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Methods in teacher recruitment, November 1946

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Methods in teacher recruitment, November 1946

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Content METHODS IN TEACH® RECRUITMENT
A D i s s e r t a t i o n
P re s e n te d to
th e F a c u lty o f th e G raduate School
U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a lif o r n i a
I n P a r t i a l F u lf i llm e n t
o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e D egree
D octor o f P h ilo so p h y
fey
W illiam Norman Wampler
November 1946
UMI Number: DP23975
All rights reserved
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This dissertation, written by
WILLIAM. . N.QRMAN, _ .WAMPLER.........
under the guidance of Aa... Faculty Committee
on Studies, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Council
on Graduate Study and Research, in partial ful
fillment of requirements for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
D ean
Secretary
D ate.. .November.. .11 * . . . 1.9.46
C om m ittee on Studies
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PACE
I . INTRODUCTION . . ................................................ . . . . 1
S tate m e n t o f th e p r o b l e m ................................................ 1
Need f o r th e s tu d y .................................. 5
Many q u it te a c h in g d u rin g war p e rio d . . . . 3
S u b -sta n d a rd p e rso n n e l were employed . . . . 4
Few te a c h e r s a r e b ein g t r a i n e d ....................... . 5
S h o rta g e was n o t over w ith w ar’ s end . . . . 5
A spects o f th e problem i n C a l i f o r n i a ................... 6
A u th o r itie s e x p e c t c o n tin u e d s h o rta g e . . . . 6
P o p u la tio n in c r e a s e a c c e n tu a te s problem . . . 8
Extended p e rio d o f s h o rta g e i s ex p e cte d . . . 8
P ostw ar need f o r t e a c h e r s ....................... 11
B i r t h r a t e h a s in c r e a s e d . . . ............................. 11
E d u c a tio n a l s e r v ic e s have been expanded. . . 12
Scope o f th e problem . . ..................................... . 13
Em phasis on r e c r u itm e n t i s e s s e n t i a l . . . . 13
C e rta in a s p e c ts a r e em phasized in stu d y . . . 14
Many a s p e c ts a r e n o t c o n s id e r e d ............................. 14
B a sic a s su m p tio n s....................... 16
R e la te d s t u d i e s . . * ......................................................... 17
L i t t l e r e s e a r c h has been com pleted . . . . . 17
D ata w ere found on r e a s o n f o r choosing
t e a c h i n g ............................................................................. 19
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CHAPTER PAGE
Supply and demand s tu d i e s are numerous . . . SO
I I . THE PROCEDURE...................................... 3S
Survey o f th e l i t e r a t u r e .................................. S3
F orm atio n o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e ............................... 84
S ubm ission to e d u c a tio n a l a u t h o r i t i e s ........ 28
S p o n so rsh ip by C a l i f o r n i a T ea ch ers
A s s o c ia tio n .................................................................. 29
S e le c tio n o f r e c i p i e n t s of q u e s tio n n a ir e . . . 30
C o lle c tio n and t a b u l a t i o n of q u e s tio n n a ire
r e s p o n s e s . • • • .......................................... 32
A n a ly sis o f d a t a ....................................................... 33
P e rc e n ta g e o f a c c e p ta b le r a t i n g s were
re c o rd e d ............................. . . . . . . . . . . 33
V a li d ity and r e l i a b i l i t y were in v e s t i g a t e d . 35
Summary and recom m endation of r e c r u itm e n t
p ro c e d u re s f o r th e s t a t e o f C a lif o r n i a . . . 36
XXI. THE EMERGENCY CREDENTIAL AS A RECRUITMENT
DEVICE ...................................................................................... 38
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e c h a p te r .......................................... 38
A p p ra isa l o f th e emergency c r e d e n t i a l as found
i n e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e ................................ 39
Emergency p e r m its were l e g a l i z e d ............. 39
Many w ere employed w ith emergency p e r m its . . 41
Much o p p o s itio n to emergency l e g i s l a t i o n
iv
C H A P T E R PA C E
h as b een e x p r e s s e d ................................... ................. 42
Many f e a r perm anent r e t e n t i o n . . .. .. .. 45
A p p ra isa l o f th e emergency c r e d e n t i a l as found
i n comments on q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s . . . . 44
G ra n tin g o f em ergency p e r m its w ith v a ry in g
e d u c a tio n a l s ta n d a rd s . ........................................... 47
Two y e a rs c o lle g e p lu s one y e a r ’ s e x p e rie n c e
was c o n sid e re d p r a c t i c a l by a m in o rity . . 47
Two y e a rs c o lle g e p lu s i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g
program re c e iv e d h ig h e s t m in o rity
ap p ro v al . . . . . ..................................................... 51
Two y e a rs c o lle g e p lu s tw elv e se m ester u n i t s
i n e d u c a tio n re c e iv e d m in o rity su p p o rt . . 53
Two y e a rs c o lle g e w ith no a d d i tio n a l
re q u ire m e n ts was g e n e r a lly condemned . . . 55
High sc h o o l g ra d u a tio n p lu s summer sc h o o l
was n o t su p p o rte d . ............................ 57
High sc h o o l g ra d u a tio n p lu s i n - s e r v i c e
t r a i n i n g program was condemned . . . . . . 59
P e rm its w ith o u t s p e c i f i c re q u ire m e n ts were
n o t c o n sid e re d a c c e p ta b le ...................................... 61
Summary o f o p in io n r e g a r d in g is s u a n c e of
emergency te a c h in g p e r m i t s ....................................... 65
XV. PERMANENT ALTERATION OF REGULAR CERTIFICATION
V
CHAPTER PAGE
r e q u ir e m e n t s............................................................................. 66
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e e h a p t e r ............................................ 66
G en eral r e a c t i o n to perm anent a l t e r a t i o n
o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s ....................................... 67
Renewing a l l c r e d e n t i a l s v a l i d a t any tim e
d u rin g p a s t f i f t e e n y e a rs . ........................ 70
Perm anent s ta n d a rd s were r e l e a s e d ............ 70
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e t u r n s i n d i c a t e o p p o s itio n
to renew al o f la p s e d c r e d e n t i a l s ........ 72
Making m inor a d ju s tm e n ts i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n
re q u ire m e n ts n o t in v o lv in g a p p r e c ia b le
lo w e rin g o f s ta n d a r d s ................................. 74
T his s u g g e s tio n was n o n - s p e c if ic i n n a tu r e . 74
O n e -th ird o f re s p o n d e n ts gave a p p ro v a l . . . 74
Suspending a d d i t i o n a l re q u ire m e n ts f o r ren ew al
o f c r e d e n t i a l s i n s t a t e s where r e q u ir e d . . . 75
A d d itio n a l t r a i n i n g was n o rm ally r e q u ir e d . . 75
L i t t l e v a lu e was se en i n su sp en d in g
r e q u i r e m e n t s ..................... * ......................................... 78
P e r m ittin g c e r t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h ex a m in a tio n
to supplem ent c e r t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h
c o u rse w ork................................................................... .... . 80
E xam ination was u s u a l b a s i s i n p a s t ........ 80
Q uestionnaire returns condemned
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C H A P T E R PA G E
e x a m i n a t i o n s ............................ 82
Low ering in d iv id u a l s u b je c t re q u ire m e n t
fo r c e r t i f i c a t i o n ................................. . . * . . . 82
