaps p u p ils w ith such types of d e fe c ts as hyperopia, su p p ressio n , l a t e r a l im balance, and v e r t i c a l imbalance might d e v ia te to some e x te n t in such p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs as nervous symptoms, w ithdraw al tenden c ie s , and fe e lin g s of belonging because of the fa tig u e , n ervousness, s t r a i n , and confusion sometimes occasioned by 277 these re s p e c tiv e d e fe c ts . I t is a lso a q u estio n w hether p u p ils w ith such d e fe c ts are as s e l f - r e l i a n t as o th e r p u p ils or have as s a tis f a c to r y a sense o f p erso n al w orth. Moreover, i t was thought th a t such d e fe c ts in some cases might in d i r e c t l y a f f e c t fav o rab le school r e l a t i o n s . A ccordingly, the means f o r th e re s p e c tiv e eye d e fe c t groups and th e n o n -d e fe c tiv e groups were c o n tra s te d by use of the nt tt technique fo r m easuring th e d iffe re n c e s between means o f independent s a m p le s .^ Table XLIII gives the r e s u lt s fo r th e two problem read in g groups with, and w ithout eye d e fe c ts ; and Table XLI7 , the r e s u lt s fo r the two non problem read in g groups w ith and w ith o u t eye d e f e c ts . In o rd er to sim p lify th e d isc u ssio n o f the d a ta o btained f o r th is p a r t of the study th e r e s u l t s secured fo r each eye d e fe c t are examined in tu rn and any c o n tra s tin g r e s u lt s f o r problem and non-problem re a d in g cases noted as they occur. As shown in the ta b le s , the problem cases in read in g w ithout eye d e fe c ts seem to have a b e t t e r sense of b elonging than the fu sio n cases and th e non-problem cases w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts seem to have a b e t t e r f e e lin g of s e l f - re lia n c e than th e se same c a se s. The v e r t i c a l im balance r e s u l t s a re n o t so c o n s is te n t as those fo r the fu sio n groups. The problem re a d e rs w ithout eye d e fe c ts seem to have b e t t e r ^ L in d q u ist, op. c i t ., pp. 56- 5 7• 278 TABLE X L I I I COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OP EYE DEFECTS O N THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OP THE PROBLEM GROUPS IN READING FUSION (N = 85 cases) VERTICAL : (N = 20 IMBALANCE c a s e s ) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group A C t S ig n i f i cance le v e l Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group A C t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 46 46 l\2. 46 •9 38 P ersonal Worth 43 44 •3 78 k l 44 .4 69 P ersonal Freedom 37 31 1.8 7 38 31 .9 38 Nervous Symptoms 34 37 .8 l£ 36 37 .2 82 Belonging 38 47 2 .2 3 1*2 47 •5 59 S e lf-R e lia n c e 56 58 •5 60 k9 58 1 .4 17 W ithdrawal Tendencies 46 47 •3 78 44 47 . 6 57 SELF ADJUSTMENT 44 44 — 42 44 •k 69 Family R elatio n s 50 44 1.5. 14 49 44 . 6 57 S o c ia l S k ills 4 2 •46 1.I4. 18 35 46 2.1 4 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 53 53 58 53 .8 It); School R e latio n s 38 39 •k 69 36 39 . L j. 69 Community R e latio n s 45 49 1.1 26 46 49 . 6 57 S o c ia l Standards 58 53 1 .if. 18 52 53 .2 82 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 49 49 — 44 49 1.0 32 TABLE X L I I I ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OP EYE DEFECTS O N THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM CROUPS IN READING LATERAL IM BALANCE (N - 59 c a s e s ) CO-ORDINATION LEVEL (N = I50 cases) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile . fo r Group Group A C t S ig n i f i cance le v e l Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group A C t S i g - n i f i - cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 48 46 • 7 50 46 46 P ersonal Worth lj.8 44 l.X 29 43 44 .2 82 P ersonal Freedom 37 31 1-5 13 35 31 1 -k 17 Nervous Symptoms 40 37 • 9 39 35 37 • 6 54 Belonging 56 47 1-9 6 51 47 1.2 24 S e lf-R e lia n c e 57 58 .1 89 58 58 .... — — W ithdrawal Tendencies 60 k l 3-3 1 49 47 • 7 49 SELF ADJUSTMENT 47 W 1.0 30 Ijlj. t T 44 Family R e latio n s 51 44 1-7 10 49 44 1.6 10 S o c ia l S k ills I4 .2 46 1.2 23 42 46 1-5 13 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 54 53 .1 89 50 53 •9 36 School R e latio n s 39 39 — — 39 39 M — Community R elatio n s k5 k 9 • 9 39 50 49 67 S o c ia l Standards 62 53 2.2 3 55 53 • 6 54 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT k9 49 — — 49 49 — 280 TABLE X L I I I ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OF EYE DEFECTS O N THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM CROUPS IN READING (N . MYOPIA - 128 cases) (N HYPEROPIA s 12 cases) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group A C t S ig n i f i cance le v e l Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group A C t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 45 46 •5 6l 51 46 •7 48 P ersonal ?/orth L j.5 44 •5 6l 50 44 .6 54 P ersonal Freedom 32 31 • 4 67 33 31 .2 86 Nervous Symptoms 35 37 .8 43 22 37 2 .5 1 Belonging 49 47 .8 43 55 47 *9 35 S e lf-R e lia n c e 56 58 . 6 52 61 58 •4 71 W ithdrawal Tendencies 50 47 1.0 33 56 47 1.0 31 SELF ADJUSTMENT 42 )|J| I f *9 35 44 44 — Family R e latio n s 50 kh 1.9 6 56 I4 J 4 . I 1 1*3 20 S o c ia l S k ills 45 46 69 53 46 1.1 25 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 51 53 \7 50 48 53 .6 54 School ■ R e latio n s 37 39 .8 43 4i 39 .2 86 Community R e latio n s 49 49 55 49 *9 35 S o c ia l Standards 55 53 ♦ 6 57 63 53 1.0 31 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 46 49 1.2 24 53 1 * 9 .6 54 281 TABLE X L I I I ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OF EYE DEFECTS O N THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROBLEM GROUPS IN READING ASTIGMATISM SUPPRESSION (N = 7 cases) (N = 9 cases ) Mean Mean p e r c e n tile S ig- p e r c e n tile S ig f o r n i f i - fo r n i f i P e rs o n a lity Group Group cance Group Group cance components A C t le v e l A C t le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT Us 46 •3 74 45 46 .2 86 P ersonal Worth 54 44 • 7 48 72 44. 3-1 1 P ersonal Freedom 4i 31 .8 40 25 31 1.1 26 Nervous Symptoms 54 37 1.2 23 34 37 • 3 78 Belonging 59 47 .6 57 58 47 1 .0 34 S e lf-R e lia n c e 59 58 .1 90 51 58 .7 48 W ithdrawal Tendencies 55 47 • 7 48 49 47 •3 78 SELF ADJUSTMENT 4l 44 • 3 74 43 44 .2 86 Family R ela tio n s 44 44 - - 49 44 •5 63 S o c ia l S k ills bk 46 •3 74 36 46 1-5 14 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies School 52 53 .1 90 73 53 2.1 4 .. R e latio n s 34 39 • 7 48 37 39 •3 78 Community R e latio n s 51 49 .1 90 46 49 • 3 ■ 78 S o c ia l S tandards 51 53 .2 8l 43 53 1.1 26 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 49 49 " " * ■ * 36 49 1.8 7 282 TABLE X L IV COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OF EYE DEFECTS O H THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NON-PROBLEM GROUPS IN READING ..._ (N . ^ FUSION » 71 cases) VERTICAL ____( ! - 25 IM BALANCE c a s e s ) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group B D t S ig n i f i cance le v e l Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group B D t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 52 49 • 9 36 51 49 •5 62 P ersonal Worth 45 46 •3 75 k9 46 •5 62 P ersonal Freedom 34 35 .1 91 45 35 1.8 8 Nervous Symptoms 56 37 •4 70 28 37 1.8 8 Belonging 52 3k • 5 60 64 54 1-5 13 S e lf-R e lia n c e 47 39 3-5 1 63 59 . 6 56 W ithdrawal Tendencies 48 3 0 • 4 70 50 50 — mm SELF ADJUSTMENT 45 47 • 7 52 48 47 •3 77 Family R e latio n s 46 49 .8 lj-2 48 49 .2 86 S o c ia l S k ills lj.8 46 • 4 70 45 46 • 3 77 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 45 30 1-3 20 4 7 . 50 • 5 62 School R e latio n s k.0 4i •3 75 46 ■ 4l *9 35 Community R e latio n s 56 52 1.0 52 63 52 2 .8 l S o c ia l Standards 56 58 • ij. 70 59 58 .2 86 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT k9 51 .8 i|2 55 51 .8 44 283 TABLE X L IV ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OP EYE DEFECTS O N THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OP THE NON-PROBLEM GROUPS IN READING LATERAL IMBALANCE CO-ORDINATION LEVEL ..........(N_ - 51 c a s e s ) (N = 118 c a s e s ) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile fo r Group Group B D t S ig n i f i cance le v e l Mean p e r c e n tile f o r Group Group B D t S ig - n i f i - cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 50 1 + 9 •5 77 51 1 + 9 .8 1+° P ersonal Worth 1+ 7 I4 .6 •5 77 1 + 9 1 + 6 .8 1 + 0 P ersonal Freedom 38 55 •5 58 i+i 55 1.9 6 Nervous Symptoms 3h 57 .8 1+ 2 59 57 •i+ 66 Belonging 55 51+ •5 77 58 51+ 1.5 19 S e lf - • R eliance 60 59 .2 88 60 59 .2 86 "Withdrawal Tendencies U -7 50 .8 1+ 2 55 50 1.0 55 SELF ADJUSTMENT 1 + 7 1 + 7 --- - - 50 1 + 7 1-5 19 Family R e latio n s 1 + 7 1 + 9 .6 52 1 + 9 . 6 5k S o c ia l S k ills k l 1 + 6 •3 77 1 + 1 + 1 + 6 . 6 5k A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies k7 50 •7 50 52 50 •5 6 0 School R elatio n s 1+ 2 1 + 1 .2 88 1 + 7 l+l 1.6 1 0 Community R elatio n s 56 52 •9 35 52 52 S o c ia l Standards 55 58 •7 50 55 58 1-5 lk SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 52 51 .2 88 52 51 .2 86 284 TABLE X L IV ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OF EYE DEFECTS O N THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NON-PROBLEM GROUPS IN READING (N : M 3 T 0PIA = 116 oases) HYPEROPIA (N = 20 cases) P e rs o n a lity components Mean p e r c e n tile f o r Group Group B D t S ig n i f i cance le v e l Mean p e r c e n tile f o r Group Group B D t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 1 + 9 1 + 9 52 1 + 9 •5 60 P ersonal Worth l;)| 1 + 6 • 7 50 60 1+ 6 2 .0 3 P ersonal Freedom 37 35 •5 63 38 35 •4 66 Nervous Symptoms 36 37 •5 63 ko 37 • 4 66 Belonging 57 5I+ l .0 30 60 51+ • 8 42 S e lf - R eliance 60 59 •5 74 6l 59 •3 77 W ithdrawal Tendencies 1 + 8 50 . 6 51+ 50 50 m m m m SELF ADJUSTMENT 1 + 7 1 + 7 - - 50 1 + 7 •5 60 Family R e latio n s 1 + 9 1 + 9 1 + 9 1 + 9 S o c ia l S k ills 1 + 7 1 + 6 .2 83 53 1 + 6 1.2 25 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 50 50 » — 52 50 .2 8 l School R e latio n s 1 + 5 1 + 1 1 .1 27 37 1 + 1 . 6 52 Community R e la tio n s 5 1+ 52 63 58 52 .8 1+ 2 S o c ia l S tandards 55 58 .8 45 1 + 9 58 13 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 52 51 .2 83 52 51 .1 91 285 TABLE X L IV ( c o n tin u e d ) COMPARATIVE STUDY OP THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OP EYE DEFECTS O N THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OP THE NON-PROBLEM GROUPS IN READING ASTIGMATISM SUPPRESSION (N * 15 ca ses) (N = 8 cases) P ersonality- component s Mean p e r c e n tile f o r Group Group B D t S ig n i f i cance le v e l Mean p e r c e n tile f o r Group Group B D t S ig n i f i cance le v e l TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 50 k 9 .2 86 36 4-9 1.6 11 P ersonal Worth 4-7 46 .1 90 4-1 4-6 •4 66 P ersonal Freedom 50 35 2 .2 3 29 35 • 9 38 Nervous Symptoms J+ o 37 •3 80 24. 37 1 .2 24- Belonging 52 5 k .2 86 4-0 54- 1.2 24. S e lf - R eliance 63 59 .6 58 51 59 •7 4-9 W ithdrawal Tendencies 55 50 .7 51 31 50 2 . 4- 2 SELF ADJUSTMENT ' 52 47 • 7 51 34 4-7 1.6 11 Family R e latio n s 54 k9 • 5 60 34- 4-9 1 .7 8 S o c ia l S k ills k 5 4.6 • 5 60 4-5 ¥ .1 91 A n ti-S o c ia l Tendencies 56 50 • 7 5 1 31 50 1-9 6 School R elatio n s 4-7 4l •7 51 21 4-1 3-5 l Community R e latio n s 36 52 1 .8 8 51 52 .1 91 S o c ia l Standards 46 58 2 .2 3 4-5 58 1-3 20 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 50 51 .2 86 39 51 l . k 16 286 h a b its of s o c ia l s k i l l s w hile the non-problem read e rs w ith eye d e fe c ts seem to have b e t t e r community r e l a t i o n s . These tren d s a re probably ju s t the r e s u l t o f chance coincidence. In th e l a t e r a l imbalance groups the p u p ils w ith eye d e fe c ts are f r e e r from w ithdraw al - ten d en cies and have a b e t t e r knowledge of s o c ia l sta n d a rd s. The concurrence o f th ese p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs w ith the l a t e r a l imbalance eye d e fe c t probably is a g a in a chance coincidence even though the le v e ls of s ig n ific a n c e are 1 and 3 per cent re s p e c tiv e ly . The c o -o rd in a tio n le v e l groups do n o t show s ig n if ic a n t tr e n d s • The myopia groups a re n o t s ig n i f ic a n t ly d if f e r e n t from the groups w ithout eye d e fe c ts f o r e i t h e r the problem or the non-problem cases in re a d in g . The hyperopia group shows a s ig n i f ic a n t tre n d f o r the p u p ils w ithout eye de fe c ts o f the re ta rd e d group to be more f re e from nervous symptoms than th e p u p ils w ith eye d e f e c ts . The conclusions drawn by F a r r i s ^ in h is stu d y may f u rn is h some foundation fo r th is a p p a re n tly s ig n i f ic a n t tre n d . F a r r is concluded as follow s, The hyp o th esis th a t g r e a te r s t r a i n on th e nervous system is re q u ire d to a d ju s t hyperopic eyes to th e co n d itio n which must be s a t i s f i e d in read in g seems confirm ed by the fin d in g of th is stu d y th a t p u p ils w ith normal eyes have 97 chances in 100 to make g r e a te r gains in read in g than do p u p ils a ffe c te d w ith vary in g degrees of hyperopia. ^ ■ 5 F a r r is , op. c i t . , p. 59. 287 The in v e s tig a to r s of the s p e c ia l study o f the v is io n o f school c h ild re n conducted in W ashington^- lik e w ise a t t e s t to the h y p o th esis th a t varying degrees of hyperopia cause a s t r a i n on th e nervous system . The n o n -re ta rd e d p u p ils in the hyperopic group seemed to have a b e t t e r sense of p erso n al w orth than th e p u p ils w ithout eye d e f e c ts . This ap p aren t tre n d is d i f f i c u l t to J u s tif y . I t is very d i f f i c u l t to determ ine the cause of the a p p a re n tly s i g n i f i c a n t trends of the group w ith astigm atism . Among the n o n -re ta rd e d cases the group w ith eye d e fe c ts seems to have a b e t t e r sense of p erso n al freedom than the o th e r group w hile th e l a t t e r group seems to have a b e t t e r knowledge of s o c ia l stan d ard s than the eye d e fe c t group. The su p p ressio n group lik e w ise shows c o n f lic tin g tre n d s . The re ta rd e d eye d e fe c t cases have a b e t t e r sense o f p erso n al w orth and are more fre e from a n t i - s o c i a l ten d en cies than the cases w ithout eye d e fe c ts . The r e s u lt s f o r the n o n -re ta rd e d cases a re a l l in fav o r of the p u p ils w ith o u t eye d e f e c ts . This group seems to be s ig n i f ic a n t ly more fre e from w ith drawal ten d en cies and a n t i - s o c i a l tendencies and they have ■better fam ily and school r e l a t i o n s . ^ G -. A. Kempf, S. D. C o llin s , and B. L. Jarman, T ,A S p e c ia l Study of th e V ision of School C h ild re n ,1 1 P ublic H ealth R eports, Vol. Ij.3 » #27 (Washington: U. S. Public H ealth S erv ice , 1928), pp. 1732, 1735, 1737. 288 On the whole, th is study o f the r e la tio n s h ip between p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs and eye d e fe c ts in d ic a te d n o t only con f l i c t i n g trends b u t a lso tre n d s which are d i f f i c u l t to ex p lain even from a common sense view point. However, in no in sta n c e were the TOTAL ADJUSTMENT, TOTAL SELF ADJUSTMENT, or TOTAL SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT scores s i g n i f i c a n t l y d if f e r e n t f o r any type of eye d e fe c t group versus the normal group w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts among e ith e r the re ta rd e d or the non re ta rd e d s u b je c ts . The only d iffe re n c e s which seemed to be s ig n i f ic a n t were f i r s t , th o se among th e fu sio n group in which the re ta rd e d pu p ils w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts had a b e t t e r sense of belonging and in which th e n o n -re ta rd e d p u p ils w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts had a b e t t e r f e e lin g o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e ; and second, those among the hyperopia group in which the problem read ers w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts were more fre e from nervous symptoms than the problem re a d e rs w ith eye d e f e c ts . V III. SU M M A RY OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED FOR THE STUDY O F THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN VISUAL FACTORS AND READING ACHIEVEMENT Of the 1, 861} . p u p ils who were given th e v is u a l t e s t s 1+ 7 Pe r cent were found to have eye d e fe c ts o f v ario u s ty p e s . The problem group in read in g contained a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g re a te r percentage of myopia and fu sio n cases than th e non problem group in read in g . O utside of th ese two in sta n c e s 289 th e re was not a g re a te r incidence of eye d e fe c t cases among the problem read e rs than among the good r e a d e r s . The r e s u lt s of the i n i t i a l t e s t i n g showed a ra th e r c o n s is te n t tre n d . N e ith e r the various types o f c o r r e la tio n s computed nor the com parative analyses of d e v ia tio n s from expectancy fo r the re s p e c tiv e eye d e fe c t groups w ith the t o t a l d e fe c t group and the t o t a l group w ith o u t eye d efec ts rev ea led any tendency fo r s p e c if ic types o f eye d e fe c ts nor f o r eye d e fe c ts considered c o lle c tiv e ly to be s ig n i f ic a n t ly a s so c ia te d w ith r e ta r d a tio n in re a d in g . - When the r e s u l t s of the f i n a l te s tin g were analyzed i t was found th a t th e group w ith slow fu sio n a t read in g d ista n c e tended to achieve s i g n i f i c a n t l y le s s during th e rem edial read in g program than t h e i r equated p a irs who did not have eye d e fe c ts . This tendency was n o t observed fo r any o f th e o th e r eye d e fe c t groups nor fo r the c o lle c tiv e group of a l l eye d e fe c ts . In the a n a ly sis o f the s u p e r io r ity of the v a rio u s programs and o f the in flu e n c e of phonetic tr a in in g in th e rem edial read in g programs a c o n s is te n t tre n d was found f o r th e p u p ils w ithout eye d e fe c ts to have achieved the s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u l t s . I t was thought th a t perhaps these r e s u lt s were obtained because of th e slow fu sio n group a t n ea r p o in t. Even though the r e s u l t s from the various stu d ie s in t h i 3 in v e s tig a tio n were c o n s is te n t in showing ap p a re n tly l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip between eye d e fe c ts and achievem ent in 290 read in g except f o r the slow fu sio n group a t read in g d ista n c e , d e f in it e conclusions to th is e f f e c t could n o t be made because i t was im possible to determ ine to what e x te n t the f a c to r o f compensation in flu en c ed the r e s u l t s and to what e x te n t the r e s u l t s may have d if fe re d i f the non-problem group in read in g w ith eye d e fe c ts had n o t been so a f f l i c t e d . The study of the r e la tio n s h ip between p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs and eye d efec ts in d ic a te d c o n f lic tin g tre n d s. The - only r e s u lt s which seemed to m erit some j u s t i f i c a t i o n were the follow ing: In no in sta n c e did the eye d e fe c t groups and the normal groups d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f o r T o tal Adjustm ent, T o tal S e lf A djustm ent, or T o tal S o c ia l Adjustm ent sc o re s. However, among the fu sio n groups the problem read ers w ithout eye d e fe c ts appeared to have had a b e t t e r sense o f belonging than those w ith the fu sio n d e fe c ts ; and th e non-problem read e rs w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts seemed to have had a b e t t e r f e e lin g of s e l f - r e l i a n c e than those w ith fu sio n d e fe c ts . Among the hyperopia groups the problem p u p ils in read in g w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts seemed to have been more f re e from nervous symptoms than th e problem read in g cases w ith the hyperopia d e fe c ts . CHAPTER V I I I RELATIONSHIP OP LATERALITY TYPES TO READING ACHIEVEMENT In th is ch a p ter the d ata re g a rd in g v ario u s types o f l a t e r a l i t y and t h e i r r e la tio n s h ip s to read in g achievem ent are c r i t i c a l l y ev a lu ated . Handedness and eyedness are d i s cussed h o th as se p a ra te to p ic s and in r e la tio n to each o th e r. Analyses are a lso made o f the v ario u s types of l a t e r a l i t y in co n ju n ctio n w ith combined groups o f o th e r fa c to rs in an e f f o r t to a s c e r ta in t h e i r p o ssib le r e la tio n s h ip s as a con s t e l l a t i o n o f f a c to rs to achievement in read in g . Eyedness is s tu d ie d in con ju n ctio n w ith eye d e fe c ts , and th e condi tio n s of re a d in g achievem ent fo r th e se types o f combined groups a re analyzed. Eyedness, handedness, p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s , and achievem ent In read in g a re a s s o c ia te d and e v a lu a te d in the same manner. In the f i n a l study r e v e r s a l e rro rs and l a t e r a l i t y types a re stu d ie d in o rd er to d isc o v er f u r th e r p o ssib le r e la tio n s h i p s . Thus th is ch a p ter is made a u n ify in g one which organizes and s tu d ie s the r e s u l t s ob ta in e d throughout the in v e s tig a tio n from a c o lle c tiv e view point. I . EXPERIMENTAL SETTING FOR THE PROBLEM S OP THIS CHAPTER Equated groups are n o t used in th is c h a p te r. In ste a d , a l l the s tu d ie s are based upon the u n se le c te d t o t a l groups of problem and non-problem read in g oases who were given the i n i t i a l complete b a tte r y o f t e s t s . Besides the in te llig e n c e , read in g , p e r s o n a lity , and v is u a l t e s t s , the a d d itio n a l te s ts o f handedness, eyedness, and r e v e r s a l e rro rs were given to the s u b je c ts f o r the s tu d ie s in th is c h a p te r. Because of the a d d itio n a l and consequently la rg e number of t e s t s in volved, the t o t a l number of p u p ils in the groups of th is ch ap ter do n o t always correspond to th e group t o t a l s of un s e le c te d p u p ils in th e ch a p te r on the r e la tio n s h ip of v is u a l anom alies to read in g achievem ent. I I . STUDY OF THE INCIDENCE O F HANDEDNESS TYPES A M O N G • PROBLEM A N D NON-PROBLEM PUPILS IN READING A N D O F THE RELATIONSHIP B ETW EEN THESE TYPES A N D READING ACHIEVEMENT Incidence o f handedness types among problem and non problem p u p ils in re a d in g . There have been re p e a te d attem pts in l i t e r a t u r e to show a causal r e la tio n s h ip between c e r ta in c o n d itio n s o f l a t e r a l i t y and le g a s th e n ia . Dearborn in ^ E. Lord, L. Carm ichael, and W . Dearborn, S p e c ia l D is a b i l i t i e s in Learning to Read and W rite (Harvard Mono graphs in E ducation, No. £7 Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rsity P re ss, 1925), pp. 3 , 67* W . P . D earborn, “T eaching R eading to N o n -R ead ers,,r E lem entary School J o u r n a l, 3O:206-69, December, 1929. W. F. Dearborn, “S tr u c tu r a l F acto rs Which C ondition S p e c ia l D is a b ility in Reading, 1 1 Proceedings and Addresses of the F i f t y - Seventh Annual S ession o f the American A sso cia tio n of Mental D e fic ie n c y , pp. 26b-857 May-June, 1933. 2 9 3 p a r t i c u l a r has emphasized h is b e l i e f th a t dominance f a c to rs a re o fte n a s p e c if ic cause o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . In 1933 h is emphasis ce n tered more upon mixed and d o u b tfu l dominance than upon dominance o f a pure type. Anderson and K elley and H i n c k s ^ have a lso in d ic a te d th a t th e re is some a s s o c ia tio n between le ft-h a n d e d n e ss and d y sle x ia . Although Grton^ has explained h is theory in n e u ro lo g ic a l term s, he, to o , has found th a t a co n d itio n of u n c e rta in or confused dominance is a fre q u e n t c o r r e la tiv e of poor re a d in g . In th is p re se n t study both the incidence o f types o f dominance among good and poor read e rs and th e e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g fo r b o th groups is p resen ted f o r com parative p u rp o ses. Table XLV p re se n ts the incidence of handedness types among the good and poor re a d e rs . On the whole, th is study n eg ates the h y pothesis o f the above-m entioned in v e s tig a to r s th a t le ft-h a n d e d n e ss is fre q u e n tly a s s o c ia te d w ith read in g d i s a b i l i t y . The p ercentages o f le ft-h a n d e d p u p ils among o M . Anderson and M . K elley, An In q u iry In to T ra its A sso ciated w ith Heading D is a b ilit y (Smith College S tu d ies in S o c ia l Work, Vol. I I , Northampton: Smith College School f o r S o c ia l Work, 1931), pp. Ij .6-63* 5 E. M . H incks, D is a b ility in Heading and I t s R ela tio n to P e rs o n a lity (Harvard Monographs in E ducation, No. 2 , Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rsity P re ss, 1926), p. 88. S. T. Orton, nAn Impediment to Learning to Read—A N eu ro lo g ical E xplanation of th e Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” School and S o c ie ty , 2 8 : 286- 90, September, 1928. 29k problem and non-problem read e rs is equal and tb a t o f l e f t - handed p u p ils w ith rig h t-h an d ed tendencies is s l i g h t l y lower than th a t of the non-problem group. When the L and groups a re added to g e th e r the percentage o f cases in the problem group i s s t i l l one per cent low er than th a t fo r the non-problem group. Moreover, the problem group e x h ib its a h ig h e r percentage of rig h t-h an d ed p u p ils in t h e i r group, although when the H and groups a re added to g e th e r the percentage o f rig h t-h a n d e d p u p ils in the problem and non problem groups is i d e n tic a l. The fin d in g s of th is p re se n t study are co rro b o ra ted by th e in v e s tig a tio n s o f Gates and B e n n ett, 5 H aefner,^ H ild r e th ,^ Imus,^ P h i l l i p s , 9 and W itty and K o p el.10 5 4. I. Gates and C. C. B ennett, R eversal Tendencies in Reading (Hew York: Bureau of P u b lic a tio n s , Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rs ity , 1953)> PP* 12-lij.. ^ R. H aefner, The E d u catio n al S ig n ific a n c e o f L e f t- Handedness (Teachers College C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No'. 360, Hew York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1929), pp. 2I1.-25. ^ G. H ild re th , "R eversals in Reading and W ritin g ,” Jo u rn al of E ducational Psychology, 2 5 : 1- 20, January, 1934. o H. A. Imus, J . W . Rothney, and R. M . Bear, An Evalua tio n of V isu al F acto rs in Reading (Dartmouth C ollege P u b li c a tio n s , Hanover: New Hampshire, 1939)* PP* 60- 6l . 9 A. J . P h illi p s , "R elatio n of Left-Handedness to R eversals in R eading," The Elem entary E n g lish Review, 11: 97- 98, A p ril, 193^. P. A. W itty and D. Kopel, " S in ia tr a l and Mixed M anual-Ocular Behavior in Reading D is a b ilit y ," Jo u rn al of E d u catio n al Psychology, 2 7 : 119- 35* February, 1936. 295 TABLE XLV IWCIDENCE O P HANDEDNESS TYPES A M O N G G O O D AND POOR READERS AND EXTENT O P DEVIATION PROM EXPECTANCY IN READING FOR BOTH GROUPS Problem read e rs Non-Problem read ers To t a l Handed ness c l a s s i f i c a tio n P e rc e n t age of cases D evia tio n from ex p e ct ancy in read in g P e rc e n t age of cases D evia tio n from e x p e c t ancy in read in g group P e rc e n t age of cases H R 71 - .8 68 *•7 69 689 *L 18 -•9 21 f . 6 20 198 A 1 + - . 6 3 -•5 3 31 L k - .8 k t .6 5 k 5 it 3 - .7 k ♦1.2 3 35 T otal 100 100 100 998 E xtent of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g fo r the v arioua handedneaa ty p e a . The main purpose o f determ in ing the e x te n t of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g fo r the typea of handedneaa groups was to d isc o v er whether or n o t the le ft-h a n d e d p u p ils in th e problem read in g group had a tendency to be more re ta rd e d in read in g than th e o th e r groups. The d e v ia tio n s obtain ed are re p o rte d in Table XLV. The r e s u l t s show th a t the le ft-h a n d e d groups a re s l i g h t l y le s s re ta rd e d than the rig h t-h an d ed groups. The e x te n t o f r e ta r d a tio n fo r th e R and L groups is e x a c tly th e same, namely, - .8 , which is e ig h t te n th s o f a grade; th a t fo r the R^ and groups, -.9 and - . 7 * When the d e v ia tio n s f o r the R and groups are averaged, the r e s u l t i s - . 9 * When the same is done f o r the L and groups th e average is - .8 . T herefore, the le ft-h a n d e d groups a re s l i g h t l y le ss re ta rd e d than the rig h t-h an d ed groups. The d iffe re n c e in r e ta r d a tio n between the two groups, however, is n e g lig ib le and may p o ssib ly be due to chance f a c t o r s . The am bi-dextrous group is even le s s re ta rd e d than e i t h e r the r i g h t - or le ft-h a n d e d groups, as the e x te n t o f t h e i r r e ta r d a tio n amounts to an average of s ix te n th s of a g rade. Both th e incidence of cases obtained fo r the handedness groups and the e x te n t o f t h e i r d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g ten d , th e re fo re , to disprove the h y p o th esis th a t th e re might be some r e l a t i o n sh ip between le ft-h a n d e d n e ss and le g a s th e n ia . 2 9 7 C o rre la tio n between handedneaa and average read in g grade a c o re a ♦ A th ir d study was attem pted to determ ine the r e la tio n s h ip between handedness and achievem ent in read in g . The b i - s e r i a l c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t was found between r i g h t - and le ft-h a n d e d n e ss and the average re a d in g grade sco res fo r th ese two group ty p es. The c o r r e la tio n c o e f f i c ie n t o b tained was — . 07* • 0I4.. The c o e f f ic ie n t is n e g a tiv e showing th a t the le ft-h a n d e d p u p ils had a h ig h e r mean grade sco re th an th e rig h t-h a n d e d p u p ils . However, the c o r r e la tio n is n o t s ig n i f ic a n t and is so low t h a t i t denotes n e g lig ib le r e la tio n s h ip between e i t h e r type of handedness and achievem ent in re a d in g . This c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t, th e re fo re , confirms th e n e g a tiv e r e s u l t s obtained in the two previous s tu d ie s . I I I . STUDY OF THE INCIDEMCE O F EYEDNESS TYPES A M O N G PROBLEM AND NON-PROBLEM PUPILS IN READING AND OF THE RELATION SHIP BETW EEN THESE TYPES A N D READING ACHIEVEMENT Incidence o f eyedness types among problem and non problem r e a d e r s . The evidence obtained by th e various in v e s tig a to r s reg ard in g eyedness and achievem ent in read in g is ju s t as u n c e rta in and c o n f lic tin g as th e d a ta obtained to d ate f o r the r e la tio n s h ip between handedness and achievement in re a d in g . Gates and B e n n ettH conclude th a t ,fle f t- e y e 11 Gates and B ennett, op. c i t . , p. 16. dominance may be co n sid ered a r e a l b u t by no means an in v a ria b le source of d i f f i c u l t y . 1 1 M onroe^ found more l e f t eyed c h ild re n , hence more le ft- e y e d rig h t-h an d ed c h ild re n , among the poor read e rs than among th e good r e a d e r s . S e l z e r ^ a ls o found a d is p ro p o rtio n a te incid en ce o f l e f t - eyedness among h is poor re a d e rs . The p re s e n t study was organized to o b ta in f u r th e r d a ta re g a rd in g the problem o f eyedness and achievem ent in re a d in g . The r e s u l t s obtained a re given in Table XLVI. The d ata in Table XLVI are organized in a manner s im ila r to those p rese n ted in Table XLV. The p ercentages a re given f o r each o f the eyedness c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of both problem and non-problem re a d e rs . The average e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy In re a d in g is lik e w ise given fo r each eyedness c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and f o r both the problem and the non-problem r e a d e r s . The g e n e ra l r e s u lts obtain ed in th is stu d y a re very much s im ila r to those o b tain ed fo r the p a r a l l e l handedness stu d y . There is a la r g e r incidence of r i g h t eyedness among th e poor than among th e good re a d e rs . F if t y per c e n t of the poor re a d e rs are rig h t-e y e d w hile only lj.8 per c e n t of, the 1 2 m. Monroe, C hildren W ho Cannot Head (Chicago: U n iv e rsity o f Chicago P re ss, 1933), p. 8I4.. 1 3 C. A. S e lz e r, L a te ra l Dominance and V isual Fusion (Harvard Monographs in E ducation, No. 12, Cambridge: Harvard Education P re ss, 1933), P* 3 5 * 299 TABLE XLVI INCIDENCE OP EYEDNESS TYPES A M O N G G O O D AND POOR READERS A N D EXTENT OF DEVIATION FROM EXPECTANCY IN READING FOR BOTH GROUPS Problem read ers Non-Problem read e rs T o tal Eyed ness c l a s s i f i c a tio n P e rc e n t age o f cases D evia tio n from ex p ect ancy in read in g P e rc e n t age of cases Devia tio n from ex p e ct ancy in read in g .group P e rc e n t age of cases N R 50 - .8 I4 .8 ■ * ■ • 7 h-9 J4.87 % 9 - .8 12 11 107 A 9 - • 8 8 + .6 8 86 L 22 -•8 22 +. 6 22 218 l r 10 -•'7 10 + .6 10 100 T otal 100 100 100 998 good re a d e rs have the same tendency. The percentages are nin e and twelve re s p e c tiv e ly fo r the groups, however, and they a re 59 Pe r cent and 60 per ce n t when th e two rig h t-e y e d groups a re combined. This s l i g h t d iffe re n c e is o f no s i g n if ic a n c e ; th e re fo re , i t can be p o s tu la te d th a t th e re are p r a c t i c a l l y as many rig h t-e y e d c h ild re n among the problem as among the non-problem groups in re a d in g . The same tendency e x is ts among the two le f t- e y e d groups. There a re e x a c tly 22 per cen t of le ft- e y e d c h ild re n in both the problem and non problem groups and e x a c tly 10 per cent o f le ft- e y e d c h ild re n w ith rig h t-e y e d tendencies in both g roups. The d iffe re n c e fo r the ambi-eyed group is only 1 per c e n t in fav o r o f the problem re a d in g group. This s l i g h t d iffe re n c e is n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . T herefore, on th e whole, i t can be hypothe siz e d th a t th e re is n o t a d is p ro p o rtio n a te incidence o f le ft-e y e d n e s s among the poor re a d e rs and 1 1 i f le f t- e y e dominance is a source of d i f f i c u l t y in read in g . . . then th is f a c to r o p erates to an a p p a re n tly eq u al e x te n t in groups of poor and of good r e a d e r s .”^* A comparison o f th e r e s u lt s obtained in the p re s e n t study w ith those o b tain ed by o th e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s ^ is given Uj. W itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , p. 127* •* -5 J . C. Coons and R. J . M athias, "Eye and Hand P referen ce T en d en cies,1 1 The Pedagogical Seminary and Jo u rn al 301 in Table XLVII. Since most in v e s tig a to r s have organized t h e i r r e s u lt s in to the th re e fo ld c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of R ig h t-, L e f t- , and Airibi-Eyed, th is th r e e fo ld c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was used in th e ta b le in s te a d of the one adopted in the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n . C onsidering the v a r ie ty o f t e s t s used, the s i m i l a r i t y o f the fig u re s obtained in th e p re s e n t study and those of the o th e r in v e s tig a to r s is indeed s tr i k i n g . I t w arrants the b e l i e f th a t th e c h ild re n s tu d ie d in th is in v e s tig a tio n were r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f a normal p o p u latio n in t h e i r eye p re fe re n c e s. E x ten t of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g fo r the v ario u s eyedness ty p e s . The e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy fo r the eyedness groups is given in Table XLVI. . of G enetic Psychology, 35:629-32* December, 1928. N. B. C uff, f,The I n te r p r e ta tio n of H andedness,” Jo u rn a l of Experim ental Psychology, 11:27- 39* F ebruary, 1928. W . R. M iles, ”0c u la r Dominance in Human A d u lts ,” Jo u rn al o f G enetic Psychology, 3 :lj.l2- 30, Ju ly , 193^* B. S. Parson, Lefthandedneas (New York: The Macmillan Company, I92I4.), p. 105T A. M . Snyder, M . A. Snyder, ”Eye P referen ce Tenden c i e s , ” Jo u rn al o f E ducational Psychology, 19:101- 33, September, 1928. R. U pdegraff, "O cular Dominance in Young C h ild re n ,” Jo u rn al o f Experim ental Psychology, 15:758- 66, December, 1932. P. A. W itty and D. Kopel, ”S i n i s t r a l and Mixed Manual-Ocular Behavior in Reading D is a b ilit y ," Jo u rn al of E d u catio n al Psychology, 27 : 119- 34* F ebruary, 1936. 302 TABLE XLVII COMPARISON OP THE RESULTS OBTAINED IN THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION FOR THE INCIDENCE OP EYEDNESS WITH THE D ATA OBTAINED BY OTHER INVESTIGATORS R ight L eft Ambi- In v e s tig a to rs monocular monocular o cu lar (p er cen t) (per ce n t) (p e r c e n t P re se n t Study 60 32 8 Coons, J . C. 69 12 19 Cuff, N. B. 62 29 9 M iles, W. R. 6k 3k 2 Parson, B. S. 69 29 2 Snyder, A. M . 6k 21 15 U pdegraff, R. 60 20-30 10-20 W itty, P. A. and D. Kopel 63 33 k 303 The groups a l l d e v ia te on the average - . 8 . This is a nega tiv e d e v ia tio n of e ig h t te n th s of a grade. The LR group d ev iate s one te n th of a grade le s s than a l l the o th e r groups. These r e s u l t s in d ic a te th a t a p p a re n tly types o f eyedness are n o t a p p re c ia b ly r e la te d to r e ta r d a tio n in re a d in g . C o rre la tio n between eyedness and average re a d in g grade s c o re s . A study f o r eyedness was made p a r a l le li n g the one concerned w ith handedness and average read in g grade sc o re s. In th is stu d y the b i - s e r i a l c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t was found between r i g h t - and le ft-e y e d n e ss and the average re a d in g grade scores o f th e se groups. The c o e f f ic ie n t obtained was ♦ .021. 03. J u s t as in th e p a r a l l e l handedness study the c o e f f ic ie n t is so low as to in d ic a te no s ig n i f ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip between eyedness and achievem ent in read in g . A ll th re e s tu d ie s undertaken to d isc o v e r p o ssib le r e l a t i o n sh ip between eyedness and reading achievem ent agree in t h e i r n eg a tiv e fin d in g s T lth a t le ft-e y e d n e s s cannot be considered a r e a l source o f d i f f i c u l t y in re a d in g .” IV. STUDY OF THE INCIDENCE OF VARIOUS M ANUAL-OCULAR DOMI NANCE TYPES A M O N G PROBLEM A N D NON-PROBLEM READERS A N D OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN THESE TYPES AND READING ACHIEVEMENT Incidence o f various manual- o c u la r dominance types among problem and non- problem r e a d e rs . W itty and Kopel have dem onstrated in th e ir in v e s tig a tio n th a t th e re are twenty- 30k fiv e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of m anual-ocular dominance com binations These tw en ty -fiv e com binations were used f o r the group types in the p re se n t stu d y . The r e s u lts are given in Table XLVIII. A ll R and R^ com binations were co n sidered as r i g h t manual- o c u la r dominance; a l l L and com binations were co n sid ered as l e f t m anual-ocular dominance; and a l l o th e rs L and A, and R and L e t c . , were included in the mixed o r ambi v a le n t group. Table XLVIII shows th a t the problem re a d in g cases have p r a c t i c a l l y an equal percentage of r ig h t m anual-ocular types as the non-problem e a ses. They have a s l i g h t l y lower p ercentage of mixed dominance cases than th e non-problem p u p ils . I t is th is group in p a r t i c u l a r th a t has been thought to be a s s o c ia te d w ith re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . The p re s e n t study shows th a t th e re a re more p u p ils w ith mixed dominance th a t have no read in g d i f f i c u l t i e s than th e re a re p u p ils th a t have read in g d i f f i c u l t i e s . In t h i s study, th e re fo r e , mixed dominance does n o t seem to be a s s o c ia te d w ith le g a s th e n ia . In the l e f t m anual-ocular group th e re is p r a c t ic a lly an equal percentage in both th e problem and the non-problem s e c tio n s . The stu d y , on th e whole, shows th a t c o n d itio n s of r i g h t , l e f t , and mixed m anual-ocular dominance occur no more fre q u e n tly among poor read ers than among good r e a d e r s . W itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , pp. 129“$0 . 305 TABLE X L V I I I CONDITIONS OF MANUAL-OCULAR DOMINANCE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO READING ACHIEVEMENT .Problem read ers Non-Problem read ers T otal Manual- Ocular domi nance types P e rc e n t age of cases Devia tio n from ex p e ct ancy in read in g P ercen t age of cases Devia tio n from ex p e ct ancy in read in g group P e rc e n t age of cases N Right 38 - .8 36 R -R +. 6 357 R -RL 6 -.8 0 7 7 lb rl- r 8 - 1.0 9 *■7 9 87 H l- % 2 - .8 2 * • 3 2 20 T otal W - .8 53 *■7 5 1 4 . Mixed R -A 6 - .8 5 *■ *? 5 5k R -Lr 7 -•7 7 +. 6 7 60 R -L 14 - 7 13 +. 6 1 1 1 . 136 Rl - a 3 " • / 2 2 4 rL"LR 1.5 " * O 2 +. 6 2 i s rl- l -•? 6 + • 6 5 49 A -R 2 - . 6 2 + •5 2 17 A -RL — - - 4 *•7 .2 2 A -A .2 -•9 - - - - .1 1 A -Lr 1 -•7 - - - - .6 6 A -L 4 - 4 •5 + *3 • 5 5 Lr-R .5 -.7 2 +1.0 2 16 lR"r L - - •5 +• 6 •3 3 Lr-A — — •4 +1.2 .2 2 L -R 1 -1 .0 1 + 1.0 1 10 L -Rl • 6 -1 .0 .8 + 4 .8 8 L -A •k ......4 ± •2 ... ..* 5. 5 T o tal L eft k l -9 - . 8 k 3 - 3 + .6 1+3.2 L r - L 2 -•7 1 +1 .I4. 1 13 Lr - L r — — .2 +1.2 .1 1 L - L r • 6 ■•5 1 + .6 .7 7 L -L 1-5 -.6 1-5 *•5 1 15 T otal Ip.l - . 6 3.7 + .8 2 .8 998 E xtent o f d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g f o r the v ario u s manual- o c u la r dominance ty p e s . The r e s u lts of the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g fo r th e various m anual-ocular dominance types are a ls o given in Table XLVIII. These r e s u l t s show no abnormal tendency fo r the mixed domi nance o r am bivalent group to d eviate more from expectancy in read in g than e ith e r the r ig h t o r the l e f t m anual-ocular g ro u p s. • The am bivalent group d e v ia te d e ig h t te n th s o f a grade from expectancy; the r ig h t m anual-ocular group, a ls o e ig h t te n th s of a grade; and the l e f t m anual-ocular group, only s ix te n th s of a grade. None o f the types o f manual- o c u la r groups is a s s o c ia te d , th e re fo r e , w ith ex cessiv e de v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g . The d a ta o b tained in th is stu d y f o r th e am bivalent groups and th e conclusions reached are in accord w ith those developed by B ennett. B ennett concludes th a t although a marked d is o r ie n ta t io n may, in c e r ta in c a se s , impede a c h i ld ’s read in g progress ’’most c h ild re n o f w hatever dominance s ta tu s have normal success in le a rn in g to re a d ” and th a t i t is only r a r e ly th a t an a l l - s u f f i c i e n t e x p lan atio n o f d i s a b i l i t y is found in dominance. 7 c. C. B ennett, An In q u iry In to the Genesis o f Poor Reading (Teachers C ollege C o n trib u tio n s to E ducation, No. 755, New York: Bureau o f P u b lic a tio n s , Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rsity , 1938), pp. 26-27. 307 V. STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN HANDEDNESS A N D EYEDNESS Parson developed a th eo ry th a t "handedness is caused by eyedness, the fav o red hand being on the same sid e o f the 1 p body as the s ig h tin g e y e .’ In v e s tig a to r s sin c e the time of Parson have found th a t rig h t-e y e d persons have somewhat more of a chance of being rig h t-h an d ed than otherw ise but th a t le ft- e y e d persons are not as li k e l y to be le ft-h a n d e d as the rig h t-e y e d persons a re to be rig h t-h a n d e d . This is because th e incidence of le ft-e y e d n e s s i s g r e a te r than th a t of le ft-h a n d e d n e s s.^9 U pdegraff found th a t approxim ately 75 per cen t o f the r ig h t-e y e d c h ild re n in h e r stu d y were r i g h t - h a n d e d .^ T ravis found th a t 75 P®r c e n t o f rig h t-h a n d e d normal speakers were r ig h t- e y e d . 2 1 Ja sp e r re p o rte d th a t from 7° to 75 PeI* cent o f h i s su b je c ts were rig h t-h a n d e d and 1 ^ Parson, op. c i t . , pp. 22, i+8— 55> 78- 79- ^ K, C. G arrison, "Problems r e l a t e d to L e ft Handed n e s s ,” Peabody Jo u rn a l o f E ducation, 155323- 32, May, 1938. MilelT, c i t .',T .'W . -------- Snyder, op. c i t ., p. I4.32. Updegrafl^ op. c i t . , p. 7^5 - 20 R. U pdegraff, "R ela tio n Between Handedness and Eyedness in Young C h ild re n ," Journal of G enetic Psychology, I|2 :i4-90“92, June, 1935* 2 1 L. E. T ra v is, A Comparative Study o f the P er- fonuances o f S tu tte r e r s and Normal Speakers in M irror T racing~TU niversity of Iowa S tudies in Psychology, No. 12, P rin c e to n : P sychological Review Company, 1928), p. Ifi. 308 r ig h t-e y e d . He a lso re p o rte d an unpublished study by 22 M etfessel in which th e percen tag e was 7^* M iles, M etfessel and Ja sp e r found th a t approxim ately one h a l f o f t h e i r l e f t - handed cases were le f t- e y e d . The d ata obtained in th e p re se n t stu d y tend to show th a t rig h t-h an d ed s u b je c ts a re o fte n rig h t-e y e d . Of the 887 rig h t-h an d ed su b je c ts in t h i s stu d y , 55^ o r 6 l Pe r c e n t were rig h t-e y e d . Although t h i s percentage is n o t c lo se ly s im ila r to the p ercentages obtained in th e s tu d ie s re p o rte d above i t shows a stro n g tre n d in th e same d ir e c tio n as th a t in d ic a te d in the above-m entioned s tu d ie s . The d ata o f the p re se n t study a ls o show th a t le f t- e y e d s u b je c ts are n o t as li k e l y to be le ft-h a n d e d as the rig h t-e y e d s u b je c ts a re to be r i g h t - handed. Of - th e e ig h ty le ft-h a n d e d su b je c ts in t h i s study, t h i r t y - s i x o r lj-5 per cen t were le f t- e y e d . This percentage is more in acco rd w ith th a t obtained in th e in v e s tig a tio n s re p o rte d above. In those in v e s tig a tio n s approxim ately one h a l f of the le ft-h a n d e d cases were le f t- e y e d . Another study was undertaken to confirm th e tre n d j u s t re p o rte d . The contingency c o e f f ic ie n t was found be tween eyedness and handedness. The c o e f f ic ie n t obtained 22 h. H. Ja s p e r, A L aboratory Study o f D iagnostic In d ices of B i la t e r a l Neuro-M uscular O rganization in S tu tte r e r s and Normal Speakers (U n iv e rsity o f Iowa S tudies in Psychology, No. 1, P rin c eto n : P sych o lo g ical Review Company, 1932), p. 8 l. 309 waa + • ij-0 • Although t h is c o e f f ic ie n t cannot he compared to a Pearson r because the v a r ia b le s involved are not norm ally d is t r ib u t e d in th e p o p u la tio n , i t shows a d e f in it e p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip o r tre n d toward a s u b s ta n tia l r e la tio n s h ip be tween the two v a ria b le s of handedness and eyedness. This c o e f f ic ie n t confirm s the r e s u l t s obtained in t h i s study and those o b tain ed in previous in v e s tig a tio n s . In approxim ately 60 to TO p er c e n t of a l l cases rig h t-h an d ed n ess is g e n e ra lly a s s o c ia te d w ith rig h t-e y e d n e ss and in approxim ately I4 .5 to $0 p er c e n t of a l l cases le ft-h a n d e d n e ss is g e n e ra lly a s s o c i a te d w ith le f t- e y e d n e s s . VI. STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN EYEDNESS A N D EYE DEFECTS Incidence of eye d e fe c ts among the various eyedness ty p e s . The g e n e ra l tendency today is not to look f o r a s in g le c o r r e la te or symptom th a t can be used to account fo r a l l re a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s b u t ra th e r to look f o r a c o n s te lla tio n of d i f f i c u l t i e s as bein g a p o ssib le c o r r e la te o f d e fic ie n c y in re a d in g . ^3 i t was because o f th is tendency th a t attem p ts were made in th is in v e s tig a tio n to study v ario u s types and com binations o f co n d itio n s in t h e i r r e l a tio n s h ip to read in g achievem ent. In the study about to be ^3 E. A. B e tts , "R eta rd a tio n in R eading,” Elem entary E n g lish Review, 1I4.21I4.I— 14.6, A p ril, 1937* d isc u sse d , fo r example, th e r e la tio n s h i p between eyedness and eye d e fe c ts was in v e s tig a te d and in th e follow ing study th ese same groups were s tu d ie d fhom th e angle o f read in g achievem ent. The incidence o f v ario u s types of eye d e fe c ts among the s e v e ra l types of eyedness groups i s p rese n ted in Table XLIX. The percentages given include the t o t a l s from bo th the problem and th e non-problem read in g groups w ith eye d e f e c ts . The incidence o f fu sio n among the fiv e eyedness groups is c lo s e ly s im ila r f o r a l l groups, th e range being from 1 ij. to 19 per c e n t. The myopia groups have a range of from 21 to 31 Pe r c e n t. The d iffe re n c e between th ese two p erce n tag e s, however, is n o t s ig n if ic a n t a s th e c r i t i c a l r a t i o showed th a t th e re were only seventy-tw o chances in a hundred th a t th e d iffe re n c e would be g r e a te r than zero in s im ila r sam ples.^* In the v e r t i c a l imbalance and hyperopia groups th e p ercentages o f cases do n o t very g r e a tly . In the c o -o rd in a tio n le v e l groups the range is from 26 to 59 per c e n t. The c r i t i c a l r a t i o f o r th is d iffe re n c e , however, is I.3 0 , o r n in e ty chances in one hundred th a t th is d iffe re n c e is g r e a te r than z e ro . A c r i t i c a l r a t i o of le s s than th re e ^ The formula used was th a t o f th e sta n d a rd e r r o r of the d iffe re n c e between two p ercentages given in H. E. G a rre tt, S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and Education (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, I93SJ, pp. 226- 2* 7. 311 TABLE X L IX INCIDENCE OP EYE DEFECTS A M O N G THE VARIOUS TYPES OP EYEDNESS GROUPS R Kl A L lr Types o f eye d e fe c ts Per Cent N Per Cent N Per Cent N Per Cent N Per Cent N Fusion 18 73 15 10 19 15 19 i+5 ill. 13 Myopia 29 113 31 21 21 16 29 60 27 2i+ Hyperopia k 34 it- 3 1 1 5 7 8 7 V e r tic a l Imbalance 6 22 6 b 5 k k 10 6 5 C o -o rd in atio n Level 26 105 26 17 39 30 30 73 28 25 L a te ra l Imbalance 12 US 15 10 13 10 12 30 13 12 As tigm atism 3 13 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 S uppression 2 9 0 1 1 2 5 2 2 312 is n o t considered s i g n i f i c a n t t h e r e f o r e , th is d iffe re n c e is not a r e l i a b l e d iffe re n ce * The percentages o f th e l a s t th re e groups o f eye d e fe c ts do n o t vary g r e a tly among them s e lv e s . This stu d y , th e re fo re , tends to show th a t s p e c if ic types o f eye d e fe c ts a r e 'n o t found w ith g r e a te r frequency in any of the p a r tic u la r eyedness groups. In o th e r words, th e re seems to be l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip between eyedness and s p e c if ic types of eye d e f e c ts . There are very few s tu d ie s in which attem pts have been made to determ ine the r e la tio n s h ip between eyedness and eye d e f e c ts . I n v e s tig a tio n s concerned w ith th is problem have been made by G ah ag an ,^ Gates and B o n d , a n d S elzer.^® In a l l th re e s tu d ie s only one type o f r e la tio n s h ip was analyzed, namely, th a t between v is u a l a c u ity and eyedness. A ll th re e in v e s tig a to r s came to th e same co n clu sio n , th a t dominance and a c u ity a re independent v is u a l phenomena. The d ata o b ta in ed in th e p re se n t stu d y f o r v is u a l e f fic ie n c y co rro b o ra te th is co n clu sio n . 25 i b i d . , p. 213. L. Gahagan, "V isual Dominance - A cuity R e la tio n - s h ip s ," Jo u rn a l of G eneral Psychology, 9 :li-55- 59. O ctober, 1933- a . I . Gates and G. L. Bond, "R elatio n of Handed n e s s, E y e-S ig h tin g , and A cuity Dominance to R eading," Jo u rn al o f E ducational Psychology, 27 :14-50-56, September, 1 9 3 6. 23 S e lz e r, op. c i t . , p. 35. Average d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in re a d in g of the v ario u s eye d e fe c t and eyedness g ro u p s. The average d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in re a d in g fo r the eyedness and eye d e fe c t groups a re given in Table L. Only the d ev ia tio n s fo r the re ta rd e d reading cases a re given in th is ta b le , as these a re th e only d ev ia tio n s th a t are p e r tin e n t to the p re se n t d is c u s s io n . The d ev ia tio n s a re given in te n th s o f a grade. There a re no abnormal d iffe re n c e s fo r any o f th e eyedness groups of the re s p e c tiv e , d e fe c ts w ith th e ex cep tio n of those found fo r the su p p ressio n groups. The rig h t-e y e d su p p res sio n group has a tendency to d e v ia te -l.ij. of a grade w hile the le f t- e y e d and le f t- e y e d w ith rig h t-e y e d tendencies groups have a tendency to d e v ia te - .8 and - .5 re s p e c tiv e ly . There seems to be a tendency, from th ese r e s u l t s , fo r the rig h t-e y e d su p p ressio n group to d e v ia te c o n sid erab ly more from expectancy in read in g than fo r th e le ft- e y e d su p p res sio n group. However, an h y p o th esis to th is e f f e c t is h ard ly w arranted because of th e sm all number of p u p ils in the th re e groups. In th e rig h t-e y e d sup p ressio n group th e re were only fiv e p u p ils ; in th e o th e r two groups, th re e , and one p u p ils re s p e c tiv e ly . The r e s u l t s obtained would have to be co rro b o ra ted by o th e r s tu d ie s befo re a conclusion could s a fe ly be made. O therw ise, the r e s u l t s are c o n s is te n t in showing f o r the o th e r groups th a t th e re is no g r e a te r d e v ia tio n from expectancy in reading f o r any of the s p e c if ic eye d e fe c t and eyedness groups. 3ib TABLE L STUDY OP THE AVERAGE DEVIATIONS PROM EXPECTANCY FOR THE EYEDNESS AND EYE DEFECT GROUPS Types of eye d efec ts R H rl N A N L N l r N Fusion - .8 b2 - .8 3 -•7 5 -.7 27 -.7 8 Myopia - .8 60 -•5 10 -•7 8 -•8 57 - .8 13 Hyperopia -•9 5 -•7 2 - - 0 - .6 4 - .ij- 1 V e rtic a l Imbalance - .8 12 ■1.0 2 1 - .6 5 - . 6 2 C o -o rd in atio n Level - .8 58 - .6 6 -.7 ik - .8 lA - .8 11 L a te ra l Imbalance -•9 28 - .7 k - .7 5 -•9 34 - .7 8 A stigm atism - 1.0 5 - . 6 1 — 0 - - 0 -•9 l S uppression -1.I4. 5 0 0 - .8 3 “•5 l 315 V II. STUDY OP THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN THE VARIOUS EYEDNESS AND HANDEDNESS TYPES A N D THE MAJOR PERSONALITY FACTORS P e rs o n a lity ad.justment and e x te n t of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g of the handedness groups. In h is study of the e d u c a tio n a l s ig n ific a n c e o f le ft-h a n d e d n e ss , H a e fn e r^ found th a t w ith th e crude method he used th e re was no r e l i a b l e d iffe re n c e betv/een th e school adjustm ent o f the r i g h t - and le ft-h a n d e d groups and no r e l i a b l e d iffe re n c e w ith re s p e c t to th e f a c to rs th a t arouse emotions of worry in the two groups. In th e p re se n t study an attem p t was made to measure th e s e l f , s o c ia l, and t o t a l adjustm ent o f handedness, eyedness, and m anual-ocular groups in o rd e r to d isc o v e r any p o s s ib le r e la tio n s h ip between th e se v a r ia b le s . The r e s u l t s o f the study are p re se n te d in Tables LI, L II, and L II I . Table LI gives the d a ta fo r th e p e rs o n a lity a d j u s t ment and e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g of the various types of handedness groups. The means f o r t o t a l s e l f adjustm ent, t o t a l s o c ia l ad ju stm en t, and t o t a l a d j u s t ment a re given f o r both the problem and th e non-problem read in g groups of the th re e m ajor types of handedness. When the means f o r the problem and non-problem read in g groups a re compared fo r each p e rs o n a lity asp ect and each handedness ^9 H aefner, op. c i t . , pp. 55* 60. 