S u b je c t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n was q u e stio n e d by
some 82
R espondents r e j e c t e d academ ic r e d u c tio n . . . 85
S tre a m lin in g p r o f e s s io n a l e d u c a tio n r e q u i r e
m ents w ith em phasis on e l im in a tio n of
d u p lic a tio n s * ................................................................... 87
Amount and o r g a n iz a tio n o f e d u c a tio n
c o u rs e s were f r e q u e n tly c r i t i c i z e d . . . ♦ 87
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e t u r n s in d ic a te d c o n s id e ra b le
su p p o rt f o r s tr e a m lin in g e d u c a tio n
c o u r s e s ................................................................................. 89
A b o lish in g re q u ire m e n t of s p e c if ie d c o lle g e
c o u rse s w ith in th e s t a t e .............................................. 92
C e r t i f i c a t i o n b a r r i e r s l i m i t m ig ra tio n . . . 92
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts opposed b a r r i e r s . 94
G iving r e g u l a r c e r t i f i c a t i o n to emergency
te a c h e rs , a f t e r two y e a rs te a c h in g on
recom m endation of sch o o l o f f i c i a l ........................... 97
P r e s s u r e f o r r e t e n t i o n may be ex p ected . . . 97
E d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s opposed r e t e n t i o n . . . . 98
Q uestionnaire returns showed strong
v i i
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o p p o s i t i o n ................................................................ 99
Summary o f o p in io n re g a rd in g perm anent
a l t e r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r c e r t i f i c a t i o n ............ 101
V. EXPEDITING TRMNING OPPGRTXMCTIES FOB BOTH
EMERGENCY AND STANDARD CEBTIF 10 ATI O N ............ 104
O rg a n iz a tio n of th e c h a p te r . . .......................... 104
G eneral r e a c t i o n to e x p e d itin g t r a i n i n g
o p p o r tu n iti e s . ......................................................... 105
A c c e le ra tio n has been p r a c t ic e d d u rin g
s h o r t a g e ........................................................... 105
D isagreem ent on a c c e l e r a t i o n was
p r o n o u n c e d ................................................................ 105
Running c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s on a
th r e e - s e m e s te r a y e a r b a s i s ......................... ... 106
T h re e -se m e ste r p la n was common d u rin g war. . 106
T h re e -se m e ste r p la n was f r e q u e n tly
opposed.......................................................................... 113
F u l l summer term was a d v o c a t e d ..................... 114
q u e s tio n n a ir e r a t i n g s showed p la n n o t
su p p o rte d . 114
P ro v id in g r e f r e s h e r c o u rse s in te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s ............................................. 116
V a rio u s r e f r e s h e r p r a c t i c e s were adopted . . 116
q uestionn aire respondents valued the plan. . 118
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E s ta b lis h i n g e x te n s io n c l a s s e s f o r th o se
u n ab le to a tte n d r e g u l a r t r a i n i n g
i n s t i t u t i o n s . . ................................................................... 119
E x te n s io n e o u rse s a r e w id ely u se d . . . . . . 119
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts r a te d p la n
h ig h ly ................................................................................ 121
S u b s id iz in g o f t r a i n i n g f o r emergency te a c h e r s
on low er s a la r y th a n o th e r b e g in n in g te a c h
e r s to encourage sta n d a rd c e r t i f i c a t i o n . . . 122
Many a r e n o t se e k in g sta n d a rd
c e r t i f i c a t i o n ................................................................... 122
M in o rity o f q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts
approved s u b s id ie s f o r emergency te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g ........................ .... . .................................. 125
Summary o f o p in io n re g a r d in g e x p e d itin g
t r a i n i n g f o r b o th emergency and s ta n d a rd
c e r t i f i c a t i o n . ................................. 124
VI. INCREASED PUBLICITY CONCERNING EDUCATION’S
NEEDS A N D ITS PERSONNEL. . . ....................... 127
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e c h a p t e r ........................................... 127
P ro v id in g i n t e n s i v e new spaper, m agazine, and
r a d io p u b l i c i t y on need f o r te a c h e r s and
o p p o rtu n ity f o r e m p lo y m e n t...................................... 127
Needs r e c e n t l y g iv en wide p u b l i c i t y . . . . . 127
ix
CHAPTER PA3E
A t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s need p u b l i c i t y ........... 128
D ram atic f e a t u r e s need em p h asis..................... 131
P u b l i c i t y needs to be s e l e c t i v e ..................... 132
The m otion p i c t u r e has p u b l i c i t y v a lu e . . . 134
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts u rged p u b l i c i t y , . 135
U sing p o s te r s as a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e ........... 136
P o s te r s a re common r e c r u itm e n t medium. . . . 136
R espondents doubted v a lu e o f p o s te r s . . . . 139
P ro v id in g p u b l i c i t y f o r p u rp o se o f im proving
s o c i a l s t a t u s o f te a c h e r s ............................ 141
Low p r e s t i g e i s a c a u se f o r concern* . . . . 141
Cver f e m in iz a tio n may low er p r e s t i g e . . . . 143
S ta tu s low ered by community r e s t r i c t i o n . . . 144
Lack o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n community l i f e
may low er p r e s t i g e ..................................... 146
Wise p u b l i c i t y can r a i s e te a c h e r p r e s t i g e . . 149
T eacher i s m ost im p o rta n t p u b l i c i t y a g e n t. . 150
Summary of o p in io n r e g a r d in g p u b l i c i t y on
e d u c a tio n ’ s needs and i t s p e r s o n n e l. . . . . 154
V II. REGRUITMiNT FOR TEACHER TRAINING......................... 157
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e c h a p te r ................................... 157
Em phasizing i n s o c ia l s t u d i e s c o u rse s th e
v a lu e o f e d u c a tio n a s a v o c a t i o n ................ 158
Study of voca tio n s has long been p racticed . 158
X
CHAPTER PAGE
R e sea rc h su p p o rte d v o c a tio n a l em phasis . . . 160
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e t u r n s showed b e l i e f i n
v a lu e o f v o c a tio n a l em phasis i n s o c ia l
s t u d i e s ................................................................................. 161
Em phasizing e d u c a tio n as a v o c a tio n i n h ig h
sch o o l and ju n io r c o lle g e guidance
p r o g r a m s ................................................................................. 163
Guidance i s im p o rta n t sc h o o l o f f e r in g . . . . 163
P o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f g u id an ce tow ard te a c h in g
i s f r e q u e n tly n o t r e a l i z e d . .. . . . . . 165
O pinion d i f f e r s as to d e s i r a b i l i t y of
g u id an ce a s r e c r u itm e n t m e d iu m ........................ 166
G uidance program can b e s e l e c t i v e . . . . . . 167
The p la n h as been s u b s t a n t i a t e d ....................... . 16©
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e t u r n s showed v a lu e of p la n . 170
P ro v id in g c o n fe re n c e s w ith r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
from te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s .................... 173
Much v i s i t a t i o n was p r a c t ic e d i n p a s t . . . . 173
Q u e s tio n n a ire r a t i n g s in d ic a t e d su p p o rt
f o r v i s i t a t i o n .................................................... 174
D i s t r i b u t i n g re c r u itm e n t b u l l e t i n s to
g ra d u a tin g h ig h sc h o o l and ju n io r c o lle g e
s t u d e n t s ................................................................................. 177
B u l l e t i n s are now f r e q u e n tly u s e d ........................ 177
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Q u e stio n n a ire r e t u r n s in d ic a te d some v a lu e
i n c o lle g e b u l l e t i n s • 179
E lim in a tin g t u i t i o n f e e s in p u b lic te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g c o u rs e s * .......................................................... 181
Trend i s tow ard f r e e c o l l e g i a t e t u i t i o n . . . 181
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e t u r n s in d ic a te d l i t t l e
v a lu e i n e lim in a tio n o f t u i t i o n . * . . . * 183
P ro v id in g s c h o la r s h ip s f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g . . 185
P r i v a t e fu n d s were u s u a l so u rc e i n p a s t . . . 185
F l o r i d a has a m b itio u s s t a t e s c h o la r s h ip
p l a n ...................................................................................... 187
M a jo rity of q u e s tio n n a ir e groups r a t e d
s c h o la r s h ip s h ig h ly ..................................................... 188
R e c r u itin g among c o lle g e l i b e r a l a r t s s tu d e n ts
who have n o t made a v o c a tio n a l choice* . . . 191
L ib e r a l a r t s s tu d e n ts r e p r e s e n t l a r g e
p e rc e n ta g e o f t o t a l . .................... 191
L i t t l e has been done to in f lu e n c e v o c a tio n a l
ch o ice o f l i b e r a l a r t s s tu d e n ts . . . . * . 191
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts opposed r e c r u i t
ment among l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s ...................... 194
S tr e s s in g th e program o f th e f u t u r e te a c h e r s
of Am erica o r g a n iz a tio n .................... ........................... 196
The o r g a n iz a tio n i s o f r e c e n t o r i g i n . . . . 196
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C H A P T E R P A G E
Q u e st!o n n a ire r e t u r n s in d ic a te d o n ly m odest
v a lu e i n th e o r g a n iz a tio n ................................. . 198
Summary o f o p in io n r e g a r d in g m ethods o f
r e c r u itm e n t f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g ................ 201
V II I. MISCELLANEOUS PROCEDURES TO ALLEVIATE TEACHER
SHORTAGES. . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... 204
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e c h a p t e r . ..................... ... 204
E lim in a tin g th e sm all c l a s s e s i n m a rg in a l,
" n o n - e s s e n t i a l ” c o u rs e s . ....................................... 205
T h is was advocated b o th d u rin g economic
d e p re s s io n and p e rio d o f World War I I . . . 205
The brand " n o n - e s s e n tia l" was used by many . 206
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts were not
im pressed w ith v a lu e o f e lim in a tin g
" n o n - e s s e n t i a l s " ........................................ ... 207
I n c r e a s in g c l a s s s i z e s 20 to 30 p e r c e n t . . . 209
Some r e s e a r c h su p p o rte d th e s u g g e s tio n . . . 209
In c r e a s e o f c l a s s s i z e was th o ro u g h ly
r e j e c t e d by q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n d e n ts . . . 211
E x p e d itin g , th ro u g h l e g i s l a t i v e enactm ent,
c o n s o lid a tio n o f s c h o o ls so a s to re d u c e
number o f te a c h e r s n e e d e d ................................... 213
Movement i s c o m p a ra tiv e ly r e c e n t ................ 213
The p la n does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y red u ce need* . 214
x i i i
C H A P T E R PA C E
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e tu r n s showed s tr o n g
s u p p o r t.................................. • • • . • • • • . . 315
P e r m ittin g c o lle g e s tu d e n ts i n l a s t y e a r o f
t r a i n i n g to a c t a s p a id te a c h e r s , under
s p e c ia l s u p e rv is io n , i n l i e u of r e g u la r
p r a c t i c e te a c h i n g ................................. 217
P la n would n o t in c r e a s e e v e n tu a l number. . . 217
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts were unim pressed . 219
C o n tro llin g te a e h e r su p p ly th ro u g h f l e x i b l e
r e g u la tio n o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a rd s by
s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts .............................................................. 219
The p la n r e p r e s e n ts an a tte m p t to e q u a liz e
su p p ly and demand. ................................................ 221
F le x ib le c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a rd s were n o t
approved by many q u e s tio n n a ire re sp o n d
e n ts • • • • • » . . * • • • • • • • • • • 222
Empowering s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts to s e t y e a r ly
q u o ta s, based on need, r e g u la tin g number
o f s tu d e n ts p e rm itte d e n te r in g te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s ..................................................... 224
The p la n would be d i f f i c u l t to a d m in is te r. . 224
P la n c o u p les e f f ic ie n c y w ith regim en
t a t i o n . ........................................................................ 225
Q uestionnaire respondents feared the plan. . 226
x iv
C H A P T E R PA G E
R e q u irin g te a c h e r c a n d id a te r e g i s t r a t i o n and
d i s t r i c t vacancy l i s t i n g w ith s t a t e d e p a r t
m ents w hich th e n become e x c lu s iv e c l e a r in g
house f o r a l l p la c e m e n t................................................ 828
No u n ifo rm placem ent system e x i s t s ..................... 229
S t a t e r e g u l a t i o n would re d u c e c o n fu sio n
h u t would l i m i t f r e e e n t e r p r i s e ............. 230
S t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f p lacem en t was n o t
fav o red by q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts . . . 232
R e q u irin g te a c h e r c a n d id a te r e g i s t r a t i o n and
d i s t r i c t vacancy l i s t i n g w ith s t a t e or
f e d e r a l employment s e r v ic e which would th e n
become e x c lu s iv e c l e a r in g house f o r a l l
te a c h e r p la c e m e n t................................................... 234
Such c o n tr o l would c o m p le te ly remove
p lacem en t from hands o f p r o f e s s io n . . . . 234
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e tu r n s showed pronounced
o p p o s itio n to em p lo y m en t-serv ice p la c e
ment ...................................................................................... 236
Summary of o p in io n r e g a rd in g m is c e lla n e o u s
p ro c e d u re s to a l l e v i a t e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e s . . 236
IX. MATERIAL IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHING CONDITIONS. . . 240
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e c h a p t e r ................................ 240
S e t t i n g minimum s a la r y law a t approxim ate
XT
CHAPTER PAGE
l e v e l of s k i l l e d a r t i s a n ! o f s t a t e .................... 242
Many f e e l s a l a r y ad ju stm e n t to be o n ly
s i g n i f i c a n t s o l u t i o n ................................................ 242
S p e c if ic n a t i o n a l minimum i s n o t
p r a c t i c a l ..................................................................... 243
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e t u r n s in d ic a t e d s a la r y i s
of param ount im p o rtan ce to r e c r u itm e n t . . 244
P ro v id in g s u c c e s s iv e y e a rly s a la r y in c re m e n ts
b r in g in g minimum to a t l e a s t 25 p e r c e n t
above s t a r t i n g s a l a r y ............................................. 246
P re s e n t ty p e sc h e d u le s a r e of r e c e n t
o r i g i n .......................................................................... 246
A maximum double the minimum i s d e s i r a b l e . . 248
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts v a lu e d s a la r y