316 type they show clo se s i m i l a r i t y w ith the ex cep tio n of the am bidextrous groups. The non-problem am bidextrous p u p ils have much lower means f o r a l l th re e p e rs o n a lity a sp e c ts than the problem group. This is r a th e r s u r p r is in g as the re v e rse would n a tu r a lly be expected. The means o f th ese groups a re n o t only lower than the problem groups b u t they a re a ls o co n sid erab ly lower than the non-problem group means fo r b o th the rig h t-h an d ed and th e le ft-h a n d e d p u p ils . These r e s u l t s are not of major concern in th e p re s e n t stu d y as they do n o t show a tendency toward r e la tio n s h ip w ith r e ta r d a tio n in re a d in g . The means o f the problem groups in re a d in g f o r the t o t a l s e l f adjustm ent o f th e th re e handedness types do n o t vary to a g re a t e x te n t. The means fo r the t o t a l s o c ia l adjustm ent of th e se same groups v ary only s ix p o in ts w hile those o f the t o t a l adjustm ent f o r th e se same groups vary only fiv e p o in ts . These s l i g h t v a r ia tio n s do n o t show a s tro n g tendency toward p e rs o n a lity m aladjustm ent f o r e ith e r the r i g h t - , or the le ft-h a n d e d , o r the am bidextrous groups. The d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g fo r the handedness types show th e same tre n d as the means o f th e p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s . A ll th re e groups tend to d e v ia te from expectancy to th e same e x te n t. This tendency in d ic a te s an apparent lack of r e la tio n s h ip between handedness types and p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s . 517 P e rs o n a lity adjustm ent and e x te n t o f d e v la tio n from expectancy fo r th e v ario u s eyedness g ro u p s. The d a ta fo r th is study a re given in Table L II. They a re arranged in the same manner as th e data p rese n ted fo r the handedness study. A comparison of the means f o r the problem and th e non-problem reading groups shows clo se s i m i l a r i t y fo r a l l groups. F urtherm ore, a comparison o f the means f o r each of the p e r s o n a lity fa c to rs and each of the eyedness groups in d i ca tes the same tendency toward s i m i l a r i t y . The d ev iatio n s from expectancy in re a d in g f o r each o f th e se same types of groups a re e x a c tly th e same, namely, - . 8 . The d ata in th is stu d y , th e re fo r e , show a uniform tre n d toward l i t t l e r e l a tio n s h ip betv/een eyedness ty p e s, p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s , and e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g . P e rs o n a lity ad ju stm en t and e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g fo r the v ario u s manual- o c u la r dominance groups. The tw e n ty -fiv e p o s s ib le com binations of manual- o c u la r types of groups were n o t used in th is stu d y , as the d ata obtained d id n o t w arrant such a d e ta ile d a n a ly s is . Only the th re e m ajor groups o f r i g h t m anual-ocular, mixed, and l e f t m anual-ocular were used. The r e s u l t s obtained fo r the a n a ly s is o f r e la tio n s h i p between these l a t e r a l i t y ty p e s, p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s , and e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g a re given in Table L III . The data in t h i s study co rro b o ra te the ten d en cies observed in th e two previous 318 TABLE L I STUDY OF THE PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT AND EXTENT OF D EVIATIO N FROM EXPECTANCY IN READING OF VARIOUS TYPES OF HANDEDNESS GROUPS Right-Handed .........groups . . Left-Handed groups Ambidextrous groups P e rs o n a lity c a te g o rie s N Mean p e r cen t i l e D evia tio n from ex p ect ancy in read in g Mean p er- cen- N t i l e D evia tio n from e x p e c t ancy in read in g Mean per- cen- N t i l e D evia tio n from ex p e ct ancy in read in g T o tal S e lf Adjustment Problem Group 385 - .8 31 36 - .8 16 1 + 7 - .6 Non-Problem Group 38 k lj.8 38 lj.8 10 3!). T o tal S o c ia l Ad jus tment Problem Group 385 k-9 -.8 31 53 -.8 16 55 - . 6 Non-Problem Group 384 53 38 52 xo 35 T o tal Adjustm ent Problem Group 385 If-6 -.8 31 51 -.8 16 50 - . 6 Non-Problem Group 38!). 50 38 I4 .7 10 37 319 TABLE L I I STUDY OF THE PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT AND EXTENT OF D EVIATIO N FROM EXPECTANCY IN READING OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF EYEDNESS GROUPS Right-Eyed groups L eft-E yed groups, Ambi-Ocular . . . groups___ P e rs o n a lity c a te g o rie s Mean p e r- cen- N t i l e Devia tio n from ex p ect ancy in read in g Mean p e r- cen- N t i l e Devia tio n from ex p ect ancy in read in g Mean p e r- cen- N t i l e D evia tio n from ex p ect ancy in read in g T o tal S e lf Adjustment Problem Group 251 49 - .8 142 49 - .8 39 45 - .8 Non-Problem Group 257 47 139 49 36 51 T otal S o c ia l Adjus tment Problem Group 251 50 - .8 142 49 - .8 39 57 - .8 Non-Problem Group 257 50 139 53 56 50 T otal Adjustment Problem Group 251 4 4 - .8 142 47 - .8 39 46 - .8 Non-Problem Group 257 49 139 51 36 51 320 TABLE L I U STUDY OP THE PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT AND EXTENT OP D EVIATIO N PROM EXPECTANCY IN READING OP THE VARIOUS TYPES OP MANUAL-OCULAR DOMINANCE GROUPS R ight manual- o c u la r group Mixed manual- o c u la r group L eft manual- o cu lar group P e rs o n a lity c a te g o rie s Mean p e r- cen- N t i l e Devia tio n from e x p e c t ancy in read in g Mean p er- cen- N t i l e Devia tio n from ex p e ct ancy in read in g Mean p er- cen- N t i l e Devia tio n from ex p ect ancy in read in g T otal S e lf Adjus tment - Problem Group 21|2 If. 1 - •8 190 - . 8 18 38 - .6 Non-Problem Group 296 I4 .5 237 k-5 18 k9 T otal S o c ia l Ad jus tment Problem Group 2l|2 lf.6 - . 8 190 lj.8 - . 8 18 k7 - .6 Non-Problem Group 296 50 237 k9 18 k. 7 T o tal Adjustment Problem Group 21+2 ij.3 - . 8 190 I+ .5 - . 8 18 45 -•6 Non-Problem Group 296 237 k-7 18 lj.8 321 s tu d ie s of handedness and eyedness. The means fo r the poor and the good read in g groups do n o t d i f f e r co n sid erab ly nor do the means of the th re e p e rs o n a lity f a c to rs f o r th e th ree m anual-ocular dominance c a te g o r ie s . The d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g are lik e w ise p r a c t i c a l l y s im ila r. I t can be p o s tu la te d , th e re fo r e , th a t th e re is no tendency toward r e la tio n s h i p between any of the m anual-ocular domi nance ty p e s, p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s , and e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in re a d in g . This same h y p o th esis is l i k e w ise a p p lic a b le to the v ario u s handedness and eyedness types which have been in v e s tig a te d in th is stu d y . V III. STUDY OP THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN REVERSAL ERRORS A N D LATERALITY TENDENCIES R eversal ten d en cies among th e handedness, eyedness, and manual- o c u la r dominance g roups. By a r e v e r s a l tendency is meant “the l a t e r a l in v e rsio n o f word elem ents, w ritte n symbols, o r the read in g or w ritin g o f m a te ria l in s i n i s t r a l r a th e r than d e x tra l s e q u e n c e ." ^ A study of re v e r s a l te n dencies was made in th is in v e s tig a tio n because th is to p ic has so o fte n been d iscu ssed in co n junction w ith the G. H ild re th , “R eversals in Reading and W ritin g .” Jo u rn al of E d u catio n al Psychology, 25: 1- 20, January, 193IJ .* 322 dominance q u e stio n . D earborn, 31 O rto n ,3^ Monroe, 53 and o th e r in v e s tig a to r s have re p o rte d ap p a re n tly s ig n i f ic a n t in sta n c e s of a s s o c ia tio n between p e c u l i a r i t i e s of dominance s ta tu s and r e v e r s a l te n d e n c ie s. Other s tu d ie s , however, have f a i l e d to show convincing evidence th a t r e v e r s a l e rro rs are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of any p a r t i c u l a r dominance c o n fig u ra tio n . The d ata o b tained in th is study a re re p o rte d in th re e s e c tio n s . Table LIV gives the r e s u l t s fo r the handedness a n a ly s is ; Table LV, fo r the eyedness a n a ly s is ; and Table LVI, fo r the m anual-ocular dominance a n a ly s is . A ll th re e ta b le s show a c o n s is te n t tendency f o r the good re a d e rs to make fewer r e v e rs a ls than th e poor re a d e rs . This tendency is c o rro b o ra ted by H ild re th , ^ 4 - and by W itty and Kopel^5 i n t h e i r in v e s tig a tio n s . The tendency is a n a tu r a l one because poor read ers make more kinds of a l l o th e r types of e rro rs as w ell as r e v e r s a l e r r o r s . Among the handedness groups in Table LIV the average number of re v e rs a ls v a rie s between two 31 W . F. Dearborn, ”Ocular and Manual Dominance in D y s le x ia ,” P sychological B u lle tin , 28 :70Ip, November, 1931* 3^ s. T. Orton, ”A N eu ro lo g ical E xplanation of the Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” E d u catio n al Record Supplement No. 12, 20: 58- 68, January, 1939. Monroe, op. c i t ., p. 90. 5^ 4 - H ild re th , op. c i t ., p. 19* 35 W itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , pp. I3O -3I. 523 TABLE L IV STUDY OP THE R ELATIO NSH IP BETWEEN TYPES OF HANDEDNESS AND REVERSAL TENDENCIES Types of handed ness Types o f groups Number ' of p u p ils Number o f re v e r s a ls Average number of re v e r s a ls R Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 301 301 765 457 2.5 1-5 rl Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 80 82 188 115 2.k 1.4 L Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 18 20 54 22 3.0 1.1 lr Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 12 17 27 26 2-3 1-5 A Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 15 10 35 21 2-3 2 .1 T otal Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 426 430 1,069 641 2.5 1-5 32k TABLE LV STUDY OP THE R ELATIO NSH IP BETYifEEN TYPES OP EYEDNESS AND REVERSAL TENDENCIES Types of eyed ness Types o f groups Number o f p u p ils Number O x re v e r s a ls Average number o f r e v e rs a ls R Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 212 202 5iij. ■ 281). 2.14.. l.i). r L Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 35 50 115 71 3.3 l.ij. L Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 97 95 222 11 4 .3 2 .3 1-5 h i Problem Readers 1)4 107 Non-Problem Readers 79 1-7 A Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 58 37 i l l 6I4 2.9 1-7 To t a l Problem Readers Non-Problem Readers 426 430 1,069 6I4.1 2-5 1-5 325 TABLE L V I STUDY OF R ELATIO NSH IP BETWEEN TYPES OF MANUAL-OCULAR DOMINANCE AND REVERSAL TENDENCIES Problem read e rs Non-Problem read e rs Average Average Number number Number Number number Types Number of of of of of of r e v e r r e v e r of re v e r r e v e r dominance p u p ils s a ls s a ls p u p ils s a ls s a ls R ight R -R 160 582 2.I1 345 • 199 1.4 R -Rl 2 5 91 5.6 36 51 1.4 rl- h 36 77 2.1 38 51 1-3 bl-Rl T o tal 7 16 7 13 1.9 Right 228 566 2.5 226 314 1 .4 Mixed R -A 2k 81 3-4 2k 47 2 .0 R -L r 3° 2 .4 P 59 1.7 R -L 62 138 2.2 6l 101 1.7 Rl - a rl - l r 12 l l 2k 20 2 .0 2.9 I 12 18 1-3 2 .3 rl - l 51 2 .8 20 21 1.1 A -R 7 17 2 • 4 6 l 4 2.3 A -R. — l 0 — A -A 1 k 4 -p --- — — A -L r 5 12 2-k --- - - A -L 2 2 1.0 5 7 2.3 Lr -R 4 19 4 * 8 9 13 1.4 l r- rl — — — 2 2 1.0 Lr -A — — - - 1 3 * 5 - 2 L -R 5 19 5-3 4 7 1.8 L -R L 3 8 2 .7 k 5 1.3 L -A 1 2 2 .0 5 2 •7 T otal Mixed 181 kio 2.6 190 311 1.6 L e ft Lr -L 8 8 1.0 5 8 1.6 Lr-L r — — - - - - - - L -L r 2 2 1.0 3 2 •7 L -L 7 23 3-3 6 6 1.0 T otal L e ft 17 53 1.9 lk 16 1.1 TOTAL 426 1,069 2.5 100 641 1-5 and th re e . The same average i s found fo r the eyedness groups in Table LV. I t is of s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t to fin d the same tendency in th e v a rio u s m anual-ocular dominance groups as re p o rte d in Table LVI. The mixed m anual-ocular group has an average r e v e r s a l tendency o f 2.6 and th e r ig h t and l e f t groups, 2.5 and 1.9 r e s p e c tiv e ly . Monroe found a “s i g n i f i c a n tly g r e a te r incidence o f le f t- e y e p referen ce and o f l e f t - eye p referen ce w ith rig h t-h a n d p referen ce among the read in g d e fe c t cases than among the c o n t r o l s .” Moreover, she a lso found ”a s l i g h t tendency f o r le f t- e y e p referen ce to be a s s o c ia te d w ith r e v e r s a l e rro rs in r e a d i n g . H o n e o f th ese fin d in g s is co rro b o ra ted by the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n . There were 1I4.I cases of le f t- e y e p referen ce among b o th the re a d in g -d e fe c t cases and among the c o n tro ls of th is i n v e s t i g a tio n . Moreover, th e re were 117 cases of le f t- e y e and rig h t-h a n d p referen ce or mixed s i n i s t r a l s among the read in g - d e fe c t cases and I2I4. cases among the c o n tro ls . The le f t- e y e problem groups in the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n made an average of 2.3 and 2 . 1 4 . r e v e r s a ls , and the rig h t-e y e problem groups, an average of 2.I4. and 3*5 r e v e r s a ls . The groups th a t made the most r e v e r s a l e r r o r s in th e p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n were the two mixed d e x tra l groups and am bi-ocular group and mixed s i n i s t r a l groups. However, th e re irere so few cases in th ese Monroe, op. c i t . , pp. 90“91« groups th a t the r e s u lt s cannot be taken to in d ic a te a s i g n i f i c a n t tre n d . H ild re th , 57 Teegarden,5^ W itty and K o p e l,^ and Woody and P h illip s^ -0 obtained r e s u l t s in t h e i r in v e s tig a tio n s th a t coincide w ith th e g e n e ra l tre n d o f th e p re se n t study in d ic a tin g th a t th e re is l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip between re v e r s a l te n d en cies and types o f handedness, eyedness, or types of m anual-ocular dominance. R eversal tendency in th e v ario u s g ra d e s . In th is study the number of re v e rs a ls made by th e p u p ils in the v ario u s grades is compared and analyzed. Both H ild reth ^* and W itty and K o p e l^ have found in t h e i r in v e s tig a tio n s th a t r e v e r s a l e r r o r s d e c lin e in frequency from th e lower to th e h ig h e r g ra d e s . The r e s u l t s obtained in t h i s re s p e c t in the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n a re given in Table LVII. They show the same tre n d as th a t found by H ild re th and by W itty and Kopel. The re v e rs a ls d e c lin e in frequency in grades 57 H ild re th , op. c i t . , p. 19. K. Teegarden, "T ests fo r the Tendency to R eversal in R eading,1 1 Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al R esearch, 27 : 81- 97* October, 1935* 59 W itty and Kopel, op. c i t . , pp. 150-51. ^ C. Woody and A. J. P h illi p s , "E ffe c ts o f Handed ness on R eversals in R eading," Jo u rn al of E d u catio n al R esearch, 27:651-62, May, 1934* ^ H ild re th , lo c . c i t . ^ W itty and Kopel, lo c . c i t . 3 2 8 TABLE LVII AVERAGE NUM BER OP REVERSALS M A D E BY THE PUPILS IN THE VARIOUS G RA D E LEVELS Group types Grade k N Grade 5 N . Grade 6 N Grade 7 N Problem Readers 3.8 122 2 .8 95 1.8 103 l.ij. 106 Non-Problem Readers 2,1 132 1-5 113 1 .2 102 1.0 83 fo u r to seven f o r b o th the re a d in g d e fe c t groups and th e c o n tro l group. This tendency leads to th e conclusion th a t the d e c lin e in r e v e r s a ls is caused by th e gain in m ental m a tu rity and e x p e rien ce . The fa c t th a t immature re a d e rs are c h a ra c te riz e d by a co n sid erab le number of re v e r s a ls is probably an in d ic a tio n of t h e i r g en e ra l handicap and of f a u lty h a b it tr a in in g . O ccasionally a c h ild may be found who fo r some reason has confused dominance r e la tio n s h ip s and who, th e re fo r e , has d i f f i c u l t y in e s ta b lis h in g the l e f t to r i g h t p ro g re ssio n h a b it th a t is n ec essary fo r f a c i l e read in g . In group s tu d ie s , however, th e re are not a s u f f i c i e n t number of such cases to w arrant a r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c a l r e la tio n s h ip between dominance and r e v e r s a ls . IX. SU M M A RY OP THE RESULTS OBTAINED FOR THE STUDY OP THE RELATIONSHIP BETW EEN LATERALITY TYPES AND READING ACHIEVEMENT The r e s u l t s of the in v e s tig a tio n s h e re in re p o rte d tend to negate the a s s e r tio n s of some in v e s tig a to r s th a t le ft-h an d e d n ess and le ft-e y e d n e ss are a s s o c ia te d w ith re a d ing d i s a b i l i t y . A g r e a te r incidence of le ft-h an d e d n ess and le ft-e y e d n e s s was not found in th is in v e s tig a tio n and the e x te n t o f d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g f o r these same groups was n o t markedly g re a te r than th a t f o r the r ig h t- handed, rig h t-e y e d , or am bidextrous and am bi-ocular groups. Furtherm ore, th e same tre n d tovrard la c k of a s s o c ia tio n was found in the many types o f m anual-ocular dominance groups. There was no g r e a te r incidence among problem re a d e rs than among non-problem re a d e rs fo r e i th e r the r i g h t , am bivalent, or l e f t m anual-ocular groups nor were the problem cases of any one category abnorm ally r e ta rd e d in re a d in g . The r e s u l t s o b tain ed f o r a l l th re e types o f s tu d ie s te n d to show, th e re f o re , th a t dominance of any type w hatsoever has l i t t l e r e la tio n s h ip to achievem ent in re a d in g . The study o f the r e la tio n s h ip between eyedness and handedness in d ic a te d a tre n d fo r approxim ately 60 to 70 P©r cen t of rig h t-h a n d e d cases to be rig h t-e y e d and a tre n d fo r approxim ately If5 to 50 per c e n t o f le ft-h a n d e d cases to be le f t- e y e d . S p e c ific types o f eye d e fe c ts were not found w ith g re a te r frequency in any of th e p a r t i c u l a r eyedness groups and the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy were not g r e a te r fo r any o f th e se combined group ty p es. T herefore, eye de f e c t s , types of eyedness, and achievem ent in read in g do not seem to be r e la te d to any a p p re c ia b le degree. The s tu d ie s in v e s tig a tin g the r e la tio n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity fa c to rs and types o f handedness, eyedness, and m anual-ocular dominance were c o n s is te n t in showing th a t a p p a re n tly th e re is l i t t l e r e la tio n s h i p among th ese f a c to r s or among these f a c to rs and achievement in re a d in g . According to the d ata obtained in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n r e v e r s a l te n d en cies do not seem to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y a sso c ia te d w ith any type of handedness or eyedness or w ith r i g h t , l e f t , or am bivalent types of m anual-ocular dominance. The re ta rd e d cases in read in g have a tendency to make more r e v e r s a ls th an the n o n -re ta rd e d . F in a lly , th e re i s a de c lin e in frequency o f re v e rs a ls from the lower to th e h ig h er grades in both the problem and the non-problem re a d in g groups. This tren d in d ic a te s th a t the re v e rs a l tendency 3eems to be a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of in ex p erien c e, of a la c k of m ental m a tu rity , and o f f a u lty h a b it tr a in in g . A ll the r e s u lt s o b tained in the r e v e r s a l d a ta , th e re fo r e , seem to in d ic a te a la ck o f r e la tio n s h ip between dominance and r e v e r s a l s • CHAPTER IX SU M M A RY A N D CONCLUSIONS. I . GENERAL PROCEDURE OF THE INVESTIGATION I t was the u ltim a te goal of the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n to in q u ire in to the r e la tio n s h ip s between c e r ta in p h y sio lo g i c a l, em otional, and m o tiv atin g fa c to rs and achievem ent in re a d in g and, i f p o s s ib le , to o f f e r su g g estio n s re le v a n t to the e a rly i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and p rev en tio n of such f a c to rs as may e x e rt a n e g a tiv e in flu e n c e upon su c c e s sfu l achievem ent. The p h y sio lo g ic a l f a c to rs in v e s tig a te d were o c u la r d e f e c ts , handedness, and eyedness; th e em otional f a c to r s , those p e r s o n a lity elem ents th a t c o n trib u te in producing p e rso n a l and s o c ia l ad ju stm en ts; th e m o tiv atin g f a c t o r s , those techniques th a t conduce to the most e f f e c tiv e achievem ent in a rem edial read in g program. Approxim ately 2,000 c h ild re n were o r ig in a l ly examined in grades four to seven in c lu s iv e of twelve s e p a ra te C a th o lic sch o o ls. The fo llow ing sta n d a rd iz e d t e s t s were ad m in istered by the re s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs of each c la s s : The C a lifo rn ia T est of Mental M a tu rity , th e C a lifo rn ia T est of P e rs o n a lity , and the P ro g ressiv e Achievement T est in Reading. The B e t t s r V isu al S en satio n and P ercep tio n T ests were ad m in istered w ith the te le b in o c u la r by two tr a in e d exam iners. The th re e t e s t s 333 f o r d isc o v e rin g n a tiv e eyedness, namely, th e paper h o le t e s t , the m irro r t e s t , and the t e s t given w ith P arso n 's manopto- scope, were lik e w ise given by two tra in e d exam iners, A tra in e d examiner a ls o gave th e o r ig in a l q u e stio n n a ire fo r determ ining handedness as w e ll as the fiv e performance handedness t e s t s of c u ttin g , winding, throw ing, hammering, and b a ttin g . The same examiner gave th e o r ig in a l I n te r e s t Inventory and th e o r ig in a l t e a t fo r d e te c tin g r e v e r s a ls . The tendency has been noted in se v e ra l in v e s tig a tio n s fo r c h ild re n w ith high I ^ 's to have com paratively low accomplishment q u o tie n ts . A lice Horn has found th a t the cause of th is phenomenon of re g re s s io n is the uneven d i s tr ib u tio n o f the e f f e c ts o f s p e c if ic f a c to r s . In o rd e r to avoid the r e s u l t s of the re g re ssio n phenomenon the X A as developed by Horn was used in th e p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n f o r the c r i t e r i o n o f probable s c h o la s tic achievem ent, as the X A overcomes the re g re s s io n f a c to r by g iv in g due w eight in i t s c a lc u la tio n formula to b o th m ental and ch ro n o lo g ic al ag es. The a c tu a l achievem ent o f each c h ild was thus in te r p r e te d in terms of what could be expected from him as re v e a le d by the X A form ula. A n eg a tiv e d e v ia tio n o f fo u r te n th s o r more from th e expectancy sco re was used as the c r i t e r i o n fo r p la c in g the re s p e c tiv e p u p il3 in the rem edial groups. Since the X A included the weighted c o n trib u tio n of b o th th e m ental and th e ch ro n o lo g ic al ages o f each c h ild i t was a ls o used as 55^ one o f the eq u atin g c r i t e r i a in con ju n ctio n w ith the f a c to rs of sex and school. Two equated experim ental and c o n tro l groups were formed. In th e f i r s t groups th e problem read in g cases w ith eye d e fe c ts were equated w ith the non-problem read in g cases a ls o having eye d e f e c ts . In th e second groups the problem cases in re a d in g w ithout eye d e fe c ts were equated w ith the non-problem cases in reading w ithout eye d e f e c ts . The re ta rd e d cases in read in g id e n tif ie d in th e manner d e scrib ed above were placed in four types of rem edial programs. The two m ajor programs were the I n te r e s t and the F a c tu a l Programs. The former included Programs I and I I and th e l a t t e r , Programs I I I and IV. The two minor programs were f i r s t , the I n te r e s t Program supplemented w ith p h o n e tic s, known as Program I I , and second, th e F a c tu a l Program sup plemented w ith p h o n e tic s, known a3 Program IV. The d i s tin g u is h in g c h a r a c te r i s tic between the two programs was one of m o tiv atio n and m a te ria ls used r a th e r than one o f method of conducting the rem edial c la s s e s . The fundam ental method of conducting a l l fo u r types of programs was e s s e n ti a ll y the same. In the I n te r e s t Program th e c h ild re n were given m a te ria l to read th a t was in accord w ith t h e i r expressed i n t e r e s t s . In th is manner n o t only were f e e lin g s o f p le a su re in being p erm itted to do what s a t i s f i e d them engendered in the c h ild re n h u t a ls o f e e lin g s o f s e c u r ity , belonging, and ra p p o rt in knowing th a t the te a c h e r under stood and a p p re c ia te d t h e i r v/ants and needs. In the F actu al Program the c h ild re n were given m a te ria l to read fundamen t a l l y f a c tu a l in n a tu re and which had been planned fo r them w ithout reg ard fo r t h e i r in d iv id u a l in te r e s ts .. The o b je c tiv e in conducting th ese two types of programs was to a s c e r ta in whether cases in the rem edial programs encouraged m erely by the c e r ta in ty of achievem ent and ap p ro v al Improved as ra p id ly in terms of achievem ent as those c h ild re n who f e l t th is same sense o f s e c u r ity plus the a d d itio n a l stim u la tio n s of read in g what appealed to t h e ir t a s t e s , and of s a t i s f a c t i o n reg ard in g fav o rab le r e c ip ro c a l r e la tio n s w ith the te a c h e r. The o b je c tiv e of the tr a in in g in phonetics was to determ ine whether or n o t th is tr a in in g was of s u b s ta n tia l b e n e fit in a d m in iste rin g e i t h e r type o f major program. The rem edial programs were conducted fo r a p erio d of fo u rte e n weeks. At the end of th a t time the p u p ils were again given th e m ental m a tu rity , th e p e r s o n a lity , and the read in g achievem ent t e s t s . C r i t i c a l stu d ie s and an aly ses were then made of p o ssib le e t io lo g ic a l r e la tio n s h ip s between the p h y sio lo g ic a l f a c to r s o f o c u la r anom alies, eyedness, handedness and achievem ent in reading and between v ario u s types of p erso n al and s o c ia l adjustm ents and achievem ent in re a d in g . Another s e rie s o f c r i t i c a l s tu d ie s was conducted 336 to d isco v er in terms of su p e rio r achievem ent the r e la tiv e values of the m o tiv atin g techniques used in the rem edial program s. L im itatio n s of the s tu d y . The fo llo w in g lim ita tio n s were p re se n t in the in v e s tig a tio n . They may have a ff e c te d the d ata secured to a g r e a te r o r le ss degree. 1 . The study was lim ite d to th e fo u rth , f i f t h , s ix th , and seventh g rad es. 2 . Only fo u rte e n weeks were devoted to th e rem edial reading programs. P o ssib ly more s a tis f a c to r y r e s u lt s re g a rd ing the s ig n ific a n c e of the programs could have been o b tain ed i f the programs had been of lo n g er d u ra tio n . 3. In the I n t e r e s t Programs the c h ild re n were n o t p erm itted to choose the s e le c tio n s they wished to read each day. However, th e m a te ria l th a t was given to them was based f u l l y upon the r e s p e c tiv e in t e r e s t s of each p u p il as they had been m anifested in a previous in v e n to ry . ij.. Although the m a te ria l given to th e p u p ils in the F a c tu a l Programs was fundam entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re i t was n o t always u n in te r e s tin g in ap p eal. A b e t t e r c o n tra s tin g s it u a ti o n between the programs might have been secured i f m a te ria l could have been used th a t contained le s s ap p eal. 5. The p e rs o n a lity in v en to ry had the lim ita tio n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l p e rs o n a lity measuring in stru m e n ts, namely, th a t the r e s u l t s of such devices f lu c tu a te from day 337 to day as they are dependent upon the many in d iv id u a l, s o c ia l, and environm ental f a c to rs in flu e n c in g th e su b je c ts a t th e p a r tic u la r tim e. Furtherm ore, as th e p e r s o n a lity in v en to ry used had only one form the r e t e s t s were undoubted ly a ff e c te d by such f a c to rs as p r a c tic e and f a m i l i a r i t y w ith the te s t* 6. The m ental m a tu rity t e s t was a group t e s t and the achievement t e s t in re a d in g was lim ite d to m easuring vocabu la ry and comprehension as i t was organized fo r th a t p a r t i c u l a r t e s t . 7 * The r e s u lts o f the o c u la r t e s t s were a f f e c te d by such fa c to rs as b o d ily tonus and tim e of th e day. These t e s t s were, moreover, o r ig in a lly designed to be screen in g and not d ia g n o stic t e s t s . 8. The handedness in d ic e s were su b je c t to the elem ent of previous t r a in i n g . 9. The eyedness t e s t s were the l e a s t r e l i a b l e o f a l l the t e s t s used because environm ental f a c to r s e a s ily i n v a l i dated the r e s u l t s . 10. The fo u r types o f programs were n o t conducted in each sc h o o l. Only one program was tau g h t throughout the fo u r grades of each re s p e c tiv e sch o o l. Although each program was ad m in istered in t h i s manner in a t l e a s t two d if f e r e n t schools the lim ite d number of teach ers and schools may, n e v e rth e le s s , have in tro d u ced sy stem atic e rro rs in to the r e s u lt s o b ta in ed . I I . FINDINGS A N D CONCLUSIONS 53B The fo llo w in g are the m ajor fin d in g s and conclusions o f the study. P e rta in in g to te c h n iq u e s. In the programs w ithout p honetic p r a c tic e , th e type of m a te ria l used, whether funda m entally f a c tu a l in n a tu re or adapted to th e i n te r e s ts of th e r e s p e c tiv e p u p ils , does n o t seem to a f f e c t the a c h ie v e ment of th e re ta rd e d cases in th e rem edial read in g programs. N e ith e r does the s tim u la tio n of ex p e rien cin g the s e c u r ity and encouragement o f knowing th a t the te a c h e r understands and makes use o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s and needs to t h e i r advan tage seem to h elp the c h ild re n thus stim u la te d to e ra d ic a te t h e i r d e f ic ie n c ie s more r a p id ly than th e group th a t is n o t given th is s tim u la tio n . According to the d a ta o b tain ed , the mere sense of achievement plus the concom itant f e e lin g o f belonging to th e group seem to be as v i t a l In promoting growth in reading a b i l i t y , as these a d d itio n a l s tim u la tin g and m o tiv atin g f a c to r s . I t is d i f f i c u l t , however, to a r r iv e a t a d e f in it e conclusion in th is regard because o f the com p a r a tiv e ly s h o rt d u ra tio n of th e experim ent. In terms of achievem ent in b o th the I n t e r e s t and the F a c tu a l Programs e x ten siv e read in g per se seems to be as e f f e c tiv e as e x ten siv e read in g supplemented w ith phonetic p r a c tic e . The p u p ils in the F a c tu a l Program who had been 339 given the a d d itio n a l phonetic tr a in in g , however, seem ingly a tta in e d achievement s i g n i f i c a n t l y su p e rio r to th a t a tta in e d by the p u p ils in e i t h e r of the two I n t e r e s t Programs. D espite th e se r e s u lt s i t d id n o t seem f e a s ib le to form ulate d e f in it e g e n e ra liz a tio n s re g a rd in g the use o f phonetic tr a in in g in a rem edial read in g program from the d ata ob ta in ed in th is in v e s tig a tio n as the technique used was n o t the most ex p ed ien t. E ffe c tiv e n e ss of technique had to be s a c r if i c e d in o rder to in su re u n ifo rm ity and o b je c ti v ity in the te a c h in g procedure. The programs used f o r the rem ed ial re a d in g in the in v e s tig a tio n were s u c c e s s fu lly handled by the o rd in ary classroom te a c h e rs w ith o u t d is ru p tin g the o rg a n iz a tio n of the sc h o o l. Each te a c h e r handled on th e average of from ten to f i f t e e n re ta rd e d p u p i l s . Furtherm ore, each p u p il read m a te ria l adapted to h is own p e c u lia r needs and progressed a t h is own r a t e on th e le v e l a t which he could a t t a i n w orth w hile achievem ent. As judged by th e c r i t e r i o n of a c c e le ra te d progress in read in g , th a t i s , by more than one month’s progress fo r one, month’s tr a in i n g , th e programs as organized and conducted in th e in v e s tig a tio n were s a t i s f a c t o r y and su c c e s sfu l as th e n e t g ain per month was one and th re e - fo u rth s months or alm ost two months. P e rta in in g to p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s . The d ata o b tain ed in the in v e s tig a tio n show th a t ap p a re n tly the non-problem p u p ils in read in g on th e whole have b e t t e r a d ju s te d person a l i t i e s than the problem p u p ils in re a d in g . They do n o t, however, seem to be more fre e from nervous symptoms n o r to be more s e l f r e l i a n t than th e problem p u p ils n o r do they seem to d i f f e r from them in s o c ia l s k i l l s and in freedom from a n t i - s o c i a l te n d e n c ie s. The tre n d fo r an apparent r e la tio n s h ip between w e ll-a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s and ac h iev e ment in read in g fo r the non-problem re a d in g cases seemed to be co rro b o ra ted to a la rg e e x te n t in the study o f the achievem ent a tta in e d by th e se same p u p ils in the h ig h e st and low est q u a r tile ranges of the various p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s . In th is stu d y such f a c to rs as t o t a l s e l f adjustm ent, t o t a l s o c ia l ad ju stm en t, t o t a l ad ju stm en t, fa v o ra b le school r e l a tio n s , freedom from w ithdraw al te n d en cies, freedom from a n t i s o c ia l tendencies and a f e e lin g of belonging seemed to be s ig n i f ic a n t ly conducive to h ig h e r achievem ent in re a d in g . The d ata obtained f o r th e non-problem read in g c a se s, th e r e fo re , in d ic a te d th a t a p p a re n tly th ere is some r e la tio n s h ip between p e rs o n a lity ad ju stm en t and achievem ent in read in g . Although the problem cases in re a d in g did not seem to have as w e ll-a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s in re a d in g as the non problem c a se s , the e x te n t of t h e i r d e v ia tio n from the expected norms f o r read in g were n o t consonant w ith the e x te n t of th e i r d e v ia tio n s from th e norms fo r the v ario u s p e rs o n a lity components. In o th e r words, the p u p ils in the 3lj.1 low est q u a r tile ranges of the v ario u s p e rs o n a lity components d id n o t seem to be more re ta rd e d in read in g than the p u p ils who had w e ll-a d ju ste d p e r s o n a l i t i e s . The c o r r e la tio n s ob ta in e d between p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs and read in g achievem ent co rro b o ra ted the r e s u l t s o b tain ed f o r th e problem re a d in g cases but they were n o t in agreement w ith th e r e s u lt s o b tain ed f o r the non-problem re a d in g c a ses. The encouragement and s a t i s f a c t i o n experienced by the read in g d e fe c t cases who p a r tic ip a t e d in th e rem edial programs may have e ffe c te d a s ig n i f ic a n t change in the p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of th ese cases, as the gain s made in a l l the p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs were s ig n i f ic a n t w ith th e exception of s e l f - r e l i a n c e . However, sin c e the problem read in g cases were not i n i t i a l l y le s s s e l f - r e l i a n t than the non-problem read in g cases th e re a p p a re n tly had n o t been much room fo r s ig n i f ic a n t improvement in t h i s r e s p e c t. F a m ilia r i t y w ith the m easuring in stru m e n t, however, was probably re sp o n sib le fo r some o f th e ap p aren t change in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The I n t e r e s t Program seems to have e ff e c te d th e g r e a t e s t improvement in th e f a c to rs o f t o t a l adjustm ent, belonging, and s o c ia l sta n d a rd s. For the o th e r f a c t o r s , n e ith e r program seemed to e f f e c t s u p e rio r improvement. How ever, sin c e a l l except th re e of the mean d iffe re n c e s were h ig h e r f o r the I n t e r e s t Program than fo r the F a c tu a l Program more s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u l t s would probably have accrued fo r the 31*2 former program i f the experim ent had been of lo n g er d u ra tio n . D espite the f a c t th a t the problem p u p ils in re a d in g gained s ig n i f ic a n t ly in most o f th e p e rs o n a lity asp ects during the term o f th e rem edial re a d in g , the non-problem read in g cases s t i l l surp assed them a t the close of the p ro grams in a l l of the major p e rs o n a lity components and in the fiv e sub-components of s e l f - r e l i a n c e , belonging, p ersonal w orth, p e rso n a l freedom, and community r e l a t i o n s . The only f a c to r in which th e problem cases seemed to improve s u f f i c ie n tly w ell so th a t the non-problems l o s t t h e i r o r ig in a l s u p e r io r ity was in school r e l a t i o n s . Again, however, the e f f e c t of p r a c tic e and f a m il ia r ity w ith the m easuring in strum ent was probably re sp o n sib le f o r much o f the improvement in p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . In terms of d e v ia tio n from expectancy in read in g , the problem read in g cases in th e low est q u a r til e ranges of the v ario u s p e r s o n a lity components a t th e close o f the rem edial read in g program showed th e same tre n d as they had showed in the i n i t i a l te s t i n g . They did not d i f f e r s ig n i f ic a n t ly in achievement from th e problem cases who were in th e h ig h e st q u a r tile ranges of the various p e rs o n a lity components. T herefore, throughout the experim ent the tren d s were the same fo r the problem c a ses. Although they a p p a re n tly did n o t have as w e ll-a d ju s te d p e r s o n a litie s as the non-problem cases in re a d in g the e x te n t o f t h e i r d e v ia tio n from 3*0 expectancy in read in g did n o t correspond to the e x te n t of t h e i r p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ent. The o p posite tre n d was c o n s is te n t fo r the non-problem cases. They m aintained t h e i r su p e rio r p o s itio n re g a rd in g adjustm ent throughout the exper iment in most re sp e c ts and fo r them th e re seemed to be some r e la tio n s h ip between t h e i r achievem ent in reading and t h e i r p e r s o n a lity adjustm ent. P e rta in in g to p h y sio lo g ic a l f a c t o r s . With the excep tio n o f myopia and fus ion d e fe c ts th e re does n o t seem to be a g r e a te r s i g n i f i c a n t incid en ce o f eye d e fe c ts among the problem than among the non-problem re a d in g groups. The groups w ith s p e c if ic eye d e fe c ts , however, do n o t seem to have a tendency to d ev iate more from expectancy in read in g than groups w ithout eye d e f e c ts • When th e v a rio u s eye d e fe c ts are considered c o lle c tiv e ly th e re is s t i l l no tendency fo r d e fe c tiv e v is io n to be s ig n i f ic a n t ly a s s o c ia te d w ith r e ta r d a tio n in re a d in g . However, in a rem edial program the group w ith slow fu sio n a t read in g d ista n c e tends to achieve s ig n i f ic a n t ly le s s than o th e r eye d e fe c t groups con s id e re d sin g ly or c o lle c tiv e ly . A d e f in ite conclusion re g a rd in g the r e la tio n s h ip o f any of the v is u a l anom alies to reading achievement is n o t o ffe re d , however, because of the d i f f i c u l t y of determ ining to what e x te n t th e f a c t o r of compensation in flu en ced the r e s u lt s obtained and to what e x te n t the r e s u lt s may have d if fe re d i f the non-problem 3kb re a d in g group w ith eye d e fe c ts had n o t heen so a f f l i c t e d . There seems to be l i t t l e s ig n i f ic a n t g en eral r e l a t i o n sh ip between p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs and types o f eye d e fe c ts , as the g e n e ra l p e rso n a l and s o c ia l adjustm ent of both the eye d e fe c t groups and th e groups w ith normal v is io n were about the same. However, among the fu sio n groups the problem read in g cases w ithout eye d e fe c ts seem to have a b e t t e r sense of b elo n g in g than the p u p ils w ith eye d e fe c ts ; and th e non problem read in g cases w ithout eye d e fe c ts seem to have a b e t t e r f e e l in g of s e l f - r e l i a n c e than those w ith fu sio n de f e c t s . Among the hyperopia groups the problem p u p ils w ith o u t eye d e fe c ts seem to be more f re e from nervous symptoms than the problem cases w ith the hyperopia d e fe c ts . These trends were found in th e p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n . F u rth e r s tu d ie s confirm ing th e se r e s u l t s should be made, however, b efo re more d e f in it e conclusions can be reached reg ard in g these r e la tio n s h ip s . The r e s u l t s of th is in v e s tig a tio n showed no r e l a t i o n sh ip between types o f hand and eye dominance and achievement in re a d in g . A g r e a te r incidence of le ft-h an d e d n ess and l e f t - eyedness was n o t found, and the d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g were not g r e a te r f o r th ese groups than fo r the groups w ith d e x tra l or am bidextrous te n d e n c ie s. Moreover, among the m anual-ocular dominance groups, n e ith e r the r i g h t , the am bivalent, nor the l e f t dominance groups had a g r e a te r 5^ 5 incid en ce of p u p ils among the problem cases than among the non-problem cases in re a d in g . Furtherm ore, n o t in any one of th ese c a te g o rie s were the problem cases more abnorm ally re ta rd e d in reading than th e p a r a l l e l non-problem c a ses. Approximately 60 to " J O Pei> c e n t o f rig h t-h an d ed p u p ils have a tendency to be rig h t-e y e d and approxim ately 50 p er cent of le ft-h a n d e d p u p ils tend to be le f t- e y e d . There seems to be, th e re fo r e , a tendency toward some r e l a tio n s h ip between handedness and eyedness. Eyedness and s p e c if ic types of eye d e fe c ts do n o t seem to be s ig n i f ic a n t ly a s s o c ia te d , as s p e c if ic types of eye d e fe c ts were n o t found w ith g r e a te r frequency in any of th e p a r tic u la r eyedness groups. The d e v ia tio n s from expectancy in read in g were l i k e w ise not abnormal in any of th ese combined group ty p e s. Furtherm ore, when types o f eye d e fe c ts and types o f eyedness are stu d ie d from the view point of t h e i r combined in flu e n c e on achievem ent in read in g th e re is s t i l l no a p p re c ia b le r e la tio n s h ip d is c e r n ib le . F in a lly , the same la c k of r e l a tio n s h ip is found among p e rs o n a lity f a c to r s , types o f handed n e s s, eyedness, m anual-ocular dominance, and achievem ent in read in g when th ese are analyzed as a c o n s te lla tio n o f f a c to r s . There seems to be no r e la tio n s h ip between dominance and th e r e v e r s a l tendency. A s ig n i f ic a n t ly g r e a te r average number of r e v e r s a ls was n o t made in any of th e handedness, eyedness, o r m anual-ocular dominance groups. The problem 3k6 cases in read in g make many more re v e rs a ls than the non problem cases in re a d in g . There is a ls o a d e c lin e in f r e quency of r e v e r s a ls from th e lower to th e h ig h e r g rad es. On the whole, the r e v e r s a l tendency seems to be r a th e r a c o r r e la te of in e x p erien c e, o f a lack o f m ental m a tu rity , and of f a u lty h a b it t r a in i n g than of a dominance tendency. I I I . EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS The follow ing im p lic a tio n s a re n e c e s s a r ily lim ite d by the group w ith which the experim ent was conducted, by the te s t s used, and by the techniques employed in th e v ario u s stu d ies* On the whole, the in v e s tig a tio n did not attem pt to determ ine cause and e f f e c t re la tio n s h ip s as such. I t m erely attem pted to d isco v er p o ssib le c o r r e la te s o r concom itant c o n d itio n s and thereby to o f f e r p o s itiv e c o n trib u tio n s to the f i e l d of d ia g n o stic and rem edial read in g . In sch o o ls where i t is n o t p o ssib le to procure s p e c ia l rem edial te a c h e rs the re g u la r classroom te a c h e rs can sometimes give e f f e c tiv e rem edial treatm en t w ith o u t d is r u p t ing the o rg a n iz a tio n of the sch o o l. The in v e s tig a tio n in d ic a te s th a t i t is p o ssib le f o r re ta rd e d cases in read in g no t hampered by i n t e l l e c t u a l d i f f i c u l t i e s to improve s i g n i f i c a n t l y in read in g achievem ent even when they a re taught in com paratively la rg e groups. The m a te ria ls used in th e rem edial c la sse s do n o t 3k7 seem to be of as much im portance as the f a c to r of su c cess. However, because of the com paratively sh o rt d u ratio n o f the experim ent, th e in v e s tig a tio n was n o t a b le to determ ine d e f i n i t e l y th e u ltim a te outcome o f u sin g m a te ria ls th e re were in accord w ith the p u p ils 1 i n t e r e s t s . Perhaps in the long run the use of such m a te ria ls may ten d to e f f e c t more ra p id achievem ent. I t seems very im p o rtan t, however, th a t the re ta rd e d cases f e e l th e power of su c c e ss. T herefore, the m a te r ia ls , o f w hatever n a tu re they may be, should be a d ju s te d to th e le v e l a t which the p u p ils can ach iev e. E xtensive read in g on the c a p a c ity le v e l seems to be an e f f e c tiv e means of h e lp in g re ta rd e d cases achieve su c cess. The study does n o t imply th a t th is is the only e f f e c tiv e tech n iq u e. It'm e re ly aims to e s ta b lis h th is technique as a su c c e s sfu l and b a s ic p r in c ip le upon which to base rem edial read in g programs. Since e x te n t of r e ta r d a tio n in read in g and p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs do not seem to be s ig n i f ic a n t ly r e la te d , the rem edial te a c h e r may b e t t e r c o n c e n tra te on e s ta b lis h in g a program in rem edial read in g th a t w ill in su re success in achievement to the in d iv id u a l p u p ils than a tte m p t to improve th e p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s tic s of the re s p e c tiv e p u p ils by a d ir e c t approach. Improvement in p e r s o n a lity adjustm ent seems to be a concom itant f a c to r to success in achievement although th e re is a p p a re n tly n o t an i n t r i n s i c r e la tio n s h ip between 5^8 the two f a c t o r s . In o th e r words, many re ta rd e d cases in read in g seem to improve in c id e n ta lly in p e r s o n a lity fa c to rs i f they experience success in achievem ent. Most m a la d ju st ments seem to take care of them selves i f the p u p ils e x p e ri ence. assu ra n c e , confidence, and su ccess. This does n o t imply, however, th a t rem edial read in g te a c h e rs should not make any e f f o r t to improve, by guidance and h e lp fu ln e s s , o u tsta n d in g p e rs o n a lity d e v ia tio n s . In g e n e ra l, th e rem edial reading te a c h e r need n o t be unduly concerned i £ i t is n o t p o ssib le to secure the co o p e ra tio n of an o c u l is t in th e case o f p o ssib le v is u a l anom alies in her problem cases in re a d in g . P upils are a p p a re n tly n o t h in d ered , in th e m a jo rity of c a se s , in t h e i r achievem ent by v is u a l d e f e c ts . However, i f th e a s s is ta n c e o f an o c u l i s t can be secured such an o p p o rtu n ity should be u t i l i z e d , as the c o rre c tio n o f v is u a l d e fe c ts may be of s ig n i f ic a n t p h y sic al b e n e f it to th e re s p e c tiv e in d iv id u a ls and might in some in sta n c e s le ad to improvement in re a d in g . R eversal ten d en cies on the p a rt of problem cases in re a d in g seem to be only s l i g h t l y s ig n i f ic a n t a s id e from the f a c t th a t they in d ic a te im m aturity and la ck o f-p ro p e r h a b it form ation. Judging from th e d a ta o b tain ed in t h i s i n v e s t i g atio n i t does n o t seem th a t sp e c ia l a tte n tio n need be given to c o rre c tin g r e v e r s a l te n d e n c ie s as such f o r the tre n d seems to d isap p ear g ra d u a lly as the p u p ils a c q u ire power and ik s achievem ent. The hand and eye dominance tendency of p u p ils does n o t seem to a f f e c t achievem ent in th e case o f re ta rd e d p u p ils . However, i t may he w ell f o r th e te a c h e r to make c e rta in th a t younger and immature re a d e rs who have l e f t - handed, le f t- e y e d , or mixed dominance ten d en cies use appro p r ia te h a b its of l e f t - t o - r i g h t p ro g re ssio n during the read in g p ro c e ss. F in a lly , the rem edial te a c h e r need n o t be too much concerned w ith the p o ssib le causes th a t may have c o n trib u te d in producing th e le g a s th e n ia in h e r p u p ils . P o s itiv e r e l a tio n s h ip s between s in g le supposedly c a u sa tiv e fa c to rs and even c o n s te lla tio n s of f a c to rs have n o t been found. A g re a t d ea l of a tte n tio n on th e p a r t of rem edial teach ers should be given to e s ta b lis h in g i n t e r e s t and to promoting read in g success and f i n a l achievem ent. I f th e problem cases in read in g are given th e o p p o rtu n ity to succeed most o f them w ill make co n sid erab le progress provided they have the m ental c a p a c ity . IV. PROBLEM S FOR FURTHER RESEARCH A number of problems and q u estio n s aro se during the pro g ress of the in v e s tig a tio n th a t m ight w ell be su b je c te d to f u rth e r stu d y . Those o f m ajor concern and value a re as fo llo w s : 350 1 . I f the I n t e r e s t and F a c tu a l Programs were con ducted over a lo n g er p erio d of tim e, p o ssib ly a y ear, would the e f f e c t of prolonged ra p p o rt w ith th e te a c h e r and p ro longed s a t i s f a c t i o n in u t i l i z i n g b a s ic in t e r e s t s and d riv e s produce su p e rio r r e s u l t s in terms of. achievem ent? 2 . In terms of the development of the c h ild as a whole and e s p e c ia lly in terms o f p e r s o n a lity development would the I n t e r e s t Program achieve more s ig n i f ic a n t r e s u lt s than the F a c tu a l Program i f bo th programs were given a prolonged t r i a l ? 5. Which is more e f f e c tiv e f o r problem cases in re a d ing, ex ten siv e read in g of th e type given in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n or e x te n siv e reading supplemented by form al d r i l l ? I}.. What would be the p e rs o n a lity s ta tu s a t th e end of a rem edial program in read in g o f a re ta rd e d group th a t had n o t been given rem edial treatm en t as compared w ith a r e ta rd e d group th a t had been given t h i s rem edial trea tm en t? 5. ?/ould re ta rd e d cases who were given rem edial treatm en t in read in g improve as much in p e r s o n a lity a d j u s t ment during a given tim e as r e ta rd e d cases in read in g who were given rem edial treatm ent fo r p e rs o n a lity adjustm ent b u t not f o r achievement in reading? 6 . Would problem cases in read in g who were given p e rs o n a lity adjustm ent e x e rc ise s improve ap p re c ia b ly in read in g achievement w ithout being given rem edial tr a in i n g 351 in reading? 7 * D° p u p ils in th e f i r s t grade who m a n ife st p e r s o n a lity m aladjustm ents e a rly in the year b efo re they have le a rn e d to read tend to accom plish le s s in read in g a c h iev e ment than w e ll-a d ju s te d p u p ils? 8 * Does the success o r f a i l u r e in read in g of p u p ils in the f i r s t grade throughout the year a f f e c t th e p e rs o n a lity s ta tu s of th e se p u p ils pro or con-? 9 * Could the need fo r rem edial programs be obviated in the upper elem entary school by g iv in g p u p ils from t h e ir e a r l i e s t school days read in g m a te ria l th a t is adapted to t h e i r c a p a c ity le v e l in reading? B I B L I O G R A P H Y BIBLIOGRAPHY I . 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A ., “E ffe c ts of Remedial Reading on E d u catio n al Progress and P e rs o n a lity Adjustm ent of High-Grade M entally D e fic ie n t C h ild re n ,” Jo u rn al o f Ju v e n ile R esearch, l8:li4.0-62, Ju ly , 193^ 4 -* ~ ~ 3^8 Ladd, M . R ., The R e la tio n of S o c ia l, Economic, and P ersonal C h a ra c te ris tic s to Reading A b i l i t y . Teachers College C o n trib u tio n to Education No, 5^2 . New York: Teachers C ollege, Columbia U n iv e rs ity , 1921. 100 pp. Lewin, K ., A Dynamic Theory of P e r s o n a lity . T ra n sla te d by D. Adams, and K. Zener; New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1935. 286 pp. Lorge, Irv in g , " I n te llig e n c e and P e rs o n a lity as Revealed in Q u estionnaires and I n v e n to r ie s ,” T h irty - N inth Yearbook of the N a tio n a l S o cie ty f o r th e Study o f E d u catio n , P a rt I , Bloomington, I l l i n o i s : Public School P u b lish in g Company, I9I4.O. Pp. 275- 8 l. N elson, E ., ”A ttitu d e s : I . T heir N ature and D evelopm ent,” Jo u rn al of G eneral Psychology, 21:367-99* O ctober, 1939* P la n t, J . S ., P e rs o n a lity and the C u ltu ra l P a tte r n . New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1937• b-3^ PP* Sherman, M., "Emotional D isturbances and Reading D i s a b i l i t y , ” Recent Trends in Reading, compiled and e d ite d by W m. S. Gray. Supplementary E ducational Monograph No. 2 4. 9 * Chicago: U n iv e rsity o f Chicago P ress, 1939* PP* 126- 35* S tag n e r, Ross, Psychology o f P e r s o n a lity . New York: McGraw- H ill Book Company, 1937* M> 5 PP* S tag n er, Ross, ”The R e latio n of P e rs o n a lity to Academic A ptitude and A chievem ent,” Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al R esearch, 2 6 : 61p 8— 60, May, 1933* Symonds, P. M., "What is an A ttitu d e ? ” P sych o lo g ical B u lle tin , 2lj_:200- 201, March, 1927. Thorpe, L. P ., ”Are P e rs o n a lity Q u a litie s I n h e rite d ? ” Business Education World, 2 0 : 186- 88, November, 1939* Thorpe, L. P ., " P e rs o n a lity and Human N a tu re ,” Business Education World, 2 0 :95~97* O ctober, 1939* Thorpe, L. P ., P sychological Foundations o f P e r s o n a lity . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19387 602 pp. Thorpe, L. P ., ”¥/hat Do W e Mean by P e rs o n a lity ? ” Business E ducation World, 2 0 : 1- 3, September, 1939* Uhl, W , L ., and F, F. Powers, P ersonal and S o c ia l Ad,justment. New York: Macmillan Company^ 193^* lj-75 PP* 369 Wolf, S. J . , " H is to ric Background o f the Study of Person a l i t y as i t R elates to Success or F a ilu re in Academic A chievem ent," Journal o f G enetic Psychology, 1 9:1 + 17- 36* October, 1938* Young, J* B ., "Sow Emotional T ra its Predispose to C ollege F a ilu r e ," Jo u rn al o f E ducational Psychology, 18:631-36, December, 1927* IV. STATISTICAL BA CK G RO U N D FOR DIAGNOSIS A N D INTERPRETATION F is h e r, R. A ., and F. Y ates, S t a t i s t i c a l Tables f o r B io lo g i c a l, A g ric u ltu r a l and Medical R esearch. London: O liv er and Boyd, 1938. 9° PP* G a rre tt, H. E ., S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and E d u catio n . New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1938* 1+93 PP* Horn, A. McNulty, "Uneven D is tr ib u tio n o f the E ffe c ts of S p e c ific F a c to rs ," Unpublished D o cto rT s D is s e r ta tio n , U n iv e rsity of Southern C a lifo rn ia , Los A ngeles, 1937* 251 pp. L in d q u ist, E. F'*, "The S ig n ific a n c e o f a D ifferen ce Between *Matched G r o u p s , J o u r n a l of E ducational Psychology, 2 2 : 197“20!+, March, 1931. L in d q u ist, E. F ., S t a t i s t i c a l A nalysis in E du catio n al Re s e a rc h . New York: Houghton M ifflin Company, 19^ 0 * 266 pp. M acPhail, A. H ., "The C o rre la tio n Between the IQ and th e AQ," School and S o c ie ty , 16:586-88, November, 1922. P e te rs , G. C ., and W . R. Van V oorhis, S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures and Their M athem atical B ases. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I9I+O. $16 pp. Torgenson, T. L ., and I . Shuman, "The V a r ia b i lity o f the Accomplishment o f P u p ils o f th e Same Mental L evel," Jo u rn al o f E d u catio n al R esearch, 11: 132- 36, F ebruary, 1925. W ilks, S. S ., "The S tandard E rro r o f the Means o f fMatched S am p les,!" Jo u rn al of E ducational Psychology, 2 2 :205- 8 , March, 1931* APPENDIX A ORIGINAL TESTS HELPING YOURSELF WITH WORDS M A N U A L OF DIRECTIONS A T est Designed to Diagnose S k ills Basic to E ffe c tiv e Reading H abits For C hildren of th e In term ed iate Level I , Purpose HELPING YOURSELF WITH W O R D S is a d ia g n o stic group t e s t which analyzes the c h i l d ’s a b i l i t y to a tta c k d i f f i c u l t words. The t e s t can be used f o r survey purposes e a rly in the school y e a r in o rd er to c l a s s i f y p u p ils and to o rganize m a te ria ls f o r te ach in g needed s k i l l s . I t can a ls o be used to diagnose the read in g h a b its of rem edial p u p ils in o rd er to lo c a te f a u lty h a b its and to apply e f f e c tiv e rem edial tr e a tm e n t. I I . N ature The purpose o f S ectio n A Is to p re se n t the vocabulary which w ill be used in th e rem ainder of the t e s t in a meaning f u l s e t t i n g . The vocabulary has been so c o n tro lle d th a t the m a jo rity o f words a re n o t above the th ird -g ra d e le v e l of d i f f i c u l t y . The a b i l i t y of the p u p il in g en e ra l comprehen sio n Is checked by th e drawing o f th e p ic tu r e s . In S ectio n B the p u p il uses the f i r s t method o f word a tta c k , namely, co n te x t. S ectio n G p re se n ts m a te ria l fo r a d e ta ile d d iag n o sis of th e p u p il’s power o f word a tta c k by analy zin g words. P arts I , I I , and I I I check the p u p i l ’s knowledge o f consonants, b le n d s, and vowel3; P art IV, h is knowledge of th e use o f long and sh o rt vowels; P a rt V, h is a b i l i t y to s y lla b ic a te ; P arts VI, and V II, h is knowledge o f p re fix e s and s u f f ix e s . S ectio n D t e s t s the p u p i l ’s a b i l i t y in th e use o f th e g lo ssa ry and d ic tio n a ry . P art I checks h is a b i l i t y in u sin g d i a c r i t i c a l marks; P a rt I I , h is a b i l i t y in u sin g r e s p e llin g . 572 III* D ire c tio n s f o r Diving the Test GENERAL The c h ild re n a re to he given as much time as is needed to complete each s e c tio n . I f the te a c h e r n o tic e s , however, t h a t s e v e ra l c h ild re n are h o ld in g up the c la s s and seem to he working f u t i l e l y she should continue the t e s t and t e l l these c h ild re n th a t the time is up f o r th a t t e s t . In case a c h ild f in is h e s a s e c tio n e a rly and w ishes to complete- a form er s e c tio n , perm ission may he g ran te d . A ll d ir e c tio n s in sm all type a re to he read c le a r ly , slow ly, and em p h atically hy the te a c h e r. The te a c h e r may r e read c e r ta in d ir e c tio n s i f she th in k s i t a d v isa b le f o r the purpose o f c l a r i t y and em phasis. The d ire c tio n s a re given in very much d e t a i l ; th e re fo re , i t should n o t be n ecessary f o r the te a c h e r to supplem ent. I f , however, a c h ild asks f o r more ex p lan atio n i t may he given b r i e f l y provided the inform ation is m erely a f u r th e r i n te r p r e t a ti o n o f the d ir e c tio n s s ta te d in the t e s t . The la rg e -ty p e s e c tio n s a re to he read hy the c h ild re n only. No h elp in read in g may he given hy the te a c h e r fo r th e se s e c tio n s . S p e c ific In S ectio n C, P art I the te a c h e r f i r s t sounds the l e t t e r , then sounds th e word co n ta in in g the l e t t e r as the f i r s t sound and then sounds the l e t t e r ag ain . The l e t t e r s and words to he used fo r t h i s purpose are th e follow ing: 1. 2 • i I : 9- 10. In S ectio n C, P a rt I I , the te a c h e r follow s the same procedure as fo r P art I. The blends and words to he used fo r th is purpose are the fo llo w in g : s so rry s 1 1. f f i l l e d f r rows r 12. n nurse n w woke w h had h y yes y 3 4. P passenger P m Miss m 8 goose 8 h bottom h 16. 1 lig h tn in g 1 c could c 17. 3 jumped 3 t tucked t 1 8. k k itc h en k d d ista n c e d 1 9* z zone z 1 looking 1 2 0. V very V 1. p i plane p i 11. wh w hile wh 2. s t storm s t 12. f r f r u i t f r 3 - t r t r a i n t r 1? ‘ sh sh o rt sh 4 . th thunder th 24. g r ground g r 5. tw twins tw 1§- c r c rie d c r 6 . c l clouds c l l 6 . f l f l y f l i- h r b r ig h t h r 1 7. qu q u estio n qu 8 . sm sm all sm 18. ch c h ild re n ch 9 . dr dressed dr 19. sp spend sp 10. s i sle e p in g s i 20. sw swing sw 373 SCORING KEY - HELPING YOURSELF WITH WORDS P a rt One SECTION A P a rt One SECTION A P a rt One SECTION B P a rt One P art One SECTION C SECTION C C-I C-II A -II A -II con!t . a . 3 p o in t3 e. 2 p o in ts 1 • S 1. pi plane Tom s le e p 2. r 2. s t above clouds ing thunder and A lic e s le e p 3. w 3. t r lig h tn in g ing 7 If. th 5 - m 5. tw B 1. 3 b. 1 p o in t f . I} , p o in ts 6. b 6. c l A lice clo se plane 7. c 7. b r to Daddy mountains c i ty 2. 1 8. t 8. sm tr e e s 9. d 9* dr 10. 1 10. s i 3 * 3 11. f 11. wh c . 1 p o in t g. 3 p o in ts 12. n 12. f r Nurse un Miss Brown locking A lice and 13. h 13. sh se a ts tr a y Tom and 1 4. p if- gr tr a y • h- 1 1 5. s 15. c r 16. 1 16. f l d. if p o in ts h. 2 p o in ts 17- j 17. qu 5- 2 top bed plane 18. k l8 . ch bottom bed people la d d er 19« 2 1 9* sp Tom clim b ing la d d e r 20. v 20. sw TOTAL: 20 p o in ts 374 SCORING KEY (continued) P a rt One SECTION C C -I II C -I II 2. (con * t .) h. i or C-IV 1. (co n ’t . ) 16. o P a rt One SECTION C c -v 1 • a • 0 u 17 • _ b. e i . 0 18. 0 c. a i . i o r o or P a rt One d. u u o r SECTION C a C-IV e . i P a rt One 2. 1. 1 f . a SECTION C C-IV ■ 2. g. e w 1. 1.____ 3 * i h. o 2. I 4 - a i . u 3 -___ 5 -. 3 - y 4 * ____ 6. C -III 5 • © 7 v 2 • a • a 6. 8. b. u or i 7 -___ 9 . 0 c. a or 8. o 10. a 0 or i 9 » © 11. a d. u or 10.___ 12 •. i o r e 11. e - 1 3- i . e . a or 12. i 14 * u 0 13. 0 1 5. e f . u or - a or 14.___ 16. e e 15. a 1 7. S- e 1. .a. 1 b. 2 c. 2 d. 1 e • 2 f . 1 S* 1 h. 2 i . 2 J • 3 c -v 2 . a. e a r ly b. a i r plane c. a bove d. a f r a i d e. ao r ry f . pas sen gers g. b o t tom h . lad d er i . un d ress j . a l most SCORING KEY ( c o n tin u e d ) P a rt One SECTION C C-V I 1. h ig h e r 2. un lock ed 3. e a r ly ij.. ex claim ed 5* gold en C-V I I 1. f in is h 2. hur ry 3. beau t i f u l in t e r e a t ing 5. d is tance P a rt One SECTION D D - l 1. pock e t 2* a sle e p 3. look ing I}., sid e 5* t i ny D-2 1. ges 2. s o r i 3. s i t ij.. a fra d 5. d is tans odd, end so fa , eve fo o t, i l l ice Ic e , i l l end odd, i l l ic e so fa , a le i l l , account 376 N A M E HELPING YOURSELF WITH WORDS (A T est Designed to Diagnose S k ills B asic to E ff e c tiv e Reading H abits) G RADE SCHOOL DATE DEAR BOYS AND GIRLS: Do you know th a t Geography and H isto ry and Science and even A rith m etic a re easy i f you know how to read w ell? In th e pages of th is b o o k let you w i l l fin d a number of e x e rc ise s th a t w i l l h e lp you know how w ell you can read* I f you have any tro u b le w ith re a d in g , they w i l l show where your tro u b le i s . Then we can h elp you so th a t your read in g w ill Improve. I f your read in g improves, your Geography, and H isto ry , and S cience, and A rith m etic w i l l a ls o improve. Do a l l you can on each page and work as f a s t as you can. You w ill be given as much time as you need. Your te a c h e r w ill read the d ir e c tio n s f o r each e x e rc is e . Do n o t begin to work u n t i l you understand the d ir e c tio n s . I f you do n o t u nderstand, then ask f o r h e lp . Begin to work when your te a c h e r say s, tT Ready, b e g in .” Now tu rn to Page One. DIAGNOSTIC RECORD S ectio n T est Score A -II Comprehens ion 20 B Context 5 C Word A nalysis I Consonants 20 I I Blends 20 111- 1 ,2 Vowels 19 IV-1 Rule: L.Vowels 18 IV-2 Rule: S.Vowels 18 V-1 ,2 S y lla b ic a tio n 20 VI P re f. and S u ff. 5 VII S y lla b ic a tio n 5 D D ic tio n a ry 10 TOTAL 160 P o ssib le C h ild ’s Score . C h ild ’s C la s s if ic a tio n 377 SECTION A I. Read the following story. Don't bother about the lines and numbers. Later we shall tell you what they mean. AN EXCITING TRIP Tom and Alice, the twins, have had many good times together. Early last summer they went to California by airplane. They had an exciting trip. /I The plane went high above the clouds. They saw a thunder and lightning storm below them.2/' The plane went higher and higher. Once in a while it jumped. /3 Alice was afraid. She moved close to her Daddy who told her not to w o r r y .4/ He said the plane had only struck an airpocket and that there was no danger. Tom and Alice were sorry when it was time to go to bed. They did not want to miss any of the sights. But they found that it was even interest ing to go to bed. in an airplane. /5 A trained nurse took care of the passengers. When it was time to go to bed, the nurse,-Miss Brown, unlocked the seats in which the twins sat and let them fall to the f l o o r .6/ Then she pulled out two beds from the side of the plane. The beds were completely made up. /? There was a top bed and a bottom bed. Miss Brown brought a small step ladder for Tom so that he could climb into the top bed. 8/ When he was undressed, she tucked him in tightly so that he could not fall out. Then after she helped Alice to undress, she tucked her in the bottom bed. /» The twins were so very tired that soon they were fast asleep. 10/ The next morning, Miss Brown woke the twins bright and early. They, had so many questions to ask her about all the things that happened while they were sleeping that they almost missed seeing the best sights of the whole trip. /II "Look," cried Alice. "Oh, look at the mountains below us.'" 378 "Yes,“ said Miss Brown, "and don't miss looking out of your Daddy's window. See the snow-capped mountains in the distance.'" "Oh, how beautiful they are.'" Tom exclaimed. "Are we passing over a city? Everything looks so tiny." "Yes," replied Miss Brown "this is San Bernardino. Do you see the rows and rows of trees down there? Well, those are the orange groves. The trees are filled with beautiful golden oranges but we are too high for you to be able to see the fruit plainly." 12/ "Won't we be happy when we can pick oranges from a real orange tree.'" said Tom. "Oh, I can hardly wait.'" cried Alice. /13 "it's time for breakfast," said Miss Brown as she handed a tray to each of the twins. "Orange juice.'" cried the twins. "Where did you get all these things, Miss Brown - toast, cereal, milk, and orange juice?" 14/ "I have a kitchenette right back there," answered Miss Brown as she pointed to the rear end of the plane. "A kitchenette in an airplane.'" exclaimed the twins. "Won't Mother be surprised when you tell her all about your beds and the kitchenette and all the other things you have seen and heard since last night," said Daddy. "But hurry n o w with your breakfast. Soon we will be at the airport in. Los Angeles. You know Mother will be there to meet us." 379 Daddy was right. In a short time the plane circled the Los Angeles airpprt. Tom and Alice became very much excited. "Daddy, I am sure that is Mother down there.'" exclaimed Alice. /15 It didn't take Alice very long to find out for soon the plane touched the ground, circled around, and then headed for the unloading zone. "It is Mother.' Look, Daddy.'" cried both the twins. 157 Miss Brown quickly helped the tv/ins out of the plane. I need not finish the story as I am sure you can guess all the exciting things that happened after that. 380 II. First of all, we want to find out whether or not you understand what you have read. We can find this out "by having you draw pictures. You will draw them on this page. Do as well as you can. Use your pencil. In the first block draw a picture of the story between the numbers 1 and 2. In the second block draw a picture of the story between the numbers 3 and 4. In each block it tells you which pic ture to draw. You may read the story or part as often as you find it necessary. a. Between 1 and 2 e. Between 9 and 10 ft. Between 3 and. 4 X.' Between 11 and 12 c. Between 5 and 6 g. Between 13 and 14 d. Between 7 and 8 . ft. Between 15 and 16 3 8 1 SECTION B DIRECTIONS; If you meet a word while you are reading that you do not know there are three ways in which you can help yourself to figure out how to pronounce the word. In this exercise we will see if you know how to use the first way. Read the following sentences. If you do not know a word, skip it, read ahead and let the other words help you. Try to guess what the word is after you have read the whole sentence. Sometimes it is help ful to sound as much of the word as you can besides guessing it. After you read each sentence, do what the directions tell you to do. 1. While Dick was walking through the woods he discovered a cave. Nov/ read the next sentence and pick out the correct answer. Write the number of that answer on the line. 1. to walk To discover is 2. to run 3. to find 1._____ 2. The man's beautiful daughter was called Alice. 1. a girl A daughter is 2. a man 3. a boy 2._____ 3. The flashes of the beacon help the pilot in an airplane find the way. 1. a building A beacon is 2. a man 3. a light 3._____ 4. Very often the tourists on the train buy things from the Indians when the train stops at a station. 1. travels A tourist is someone who 2. words 3. runs 4. 5. The band came first in the procession; then came the soldiers. 1. a play A procession is 2. a parade 3. a dance 5. 382 SECTION C DIRECTIONS: The second way to help yourself figure out how to pronounce a word you do not know is to take the word apart and sound it part by part. This exercise will show whether you can help yourself in this way. I. First your teacher will sound a letter; then she will say a word containing that letter as the first sound; finally, she will sound the letter again. You are to write the letter sounded in the blank space. For example, if your teacher said M - MOTHER - M you write M in the space. II. Now your teacher will sound two letters. You are to write the two letters in the blank spaces. 1. 8. 15. 1. 8. 15. 2. 9. 16. 2. 9. 16. 3. 10. 17. 3. 10. 17. 4. 11. 18. 4. 11. 16. 5. 12. 19. 5. 12. 19. 6. 13. 20. 6 . 13. 20. 7. 14. 7. 14. III. The 'letters which you just wrol as well as consonants. Ihile there five vowels. ;e are consonants. There are vowels are many consonants there are only I. Find the vowel in write it on the line word. each word end beside the 2. Put a vowel between the two consonants on each line and make a word. a. row f. tbat a . C t 1 . r n b. we s.. bed b. B n R. K t c. bad b. Brown c. t P b. d 11 d. up i. mucb d. b s i. b t e. climb j. try e. m n 385 IV. In some words the vowel is sounded just as it is said in the alpha bet, This is the long sound of the vowel. A straight line, called a macron, placed over the vowel shows that it has a long sound. For example, in the word WOKE the 0 should have a macron placed over it because it has a long sound, o Do you remember the rule about two vowels in a word? Try to remember it for it will help you in this exercise. In still other words, the vowel sometimes has a short sound like the vowel in the word HAT. Then we place a short curved line over the vowel like this a to show that the vowel has a short sound. This curved line is called a breve. Do you remember the rule about one vowel in a word? It will help you in this exercise. 1. In some of these words the vowel has a long sound. If it has a long sound write that vowel on the line beside the word and place a macron over the vowel. If the vowel is not long just skip the word and go on to the next one. The first word is done for you. 0. plane a 10. fill 1. trip 11. each 2. time 12. cried 3. jump 13. groves__ 4. bed 14. pass 5. made 15. came 6. top 16. gone 7. were 17. end 8. whole 18. toast 9. trees 2. In some of these words the vowel has a short sound. If it has a short sound write that vowel on the line beside the word and place a breve over the vowel. If the vowel is not short just skip the word and go on to the next one. The first word is done for you. 0. bed e 10. had 1. miss 11. that 2. see 12. close 3. in 13. did 4. fast 14. up 5. be 15. tell 6. so 16. went 7. she 17. meet 8. side 18. take 9. hot 381+ V. Sometimes words are longer than those in the exercise you have just completed. They have more than one syllable. Do you know how to help yourself with longer words? Let's find out, A syllable may be a word or part of a word. It contains a sounded vowel. This vowel may be sounded with or without consonants. The sounded vowel with or without the consonants is pronounced with a single stroke of the voice. Listen to your teacher pronounce IN. Do you hear the vowel? How many consonants his IN? This word is a word of one syllable. Listen to your teacher pronounce PLANE. How many sounded vowels are there in PLANE? Yes, one. The E is an extra vowel at the end but it is silent. 'When vowels are silent they do not form a syllable. PLANE is a one-syllable word. How many consonants are sounded with the vowel? Listen to your teacher pronounce CITY. This word is pronounced with two strokes of the voice and has, therefore, two syllables. The Y is pronounced like I in IN. We write city like this cit y when we divide it into syllables. Sometimes words have three or more syllables like COM FLETE LY. 1. On the line beside each word write a 1 if the word has one syllable; a 2 if it has two syllables; a 3 if it has three syllables. a. Woke b. Sleeping_ c. Many _ d. Trip 2. Write the foil owing words on the lines provided. Divide the words into syllables by leaving a space between the syllables just as we did in CITY and COMPLETELY. a. Early_____________ b. Airplane__________ c. Above d. Afraid e. Window f. That g. Tight h. Looking i. Finish e. Sorry_____ f. Passengers g. Bottom____ h. Ladder____ i. Undress j. Exciting 3. Almost 3 8 5 VI. If you know what a prefix and a suffix are you will have an easier time dividing words into syllables. A prefix is a syllable. A suffix is a syllable. Look at the word UNLOADING. UN is the prefix. ING is the suffix. LOAD is that part of the word to which the prefix and the suffix is added. Some words just have a prefix like the word ALMOST. AL is the prefix. Sometimes words just have a suffix like the word TIGHTLY. LY is the suffix. LOAD is the root of the word UNLOADING. MOST is the root of the word ALMOST. In the following exercise, if the word has a prefix, write the prefix in the correct column. Then write the root of the word in the correct column. If the word has a suffix write the suffix in the correct column. Study the sample. 0. filled PREFIX ROOT fill SUFFIX ed 1. higher 2. unlocked 3. early 4. exclaimed 5. golden VII. Now, divide the following words into syllables by writing the word on the line and leaving a space between each syllable. Study the sample word. 0. happened hap pen ed / . 1 h 1. finish 2. hurry 3. beautiful - 4. interesting 5. distance 3 8 6 SECTION D The third way to help yourself pronounce a word is to consult your glossary or dictionary. Do you know how to use the glossary or dic tionary? We shall find out. 1. First of all, the dictionary or glossary uses many more marks and signs than the macron and breve to help you sound words. It gives you key words to help you know the sounds of the letters with signs. Take your dictionary. Find the words listed below. Write the word the way the dictionary separates it into syllables if it has more than one syllable. Place the marks as you find them in the dictionary. Then study the key words that will help you pronounce these words. Tfrite these key words in the proper column. Study the sample carefully. WORD 0. window 1. pocket 2. asleep 3. looking 4. side 5. tiny WORD WITH MARKS W ^ win dow KEY WORDS ill old ♦ 387 2. The dictionary helps us to pronounce words in two other ways. It respells the words, i.e., it spells the word exactly as it is sounded. All silent letters are omitted. If the word has more than one syllable it places an accent mark after the syllable that is to be accented. In this exercise, find the respelling of the words. Write the respelling in the correct column with the accent mark. Be sure to divide the word into syllables. Write the key words also. Study the sample. WORD 0. surprise 1. guess 2. sorry 3. sight 4. afraid 5. distance RESPELLING ser priz KEY WORDS maker ice 388 CLASSIFICATION OF TEST RESULTS: HELPING YOURSELF WITH W O RD S The b a s is f o r th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the r e s u l t s of the t e s t HELPING YOURSELF WITH W O RD S are given in Tables LVIII and LIX. The r e s u lts were o b tain ed by te s t i n g c h ild re n , l60 in grade fo u r; 188 in grade f iv e ; 190 in grade s ix ; and 210 in grade seven. Because o f the sm all number o f c a ses, the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ranges were n o t considered as r e li a b l y sta n d a rd iz e d ran g es. They fu rn ish e d a t th e tim e, however, a f a i r l y r e l i a b l e b a sis f o r the teach e rs to use in an a ly zin g the r e s u l t s they o b tain ed in t h e i r c la s s e s . One sta n d ard d e v ia tio n above and below the mean was used f o r the range o f sco res in th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n term ed AVERAGE. A ll scores above the h ig h e s t score of the average c l a s s i f i c a t i o n were termed GOOD. Those below the low est score o f the average c l a s s i f i c a t i o n were termed POOR. These r e s u l t s en abled the te a c h e rs to compare the a b i l i t y shown by t h e i r rem edial cases w ith stan d ard s th a t were e s ta b lis h e d by a u th e n tic s t a t i s t i c a l te ch n iq u e s. The a b i l i t y of t h e i r cases to a tta c k and analyze words could thus be c h a ra c te r ized d ia g n o s tic a lly w ith f a i r l y r e l i a b l e assu ra n ce . 3 8 9 TABLE L V I I I BASIS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF TEST RESULTS: HELPING YOURSELF WITH W O R D S G r a d e 4 T est Components Mean S tandard d e v ia tio n Poor Average Good Comprehens ion 12.6 k -3 1-7 8-16 17-20 Context [(..6 1-5 1-2 3 ~k 5 Consonants 1 .9 .2 5-1 1-15 16-19 20 Blends 16.6 5.0 1-11 1? -1 ^ 20 Vowels 16.8 3.0 1-13 Ik-18 19 0 Long Vowels 12.6 i -7 1-7 8-16 17- 3.8 S hort Vowels 12. k 1-7 8-16 17-18 S y lla b ic a tio n 15.8 ij.. 6 1-10 11-19 20-25 P re fix e s and S u ffix es 5.8 1-7 1 2 -k 5 D ictio n ary 10.2 5-5 1-2 3-11 12-20 TOTAL 119.1 22.0 1-96 97-lU.O 341-170 Q r a d e 5 Comprehension llj-.o 3-3 1-10 11-17 18-20 Context 5-2 • 7 1-5 4 5 Consonants 20.0 2.1 3.-17 18-19 20 Blends 18.1). Ij-.l 1-15 14-19 20 Vowels 2.7 1-34 15-18 19 Long Vowels 13.8 L u 1-8 9- 1? 18 S hort Vowels 13.8 i(..ij. 1-8 9-17 18 S y lla b ic a tio n 21.0 3-9 1-16 17-24 25 P re fix e s and S u ffix es h -9 1.2 3.-5 4 5 D ic tio n a ry 7-5 4 .9 1-4 5-15 16-20 TOTAL 131.7 18.2 1-115 114-149 150-170 390 TABLE L V I I I ( c o n tin u e d ) BASIS FOR CLASSIFICATION O F TEST RESULTS: HELPINC YOURSELF WITH W O RD S G r a d e 6 Test components Mean Standard d e v ia tio n Poor Average Good Comprehens ion l6 .ij. 2 .8 1-15 i k - 19 20 Context 5-2 . 6 1-3 „k 5 Consonants 19.8 1.5 1-17 3.8.19 20 Blends 1 9 4 1.8 1-17 18-19 20 Vowels 17.8 2.6 1-14 15-18 3.9 Long Vowels i k -3 1-9 10-17 18 Short Vowels l k -7 li.o 1-10 11-17 18 S y lla b ic a tio n 22.2 3.2 1-18 i 9- 2k 25 P re fix e s and S u ffix es 5 .2 * 8 1 - 3 k „ 5 D ictio n ary 13-7 1-6 7-16 17-20 TOTAL 152.5 12.3 1-139 ik o -i6 k 165-170 G r a d e C ompr ehen s i on I6 .5 2.6 Context 5 4 4 Consonants 20.1 • 9 Blends 19.5 3*3 Vowels 18.7 2 .0 Long Vowels 15.. 8 3-7 S hort Vowels 1I4..O 3*7 S y lla b ic a tio n 23.2 2.6 P re fix e s and S u ffix es 5*1 .? D ictio n ary 10.5 5 4 TOTAL 154.0 i k - 3 1-13 1 - 4 1-18 1-15 1-16 1-10 1-9 1-20 1I4.-19 1 & 9 17-18 11-17 10-17 21-25. 4 9-17 20 5 20 20 19 18 18 25 5 18-20 1-129 130-157 158-170 591 TABLE L IX SU M M A RY O B ’ THE CLASSIFICATION OF TEST RESULTS Grade 4 Grade 5 T est components Poor Average Good Poor Average Good Comprehens ion 1-7 8-15 17-20 1-10 11-17 18-20 Context 1-2 3-4 5 1-3 n4 5 Consonants 1-15 16-19 20 1-17 18-19 20 Blends l - l i 12-19 20 1-13 14-19 20 Vowels 1-13 Ik-18 i- 1 4 15-18 19 S hort Vowels 1-7 8-16 17-18 1-8 9-17 18 Long Vowels 1-7 8-16 17-18 1-8 9-17 18 S y lla b ic a tio n P re fix e s and 1-10 11-19 20-25 1-16 17-24 25 S u ffix es l 2 -4 5 1-3 4 5 D ictio n ary 1-2 3-11 12-20 i -4 5-15 16-20 TOTAL 1-96 97-140 341-170 1-113 114-149 150-170 Grade 6 Grade 7 Test components Poor Average Good Poor Average Good Comprehens ion 1-13 14-19 20 1-13 14-19 20 Context 1-3 4 5 5 Consonants 1-17 18-19 20 1-18 19 20 Blends 1-17 18-19 20 1-15 16-19 20 Vowels 1-14 15-18 19 1-16 17-18 19 S hort Vowels 1-9 IO-17 18 1-9 10-17 18 Long Vowels 3 .-9 - IO-17 18 1-10 u - 1 7 18 S y lla b ic a tio n P re fix e s and 1-18 19-24 25 1-20 21-24 25 S u ffix es 1-3 4 , 5 1-3 4 5 D ictio n ary 1-6 7-16 17-20 1-8 9-17 18-20 TOTAL 1-139 140-164 165-170 1-129 130-157 158-170 392 P U P IL REPORT OP INTERESTS AND A C T IV IT IE S M A N U A L OP DIRECTIONS A N D SCORMG KEY I . Purpose The purpose o f th is t e s t is to d isc o v e r th e major i n t e r e s t s of hoys and g i r l s in g e n e ra l and o f rem edial cases in read in g in p a r t i c u l a r . I I . D ire c tio n s G eneral: Since th e in v en to ry is n o t a read in g t e s t , the te a c h e r is to read each q u estio n and each t i t l e w ith the p u p ils . I f the q u estio n needs added ex p la n a tio n , the te a c h e r may give w hatever inform ation the c h ild re n need. A fte r read in g a q u e stio n , the te a c h e r should give the p u p ils ample time to Y/rite the answer. Encourage the c h ild re n to he fra n k In t h e i r answ ers. T e ll them n o t to he a f r a id to ansv/er t r u t h f u l l y as they w ill n o t be p en a liz ed in the l e a s t f o r anything they w r ite . E xplain to them th a t the answers w i l l h elp those concerned to choose the type of read in g m a te ria l th a t w ill he h e a t f o r them. S p e c i f ic : No. 1 - When the t i t l e PLAY OUTDOORS Is re a d , ex p lain th a t th is t i t l e in clu d es such a c t i v i t i e s as r id in g th e h y c ic le , s k a tin g , swimming, and a l l o th e r kinds of a c t i v i t i e s and games which they might do o u ts id e . I I I . S coring G eneral d i r e c t i o n s : The sm all numbers a f t e r the q u estio n s and headings r e f e r to the tw en ty -fiv e m ajor to p ic s of i n t e r e s t given below . Use th e se sm all numbers fo r sc o rin g in th e fo llo w in g manner: I f the p u p il w rite s COOK f o r h is a c t i v i t y on S a tu r days, look a t th e l i s t to fin d th e key number. Then w rite 12 in th e m argin. I f the p u p il w rite s YES f o r the answer to No. ij., w rite 22 in the margin because th e number 22 is given im m ediately a f t e r th e q u estio n as th e score or key number f o r th a t q u e stio n . Each statem en t and q u estio n is scored in th is manner. 395 T o tal the number o f responses f o r each number a t th e bottom of each page. On the l a s t page assemble the grand t o t a l from each page. S p e c ific D ir e c tio n s ; No. 2 - C la s s ify th e answer and o b ta in the sco re by r e f e r r in g e i t h e r to th e l i s t given fo r number one o r by checking w ith the l i s t given below. No. 3 ~ fc * 10 p u p il l i s t s anything in the n a tu re of to o ls , o r anything th a t can be c la sse d w ith c o n s tru c tio n s e t s , rad io ap p a ra tu s, e l e c t r i c a l apparatus and the lik e give 7 as a sc o re . C la s s ify o th e r answers w ith a score of 3, 6, 11, 12, 15, 21, or any o th e r score according to the n a tu re of the answer. No. 5 “ I f c h ild lik e s p ets he g ets a score of 21 . When he t e l l s which p et he lik e s most of a l l he g ets an a d d itio n a l sco re of 21 plus th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n l i s t e d belov/, such as 21b, 21f , e tc . No, 6 - C la s s ify th e answers acco rd in g to the fo llo w ing d ire c tio n s b e sid e s g iv in g ,the c h ild 11 as a score fo r each p a r t of No. 6 . 11, 3 i f hobby o r c o lle c tio n is a r t i s t i c in n a tu re 11, 6 i f hobby or c o lle c tio n is e d u c a tio n a l in n a tu re 11, 7 i f hobby or c o lle c tio n is s c i e n t i f i c in n a tu re 11, 10 i f hobby or c o lle c tio n has h i s t o r i c a l b a s is 11, 12 i f hobby or c o lle c tio n r e f e r s to home l i f e 11, 16 i f i t r e f e r s to an occupation 11, 20 plus the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i f i t r e f e r s to n a tu re 11, 21 i f i t r e f e r s to p ets 11, 2 I4. i f i t r e f e r s to sp o rts 11, 25 i f i t r e f e r s to tr a n s p o rta tio n Nos. 7 and 8 - C la s s ify the games in the same manner in which they a re c l a s s i f i e d in number 20. No. 11 - C la s s ify th e type of a c to r w ith the same score $s the p ic tu re s a re c l a s s i f i e d . No. 15 - Give th e s p e c if ic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n acco rd in g to the l i s t given below , such as l 6 j , l 6 i , e tc . No. 15 - C la s s ify as fo llo w s: Score o f k i f i n t e r e s t is c i t i e s Score o f 6 i f i n t e r e s t is ed u c a tio n a l Score o f 9 i f i n t e r e s t is good tim es Score of 17 i f i n t e r e s t is in o th e r c o u n trie s 39k Score of 18 i f i n t e r e s t is in our country Score of 20 i f i n t e r e s t is in n a tu re Score of 2l± i f i n t e r e s t is sp o rts No. 20 - Score th ese th re e answers w ith th e same sco res as they a re given in th e preceding l i s t . The follow ing l i s t gives the M AJOR CLASSIFICATION OF CHILDREN1 S INTERESTS A N D ACTIVITIES w ith the sco res as they are used in th is t e s t : Scores Class i f i c a t i o n 1. A c tiv itie s of C hildren 2 . Adventure 3 . A r t i s t i c L \.. C ity L ife 5. Comedy 6 . E du catio n al 7. E l e c t r i c i t y , Machinery Radio, Tools, C onstruc tio n s e t s , e tc . 8 . Fantasy 9. Good Times 10. H isto ry 11. Hobbies 12. Home i n t e r e s t s and Household a c t i v i t y 13. In d iv id u a ls I4.. Indoor A c tiv itie s 15, Magic or Mystery lo . Occupations a. A ctor b. A rc h ite c t c. A r t i s t d. Bookkeeper e. Business man f . C arpenter g« Chemist h. C lerk i . Dairyman 3* D e n tist k. Doctor 1. Draftsman m. E le c tr ic ia n n. Engineer 0. E xplorer P« Farmer q* Fireman r . Lawyer Scores C la s s if ic a tio n 16. s . L ib ra ria n t . Mechanic u. Mother v. M usician w. News R eporter x. Nurse y. P a in te r z. P ilo t aa. Plumber bb. Policeman cc. Postman dd. S a ilo r ee. Salesman f f . S e c re ta ry gg. S o ld ie r hh. S tenographer i i . Teacher j j . T y p ist 17* Other C ountries 18. Our Country 19* Outdoor A c tiv itie s 20. Outdoor L ife a. Animals b. B irds c. F ish d. Flowers e. Growing Things f. In se c ts g* Mountains h. N ature in g e n e ra l i. N orth Pole 3- P lan ts k. Sea 1. S ta r s , Moon, Sun m. Trees S c o re s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Pets a. Canaries b. Cats c . Ducks d. Dogs e. P ish f . Horses fi Pigeons ll. R abbits i . T u rtle s 3- White Mice 22. Plays 23. Heading 2J4.. S ports 25. T ra n sp o rta tio n a . A irplane b. Automobile c . Bus d. Ship e. T rain 596 PUPIL REPORT OF INTERESTS AM) ACTIVITIES Name Date Grade______________Age_____ ______ School Dear Boys and Girls: If you will tell us what things interest you most and what things you are interested in doing we will have information that we can use to help you in many ways. Answer the following questions as well as you can in order to give us this information. Your teacher will help you read each question. She will give you all the time you need to write your answers. 1. Read the following list of things which boys and girls often do. If you do any of these things most of the time because you like to, at the times and on the days mentioned below, then tell us about it by writing what you do in the blank spaces. If you do anything else of importance which is not given in the list, write that instead of choosing something from the list. Play alone^hz Play with others1*9 Help parents 12 Play with pets21 Enjoy my hobby11 Experiment with electricity or machinery or other things of this kind7 Go to a movie22 Study6 Play with tools7 Sew12 Read 22 Play outdoors19 Cook12 a. After school: b. In the evening:_______________________ ; _______ c. On Saturdays:________________________________ ' d. On Sundays:_________________________________ _ 2. What do you like best to do when you have time to spend just as you please? 397 3. Which tools or playthings do you like best? Are there tools or playthings which you do not have and which you would like to have very much? 4. Do you like to give shows?££_________ 5. Do you like to play with pets?!!_____ Which pets do you like most of all?21 6. Do you have a hobby? What?2!_____________ Do you like to make collections? Of what? 11 7. When you play with other children which games do you like to play most of all?1 8. When you play alone which games do you like to play most of all?_________________________ 9. Do you have a workshop? ] _ _____________________ What do you do in your workshop?7 __________ 10. Do you ever carry on experiments?!__________ What kind?^__________________________________ 11. Do you like to go to the movies?.!!__________ How often do you go?____________; ____________ Draw a circle around the types of picture you like best: comedy6 western2 sad news10 love mystery15 gangster2 educational6 cowboy2 If you were going to become an actress or actor what kind of parts would you like to play? 398 12. Draw a circle around the places or things that you would be most interested in visit ing if you had a chance? circus9'20* zoo20* museum3 par.ks20h farm16P train25® large city4 sea20k North Pole airport25a post office16oelibrary23 dairy161 building under construction7 ' mountains 2°s countries far away17 ships254 13. What would you like most to be when you grow up?Jf___________________________________ 14. If you could travel would you like to go by airplane,25* train,25® bus,250 automobile,255 or ship? 25d__________________________________ 15. If you could go away for summer vacation where would you like most to go? 16. Do you like to read?23 17. Draw a circle around the kind of stories you like best to read. If you do not like to read, draw a circle around the kind of stories you like best to hear. history 10 travel25 plays 22 home life12 fairy 8 sports z * science7 good times9 art3 aviation25a trains256 farm life 16p hobbies 11 mystery15 detective 2>15 comical5 pets21 animals20® the city4 adventure2 about nature20 ships254 our country18 heroes13 kinds of work that men do 16 boys and girls 1 lives of other people 13 special days 18 our country long ago18 children of other lands17 10 l i 1 2 13 1 4 15 16 1 7 18 19 20 2 1 2 2 23 2 4 2 5 399 modern wonders like the radio, telegraph, elec tricity etc.7 Stories that give information about the things we study.6 18. What magazine do you enjoy reading?________ 19. Read the following list of things boys and girls do. As you read through the list draw a circle around those things, that you have been doing or have been playing during the past two weeks just because you have wanted to. If there are some things which you have not done within the past two weeks but which you did last summer and which you like very much put a circle around those also. football24 basketball24 baseball24 handball24 tennis 24 volleyball24 tug of war2 indoor ball44 card game14 coasting 49 ping pong44 checkers 44 playing catch 24 marbles49 watching sports 24 skating49 playing with dolls 49» 42jacks spinning tops 49 prisoner's base2*8 hiking or walking 49. 29 camping 49. 29 fishing 49. 29 hunting 49»29 SCOUtS 49»29 swimming 49 riding a bicycle 49 rowing or canoeing 49 horse back riding 49 playing with pets 24 jig-saw puzzles 44 G man or playing cops and robbers 2.s dressing up in older folks clothing2 taking part in plays 2»22 playing cowboy2 playing school2 playing house 2»42 reading short stories reading the newspaper looking at the funnies reading books 22 reading jokes 5 writing letters 9 reading magazines 22 playing with chemical set 7 playing with building and construction sets 7 clay modeling 6»2 drawing or painting 6,3 10 l i 1 2 13 1 4 1 5 16 1 7 1 8 19 20 2 1 2 2 23 2 4 2 5 koo making things with tools7 making or using a wireless or electrical apparatus 7 playing the piano for fun6 listening to the music on the radio 6 sewing, knitting, etc. for fun 6,12 cooking for fun 6h2 singing for fun6 making a garden for fun 6> 2o playing musical Instruments other than piano for fun 6 writing poems just for fun 6 writing stories just for fun 6 riding in an automobiles picnics 9 going to the movies 9 going to the "Y"9 listening to the radio 9 dancing9 listening to stories 9 whistling 9 just going with the gang 9 parties 9 Now look over all the things you have circled and write on the blank lines the numbers of the three things you liked best. I liked____________________ _________best of all. I liked_____________________________second best. I liked ___ ____________third best. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Pupils * names w Act* of Children M Adventure 03 Art ^ City Life cn Comedy 05 Education Electricity o Fantasy <o Good Times History P Hobbies {J Home Interest £ Individuals Indoor Activities Magic, lystery Occupations Other Countries S Our Country £ Outdoor Activities o Outdoor Life JE Pets S3 Plays £ Heading Sports Transportation m o P ti t e l 1 - 3 O a o 8 8 O CG B h 3 h 3 f c r j h r } a o ra W c g 1 - 3 1 5 o a S > w t* K t* X .fr * o H ij.02 PUPIL REPORT OP HANDEDNESS N A M E DATE GRADE AGE SCHOOL DEAR BOYS A N D GIRLS: W e would lik e to know which hand you g e n e ra lly use to do the fo llow ing th in g s . Head each sentence c a r e f u lly . Then, put a c i r c le around R i f you g e n e ra lly use your r ig h t hand to do th a t th in g . Put a c i r c l e around L i f you g e n e ra l ly use your l e f t hand. I f you use e i t h e r hand, put a c i r c le around E. I f you have n ev e r done th e th in g s th a t a re men tio n e d , guess which hand you would use i f you would ever do them. Answer each q u e stio n . Your te a c h e r w ill read each sentence so th a t you w i l l n o t have tro u b le w ith words. She w ill give you enough time to make your c i r c l e s . RIGHT HMD RESPONSES 1 . Which hand do you use to throw a h a n d -b a ll? R L E 2 . Which hand do you use to tu rn on the w ater fa u c e t? R L E 3* When you w rite in which hand do you p r e f e r to hold your p e n c il? R L E Ij.. Which hand do you use to crayon or p a in t? R L E 5 * When you th re a d a n e e d le , w ith which hand do you do th e th rea d in g ? R L E 6. When you comb your h a i r , in which hand do you u s u a lly hold the comb? R L E 7. With which hand do you deal cards? R L E 8. In which hand do you hold the b a t when you p lay b a s e b a ll? R L E 9. When you a re sp in n in g a top which hand do you use to throw the top? R L E 10. When you play ja c k s, w ith which hand do you throw the jacks? R L E XI. 12. 13- 14. 15- 16. 17- 18. 19- 20. 21. 22. • 23- 24. 2 5 . 26. 2 7 . 28. 403 W ith which hand do you play m arbles? R L E When you b ru sh your te e th , which hand do you use to hold the to othbrush? R L E Which hand do you use to w rite on the b la c k board? R L E Which hand do you use to b u tto n your coat o r p u ll the z ip p e r on your sw eater? R L E With which hand do you tu rn on th e rad io ? R L E Which is the f a v o r ite hand w ith which you do most th in g s? R L E Which hand do you fin d e a s ie s t to use when you erase th e blackboard? R L E I f someone is going to s t r i k e you, which hand do* you r a is e o r use fo r p ro te c tio n ? R L E Which hand do you use f o r hammering? R L E Which hand do you use f o r sawing? R L E In which hand do you hold the d is h - c lo th when you a re washing d ish es? R L E When you d u st, in which hand do you ho ld the d u s t-c lo th ? R L E With which hand do you s tr ik e a match? R L E When you b ru sh your c lo th e s , in which hand do you ho ld the c lo th e s-b ru sh ? R L E In which hand do you hold your w ash-cloth? R L E Which hand do you use to p lace the stamp on the envelope? R L E When you blow your nose, which hand do you use to h o ld the handkerchief? R L E Which hand do you use to p u ll a cork out of a b o ttl e ? R L E k-O k 29. When you open an um brella, which hand do you uae to push up th e clasp ? R L E 50. Which hand do you use when you drop l e t t e r s in to the m ailbox? R L E 31* When you cut something in which hand do you hold the s c is s o r s ? R L E C\J K \ Which hand would you use i f you had some cord to wind on a b a ll? R L E 405 TESTS FOR DETECTING THE TENDENCY TO M A K E REVERSALS IN READING M A N U A L OF DIRECTIONS I . NATURE The t e s t f o r r e v e rs a ls in read in g is so co n stru c te d th a t p u p ils having th is tendency a re given l^O occasions to m an ifest i t in fo u r d if f e r e n t types o f t e s t s it u a ti o n s . P arts I , I I I , IV, and VI of th e t e s t Include the f i r s t type of t e s t s it u a ti o n ; namely, th e re c o g n itio n of s in g le l e t t e r s th a t a re r e v e r s ib le and of words c o n ta in in g r e v e r s ib le l e t t e r s . In B art I , the l e t t e r s are p rese n ted in is o l a ti o n ; in P art I I I , they a re included in words; in P art IV, they are included in words composing sh o rt se n ten c es; and in P a rt VI they a re included in words composing paragraphs of connected d isc o u rs e . In th is manner p ro v isio n is made fo r the d e te c tio n of any tendency to re v e rse l e t t e r s both in is o la te d l e t t e r s itu a tio n s and in co n tex t s it u a ti o n s . A ll words used throughout the t e s t have been checked w ith G a te s1 Primary Word L is t and should, th e re fo re , n o t be too d i f f i c u lt f o r the rem edial c a se s to re a d . In the second type of t e s t s i t u a t i o n , the words p re se n ted are capable of being t o t a l l y re v e rse d . P art I I of the t e s t c o n s is ts of 20 words o f th is n a tu re fo r the c h ild to re a d . In P a rts IV and VI the words a re included in co n tex t form. Very o fte n c h ild re n m erely re v e rse th e p o s itio n of one or two l e t t e r s in a word in s te a d of re v e rs in g the e n tir e word. The tendency to make p a r t i a l r e v e r s a ls of th is n a tu re i f the th ir d type of t e s t s it u a t i o n . In P a rt V, the c h ild is asked to id e n tif y 20 words found in tw enty columns each one of which co n tain s fo u r words. One of th e se four words is the word to be id e n tif ie d w hile one of th e o th e r words is i t s p a r t i a l r e v e r s a l. The o th e r two words are e i th e r con sonant or vowel v a ria tio n s o f the word*or are t o t a l l y d is s im ila r . P a r t i a l l y r e v e r s ib le words a re lik e w ise given in co n tex t in P a rts IV and VI of the t e s t . The l a s t type of r e v e r s a l te s t s i t u a t i o n c o n s is ts in sequence r e v e r s a ls . This means th a t the sequence o f words dn a sentence is re v e rse d . Occasion to make th is kind of k.o6 r e v e r s a l is given in bo th the is o la te d sentence s e c tio n of the t e s t , P art IV, and a lso in th e connected d isc o u rse s e c tio n o f the t e s t , P a rt VI. In a l l , th e c h ild re n are exposed to one hundred f i f t y occasions f o r making r e v e r s a ls o f one type o r a n o th e r. I f c h ild re n a re a d d ic te d to making r e v e r s a ls , the d i f f i c u l t y should be d e te c te d in t h i s t e s t as th e s itu a tio n s a re v a rie d not only as to type but a ls o as to th e manner in which the co n ten t is p rese n ted ; i . e . , words a re given b o th in is o la te d and co n tex t forms. I I . DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING A N D FOR SCORING TEE TEST Both the examiner and th e c h ild should have a t e s t b o o k le t. The c h ild should read from h is b o o k let w hile the examiner makes n o ta tio n s in th e b o o k let which he has in hand. A. P a rt One - R ecognition o f L e tte rs The c h ild should name one l e t t e r a f t e r the o th e r as they a re given in columns. I f he gives a t o t a l l y d if f e r e n t name fo r a. l e t t e r , th e e r r o r should be ignored; i f , however, a r e v e r s a l is given, th e examiner should in d ic a te the same b e sid e th e c o r re c t l e t t e r . Twenty o f th e t h i r t y - t h r e e l e t t e r s in the t e s t a re r e v e r s ib le . The key f o r the r e v e r s ib le forms is as fo llo w s: a(p>t>)> y(h)> p (d ,q ), m(w), d (b ) , n (u ), w(m), h (y ), b (d ), u(n) B. P a rt Two - R ecognition o f Words Capable o f Being T o ta lly Reversed In th is t e s t the c h ild should read th e words as they are given in columns. When a t o t a l r e v e r s a l i s made, n o ta tio n to th is e f f e c t should be in d ic a te d . In th is t e s t i t is p o ssib le fo r the c h ild to make l e t t e r r e v e r s a ls as w ell as t o t a l word r e v e r s a ls ; f o r example, the c h ild may say f,bentf fo r ,fd e n .,f I f th is takes p la c e , the s u b s titu te d l e t t e r should be w ritte n b e sid e or above the c o r re c t l e t t e r . L a te r th is type of r e v e r s a l should be reco rd ed as a l e t t e r r e v e r s a l. C. R ecognition of Words C ontaining R e v ersib le L e tte rs In th is t e s t the words have been so s e le c te d th a t they co n ta in r e v e r s ib le l e t t e r s , but the words them selves are n o t capable of bein g t o t a l l y re v e rse d . The l e t t e r s rev erse d by the c h ild should be w ritte n b esid e o r above th e c o rre c t l e t t e r . S u b s titu tio n s g e n e ra lly made by c h ild re n a re given below: d ig (b ig ) bone(done) p erso n ( q u estio n ) door(poor or pour) d o t( p o t) my(why) way(may) b ig (p ig ) day(pay) p u t(b u t ) when (men) quack(back) m ill( w ill) dug(bug) wake(make) y ard (h ard ) bush (push) h e a r(y e a r) one( o u r) gues s (ques—ques t ) D. R ecognition o f Sentences Approxim ately twenty words in c lu d in g p o s s i b i l i t i e s fo r e i t h e r com plete, l e t t e r , or p a r t i a l re v e rs a ls a re con- ta in e d in these se n te n c e s. The c h ild can a lso make sequence re v e r s a ls in th is t e s t . This l a t t e r type should be in d ic a te d by e n c ir c lin g the phrase re v e rse d , and th e form er by w ritin g the l e t t e r or word given by th e c h ild above the c o r re c t l e t t e r or word. E. R ecognition of Words Capable o f Being P a r t i a l l y Reversed The key words, as given below , should be read to the c h ild one a t a tim e. He should then be to ld f i r s t to look c a r e f u lly a t EACH o f the fo u r words given in th e re s p e c tiv e column and th en s e le c t the word w hich has been read by th e exam iner. I f th e word s e le c te d by th e p u p il is one of th e r e v e r s ib le forms given below, the examiner should e n c ir c le i t . I f , however, the word s e le c te d is e i th e r c o rre c t or n o t a r e v e r s a l, th is s e le c tio n should be ignored. Only the r e v e r s ib le words should be included in th e t o t a l sc o re . 9 * 1 0. 11. 12. I I 15- end (ned,den) 16. even (never) 17. f e l t ( l e f t ) 18. g i r l (g r i l ) 19. le s s ( s e l l ) 20. l i p ( p i l l ) 21. r o a s t (s to re ) 22. spot (p o ts) 23. l a t e ( t a l l , t a l e ) 24.. th ir d ( th r id ) 25. f o r (of) 26. c u rl ( c r i l ) 27. th e re (th re e ) 2 8 . to (o t) b ea ts (b e a st) farm (frame) purs e (prus e ) n o rth (th o rn ) each (ache) are (e a r) P. Paragraphs C ontaining Connected D iscourse The c h ild should read the s to ry as i t is given in the t e s t b o o k le t. The examiner should no te only r e v e r s a ls . Sequence r e v e rs a ls should be e n c irc le d . T o tal re v e r s a ls should be in d ic a te d by making a h a l f c i r c l e over the word. L e tte r and p a rtia l^ r e v e r s a ls should be in d ic a te d by w ritin g the r e v e r s a l given above the word. The t o t a l score fo r each type o f r e v e r s a l should be w r itte n in the blanks provided f o r th a t purpose. TEST FOR DETECTING THE TENDENCY TO MAKE REVERSALS IN READING Part I Q, y, c, .P, 6 , g, m, f, d, i, n k, . w 1, h, s, b, t, v, u, n, b 15 d; b, u, p. y> c, q, v, ra, w, Part II 1. . tea 2. keep 3. snap 4. tub on nap road pot saw ten net read pat dear tar den dog meat tap was Part III 5. dig 6. ray 7. wiien 8. yard bone way- quack busli person big mill hear door put wake guess Letter Reversals. Total Reversal's Partial Reversals_ Sequence Reversals Part IV. 1. "Bring ten pins to me," said Mother. 2. There were some dags on the road. 3. Put three hones in the pan for the dog. 4. Ned saw a dig tub of water. 5. Jack had only one cup of tea. 6 . A dog dug a hole in the yard. Part V. 9. 1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 13. bed even left good less ned oven lift gril sell end never flat curl swell den ever felt girl list 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. tip store spit tale throw lip boast spot luck three pill roast taps late thrid pin strong trip tall third 19. 2 0. 2 1. - 2 2. 23. of cril throw ot beast for coal tired to break from come there not babes fur curl three ton beats 410 24. firm farm barn frame Part VI. Ned and bis team were good ball players. Tbey played in the yard every night after school and even on Saturdays and Sundays. Mother was glad that the boys did not play in the street or on the side road. Spot, our dog, always sat at the end of the sidewalk to watch the boys. He barked and tapped the ground with his tail to show that he liked the games. One day there was no team in the yard. Spot waited and waited but no team came. After a long time, when Ned came home, he looked sad. He told Spot that he felt bad because three of the boys were very sick. He told Spot to take a nap under the bush while he read a storybook. 25. pruse 26. throne 97 W I • each 28. are price therno etch ear purse north ache era per us thorn chair air lj.ll Spot felt bad, too, because be liked games better than naps. For ten days Spot bad to take naps wbile Ned read stories. Wben be saw the boys come back he leaped on them to show bis joy. The boys were glad to. be back, too, because they liked games better than being sick. APPENDIX B INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS C LASSIFIED READING LIS TS FOR MAJOR CENTERS OF INTEREST ACTIVITIES OF CHILDREN ( 1 ) LEVEL: PRIMER BOOK PAGE KITTEN-KAT K itten -K at in School .......................................... 29 Where is K i t t e n - K a t .............................................................37 The Policem an’s H o m e ........................................................5h - F lu ff and P u f f ..................................................................' 7 2 The Cat S h o w .......................................................................... 87 LEVEL: GRADE O N E COUNTRY DAYS Ann and K itte n K a t .................................... 1 Going to the Com t r y ................................................... At Mr. B r o w n 's ......................................................................1 , The F i r s t M o rn in g .................................................................2lj. Donn and A n n ...................................................... 122 Donn Comes to See A n n ......................................................I3I}. The End of V a c a t i o n .......................................................1 UNIT STUDY BOOKS The C ircus - - No. 108 $ PLAYING TOGETHER New Houses f o r New Neighbors ................................ 2k P a rt 1 David, Laura and Teddy ....................... zk P art 2 In the Work R o o m ..................................... 28 P a rt 3 The F i r s t Houses ..................................... = 5 0 P a rt 4 The Funny House ......................................... 33 P a rt 5 The Very L i t t l e House ............................ 36 P art 6 The Funny L i t t l e House Has a Family 38 P a rt 7 The L i t t l e House ..................................... 4o How B etty H e l p e d .................................................. 56 Bobby and His Books ....................................................... 149 Bobby and the E lephant .............................................. 182 F lip -F lo p 207 P a rt 1 S u rp rise .................................................. . 207 P art 2 What is the S u rp rise . . . . . . . 210 P art 3 F lip -F lo p and Tony ................................ 215 P art 4 Rainy Days .................................................. 222 P art 5 The P a r t y .................................................. .... 226 P art 6 F lip -F lo p Gets a New H om e................... 235 Jj.ll; ACTIVITIES OP CHILDREN (I) LEVEL: GRADE O N E (continued) BOOK PAGE PLAYING TOGETHER F lip -F lo p P a rt 7 F lip -F lo p is L o s t ......................................... 2^7 P art o F lip -F lo p Gets In to Trouble . . . . 2IJ .0 P art 9 A L e tte r from Tony . ............................ 2ljlj. P art 10 F lip -F lo p Says G o o d b y e ........................... 2lj.7 LEVEL: GRADE T W O WINTER TIB /IE The Snow H o u s e ......................................................................33 The Snow S t o r m ......................................................................85 S n o w - S h o e in g ..........................................................................Jo H O M E Plans fo r the Big P a r t y ................................................... 6l Peggy and N a n c y ..................................................................... 77 EVERYDAY FRIENDS Fun w ith Flopsy and Mopsy .......................................... 6 Taking Care o f Pony B o y . 