in crem en t p la n h i g h l y ........................................ 248
E q u a liz in g of s t a t e fin a n c e to p ro v id e aid
f o r a l l b u t th e w e a lth ie s t d i s t r i c t s . . . . 250
Numerous p la n s have been s u g g e s t e d ........... 250
Q u e s tio n n a ire r a t i n g s showed s t r i n g
s u p p o r t.......................................................................... 253
E q u a liz in g e d u c a tio n a l o p p o rtu n ity n a t i o n a l l y
by s u b s t a n t i a l a id f o r a l l b u t th e
w e a lth ie s t s t a t e s . .......................................................... 253
S ta te ed u cation al system lea d s to great
xvi
C H A P 'H E R P A G E
i n e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n ity . . . 253
Some f e a r f e d e r a l c o n tr o l w i l l r e s u l t . . . . 256
R espondents urged f e d e r a l e q u a l i z a t i o n . . . 258
P ro v id in g r e tir e m e n t law e q u a liz in g a t
l e a s t h a l f annual s a l a r y " a f t e r s e r v ic e o f
a p p ro x im a te ly t h i r t y y e a rs . . . ................ 260
T eacher r e tir e m e n t p la n s a re w id ely used . . 260
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts s tr o n g ly su p p o rte d
a d e q u ate r e tir e m e n t s y s t e m .......................... 262
E n a c tin g te n u re law in s u r in g perm anency of
employment a f t e r p ro b a tio n a ry p e rio d . . . . 262
Tenure l e g i s l a t i o n a tte m p ts to p r o t e c t
te a c h e r from u n ju s t d i s m i s s a l..................... 262
Some doubt v a lu e of te n u re p l a n ..................... 265
M a jo rity of re s p o n d e n ts th o u g h t te n u r e law s
cond u civ e to r e c r u i t m e n t ............................... 266
P ro v id in g s a b b a tic a l le a v e s of absence . . . . 268
R esearch on s a b b a tic a l le a v e s i s lim ite d . . 268
P la n was v alu ed by q u e s tio n n a ir e g ro u p s. . . 269
U n io n iz in g te a c h e r s in c lu d in g a f f i l i a t i o n
w ith n a t i o n a l la b o r groups ........................................... 271
A m in o rity have jo in e d la b o r g ro u p s........... 271
Labor a f f i l i a t i o n i s a c o n t r o v e r s i a l
i s s u e .............................................................................. 273
x v ii
C H A P T E R PA G E
Q u e s tio n n a ire g roups opposed a f f i l i a t i o n . . 274
A dopting r i g i d s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n to p re v e n t
e x c e s s iv e te a c h in g l o a d ........................................ 276
Numerous f a c t o r s in f lu e n c e l o a d ..................... 276
Load i s o f v i t a l co n c e rn to te a c h e r s . . . . 277
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts did n o t s tr o n g ly
in d o r s e s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f l o a d ............ 278
P ro v id in g in c re a s e d te a c h e r v o ic e i n sch o o l
a d m in is tr a tio n and s u p e r v is io n th ro u g h s t a t e
and d i s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n ........................................ 281
D em ocratic m ethods a re g e n e r a lly
a d v o c a te d ..................................................................... 281
Such m ethods a re d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in
o b j e c t i v e l y ................................................................ 282
L e g i s l a t i o n f o r d em o c ra tic a d m in is tr a tio n
was n o t g e n e r a lly a c c e p ta b le to
r e s p o n d e n ts ........................................... 285
Summary o f o p in io n r e g a r d in g m a te r ia l
improvement of te a c h in g c o n d itio n s ................... 285
X. SUM M ARY AND REC0M|iC2NDATI0NS........................................... . 289
Ten m ost fundam ental r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s . . 290
F in d in g s from l a s t s e c tio n o f q u e s tio n
n a i r e ................................. 290
Improvement o f te a c h in g c o n d itio n s re c e iv e d
x v iii
CHAPTER PAGE
ma jo r e m p h a s i s ............................................................... 290
M ajor f in d in g s of s tu d y ..................................................... 293
Most d e s i r a b l e p ro c e d u re s f o r r e c r u i t i n g
s u b -s ta n d a rd emergency t e a c h e r s ........................ 293
Perm anent changes i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a rd s
which w i l l a id te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t . . . . 294
D e s ira b le p ro c e d u re s f o r a c c e l e r a t i o n o f
t r a i n i n g ............................................................................. 295
P u b l i c i t y p ro c e d u re s which w i l l a id i n th e
r e c r u itm e n t o f t e a c h e r s ............................................ 296
E f f e c t i v e p ro c e d u re s f o r in f lu e n c in g
c h o ic e of e d u c a tio n a s a c a r e e r ........................ 297
D e fe n s ib le changes i n e d u c a tio n a l o r g a n i
z a tio n which w i l l re d u c e number o f
te a c h e r s n e e d e d ............................................................... 298
Changes a f f e c t i n g m a te r ia l w e lfa re o f
te a c h e r s which w i l l aid i n te a c h e r
r e c r u i t m e n t........................................................................ 299
P ro c e d u re s d e f e n s ib le i n tim e of te a c h e r
s h o rta g e which a re m a t e r i a l l y l e s s
d e s ir a b le as a perm anent p ro c e d u re . . . . 300
S uggested re c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s in v o lv in g
in h e r e n t d a n g e rs to e d u c a tio n ............................. 301
E x te n t o f agreem ent as to b e s t re c r u itm e n t
x ix
C H A P T E R PA G E
m ethods among e d u c a to rs w ith v a ry in g
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and i n v a r y in g
g e o g ra p h ic a l a r e a s ......................................................... 303
Recommended p ro c e d u re s f o r te a c h e r r e c r u i t
ment w ith em phasis on n eed s f o r
C a l i f o r n i a .................................................................. 306
Recommended perm anent r e c r u itm e n t
p r o c e d u r e s ............................................................................ 306
Recommended em ergency r e c r u itm e n t
p r o c e d u r e s ............................................................................ 309
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 311
APPENDIX.................................................................................................................. 3R0
LIST m TABLES
TA BLE PA G E
I . Is s u a n c e o f Emergency P e rm its f o r E lem entary
School T each ers A fte r Minimum o f Two Y ears
C o lleg e T ra in in g and One Y ear T eaching
E x p e rie n c e ....................... 50
I I . Is s u a n c e of Emergency P e rm its f o r E lem en tary
S chool T each ers A fte r Minimum o f Two Y ears
C o lle g e P lu s I n te n s i v e I n - S e r v ic e T ra in in g
P r o g r a m ................................. 52
I I I . Is s u a n c e o f Emergency P e rm its f o r E lem entary
School T eachers A fte r Minimum of Two Y ears
C o lle g e T ra in in g In c lu d in g Twelve S em ester
U n its i n E d u c a tio n .............................................................. 54
IY. Is s u a n c e o f Emergency P e rm its f o r E lem en tary
School T each ers A fte r Minimum o f Two Y ears
C o lle g e T r a in in g .......................................... 56
Y. Is s u a n c e o f Emergency P e rm its f o r E lem en tary
School T each ers A fte r High S chool
G ra d u a tio n P lu s I n te n s i v e Summer S chool
C ourse W o r k ............................................................................. 58
VI. Is s u a n c e of Emergency P e rm its f o r E lem entary
S chool T eachers A fte r High School
G ra d u a tio n P lu s I n te n s i v e I n -S e r v ic e
T ra in in g P rogram ............................ 60
TABLE
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
X II.
X III.
XXI
PAGE
Mo S p e c if ic R equirem ents f o r Is s u a n c e of
Emergency P e rm its f o r E lem entary School
T e a c h e rs; D eterm ined by Meeds . . . . . . . . . 62
P erm anent A l t e r a t i o n of R e g u la r C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R eq u irem en ts by Renewing A ll C r e d e n tia ls
V a lid At Any Time D uring P a s t F i f t e e n Y ears . . 73
Perm anent A l t e r a t i o n o f R e g u la r C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R eq u irem en ts by Making Minor A d ju stm en ts i n
C e r t i f i c a t i o n R equirem ents Mot In v o lv in g
A p p re c ia b le Low ering o f S t a n d a r d s .................. 76
Perm anent A l t e r a t i o n of R e g u lar C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R equirem ents by S uspending A d d itio n a l T ra in
in g R eq u irem en ts f o r Renewal of C r e d e n tia ls
i n S t a t e s Where I t I s R eq u ired . . . . . . . . . 79
Perm anent A l t e r a t i o n of R e g u lar C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R equirem ents by P e r m ittin g C e r t i f i c a t i o n
Through E x am in atio n to Supplem ent
C e r t i f i c a t i o n Through C ourse Work ............................. 83
Perm anent A l t e r a t i o n o f R e g u la r C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R eq u irem en ts by Lowering P r e s e n t Academic or
S p e c ia l S u b je c t R equirem ents For
C e r t i f i c a t i o n ............................................................................. 86
Perm anent A l t e r a t i o n o f R e g u la r C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R eq u irem en ts by S tre a m lin in g P re s e n t
x x ii
T A B IJE PA G E
R eq u irem en ts i n P r o f e s s i o n a l E d u c a tio n f o r
C e r t i f i c a t i o n With Em phasis on E lim in a tio n
o f D u p l i c a t i o n s ........................................................................ 90
XIV* Perm anent A l t e r a t i o n o f R e g u lar C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R equirem ents hy A b o lish in g R equirem ent of
Some S t a t e s T hat T eacher Must Have S p e c ifie d
Number o f U n its o f C o lleg e C r e d it Earned
W ith in Those S t a t e s ............................................................... 95
XV. P erm anent A l t e r a t i o n of R e g u la r C e r t i f i c a t i o n
R equirem ents by Perm anent C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f
S u b -S tan d ard Emergency T eachers A fte r Two
F u l l Y ears of T eaching i f R ated a s S u c c e s s fu l
by S chool D i s t r i c t O f f i c i a l s .................................................100
XVI. E x p e d itin g T ra in in g O p p o rtu n itie s f o r Both
Emergency and S ta n d a rd C e r t i f i c a t i o n
T each ers Through Running C o lle g e s and
U n i v e r s i t i e s on a T h re e -S e m e ste r-a -Y e a r
B a s i s ......................................................................................................107
XVII. E x p e d itin g T ra in in g O p p o r tu n itie s f o r Both
Emergency and S ta n d a rd C e r t i f i c a t i o n
T each ers Through P ro v id in g R e fre s h e r,
S upplem entary, or I n t e n s i v e C ourses i n
T eacher T ra in in g I n s t i t u t i o n s f o r P e rso n s
R e tu rn in g to T eaching o r T r a n s f e r r in g to
T A B L E
XVIXI.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
S h o rta g e F i e l d s . . . . .....................................................
E x p e d itin g T ra in in g O p p o rtu n itie s f o r Both
Emergency and S ta n d a rd C e r t i f i c a t i o n
T each ers Through E s ta b lis h i n g , W ith C o lle g e
S u p e rv is io n and C r e d it, E x te n s io n T eacher
T ra in in g C la s s e s f o r T each ers Who Cannot
A ttend R e g u la r T eacher T ra in in g I n s t i t u t i o n s . .
E x p e d itin g T ra in in g O p p o rtu n itie s f o r Both
Emergency and S tan d a rd C e r t i f i c a t i o n
T each ers Through D i s t r i c t S u b s id iz a tio n
o f T ra in in g f o r Those Emergency T each ers
on Lower S a la r y Than O ther B eginning
T each ers So As To E ncourage S ta n d a rd
C e r t i f i c a t i o n .............................................................................
In c re a s e d P u b l i c i t y C oncerning Reed f o r T eachers
by I n t e n s i v e Newspaper, M agazine, and R adio
P u b l i c i t y C oncerning Need f o r T eachers and
O p p o rtu n itie s f o r Employment............................................
In c re a s e d P u b l i c i t y C oncerning Need f o r T each ers
by N a tio n a l and S t a t e P o s te r Campaign
Comparable to That Used f o r M il ita r y
S e rv ic e s and N urses A id s.....................................................
P ro v is io n o f V o c a tio n a l G uidance U n its i n High
S chool and J u n io r C o lleg e S o c ia l S tu d ie s
xxiv
T A B L E PA G E
C ourses i n Which E d u c a tio n R e ce iv es a t
L e a s t E qual Em phasis With O ther
P r o f e s s i o n s ................................................................... 168
X X III. Emphasis i n High Sehool and J u n io r C o lleg e
G uidance Program on E d u c a tio n as a
C a re er Among Those F i t t e d f o r S u c c e s s fu l
T e a c h in g .................................................................................... 171
XXIV. C o n feren ces i n High S chool and J u n io r C o lle g e s
With R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s From T eacher T ra in in g
I n s t i t u t i o n s C oncerning D e s i r a b i l i t y o f
E n te r in g T eacher T r a i n i n g ...................................................175
XXV. S t a t e D epartm ent and T eacher T ra in in g
I n s t i t u t i o n R e c ru itm e n t B u l l e t i n s P la c e d
i n Hands o f G ra d u a tin g High School and
J u n io r C o lle g e S tu d e n ts ................................................ 180
XXVI. E lim in a tio n o f A ll T u itio n F ees f o r T eacher
T ra in in g C ourses i n S t a t e S upported
I n s t i t u t i o n s ...................................................................................184
XXVII. S c h o la r s h ip s , F in an ced by P u b lic o r P r i v a t e
F unds, F or T ra in in g of P ro s p e c tiv e
T e a c h e rs.............................. ........................................................189
XXVIII. D e f in ite R e cru itm en t Program Among L ib e r a l
A rts S tu d e n ts i n C o lle g e s Who O therw ise
Do Not Have W ell E s ta b lis h e d P r o f e s s io n a l
XXV
TA B L E PA G E
Alms..................................................................... . ........................... 195
XXIX. O rg a n iz a tio n o r In c re a s e d Em phasis of F u tu re
T eacher of America Clubs i n High S chools
and C o lle g e s ...................................................................................199
XXX. E lim in a te S m all C la s s e s i n M arg in al,
"N o n -E ss e n tia l" C ourses ................................................ 208
XXXI. I n c r e a s e Normal C la ss S iz e s 20 P e r Cent
to 30 P e r C e n t................................. 212
XXXII. E x p e d ite , Through L e g is la t iv e E nactm ent,
C o n s o lid a tio n o f R u ra l S ch o o ls So As To
Reduce Number o f T each ers N eeded...................................216
XXXIII. P erm it C o lle g e S tu d e n ts in T h eir L a s t Y ear o f
T ra in in g To Act As P a id T ea ch ers, Under
S p e c ia l S u p e rv is io n , i n L ieu o f R e g u la r
P r a c t i c e T eaching ............................................................... 220
XXXIV. C o n tro l T eacher Supply Through F le x ib l e
R e g u la tio n o f C e r t i f i c a t i o n S ta n d a rd s by
S t a t e D e p a r tm e n ts .....................................................................225
XXXV. Empower S t a t e D epartm ents to S e t Y early
Q uotas Which W ill R e g u la te , on B a s is o f Need,
th e Number o f S tu d e n ts P e rm itte d to E n te r
T eacher T ra in in g I n s t i t u t i o n s ........................................227
XXXVI. R e q u ire T eacher C an d id ate R e g i s t r a t i o n and
D i s t r i c t Vacancy L i s t i n g WTith S t a t e
xxvi
TA BLE PA C E
D epartm ent Which W ill Then Act As
E x c lu s iv e C le a rin g House F or A ll
T eacher P lacem ent ...................... . . . . . . . . . 233
XXXVII. R e q u ire T eacher C a n d id ate R e g i s t r a t i o n and
D i s t r i c t Vacancy L i s t i n g With S t a t e o r
F e d e r a l Employment S e rv ic e Which W ill Then
Act As E x c lu s iv e C le a r in g House F o r A ll
T eacher P l a c e m e n t .....................................................................237
XXXVIII. Minimum S a la ry Law S e t a t A pproxim ate L evel
o f S k ille d A rtisa n d of S t a t e .............................................245
XXXIX. P r o v is io n f o r S u c c e s s iv e Y e a rly S a la ry
In crem en t B rin g in g Maximum To At L e a st
25 P e r Cent Above S t a r t i n g S a l a r y .............................. 249
XL. Com plete S t a t e E q u a liz a tio n P la n In v o lv in g
S u b s ta n t ia l Aid For A ll But th e
W e a lth ie s t D i s t r i c t s . . ................................................ 254
XLI. N a tio n a l E q u a liz a tio n of E d u c a tio n a l
O p p o rtu n ity I n v o lv in g S u b s t a n t i a l Aid
F or A ll But th e W e a lth ie s t s t a t e s .............................. 259
XLII. R e tire m e n t Law P ro v id in g At L e a st H a lf
Annual S a la ry A fte r S e rv ic e o f A pproxi
m a te ly T h irty Y ears .......................................................... 263
XLIIX* Tenure Law Whieh I n s u r e s Permanency o f
Employment A fte r P ro b a tio n a r y P e rio d
xxv i i
TA BL E PA G E
U n less Board Can P rove J u s t Cause f o r
D i s m i s s a l ........................................................................ .... . 267
XLIV. S a b b a tic a l L eaves o f A bsence...................................................270
XLV. U n io n iz a tio n o f T each ers In c lu d in g
A f f i l i a t i o n With N a tio n a l L abor G roups. . . . 275
XLVI. More R ig id S t a t e R e g u la tio n to P re v e n t
E x ce sses i n T eaching Load, C la ss S iz e
o r E x tr a C u r r ic u la r A c t i v i t i e s ........................................280
XLVII. S t a t e and D i s t r i c t P r o v is io n s f o r In c re a s e d
T eacher V oice in S chool A d m in is tra tio n and
S u p e r v i s i o n ...................................................................................284
XLVIII. F a c to rs Most Fundam ental to T eacher
R e cru itm en t .............................................................................. 291
C H A P T E R I
INTRODUCTION
I . STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Among th e many unwholesome r e s u l t s em anating from
World War I I was th e developm ent o f a o r i t i o a l and p e r s i s t
e n t s h o rta g e o f te a c h e r s i n ev e ry s e c tio n o f th e n a t io n .