6 A Place fo r Pony Boy to S l e e p .....................................JO A House fo r the R a b b i t s ................................................... m Good Times in P a ts y ’s R o o m ....................................... o l Good Times in P a u l’s Room . .........................................86 Plans fo r the G a r d e n ......................................................130 At Work in the G a r d e n ......................................................I33 The B ird B a t h ........................................................................I35 F riends B luebird ............................................................ 175 Making Up a P l a y ...............................................................llpo M UNCHING PETER AND OTHER STORIES Munching P e te r ................................................................ 7 The New T r a i n ............................... . 15 Three Lovely T h i n g s .............................................................30 Bubble B o w l s .......................................................................... 3 ij_ P laying T o g e t h e r .................................................................Ij.0 Being C a r e f u l .......................................................................... 51 The Magic M e rry -G o -R o u n d ...............................................55 S a l l y ’s Halloween P arty .......................................... . 82 Bobby in a B o x ......................................................................88 S afety B ' i r s t ..........................................................................99 The Parade . . . . . . I l l The L o llip o p T w i n s .......................................................... 132 The Mouse C l u b .................................................. 152 The B irthday C a k e ...................................................... . 167 A C T IV IT IE S OF CHILDREN ( 1 ) LEVEL: G RADE T W O (continued) BOOK M UNCHING PETER A N D OTHER STORIES The D oll Who Was S i s t e r to a P rin c ess . . • . T inkle, Tinkle • • • .................................................. The L i t t l e S o ld ie r ....................................................... Nancy and the D e n tist .................................................. A V alen tin e ..................................... ................................ The Great C i r c u s ................................................. . . The China Money P i g ....................................................... The Cowboy’s S u it ........................................................... TO M ARKET W E G O Tom V is its the Farm ....................................................... P ick, Pick, Pick ............................................................ P u ll, P u ll, P u ll ........................................................... Wash, Wash, W a s h ........................................................... At the Farm er’s Market .............................................. Wash, Wash, ¥ / a s h ........................................................... P ile , P ile , P i l e ........................................................... To Market W e G o ............................................................... A V is it to Berry Farms .............................................. Clos ing T i m e ..................................................................... HERE CO M ES THE PO STM A N L e tte rs to Mail ................................................................ Whiz I P lo p . ’ The L e tte r S l o t ..................................... M other’s Funny R iddle .................................................. B illy and B e tty ’s L e tte r . ..................................... A Post O ffice on Wheels . . ..................................... Square Knots f o r Packages ......................................... Mailed on Time ................................................................ A S p e c ia l D eliv ery L e tte r from Grams . . . • D O N AND D EA N AT THE DAIRY A L i t t l e Baby C alf ....................................................... A Wish Comes True ....................................................... Feeding the C alf ............................................................ The B est C alf on the Farm • . • . ....................... Don and Dean a re Milkmen f o r a Day . . . . . JIMMY, THE GROCERY M A N A S e c re t .............................................................................. Jimmy’s Big S u rp ris e .................................................. The B u tte r M a n ................................................................ The Bread Man ..................................................................... The Egg Man ......................................................................... A C T IV IT IE S OF CHILDREN ( I ) LEVEL: G RA D E T W O (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K JIM M Y,, THE GROCERY M A N Jimmy Learns About P ric e s . . . . . F i l l i n g th e S helves ................................ A Sm all Custom er and Her Dog . . . W eighing Sugar and Beans .................. A L i t t l e Truck . ..................................... G ra n d fa th er Makes Some S p e c ia ls . . C u s to m e rs ....................................................... G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY A Queer N oise .............................................. W atching T if f .............................................. Busy M orning .............................................. A T ra in Ride .............................................. A S le ig h Ride .............................................. Maple Sugar .................................................. Chubby ........................................................... Two P a r tie s .................................................. Baby L ions .................................................. O ther A n im a ls .................................... * . . A Rainy M orning ......................................... M other1s F i r s t P a rty ............................ A S tra n g e N oise ......................................... S p rin g a t th e F a r m ................................ Making B u tte r . . . ................................ Back to School ......................................... H unting Eggs . . . ................................ F a th e r ’s F i r s t S to ry ............................ F a th e r ’s Second S to ry ............................ M other’s Second S to ry ............................ F i s h i n g ........................................................... ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY In th e C ountry ......................................... Funny Face .................................................. The S u rp ris e L e tt e r ................................ Goodbye to th e F a r m ................................ R iding on th e T ra in ................................ Grandm other . . ......................................... A Peep-A t New Y o r k ................................ E x p lo rin g New Y o r k ................................ Red and Green L ig h ts ............................ Making a P la y C ity ................................ Going to S c h o o l .................. .... J a c k ’s C lass .............................................. it-l? A C T IV IT IE S OP CHILDREN ( 1 ) LEVEL: G RAD E T W O (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY P eter* a C lass ................... Playground on th e Roof C e n tra l Park ....................... Donkey H ill ............................ Shopping ................................ L ost and Found ................... A V i s i t to th e Zoo . . . The Mus e u m ............................ P e te r* s B irth d a y P re se n ts P e te r* s B irth d a y P a rty The Acquarium ....................... Down Tov/n New York . . . The W oolworth Tower . . . D EA N A N D D O N AT THE DAIRY A W i s h ...................................................... 1 ADVENTURE TRAILS Baby Deer f o r Playm ates . ..................................... 2 CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS The D olls* F e s tiv a l (Japan) The Boys* F e s tiv a l (Jap an ) LEVEL: G RA D E THREE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y Choosing a H o b b y ...............................................................199 HELPERS AT W O R K At th e C i r c u s .................................................................... 1 At th e C i r c u s .................................................................... 8 At th e C i r c u s ......................................................................... 12 At th e C i r c u s ......................................................................... 17 At th e C i r c u s .........................................................................21 At th e C i r c u s .........................................................................28 The Wonder o f B icy c le W h e e l s ...................................209 F le e t W i n g .................................................................... . 266 The L i t t l e D re s s m a k e r...................... 279 He Counted Twelve ...................................................... 291 M y F i r s t Q u a r t e r ...............................................................302 101 117 99 105 111 120 126 133 ik i 156 171 1 P 198 211 CITY FRIENDS At the Park 29 1(18' A C T IV IT IE S OF CHILDREN (1 ) LEVEL: G RA D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE CITY FRIENDS The T rip Down T o w n ................................ ..... . . . . . k 5 Sandy Lane ....................................................... .................. 99 VISITS HERE A N D THERE The Camp ................................ .... . . . « The C h ild re n ’s Tepee . . ....................... .................. 77 Around th e Tepee F ir e ................................ The C h ild re n P la n t T h eir Tepee . . « .................. 88 A Tepee a t School ......................................... .................. 93 THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S I n te r e s t in g P lans ......................................... ..................77 The F o rg o tte n Trunk .................................... ..................80 P lan n in g fo r an In d ia n Program . . , ..................87 The In d ian Program .................................... • • • • 93 P a rt 1 The B la c k fe e t In d ia n s . . . ..................93 P a rt 2 The Zuni In d ia n s .................. . • . . . HA A Snow N ig h t .................................................. Stepping-on-Shadow Game . ....................... Fun in th e S n o w .............................................. Fun on a Rainy A ftern o o n ....................... THE GREAT IDEA AND OTHER STORIES- The G reat I d e a ................................................................ 7 Room, Come to O r d e r ................................................. . 72 Hay M a k e r s ...................................................... 80 The S atu rd ay P a r a d e .................................... 87 Choosing Tommy ................................................................ 99 They L ike to C o a s t .......................................................... 120 Tea K e t t l e ............................................................................ 1^2 Trimming th e C hristm as T r e e ........................................156 The F rie n d ly F l y e r s .......................................................... 202 H arry and H e n r y ................................................................... 208 A Funny M i s t a k e ............................... 220 SUSAN’S NEIGHBORS A Walk to th e F ir e S ta tio n A Day a t th e F ir e S ta tio n A F ire D r i l l a t School . ' A F ire in th e C ountry . . A Policem an H elps Susan . A Radio Message ................... The Postman Helps Tom . . 6 16 32 50 53 kl9 A C T IV IT IE S OF CHILDREN ( 1 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE SUSAN»S NEIGHBORS How Tom Gets His S u r p r i s e ...............................................70 W ho Helps Us Get Our P o o d ...............................................88 In to th e Oven and O u t ........................................................93 B illy H elps D e liv e r B r e a d . 9° Fun a t th e P la y g r o u n d ......................................................136 The C ircu s P a r a d e ...................................................... . 1U 2 Pun a t th e L ib ra ry ........................... . 165 Books to Take H o m e .......................................................... 164 P acking f o r th e T r i p ..................................................... 178 D inner on th e T r a i n .................................... 194 Home by B u s ...................................................... 211 H O O T O W L Johnny .................................................................................. 1 W hite P a c e ...............................................................................14 War in th e V i l l a g e ............................................................ 67 Johnny’s S i c k .......................................................................... 84 C o m fe a st A c t i v i t i e s ........................................................^4 Broken P u m p k in s............................... l l o Eyes in th e Woods .............................................131 The New C o u n tr y ................................................................... IkL The T r a d e r ...................................................... lo o Jus t Like an In d ia n ......................................24 Jo h n n y 's W i s h ............................................. 31 The Big P i s h .......................................................................... 36 Hoot O w l ................................................................................... fj.6 The Bov/1 o f S t e w ................................................................. 54 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR CENTERVILLE More B u sin ess in C e n t e r v i l l e ......................................80 C lo th es f o r th e C e n te r v ille C h ild re n . . . . 115 H elping Mr. Hand Peed His C a t t l e .......................... 151 Taking Care o f Tim and T o m ........................................ 158 A Ride on a C a ttle T r a i n .............................................166 The New School on P a p e r ................................................. 193 V is itin g th e Farm ers ........................... 228 Making P i c t u r e s ................................................................ Pi|i Tools f o r C e n te r v ille W orkm en................................... 245 How Workmen E arn a L i v i n g ............................................ 249 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D PAR Our Weekly News . 80 l\20 A C T IV IT IE S OF CHILDREN (1 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE THE ELEPHANT fS FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES I fve Come f o r P o l l y .......................... 37 P a rt 1 The F a iry B a k e s h o p .......................................37 P a rt 2 The S p id e r, th e Owl, and th e L i t t l e Old M a n ............................................................ l\2 The W ishing T r e e . . ij-9 P a rt 1 Up th e Tree . ....................................49 P a rt 2 Down From th e T r e e .....................................53 The C h ild re n Prom N o r w a y ........................................ . 1 44 L i t t l e K a r i ............................................................................ 208 P a rt 1 The One-Legged W a g t a i l ........................... 208 P a rt 2 The W ag tail R e t u r n s ................................. 213 P a rt 3 A p ril W e a th e r .................................................216 S tro n g B o y ............................................................................ 2if7 P a rt 1 An In d ia n Boy of Today . . . . . . 247 P a rt 2 S tro n g B oy's S i s t e r 's Homecoming. . 250 P a rt 3 S tro n g Boy, th e Arrow Maker . . . . 2 5 3 P a rt 4 The S to ry T e l l i n g .........................................254 P a rt 5 The S tic k R a n e ............................................. 257 P a rt o The Sheep C a m p ............................................. 260 P a rt 7 The V i s i t o r ...................................................... 26J4. P a rt 8 I n i t i a t i o n ......................................................267 LEVEL: GRADE-FIVE IN THE GREEN VALLEY A ND OTHER STORIES The Hooked Rugs ............................... 180 C lo th e sp in s f o r M other Goose ................................ 96 P a rt 1 Ham and E g g s ................................................... 96 P a rt 2 In th e B a s e m e n t............................................ 100 P a rt 3 The S h o w ....................................................... 103 A dventures o f Red F e a th e r and P o p p y ......................109 P a rt 1 L ife in Camp C a m p o o d ie .......................... 109 P a rt 2 How Poppy and Red F e a th e r S pent th e D a y ................................................................... 112 P a rt 3 How Red F e a th e r Got a New Name . . ' I l k P a rt 4 G ath erin g S unflow er S e e d s ......................l l o P a rt 5 They Go P lu m m in g ........................................123 P a rt 6 Poppy Has a Narrow Escape . .. . . 126 P a rt 7 Red F e a th e r Goes H u n t i n g ......................128 More A dventures of Red F e a t h e r ...............................220 P a rt 1 W inter in th e In d ia n C am p......................220 P a rt 2 Poppy Makes Apaw B r e a d .......................... 227 P a rt 3 Rainbow Has an A d v e n t u r e ......................23O A C T IV IT IE S OP CHILDREN (1 ) LEVEL: G RA D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS Making V i s i t o r s ......................................................................37 The T reasu re H u n t .................................................................Ij-0 Lunch T i m e .............................................................................. Ijlj- The S to ry H o u r ..................................................................... lj-7 The J o lly M a rio n e tte s .................................................. 5^ The P lay Club Games ....................................................... P lay T im e .................................................................... 2 LEVEL: G RA D E SIX READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K Two Old S p an ish American T o w n s ...........................* 155 P a rt 1 S an ta P e .......................................... 155 P a rt 2 T a o s ....................................................I65 A Boy H e r o ......................................................................... 1 P a rt 1 An E a rly Voyage Down th e Ohio R iver ij.0 P a rt 2 The F i r s t Day on th e R iv er . . . . lj.0 P a rt 3 A dventures on the R i v e r ........... lj.7 P a rt 4 Rainy Day on th e R i v e r ..... I4 .0 P a rt 5 Bay A fte r Day on th e R iv er . . . . 56 P a rt 6 H enry’s In d ia n a H o m e ................ 58 A Day in ? /a s h in g to n .................................... 165 P a rt 1 P lan n in g To G o ............................. 105 P a rt 2 The T r i p ......................... , ............................. 106 P a rt 3 The R a ilro a d S t a t i o n ............... 107 P a rt % The B u ild in g s on C a p ito l H ill . . . 110 P a rt 5 Tk© M all, th e W ashington Monument, th e W hite H o u s e ...................... 117 P a rt 6 L in co ln M e m o r i a l ........................ 120 P a rt 7 W ashington is Like O ther C itie s 123 A F o re s t o f Queer T rees .............................................. 12o P a rt 1 Coming' to th e F o r e s t ............... 128 P a rt 2 In th e F o r e s t ..................................I55 Fun W ith th e S a n d p i l e ......................................................i f\? P a rt 1 Old F ash io n ed G e o g ra p h y ....................... 1 )\? P a rt 2 Making an O c e a n .............................llj.3 P a rt 3 Making R i v e r s ................................. lif.7 P a rt 4 M ountains, Lakes and More R iv e rs . . 153 THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES The M a s q u e r a d e ................................................................ 7 Andy’s H e r o n .......................................................................... 17 A Homesick B o y ............................................................... 6 l The C herry Tree o f New A m s te r d a m .......................... 160 1|22 ADVENTURE ( 2 ) LEVEL: PRIMER BO O K PAGE KITTEN-KAT Ann in School a t N i g h t ................................................... 10 LEVEL: G R A D E O N E PLAYING TOGETHER Too Many Cooki© 3 . . ........................................................67 P a rt 1 The L i t t l e Old W o m a n ...................................67 P a rt 2 The L i t t l e Old Woman Looks f o r H elp 'JZ P a rt 5 The L i t t l e Boy H elps th e Old Woman 78 The Boy Who Was Not A f r a i d ............................................93 P a rt 1 A S u rp ris e f o r P e te r . „ ............................... 93 P a rt 2 O ff to th e C i r c u s ..........................................100 LEVEL: G R A D E T W O CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS The R iv er Boy (C hina) ................................................. 138 The C h ris t B e a r e r ...............................................................lu.8 The F a ir W in n e r .................................................. l 8 l The A la r m .................................................................................222 WINTER TIME The Snow Storm .................................................................85 Mr. Brown*s S to ry . .................................. 110 The Ride to T o w n .............................................................. 123 D EA N A N D D O N AT THE DAIRY Dean and Don a re Milkman f o r a Day . .. . . 8 l ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY A V i s i t to th e Z o o .......................................................... ll\l A Peep a t New Y o r k ...................................................... I4 .2 G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY M o th e r^ F i r s t S t o r y ......................................................109 LEVEL: G RA D E THREE HELPERS AT W O R K The F ire A l a r m ................................................................... 119 F ire P r o o f ............................................................................ 130 The N ight A ir M a i l .......................................................... 219 The Hero o f Mat t u x .......................................................... 228 The H ill Top Radio O p e r a t o r ........................................237 C y r il, The Boy S a i n t ......................................................285 1|23 ADVENTURE (2 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE B O O K PA G E CITY FRIENDS The T rip Down Town ..................................... The F i r e ........................................................... THE G REA T IDEA A N D OTHER STORIES L osing Tommy . . . . . . . . . . . . HELPERS F a th e r ’s F ir e S to ry ..................................... A S tra n g e S to ry .............................................. VISITS HERE A N D THERE How Rex Saved His M aster ....................... A Narrow Escape .............................................. A Sm ell Smoke .................................................. . . . . 37 SUSAN’S NEIGHBORS F ire J F ir e J ......................................... .... A Walk to th e F ire S ta tio n ................... A Day a t th e F ir e ......................................... Work a t th e F ir e . . . . ....................... B illy Helps D e liv e r B read ....................... The T rip S ta r ts .............................................. . . . . 6 . . . . 98 ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY E x p lo rin g New York ..................................... C e n tra l Park .................................................. L ost and Found .............................................. Downtown New York ......................................... . . . . 54 . . . . 135 . . . . 198 H O O T O W L Johnny ................................................................ W hite Face . . . . ..................................... J u s t Like an In d ian ..................................... . . . . 2b LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR UNIT STUDY B O O K S V ikings — No. I4.O I TRAILS O F ADVENTURE R ic h a rd ’s Strang© D re a m ................................................... 20 The Lone E a g le ’s F l i g h t ................................................. l){? CENTERVILLE T ra v e lin g Over th e New Highway The O rder f o r th e Adam's S to re 90 105 ADVENTURE (2 ) LEVEL: GRADE FOUR ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE THE ELEPHANT’S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES The E le p h a n t’s F rie n d ................................................... 7 P a rt 1 W illiam and Jumbo Lose a F rie n d . . 7 P a rt 2 The C h a s e .....................................................11 P a rt 3 How J e s s ie Found F lo ra D oll . . . . 26 The Dog th a t S to le a R i d e ........................... 86 Peggy Feeds th e M inute M e n ................................... 93 To Keep S to re W ith B i m b o .......................................l l o P a rt 1 Lexy and th e Dogs on His S tr e e t . . 118 P a rt 2 Lexy and B i m b o ..................................... 12lj. When Grandm other Was S to le n by th e Madees . . 130 D o m in o ................................................................................15^ - P a rt 1 A Funny Way to T r a v e l ....................... 154 P a rt 2 Jenny to the R e s c u e ............................ 159 Mr. C r ic k e t’s A i r p l a n e ........................................... I0 4 P a rt 1 Mr. C ric k e t H i m s e l f ............................ 16I4. P a rt 2 The A i r p l a n e .......................................... 167 P a rt 3 P a in tin g a S u n s e t ................................. 171 P a r t 4 Landing T r o u b l e ..................................... I7S The F la g o f F o rt G e o r g e ........................................ 220 P a rt 1 A Very S p e c ia l D a y ............................ 220 P a rt 2 The Hero o f th e D a y .............................225 A N oise in th e N i g h t ................................................23I P a rt 1 A T e r rib le F r i g h t ............................... ..... 231 P a rt 2 F u lto n ’s F o l l y ..................................... 236 The L i t t l e Men o f th e ‘M ountain . . . . . . . 271 P a rt 1 Ron Comes to G r e x ........................................ 27! P a rt 2 The S to ry o f th e F l u t e .......................... 2fL P a rt 3 The S tra n g e V i s i t o r s ........................278 P a rt 4 The Dance o f th e L i t t l e Men . . . . 2o2 P a rt 5 T * 16 F lu te o f G o l d ........................................285 The Town C rie r and th e T a i l o r ................................... 297 Pocket H andkerchief Park ......................................... 302 P a rt 1 The Way Things Were in th e Park . • 302 P a rt 2 The Sign o f th e P a r k ........................ 307 P a rt 3 Tim othy’s P a r a d e ................................. 312 P a rt 4 Timothy Makes a W i s h ........................ 319 P a rt 5 June the T w e n ty - F o u r th ....................325 The L i t t l e R o a d s t e r ................... 370 P a rt 1 A S illy . H e n ........................................ . . 370 P a rt 2 • A Big T ouring Car and a Sedan . . . 373 P a rt 3 The A c c i d e n t .......................................... 376 P a rt 4 The L i t t l e R o ad ster Shows th e Way 38O L i t t l e Two S t i c k s ..........................................................382 P a rt 1 C a p t i v e s ...................................................... 382 P a rt 2 A L i t t l e B e a r ..........................................386 ADVENTURE (2 ) LEVEL: GRADE FOUR ( c o n tin u e d ) BO O K TH E ELEPHANT »S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES L i t t l e Two S tic k s P a rt 3 W hite Men ................................ P a rt l\. Two S tic k s Runs Away . . P a rt 5 Two S tic k s to the Rescue P a rt 6 A Smooth T r a il ................... Johnny C atches th e O tte r ................... The B u tte r f ly Boy ..................................... P a rt 1 The B e a u tifu l Garden . . P a rt 2 The Yellow Things . . . . P a rt 3 Why Roses a re Red . . . . * P a rt k The F low ering S tic k . . . P a rt 5 The Forget-M e-N ots .. . . P a rt 6 The M oth’s Wife ................... P a rt 7 Heads o f Gold ....................... P a rt O The Flow er o f S lee p . . . LEVEL: G RA D E FIVE UNIT STUDY BO O K S The S to ry o f th e K nighthood - - No. $ 0 1 E a rly E x p lo rers - - No. $ 0 2 W inning th e West — No. ^0l\. NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS The Brave P o st R ider .. .. . ............................ The Pony E xpress IN THE G REEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES C u rio s ity S cared a Cow .............................................. P a rt 1 The Cowfs P a r t y .................................... . P a rt 2 Up th e S id e o f th e M ountain . . . . P a rt 3 0n th e Weak S i d e ..................................... Too Much G a s ..................................................................... P a rt 1 The R acer ....................................................... P a rt 2 The New G rocery B o y ................................ A T rip on th e M is s is s ip p i ......................................... P a r t 1 Steam boats Coming ..................................... P a rt 2 Up th e R iv er .............................................. P a rt 3 The G reat Storm ......................................... The I n v is ib le P rin c e ................................................... P a rt 1 The P rin c e F a lls in Love ................... P a rt 2 A las f o r P rin c e s s F lo ra ....................... P a rt 3 The P riso n and th e A lchem ist . . . P a rt 4 Out o f the Tower ..................................... P a rt 5 Tt was a S p e ll ......................................... k 2 6 ADVENTURE (2 ) LEVEL; GRADE F IV E ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE IN THE G R EEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES A dventure o f Red F e a th e r and P o p p y ......................109 P a rt 1 L ife in a C am p o o d ie............................109 . P a rt 2 How Poppy and R e d fe a th e r Spent th e Day ................................................. 112 P a rt 3 How R e d fe ath e r Got His Name . . . . 115 P a rt i\. G ath erin g Sunflow er S e e d s .............. l l o P a rt 5 They Go P lu m m in g ................................ 123 P a rt b Poppy Has a Narrow E s c a p e .............. 12b P a rt 7 R e d fe ath e r Goes H u n tin g ...................128 A Monkey and a G r a n d m o th e r ........................................ 155 P a rt 1 Je n n ie Jo in s th e Fam ily . . . . . . 153 P a rt 2 Je n n ie Gets In to T r o u b l e .............. 15o P a rt 5 When th e C ircus Comes to Town Again lbO F ish erm an ’s L u c k ...............................................................189 A G reat C e le b ra tio n ....................................................... 130 P a rt 1 The Opening O ctober 1825 • • •' • . 15& P a rt 2 Low B r i d g e ..............................................I4.O P a rt 5 The F i r s t C e r e m o n y ............................li|2: P a rt h, A l b a n y .......................................................llm P a rt 5 R eaching th e O c e a n ............................llj.b P a rt b The End o f an E x c itin g Day . . . . 150 An E x c itin g R i d e ...............................................................197 P a rt 1 A ll A b o a r d ..............................................197 P a rt 2 From Albany to the W ater S ta tio n . . 202 P a rt 3 The End o f th e T r i p ............................205 The L ig h tn in g S t o n e .......................................................... 2I4.0 P a rt 1 Marek th e Cow H e r d ........................... 2i|8 P a rt 2 The Power o f th e Lucky Stone . . . 255 The Shepherd Boy of C h a r t r e s .....................................259 An A llig a to r H u n t .......................................................... 279 P a rt 1 S c ip ic T e lls th e Boys About th e A l l i g a t o r ............................................... 279 P a rt 2 A fte r the A l l i g a t o r ........................... 283 P a rt 3 The C a t c h ...................................................289 C a s tle N o e l ............................................................................ 295 P a rt 1 H e rb e rt F inds a F r i e n d ...................293 P a rt 2 The R e s c u e ..............................................299 P a rt 3 C hristm as a t th e C a s t l e ...................301 P a rt 4 The Jo n g le u rs S o n g ............................305 The Cabin in th e V v o o d s ................................................316 The M ountain B o y ............................................................. 325 P a rt 1 One Cold N i g h t .....................................325 P a rt 2 L i t t l e Goat B r o t h e r ............................331 b27 ADVENTURE (2 ) LEVEL: GRADE F IV E ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE IN TEE G REEN VALLEY AND OTHER STORIES The M ountain Boy P art p Two t r a v e l e r s ..................................................... 355 P art 4 A Time o f D a n g e r .................... Jacob C atch es a G renad ier ......................... The W eather Vane R i d e ......................................................... 391 H e n r ie tta M arie Makes a F rien d . . 391 A Journey Through th e A i r ........................397 Home A g a i n ............................. lj.02 D a n ie l B o o n e ..............................................................................lj.ll The C a ll o f th e New W o r ld ....................... ij.ll L ife on th e C a r o lin a F r o n t ie r . . . ij.15 The T r a il Over th e M ountains . . . 420 I n d i a n s ....................................................................42I4 . Two A g a in st th e W ild er n e ss . . . . 431 D isa p p o in tm en t and S o r r o w ....................... I4 .3J 4 . A New Road Over an Old T r a il . . . 44O At L a s t ....................................... 4J 4 .5 1776 i n a K entucky F o r e s t ....................... I4 J 4 .0 A D isc o u r a g in g Y e a r ...................................... 45I1 - P art 11 The S a lt Makers and th e Shawness . 457 P a rt 12 A Son o f B la ck F i s h .......................................Ij.62 The F i g h t i n g .....................................................465 New N eigh b ors and New D u tie s . . . 472 P a rt 15 The P r ic e o f V i c t o r y .................................. 478 P art 16 Law and Land G r a n t s .......................................403 le New F r o n t i e r ........................................... 485 LEVEL: G RADE SIX UNIT STUDY BOO KS Modern E x p lo r e r s - - No. 610 READING TO LEARN* INTRODUCTORY BO O K A Boy H e r o ............................................ 1 An E a r ly Voyage Down th e Ohio R iver P a rt 2 The F i r s t Day on th e R iv er P art p A d ven tu res on th e R iv e r . . P a rt 4 Rowing on th e F la t B oat . . P art 5 A fte r Day on th e R iv e r P a rt 6 H enry’s In d ia n Home . . . . P a rt 1 P a rt 2 P a rt 5 D an iel B 01 P a rt 1 P a rt 2 P a rt 3 P a rt 4 P a rt 5 P a rt 6 P a rt 7 P a rt 8 P a rt 9 P a rt 10 P a rt 11 P a rt 12 P a rt P a rt P a rt 15 P a rt 16 P a rt 17 k° k 7 56 58 THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES The M asquerade ............................................................ 7 M ilt Haa an A dventure ....................................................52 ADVENTURE (2 ) LEVEL: GRADE S IX BOOK PAGE THE M ASQUERADE AND OTHER STORIES P la y e r s in P u r ........................................................................... $2 The Farm o f S e n u s i ............................................................... 116 Lone C l e a r i n g .................................................. . . . . . lh-5 The Cherry Tree o f New A m s t e r d a m ...............................loO E a rly Pathways to P e a c e .................................. 2llj. CITY LIFE (I4.) LEVEL: G R A D E O N E UNIT STUDY BO O K S K eeping Our C ity S afe - - No. lOip The L ib ra ry - - No. 110 LEVEL: G R A D E T W O UNIT STUDY B O O K S The P o st O ffic e — No. 207 LEVEL: G R A D E THREE CITY FRIENDS Don Goes to the C i t y ........................................................ 12 At the P a r k ...............................................................................29 The T rip Down T o w n ........................... 1 ^ 5 The Big S t o r e .......................................................................... 55 The V i s i t to th e F ire S t a t i o n ......................................87 The F i r e ................................................................................. I l l The Moving P i c t u r e s .......................................................... 12l^ HELPERS Going Down T o w n ..................................................................... I4 .3 An A partm ent H om e.................................................................ij.7 On th e Way H om e......................................................................5 I4 . At a Down Town H o t e l ........................................................97 The L i b r a r y ............................................................................ 127 The B a k e r y .............................................................................179 Tommyfs New C l o t h e s .................................................. . l 8 l VISITS HERE A N D THERE C racker F a c t o r y ................................................................... 101 A V i s i t to th e D a i r y ......................................................Jl}\_ How th e Firem en Found th e B o x ................................... 182 V is it s to the F ire Engine H o u s e ...............................188 The L i t t l e M a c h i n e .......................................................... 195 k 2 9 C IT Y L IF E (ij.) LEVEL: GRADE THREE ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y A Home With an U p s t a i r s ................................................. 119 C le a rin g th e S l u m s .......................................................... 128 A C ity o f S k y s c r a p e r s ......................................................306 ADVENTURES IN A * BIG CITY A Peep a t New Y o r k ....................................................... The T enth F l o o r .................................................. 49 E x p lo rin g New Y o r k ............................................................ 54 Red and Green L i g h t s ........................................................bj Going to S c h o o l ......................................................................79 S h o p p i n g ................................................................................. 12b A V i s i t to th e Z o o .......................................................... II4.I The M u s e u m .............................................................................156 Downtown New Y o r k ...............................................................198 The W oolworth T o w e r.......................................................... 211 SUSANfS NEIGHBORS A Walk to th e F ir e S ta tio n . ............................ 6 A Day a t th e F ire S t a t i o n ...............................................l6 B illy Helps D e liv e r B read ......................................... 98 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR TRAILS OP ADVENTURE A dventuring in a C i t y ........................................................74 THE ELEPHANT fS FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES M idnight M eeting ................................................. 195 P a rt 1 The New W ater Supply System . . . .1 9 5 P a rt 2 A S u rp ris e f o r th e People o f P h ila d e lp h ia ......................................... 201 FOLLET PICTURE STORY B O O K S How th e C ity S erves I t s People LEVEL: G RA D E FIVE UNIT STUDY BO O K S Growth o f C itie s — No. 5^9 NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS A T rip to th e P ost O f f i c e ...............................................6l± A R ailw ay P ost O f f i c e ........................................................75 The R a d i o ................................................................ 125 A T rip to th e L i b r a r y ......................................................131 Jack L earns About th e Newspaper ................................ I 35 i0O COMEDY (5) LEVEL: GRADE ONE B O O K PAGE PLAYING TOGETHER The C ircu s P a r a d e ...............................................................116 P a rt 1 Music from Behind th e H ill . . . . I l6 P a rt 2 No l e tt u c e f o r th e B e a r .......................... 122 LEVEL: G R A D E T W O CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS P u n ..................................... The Funny Manfs C asket UNIT STUDY B O O K S The C ircus - - No. 108 ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY Funny Face ........................... 10 LEVEL: G R A D E THREE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y I f You Had a W i s h .................................... 131 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR THE ELEPHANT!S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES The T axicab T hat Went Mad .............................................82 How th e C hristm as Pudding C a m e ..................................190 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX WINNIE THE PO O H In Which W e a re In tro d u c e d to W innie th e Pooh and Some Bees ............................................. Pooh Goes V is itin g .................................... Pooh Goes H unting . ..................................... Eeyore Loses a T a il ..................................... ..................42 P ig le t Meets a H effalum p ....................... . . . . . . 54 Eeyore Has a B irth d a y ................................ P ig le t Has a B ath ......................................... Robin Goes to th e N orth Pole . . . . P ig le t in th e W ater ..................................... Robin Gives a P a rty . . . ....................... THE HOUSE AT PO O H CORNER A House Is B u ilt a t Pooh C o m e r ............................ 1 170 2j2 B O O K COMEDY ( 5 ) LEVEL: GRADE S IX ( c o n tin u e d ) THE HOUSE AT PO O H CO RN ER T ig g er Has B re a k fa s t .................. A S earch is O rganized .................. T ig g er Does Not Climb a Tree R abbit Has a Busy Day .................. Pooh P lays a New Game .................. T ig g er is Unbounced ....................... P ig le t Does a Grand Thing . . . The Owl Moves In ............................ Pooh Comes to an E nchanted P lace EDUCATIONAL (6 ) LEVEL: PRIMER H O M E H o m e s ............................................................ G ra n d fa th e r 1s S to r y ......................... Work on th e F a r m .............................. LEVEL: G RADE O NE UNIT STUDY BOO KS How W e T r a v el - - No. 101 P olicem en - - N o. 102 Firem en - - N o. 103 The D airy — N o. 105 Farm A nim als — N o. 106 Houses — No* 109 The L ib ra ry - No. 110 How A nim als T ra v el - No. 151 The S to r y o f S eed s - No. I 52 The Zoo - No. I 53 A nim als F a m ilie s - No. I 5I 4 . B ird s and T h eir B a b ies - No. 155 COUNTRY DAYS G e ttin g th e M ilk . . . . . . . G e ttin g Cream ........................................ The C a lf and th e P ig s .................... G oing to th e S to r e ......................... Making B u tte r ........................................ Up on th e H i l l ................................... The B ird s N e st . .............................. G e ttin g in th e Hay ......................... G e ttin g th e Cows .............................. k 3 2 EDUCATIONAL (6) LEVEL; G R A D E T W O BOOK PAGE JIMMY, THE GRO CERY M A N The B u tte r m a n ................................................................................ l 8 The Bread M a n ................................................................................ 23 The Egg M a n ................................................................ 29 Jimmy L earns About P r i c e s ........................ 35 F i l l i n g th e S h e l v e s ..................................................................37 W eigh in g Sugar and Beans . . . • • • . • • • l\!J The Salesm an Comes ......................... .... 5b The H ea lth I n s p e c t o r ............................................................ 04 The S c a le s I n s p e c to r ....................................................... 75 G ran d fath er Makes Some S p e c i a l s ....................................’ Jb ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY R iding on th e T rain A Peep a t New York The T enth F lo o r . . E x p lo rin g New York Red and Green L ig h ts A V i s i t to th e Zoo The Museum . . . . The Acquarium . . . Down Town New York The W oolworth Tower D O N A N D D EA N AT THE DAIRY A W i s h .................................................................................. 1 A Baby C a l f ...............................................................................11 F eeding a C a l f ............................... 25 The C a lf is One Month O l d ...............................................30 The B est C a lf on th e F a r m .........................................4.0 The P riz e C o w ..........................................................................J4 .8 M ilking the C o w ......................................................................5i|_ B o ttlin g th e M i l k ................................................................. 62 The M ilk In s p e c to r Comes ..........................................70 Ten M ilk Trucks in a R o w ..............................................77 UNIT ACTIVITY PAM PHLETS A B ig A irp o rt - - 2- 2-1 G lid e rs and A irp la n e s — 2- 1-2 B alloons and A irs h ip s - - 2 -I-3 L in d b e rg h F lig h t — 2- 1- 1 } . The S to ry o f Bananas — 2- 2 -2 In the D epartm ent S to re — 2 - 3 - I C otton and C otton C lo th - - 2 - 5 -I Rubber and Rayon - - 2 -5 -2 4 : , 6 7 ik i is 6 198 211 433 EDUCATIONAL (6) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O (co n tin u e d ) F la x and Wool — 2 - 5-3 Hop, Hop, Hop.’ — 2 - 6 - 1 (F rogs and T oads) Come and See - - 2 - 6 - 2 (T u r tle s and Sn ak es) Your Shoes and Your F e e t — No. 201 Pueblo In d ia n s - - No. 202 The S to r y o f M ilk — N o. 203 P la n ts That G ive Us Pood - - No. 20lj. C lo th e s - - No. 205 Man’s Anim al H elp ers — No. 206 The P ost O f fic e — N o. 207 A nim als and T h eir B a b ies — No. 208 Eskim os — N o. 209 Cowboys — No. 210 Where A nim als L ive — N o. 251 L ife in th e Sea — N o. 252 Men and A nim als Long Ago - - No. 253 Sun, Moon and S ta r s - - N o. 25I4. S im p le M achines - - N o . 255 BOOK PAGE UNIT ACTIVITY PAMPHLETS UNIT STUDY B O O K S CHILDREN AND THEIR HELPERS The Boys Go to S c h o o l . . . . L o u is e ’s G reat S u r p r is e (W ool) The C am el’s S to r y ......................... 11 20 239 WINTER TIME In th e Barn ......................... C u ttin g Wool .................... D in n er fo r A ll . . . . The S to r y o f a New Coat TO M A R K ET W E G O F a th e r Goes A -M arketing . . . A V i s i t to th e B erry Farms 51 75 HERE C O M ES THE PO STM A N M oth er’s Funny R id d le . . . . B i l l y and B e t t y ’s L e t te r . . The P o st O f f ic e on W heels . . Square Knots f o r P ackages . • M ailed on Time .............................. A S p e c ia l D e liv e r y from Grams . 29 55 1 1 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K HERE C O M E S THE PO STM A N P ly in g L e tte r s ................................................................ Postman o f Long A g o ....................................................... The Sw inging P o s t m a n .................................................. E sk i, the M ail C a rr ie r .............................................. M ail B oats ......................................................................... The B ig g e st P o st O ffic e in th e World . . . . G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY A Maple Sugar Camp ....................................................... Making Maple Sugar ....................................................... Baby Lions ......................................................................... The B e a r s ....................... ...................................................... O ther A n im a ls ..................................................................... A S tra n g e N o i s e ................................................................ S p rin g a t th e F a r m ....................................................... Making B u tte r ........................................................... . . LEVEL: G R A D E THREE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y Making a P a r a d e ....................... ........................................ L i t t l e Tom T h u m b ............................................................ The S to ry o f E sra M e e k e r ......................................... T rav el Long Ago and N o w .............................................. Two Boys and a Town C rie r ......................................... C arry in g th e M ail ........................................................... News from H o m e ................................................................ How W e Get th e N e w s ....................................................... A li S e lla His Goat ....................................................... People o f Long House .................................................. N o g ifs S e c re t ..................................................................... The P lace o f F l i n t ....................................................... The Food o f In d ia n s Long Ago . • ....................... The L i t t l e People and th e H unters ....................... The House R a i s i n g . . The House w ith an U p s ta irs ..................................... C le a rin g th e S l u m s ....................................................... Two Clocks in a Storm .................................................. The N urenberg Egg ........................................................... Many Kinds o f Clocks .................................................. The Clocks o f Rondaina .............................................. How to Make a W ild Flow er Book ............................ Choosing a Hobby ........................................................... Jam i F ir s t- F o o t (S c o tla n d ) ..................................... k-35 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y S ix o ’c lo c k B e lls (S w itz e rla n d ) ............................ 255 H arv est Home ( E n g l a n d ) ................................................. 21\.0 Dip the B read in th e Luck Pot (Sweden) . . . 2ij.8 Ah Tings Home ( C h i n a ) ......................................................255 Ah Tings Y/ishes (C hina) ................................... 261 The Emperors B irth d a y G ifts (C hina) ...................... 265 Rock, P eb b les, and S o i l . 287 Good f o r N othing Rock . . 299 A C ity S k y s c r a p e r ...............................................................5^6 SUSAN*S NEIGHBORS A Walk to th e F ire S t a t i o n ........................... 6 A F ir e D r i l l a t S c h o o l ............................................. llj. A Postman Helps T o m .............................................................55 Tom*s L e tte r is R e a d ........................................................62 A Ride on the T ra in ........................................................ 66 Work in th e M ail Car .............................68 A Newspaper Helps Susan .............................................. 75 Workers Who C arry Our M e s s a g e s ................................. 80 Who H elps us Get Our F o o d ...............................................88 In to the Oven and O u t ........................................................95 How F lo u r Comes to th e B a k e r y ......................................9? B illy Helps D e liv e r B read ......................................... 98 C u ttin g Wheat on th e F a r m ............................................ 108 Going to th e E l e v a t o r ......................................................116 At th e M i l l .............................................................................118 The W h ite’s D i n n e r ................................................. . 120 How Tomatoes G ro w ...............................................................122 At th e C a n n e r y ............................... . 127 Books to Take H o m e .......................................................... 16I4. At th e S t a t i o n ................................................................... l 8 l The T rip S t a r t s ................................................................... 186 M eeting th e E n g i n e e r ....................... . ..........................190 D inner on th e T r a i n .......................................................... 19I4. S eein g th e T r a i n .................................... 197 HELPERS L iv in g in a Farm V i l l a g e .......................................... 5' T alk in g i t O v e r ........................... 9 Daddy’s W o r k .......................................................................... 15 B i l l y ’s H elpers ................................................................ l8 The L i t t l e Farm and th e Big F a r m ...............................21 A S tran g e Storm ................................................................ 29 The D o c t o r ...................................................... 33 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K HELPERS Going Down T o w n ......................................... An A partm ent H om e..................................... The B erry Farm ......................................... Baa, Baa, B lack Sheep ............................ Going to School ......................................... The Ride to Town ..................................... In Town ........................................................... How i t Came A b o u t ....................... Making New F r i e n d s ................................ C h ild re n ’s G reat S u rp ris e . . . Mr. G ray’s T alk ......................................... A Down Town H o tel ..................................... The Orange Grove ..................................... At Peggy’s Home ......................................... The L ib ra ry . . . . ................................ Pedro and His S chool F rie n d s (Mine) Pedro and His Fam ily (C oal Mine) The Work P ed ro ’s F a th e r Does . . . Coal M iners as H elpers . . . . . . S atu rd ay Morning (Sea) ....................... S atu rd ay A fternoon (Sea) . .. . . Monday Morning . . . . ....................... M other’s Work .............................................. The Bakery .................................................. Tommy’s New C lo th es ................................ G eorge’s V i s i t to th e C ountry . . . VISITS HERE A N D THERE D ick Reads th e S i g n s ...................... . The C a m p ...................... " .............................. The High Tower ......................................... How Rex Saved His M aster ................... Lunch Time a t School ............................ The C rack er F a c to ry ................................ A V is it to the D airy ........................... Moving Day f o r L i t t l e G azelle . . . The T r i p le t s and th e M ilk C a rt . . A S cotch C ircu s ......................................... The T a lk in g Clock ..................................... The S to ry o f Tom Thumb ....................... How the Firem an Found th e Box . . . A L e tte r ....................................................... A V i s i t to th e F ire Engine House A L i t t l e Machine ..................................... k37 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G RA D E THREE (co n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE VISITS HERE A N D THERE A Narrow Escape ................... A S u rp ris e Package . . . G randm other’s Rock Garden Mr. B u llfro g . . . . . . W ild Flow ers ....................... Peggy’s Cocoon .................. Peggy L earns About A nts . UNIT STUDY B O O K S T rain s — No. J0 1 A S to ry of F ly in g - - No. 3 0 2- Boats - - No. 303 The S to ry o f G lass and B ricks — No. 30I4. The S to ry o f H eat - - No. 3^5 The S to ry o f P aper - - No. 306 P ets a t School — No. 3°7 The S to ry o f Coal - - No. 308 The F o re s t In d ian s - - No. 3^9 N avajo In d ia n s — No. 33-0 The S to ry o f Frogs - - No. 353- P ro te c tio n in N atu re — No. 35^ The Seasons - - No. 355 How B ird s Live — No. 35^ What Anim als E at - - No. 355 HELPERS AT W O R K Grandmother Comes to Town (C o tto n ) At Home in th e South (C o lo n ia l) .. In th e Land o f C otton ....................... A C a ll on Mammy............................... . S h ip p in g th e C otton ............................ The C otton B a ll (Poem) .................. The F i r s t P riz e (F ire P re v e n tio n ) F ire T r a f f ic ......................................... F ire P roof . .. . . ....................... The F ire b o a t ......................................... The F i r s t Steam boat in America On th e Ocean L in e r ............................ W ill Finds His Magic Horse . . . On Board th e R a ilro a d T ra in . . . Big Truck and I t s D riv e r . . . . The H ill Top Radio O p erato r . . . Busybody . . . . ................................ 72 ? 93 101 112 Ilk 125 130 137 165 171 182 188 203 237 257 • 197 . 203 . 213 . 216 . 220 . 22k . 238 EDUCATIONAL- ( 6 ) LEVEL: G RA D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K HELPERS AT W O R K F leet-W in g . . ......................................... Our Lady o f th e Snow . . . . . . . CITY FRIENDS The T rip Down Town . . ................... The Big S to re .............................................. A Rainy A fternoon ....................... .... A V is it to th e F ire S ta tio n . . . . The S to ry o f a S ilk D ress ................... In the C otton F ie ld s ............................ THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S The Garden ......................................................................... Tomfs F r i e n d s ...................................................... . . . Another F riend . . ....................................................... How Old Mr. S q u irr e l Became T h rifty .................. How the Chipmunk Got His S trip e s ....................... The Concert ......................................................................... In se c t Music . . . ....................................................... The Coming of the F i r e f l y ......................................... Brave Deeds of Dogs ....................................................... U seful Dogs ......................................................................... How the Chipmunk Got His Name ................................ How Johnny Chuck Sleeps A ll W inter .................. S pring a t the C a b i n ....................................................... The F i r s t R abbits ............................................................ The F i r s t Snow S h o e s .................................................. The T rip to the Cabin in th e Woods .................. Evening a t th e Cabin .................................................. T ravel A fternoon ........................................................... H O O T O W L Johnny ....................... W hite Face . . . . The Big F is h . . . The Bowl o f Stew War in th e V illa g e C o rn fe a st A c ti v itie s Broken Pumpkins . . Eyes in th e Woods . The New C ountry . . The T rad er . . . . FOLLET PICTURE STORY B O O K S B oats How W e T rav el k39 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G RA D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE SURPRISES C otton F ib e r ..................................................................... 1 Blue D y e .............................................................................. 8 B u tto n , B u t t o n .................................... 18 S t a r c h ........................................................................................20 R u th 's S ilk S c a r f ................................................................. 3° R o b e rt’s Linen H a n d k e r c h ie f .......................................... 38 The C olor o f the C o a t ........................................................4.9 The C lo th o f th e C o a t ........................................................53 Seeds to E at ........................................................71 Ju ic y F r u i t s . 7 6 V e g e t a b l e s ........................................... 8 ‘ F ir e s W ith and W ithout M a t c h e s ........................... 9 Things Cannot Burn W ithout A i r ................................. 99 Candle L i g h t ........................................................................IO4. Cows and Some o f T h eir R e l a t i v e s .......................... 115 W olves, Foxes and D o g s ................................................. 122 H orses and One o f T h e ir R e l a t i v e s .......................... 129 W i n d .......................................................................................... 137 Dragon F l i e s ........................... 150 May B e e t l e s ............................... 155 Ruth Caught a Bumble Bee ...............................I65 G oslings and C h ic k e n s ......................................................19§ H elping W ild B i r d s .......................................................... 203 Our E a r t h ................................................................................. 2l +2 Our S u n ......................................................................................24.8 Our M o o n .................................................................................255 The N o rth S ta r and the D i p p e r s ...............................2b5 Prism s and White L ig h ts . ........................................279 Games W ith E l e c t r i c i t y ................................................. 295 Magnet and C o m p a s s .......................................................... 290 LEVEL: GRA D E FOUR TRAILS O F ADVENTURE A L e t t e r .............................................. . 208 A F rid a y A ftern o o n C l u b .................................... 217 The Second M e e t i n g ..........................................................233 The T h ird M e e tin g 25 0 B eginning a Stamp C o lle c tio n ................................ 282 The L ib ra ry on W h e e ls ......................................................303 Busy Days on th e F a r m .................................................. 315 S to r ie s About S t a r s ....................................................... 363 In d ia n N atu re Myths . . . . . . . 369 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E POUR (co n tin u e d ) B O O K UNIT STUDY B O O K S The V ikings - - No. ij.01 The Greeks — No. I4.O 2 L ife in Hot Dry Lands — No. I4 .O 3 The S to ry o f S ilk - - No. I 4 - O I 4 . The Romans - - No. 4^5 B eginnings o f Trade — No. I4.06 The S to ry o f Time - - No. I4 .O 7 The S to ry o f L ig h t - - No. 1+08 The S to ry o f Communication — No. ij.09 The E gyptians - - No. I4.IO E l e c t r i c i t y and Magnets — No. I4.5I Indoor Gardens - - No. Bees and Ants - - No. 455 S o il: I t s Sources and Uses - - No. 454 W ater: I t s Sources and Uses - - No. 455 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR More About B ears ......................................... B u ste r Bear N early Breaks Up School . Gay Madlon ....................................................... On' to Mexico . .. .. ............................ Our Y ellow House ......................................... Lunch Time ....................................................... The Moon P r i n c e s s .................................... . The S to ry o f C ortez ..................................... The E agle and th e Snake ............................ To M arket W ith Lorenzo ............................ Shopping f o r Toys ......................................... Christmas- Eve in Mexico ....................... The Corn S h o w .................................................. How In d ian Corn Came In to th e W orld . The Pop Corn P atch . . . .................. A B ig Corn Crop .............................................. Seven Com M a i d e n s ..................................... M agnolia .. .................................................. Down Where th e C otton Blossoms Grow . P ick in g Summer Snow balls ....................... M aster of Boats .............................................. S ing F u ’s Tenth B i r t h d a y ....................... ... The F i r s t C hinese Puppets . . . . . . . C hinese Shadow P lays ................................ , How to Make a Shadow P lay ....................... EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G RADE FOUR (continued) BOOK CENTERVILLE Saturday Morning in a Country S to re . . . . A P ic tu re M a p ......................■...................................... The C e n te rv ille Mail .............................................. Other Business in C e n te rv ille . ....................... Eggs f o r the C ity ....................................................... S aturday N ight ........................................................... T rav elin g on a D irt Road ..................................... L e tte r About a New Road ..................................... Plans fo r the New Highway ..................................... G etting Ready to B uild the New Road . . . . Road Makers Come to C e n te rv ille ....................... Signs on the Highway . .............................................. A T ra ffic Policeman .................................................. More Business in C e n te rv ille ............................ I n v ita tio n to th e C ity ......................................... T rav elin g Over the Highway ................................ A V i s i t to a W holesale House ............................ The Order f o r the Adamfs S to re ....................... C lothes fo r C e n te rv ille C hildren . . . . . How O veralls Are Made .............................................. Farm Crops Com P i c k i n g ................................................................ The C a ttle Shed . . . . . . . ............................ D riving the C a ttle to th e Farm ....................... The Boys f Farm W o rk .................................................. P icking Out th e Calves ......................................... Taking Care o f Tim and Tom The C a ttle Buyers ..................................................... At the Packing House .............................................. How the Money Was Spent ......................................... A F ire in C e n te rv ille .............................................. Plans fo r the New School ..................................... The New School on Paper ......................................... Work on the New School Begins ............................ The Corner Stone *....................................................... The School Gets a Name ......................................... More Work on the School ......................................... H eating the School .................................................. Moving Day ..................................................................... V is itin g the Farmers .............................................. The B iggest B uilding in C e n te rv ille . . . . A Busy Day ..................................................................... 1 *1*2 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G RADE POUR (c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE TRAILS O P ADVENTURE R ic h a r d ’s S tr a n g e Dream .................................................. 20 V i s i t i n g a P l a n e t a r i u m ......................-................................ 57 A V i s i t to a Mammoth C a v e ............................................ 4-3 S e e in g W ashington . . ; . ........................ 55 C urious T e d ..................................................................................... o7 A d ven tu rin g in C ity . .............................................................74- Ann’s A dventure . . ................................................................. 85 W a lte r ’s A dventure . ..................................................... 102 H elp in g O t h e r s ......................................................................... 115 W h itn ey’s A m b i t i o n ....................................... 15q. A Lone E a g le ’s P l i g h t ..........................................................1 L \2 In a Summer C a m p ...................................................... 153 K eeping W ell and S t r o n g ..................................................... 1§9 The Am erican Red C r o s s ................................................. 170 A d ven tu rin g W ith W h e e l s ................................................. l 8 l B e fo r e th e M essage Came . ........................................... 195 WILD ANIMALS AT H O M E The G ris l e y B ear Wakes U p ............................................. 5 The S q u ir r e l S aves Pood ........................ 11 The B eavers B u ild a H o m e .................................. 19 The W easel Changes H is C o a t ..............................................25 Puma Runs A w a y ..................................................................... 29 The M uskrat L iv es S a f e ly ........................................ . The B u ffa lo s H ide Away .................................................. The P orcup in e S aves H i m s e l f ............................................. 1 J .7 The Pox H ides Her B a b i e s ............................................ 59 The Moose Looks f o r P o o d ...................................................65 INDIANS In d ia n s That P la y B a l l ............................................ . 1 P le e t f o o t and Gray W o l f .................................................. 7 S tr o n g H earts P laygroun d ............................................. 13 How Red Bear Became C h i e f ...................................................19 K ina Learns to Keep H o u s e ...................................................25 Hawkeye, th e U te H u n t e r ........................................................31 The G ivin g F e a s t .......................................................................57 Rain B ir d ’ s Woven B o a t ....................................................... 4.3 B lack H a ir ’ s S e a l Hunt . ..............................................ij.9 The Mayas B u ild G reat C it ie s ................................... 55 T o lt e c , An A z tec B o y .............................................................59 POLLET PICTURE STORY BO O K S B oats How th e C ity S e r v es I t s P eo p le How W e T ra v el EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: GRADE FOUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE ADVENTURE TRAILS A Man Goes Par Down In to th e Sea . ........................... 18 D in n er Time a t th e Zoo .........................................20 S a f e ty F i r s t ................................................................................ ll|. The Turkey i s an Am erican B i r d ....................................22 Toys o f Long A g o ...................................................................... 2I4 . The C ircu s Makes P eo p le Happy ................................... ^0 S tra n g e C rea tu res Are Found in Caves . . . . J2 F ig h tin g F i r e s ........................................................................... jh. C hristinas T rees f o r A l l ........................................................3° L ike F a ir ie s They W e a v e ....................................... 38 New Land i s Made in th e N e t h e r l a n d s ..........................£p0 Byrds Hard F i g h t ...................................................................... 42 E lep h a n ts a t Work and P l a y ..............................................1m B r in g in g L ig h t to th e B l i n d ..............................................40 An E a r ly In d ia n G a r d e n ....................................................... 48 A New D eal f o r B ird s and W ild A nim als . . . . 50 S h ip s a re Warned o f Ic e b e r g s . ............................... * j2 F i r s t Man to Reach th e N orth P o l e ......................... H igh in th e M o u n t a in s ............................. 56 A G reat B u ild in g to Honor Benjam in F r a n k lin . 58 How Groundhog L o st H is T a i l ..............................................bO THE ELEPHANT'S FRIEND AND OTHER STORIES The S to r y o f F lo r a D o l l ........................................................19 P a rt 1 Em m a and F lo r a D o l l .........................................19 P art 2 How Em m a L o st F lo r a D o l l .......................... 23 P art 3 How J e s s i e Found F lo r a D o ll . . . . 26 The Coal We B u r n .......................................................................31 The S e c r e t o f th e Basem ent R o o m ....................................62 P art 1 The G uest a t M ulberry Grove . . . . 63 P art 2 The T rou b les o f th e C otton P la n te r s 68 P art 3 Mr. W h itn ey 's S e c r e t ....................................73 P art 4 What Happened to Mr. W h itn ey 's C otton G i n ........................................................78 D o m i n o .............................................................................................15I J . P art 1 A Funny Way to T r a v e l ..................................13^ . P art 2 Jenny to th e R e s c u e ............................. . 159 M idnight M e e t i n g .................................................................... 195 P art 1 The New W ater S u p p l y ..................................I 95 P art 2 A S u r p r is e fo r th e P eo p le o f P h ila d e lp h ia ............................................. 201 The F la g a t F o r t G e o r g e ..................................................... 220 P a rt 1 A Very S p e c ia l D a y ...................................... 220 P art 2 A Hero o f th e D a y ........................................... 225 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: GRADE POUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K THE ELEPHANTfS FRIEND AND OTHER STORIES A N o ise in th e N ig h t . . . . . . . P a rt 1 A T e r r ib le F r ig h t . . . . P a rt 2 F u lt o n ’s F o lly . . . . . The T r a il o f Smoke . . . . . . . . A W h ite-F o o ted Mouse .............................. A Boy and H is Dream ................................... A l l th e F o r e s t N ib b le r s ......................... Johnny C atches an O tte r --A lm o st . . PLAYING TOGETHER The New k i t t l e A u tom obile .................... LEVEL: GRADE FIVE NEIGHBORS AND HELPERS The B ees a t Work ........................................ The Radio ............................................................ S e e in g the N ew sreel . . . .................... A T rip to th e L ib ra ry .............................. J a c k ’s New E x p e r ie n c e s ......................... An E a r ly M orning R ide .............................. A R e fr ig e r a to r on W heels .................... A F r e ig h te r U nloads I t s Cargo . . . J o a n ’s G ift ....................................................... A S u r p r is e From Aunt Jane .................... The S i l k Worm’s R iv a l .............................. A V a lu a b le P la n t ........................................ A L e tte r to China ........................................ A t th e F a r m ....................................................... A t th e Market .................................................. The Parade o f th e T in S o ld ie r s . . The T rip to G ra n d fa th e r ’s House . . G ra n d fa th er’s S to r y ................................... The F is h M a r k e t............................................ The Ranch ............................................................ The P ack in g House ........................................ A C o lo n ia l Home ............................................. Food in C o lo n ia l Days .............................. A C o lo n ia l S c h o o l ........................................ L esson s in C o lo n ia l S c h o o ls . . . . Busy F in g e r s .................................................. L a ter C o lo n ia l L if e in th e S ou th W ash in gton ’s B ir th p la c e ......................... EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (co n tin u e d ) BO O K NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS W ashington!s Boyhood Home ......................................... Mount Vernon ..................................................................... Blossom B ud's Home (Hop!) ......................................... H elping M other (Hopi) .................................................. Hop! In d ian s a t Work .................................................. S p rin g In th e Land o f th e Hopis ............................ The H arv est ......................................................................... The M ountain Home (Norway) ..................................... P e te r th e H erder (Norway) ......................................... F a th e r 's Busy Summer (Norway) ................................ F a ll Comes to th e M ountains (Norway) . . . . P e te r Goes F is h in g . . .............................................. F is h in g in N o rw a y ................................ ........................... W inter in N o r w a y ' . . The B eaver Dam ................................................................ F la s h lig h t and S t a r l i g h t ......................................... A T rip Through th e P o s to f fic e ................................ R ural D e liv e ry ................................................................ The A irm ail ......................................................................... The Railw ay P o st O ffic e . . . . . ....................... The Brave P o st R i d e r .................. ................................ The Pony E xpress ............................................................ G ran d fath er BrownT s Turkey Farm . . . . . . . B illy and th e G obbler ................................................... W ild Turkeys The New Brood ..................................................................... A Bag o f V is ito r s ........................................................... The Bee C ity ..................................................................... Kinds o f Bees ..................................................................... WILD ANIMALS AT H O M E The G ris le y B ear Wakes U p ......................................... The S q u irr e ls Save Food .............................................. The B eavers B u ild a H o m e . . The W easel Changes His Coat ..................................... The Puma Runs Away; . . . ..................................... The M uskrat L ives S a fe ly ......................................... B u ffalo s Hide Away ....................................................... The P orcupine Saves H im self . ................................ The Fox H ides Her B abies ......................................... The Moose Looks f o r Food ......................................... INDIANS In d ian s T hat P lay B a l l . . F le e tf o o t and Gray Wolf .............................................. EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE INDIANS S tro n g H earts Playground ......................................... 15 How Red B ear Became C h i e f ...............................................19 Kina Learns to Keep H o u s e ....................... 25 Hawkeye, the U te H u n t e r .............................................. The G iving F e a s t ...............................................^7 Rain B ird s Woven B o a t ...................................................k 3 B lack H airs S e a l H u n t .................................................. Ij-9 The Mayas B u ild G reat C itie s ................................ 55 T o lte c - An A ztec B o y ........................................................ 59 FGLLET PICTURE STORY BO O K S M ilk Bread Wood T rain s How the C ity S erves I t s People Food T ale o f a T r a ile r EXPLORING TO D A Y Sand P a i n t i n g s ................................................................ 2 An Old Town Comes to L i f e ......................................... k D iving f o r O ysters ....................................................... o M emorials to L in co ln . ......................................... 8 A Journey in South A m e r i c a .......................................... 10 Gray Owl and B e a v e r s ........................................................12 K eeping Waterways Open .............................................. lk E a rly Books . ......................................................................lo S couts o f Y esterd ay and T o d a y ......................................18 The H eath H e n .......................................................................... 20 A Famous W izzard ........................................................... 22 R e fo re s ta tio n ..................................................................... 2 A n cien t C itie s R i s e .................................................. .... 2 . Time Through the A g e s ........................................................28 Famous A irp la n e s Put in th e M u s e u m ........................ 50 Head o f W ashington Carved on a High M ountain 32 C o n serv atio n o f Our W ild L i f e ................................ 3‘ C hristm as Around th e W o r l d .....................................3 S to ry o f M o n e y ......................................................................p8 F o re c a s tin g W eather ....................................................... 4.0 F o re s t F i r e s ..........................................................................l\2 K eeping th e World on T im e ...............................................ijk M ig ratio n o f B ird s ...............................................Ip The Olympic T o d a y .................................................................i{.8 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G RA D E FIVE (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE EXPLORING T O D A Y Speeding Up Iro n H o r s e s ................................................... 5^ F o o t b a l l ............................... 52 D ia m o n d s ................................................................................... 54- L ig h t S hips ........................................ 56 F i r s t A irp lan e F l i g h t ...................... oO L a st Camp o f Andrea E x p ed itio n Found . . . . 62 IN THE G REEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES In a Green V a lle y . . . . . . ................................ 7 In Cheese C a v e ......................................................................11 The Golden B a lls o f A lk m a a r.......................................... 13 Woodchucks a re G ro u n d h o g s...............................................29 B ird B a n d i n g ...................... 6l The S to ry o f Three C h i e f s ...............................................J2 The L i t t l e B lack C a p ................................ .... 90 A G reat C e l e b r a t i o n . 136 P a rt 1 The Opening O ctober 1 8 2 5 .............156 P a rt 2 Low B r i d g e .............................................I4O P a rt 3 Tk® F i r s t C e r e m o n y .......................... lij.2 P a rt 4 Albany ......................................................... llm P a rt 5 R eaching th e O c e a n .......................... . lij.6 P a rt 5 The End o f an E x c itin g Day . . . . 150 The P alace o f the Duke ( H a n d e l) ...............................163 Ants Live E v e r y w h e r e ......................................................172 The Hooked R u g ................................................................... loO An E x c itin g R i d e ...............................................................197 P a rt 1 A ll A b o a r d ............................................ 197 P a rt 2 From A lbany to th e W ater S ta tio n . 202 P a rt 3 End o f th e T rip . . . . . . . . 205 T hanksgiving a t S e a .......................................................... 211 A Queer C o n t r a p t i o n .......................................................... 23 14. P a rt 1 A V irg in ia Farm B o y ..........................23I}. P a rt 2 Cyrus and th e R e a p e r ...............................257 5 The T r i a l o f th e New Reaper . . . . 24.0 P a rt I 4 . A Dream Come T r u e ........................................2iiJ| T a l o ..........................................................................................265 P a rt 1 In th e Green M ountain S ta te . . . . 265 P a rt 2 The M i n e ..........................................................267 P a r t 3 O ther Uses o f T a l o ......................................271 P a rt £ The M i l l ................................. 27!*. Twenty M inutes in th e S u n .............................................307 The Cabin in th e W o o d s ................................................. 316 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K ^G E IN THE G REEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES P lay e rs in F e a t h e r s .......................................................... 37^ P a rt 1 E a rly M orning C a lle rs . . . . . . . 37^ P a rt 2 A B re a k fa s t C o m e d y ....................................375 A M atter o f Courage (Rubber) . . . . . . . . 379 P a rt 1 The R ig h t P r o c e s s ...................... 379 P a rt 2 Courage and K i n d n e s s ...............................Job The W eather V ane’s R i d e ................................................. 393- P a rt 1 H e n rie tta M arie Makes a F rie n d . . 393- P a rt 2 A Journey Through th e A ir . . . . . 397 P a rt 3 Home A g a i n ..............................................Ij.02 The B usiness o f Going to S e e ................................... 4O5 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY BO O K Jack B inns, th e F i r s t Hero o f th e W ireless . 23 How P itts b u r g G r e w ............................................................ 6 l Schools o f Olden T i m e s ............................................. 73- P a rt 1 A b ig a il and O b a d ia h ............................ 7? - P a rt 2 The S chool House . ...........................7 P a rt 3 School Takes U p ........................................ P a rt 4 Aid to th e Textbooks W e Use . . . . 82 P a rt 5 The F i r s t Lessons .....................................85 P a rt 0 School D is c ip lin e One Hundred Y ears Ago ......................................86 P a rt 7 A fternoon a t S c h o o l ............................ 93- A Day in W a s h in g to n .................................................. . 105 P a rt 1 P lan n in g to G o .....................................105 P a rt 2 The T r i p .................................................. 106 P a rt 3 The R a ilro a d S t a t i o n .......................107 P a rt 4 The B u ild in g s o f th e C a p ito l . . . 110 P a rt 5 The M all, th e W ashington M em orial, th e W hite H o u s e ................................. 117 P a rt 6 L in co ln M e m o r i a l ................................120 P a rt 7 How W ashington is Like O ther C itie s 123 . A F o re s t o f Queer Trees . . . . . ............................ 12o P a rt 1 Coming to th e F o r e s t .......................128 P a rt 2 In th e F o r e s t ......................................... 133 Two Old S p an ish American T o w n s ...............................155 P a rt 1 S an ta F e ......................... 155 P a rt 2 T a o s ............................................................165 Why and How Anim als S l e e p ............................................ 295 P a rt 1 Why W e S l e e p .........................................295 P a rt 2 How Some Animals S l e e p .................. 300 hb9 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E SIX (co n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE READING TO LEAEN, INTRODUCTORY BO O K Why and How Anim als S leep P a rt 3 H ib e rn a tio n as a Form o f S lee p • . * > 0k Two W heeled F r i e n d s .................................................... JOo P a rt 1 When and Where a re B ic y c le s Most U s e f u l ................................................... 3^8 P a rt 2 What is Meant by R iding C a re fu lly . 3^9 P a rt 3 Why B icy cles W o rk ...................................3^-4 P a r t 4 S to ry o f th e B ic y c le . . ................... 3^-4 P a rt 5 T aking Care o f a B i c y c l e .............3^9 The Eye: A W onderful C a m e ra ..................................J2 1 P a rt 1 V arious Types o f Eye . . . . . . . ^ 21 P a rt 2 How Eyes W o rk ................................... 3^3 P a rt 3 Care o f th e % e s ................................... 329 Making Our Own W e a t h e r .......................................... 33^ P a rt 1 Im proving A ir in F a c to rie s . . . . 332 P a rt 2 Making A ir More C om fortable f o r P e o p l e .......................................................... 338 P a rt 3 Im proving th e A ir In Mines . . . . ^q2 A V i s i t to th e P l a n e t a r i u m .................................. 345 P a rt 1 G e ttin g Ready to Study the Sky . . 3^ 4 -5 P a rt 2 What E t h e l 's T eacher Told the C lass jk f P a rt 3 S o la r S y s t e m ...........................................351 P a rt 4 The Main P l a n e t a r i u m ...............................Jb2 Am erican C h ild re n in A laska ..................................... 173 P a rt 1 W inter in an A laskan Town . . . . . 173 P a r t 2 Summer in th e Same Town . . . . . . 179 P a rt 3 Kow T his Town Earns I t s L iv in g . . l o l L ouisa A lc o tt ..................................................................... 193 P a rt 1 The F rog P o n d ................................................. 193 P a rt 2 L o u is a T s F a th e r, Bronson A lc o tt . . 197 P a rt p L ife a t th e H i l l s i d e ...............................202 P a rt 4 S tru g g le s W ith P o v e r t y .......................... 205 P a rt 5 S uccess a t L a s t ............................................ 206 Mark Twain and His S t o r i e s ...................... 212 P a rt 1 Tom Sawyer and H uckelberry Finn . . 212 P a rt 2 Mark T w a i n ......................................................218 P a rt p The G reat H u m o r i s t ................................... 222 P a rt 4 The P rin c e and th e P a u p e r ...................226 P a rt 5 Mark Twain fs Old A g e ...............................230 The S eein g Eye: Dogs W ho Help the B lin d . . . 232 P a rt 1 How a B lin d P erson Reads . . . . . . 232 P a rt 2 Dogs Help th e B l i n d ................................... 237 14-50 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: GRA D E SIX (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K P a d h e l!s C a rr ie r P i g e o n ................................................. 245 P a r t 1 The C hildhood o f a C a r r ie r Pigeon . 2l|5 P a rt 2 The P ig e o n 1 a E d u c a t i o n ............................250 P a rt 5' The P ig o o n ’s P o s t ......................................... 255 How th e T eleg rap h Got I t s N a m e ...............................264 P a r t 1 Claude Chapp and His B ro th e rs . . . 264 P a rt 2 How th e B r o th e r !s S en t M essages a t S c h o o l .......................................................... 267 P a rt 5 How the B ro th e r !s Improved th e I n v e n t i o n ......................................................270 P a r t 4 The Semaphore T eleg rap h . . . . . . 272 P a rt 5 The Semaphore T eleg rap h in Time of War and in Time o f Peace . . . . 275 L ife Among th e A n t s ..........................................................279 P a rt 1 An Ant H i l l .................................................... 279 P a rt 2 R obert and J o s e p h .......................................282 P a rt 5 War Among th e A n t s ..................................285 P a rt 4 How A nts Work and Live . . . . . . 286 P a r t 5 The War Goes O n ........................................... 288 P a rt 6 Peace Among th e A n t s ..............................289 P a rt 7 R obert and Joseph Make U p .................292 THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES The Golden Cup of K asim ir . E a rly Pathways o f Peace . . Wonders o f th e Sky . . . . The S eig e o f L id g a te C a s tle Eyes o f th e W ilderness . . The Son o f an E n g in ee r . . Two M iles A part ....................... F o rty H o u r s ................................ T ilb u ry Green ............................ H elping N atu re ....................... Prow lers in th e Dark . . . A Ride in th e R ain . . . . F i r e l i g h t ..................................... What is Money ............................ P o sy ’s Egg Money ................... C lip p e r S hips ............................ One F i f t h of a M inute . . . A G reat A dventure .................. A Homesick Boy ....................... Four Words ................................ 16 21 272 252 283 29? 324 355 J05 & 8 1J7 473 493 501 61 68 ij-51 EDUCATIONAL ( 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E SIX (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PA G E THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES The F lo a tin g Gardena o f X ochim ilco . . . . . 82 P lay e rs in F u r ................................................................ 92 F a th e r Time Keeps S c h o o l ......................................... .101 B ird C itie s . . ......................................... 129 The Sewing R a c e ..............................-.................................... 134 The C herry Tree' o f New A m s te r d a m .......................... 160 The Canon ............................................................................ 197 UNIT STUDY B O O K S Vtforld Trade — No. 601 In v e n tio n s : How They H elp Us - - No. 602 Japan Today — No. 603 Lumber - - No. 6o L j . C e re als — No. 605 Money — No. 606 Homes - - No. 607 F is h e r ie s — No. 608 Newspapers — No. 609 Modern E x p lo re rs — No. 6l 0 FOLLET PICTURE STORY BO O K S M ilk Bread Wood T rain s Food The T ale o f a T r a ile r ELECTRICITY, TOOLS, SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS (7) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O UNIT STUDY B O O K S Sim ple M achines — No. 255 UNIT ACTIVITY PAMPHLETS A B ig A irp o rt — 2- 1-1 G lid e rs and A irp la n e s — 2- 1-2 Balloons and A irp la n e s - - 2 -I-3 L in d b e rg 's F lig h t — 2- 1-lj. J+52 E LE C TR IC ITY , TOOLS, S C IE N T IF IC INTERESTS ( 7 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE B O O K PAGE SURPRISES Cows and Some o f T h e ir R e l a t i v e s .......................... 115 Wolves and Foxes and D o g s .............................................122 H orses and One o f T h eir R e l a t i v e s .......................... 129 W i n d .......................................................................... 157 One Kind o f G a s .................................... I4.3 Gas and Steam and Clouds . . ...............................173 L iq u id 'W a t e r ........................................................................180 S o lid W ra t e r ............................................................................ 186 C h a l k .......................................................................................... 2llj. Clay and S l a t e ................................................................... 220 C o a l ..........................................................................................226 C o ral, L i m e s t o n e ...............................................................232 Our E a r t h ............................................................................. 21\2 Our Sun . . ........................................................................2 J I4 .8 Our M o o n .................................................... 255 The N o rth S ta r and th e D i p p e r s ...............................265 Prism s and W hite L ig h t .............................................. 279 Games W ith E l e c t r i c i t y .......................................... 285 Magnets and C o m p ass.........................................................290 SCIENCE STORIES, I I How the Stone Was M o v ed ................................................. llj.1 U sing E l e c t r i c i t y ...............................................................150 How to Make a F i r e .......................................................... 155 How to 'P u t Out a F i r e ......................................................162 YESTERDAY A N D T O D A Y Two Clocks in a S t o r m ......................................................II4.3 SUSAN'S NEIGHBORS A Radio Message ................................................................ 50 Workers Who C arry Our M e s s a g e s ................................. 80 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR SCIENCE STORIES,’ I I I . The Big S t o r m ........................................................................ 169 Wind Moves S o il ......................................................172 B u ild in g a B a m ................................................................... 175 W ater C a rrie s S o il A w ay ................................................. 179 * W ater Drops S o i l ...............................................................182 W ater B reaks R o c k s .......................................................... 186 455 ELECTRICITY, TOOLS, SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS (7) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE SCIENCE STORIES, I I I How the C ircu s Came I n .................................................196 P a rt 1 P u llin g in th e W a g o n s.............................196 P a rt 2 D riv in g th e S tak es . ........................ 198 P a rt 5 S e ttin g up th e P o l e s ............................ 200 P a rt 4 R a isin g th e T o p .......................................... 205 U sing Animals M u s c le s ......................................................212 Wheels Make Work Easy . ............................................ 217 Levers are H e l p e r s .......................................................... 220 An I n c lin e d P l a n e ...............................................................228 Engines Move Heavy Loads ......................................... 25I CENTERVILLE How O v e ra lls Are M a d e ......................................................122 CHILDREN O F AMERICA The Boy I n v e n t o r ......................................... 57 UNIT STUDY BO O K S E l e c t r i c i t y and Magnets - - No* 451 The S to ry o f Time — No. I4 .O 7 The S to ry o f L ig h t — No. Ij.08 The S to ry o f Communication - - No. I4.O9 The S to ry o f S ilk - - No. The B eginnings o f Trade — No. I4.O 6 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE IN TH E GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES A Queer C o n t r a p t i o n ..........................................................25I4. P a rt 1 A V irg in ia Farm B o y ...............................234 P a rt 2 Cyrus and th e R e a p e r ..............................257 P a rt 5 The T r a il o f the R e a p e r ......................... 2lj.O P a rt 4 A Dream Comes T r u e ..................................P)\)\ CHILDREN O F AMERICA The Boy I n v e n t o r .................................................. 57 EXPLORING TO D A Y The Famous Y /iz a r d .................................................................22 UNIT STUDY BO O KS E a rly E x p lo re rs — No. 502 W inning th e West — No. 504 T ra n s p o rta tio n — No. 505 k5k E LE C TR IC ITY , TOOLS, S C IE N T IF IC INTERESTS ( 7 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE UNIT STUDY BO O K S C o tto n — No. 506 Rubber - - No. 5^8 Corn - - No. 5^7 The S to ry o f I r r i g a t i o n - - No. $ 1 0 NEIGHBORS AND HELPERS A T rip Through th e P o st O f f i c e ........................... 6k R u ral D e l i v e r y ......................................................................60 The A ir M a i l .................................................................... 72 The Railw ay P o st O ffic e ........................... 75 The Brave P o st R i d e r ........................................ 79 The Pony E x p r e s s ....................................................... . 83 The R a d i o ................................................................ . . . 123 S eeing th e News R e e l ......................................................127 Jack L earns About th e N e w s p a p e r........................... 135 DISCOVERING O U R W O R L D How Does th e Body Work ....................................109 How i s Your Body L ike a M a c h in e ...............................110 What Gives th e Body S h a p e .............................................115 How Do Our Bones M o v e ......................................................117 How Can th e Body M o v e .................................................. 119 How Does th e Body Use th e Food W e E at . . . . 12k How is Food C a r r i e d .......................................................... 127 How Does th e Body Get A ir . ....................................12§ How is th e Body C o v e re d ...............................................132 How Do You Know Tvhat Goes On . . . . . . . . 133 What Keeps th e Body W orking . . . ......................130 Why Do W e Have Days and N i g h t s ...............................Ik5 How Does the E a rth Get L i g h t ....................................lk6 What is th e Shape o f th e E a r t h ...............................lk 8 How Does th e E a rth M o v e ................................................. 15k How Do W e Have D a y lig h t and D arkness . . . .1 5 5 How is th e E a rth a C l o c k ........................ 160 What Makes a Y ear . ................................................... l6 k How Do th e Days Change in L e n g t h ................... l6b What H eavenly Bodies Can W e S e e ...............................173 What i s a S t a r ............................................................ 17: Why Are th e S ta rs C o l o r e d ..................................... I7I What is a C o n s t e l l a t i o n ............................................ Y Why Do W e See Cons t e l l a t i o n s . . . . . . . . ll How is th e Moon D if f e r e n t from S ta r s . . . . l8i What is th e Source o f M o o n lig h t............................... 189 455 E LE C TR IC ITY , TOOLS, S C IE N T IF IC INTERESTS (7) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K - PA G E DISCOVERING O U R W O R L D Why Does th e Moon Change ................................ What is a P la n e t . . . . ................................ Are There li v i n g Things on P la n e ts . . . What a re S h o o tin g S ta rs . . . . ................... How do Magnets Work .............................................. What Kinds o f Magnets Are There ................... What Do Magnets P ick Up ..................................... W ill a Magnet*s F orce Pass Through Things What a re th e Poles o f a Magnet ................... What i s th e F ie ld o f F orce o f a Magnet How Do Magnets Act Towards Each O ther . . Why Do Magnets P o in t N orth and S outh . . How Do W e Read a Compass ................................ How Can You Make a Compass ............................ What Makes Things Move ..................................... What i s F orce . . . . . . . . . ................... How Does th e F orce o f M uscles Help Us . . What i s th e G re a te s t F orce in th e W orld . How Does W ater Make Things Move . . . . . How Do W e Use th e Force o f Moving A ir . . Why Can Steam Move Things . ............................ How Do W e Use th e F orces o f E x p lo sio n s What Can th e F orce o f E l e c t r i c i t y Do . . How Do W e Use th e F orce o f S p rin g s . . . How Can F orces be Changed . ............................ LEVEL: G R A D E SIX 190 198 200 206 206 208 209 210 213 216 221 223 226 233 235 240 236 242 248 253 256 259 263 264 READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY BOOK Jack B inns, th e F i r s t Hero o f th e ?»fireless. . 2 An E a rly Voyage Down th e Ohio R i v e r ............. 3 . P a rt 1 B u ild in g a F la t B o a t ...................3 I4 . How th e T eleg rap h Got I t s Name ............................ P a rt 2 How th e B ro th e rs S ent M essages a t S c h o o l ..................................................267 P a rt 3 ^ ow th e B ro th e rs Improved T h eir In v e n tio n s ....................................27O P a rt ij. The Semaphore T eleg rap h . . . . . . 272 P a rt 5 The Semaphore in Peace and War . . 275 THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES Four W o r d s ...................... 68 106 BOOK ELECTRICITY, TOOLS, SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS LEVEL: G R A D E SIX (c o n tin u e d ) (7) PAGE UNIT STUDY B O O K S In v e n tio n s and How They Help Us — No. 602 . Lumber - - No. 60J4. C ere als — No. 605 Money - - N o . 606 F is h e r ie s — No. 608 Newspapers — No. 6l 0 W ORKING WITH ELECTRICITY L ig h ts ................................................................ 1 B e lls and M a g n e ts ................................................................24 P a rt 1 The Door B e l l .................................................. 24 P a rt 2 A Door B e ll f o r th e P lay House . . 27 P a rt 3 O th er E le c tr ic B e l l s ................................ 28 P a rt 4 The Magnet I n s i d e ......................................... 29 P a rt 5 Magnets That L i f t ......................................... 30 P a rt o Magnets and a C o m p a ss................................ 34 P a rt 7 S hips T hat Use C o m p a s s e s ....................... 35 P a rt 8 F in d in g th e N o rth P o l e ............................38 P a rt 9 The Modem C o m p a s s .....................................L0 M essages W ith E l e c t r i c i t y ......................................... 45 P a rt 1 Making an I n s t r u m e n t ................................4 S P a rt 2 Making a Sending K e y ................................ $ 0 P a rt 3 The Morse C o d e ......................................... P a rt 4 Sending T e le g ra m s ......................................... 52 P a rt 5 Ocean C a b l e s .................................................. 53 P a rt 6 L aying th e F i r s t C a b l e ............................57 P a rt 7 T h-e T e le p h o n e ...................................................59 P a rt 8 A Sim ple H o u s e ..............................................6 l M essages Through E l e c t r i c i t y ............................ . 71 FANTASY A N D IMAGINATION (8) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y I f You Had a W i s h ...............................................................131 Straw In to G o l d ................................................................... 205 The W onderful P ear T r e e .................................................279 Open S e s a m e ............................................................................ 3O0 R o llin g R o c k ........................................................................360 k 5 1 FANTASY AND IMAGINATION ( 8 ) LEVELS G RA D E FOUR B O O K PAGE TRAILS OF ADVENTURE S to rie s About S ta rs ....................................................... 265 P a rt 1 C a -llisto ...............................................263 P a rt 2 H i a w a t h a ......................................................... 266 In d ia n N atu re Myths- ....................................................... 369 P a rt 1 How S p rin g C o m e s .........................................3^9 P a rt 2 The H unter Who Trapped th e Sun . . 373 P a rt 3 The Owlfs Big E y e s ...................................38O NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR The W onderful, th e S t r a n g e ........................................3^8 How In d ia n Corn Came In to th e W o r ld ......................169 J e rr y F in d s a True M y th .................................................199 Seven Corn Maidens . .................................................- . 201 The Moon P r i n c e s s ........................... I l k How the Chipmunk Got His S t r i p e s .............................5® The F i r s t R a b b i t s ...............................................................195 The V illa g e T hat Was D e s e r t e d ......................................69 THE ELEPHANT'S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES I 'v e Come f o r P o l l y ............................................................57 P a rt 1 The F a iry B a k e s h o p .....................................37 P a rt 2 The S p id e r, th e Owl, th e L i t t l e Old M a n ............................................................ k 2 Mr. C r ic k e t's A i r p l a n e ................................................. lb k P a rt 1 Mr. C ric k e t H i m s e l f ..................................... 164 P a rt 2 The A i r p l a n e ............................... 167 P a rt 3 P a in tin g a S u n s e t ....................................... 171 P a rt k Landing T r o u b l e ........................................... 178 How th e C hristm as Pudding C a m e ...............................190 The L i t t l e Man in th e M o u n ta in s ...............................271 P a rt 1 Ron Comes to R e x ......................................... 271 P a rt 2 The S to ry o f th e F l u t e ........................... 27k P a rt 3 The S tra n g e V i s i t o r s ..............................27o P a rt 4 The Dance o f th e L i t t l e Men . . . . 282 P a rt 5 The F lu te o f Gold .....................................285 The B u tte r f ly B o y .............................................................. 4^9 P a rt 1 The B e a u tifu l G a r d e n ................................4^9 P a rt 2 The Yellow W i n g s ....................... 4^7 P a rt 3 The Roses a re R e d .........................................4 5 ^ P a rt 4 The F low ering S t i c k .................................... 457 P a rt 5 F o r g e t- M e - N o t s ...........................................)\i\h P a rt 6 The M oth's W i f e ...........................................451 P a rt 7 Heads o f G o l d . 456 P a rt o The Flow ers o f S l e e p .............................4^0 I j -58 FANTASY AND IMAGINATION ( 8 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (co n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE THE G REA T IDEA A N D OTHER STORIES A Hole and T h r e e ...............................................................11^2 P a rt 1 The L i t t l e House in th e Woods . . . llj.2 P a rt 2 T rouble B e g i n s ..................................... llj.6 P a rt 3 Mick F inds a W a y ............................... . . 151 P a rt 4 P rin c e ss P a r t y ..................................... 154 P a rt 5 S t o l e n ........................................ loO P a rt 6 The End o f th e R h y m e ........................170 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE IN THE G R EEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES The V illa g e T hat Was D e s e r t e d ......................................69 The I n v is ib le P rin c e .................................................. 75 P a rt 1 The P rin c e F a lls In Love . . . . . 75 P a rt 2 A las f o r P rin c e ss F l o r a ....................77 P a rt 3 The P riso n and th e A lchem ist . . . 81 P a rt 4 Out o f th e T o w e r ..................................84 P a rt 5 I t was a S p e l l .......................................87 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTH ER STORIES The L i t t l e D re s s m a k e r.................................................. J1 0 M ilt Has an A d v e n tu r e ........................................................ S2 Shame on T h em ........................................................................I87 G O O D TIMES (9) LEVEL: PRIMER KITTEN-KAT K itte n -K a t in School .................................................. 29 Where is K itte n -K a t ......................................37 The Policem an !s Home . -................................................... 54 F lu f f and P u ff . . . ................................................... 7 2 The Cat S h o w .......................................................................... 87 LEVEL: G R A D E O N E CO U N TRY D A Y S Going to th e C o u n t r y .................................................. 5 At Mr. Brown fs ......................................................................ifj The F i r s t M o rn in g ........................................ 2 4 GOOD TIMES ( 9 ) LEVEL: G R A D E O N E (co n tin u e d ) B O O K CO U N TRY D A Y S G e ttin g th e M ilk ......................................... G e ttin g C re a m ................................ . . . . The C a lf and th e Pigs ................................ Going A fte r Eggs ......................................... Going to th e S to re ..................................... Making B u tte r ................... . . . . . . . Up on th e H ill .............................................. The B ir d ’s N est .............................................. G e ttin g .in th e Hay . . . . . . . . . G e ttin g th e Cows ......................................... Donn and Ann . . ......................................... The End o f V acatio n ..................................... LEVEL: G R A D E T W O G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY A Queer N oise .................................................. TJatehing T i f f .................................................. Busy M o r n i n g .................. .... ....................... T ra in Ride ....................................................... A S le ig h Ride .................................................. The Maple Sugar Camp ................................ Making Maple Syrup ..................................... Chubby ................................................................ Two P a r tie s ....................................................... Baby Lions ....................................................... The B e a r s ........................................................... O ther Animals .................................................. Making B u tte r .................................................. H unting Eggs .................................................. F a th e r ’s F i r s t S to ry ................................ F a th e r ’s Second S to ry ................................ M other’s Second S to ry ................................ F is h in g ........................................................... . WINTER TIME The Snow H o u s e ................................ . . . D inner f o r A ll .............................................. The Snow Storm .............................................. Snow Shoeing .................................................. The Ride to Town ......................................... Supper a t G randm other’s .................. .... . k6o GOOD TIMES (9) LEVEL: G RA D E T W O (co n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE EVERYDAY FRIENDS Fun w ith F lopsy and Mopay A House fo r th e R ab b its . R ab b its fo r S ale . . . . Good Times in P a ts y ’s Home Good Times in P a u l's Room P lay in g th e S to ry . . . . Making Up a P lay . . . . The P lay ................................ 64 I k 8 0 8 l 86 107 lij.8 150 ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY In th e C o u n t r y ................................................................ 1 G ra n d m o th e r........................................................... 37 The T enth F l o o r ............................................................... 49 Making a Play C ity .......................................... 75 Playground on th e Roof . ... .. ... .. 105 C e n tra l P a r k ........................................................................I l l Donkey H i l l ............................................................................ 120 A V i s it to th e Z o o .......................................................... l 4l P e t e r 's B irth d a y P re se n t ......................................... 171 P e te r 's B irth d a y P a rty .............................................. 175 V is ito r s from th e C o u n t r y ............................................ 21o D EA N A N D D O N AT THE DAIRY A W i s h .......................................................... A Wish Comes T r u e ................................ Dean and Don a re Milkmen fo r a Day 1 18 81 JIMMY, THE G RO CERY M A N A S e c re t .............................................................................. 1 A L i t t l e Truck ................................................................ 63 SUSAN'S NEIGHBORS Fun a t th e P la y g r o u n d .................................................... 136 The C ircus Parade ........................................1 f\2 Good Times a t th e Park ........................................1 Jj7 Fun a t th e L i b r a r y .........................................................153 LEVEL; G R A D E THREE YESTERDAY AND TO D A Y The Hobby P i c n i c ...............................................................179 The Work th a t is P l a y .................................................... l8 8 H olidays and F e s tiv a ls .............................................. 219 i(.6l G O O D TIMES (9) LEVEL: G RA D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE SUSAN'S NEIGHBORS Fun a t th e P la y g ro u n d ,....................................................136 The C ircu s P a r a d e ............................................................. lh2 Good Times a t th e P a r k ................................................llj.7 Fun a t th e L i b r a r y ........................................................ 153 S eein g th e T r a i n ....................................... 197 Home by B u s ............................................................................ 211 HELPERS A P a rty f o r F a t h e r ................................... l8jjj A fte r th e P a r t y ................................................................... l8 8 O ff to the C ity ............................................... 191 Good Times f o r May and B u d d y ..................................110 VISITS HERE A N D THERE D ick and Peggy go C a m p in g ......................................... 5 O ff to th e F o r e s t .................................... 0 The C a m p .................................................. t ...............................II4. The High T o w e r .....................................' .............................. 29 The B lack B e a r s ..................................................................... I 4 .0 A S u rp ris e f o r D ick and P e g g y ......................................56 S co tch C i r c u s ........................................................................lfj.2 A V a c a t i o n ............................................................................ 211 G randm other’s Rock G a r d e n .............................................213 O ff to th e W o o d s ...............................................................219 F eeding th e B ird s . . . . . ..................................... 229 A S e c r e t .................................................................................210 THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S I n te r e s t in g p la n s ............................................................ 7 7 The F o rg o tte n Trunk .......................................... 80 P lan n in g f o r an In d ia n P r o g r a m ................................. 87 The In d ia n P r o g r a m ............................................................ 93 P a rt 1 The B la c k fe e t I n d i a n s ................................93 P a rt 2 The Zuni I n d i a n s ...................................... 109 A Snowy N i g h t .................................................. lJ;J| The Stepping-on-Shadow G am e........................... 152 Fun in th e S n o w ..................................................... 163 Fun on a Rainy A f t e r n o o n ......................... 210 HELPERS AT W O R K The C i r c u s ......................................................................... 1 The C ircus The C ircu s The C ircus The C ircus The C ircus 8 12 17 21 28 1 + 6 2 GOOD TIMES ( 9 ) LEVEL: GRADE THREE ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE HELPERS AT WORK In th e Land o f C o t t o n ........................... 87 A C a ll on Mammy......................................................................93 The R a c e .................................................................................lIf-3 A F is h in g P a r t y ................................................................... 151 CITY FRIENDS At th e P a r k ...............................................................................29 Sandy L a n e ...............................................................................99 The Moving P i c t u r e s .......................................................12k The T rip to th e M ountain Park . . . .....................16 6 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR TRAILS OF ADVENTURE S ta y in g a t th e S e a s h o r e ....................................................31 Summer E x p e rie n c e s ................................................................. 15 In a Summer Camp . . ......................................................153 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR Penny W ag ............................ Snow P ic tu re s ................... Shopping f o r Toys . . . C hristm as Eve in Mexico Wing F u ’s T enth B irth d a y A T rip to Camp . . . . Making Camp ....................... C atch in g a D inner . . . What Joe Found . . . . Som ething New f o r Supper F la s h lig h t and S t a r l i g h t M ark!s V is ito r . . . . The T re asu re Hunt . . . Lunch Time............................ The S to ry Hour . . . . The J o lly M a rio n e tte The P lay Club Games . . CENTERVILLE V is itin g th e F a r m e r .......................................................... 228 The School P r o g r a m .......................................................... 262 The S u r p r i s e ........................................................................269 • 39 • 51 . I4.6 . 151 . 273 • 3 • 7 . 12 1 if . 2S . 28 • ?7 . kO . 1 + 7 • 51 • 55 I 4.63 GOOD TIMES (9 ) LEVEL: G R A D E POUR (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE THE ELEPHANT!S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES I*ve Come f o r P o l l y ............................................................ 37 P a rt 1 The. F a iry B a k e s h o p ........................................ 37 P a rt 2 The S p id e r, th e Owl, and th e L i t t l e Old Man . . . ................................................1 * 2 The P e r fe c t P ic n ic P lace . . . . . .. .. . I}.11 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS P l a y t i m e .................................................................... 2l|2 The R ab b it Hunt ........................... 277 The B asket D a n c e ........................................................... 2oo P e te r Goes F is h in g ............................................. 33-5 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX STRONG Seven Days a t S e a ...................................................... . 1 HISTORY ( 10) LEVEL: PRIMER H O M E G ra n d fa th e rfs S t o r y ............................................................ 8 I4 . O U R H O M E The S to ry o f H o m e s ........................... 8 J 4 . LEVEL: G R A D E O N E UNIT STUDY BO O K S Houses - - No. 109 LEVEL: G R A D E T W O UNIT STUDY B O O K S Your Shoes and Your F e e t — No. 201 Pueblo In d ian s - - No. 202 The S to ry o f M ilk - - No. 203 Men and Animals Long Ago — No. 2^2 The Sun, Moon and th e S ta rs --No. 2 5 !} . Sim ple M achines — No. 255 WINTER TIME The S to ry o f a New Coat 68 464 HISTORY (1 0 ) LEVEL: SHADE THREE BOOK PAGE HELPERS AT WORK The F i r s t Steam boat in America F leet-W in g ................................ . Our Lady o f th e Snow . . . . VISITS HERE AND THERE The S to ry o f Tom T h u m b ................................................. 163 UNIT STUDY BO O K S T rain s - - No. 3^1 The S to ry o f P ly in g — No. J0 2 B oats - - No. 3^5 The S to ry o f G lass and B rick s — No. 30!]. The S to ry o f H eat - - No. 3°5 The S to ry o f Paper - - No. JOS The S to ry o f Goal - - No. JO Q The F o re s t In d ian s — No. 3^9 N avajo In d ia n s — No. 310 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR UNIT STUDY BO O K S The V ikings — No. [j.01 The Greeks — No. ij.02 L ife in Hot Dry Lands - - No. [j.03 The S to ry o f S ilk - - No. l\.0 I4 . The Romans - - No. I4 .O 5 The B eginnings o f Trade — No. I4 .O 6 The S to ry o f Time — No. I{.07 The S to ry o f L ig h t — No. Ip08 The S to ry o f Communication - - No. k 09 The E g y p tian s - - No. ij.10 S o il, I t s Sources and Uses - - No. I4 .5 I1 - W ater, I t s S ources and Uses --No. 4.55 TRAILS OF ADVENTURE The Lone E a g le fa F lig h t . . . American Red Gross S o c ie ty A d venturing W ith Wheels . . . How th e Message Came . . . . A L e tte r ......................................... The F rid a y A fternoon Club . . P a rt 1 Sam D avis .................. P a rt 2 Booker T. W ashington 142 l i ° 181 *95 208 217 220 224 165 266 297 HISTORY (10) LEVEL: GRADE POUR ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK TRAILS O P ADVENTURE The Second M e e tin g ............................ P a rt 1 Beethoven . . . . . . . P a rt 2 B u ffa lo B i l l .................. The T hird M eeting, Rosa Benheur . Through th e ly e s o f Mias L ib e rty P a rt 1 H olland Tunnel . . . . P a rt 2 George W ashington B ridge P a rt J G eneral Balboa . . . . P a rt k K ill D ev il H ill . . . . NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR On to M e x i c o .................................. . . Our Yellow House (M exico) . . . . Lunch Time (M exico) ............................ Why the Mexicans Speak S p an ish The S to ry o f C ortez ............................ The E agle and th e Snake .................. To M arket W ith Lorenzo ................... Shopping f o r Toys ................................ C hristm as Eve in Mexico .................. How In d ian Corn Came In to the World ................... The F i r s t C hinese Puppets . . . . CHILDREN OP AMERICA A Brave In d ia n P rin c e ss .................. The F i r s t T hanksgiving .................. Jemima Leaves a T r a il ....................... The F i r s t F o u rth o f Ju ly . . . . David Leads th e Way ........................... Two G irls Who Were an Army . . . In a Covered Wagon ........................... The S e c re t L e tte r ................................ Ted Helps th e P re s id e n t . . . . . The Boy In v e n to r ................................ An A ir E x p lo re r ..................................... A S tra n g e Wish ..................................... THE ELEPHANT’S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES ' The S to ry o f F lo ra D o ll ................... P a rt 1 Emma and F lo ra . . . . P a rt 2 How Emma L ost F lo ra D oll P a rt 5 Kow J e s s ie Found F lo ra D o ll The S e c re t o f th e Basement Room . . . P a rt 1 The G uest a t M ulberry Grove 1 * 6 6 HISTORY (1 0 ) LEVEL: GRADE FOUR ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE THE ELEPHANT fS FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES The S e c re t o f th e Basement Room P a rt 2 The T roubles o f th e C otton P la n te rs 68 P a rt 5 Mr. W hitney's S e c re t . . . . . . . . 73 P a rt 4 What Happened to Mr. W hitneyfs C otton Gin . . Peggy Feeds th e Minutemen . A N oise in th e N ight . . . P a rt 1 A T e r r ib le F rig h t P a rt 2 F u lto n 1s F o lly . The T r a il o f Smoke . . . . The S to ry o f Cabeza de Vasa P a rt 1 Cabeza de V asa, th e F o llo w er P a rt 2 Cabeza de V asa, th e L eader P a rt 3 Cabeza de V asa, th e T rad er P a rt 4 Cabeza de V asa, th e T ra v e le r LEVEL; G R A D E FIVE UNIT STUDY B O O K S The S to ry o f K nighthood — No. 5^1 E a rly E x p lo rers — Ho. $ 0 2 C o lo n ia l L ife — No. 5^3 W inning th e ITest — No. ^0l\. T ra n s p o rta tio n - - No. 5^5 C otton — No. 506 Com — No. 507 Rubber — No. 508 Growth of C itie s — No. 5^9 S to ry o f I r r i g a t i o n — No. 510 CHILDREN OF AM ERICA A Brave In d ia n P rin c e s s . . . The F i r s t T hanksgiving . . . Jemima Leaves a T r a il . . . . The F i r s t F o u rth o f J u ly . . David Leads th e Way-.................. Two G irls Who Were an Army In a Covered Wagon .................. The S e c re t L e tte r ....................... Ted Helps th e P re s id e n t . . . The Boy In v e n to r -....................... An A ir E x p lo re r ............................ A S tran g e Wish ............................ 18 22 27 32 $ W 51 o i HISTORY (1 0 ) LEVEL: GRADE F IV E ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE EXPLORING TO D A Y M emorial to L i n c o l n ....................................................... 8 Journey to South A m e r i c a ...............................................10 S couts o f Y esterd ay and T o d a y ......................................l 8 A n cien t C itie s R ise . . . * ’. .......................................... 26 Time Through th e A g e s ........................................................28 NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS C o lo n ia l H om e........................................................... 219 G o lo n ia l School ................................................................ 226 Lessons in th e C o lo n ia l Schools ............................ 23O A Day of Q u i e t ................................................................... 2 34 Busy F i n g e r s ........................................................................23o P l a y t i m e .................................................................................21+2 L a te r C o lo n ia l L ife in th e S o u t h .......................... 2i|_ 5 W ashington!s B irth p la c e .............................................. 251 W ash in g to n 's Boyhood H om e........................... 255 Mount V e r n o n ........................................................................259 IN THE GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES An E x c itin g R i d e ...............................................................197 P a rt 1 A ll A b o a r d .............................................. 197 P a rt 2 From Albany to th e W ater S ta tio n . 202 P a rt 3 T* 1 0 Fnd of th e T r i p ............................20B A Queer C o n tra p tio n ....................................................... 234 P a rt 1 A V irg in ia Farm B o y ............................234 P a rt 2 Cyrus and th e R e a p e r ....................... 237 P a rt 3 The T r a il o f th e New Reaper . . . . 2^0 P a rt Ij. A Dream Come T r u e .................................2?j); LEVEL: G RA D E SIX UNIT STUDY B O O K S World Trade — No. 601 In v e n tio n s : How They H elp Us - - No. 602 Japan Today - - No. 603 Lumber — No. 6o4 C e reals — No. 605 Money - - No. 606 Homes - - No. 607 F is h e r ie s - - No. 608 Newspapers — No. 609 Modern E x p lo re rs - - No. 6l 0 1+68 HISTORY (1 0 ) LEVEL: GRADE S IX ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES F a th e r Time Keeps School ......................................... 101 The Farm o f S en u si ................................... 116 The Sewing R a c e ............................................................... 134 The C a n o n .................................................................................190 E a rly Pathways to Peace ............................................ 2lk The Blue S tone o f F a i t h .................................................238 The S eig e o f L id g ate C a s t l e ........................................252 The New Y e a r's G i f t .......................................................... 332 T ilb u ry Green .......................................................... 355 The Ram o f Ram I s l a n d .....................................................3®9 A G reat A d v e n tu r e ........................... 5^1 Four ¥ \ f o r d s ............................................. 68 The F lo a tin g Gardens o f X o c h i m i l o o ........................ 82 The C herry T ree o f New A m s te r d a m ............................l 60 The Golden Cup o f K azim ir ..............................l 6 l READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K American C h ild re n in A l a s k a ........................................117 P a rt 1 W in ter in an A laskan T o w n ......................117 P a rt 2 Summer in th e Same Town ......................179 P a rt 5 How This Town E arns i t s l i v i n g . . l o l A F o re s t o f Queer T rees .............................................. 128 P a rt 1 Coming to th e F o r e s t ...............................128 P a rt 2 In th e F o r e s t ................................................. 133 Two Old S p an ish T o w n s ......................................................155 P a rt 1 S an ta F e .......................................................... 155 P a rt 2 T a o s ................................................................... 1$5 A Boy H e r o ......................................................................... 1 An E a rly Voyage Down th e Ohio R i v e r ........................1 + 0 P a rt 2 The F i r s t Day on th e R iv er . . . . IfD P a rt 5 A dventure on th e R iv er ........................1 + 7 P a rt 5 Day A fte r Day on th e R iv er . . . . 50 P a rt o H en ry 's In d ian a H o m e ................................. 58 How P itts b u r g G r e w ...................................................... 6 l Schools o f Olden Times .............................................. 71 P a rt 1 A b ig a il and O badish . . . . . . . . 71 P a rt 2 The School H o u s e .......................................... 7k P a rt 3 School Takes U p ........................... 78 P a rt 1 + Aid to the Textbook W e Use . . . . 82 P a rt 5 The F i r s t Lessons . . . . . . . . . 85 P a rt 6 School D is c ip lin e One Hundred Y ears A g o ......................................................................86 P a rt 7 A fternoon a t S c h o o l ......................................91 W 9 HISTORY (XO) LEVEL: GRADE S IX ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K A Day in W a s h in g to n .......................................................... 110 P a rt ij. The B u ild in g s on C a p ito l H ill . . . 110 P a rt 5 The M all, th e W ashington Monument, th e W hite. House . . ...............................117 P a rt 6 The L in co ln M e m o r i a l .............................. 120 P a rt 7 How W ashington i s U n lik e O ther C i t i e s .......................................................... 123 HOBBIES ( 11) LEVEL: G RA D E O N E UNIT STUDY B O O K S P ets — No. 107 The S to ry o f Seeds - - No. VyZ LEVEL: G R A D E T W O EV ERYD AY FRIENDS Fun W ith F lo p sy and M o p sy ...............................................6 T aking Care o f Pony B o y ..............................................6 A P lace f o r Pony Boy to S l e e p ......................................70 A House f o r th e R a b b i t s ........................................ . 7^ 4 - P lans f o r th e G a r d e n ......................................................130 The B ird B a t h ...................... 1^5 The Flow er S t o r e ...............................................................I45 Making Up a P l a y ............................................. 1I4.0 The P l a y .................................................................................150 LEVEL; G RA D E THREE HELPERS A T W O R K A F is h in g P o r t ............................................................... 151 SURPRISES F in d in g R o c k s ......................................... 2lii C h a l k ..........................................................................................216 Clay and S l a t e ................................................................... 220 C o a l ..........................................................................................226 C oral and Lim estone and M a r b l e ................................. 2^2 Games w ith E l e c t r i c i t y .................................................295 Magnet and C o m p a s s .......................................................290 4 k-70 HOBBIES (1 1 ) LEVEL; G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y The Hobby P i c n i c ............................ . ..............................179 Work T hat i s P l a y ...............................................................lo o How to Make a W ild Flow er B o o k ...............................197 Choosing a Hobby . . .................... ..............................199 UNIT STUDY BO O K S P ets a t School — No. 3^7 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR UNIT STUDY B O O K S In d o o r Garden — No. lj.52 Bees and A nts — No. lj-53 E l e c t r i c i t y and Magnets - - No. I4.5I UNIT ACTIVITY PAM PHLETS Come and See th e T u rtle s and Snakes 2- 6-2 TRAILS OF ADVENTURE B eginning a Stamp C o l l e c t i o n ................................... 282 A L ib ra ry on W h e e ls .......................................................... 292 A dventure W ith A r t i s t s ............................................. 3O5 H O M E INTERESTS A N D HOUSEHOLD ACTIVITIES ( 12) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS To M arket, To M arket ( D u t c h ) ......................................ij.0 WINTER TIME The S to ry o f a New C o a t ................................................... 68 LEVEL; G R A D E THREE THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S I n te r e s t in g P lans . ....................................................... 7 7 The F o rg o tte n T r u n k ............................................................ B O A Snowy N i g h t .....................................................................1 )|)| Fun on a Rainy A f t e r n o o n ...................... 210 4 7 1 HOME INTERESTS AND HQUS5HQLD A C T IV IT IE S (1 2 ) LEVEL: G RA D E POUR BOOK PAGE TRAILS O P ADVENTURE Busy Days on th e F a r m ......................................................315 P a rt 1 . ............................................................................. 315 P a rt 2 ................................................................................. 332 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS A C o lo n ia l H om e................................................................... 219 Busy F i n g e r s ........................................................................238 Blossom Bud’s H o m e .......................................................... 265 H elping M other ................................................. 269 The M ountain H om e........................................................... 301 INDIVIDUALS (13) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS D orothea (Rome) . . . . . . I30 S t. B r i g i d ...................... l b l LEVEL: G R A D E THREE HELPERS AT W O R K C y r il, th e Boy S a i n t ......................................................285 Our Lady o f th e Snow ........................................297 YESTERDAY AN D TO D A Y N o g i’s S e c r e t ............................................................... . 8 l LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR TRAILS OF ADVENTURE A Lone E a g le ’s F l i g h t ......................................................ll\2 The F rid a y A ftern o o n C l u b ............................................ 217 P a rt 1 Sam D a v i s ......................................................... 220 P a rt 2 Booker T. W ashington . . . . . . . 22ij. The Second M e e tin g 233 P a rt 1 B e e th o v e n ......................................................... 233 P a rt 2 B u ffa lo B i l l ................................... 230 The T h ird M eeting (Rosa Bonheur) .......................... 250 l f - 7 2 IN D IVID U ALS (1 3 ) LEVEL: G R A D E POUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE THE ELEPHANT'S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES The S e c re t o f th e Basement R oom ....................... 63 P a rt 1 The G uest a t M ulberry Grove . . . . 63 P a rt 2 The T ro u b les o f th e C otton P la n te rs 60 P a rt 3 Mr. W h itn ey 's S e c r e t ......................... . 73 P a rt 4 What Happened to Mr. W hitney’s C otton G i n ...................................................jQ The S to ry o f Cabeza de V a c a ................................... 3^9 P a rt 1 Cabeza de Vaca th e F o llo w er . . . . 329 P a rt ,2 Cabeza de Vaca th e L e a d e r .......................333 P a rt 3 Cabeza de Vaca th e T r a d e r ....................... 33° P a rt 4 Cabeza de Vaca th e T ra v e le r . . . . 34O A Boy and His Dream (David C o p p e rfie ld ) . . . 355 A N oise in th e N ig h t (F u lto n ) . . . . . . . . 231 P a rt 1 A T e r rib le F r i g h t ...................................... 231 P a rt 2 F u lto n 's F o l l y ..................... 236 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR The S to ry o f C o r t e z ................................................. 122 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE IN THE GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES A Queer C o n t r a p t i o n .................................................23if P a rt 1 A V irg in ia Farm B o y ...................................2314. P a rt 2 Cyru3 and th e R e a p e r ...............................237 P a rt 3 The T r a il o f th e New Reaper . . . . 2IJ.0 P a rt 4 The Dream Come T r u e ...................................2ljlj. A M a tter o f Courage ( G o o d y e a r ) . 379 P a rt 1 The R ight P r o c e s s ........................................379 P a rt 2 Courage and K i n d n e s s .............................. 386 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX THE M A SQ U ERA D E AND OTHER STORIES A Homesick Boy ................................................................. 6 l Four ? f o r d s ...............................................................................68 The Sewing R a c e ................................................................... I3I4. The C herry Tree o f New A m s te r d a m .......................... 160 READING TO LEA RN / INTRODUCTORY BO O K L ouisa A l c o t t .....................................................................193 P a rt 1 The Frog P o n d ................................................ 193 P a rt 2 L o u is a 's F a t h e r ........................................... 197 P a rt 3 L ife a t H il l S i d e ..................... 202 k73 IN D IVID U ALS (13) LEVEL: G R A D E SIX (c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K L ouisa A lc o tt P a rt J 4 . S tru g g le s W ith P o v e r t y .................... 205 P a rt 5 Success a t L a s t .......................................20o Mark Twain and His S t o r i e s ........................................212 P a rt 1 Tom Sawyer and H uck leb erry F in . . 212 P a rt 2 Mark T w a i n ................................................2l 8 P a rt 3 The G reat H u m o r i s t ..............................222 P a rt 4. The P rin c e and th e Pauper . ♦ • . . 226 P a rt 5 Mark Tw ain’s Old A g e .........................23O INDOOR ACTIVITIES ( 1I4.) LEVEL: G R A D E O N E UNIT STUDY BO O K S The L ib ra ry — No. 110 PLAYING TOGETHER Bobby and His B o o k ......................................... lij.9 LEVEL: G R A D E T W O WINTER TIME Supper a t Grandm other Brown’s ................................... 131 LEVEL: G R A D E THREE ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY Making a P lay C i t y ......................................... 75 P e t e r ’s A c ti v itie s ....................................................... 99 SUSAN’S NEIGHBORS The W h ite’s D i n n e r .................................... 120 THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S I n te r e s t in g P lans ............................................................ 77 The F o rg o tte n T r u n k .............................................................80 A Snowy N ig h t........................................................................i )|jj S te p p in g -o n -3hadow G am e................................................. 152 Fun on a Rainy A f t e r n o o n .............................................210 THE G REA T IDEA A N D OTHER STORIES A Rainy A fternoon . . . . 38 IMDOOR A C T IV IT IE S ( l i | ) LEVEL: GRADE POUR BO O K CENTERVILLE A School Program . . . . . . NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D PAR How to Make a Shadow P lay . . UNIT STUDY B O O K S Indoor Gardens — No. LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS The J o ll y M a rio n e tte s . . . . Busy F in g e rs . . . . . . . . H elping M other . . . . . . . IN THE GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES C lo th esp in s f o r M other Goose P a rt 1 Ham and Eggs . . . P a rt 2 In th e Basement . . P a rt 3 The Show . . . . . The Hooked Rug ............................ OCCUPATIONS (16) LEVEL: PRIMER H O M E The L o t .............................................. The In s id e of th e House LEVEL: G R A D E O N E CO U N TRY D A Y S G e ttin g th e M ilk . . . . . . G e ttin g th e Cream ....................... The C a lf and th e P ig . . . . Going A fte r th e Eggs . . . . Going to th e S to re . . . . . Making B u t t e r ........................... . Up on th e H ill ............................ The B ir d 's N est ............................ G e ttin g th e Hay ............................ G e ttin g th e C o w s ....................... 5-75 OCCUPATIONS ( 16) . LEVEL: G R A D E O N E (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE UNIT STUDY B O O K S Policem en - - No. 102 Firem en — No. 105 Keeping o u r C itie s S afe — No. lOlj. The D airy — No. 105 Farm Animals - - No. 106 Houses - - No. 109 The L ib ra ry — No. 110 The Zoo — No. 153 LEVEL; G R A D E T W O WINTER TIME C u ttin g W o o d ..........................................................................k 6 The . S to ry o f a New G o a t ................................................... 08 Mr. Brown!s S t o r y ...................................................... . 110 CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS The Baker Gives a P a r t y .................................................172 Our F rie n d s - The F ir e m e n ............................................ l o l The F rie n d ly D o c t o r .......................................................... 198 How Tom Turkey Helped th e F a r m e r .............................219 D O N A N D D EA N AT THE DAIRY A W i s h .................................................................................. 1 M ilking th e C o w s ................................................................. 5 5 - B o ttlin g th e M i l k ................................................................. 62 The M ilk In s p e c to r C o m e s ...............................................70 Ten M ilk Trucks a l l in a R o w ......................................77 JIMMY, THE GROCERY M A N The Salesm an C a l l s ...................................................... . 56 UNIT STUDY BO O K S The S to ry o f M ilk - - No. 205 Your Shoes and Your F e e t — No. 201 The P ost O ffic e — No. 207 Cowboys — No. 210 Sim ple M achines - - No. 255 G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY A S tran g e N oise 115 OCCUPATIONS (16) LE V E L: GRADE THREE BOOK PAGE HELPERS Coal M iners as H e l p e r s ................................................. llj.8 M other’s Work (O ffic e W o r k ) ........................................ 175 The B a k e r y .............................................................................179 CITY FRIENDS C ounting th e Days (B arb er and S to re k e e p e r . . 1 A V i s i t to th e F ire S t a t i o n .......................................... 87 The F i r e ................................................................................. I l l In th e C otton F i e l d s ......................................................151 VISITS HERE A N D THERE The C racker F a c t o r y .......................................................... 101 A V i s i t to th e D a i r y ......................................................III 4 . How th e Firem en Found th e B o x ................................... 182 A V is it to th e F ir e Engine H o u s e .......................... 188 The L i t t l e M a c h i n e .......................................................... 195 HELPERS AT W O R K F i r s t P riz e (F ire P r e v e n t i o n ) ....................................III 4 . The F ire A l a r m ................................................................... 119 F ir e T r a f f i c ........................................................................ 125 The F ir e B o a t ........................................................................137 W ill F inds His Magic H o r s e ........................... . • 182 On Board th e R a ilro a d T r a i n ........................................188 The Big Truck and I t s D r i v e r ................................... 203 The N ight A ir M a i l .......................................................... 219 Hero o f M o t t u x ................................................................... 228 The H ill Top Radio O p e r a t o r ........................................237 YE3TERDAY A N D TO D A Y C arry in g th e M a i l ............................... 55 How W e Get th e N e w s .................................... 60 SUSAN’S NEIGHBORS A Walk to th e F ire S t a t i o n ...................................... 6 Telephone Alarms ............................................................ A Day a t the F ire S ta tio n ......................................... F ire . ’ F i r e . ’ ............................... 23 Work a t th e F i r e .................................................................28 A F ire in th e C o u n t r y ................................................... 3 7 A Policem an Helps Susan ............................................. A2 A Postman H elps T o m ............................................................. 53 Tom’s L e tte r is R e a d ........................................................62 Work in th e M ail Car .............................................68 1+77 OCCUPATIONS ( 1 6 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE SUSAN’S NEIGHBORS Workers Who C arry o u r M e s s a g e s ................................. 80 Who H elps Us Get Our Food . . . . . . . . . . 88 In to th e Oven and O u t ........................... 93 How F lo u r Comes to th e B a k e r y ................................ C u ttin g ¥/heat on th e F a r m ........................... 108 M eeting th e E n g i n e e r ................................................. 190 W orkers W ho Take Care o f T rain s .......................... 208 UNIT STUDY BOORS T rain s - - No. $01 The S to ry o f F ly in g - - No. 302 The S to ry o f G lass and B rick s - - No. 30I+ Boats - - No. 3O 3 The - S to ry o f H eat — No. 3^5 The S to ry o f P aper - - No. 306 The S to ry o f Coal - - No. 307 HELPERS The L i t t l e Farm er and th e B ig Farm ............................ 21 F a th e r ’s F ire S t o r y ............................................................ 26 A S tra n g e S to r m ......................................................................29 The D o c t o r ...............................................................................33 The S to ry o f M i l k ................................................................. 51 Mr. G ray’s T a l k .................................... 92 The Work P ed ro ’s F a th e r Does (Coal Mine) . . I 42 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR TRAILS OF ADVENTURE The Lone E a g le ’s F l i g h t ................................................. i !l 2 Ann’s A d v e n tu r e ......................................................................83 W a lte r’s A dventure ....................................................... 102 How th e Message C a m e ............................................. . 195 A L ib ra ry on W h e e ls ............................................. 293 Busy Days on th e F a r m ..................................................*315 CENTERVILLE S atu rd ay M orning in a C ountry S to re . The C e n te r v ille M ail ................................ A Busy A ftern o o n ......................................... P5.ans f o r a New H ig h w ay ............................ G e ttin g Ready to B u ild a Road . . . . Roadmakers Come to C e n te r v ille . . . A T r a f f ic Policem an in C e n te r v ille 56 61 6 OCCUPATIONS (16) LEVEL: G RA D E POUR (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K CENTERVILLE I n v ita tio n s to th e C ity . . . . ............................ How O v e ra lls Are Made . . . ..................................... Farm Crops ......................................................................... Com P i c k i n g ..................................................................... D riv in g th e C a ttle to th e Farm ............................ H elping Mr. Hand Feed His C a ttle ....................... Work on th e New School B egins ................................ The School Gets a N a m e ............................................. H eatin g th e S chool ....................................................... Moving Day ......................................................................... UNIT STUDY BO O K S The S to ry o f M ilk - - No. IfOif The S to ry o f L ig h t — No. Ij.08 The S to ry o f Communication - - No. I 4 -O 9 E l e c t r i c i t y and Magnets — No. If51 Bees and A nts — No. If53 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR At th e L i b r a r y ................................................................ The Green V a n ..................................................................... Down Where th e C otton Blossoms G ro w ................... P ic k in g Summer Snow balls ......................................... LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS A T rip Through th e P o st O ffic e ............................ R ural D e liv ery ................................................................ The A ir M ail ..................................................................... The R a d i o .............................................................................. A T rip to th e L i b r a r y .................................................. Jack L earns About th e Newspaper ........................... At th e F a r m ......................................................................... At th e M arket ..................................................................... The Parade o f the Tin S o ld ie rs ............................ G ra n d fa th e r’s S to ry ....................................................... The F is h M arket ................................................................ The R a n c h .............................................................................. The Packing House ........................................................... k79 OCCUPATIONS (16) LE V E L: GRADE S IX BOOK PAGE UNIT STUDY B O O K S In v e n tio n s : How They H elp Us -?• No. 602 . - Lumber - - No. 60I4 . Homes - - No. 607 F is h e r ie s — No. 608 Newspapers — No. .609 OTHER COUNTRIES ( 1 7 ) LEVEL: G RA D E T W O CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS Q lo, The E s k im o ......................................................................l 6 T rin a and Jan ( D u t c h ) ........................................................ 3lj- To M arket, To M arket ( D u t c h ) ..................................... 4 O On th e Ic e (Dutch) .............................................................53 S t. N ich o las (D utch) ......................................60 R ichard V is it s F rance ................................................... 66 C hristm as G ifts ( F r e n c h ) ........................... 7 ij_ At th e Foot o f th e C r o s s .................................... . 82 The C hristm as Angel ( F r e n c h ) ............................... 88 In J a p a n ................................................................................... 96 The D o ll’s F e s t i v a l .......................................................... 101 In th e Park ( J a p a n ) ..........................................................107 The Boys Go to School ( J a p a n ) ....................................113 The Boys F e s ti v a l ( J a p a n ) .............................................117 G ra n d fa th e r’s S to ry ( J a p a n ) ........................................12l| UNIT STUDY BO O K S The R iv er Boy (C hina) — No. 209 LEVEL: G R A D E THREE CITY FRIENDS A Rainy A fternoon ( Ir e la n d ) ..................................... 75 The S to ry o f a S ilk D r e s s ............................................ 1^4 VISITS HERE A N D THERE C h ild ren Everywhere D rink M i l k ...............................121 Moving Day f o r L i t t l e G azella (A rabia) . . . 155 The T r ip le ts in th e M ilk C a rt (H olland) . . . 156 The S co tch C i r c u s ...............................................................if}? THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S Stepping-on-Shadow Game (Jap an ) . . . . . . . 152 1 4 -8 0 OTHER COUNTRIES ( 1 7 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S U sefu l D o g s .................................................................... . 130 A T ra v el A fternoon . . .................................................2I 4.8 YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y N urenberg E g g .................................................. . . . . ISO The Clocks o f R o n d a i n e ................................................. lo 3 Jam ie F ir s t- F o o t ( S c o t l a n d ) ........................................221 4 . S ix o ’c lo ck B e lls (S w itz e rla n d ) ............................ 233 H arv est Home ( E n g l a n d ) .................................................2lj.O Dip th e B read in th e Luck Pot (Sweden) . . . 2I4 .8 Ah L in g ’s Home ( C h i n a ) .................................................255 Ah L in g ’s W ishes ( C h i n a ) ............................................ 261 The Em peror’s B irth d a y G ift (C hina) ...................... 255 HELPERS A T W O R K S a ils (C hina - N o r w a y ) .................................................159 Hero o f M attux . . .......................................................... 228 B u s y b o d y ..................................................................... . . 257 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR TRAILS OF ADVENTURE A L e t t e r ......................................................................... . 208 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR On to M e x i c o .......................................................................... 97 Our Y ellow House (Mexico) ......................................... 101 Lunch Time ( M e x ic o ) .......................................................... 107 Why th e M exicans Speak S p a n i s h ...............................121 To th e M arket w ith Lorenzo (M exico) . . . . . 135 Shopping f o r Toys ( M e x i c o ) ........................................140 C hristm as Eve in M e x ic o ................................................. 151 Wing F u ’s T enth B irth d a y ( C h i n a ) .......................... 273 THE ELEPHANT’S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES The C h ild re n o f N o r w a y ................................................. IMl L i t t l e K a r i ...................................................... 208 P a rt 1 The One Legged Wag T a i l ............................ 208 P a rt 2 The W ag tail R e t u r n s .................................... 213 P a rt 3 A p ril W e a th e r ................................................216 UNIT STUDY B O O K S The V ikings — No. I 4 .OI The Greeks --No. lj.02 U8l OTHER COUNTRIES ( 1 7 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE UNIT STUDY BO O K S L ife in H ot, Dry Lands - - No. I4 .O 3 The S to ry o f S ilk — No. I4 .0I 4 . The Romans — No. lj.05 The B eginning o f Trade — No. I|.06 The S to ry o f ^ime — No. I 4 .O 7 The S to ry o f Communication — lf.09 The E g y p tian s - - No. IjJL O LEVEL: G RADE FIVE IN THE GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES In a Green V a lley (S w itz e rla n d ) ............................ 7 The Cheese G a v e ......................................................................11 The Golden B a lls o f Alkmaar (H olland) . . . . 13 The V illa g e T hat Was D e s e r t e d .....................................69 The S to ry o f Three C h i e f s ......................................... The Shepherd Boy o f C h a r t r e s ......................... 259 The M ountain B o y ...............................................................3^5 P a rt 1 One Cold N i g h t ........................................... 325 P a rt 2 L i t t l e Goat B r o t h e r .................................. 331 P a rt 3 Two T ra v e le rs . ....................................... 335 P a rt 4 Time o f D a n g e r ........................................... 34O LEVEL: G R A D E SIX READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K Am erican C h ild re n in A l a s k a ........................................173 P a rt 1 W in ter in an A laskan T o rra .......................173 P a rt 2 Summer in th e Same T o w n .........................179 P a rt 3 Sow This Town Earned I t s L iv in g . . 181 THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES The F lo a tin g Gardens o f X o c h i m i l o o ........................ 82 The Farm o f S i n u s i ...................... I l 6 E a rly Pathways to P e a c e ................................................. 2 lk The J a r o f G reat l i v i n g .................................................IjJLo F i r e f l y ...................................................... I}46 UNIT STUDY B O O K S World Trade — No. 601 Japan Today — No. 603 Modem E x p lo rers - - No. 6 l0 OUR COUNTRY ( l 8 ) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O B O O K CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS• T hanksgiving D a y .................. ... Red B ird , th e In d ia n B ird . The Season (In d ia n ) . . . . UNIT STUDY B O O K S Pueblo In d ia n s - - No, 202 UNIT ACTIVITY PAMPHLETS L in d b e rg fs F lig h t - - 2 -l-l|. LEVEL: G R A D E THREE HELPERS AT W O R K The F i r s t Steam boat in America UNIT STUDY B O O K S Red E agle o f th e P la in s — No. F o re s t In d ian s - - No. $10 CITY FRIENDS . In th e C otton F ie ld ....................... VISITS HERE A N D THERE S e c re ts in a Trunk ....................... The L i t t l e People ............................ In d ian Homes ..................................... The S to ry o f Tom Thumb . . . . THE G REA T IDEA A N D OTHER STORIES C ro ssin g th e P la in s ....................... Three P la te f u ls and F iv e Squaws L i t t l e In d ian G irl ....................... When W ashington Came to Town YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y L i t t l e Tom T h u m b ........................... S to ry o f E zra Meeker . ' . . . . T rav el Long Ago and Now . . . . Two Boys and a Town C rie r C arry in g th e M ail ....................... The People o f th e Long House N o g i1s S e c re t ............................ . . The P lace o f F l i n t ....................... The Food o f In d ian s Long Ago OUR COUNTRY ( l 8 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (co n tin u e d ) BO O K YESTERDAY A N D . TO D A Y The L i t t l e People and th e H unter The House R a isin g ..................................... H olidays and F e s tiv a ls . .................. H O O T O W L Johnny ............................................................ W hite Face .................................................. J u s t Like an In d ian . . . . . . . . The Big F is h .............................................. Hoot Owl . .................................................. The Bowl o f Stew . . . . .................. War in th e V illa g e ................................ JohnnyT s S ic k .............................................. C o m fe a st A c t i v i t i e s ............................ Broken Pumpkins ......................................... Eyes in th e Wood ..................................... The New C ountry ......................................... A T rad er ....................................................... LEVEL: G RA D E FOUR CHILDREN OF AM ERICA A Brave In d ia n P rin c e ss ....................... The F i r s t T hanksgiving Day . . . . Jemima Leads th e T r a il ................... . The F i r s t F o u rth o f Ju ly ................... David Leads th e Way . . ................... The Two G irls Who Were an Army . . In a Covered Wagon ................................ The S e c re t D e tte r ..................................... Ted H elps th e P re s id e n t ....................... The Boy In v e n to r ..................................... An A ir E x p lo re r ......................................... A S tran g e Wish ......................................... INDIANS In d ia n s T hat P lay B a ll ....................... F le e tf o o t and the Gray W olf . . . . S tro n g H e a rt’s Playground ................... How Red Bear Became C h ief ................... Kina L earns to Keep House .................. Hawkeye, the U te H unter ....................... The G iving F e a s t ..................................... Rain B ir d ’s Woven N est ....................... B lack H a ir ’s S eal Hunt ....................... The Mayas B u ilt G reat C itie s . . . T o lte c , an A ztec Boy ............................ OUR COUNTRY ( l 8 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K THE ELEPHANT’S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES The S to ry o f F lo ra D o l l ................................................... 19 P a rt 1 Emma and F lo ra D o l l ......................................19 P a rt 2 How Emma L ost F lo ra D o l l ........................23 P a rt 3 How J e s s ie Found F lo ra D oll . . . . 2o The W ishing T r e e .................................................................Ij-9 P a rt 1 Up in th e T r e e ........................... ij-9 P a rt 2 Down From th e T r e e ......................................53 The S e c re t o f th e Basement Room . . . . . . . . 63 P a rt 1 The G uest a t M ulberry Grove . . . . 63 P a rt 2 The T roubles o f th e C o tto n P la n te rs 68 P a rt 3 Mr. W hitney’s S e c r e t ................................. 73 P a rt 4. What Happened to W hitney’s C otton G i n ........................... 78 Peggy Feeds th e M inute M e n .......................................... 93 When Grandm other Was S to le n by th e Modoes . . 130 Ip sw isch A l a r m ................................................. 137 D o m in o ......................................................................................154- P a rt 1 A Funny Way to T r a v e l ...............................154- P a rt 2 Jenny to th e R e s c u e ....................................159 The F lag o f F o rt G e o r g e .................................................220 P a rt 1 A Very S p e c ia l D a y ................................... 225 P a rt 2 The Hero of th e D a y ................................... 225 The N oise in th e N i g j h t .......................................... 23I P a rt 1 A T e r rib le N o i s e ........................................231 P a rt 2 F u lto n ’s F o l l y ............................................ 236 The S tro n g B o y ................................................................... 24/7 P a rt 2 The S tro n g Boy’s S i s t e r ’s Homecoming250 P a rt 3 The S tro n g Boy and th e Arrow Maker 253 P a rt 4. S to ry T e l l i n g .................................................254. P a rt 5 S tic k R a c e ........................... 257 P a rt 0 The Sheep Camp . . ...............................260 P a rt 7 The V i s i t o r s ................................................. 261; P a rt o I n i t i a t i o n ......................................................267 The T r a il o f S m o k e ..........................................................280 The S to ry o f Cabeza de V a c a ........................................ 329 P a rt 1 Cabeza de Vaca, th e F o llo w er . . . 329 P a rt 2 Cabeza de V aca, th e H eader . . . . 333 P a rt 3 Cabeza de Vaca, th e T rad er . . . . 336 P a rt 4. Cabeza de V aca, th e T ra v e le r . . . 34.O TRAILS OF ADVENTURE S eein g W a s h in g to n ............................................................ A V i s i t to Mammoth C a v e ................................................... 63 OUR COUNTRY ( l 8 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE TRAILS OF ADVENTURE A Lone E a g le ’s F l i g h t ......................................................llj.2 Through th e Eyes of Miss L i b e r t y .......................... 257 P a rt 1 H olland Tunnel ......................2 6 l P a rt 2 George W ashington’s B ridge . . . . 265 P a rt J G eneral B a l b o a ............................................ 268 P a rt k K ill D ev il H i l l ............................................ 270 B u ffa lo B i l l ........................................................................258 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR How In d ian Com Came In to th e W o r ld ......................169 Down Where th e C otton Blossoms G ro w ......................235 P ic k in g Summer S n o w b a l l s ............................................ 252 The R abbit H u n t ................................................................... 277 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE IN THE GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES A T rip on th e M i s s i s s i p p i ...............................................I 4.6 P a rt 1 The S team b o at’s C o m i n g ............................ 46 P a rt 2 Up th e R i v e r ........................................ . 5^ P a rt 3 The G reat S t o n e ...............................................55 A dventures o f Red F e a th e r and P o p p y ......................10§ P a rt 1 L ife in C am p o o d ie........................................10§ P a rt 2 How Poppy and Red F e a th e r Spent the D a y ................................................................... 112 P a rt 3 How Red F e a th e r Got His Name . . . I l k P a rt 4 G ath erin g Sunflow er S e e d s ......................118 P a rt 5 They Go Plumming . . .......................... 123 P a rt § Poppy Has a Narrow Escape . . . . . 126 P a rt 7 F e a th e r Goes H u n t i n g ......................128 A G reat C e le b ra tio n ....................................................... 136 P a rt 1 The Opening, O ctober 1 8 2 5 ......................136 P a rt 2 Low B r i d g e ................................ I 4 O P a rt 3 The F i r s t Ceremony . . . . . . . . llj.2 P a rt 4 A l b a n y ...............................................................llA P a rt 5 R eaching th e O c e a n ................................... I 46 P a rt b .The End o f an E x c itin g Day . . . . 150 An E x c itin g R i d e ...................................................... . 197 P a rt 1 A ll A b o a r d ......................................................197 P a rt 2 From Albany to W ater S ta tio n . . . 202 P a rt 3 The End of th e T r i p ................................... 205 More A dventures W ith Red F e a t h e r .......................... 220 P a rt 1 W inter in th e In d ia n C am p ......................220 P a rt 2 Poppy Makes Apaw B r e a d .......................... 230 k 86 OUR COUNTRY (18) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE IN THE G R EEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES A Queer C o n tra p tio n ......................................... 25k P a rt 1 A V irg in ia Farm Boy . . . . . • • • 234 P a r t 2 Cyrus and th e R eaper . . . . . . ; 237 P a rt 3 The T r ia l of th e M ew R eaper . . . . 246 P a r t 4 A Dream Comes T r u e ................................... 244 C a stle N o e l .......................................................................... 293 P a rt 1 H e rb e rt Wins F r i e n d s ...............................293 P a rt 2 The R e s c u e ...................... 299 P a rt 3 C hristm as a t th e C a s tle . . . . . . J01 P a rt 4. The Jo n g le u rs S o n g ............................... 3^5 Twenty M inutes in th e S u n ...................... 363 D an iel B o o n e ............................................................... 4 I I P a rt 1 The C a ll o f th e New World . . . . . lj.ll P a rt 2 L ife on th e C a ro lin a F r o n tie r . . . ij.16 P a rt 3 The T r a il Over th e M ountains . . . ij.20 P a rt 4 I n d i a n s ...................................................... . 42l± P a rt 5 A g ain st th e W i l d e r n e s s .......................... 431 P a rt o D isappointm ent and S o r r o w ..................... 434 P a rt 7 The New Road Over an Old T r a il . . 4 4 O P a rt o At L a s t .............................................................. 445 P a rt 9 1776 3 - n a Kentucky F o re s t . . . . . J 4J 40 P a rt 10 A D isc o u rag in g Y e a r ................................... 454 P a rt 11 The S a lt Makers and th e Shaw ness. . 457 P a rt 12 The Son o f th e B lack In d ia n . . . . uJo2 P a rt 13 The F i g h t i n g .................................................4^5 P a rt 14 New N eighbors and New D u ties . . . 472 P a rt 15 The P ric e o f V ic to ry . . . . . . . 4?8 P a rt lb Law and Land G r a n t s ............................... 4*3 P a rt 17 The New F r o n tie r . . ...................... 4^5 NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS C o lo n ia l H om e........................................................................219 Food in C o lo n ia l Days ...................... 223 C o lo n ia l S c h o o l ................................................. 226 Lessons in C o lo n ia l S chools ...................................... 230 A Day o f Q uiet ............................................. 234 P lay T im e .......................................................... 2i\2. L a te r C o lo n ia l L ife in th e S o u t h .......................... 245 W ashington’s B irth p la c e ............................................... 251 W ashington’s Boyhood H om e............................................ 255 Mount V e r n o n .......................................................... 259 Blossom Bud’s Home (Hopi In d ia n s) ......................... 265 H elping M other ( H o p i ) ......................................................269 Hopi In d ian s a t W o r k ......................................................273 The H arv est ( H o p i ) .......................................................... 283 The B asket Days ( H o p i ) ............................................... 288 O U R COUNTRY (1 8 ) B O O K LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) PAGE CHILDREN OF AMERICA A Brave In d ian P rin c e ss ....................... . . . . . 3 The F i r s t T hanksgiving Day . . . . . . . . . 8 Jimmy Leaves a T r a i l ................................................. l8 The F i r s t F o u rth o f J u ly ........................... 22 Two G irls Who Were an A r m y .......................................... 3^ The Covered Wagon ...................... 37 S e c re t L e t t e r .................................................. q.2 Ted H elps th e P r e s i d e n t ................................................... ij.6 The Boy I n v e n t o r ......................................... 51 A S tra n g e W i s h ......................................................................o l INDIANS In d ia n s That. P lay B a l l .............................................. 1 F le e t F oot and Gray W o l f ......................................... 7 How Red B ear Becomes C h i e f ........................... . . 19 Kina L earns to Keep H o u s e ...............................................25 Hopi, th e Ute H u n t e r ........................................................p i R ain B ir d ’s Woven N e s t ................................................... fj-3 The Mayas B u ilt a G reat C i t y . lj.9 A B lack H a ir ’s S eal N e s t ...............................................55 T o lte c , an A ztec B o y ........................................................59 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES The C herry T ree of New A m s te r d a m .......................... 160 The Canon ..................................... . . . . . . . . . 197 A G reat A dventure ............................................................ 5 ^i READING 'TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K S chools o f Olden T i m e s ................................................... 71 P a rt 1 A b ig a il and O b a d ia h .............................71 P a rt 2 The Schoolroom . / .............................7k P a rt 3 School Takes U p ......................................70 P a rt l\. Aid to th e Texts W e U s e ................... 82 P a r t 5 F i r s t L e s s o n s .......................................... 85 P a rt o School D is c ip lin e One Hundred Y ears A g o ............................................................. 86 P a rt 7 A fternoon a t S c h o o l ............................ 91 A Day In W a s h in g to n ................................ 105 P a rt 1 P lan n in g to G o .....................................105 P a rt 2 The T r i p ...................................................106 P a rt 3 The R a ilro a d S ta tio n . . . . . . . 107 P a rt k The B u ild in g s on C a p ito l H ill . . . 110 O U R COUNTRY (1 8 ) 488 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX (co n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K A Day in W ashington P a rt 5 The M all, th e W ashington Monument, The W hite House ......................... 117 P a rt 6 L in co ln M e m o r i a l .......................................12b P a rt 7 How W ashington is L ike O ther C itie s 155 Two Old S p an ish Am erican Towns . . . . . . . 155 P a rt 1 S an ta F e ......................................................... 155 P a rt 2 Taos .........................165 O U TD O O R ACTIVITIES ( 1 9 ) LEVEL: G RA D E T W O WINTER TIME The Snow H o u s e ......................................................................53 D inner f o r A l l ......................................................................59 Snow S h o e i n g .......................................................................... 9° CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS On th e I c e ...............................................................................53 G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY S p rin g a t th e F a r m .......................................................... 12lj. H unting Eggs . ............................................................ F a th e r 's F i r s t S to ry ................................................... F a th e r 's Second S to ry ..................................................... 151 F i s h i n g ........................... 175 EVERYDAY FRIENDS Fun W ith F lopsy and M o p a y ...............................................6 I{ . LEVEL: G R A D E THREE YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y The Hobby P i c n i c ...............................................................179 ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY C e n tra l P a r k ...................................................... I l l L o st and F o u n d ................................................................... 1J3 A V is it to th e Z o o ...................... llj.1 SUSAN'S NEIGHBORS C u ttin g Wheat on the F a r m ............................................... 108 T h reshing D a y ........................................................................110 U89 OUTDO O R ACTIVITIES ( 1 9 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE SUSAN'S NEIGHBORS Pun a t th e P la y g r o u n d ...................................................136 The C ircu s P a r a d e ...................................................... • I 42 Good Times a t th e P a r k ................................................. X ij-T H O O T O W L The Bowl o f S t e w ............................................................ T War in the V i l l a g e .......................................................o j Corn F e a s t A c ti v itie s .................................................. 9 Broken Pumpkins . . . . . . . . . ....................... 11 Eye in th e W ood.................................................. 131 The New K e t t l e ............................................. lljlj. HELPERS AT W O R K The Race ....................... U+3 A F is h in g P a rty ................................................................ 151 The Wonder o f B ic y c le W h e e l s ................................... 209 CITY FRIENDS Sandy L a n e ...............................................................................99 The T rip to M ountain P a r k .............................................16o CABIN IN THE W O O D S The G a r d e n ...............................................................................22 Fun in th e S n o w ....................... 165 LEVEL: G RA D E FOUR CENTERVILLE T ra v e lin g on a D ir t Road ......................................... B u ild in g th e Highway ................................................... T ra v e lin g Over th e New H ig h w a y ................................. 90 D riv in g th e C a ttle to th e F a r m ...............................I 42 P ick in g Out th e C a l v e s ...................... 151 Taking Care o f Tim and T o m ........................................158 The S u rp ris e ................................................................... 2b9 Tom V is it s th e Farm ...................... 3 TRAILS OF ADVENTURE Summer E x p e r i e n c e s ............................................................ 15 S ta y in g a t th e S e a s h o r e ................................................... 31 H elping O thers ................................................. I I 5 In a Summer C a m p ...............................................................I 53 THE ELEPHANT !S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES In a P e r fe c t P ic n ic P lace . . O UTDO O R ACTIVITIES ( 1 9 ) BO O K LEVEL: G RA D E FOUR (co n tin u e d ) PAGE FOLLET PICTURE STORY OF INDIANS The In d ian a That Play B a l l ..................................... 1 F le e tf o o t and Gray Wolf . . . ................................. 7 S tro n g H e a rt1 a P la y g r o u n d ...............................................13 How Red B ear Became C h i e f ...............................................19 Kina L earns to Keep H o u s e ......................................... 25 Hawkeye, th e Ute H u n t e r ................................................... 3^ The G iving F e a s t . . ........................................................37 Rain B ird T s Woven Boat . . . * ............................... . Ij.3 B lack H a ir ’s S e a l H u n t ................................................... L \ $ The Mayas B u ilt G reat C itie s ................................ 55 T o lte c - An A ztec B o y ........................................................ 59 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS Making a C am p ..................................................................... 7 C atching a D i n n e r .................................................................12 What Joe F o u n d ................................................. llj. Som ething New f o r S u p p e r ...............................................25 The T re asu re H u n t .................................................................I j.0 Lunch T i m e .............................................................................. Ijlj. The S to ry H o u r .....................................................................k7 The Play Club G am es.............................................................55 G ran d fath er Brown’s Turkey Farm .............................. 89 B illy and th e G o b b le r ........................................................95 P e te r Goes F is h in g ........................................ 315 IN THE GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES A dventures o f Red F e a th e r and P o p p y ........................ 109 P a rt 1 In a C a m p o o d ie ........................... 109 How Poppy and Red F e a th e r S pent th e D a y ............................... 112 How Red F e a th e r Got His Name . . . I l k G ath erin g Sun Flow er Seeds . . . . 118 They Go P lu m m in g ........................................ 123 Poppy Has a Narrow E s c a p e ......................126 Red F e a th e r Goes H u n t i n g ......................128 P a rt 2 P a rt P a rt P a rt P a rt P a rt FOLLET PICTURE STORY OF INDIANS In d ian s That Play B a ll F le e tf o o t and Gray Wolf . S tro n g H e a rt’s Playground How Red Bear Became C hief Kina Learns to Keep House 1 7 13 19 25 O UTDO O R ACTIVITIES (19) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K FOLLET PICTURE STORY OF INDIANS Hawkeye, th e Ute H unter ....................... The G iving F e a s t . . . . ................... R ain B ir d ’s Woven B oat ....................... B lack H a ir ’s S e a l Hunt ....................... The Mayas B u ilt G reat C itie s . . . T o lte c , An A ztec Boy ............................ NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS J a c k ’s New E x p erien ce (B a s e b a ll) EXPLORING TODAY, DIAGNOSTIC W O R K B O O K F o o tb a ll ....................................................... The Olympics o f Today ............................ LEVEL: G R A D E SIX READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K An E a rly Voyage Down th e Ohio R iv er P a rt 1 B u ild in g a F la tb o a t . . . P a rt 2 The F i r s t Day on th e R iv e r P a rt 3 A dventures on th e R iv er . P a rt 4 Rainy Day on th e F la tb o a t P a rt 5 Day A fte r Day on th e R iv er M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES The F lo a tin g Gardens o f X ochim iloo O U T D O O R LIFE (20) LEVEL: PRIMER H O M E Work on th e F a r m ....................... KITTEN-KAT K itte n -K a t is L o st . . . . . K itte n -K a t F inds a Home . . . Bouncing th e B a ll ....................... M ilk Time ......................................... K itte n -K a t in S chool . . . . Where i s H itte n -K a t ................... Ann in School a t N ig h t . . . The P o licem an ’s Home . . . . 492 OUTDOOR L IF E (20) LEVEL: PRIMER ( c o n t in u e d ) BO O K PAPE KITTEN-KAT Mr# Brown and th e M i c e ...................................................... 59 F lu f f and P u ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 The Cat Show ............................ 87 LEVEL: G RA D E O N E UNIT STUDY BO O K S Farm Animals — No. 106 P ets - - No. 107 The C ircus (A nim als) - - No. 108 How Animals T ra v el — No. 151 The S to ry o f Seeds - - No. 152 The Zoo — No. 153 Animal F a m ilie s - - No. 1 5 1 1 - B irds and T h eir B abies - - No. 155 CO U NTRY D A Y S At Mr. Brown’s (A nim als) . ......................................lij. HUNTING The A nt, Mole, Swallow, and th e S q u ir r e l H oles 6 The Woodpecker H o l e .............................................................17 The C ric k e t H o l e .................................................. 21 The Woodchuck Hole . ........................................................26 The Bumblebee H o l e ............................................................ 30 The S leepy T o a d ......................................................................43 L i t t l e Red T ru m p e ts ............................................................ Ilf F o rg e t M e N o t .......................................................................... 51 A Weed ......................................................................55 The Red L i l y .................................................................... 50 The P a r k ................................................................................... 69 Toads and T a d p o l e s .............................................................75 Pussy W illo w s .......................................................................... o2 R o b i n s ........................................................................................87 A Brown Cocoon ................................................................ 92 A c o r n s ..................................................................................... 100 S w a n s .......................................................................................... 107 A W ater L ily . . . . . . . . . ............................ 110 An Animal W ith E ig h t L e g s ............................................ 112 The Z o o ......................................................................................125 Deer W ith W hite T a ils . . ' .............................................. 127 B e a r s .......................................................................................... 131 R a c o o n s ..................................................................................... 136 An Animal With S p i n e s ......................................................I 39 OUTDOOR L IF E (2 0 ) k93 LEVEL: G R A D E O N E (co n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE HUNTING The B ig g est Animal in th e Z o o ................................... 145 Some Zoo B i r d s ................................................................... I 50 PLAYING TOGETHER They Ran A w ay ..................................................................... 7 P a rt 1 T ired of th e F a r m ............................... 7 P a rt 2 They Found A n o t h e r .............................13 P a rt 3 They G o B a c k .......................................... 17 The S to ry o f K itty C a t ................................................... 45 P a rt 1 How L i t t l e K itty C at Looked f o r a H o m e .........................................................I4 .5 P a rt 2 H oxv L i t t l e K itty Cat Found a Home • 56 The Boy Who Was Not A f r a i d .......................................... 93 P a rt 1 A S u rp ris e f o r P e te r . . ...............93 P a rt 2 O ff to the C i r c u s ................................100 The Monkey and th e B e a r ................................................. 106 The C ircu s P a r a d e ...............................................................116 P a rt 1 M usic Down Behind the H i ll . . . . I l 6 P a rt 2 No L e ttu c e f o r th e B e a r ..................122 F re d ’s S u rp ris e ................................................................ 128 P a rt 1 The W ater H o l e .....................................128 P a rt 2 The R a i n .................................................. 131 P a rt 3 The New Home . . . . > • .....................135 P a rt 4 How Tad and P o lly G r o w .................. 136 P a rt 5 The S u r p r i s e ......................................... I 4 I P a rt 6 Tad and P o lly Go Away . . . . . . . lim_ L i t t l e M u l l a c k ......................................... I 65 L i t t l e Hen and Mr. F o x ................................................. 187 LEVEL: G R A D E T W O UNIT ACTIVITY PAM PHLETS Hop, Hop, Hop.’ (Frogs and Toads) - - 2 -6 -1 Come and See (T u rtle s and Snakes) — 2 -6 -2 UNIT STUDY BO O K S P la n ts T hat Give Us Food — No. 204 Man’s Animal H elpers - - No. 206 Animals and T h eir B abies - - No. 208 Where Animals L ive - - No. 2 5 I L ife in th e Sea — No. 253 Sun, Moon, and S ta r s — No. 25 4 OUTDOOR L IF E (2 0 ) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE WINTER TIME A Ride to th e Farm . . ........................................................13. In th e Barn (Farm) . .................................................. 19 D inner f o r A l l ......................................................................59 CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS How Tom Turkey Helped th e F a r m e r .......................... 219 The Camel S to ry ( C a m e l) ............................... 239 EVERYDAY FRIENDS Fun W ith F lo p sy and M o p a y ...............................................6 T aking Care o f Pony B o y ..............................................6 A P lace f o r Pony Boy to S lee p . „.................................7^ A House f o r the R ah b its . . ................................ The R abbit Who Wanted W in g s .......................................... 92 Plana f o r th e G a r d e n ......................................................I 3O At Work in th e G a r d e n ............................................. . I 33 The B ird B a t h ........................................................................135 F rie n d B l u e b i r d ................................................................... 137 Making th e N est . . . ................................................. lqi. A Horae f o r Poky and Slow . . . . . .. . .. 1IJJ4 . The Flow er S t o r e ...............................................................llj.3 S p rin g in P o lly T s G a r d e n ............................................ I 50 ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY J a c k T s C lass ..................................................................... 87 The A q u a r i u m ....................... 183 D O N A N D D EA N AT THE DAIRY A W i s h .................................................................................. 1 A L i t t l e Baby C a l f ............................................................ 11 A Wish Comes T r u e ...................................................... . 18 F eeding th e C a l f ............................................. ij.5 The C alf is One Month O l d ...............................................30 The B est C a lf on th e Farm . ..................................... 4o The P riz e C o w ..........................................................................i|8 M ilking th e C o w ......................................................................5 ^ 4 - TO M A R K ET W E G O P ick , P ick , P i c k .................................................. 7 P u ll, P u ll, P u l l .................................................................10 S u r p r i s e s ................................................................................... llj. Garden V i s i t o r s .................................................. 19 Sunshine C o l o r s ..................................................................... I4.5 k-95 OUTDOOR L IF E (20) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE T O M A R K ET W E G O Wash, Wash, W a s h ............................................................ P ile , P ile , P i l e ................................................................. 62 M UNCHING PETER A N D OTHER STORIES The Three R o o s t e r s .................................................. . 23 What Jane P o u n d ..................................................................... 75 A T hanksgiving P u m p k in ................................................. IO3 E a rly S p rin g M o r n i n g ............................... 117 How Some Animals H i d e ......................................................ll|.o Teddy’s C o l l a r .......................................................... • 1^2 Our F rie n d th e T o a d .......................................................... 158 P u p p y ..........................................................................................221 Jimmy and th e W h a le ............................... 252 G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY Baby L i o n s ...............................................................................74 The B e a r s ........................................................... 0I4 . O ther A n im a ls ...................... 91 LEVEL: G R A D E THREE THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S S p rin g a t th e C a b i n ..........................................................225 E vening a t th e C a b i n ................................................. 230 The Cabin in th e W o o d s .............................................. 7 B re a k fa s t a t th e C a b in ^ ................................................... 13 The G a r d e n ................. * . .......................................................22 Tom’s F r i e n d ..........................................................................27 A nother F r i e n d ........................................ 31 How Old Mr* S q u ir r e l Became T h r i f t y ........................q.1 How th e Chipmunk Got His S t r i p e s .............................56 The C o n c e r t ...............................................................................6 1 } . In s e c t Music ..................................................................... 71 Brave Deeds of D o g s ...................... 123 U sefu l D o g s .................................... 130 Fun in th e S n o w ................................................................... 163 A S to ry M other T o l d .......................................................... 172 P a rt 1 How th e Woodchuck Got His Name . . 176 P a rt 2 Why Johnny Chuck S leep s A ll W inter 179 P a rt 3 The F i r s t R a b b i t ..................................195 P a rt q. The F i r s t Snow S h o e s ...................... 200 YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y How to Make a W ild Flow er Book • 197 OUTDOOR L IF E (2 0 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PA G E YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y Rocks, P ebbles and S o i l ........................... 287 Good f o r N othing Rock ........................................299 SUSAN’S NEIGHBORS C u ttin g Wheat on th e F a r m .............................................108 How Tomatoes Grow ............................................ 122 Fun a t th e L i b r a r y ...................... *153 SURPRISES Cows and Some o f T h e ir R e l a t i v e s .......................... 115 W olves, Foxes and D o g s ................................................. 122 H orses and One o f T h eir R e l a t i v e s .......................... 129 Dragon F l i e s ........................................................................150 May B e e t l e s ............................................................................ 155 Ruth Caught a Bumble Bee . . ' ................................... I 05 G oslings and C h ic k e n s ......................................................I 9S H elping W ild B i r d s .......................................................... 203 Our E a r t h ........................... 2J 4.2 Our S u n ..................................................................................... 2lj.8 Our M o o n ............................................................... 255 The N orth S ta r and D i p p e r ............................................ 265 SCIENCE STORIES, B O O K I I An O utdoor P arty ............................................................ 7 A ir and W i n d .......................................................................... 13 The S e c r e t ...............................................................................20 Sunshine and S h a d e ............................................................ 26 Clouds and R a i n ......................................................................53 Animals in th e W ood........................... 43 Nanok, th e W hite B e a r .................................................. Sm all Animals .................. 5k Food in W i n t e r ...................................................... 62 The Tree That Bloomed in W i n t e r ................................. 6 Making F o o d .............................................................................. 7 S to rin g F o o d ............................................. 77 How B e tty Kept th e S e e d s ...............................................B O How P la n ts Get F o o d .................................................. , 85 Food From P l a n t s ......................................... 95 Going to th e O c e a n .......................................................... 105 How Big is the S u n .......................................................... 123 How th e Sun H elps us to L ive . . . . . . . . 126 S ta r S t o r i e s ........................................................................135 OUTDOOR L IF E (20) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (co n tin u e d ) B O O K THE G REAT IDEA A N D OTHER STORIES The House by th e Road ............................ B arn ey ? o f R obin’s N est ....................... The Way to G randm other’s . . . . . Mops and Jimmy ......................................... Miss Puss ....................................................... The A ir, the E a rth , and th e loon They Like to C oast ................................ On th e M ountain ......................................... Joe Bear ....................................................... Old Mr. Toad and L i t t l e Green Frog The D o g h o u s e .............................................. The Cry in the N i g h t ........................... A F rie n d in Need ..................................... N ice Q u iet Morning . . . . . . . . The Wise Old F rog ..................................... The W hispering G am e................................ The Groundhog’s S to ry ........................... UNIT STUDY B O O K S The S to ry o f Frogs — No. 351 P ro te c tio n in N atu re — No. 352 The Seasons — No. 355 How B ird s Live - - No. 35^- What Animals E at — No. 355 UNIT ACTIVITY PAMPHLETS A Look a t th e W eather — 3-6 -1 CITY FRIENDS At th e Park .................................................. HELPERS AT W O R K The C ircu s .................................................. The C ircus .................................................. The C ircu s • .................................................. The C ircus .................................................. The C i r c u s .................................... . . . The C ircus .................................................. The C ircus .................................................. The L i t t l e Watch Dog ........................... The Gun-Shy P o in te r ................................ Dogs o f th e F rozen W ilds .................. The S eein g Eye Dog ................................ OUTDOOR L IF E (20) LEVEL; G R A D E THREE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K HELPERS AT W O R K The F a ith f u l Shepherd ................................ Two N ice Dogs (poem) ................................ An Amicable F ellow (poem) ....................... Hum-m-m ( B i r d s ) .............................................. Busybody (S to rk ) ......................................... F lee tw in g (P igeon) ..................................... VISITS HERE A N D THERE The B lack B ears . . ..................................... The S to ry o f th e B at ................................ The F i r s t Snow .............................................. A C hristm as Tree T hat Would Not Die . Mr* B u llfro g ................................................... G randm other’s Rock Garden ....................... W ild Flow ers .................................................. Jack in the P u lp it ..................................... Peggy13 C o c o o n .............................................. F eeding th e B i r d s ........................... Baby Robins . . . ......................................... Peggy L earns About Ants ........................... A S e c re t ........................................................... H O O T O W L The Big F i s h ............................................. . . Hoot O w l ........................................................... The Bowl o f S t e w ......................................... Broken Pumpkins .............................................. Eye in Wood .................................................. LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR UNIT STUDY B O O K S Bees and Ants — No. lj.53 S o il: I t s Sources and Uses — No. I4 .5J 4 . W ater: I t s Sources and Uses — No. Ij.55 TRAILS OF ADVENTURE The F i r s t Signs o f Septem ber . . . . R ic h a rd ’s S tra n g e Dream ............................ S ta y in g a t th e S eash o re ............................ V is itin g th e P la n e ta riu m ....................... A V i s it to Mammoth Cave ............................ V is ito r s on th e Farm, P a rt I . . . . V is ito r s on th e Farm, P a rt I I . . . . OUTDOOR L IF E (20) LEVEL: G RA D E FOUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K TRAILS O F ADVENTURE S to r ie s About S ta rs ............................ . In d ian N ature M y th s ................................ NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR The B ears ....................................................... More About B ears ................................ . Penny Wag ....................................................... Snow P ic tu re s .............................................. CENTERVILLE Farm Crops .................................................. Com P i c k i n g .............................................. D riv in g th e C a ttle to the Farm . . P ick in g Out th e C a lfs ............................ H elping Mr. Hand Feed His C a ttle Taking Care o f Tim a n d Tom . . . . The C a ttle Buyer ..................................... A Ride on a C a ttle T rain .................. SCIENCE STORIES, B O O K I I I Old Tusk and th e T ig e r ....................... How do Animals Live on th e Ground . How do Animals F ly in the A ir . . . How do Animals Tunnel in th e Ground How do Animals Live in th e W ater . W addles, th e Duck . . . ................... L iv in g on Land and W ater ................... Sunny G a r d e n .............................................. How do P la n ts Live on Land . . . . How a re Seeds S c a tte r e d ....................... The W ater L ily . ................................ G e ttin g L ig h t and A ir ............................ How Animals Defend Themselves . . . P a rt 1 Some Animals Can F ind . .. ‘ P a rt 2 Some Animals Can Run Away P a rt 5 Some Animals Can Hide . . The Trap-D oor S p id e r ’s N est . . . . Homes in th e Ground ................................ Animal Towns .............................................. How N ests P ro te c t B ird s ....................... , Animal Homes in W inter ....................... , How th e Q uail F ooled D i c k .................. ... Some B abies Take Care o f Them selves , 5 0 0 OUTDOOR L IF E (2 0 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PA GE SCIENCE STORIES, BO O K I I I Some Animals P ro te c t T h e ir B abies . . How P la n ts Are P ro te c te d From Anim als Hov/ P la n ts Are P ro te c te d From We,ather How th e Land Looks ..................................... A R iv er Postman . . ..................................... Where R iv ers Begin and End ................... 118 12g l l i l II4.6 157 l 6 l ADVENTURE TRAILS A Man Goes F ar Down In to the S e a .............................l 8 D inner Time a t th e Zoo . ...............................................20 The Turkey is an American B i r d .................................22 The C ircus Makes People Happy . . . . . . . . R ein d eer f o r Hungry People ..................................... S tra n g e C re a tu re s a re Found in a Cave . . . . C hristm as T rees f o r A ll .............................................. Like F a ir ie s They Weave . . . . . . ................... 38 E lep h an ts a t Work and P l a y ..........................................4k An E a rly In d ia n G a r d e n ................................................... 4® A New D eal f o r B ird s and W ild Animals . . . . 50 High in th e M o u n ta in s ........................................................ 56 How th e Ground Hog L o st His T a i l .............................§0 THE ELEPHANT > S FRIEND A ND OTHER STORIES The E le p h a n t’s F r i e n d ................................................... 7 P a rt 1 W illiam and Jumbo Lose a F rie n d . . 7 P a rt 2 The C h a s e .................................................. 11 P a rt 3 Bow Jumbo Found His F rie n d . . . . 15 The Coal W e B u m ................................................................. 31 The Y ellow P r i m r o s e .................................... 58 The C ric k e t T h erm o m eter................................................. 113 To Keep S to re W ith B i m b o .............................................118 P a rt 1 Lexy and th e Dogs on His S tr e e t . . 118 P a rt 2 Lexy and B i m b o .................................. 124 Mr*. C r ic k e tjs A i r p l a n e ................................................. 164 . P a rt 1 Mr. C ric k e t H i m s e l f .................................... 164 P a rt 2 The A i r p l a n e ..................................................167 P a rt 3 P a in tin g a S u n s e t ........................................ 171 P a rt 4 Landing T rouble .......................... 178 The C ity ’s C hristinas T r e e .............................................184 L i t t l e K ari ...................... 208 P a rt 1 The One-Legged W a g t a i l ...........................208 P a rt 2 The W ag tail R e t u r n s ....................................213 P a rt 3 A p ril W e a th e r ......................................... .... 215 501 OUTDOOR L IF E (20) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (co n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE THE ELEPHANT’S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES How Old Man R ab b it H elped F a th e r Coon . . . . 2lj2 The W hite-F ooted Mouse ................................... ^l±6 A ll th e F o re s t N ib b le rs . ..................................560 Johnny C atches an O tte r - Alm ost . . . . . . I 4 .O 3 WILD ANIMALS AT H O M E The G ris le y Bear Makes U p .......................................... 5 The S q u irr e ls Sgve F o o d ....................................................11 The B ears B u ild a H o m e ............................................. 19 The W easel Changes His C o a t .................................... 25 The Puma Runs A w a y ............................................................ 29 The M uskrat L ives S a fe ly . . ......................................55 The B u ffa lo s Hide A w a y ................................................... q.1 P orcupine Saves H im self ........... lj.7 The Fox Hides Her B a b i e s ...............................................59 The Moose Looks f o r F o o d ...............................................53 ADVENTURE TRAILS A M other Hen and Some Baby E ag les ....................... Funny B ird s ......................................................................... Men Take Sap From T rees ............................ 6 Eskimo L a n d ............................... 10 Animals Get Ready f o r W i n t e r ....................... 12 S a fe ty F i r s t ..................................................................... lk I t Pays to Obey th e L a w .....................................lo LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE UNIT STUDY B O O K S The S to ry o f I r r i g a t i o n — No. $10 NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS A V is ito r in th e N i g h t ....................................................10 Porky Comes B a c k .................................................................l6 A Q u iet V is it o r ....................... . . . . . . . . . 1 9 The Beaver Dam' ..................................................................... 2 1 F la s h L ig h ts and S ta r L i g h t s ......................................28 A Man in a T h i c k e t ............................... 3 1 G ra n d fa th er Brown’s Turkey Farm ............................ 8 9 B illy and th e G o b b le r ........................................................9 3 W ild T u r k e y s ..........................................................................97 The New B r o o d ...................................................... 101 A Bag o f V is ito r s ...................... 1 0 5 502 OUTDOOR L IF E (20) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (co n tin u e d ) B O O K . PAGE NEIGHBORS AND HELPERS The Bee C i t y ........................................................................113 The Bees a t W o r k ...............................................................117 G ran d fath er T s S to ry (F ish ) ..................................... 202 The F is h M arket . ...............................................................206 The R a n c h ........................................................................ . 209 , The R abbit H u n t ................................................................... 277 P e te r Goes F i s h i n g .......................................................... 315 DISCOVERING O U R W O R L D How do L iv in g Things G ro w ...............................................Ij-9 What Happens 'When L iv in g Things Grow. . . . J 4.9 How Do I n s e c ts G ro w ........................................................52 How Do Frogs and Toads G ro w ............................... 58 How Do P la n ts Begin to Grow .................................05 How Do Roots o f P la n ts Grow Longer . . . . 69 How Do T rees Grow T a l l e r ..........................................71 How Do P la n ts Get T h i c k e r ..........................................72 How Does Food Help L iv in g Things Grow . . . 76 Why Do W e Have Days and N i g h t s ............................... li|5 How Does th e E a rth Get I t s L i g h t ......................X I4 .6 What is th e Shape o f th e E a rth . . . . . . llj.9 How Does th e E a rth M o v e .............................................ly ± Why Do W e Have D a y lig h t and D arkness . . . I 50 How is th e E a rth a . C l o c k ........................................160 What Makes a Y e a r .......................................................... 165 How do th e Days Change in Length . . . . . 1 6 0 Why a re Summer Days Warmer th an W inter Days 168 What H eavenly Bodies Can W e See a t N ight . . 173 What is a S t a r ...............................................................173 Why do th e S ta rs Have D if f e r e n t C olors . . IJh. What is a C o n s t e l l a t i o n .............................................176 Why do W e See C o n s t e l l a t i o n s ...............................185 How is th e Moon D if fe re n t from the S ta rs . 188 What is the S u rfa c e of th e Moon L ike . . . 189 What is a P l a n e t ....................................................... 19 Why Does th e Moon Seem to Change i t s Shape 190 Where a re th e P l a n e t s .................................................I 95 Are There ^ iv in g Things on th e P la n e ts . . 198 What a re S h o o tin g S t a r s ......................................... 200 IN THE GREEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES Woodchucks a re G ro u n d h o g s...............................................29 Too Much Gas . ................................................................. 36 P a rt 1 Dandy th e R a c e r ...............................................36 5 0 3 OUTDOOR L IF E (2 0 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE IN THE G R EEN VALLEY A N D OTHER STORIES Too Much Gas P a rt 2 The New G rocery Boy . . . . . . . . I4.3 A T rip on th e M i s s i s s i p p i ................................. 46 P a rt 1 The S team b o atrs C o m in g ............... lj.6 P a rt 2 Up the R i v e r ......................................50 P a rt 3 The G reat S t o r m ..................................55 B ird Banding . . . . . . . . . ............................ o l L i t t l e B lack C a p ........................... 90 A Monkey and a G r a n d m o th e r ...................... . . . . 153 P a rt 1 Jenny Jo in s th e F a m i l y .............. 153 P a rt 2 Jenny G ets In to T rouble . . . . . . 156 P a rt 3 When th e C ircu s Comes to Town A gain 160 Fisherm an T s L u c k ...............................................................189 P lay e rs in F e a t h e r s .......................................................... 370 P a rt 1 E a rly M orning C a l l e r s ...................370 P a rt 2 A B re a k fa s t T able C o m e d y ......... 375 The B usiness o f Going to S e e ............................... 465 EXPLORING TO D A Y D iving f o r P e a rl O y sters .......................................... 6 Grey Owl and B e a v e r s ................................................... 8 The H eath H e n ..........................................................................20 R e fo re s ta tio n ..................................................................... 26 C o n serv atio n o f Our W ild L i f e ......................................3if D ia m o n d s ....................................................................................5I 4 . LEVEL: G R A D E SIX DISCOVERING O U R W O R L D How do L iv in g Things Grow ..................................... What Happens When ^ iv in g Things Grow . . How do In s e c ts Grow .............................................. How do Frogs and Toads Grow ............................ How do Roots o f P la n ts Grow Longer . . . How do Trees Grow T a lle r ................................ How does Food Help L iv in g Things Grow . . How do P la n ts Begin to Grow ............................ How do P la n ts Get T h ick er ................................ Why do W e Have Days and N ig h ts ....................... How does th e E a rth Get i t s L ig h t . . . . What is th e Shape o f th e E a rth ................... How does th e E a rth Move . • ............................ Why do W e Have D a y lig h t and D arkness . . 50k OPTDOOR LIFE (20) LEVEL: G R A D E SIX (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE DISCOVERING O U R W O R L D How is th e E a rth a C lock ...............................l6 0 What Makes a Y ear . . . . . . . .......................... 165 How do th e Days Change in L ength . . . . . l6o Why a re Summer Days Warmer th an W inter Days 168 What H eavenly Bodies Can W e See a t N ig h t . . 173 What is a S t a r ...............................................................173 Why do th e S ta rs Have D if f e r e n t C olors . . m What is a C o n s te lla tio n . . ............................... 17o Why do we See th e C o n s te lla tio n s in D if f e r e n t P lac es in th e S k y .............................................l 8S How is th e Moon D if f e r e n t from th e S ta rs . l 88 What is th e S u rfac e of th e Moon Like . . . 189 What is a P l a n e t .................................................. .... 1 9 1 4 - Why Does th e Moon Seem to Change i t s Shape 190 What a re th e P l a n e t s ................................................. 195 Are There L iv in g Things on th e P la n e ts . . 198 What a re S h o o tin g S t a r s ............................................ 200 THE M A SQ U ERA D E A ND OTHER STORIES Wonders o f th e S k y .......................................................... 272 Eyes o f th e W i l d e r n e s s ................................................. 283 A S tra n g e Bear Hunt . ............................................... The Ram o f Ram I s l a n d ......................................................389 H elping N a t u r e ............................................................... 405 P row lers o f th e D a r k ............................................... \\2J Andy’s H e r o n ........................................................... 17 M ilt Has an A d v e n tu r e ........................... 52 The F lo a tin g Gardens o f X o c h i m i l o o ........................ 82 P la y e rs in F u r ..................................................................... 92 B ird C i t i e s .............................................................................129 READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY BO O K A F o re s t o f Queer T r e e s ............................... 128 P a rt 1 Coming to th e F o r e s t ................................ 