W hile th e sc h o o l I s n o t a lo n e i n i t s need f o r t r a i n e d p e r
so n n e l, th e u n p a r a l le le d im p o rta n ce o f i t s s e r v ic e s and th e
d i s a s t r o u s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s i n th e ev e n t o f i t s f a i l u r e to
f u n c tio n a re a c a u se o f g rav e co n c ern b o th to e d u c a tio n a l
l e a d e r s and to th e p u b lic g e n e r a lly .
I t i s th e g e n e ra l p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y to su rv ey ex
p e r t o p in io n a s to th e v a lu e o f numerous su g g e ste d m ethods
o f te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t. By an ex a m in atio n o f e d u c a tio n a l
l i t e r a t u r e and a q u e s tio n n a ir e ca n v ass o f e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s
t h e i r a p p r a i s a l was so u g h t a s to th e s o c i a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l
im p l ic a tio n s o f, and in h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t a c t i v i t i e s . Only c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f
te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t w ere, however, c o n s id e re d th e s p e c i f i c
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e s tu d y . They a r e a s fo llo w s :
1. What p ro c e d u re s a re c o n s id e re d m ost d e s i r a b l e i n
th e r e c r u itm e n t o f p e rs o n s who can be c e r t i f i c a t e d
on a su b s ta n d a rd , em ergency b a s is f o r im m ediate
What perm anent changes i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a rd s
a re c o n s id e re d d e s i r a b l e a s a means o f a id in g
te a c h e r re c ru itm e n t?
What p ro c e d u re s a re c o n s id e re d d e s i r a b l e f o r th e
a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t r a i n i n g f o r e i t h e r emergency o r
sta n d a rd c e r t i f i c a t i o n ?
What p u b l i c i t y p ro c e d u re s a re c o n s id e re d d e s i r a b l e
i n th e r e c r u itm e n t of te a c h e rs ?
What p ro c e d u re s a re c o n s id e re d m ost e f f e c t i v e f o r
in f lu e n c in g young p e o p le to choose e d u c a tio n a s a
c a re e r?
What d e f e n s ib le changes i n e d u c a tio n a l o r g a n i
z a tio n , w h ile n o t m a t e r i a l l y in c r e a s in g th e number
o f te a c h e r s , a r e c o n sid e re d l i k e l y to red u ce th e
number needed?
What changes aimed a t a f f e c t i n g th e m a te r ia l w el
f a r e o f te a c h e r s a re c o n s id e re d an a id i n te a c h e r
re c r u itm e n t?
What p ro c e d u re s a r e c o n sid e re d d e f e n s ib le i n a
tim e o f s e r i o u s te a c h e r s h o r ta g e s b u t m a t e r i a l l y
l e s s d e s ir a b le as a perm anent p ro ced u re?
What r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s a r e c o n s id e re d to i n
v o lv e in h e r e n t d an g ers to e d u c a tio n ?
To what e x te n t are e d u c a to rs w ith v a ry in g
3
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and i n v a ry in g g e o g r a p h ic a l a r e a s
agreed a s to th e b e s t m ethods f o r th e r e c r u itm e n t
o f te a c h e rs ?
IX. NEED EOR THE STUDY
Many q u it te a c h in g d u rin g war p e r i o d . The g r a v ity o f
th e s i t u a t i o n can be se e n from a stu d y o f th e s h i f t i n p e r
s o n n e l.1 W ith a p p ro x im a te ly 900,000 te a c h e r s i n th e n a t i o n ’ s
p u b lic e le m e n ta ry and seco n d ary s c h o o ls i n th e y e a r 1941-1942
i t was n e c e s s a ry to b r in g i n 180,000 in d i v i d u a l s i n t o new
te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s d u rin g th e fo llo w in g sc h o o l y e a r. I n th e
y e a r 1943-1944 th e number was 1 7 0 ,0 0 0 , and in 1944-1945 i t
was 1 2 7 ,0 0 0 . Thus i t can be se e n t h a t i n one y e a r 20 p e r
c e n t o f th e cla ssro o m te a c h e r s were new to t h e i r p o s i t i o n s .
As one m ight e x p e c t, th e g r e a t e s t te a c h e r tu r n -o v e r was i n
th e lo w e s t s a l a r y a r e a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s o u th e rn U nited S t a t e s .
W hile th e armed s e r v ic e s claim ed many te a c h e r s ,
in d u s t r y took alm o st a s l a r g e a number. I n th e y e a r 1942-
1943 an e s tim a te d 39,000 e n te re d m i l i t a r y s e r v ic e and 37,000
l e f t te a c h in g f o r p o s i t i o n s i n war in d u s t r y o r p r i v a t e em ploy-
2
m ent. Between P e a r l H arbor and O cto b er 1944 th e e s tim a te d
N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , R e se a rc h D iv is io n ,
P e rs o n n e l P roblem s i n P u b lic E d u c a tio n , 1944-45, December,
1944, p p . 4 -5 .
^ N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , R esearch D iv is io n ,
The War Emergency i n E d u c a tio n (W ashington, D .C .: N a tio n a l
E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , March, 1943), p . 4.
number of teach ers lea v in g the p ro fessio n was se t at 880,000.
Sub- s ta n d a rd p e rs o n n e l were em ployed. Faced w ith th e
l o s s o f alm o st a t h i r d o f i t s p e r s o n n e l, th e p r o f e s s io n was
h ard p re s s e d to m a in ta in even a sem blance o f i t s norm al
e f f i c i e n c y . Among th e e a r l i e s t p a l l i a t i v e s a tte m p te d w ere
th e e lim in a tio n o f c o u rs e s deemed "non e s s e n t i a l " and th e
co m b in atio n o f s m a lle r c l a s s e s . Such a c t i v i t y , p lu s th e
fo rc e d c lo s in g o f many sc h o o l doors le d to a 58,000 d e c lin e
in th e t o t a l number o f te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s by O cto b er, 1944.
In c re a s e d te a c h e r demand made jo b s a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l fo rm e rly
n o n -te a c h in g "m a rg in a l" c e r t i f i e d p e o p le many o f whom, becau se
o f p r o f e s s i o n a l o r p e r s o n a l in a d e q u a c ie s , were u n a b le to s e
cu re p o s i t i o n s i n norm al tim e s . The p le a s o f sc h o o l o f f i c i a l s
and th e l u r e o f in c re a s e d s a l a r i e s b ro u g h t back i n t o th e p r o
f e s s i o n numerous o th e r in d iv i d u a ls w ith v a l i d c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Most o f th e s e were women who had p r e v io u s ly s u b s t i t u t e d home
making f o r te a c h in g .
But th e war had been i n p r o g re s s b u t a few months
when i t became a p p a re n t t h a t o th e r s o u rc e s m ust be tap p ed .
The i n v a r i a b l e p ro c e d u re i n each s t a t e was th e enactm ent
of l e g i s l a t i o n p e r m it tin g tem porary c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f sub
s ta n d a rd p e r s o n n e l. A ccording to Hubbard, D ir e c to r o f th e
R esearch D iv is io n , N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , i n th e
y e a r 1945-1946 a lo n e th e number o f em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s
3
is s u e d was a t l e a s t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 . While each s t a t e h as s e t i t s
own s ta n d a r d s f o r em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s , v a s t numbers o f
i n d i v i d u a l s have been g iv e n p o s i t i o n s w ith no p r o f e s s io n a l
c o u rse work and w ith l i t t l e o r no academic t r a i n i n g beyond
h ig h s c h o o l.
Few te a c h e r s a re b e in g t r a i n e d . But th e em ergency i n
e d u c a tio n i s more th a n a la c k o f ad eq u ate s t a f f h e re and now.
The su p p ly o f te a c h e r s i s d ry in g up a t th e s o u rc e . C i v i l i a n
e n ro llm e n t i n norm al s c h o o ls and te a c h e rs c o lle g e s began to
drop s h a r p ly w ith th e advent of th e w ar. By 1943 th e n a t i o n ’ s
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s had s u f f e r e d a l o s s o f a p p ro x i-
4
m a te ly 60 p e r c e n t from th e prew ar f i g u r e . Here a g a in th e
l o s s can be a t t r i b u t e d l a r g e l y to th e tw in G a lls o f in d u s t r y
and th e armed s e r v i c e s .
S h o rta g e was n o t o v er w ith w a r’ s e n d . I f one co u ld
e x p e c t an e a r l y r e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a norm al te a c h e r su p p ly i n
th e im m ediate p o stw a r p e r io d , th e problem would n o t m e rit
such grave c o n s id e r a ti o n . E d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s and r e s e a r c h
s t u d i e s a g re e , how ever, t h a t th e n a tio n h a s e n te re d an e r a
3
F ra n k W . H ubbard, P e rs o n a l l e t t e r . F e b ru a ry 28, 1946.
4
N ational Education A ssociation , Research D iv isio n ,
Teachers C olleges A fter Two Years of War, February, 1944,
p. 7.
6
o f p ro lo n g ed s c a r c i t y o f te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l. W hile te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g e n ro llm e n t, w ith th e opening of th e 1946-1947
academ ic y e a r, was showing many s ig n s o f r e v i v a l , th e number
was s t i l l f a r below th e n eed s of th e p r o f e s s io n .
I n a q u e s tio n n a ir e s tu d y r e p o r te d i n th e J o u rn a l o f
th e American A s s o c ia tio n o f C o lle g ia te R e g i s t r a r s answ ers
were p re s e n te d from a m a jo r ity o f th e s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts o f
5
e d u c a tio n . Almost u n ifo rm ly th e y p r e d ic te d th e s h o r ta g e o f
te a c h e r s would c o n tin u e w e ll a f t e r th e war w ith some b e l i e v
in g i t would l a s t beyond 1955. The N a tio n a l Commission F or
th e D efense o f Democi’acy Through E d u c a tio n p r e d i c t s an
alm ost c e r t a i n s h o rta g e o f te a c h e r s w e ll a f t e r th e w a r’ s
6
end.
I I I . ASPECTS (W THE PROBLEM IN CALIFORNIA
A u th o r ! tie s e x p e c t co n tin u e d s h o r t a g e . The p r e s e n t
te a c h e r s h o rta g e i s n o t lim ite d to th o s e s t a t e s w ith th e low
e s t s a l a r y s c h e d u le s. W hile th e so u th and r u r a l a re a s
g e n e r a lly have been th e h a r d e s t h i t , th e s h o rta g e i s a
5
H arry E. E ld e r , ’’A v a ila b le S o u rces o f T ea ch ers and
What We Have Done t o E x p lo re Them, * * J o u r n a l o f th e Ameri can
A s s o c ia tio n o f C o l le g i a te R e g i s t r a r s . 2 0 :7 6 -8 4 . O cto b er,
1944.
a
N ational Commission For the Defense o f Democracy
Through Education, Teacher Shortage Follow ing the W ar ( quoted
in Educational School Journal, 44:502-3, May, 1944).
7
com plete n a t i o n a l problem . C a l i f o r n i a , c o n sid e re d one o f
th e m ost p r o g r e s s iv e , and c e r t a i n l y h av in g one of th e m ost
a t t r a c t i v e s a l a r y s c h e d u le s i n th e c o u n try , a p p e a rs t o be
ab o u t as h ard h i t as any s t a t e in th e n a t io n .
S tu d e n ts o f th e problem i n t h i s s t a t e p r o f e s s r e a l
co n c e rn . A C a l i f o r n i a T eacher Supply and Demand r e s e a r c h
group -under th e d i r e c t i o n o f Hanna o f S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s ity
i n a p r e lim in a r y r e p o r t to th e C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e R e c o n s tru c t
io n and Reemployment Commission i n Ja n u a ry , 1945, e s tim a te d
t h a t th e S t a t e s r e le m e n ta ry sc h o o l s h o rta g e w i l l n o t r e a c h
i t s peak u n t i l 1951 and w i l l c o n tin u e u n t i l 1 9 5 7 .7 T his
stu d y a ls o p r e d i c t s a s h o rta g e o f f u l l y q u a l i f i e d seco n d ary
sc h o o l te a c h e r s f o r a few y e a rs b u t e x p e c ts t h i s problem to
be l e s s p ro lo n g ed and l e s s s e r io u s i n g e n e r a l.
Burkman, A s s i s t a n t D ir e c to r o f E d u c a tio n f o r
C a l i f o r n i a , p r e d i c t s :
Even i f th e s h i f t from a war tim e b a s is to a p eace
tim e b a s is i s made e x p e d itio u s ly and e f f i c i e n t l y , th e r e
w i l l be n e v e r t h e le s s an im m ediate e x tr a o r d in a r y p o s t
war demand f o r te a c h e r s in C a l i f o r n i a due t o th e f a c t
t h a t te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s must th e n be v a c a te d by h o ld e rs
of emergency c r e d e n t i a l s . . . I n c o n s id e r a ti o n o f th e
p r e s e n t sm a ll e n ro llm e n t i n te a c h e r e d u c a tio n i n s t i t u
t i o n s and th e number o f p u b lic sc h o o l p o s i t i o n s now
f i l l e d by te a c h e r s c e r t i f i e d on th e em ergency b a s i s , i t
seems r e a s o n a b le to e x p e c t t h a t t h e demand f o r new
7
C a lifo rn ia S ta te R econstruction and Reemployment
Commission, Manpower For C a lifo rn ia S ch ools. January, 1945,
pp. 2-3.
te a c h e r s tr a i n e d by approved te a c h e r e d u c a tio n i n s t i t u
t i o n s w i l l rem a in g r e a t f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . 8
P o p u la tio n in c r e a s e a c c e n tu a te s p ro b lem . The s i t u
a t i o n h a s been ag g ra v a te d i n C a l i f o r n i a by th e u n u su al
in c r e a s e in p o p u la tio n am ounting to a g a in o f o v er a m i l l i o n
r e s i d e n t c i v i l i a n s from A p ril 1940 to Ja n u a ry 1944, a t o t a l
o f a p p ro x im a te ly 15 p e r c e n t. The e s tim a te d r e s i d e n t
p o p u la tio n o f th e s t a t e on Ja n u a ry 1, 1944 was 7 ,8 8 0 ,0 0 0 .
The c a r e f u l and d e t a i l e d s tu d y is s u e d by th e S ta te Recon
s t r u c t i o n and Reemployment Commission i n June, 1944, e s t i
m ated t h a t even w ith th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f m ost o f C a l i f o r n i a ’ s
war in d u s t r y th e s t a t e p o p u la tio n would f u r t h e r in c r e a s e t o
9
8 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r 9 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 by 1950. A f u l l y e a r a f t e r th e c lo s e
o f th e war w ith Jap an employment i n C a l i f o r n i a was s t i l l h ig h
and im m ig ra tio n to th e s t a t e was a p p a re n tly c o n tin u in g a t a
r a p id r a t e .
Extended p e rio d o f s h o rta g e i s e x p e c te d . The S t a t e ’ s
15 p e r c e n t p o p u la tio n in c r e a s e in f o u r y e a rs was n o t m atched
by a co n seq u en t in c r e a s e i n te a c h e r p e r s o n n e l. In 1941-1942
8
J o e l A. Burkman, ’’T eacher S upply and Demand i n
C a l i f o r n i a . ” C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o ls . O cto b er, 1944, pp. 244-245.
9
C a lifo rn ia S ta te R econstruction and Reemployment
Commission, op. c i t . , pp. 5, 37.
9
th e r e were 46,590 te a c h e r s employed i n C a l i f o r n i a . I n th e
e a r l y war y e a rs , d e s p ite p o p u la tio n grow th, th e number
a c t u a l l y d e c re a s e d . By 1945-1946, however, b ec au se o f th e
l a r g e number o f em ergency te a c h e r s , th e number was n e a r ly
5 0 ,0 0 0 . I n th e p e rio d from May 1, 1945 to March 31, 1946,
1 0
1 0 ,3 5 2 em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s w ere is s u e d . I n o th e r w ords,
more th a n 20 p e r c e n t o f th e te a c h e r s employed i n th e s t a t e
w ere se c u re d on th e b a s i s o f s u b s ta n d a rd , em ergency c e r t i
f i c a t e s .
As i n o th e r s t a t e s C a l i f o r n i a te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i
t u t i o n s ’ e n ro llm e n t dropped by 1943 to a f r a c t i o n o f i t s
p re -w a r f i g u r e . I n d i c a t i v e o f th e red u ce d t r a i n i n g program
o f th e h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s i s th e f a c t t h a t th e number o f
a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r c r e d e n t i a l s from th o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s was 40
p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l i n 1940-1941 b u t o n ly 13 p e r c e n t i n
1943-1944.
The C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e R e c o n s tr u c tio n and Reemployment
Commission r e p o r te d i n 1945 t h a t th e maximum o u tp u t o f
p r e s e n t C a l i f o r n i a te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s i s 5,311
c e r t i f i e d g ra d u a te s a n n u a lly b u t t h a t th e c u r r e n t l y red u ced
e n ro llm e n ts w i l l p ro d u ce b u t 1 ,8 3 7 f u l l y q u a l i f i e d to te a c h -
i n 1945-1946, o r a p p ro x im a te ly o n e - th ir d o f th e p o s s ib le
!
10 C a lifo rn ia S ta te Department of Education, "Cre
d e n tia ls Issued fo r Education S e r v ic e ,” Mimeographed b u lle tin ,
A pril 1, 1946, p. 3.
o u t p u t .
.Among th e f a c t o r s c o n s id e re d i n t h i s r e p o r t w ere th e
fo llo w in g : (1) th e norm al number o f te a c h e r s w ith d raw in g
from C a l i f o r n i a s c h o o ls a n n u a lly , (.2) th e average number o f
r e e n t r i e s i n t o th e p r o f e s s io n , (3 ) th e a v e ra g e number o f
e n t r i e s from o th e r s t a t e s i n t o C a l i f o r n i a sc h o o l te a c h in g ,
(4) an a p p a re n tly to o l i b e r a l e s tim a te o f th e number o f
p e o p le on m i l i t a r y le a v e who w i l l r e t u r n to C a l i f o r n i a te a c h -
12
in g (ab o u t 85 p e r c e n t) and th e number o f c e r t i f i e d g ra d u
a t e s from C a l i f o r n i a i n s t i t u t i o n s i n 1945-1946 a s compared
to th e im m ediate p re -w a r p e r io d . Thus o b v io u s ly C a l i f o r n i a ’ s
te a c h e r s h o r ta g e i s se v e re and ca n n o t be ex p e cte d to te rm in
a t e i n th e im m ediate p o stw ar y e a rs .
1 1
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e R e c o n s tr u c tio n and Reemployment
Commission, "Manpower F or C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o ls ," Ja n u a ry , 1945,
p ♦ 4.
12
E ig h te e n m onths a f t e r th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s r e
p o r t a v a s t m a jo r i ty o f th e armed f o r c e s had been d em o b ilized
and t h e i r v o c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s were becom ing a p p a re n t. By
th e n i t was o b v io u s t h a t f a r l e s s th a n 85 p e r c e n t o f fo rm er
te a c h e r s d e s ir e d to r e t u r n to th e p r o f e s s io n .
The f o llo w in g e s tim a te a p p e a rs more r e a l i s t i c ,
"About t w o - th ir d s o f th e te a c h e r s who l e f t th e c la ssro o m f o r
some ty p e o f war a c t i v i t y w i l l n o t r e t u r n . " L. W. W illia m s,
" S h o rta g e o f T ea ch ers P r e d ic te d f o r th e Next F iv e to Ten
Y e a rs ," S chool and S o c ie ty . 6 5 :6 0 , Ja n u a ry 26, 1946.
F u r th e r p ro o f of th e sm a ll r e t u r n of v e te r a n s to
te a c h in g can be seen i n P e n n s y lv a n ia . Of 4 ,0 0 0 te a c h e r s who
e n te re d th e armed f o r c e s from t h a t s t a t e , few er th a n 300 had
r e tu r n e d to t h e i r p o s i t i o n s by th e s p r in g o f 1946. E d i t o r i a l
Comment, .American School Board J o u r n a l . J u ly , 1946, p . 54.
11
IV. POSTWAR NEED FOR TEACHERS
As a lr e a d y i n d ic a t e d , th e dearth, of te a c h e r s i n t r a i n
in g i s th e m ost p r a c t i c a l b a s i s f o r p r e d i c t i n g co n tin u e d
u n d e rsu p p ly o f p r o p e r ly c e r t i f i e