128 P a rt 2 In th e F o r e s t ..................................................133 The Animal H e r o ......................................................................18 Am erican C h ild re n in A laska ..................................... 173 P a rt 1 W inter in an A laskan T o ?m ......................... 173 P a rt 2 Summer in th e Same Town . . . . . . 179 The S eein g Eye: Dogs Who Help the B lin d . . . 237 P a rt 2 How Dogs Help the B l i n d .......................... 237 F adhel ’ s C a rr ie r P i g e o n ................................ .... ?f\ 5 P a rt 1 The Childhood o f a C a r r ie r Pigeon . 2lj.5 OUTDOOR L IF E (2 0 ) 505 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX (co n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K F a d h e l’s C a r r ie r Pigeon P a rt 2 The P ig eo n ’s E d u c a t i o n .......................... 250 P a rt 3 P ig e o n ’s P o s t ...........................................255 L ife Among the A n t s .......................................................... 279 P a rt 1 An Ant H i l l ......................................................279 P a rt 2 R obert and J o s e p h ........................................282 P a rt 3 War Begins Among th e A n t s ......................283 P a rt 4 How Ants Work and L i v e .......................... 28b P a rt 5 The War Goes O n ............................................ 288 P a rt b Peace Again Among th e A nts . . . . 289 Why and How Animals S l e e p ............................................ 295 P a rt 1 Why W e S l e e p ................................................. 295 P a rt 2 How Some Animals S J . e e p .......................... J00 P a rt 3 H ib e rn a tio n as a Form o f S le e p in g 3014. Making Our Own ¥ / e a t h e r ................................................. 33^ P a rt 1 Im proving th e A ir in F a c to rie s . . 332 P a rt 2 Making A ir More C om fortable f o r P e o p l e .......................................................... 338 P a rt 3 Im proving th e A ir in Mines . . . . 342 A V is it to a P la n e ta riu m ......................345 P a rt 1 G e ttin g Ready to Study the S ta rs . 345 P a rt 2 What E th e l ’s T eacher Told the C lass 347 P a rt 3 The S o la r S y s t e m ........................................ 35I P a rt 4 ’ Pk© Main P lane t a r i u m ...............................352 PETS ( 2 1 ) LEVEL: PRIMER KITTEN-KAT K itte n -K a t is L o s t ....................................................... 1 K itte n -K a t F inds a H om e................................................... 10 Bouncing th e B a l l ................................... 15 M ilk T im e ........................... 19 K itte n -K a t. in S c h o o l .................................... 29 Where is K i t t e n - K a t ............................................................ 3 7 Ann in Scliool a t N i g h t ................................................... 4 3 The P olicem an’s H o m e .................................... 54 Mr. Brown and th e M i c e ....................................................59 F lu f f and P u f f ......................................................................72 The Kat Show .............................................................87 506 PETS (2 1 ) LEVEL: G R A D E O N E B O O K PAGE HUNTING Racoons ........................................................................... 136 Anim als W ith S p i n e s ....................................... 139 CO U N TRY D A Y S At Mr. Brown fs ..................... 14 LEVEL: G RA D E T W O UNIT ACTIVITY PAM PHLETS Come and See (T u rtle s and Snakes) — 2 -6 -2 CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS The Alarm (K itte n s ) ........................................ 222 EV ERYD AY FRIENDS Taking Care o f Pony B o y ........................................... . 66 A P lace Where Pony Boy Can S l e e p ............................... 70 A Home f o r th e R ab b its . ........................... .... 74 A Home f o r Poky and Slow ( T u r t l e s ) ......................144 ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY Funny F a c e ...............................................................................10 J a c k ’s C lass ..................................................................... 87 D O N A N D D E A N AT THE DAIRY A Wish Come T r u e ........................................................ . 18 F eeding th e C a l f ................................................................. 25 The C a lf is One Month O l d ............................... 36 JIM M Y A N D THE G RO CERY M A N A Sm all Customer and th e D o g ........................................43 G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY A Queer N oise ..................................................................... 9 W atching T i f f ..........................................................................l 6 Busy M o r n i n g .......................................................................... 20 C h u b b y ........................................................................................60 M other’s F i r s t S t o r y ...................... 109 M other’s Second S to ry . . . 167 W A G S A N D WOFFIE Naming th e P u p p i e s ...................... l Bed T i m e .............................................................................. 5 In th e Farm ers Y a r d ........................... 9 5 0 7 PETS (2 1 ) LEVEL: GRADE TWO ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE W A G S A N D WOPPIE Woff ie - S i c k - a - B e d ...................... 17 Going P is h in g . . . . . . . ...........................• • • 22 Having T h e ir P ic tu r e Taken .- ................................ Old Biddy Hen ..................................................................... Going S w im m in g ................................................................ P ic n ic D a y . 53 Big Boy’s R i d e ......................................................................03 W offie T rie s to P l y ............................................................ 73 Wags and W offie P lay a T r i c k ......................................8 l W offie Does th e Wrong T h i n g .......................................... 87 S eeing th e W o r l d ................................................................. 95 W Fags and W offie Watch th e B a r n y a r d ......................lOlj. LEVEL: G R A D E THREE UNIT STUDY B O O K S P ets a t School — No, 3^7 Bees and A nts — No. 353 HELPERS AT W O R K F le e t W i n g ............................................................................ 266 The L i t t l e Watch Dog ................................................... A Gun-Shy P o in te r .................................................. . . Dogs o f th e Frozen f / i l d s ........................... $0 The S eein g Eye D o g .............................................................56 The N ice Dog ( p o e m ) ............................................................ 70 An A m icable F e l l o w ............................................................ 7 i VISITS HERE A N D THERE F eeding the B i r d s ...............................................................229 Baby R o b i n s ............................................................................ 234. Peggy Learns About A n t s .................................................238 THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S A nother F r i e n d ......................................................................31 SUSAN’S NEIGHBORS A Radio M e s s a g e ...................................................... 50 A Newspaper H elps S u s a n ................................................... 75 Pun a t th e P la y g r o u n d ......................................................I 36 The C ircu s P a r a d e ...............................................................142 Packing f o r th e T r i p ......................................................178 At th e S t a t i o n ........................................ 181 5 0 8 PETS (2 1 ) LEVEL: GRADE THREE ( c o n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE H O O T O W L J u s t L ike an I n d i a n ............................................................ 2 The Big F i s h ............................................. 5 The T rader ............................ . .. .. .. .. . 168 SCOTTIE A N D HIS FRIENDS J e r r y ’s B irth d a y P re s e n ts .................................... . 2 A Homesick Puppy ....................................................... k The F i r s t N ig h t in th e New Home . . . . . . . 6 The Dog P a r t y ..................................................................... 8 Scoop Goes to C h u r c h ........................................................12 Scoop th e Mouse C a t c h e r ....................................................l ' The Puppies F i r s t B a t h ..............................................1 The D octor Comes to See S c o t t y ................................. 18 The T ale o f Two N o s e s ........................................................20 Peggy Takes a R i d e ........................................................ 22 S c o tty Has a Good T i m e ................................................... 2k B lan k ets f o r Puppies ......................................... . 2o S c o tty ’s Tooth B rush .................................................. 28 S c o tty L earns a T ric k .................................................. 50 Mike Wakes Them Up . ....................................................52 S c o tty ’s T a i l .......................................................................... J* S c o tty Meets R usty .................... . 5 S c o tty Takes Care o f . G r a n d m o th e r .............................58 R usty Needs a F r i e n d ........................................................fjD The R a c e ................................................................................... k2 S k e e ............................................................................................ i|k S k ee’s Sweet Tooth ....................................................... ko S c o tty and S k e e ..................................................................... k^ Two J o k e s .................................................................... 5^ S c o tty Gets a W h i p p i n g ....................................................5? S c o tty and S a u l ......................................................................5* R u sty ’s S u rp ris e ............................................................ 5 Choosing a K i t t e n ................................................................. 58 Peggy’s F a m i l y ......................................................................60 G ra n d fa th e r’s S t o r y .......................... 62 LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR Penny Wag ................................................................ 59 THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S Tom’s F rien d 27 PETS (2 1 ) 509 LEVEL: GRADE POUR ( c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE TEE ELEPHANT!S FRIEND A N D OTHER STORIES The S to ry o f F lo ra D o l l ................................................... 19 P a rt 1 Emma and F lo ra .......................................... 19 P a rt 2 How Emma L ost F lo ra D o l l ........................23 P a rt 3 How J e s s ie Found F lo ra D o ll . . . . 26 LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS G ra n d fa th er Brown’s Turkey Farm ............................... 89 B illy and th e G o b b le r ........................................................93 LEVEL: G RA D E SIX READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY BO O K The Animal H e r o .................................................. 18 THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES Lone C l e a r i n g ........................................................................1I 4.5 TRANSPORTATION (2 5 ) LEVEL: G R A D E O N E UNIT STUDY B O O K S How W e T ra v e l — No. 101 How Animals T rav el --No. 151 LEVEL: G RA D E T W O CHILDREN A N D THEIR HELPERS At th e A i r p o r t ...................................................... 1 WINTER TIME On th e T r a i n ..................................................................... 6 A Ride to th e Farm ........................................................ 13 The Ride to T o w n ................................. 123 UNIT ACTIVITY PAM PHLETS A Big A irp o rt — 2 -1 -1 G lid e rs and A irp la n e s - - 2 -1 -2 B allo o n s and A irsh ip s — 2 -1 -3 L in d b e rg ’s F lig h t — 2 -I-I 4 . 5io TRAMSPORTATION (2 5 ) LEVEL: G R A D E T W O (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE EVERYDAY FRIENDS H urry J H urry J ........................................................... .... • 3 Too E a rly . . . . . . . ......................................... 5 Looking A r o u n d ............................... 7 T ic k e t P lea se I .................................................. 9 A Good C o n d u c t o r ................................................................. 12 In the T ra in ...............................................15 The Big E n g i n e ........................... 23 A P r e s e n t ................................................................................... 28 A S u r p r i s e ...............................................................................3^ Wanted One P o n y ......................................................................39 T aking Pony Boy H o m e .................................................. 4 I More S u rp ris e s ........................................................45 C atch H im ................................................................................... 48 More Gare .................................................................50 The B ig Engine Takes W a t e r .......................................... 55 Back Home Again ................................ 60 The N oisy S w itch E n g in e ................................................. 101 ADVENTURES IN A BIG CITY R iding on th e T r a i n .............................................................31 HERE C O M ES THE PO STM A N A P o st O ffic e on W h e e ls ................................................... 29 A S p e c ia l D e liv e ry From G ra m s ......................................55 Postmen o f Long A g o .................................................. . 65 The Swimming P o s t m a n ........................................................ 68 E sk ie , th e M ail C a r r i e r .................................... J2 M ail B o a t s ...............................................................................76 G O O D TIMES WITH BEVERLY A T ra in R i d e .................................................................. 28 LEVEL: G R A D E THREE HELPERS AT W O R K S a i l s .................................................................................. * . 159 The F i r s t Steam boat in A m e r i c a ...............................165 On th e Ocean L i n e r .......................................................... 171 W ill F inds His Magic Horse (T ra in s ) ................... 182 On Board th e R a ilro a d T r a i n ........................................188 The Big Truck and I t s D riv e r . ...........................203 The Wonder o f B ic y c le W h e e l s ....................................209 The N ig h t A ir M a i l .............................. 219 The Hero o f M a t t u x ......................... 228 511 TRANSPORTATION ( 2 5 ) LEVEL: G R A D E THREE (co n tin u e d ) BOOK PAGE UNIT STUDY B O O K S T ra in s — No. J01 The S to ry o f P ly in g - - No. 502. B oats - - No. 5O 3 CITY FRIENDS Don Goes to th e C i t y ........................................................12 Don Goes H om e........................................................................l 8 l VISITS HERE A N D THERE Moving Day f o r L i t t l e G a z elle (A rab ia) . . . 130 The T r ip le ts in th e M ilk C a rt . . . . . . . . ip6 The S co tch C i r c u s ...............................................................Ik2 The S to ry o f Tom T h u m b .................................................I 03 THE CABIN IN THE W O O D S A T rav el A f t e r n o o n .......................................................... 2I 4.8 A T rip to th e Cabin in th e W o o d s ............................ 218 YESTERDAY A N D TO D A Y Making a P a r a d e ................................................................ 9 L i t t l e Tom T h u m b ................................................................. lo S to ry o f E zra M e e k e r ........................................................ ^3 T ra v e l Long Ago and N o w ................................................... l \2. SUSAN'T S NEIGHBORS The Postman H elps T o m .......................................................53 A Ride on th e T r a i n .............................................................. The T rip S t a r t s ................................................................... 186 The T ra in Gets to H ill C i t y ...................................... 203 O ther T r a i n s ........................................................... 207 Home by B u s ...................................................... 211 FOLLET PICTURE STORY BO O K S Boats T rain s How W e T ra v el LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR UNIT STUDY B O O K S The B eginning o f Trade - - No. I 4 .06 The S to ry o f Communication — No. lj.09 5X2 TRANSPORTATION ( 2 5 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FOUR (c o n tin u e d ) BO O K PAGE TRAILS O F ADVENTURE R ic h a rd ’s S tra n g e Dream .............................................. 20 The Lone E a g le ’s F l i g h t ................................................. llj-2 A dventuring W ith W h e e ls ................................................. l o l How th e Message C a m e ......................................................195 A L e t t e r ................................................................................. 20o The H olland T u n n e l ........................................................ 2 6 l The George W ashington B ridge ................................ 265 NEIGHBORS NEAR A N D FAR M aster o f B o a t s ............................................................... . 262 NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS A T rip to th e P o st O f f i c e ...............................................6I 4 . CENTERVILLE The C e n te r v ille M a i l ................................................... I4 . Bob Makes a D e l i v e r y ........................................................22 A Busy A f t e r n o o n ................................................................. 26 T ra v e lin g on a D ir t R o a d ...............................................i|lf A L e tte r About a New Road . . . . .............................$0 V is itin g th e F a r m e r s ......................................................228 CHILDREN OF AMERICA An A ir E x p l o r e r ...................... 6l FOLLET PICTURE STORY BO O K S B oats How W e T rav el LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE UNIT STUDY BO O K S E arly E x p lo re rs — No. $02 W inning the West — No. $0l\. T ra n s p o rta tio n - - No. 5^5 NEIGHBORS A N D HELPERS R u ral D e l i v e r y ......................................................................68 72 75 V 85 125 The A ir Mail The Railway Post O ffice The Brave Post Riders . The Pony Express . . . The Radio ............................ 513 TRANSPORTATION (2 5 ) LEVEL: G R A D E FIVE (c o n tin u e d ) B O O K PAGE NEIGHBORS AND HELPERS Jack Learns About th e N e w sp a p e r...............................1^5 An E a rly M orning Ride . . .................................... 143 A R e f r ig e r a to r on W h e e l s .............................................lij-7 A F r e ig h te r U nloads I t s Cargo ................................ l j i FOLLET PICTURE STORY BO O K S T rain s T ale o f a T r a ile r EXPLORING TO D A Y S peeding Up th e Iro n H o r s e .......................................... $0 L ig h t Ships . . ................................................................. 58 F i r s t A irp la n e F l i g h t ........................................................60 L a st Camp o f Andree E x p ed itio n Found . . • . 62 LEVEL: G R A D E SIX READING TO LEARN, INTRODUCTORY B O O K Jack B urns, th e F i r s t Hero o f th e W ire le ss . 23 How th e T eleg rap h Got I t s Name . .................... 264 P a rt 2 How th e B ro th e rs S en t M essages a t S c h o o l .......................................................... 267 P a rt 5 How th e B ro th e rs Improved In v en tio n s2 7 0 P a rt 4 The Semaphore T e le g r a p h ............................272 P a rt 5 T * 1 © Semaphore, in Time of War and in Time o f P e a c e ................................... 275 FOLLET PICTURE STORY B O O K S T rain s T ale o f a T r a ile r THE M A SQ U ERA D E A N D OTHER STORIES Two M iles A p a r t ..................................................... ........... 32k A Ride in th e R a i n ........................................................ 438 The C lip p e r S h i p s .............................................................. 473 One F i f t h o f th e M in u te .................................................493 HOW TO CONDUCT THE REMEDIAL READING PERIODS GENERAL ORGANIZATION In y o u r sch o o l you a re a d m in is te rin g REMEDIAL READING PR O G R A M _____ . A ccording to t h i s program , your rem ed ial cases a re to engage in th e fo llo w in g th re e types o f re a d in g each week: 1. S i l e n t Work-Type R eading 2 . S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Reading 3 . O ral R e c re a tio n a l R eading and D isc u ssio n The program is to be a d m in iste re d each week as f o llo w s : 1. D uring O N E p e rio d o f I 4.5 m inutes th e p u p ils a re to engage in SILENT READING O F THE WORK-TYPE d u rin g w hich th ey a re to use th e G ates-P eardon P ra c tic e E x e rc is e s in R eading. 2 . D uring THREE p e rio d s o f I4 .5 m inutes each th e p u p ils a re to engage in SILENT RECREATIONAL READING, One p e rio d of t h is type is to be tak en each day on th re e su c c e s s iv e d ay s. 3 . D uring O N E p e rio d o f ij.5 m inutes th e p u p ils a re to engage in O RA L RECREATIONAL READING and DISCUSSION. The rem ed ial p u p ils a r e , th e r e f o r e , to be given one p e rio d of Ij.5 m inutes each day. On W ED N ESD A Y the p e rio d is to b e devoted to SILENT WORK-TYPE READING; on THURSDAY, FRIDAY, and THE FOLLOWING M O N D A Y , to SILENT RECREATIONAL READING; on TUESDAY to O RA L RECREATIONAL READING and DISCUS SION. I t is v ery im p o rta n t th a t no p e rio d be o m itted on any day f o r any reaso n w h atso ev er as t h i s would in v a lid a te th e r e s u l t s o f th e experim ent and would make com parative a n a ly se s im p o ssib le . T h e re fo re , p le a se , ad h ere f a i t h f u l l y to th is weekly program as o u tlin e d above and as o rg an ized below ac c o rd in g to days and d a te s . Dec. Ip - S ile n t Work-Type Dec. 14 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Dec. 15 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Dec* lo - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Dec. 19 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l . 515 Ja n . 3 — S ile n t Work-Type Feb. 14 - S i le n t Work-Type Ja n . 4 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 15 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 5 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 16 - S i l e n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . o - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 19 - S i l e n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 9 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 20 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 10 _ S ile n t Work-Type Feb. 21 — S ile n t 'Work-Type Jan . 11 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 22 - F ree Day Ja n . 12 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 23 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 15 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 26 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 16 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 27 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 17 . . S ile n t Work-Type F eb. 28 - S ile n t Work-Type Ja n . lo - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 29 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 19 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 1 - S i l e n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 22 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 4 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 23 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 5 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 24 — S ile n t Work-Type Mar. 6 — S ile n t Work-Type J a n . 25 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 7 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 2o - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 0 - S i l e n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 29 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 11 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 30 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 12 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Ja n . 31 — S ile n t Work-Type Mar. 1? — S ile n t Work-Typ© Feb. 1 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 14 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 2 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 15 - S i l e n t R e c re a tio n a l F eb. 5 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 18 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 6 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 19 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 7 - S ile n t Work-Type Mar. 27 _ S ile n t Work-Type Feb. 8 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 28 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 9 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Mar. 29 - S il e n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 12 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l A pr. 1 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Feb. 13 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l A pr. 2 - O ral R e c re a tio n a l A pr. 3 ” S ile n t Work-Type A pr. 4 - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l A pr. 5 “ S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l A pr. o - S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l A pr. 9 ~ O ral R e c re a tio n a l MANNER OF CONDUCTING THE VARIOUS LESSON TYPES - - PROGRAM I I . Work-Type S ile n t Reading During th is period the p u p ils a re to "be given the G ates-Peardon P ra c tic e E x ercises in Reading. Open each p erio d w ith proper m otivation* O rd in a rily one or two e x e r c ise s can be completed d u rin g one ij-5 minute p e rio d . The l a s t 15 m inutes is to be used f o r o ra l c la s s checking o f re sp o n se s. At the end o f the p erio d the papers are to be c o lle c te d and l a t e r checked by the te a c h e r. At the beg in n in g of each work- type c la ss p erio d r e tu r n the previous papers and in s t r u c t the p u p ils how to c o rr e c t and improve t h e i r resp o n se s. I I . S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Reading Prepare f o r th is period th e previous evening in the fo llow ing manner; 1 . Take your l i s t of rem edial p u p ils arranged accord ing to grade le v e ls . Note the grade le v e l f o r th e re s p e c tiv e p u p il. W rite h is name on th e work s h e e t. Examine h is domi n an t i n t e r e s t s . Choose one i n t e r e s t . Look on th e READING LISTS fo r a book w ith a s to r y about th is i n t e r e s t on th a t p u p i l ’s le v e l. For example, suppose James Brown is i n t e r e s t ed in T ra n sp o rta tio n and is a p u p il in the f i f t h grade but is on the th ir d grade re a d in g le v e l. On th e f i r s t page o f the T ra n sp o rta tio n Reading L is t you w ill fin d th a t HELPERS AT W O R K has a number o f s t o r i e s about tr a n s p o r ta tio n . There f o re , f i r s t w rite Jam es’ name on h is work s h e e t, then w rite the name of the s to r y you want him to read on the work sh e e t as w ell as th e page and th e book in which he is to fin d the s to r y . Your p re p a ra tio n fo r James Brown is then com pleted. The p re p a ra tio n fo r each c h ild is to be made in th is manner. In o rd er to keep sy stem a tic account of your a s s ig n ments f o r each c h ild so th a t they are d is t r ib u t e d evenly according to the r e s p e c tiv e c h i l d ’s v ario u s i n t e r e s t s , each te a c h e r should keep a check l i s t e i th e r on cards or in a notebook. Each time she makes an assignm ent she should check the i n t e r e s t block in which she makes the assignm ent so th a t th ese assignm ents a re balanced p ro p e rly . The check l i s t can be kept in the manner most convenient fo r the te a c h e r. The I n te r e s t Inventory Record S heet may be used i f the te a c h e r so w ishes. 2 . At the beginning of the c la s s p erio d , give the work sh e et to each c h ild and have him fin d h is book among the books placed on th e ta b le o r in some o th e r d esig n ated 517 p la c e . Aa you hand the work sh e e t to each c h ild , make an i n te r e s ti n g comment as m o tiv a tio n , lin k in g the s to r y assig n ed w ith the c h i l d ’s i n t e r e s t s , such a s, "Here is a n ic e s to r y about b o a ts , John. You lik e b o a ts, I know." Or, "Mary, th is is a very i n te r e s ti n g s to ry about a dog. You lik e p e ts , don’t you?" A fte r the c h ild re n have t h e i r books and s t o r i e s , they should begin to read im m ediately. The te a c h e r should su p e r v is e c a re fu lly by h elp in g the c h ild re n w ith vocabulary d i f f i c u l tie s or by a s c e r ta in in g the reaso n fo r la c k o f i n t e r e s t o r f a ilu r e to read and then by remedying th e s i t u a t i o n . The c h ild re n should meet w ith no major vocabulary d i f f i c u l t i e s , however, as each c h ild i s read in g according to h is vocabulary le v e l and should, ac c o rd in g ly , be in te r e s te d and a b le to read w e ll. 5. A fte r the c h ild re n have read 35 minutes under c lo se su p e rv isio n and guidance they should tak e t h e i r work sh e e ts and use the rem aining ten minutes to r e p o r t the d ay ’s work as in d ic a te d on th e se s h e e ts . Then th e se work sh eets should be c o lle c te d and saved f o r fu tu re re fe re n c e . Each SILENT RECREATIONAL READING PERIOD is to be con ducted in t h i s manner. I t is im portant t h a t each c h ild reads during the e n t ir e p erio d and th a t he is in te r e s te d in what he is re a d in g . I f he is n o t, f in d out why and then give him e a s ie r m a te ria l or a n o th e r type of m a te ria l. I I I . O ral R e c re a tio n a l Reading and D iscussion During th is p erio d the p u p ils assem ble as an audience group. Each p u p il should have th e 3 to ry t h a t in te r e s te d him th e most during the th re e previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l read in g le s s o n s . He should t e l l the c la s s b r i e f l y about h is s to ry , make p e rso n a l comments and read i n te r e s ti n g p a r ts . General d isc u ssio n and q u e stio n in g should follow each p u p i l ’s read in g such as would take p lace in any audience s it u a ti o n le s s o n . I t is e v id e n t th a t the p u p ils should be to ld during the previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l periods th a t they should s e l e c t and p rep are th e sto ry th ey lik e the b e s t fo r t h is p e rio d . Divide the perio d in such a manner t h a t each p u p il has an o p p o rtu n ity to read o r a lly . Encourage the p u p ils to CONSTRUCTIVELY CRITICIZE each p u p il’s o ra l read in g and in th is manner a id him in improving h is technique of o ra l read in g . 5X 8 MANNER OP CONDUCTING THE VARIOUS LESSON TYPES - - PROGRAM I I I . Work-Type S ile n t Heading During th is p erio d the p u p ils are to he given the G ates-Peardon P ra c tic e E x ercises in Heading. Open each perio d w ith proper m o tiv a tio n . O rd in a rily one o r two e x e r c is e s can be completed during one 1|5 minute p e rio d . The p u p ils are to w rite the responses on paper. The l a s t 15 minutes is to be used f o r o ra l c la s s checking of resp o n se s. At the end o f the p e rio d the p a p e rs .a re to be c o lle c te d and l a t e r checked by the te a c h e r. At the beg in n in g of each work- type c la ss p erio d r e tu r n the previous papers and i n s t r u c t the p u p ils how to c o r re c t and improve t h e i r resp o n se s. I I . S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Reading Prepare fo r th is p e rio d the previous evening in the fo llo w in g manner: 1 . Take your l i s t of rem edial p u p ils arranged acco rd ing to grade le v e ls . Note the grade le v e l f o r the re s p e c tiv e p u p il. W rite h is name on the work s h e e t. Examine h is domi nant i n t e r e s t s . Choose one i n t e r e s t . Look on the READING LISTS fo r a book w ith a s to r y about th is i n t e r e s t on th a t p u p i l ’s grade le v e l. For example, suppose James Brown Is in te r e s te d in T ra n sp o rta tio n and is a p u p il in th e f i f t h grade but on the th ir d grade re a d in g le v e l. On the f i r s t page o f the T ra n sp o rta tio n Reading L is t you w i l l fin d th a t HELPERS AT W O R K has a number o f s t o r i e s about tr a n s p o r ta tio n . T herefore, f i r s t w rite James' name on h is work sh e e t, then w rite the name o f the s to ry you want him to read on the work sh e et as w e ll as th e page and the book in which he is to fin d the s to r y . Your p re p a ra tio n f o r James Brown is then com pleted. The p re p a ra tio n f o r each c h ild is to be made in th is manner. In o rd e r to keep sy stem a tic account of your a s s ig n ments f o r each c h ild so th a t they a re d is tr ib u te d evenly according to each c h i l d ’s v ario u s i n t e r e s t s , each te ach e r should keep a check l i s t e ith e r on cards o r in a notebook. Each time she makes an assignm ent she should check the in t e r e s t blo ck in which she makes th e assignm ent so th a t th ese assignm ents are balanced p ro p e rly . The check l i s t can be kept in th e manner most convenient f o r th e te a c h e r. The I n te r e s t Inventory Record Sheet may be used i f the te ach e r so w ishes. 2 . At the beginning o f the c la s s p erio d , give the 519 work sh e e t to each c h ild and have him fin d h is hook among the hooks placed on the ta b le o r in some o th e r d esig n ated p la c e . As you hand the work s h e e t to each c h ild , make an i n te r e s ti n g comment as m o tiv atio n , lin k in g the s to ry assig n ed w ith the c h i l d ’s i n t e r e s t s , such as ’’Here is a n ic e s to ry about b o a ts, John. You l i k e b o a ts, I know.” Or, ”Mary th is is a very in te r e s ti n g s to r y about a dog. You lik e p e ts, don’t you?” A fte r the c h ild re n have t h e i r books and s t o r i e s , they should begin to read im m ediately. The te a c h e r should su p e r v is e c a re fu lly by h e lp in g the c h ild re n w ith vocabulary d i f f i c u l tie s o r by a s c e r ta in in g the reason f o r la c k of i n t e r e s t or f a i l u r e to read and thereby remedying th e s it u a t i o n . The c h ild re n should meet w ith no major vocabulary d i f f i c u l t i e s , however, as each c h ild is reading acco rd in g to h is vocabulary le v e l and should, ac co rd in g ly , be in te r e s te d and ab le to read w e ll. 5. A fte r the c h ild re n have read 20 m inutes under close su p e rv isio n and guidance they should take t h e i r work sh eets and use ten minutes to re p o rt the d ay ’s work as in d ic a te d on these s h e e ts . Then th e se sh e ets should be c o lle c te d and saved f o r fu tu re re fe re n c e . The rem aining 15 minutes i s to be used f o r d r i l l in the mechanics of read in g . EYE AND EAR FUN by Stone and ADVENTURES IN DICTIONARY LAND by Lewis are to be used fo r th is purpose. D is tr ib u te th e books acco rd in g to the a b i l i t y of each p u p il. For example, i f Book I I and Book I I I were ordered f o r your room, give Book I I to th o se pu p ils needing the most d r i l l in phonics on th a t r e s p e c tiv e le v e l and give Book I I I to those p u p ils who have some fo undation in phonics. You w i l l n o tic e th a t Book I I I gives b a s ic review le sso n s. Since the p u p ils are to w rite the e x e rc ise s on paper, the d ir e c tio n s f o r the e x e rc ise s w ill have to be adapted ac co rd in g ly . During the p erio d w hile the p u p ils are working, take the time to go to each p u p il and show him what is r i g h t o r wrong about the e x e rc ise he worked the previous day. Since the c h ild re n a r e on various le v e ls i t is n ec essary fo r the p u p ils to work in d iv id u a lly . However, i f a s u f f i c i e n t number o f p u p ils a re u sin g the same book, the e x e rc ise may be taken more as a c la s s e x e rc ise and c o rre c tio n s and sugges tio n s may be given in g e n e ra l. These 15 minute d r i l l s in phonics a re to be given a t the end of each SILENT RECREATIONAL READING PERIOD. There fo re , the p u p ils w ill have 15 minute d r i l l in phonics th re e times each week. 520 Each SILENT RECREATIONAL READING P eriod is conducted in the manner d escrib ed above. Twenty minutes is to be de voted to s i l e n t read in g , 10 m inutes to checking upon the read in g by u sin g th e work sh e et and th e rem aining 15 minutes to d r i l l in phonetics by usin g th e EYE AND EAR FUN W O RK BO O K S and ADVENTURES IN DICTIONARY LAND. I t is im p o rtan t, th a t each c h ild reads during the e n t ir e 20 m inutes of th e period and th a t he is in te r e s te d in w hat.he is re ad in g . I f n o t, fin d out why and then give him e a s ie r m a te ria l o r an o th er type of m a te r ia l. I I I . Oral R e c re a tio n a l Reading and D iscussion During th is p erio d the p u p ils assemble as an audience group. Each p u p il should have the sto ry th a t in te r e s te d him th e most d u rin g the th re e previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l read in g le s s o n s . He should t e l l th e c la s s b r i e f l y about h is s to r y , make p erso n al comments and read i n te r e s ti n g p a r ts . General d isc u ssio n and q u estio n in g should follow each p u p i l ’s read in g such as would take p lace in any audience s it u a ti o n le sso n . I t is ev id en t th a t the p u p ils should be to ld during the previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l periods th a t they should s e le c t and prepare the sto ry they lik e the b e s t f o r th is p e rio d . Divide the p erio d in such a manner th a t each p u p il has an o p p o rtu n ity to read o r a lly . Encourage the p u p ils to CONSTRUCTIVELY CRITICIZE each p u p il’s o ra l re a d in g and in th is manner aid him in improving h is technique in o ra l read in g . 521 MANNER OP CONDUCTING- THE VARIOUS LESSON TYPES - - PROGRAM I I I I . Work-Type S ile n t Reading During t h is period th e p u p ils a re to he given the G ates-Peardon P ra c tic e E x ercises in Reading. Open each ^p eri- od w ith proper m o tiv atio n . O rd in a rily one or two e x e rc ise s can he completed d u rin g one Ij-5 minute p e rio d . The l a s t 15 . m inutes is to he used f o r o ra l c la ss checking of resp o n ses. At the end of the p erio d th e papers are to he c o lle c te d and l a t e r checked hy th e te a c h e r. At th e beg in n in g o f each work- type c la s s p erio d re tu rn the previous papers and I n s tr u c t the p u p ils how to c o rr e c t and improve t h e i r resp o n se s. I I . S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Reading Prepare fo r t h is p erio d the previous evening in the fo llo w in g manner: 1 , Take your l i s t o f rem edial p u p ils arranged accord ing to grade le v e ls . Note th e grade le v e l f o r the re s p e c tiv e p u p il. W rite h is name on th e work s h e e t. Choose a book from those l i s t e d f o r th a t re s p e c tiv e grade le v e l. Now take your EDUCATIONAL BOOK LIST, fin d th a t grade le v e l, look f o r th a t book and fin d a s to ry th a t you w ish th a t re s p e c tiv e p u p il to re a d . W rite the name o f the book, the page of the s to r y , and the name o f th e s to ry on th e work s h e e t. For example, suppose James Brown is in the f i f t h grade and is on grade le v e l th re e . According to th e Book L is t HELPERS AT W O R K has been purchased fo r grade le v e l th r e e in the f i f t h grade in your sc h o o l. Turn to the EDUCATIONAL BOOK LIST and fin d the s t o r i e s in HELPERS AT W ORK. Choose one, fo r example, "Grandmother Comes to Town, 1 1 page 72 and w rite the name o f the book, th e page o f th e sto ry and the name o f the s to ry on th e p u p i l !s work s h e e t. The p re p a ra tio n fo r James Brown is then com pleted. The p re p a ra tio n f o r each c h ild is to be made in th is manner. In o rd er to s u s ta in the i n t e r e s t o f the c h ild , i t is a d v isa b le to give him an assignm ent in a d i f f e r e n t book each day i f th is is p o s s ib le . In o rd er to keep a sy stem atic account of the assignm ents fo r each c h ild so th a t they are d is tr ib u te d evenly among th e v ario u s books assig n ed f o r the re s p e c tiv e grade le v e ls each te a c h e r should keep a check l i s t e ith e r on cards o r in a notebook. Each time she makes an assignm ent, she should check th e block in which she makes the assignm ent so th a t th e se assignm ents are d is tr ib u te d p ro p e rly . A sample check l i s tr fo llo w s : M . W illiams EXPLORING TODAY y/ NEIGHBORS AND HELPERS 522 2 . At the beginning o f the c la s s p erio d , give the work sh e e t to each c h ild and have him f in d h is book among the books p laced on th e ta b le o r in some o th e r d esig n ated p la c e . As you hand th e work sh e e t to each c h ild , make an i n te r e s ti n g comment as m o tiv atio n , such as "Here is an i n te r e s tin g s to ry about C o lo n ial Days. I am sure you w i l l en joy i t . " Or, "Today X have a good s to r y f o r you about anim als. You’l l lik e i t , I am s u r e . ” A fte r the c h ild re n have t h e i r books and s t o r i e s , they should begin to re a d im m ediately. The te a c h e r should su p e r v ise c a re fu lly by h elp in g th e c h ild re n w ith vocabulary d i f f i c u ltie s or by a s c e rta in in g the reaso n f o r la ck o f i n t e r e s t or f a i l u r e to re a d and then by remedying the s it u a ti o n . The c h ild re n should n o t meet w ith m ajor vocabulary d i f f i c u l t i e s , however, as each c h ild i s read in g acco rd in g to h is vocabulary le v e l and should, ac co rd in g ly , be in te r e s te d and a b le to read w e ll. 3. A fte r the c h ild re n have read 35 minutes under clo se su p e rv isio n and guidance they should take t h e i r work sh e ets and use th e rem aining te n minutes to r e p o r t th e d a y ’s work as in d ic a te d on th e se s h e e ts . Then th e se work sh e ets should be c o lle c te d and saved f o r fu tu re re fe re n c e . Each S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Heading Period is to be con ducted in t h i s manner. I t is im portant th a t each c h ild reads during the e n t ir e p e rio d . I f the m a te ria l is too d i f f i c u l t , provide an e a s ie r s e le c tio n . I I I . O ral R e c re a tio n a l Reading and D iscussion During t h is p erio d the p u p ils assem ble as an audience group. Each p u p il should have the s to r y th a t in te r e s te d him the most d u rin g the th re e previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l re a d ing le s s o n s . He should t e l l the c la s s b r i e f l y about h is s to r y , make p erso n al comments and re a d in te r e s ti n g p a r ts . G eneral d isc u ssio n and q u estio n in g should follow each p u p i l ’s read in g such as would take place in any audience s it u a ti o n le sso n . I t is evident t h a t th e p u p ils should be to ld d u rin g th e previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l p erio d s th a t they should s e le c t and prepare the s to ry they lik e the b e s t f o r th is p e rio d . Divide the perio d in such a manner th a t each p u p il has an o p p o rtu n ity to re a d o r a lly . Encourage the p u p ils to CONSTRUCTIVELY CRITICIZE each p u p i l ’s o r a l re a d in g and in th is manner a id him in improving h is technique in o r a l read in g . 525 MANNER OF CONDUCTING THE VARIOUS LESSON TYPES - - PROGRAM IV I , Work-Type S ile n t Reading During th is p erio d th e p u p ils a re to be given the G ates-Peardon P ra c tic e E x ercises in Reading. Open each p e r i od w ith proper m o tiv a tio n . O rd in a rily one or two e x e rc ise s can be completed during one ij-5 minute p e rio d . The l a s t 15 m inutes is to be used f o r o ra l c la s s checking o f resp o n ses. At the end of the p erio d the papers are to be c o lle c te d and l a t e r checked by th e te a c h e r. At the beginning of each work- type c la s s p erio d r e tu r n th e previous papers and in s t r u c t the p u p ils how to c o rre c t and improve t h e i r resp o n se s. I I . S ile n t R e c re a tio n a l Reading Prepare f o r th is p e rio d the previous evening in the fo llo w in g manner: 1 . Take your l i s t of rem edial p u p ils arranged accord ing to grade le v e ls . Note the grade le v e l fo r the re sp e c tiv e p u p il. W rite h is name on th e work s h e e t. Choose a book from th o se l i s t e d fo r th a t re s p e c tiv e grade le v e l. Now take your EDUCATIONAL BOOK LIST, fin d th a t grade le v e l, look f o r th a t book and fin d a s to r y th a t you w ish t h a t re s p e c tiv e p u p il to read. W rite the name o f the book, the page o f the s to r y , and the name o f the sto ry on the work s h e e t. For example, suppose James Brown is in the f i f t h grade and is on grade le v e l th re e . According to th e Book L is t HELPERS AT W O R K has been purchased f o r grade le v e l th re e in the f i f t h grade in your sc h o o l. Turn to th e EDUCATIONAL BOOK LIST and fin d the s t o r i e s in HELPERS AT TfORK . Choose one, f o r ex ample, ’’Grandmother Comes to Town,” page 72 and w rite the name o f the book, th e page of th e sto ry and the name o f the s to r y on th e p u p i l fs work sh e e t. The p re p a ra tio n fo r James Brown is then com pleted. The p re p a ra tio n fo r each c h ild is to be made in t h i s manner. In o rd er to s u s ta in the i n t e r e s t o f the c h ild , i t is a d v isa b le to give him an assignm ent in a d if f e r e n t book each day i f th is is p o s s ib le . In o rd er to keep a sy stem a tic account o f th e assignm ents f o r each c h ild so th a t th e y are d is tr ib u te d evenly among the v ario u s assig n ed books f o r the re s p e c tiv e grade le v e ls each te a c h e r should keep a check l i s t e i th e r on cards or in a notebook. Each time she makes an assignm ent, she should check the block in which she make3 the assignm ent so th a t th e se assignm ents a re d is tr ib u te d p ro p e rly . A sample check l i s t follow s: 52k EXPLORING TODAY NEIGHBORS AND HELPERS . W illiam s y'' 2 . At th e beginning of the c la s s p erio d , give the work sh e e t to each c h ild and have h im .fin d h is book among the books placed on the ta b le o r in some o th e r d esig n ated place* As you hand th e work s h e e t to each c h ild , make an in te r e s ti n g comment as m o tiv atio n , 3uch as 1 1 Here is an in t e r e s t i n g s to r y about C o lo n ial Days* I am su re you w ill enjoy i t . ” Or, ’ ’Today I have a good s to ry f o r you about anim als. You’l l lik e i t , I am s u re . A fte r the c h ild re n have t h e i r books and s t o r i e s , they should begin to read im m ediately. The te a c h e r should su p e r v is e c a r e f u lly by h e lp in g th e c h ild re n w ith vocabulary d i f f i c u ltie s or by a s c e r ta in in g the reason fo r lack o f i n t e r e s t or f a i l u r e to read and then by remedying th e s it u a t i o n . The c h ild re n should meet w ith no major vocabulary d i f f i c u l t i e s , however, as each c h ild is read in g according to h is vocabulary le v e l and should, ac co rd in g ly , be in te r e s te d and a b le to read w e ll. 3* A fte r the c h ild re n have read 20 m inutes under clo se su p e rv isio n and guidance they should take t h e i r work sh e ets and use 10 minutes to re p o rt the d ay ’s work as i n d i cated on th e se s h e e ts . Then th e se sh e e ts should be c o l le c te d and saved f o r fu tu re re fe re n c e . The rem aining 15 m inutes is to be used fo r d r i l l in the mechanics of re a d in g . EYE AND EAR PUN by Stone and ADVENTURES IN DICTIONARY LAND by Lewis are to be used fo r th is purpose. D is tr ib u te the books according to the a b i l i t y of each p u p il. For example, i f Book I I and Book I I I were ordered fo r your room, give Book I I to those p u p ils needing the most d r i l l in phonics on th a t re s p e c tiv e le v e l and give Book I I I to th o se p u p ils who have some foundation in Phonics. You w ill n o tic e th a t Book I I I gives b a s ic review le sso n s. Since th e p u p ils are to w rite the e x e rc ise s on paper, the d ir e c tio n s fo r the e x e rc ise s w i l l have to be adapted ac co rd in g ly . During the perio d w hile the p u p ils are working take the time to go to each p u p il and show him what is r ig h t and what is wrong about th e e x e rc ise he worked the previous day. S ince^the c h ild re n a r e on v a rio u s le v e ls i t is n ecessary fo r th e p u p ils to work in d iv id u a lly • However, i f a s u f f i c ie n t number o f p u p ils a re u sin g th e same book, the e x e rc ise 525 may be taken more as a c la ss e x e rc ise and c o rre c tio n s and su g g estio n s may be given in g e n e ra l. These 15 minute d r i l l s in phonics a re to be given a t the end of each SILENT RECREATIONAL READING PERIOD. There fo re , the p u p ils w i l l have a 15 m inute d r i l l in phonics th re e tim es each week. Each SILENT RECREATIONAL READING PERIOD is conducted in the manner d escrib ed above. Twenty m inutes is to be de voted to s i l e n t read in g , 10 m inutes to checking upon the read in g by using th e work s h e e t and th e rem aining 15 m inutes to d r i l l in phonetics by u sin g the EYE A N D EAR PUN W O RK BO O K S and ADVENTURES IN DICTIONARY LAND. I t is im portant th a t each c h ild reads during the e n t ir e 20 m inutes of th e p e rio d . I f the m a te ria l is too d i f f i c u l t , provide an e a s ie r s e le c tio n . I I I . Oral R e c re a tio n a l Reading and D iscussion During th is p erio d the p u p ils assemble as an audience group. Each p u p il should have the s to ry th a t I n te r e s t e d him the most d u rin g the th re e previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l re a d ing le s s o n s . He should t e l l the c la s s b r i e f l y about h is s to r y , make p erso n al comments and read I n te r e s tin g p a r ts . G eneral d isc u ssio n and q u e stio n in g should follow each p u p il* s re a d in g such as would take place in any audience s it u a ti o n le sso n . I t is ev id e n t th a t the p u p ils should be to ld during the previous s i l e n t r e c r e a tio n a l p erio d s th a t they should s e l e c t and prepare th e s to ry th e y lik e the b e s t fo r t h is p e rio d . Divide the p erio d in such a manner th a t each p u p il has an o p p o rtu n ity to read o r a lly . Encourage the p u p ils to CONSTRUCTIVELY CRITICIZE each p u p il* s o r a l read in g and in th is manner a id him in improving h is tech n iq u e in o r a l re a d in g . WORK SHEET I 526 NAME OP PU PIL _______________________________________ BOOK______________ STORY______ • PAGE__ T e ll us about the s to r y you have Ju st read by answ ering the fo llow ing q u e stio n s: 1 . What is the name o f the sto ry you have ju s t read? 2 . W ho w rote the s to ry ? 3. How many c h a ra c te rs were th e re in th is sto ry ?____ [j.. W rite the names o f th e c h a r a c te r s ._________________ 5. W rite the name o f th e most im portant c h a ra c te r. 6. T e ll one th in g the most im portant c h a ra c te r d id . 5 2 7 WORK SHEET I I NAME OP PU PIL_________________ _ _ ______________________________________ _ BOOK_____________________ ____________________ STORY_________________________ - PAGE_____ W e should lik e to know something about the s to ry you have ju s t read . You can t e l l us by answ ering the fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s . 1 . W rite the t i t l e of the s to ry you have ju s t read . 2. Was th e sto ry a b o u t people, anim als, p la c e s, or th in g s ? 5. Where did the s to r y take p lace? ij.. Do you th in k o th e r boys and g i r l s would lik e to read th is sto ry ? _____________ __________________________________ Why?____________________________________ • ____________ 5 * Is the s to r y b e t t e r f o r boys or f o r g i r l s ? ___________ Why? WORK SHEET III 528 NAME OP PUPIL_________________________________________________________ BOOK_________ : ___________ _ STORY_______________________ PAGE____ Here a re some of th e th in g s we would lik e to know about th e s to ry you have ju s t re a d . Do you th in k th a t you can t e l l us by answ ering these q u estio n s? 1 . What is the t i t l e of the sto ry ? 2 . Was th e re a hero in your s to ry ? ______ ________________ 3. What did he do th a t made him a hero? ____________ [j.. Were th e re any e x c itin g p a rts in the s to ry ? 5 . T e ll about one o f th e e x c itin g p a r ts in ju s t one or two s e n te n c e s . WORK SHEET IV 529 N A M E O P PUPIL BO O K STORY PAGE Try j u s t re a d . to t e l l us som ething ab o u t th e s to r y you have Maybe th e se q u e s tio n s w i l l h e lp you. 1. W ho w rote th i s s to ry ? 2 . L id the s to r y rem ind you o f any b e fo re ? o th e r you have read 3 . Did th e s to r y make you f e e l sad , happy, o r e x c ite d ? Ij.. Did you le a r n an y th in g new in t h i s s to r y t h a t you d id n ?t know b e fo re ? Can you t e l l ua about i t in ju s t one o r two se n te n c e s? 550 WORK SHEET V NAME OP PUPIL BO O K STORY PAGE Maybe o th e r boys and g i r l s would l i k e to know ab o u t th e s to r y you have ju s t re a d . You can t e l l them by answ ering th e s e q u e s tio n s . 1. Did th is s to r y i n t e r e s t you? 2. Why or why n o t? 5* T e ll in one se n ten c e about th e p a r t o f th e s to ry you lik e d b e s t . Ij.. Would you lik e to read a n o th e r s to r y l i k e t h i s one? 5« Where d id th is s to r y happen?

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Creator Niess, Mary Vera (author)

Core Title A critical study of certain physiological, emotional, and motivating factors as determining elements in a remedial reading program

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, reading,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-402139

Unique identifier UC11243508

Identifier usctheses-c26-402139 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP23459.pdf

Dmrecord 402139

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Niess, Mary Vera

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA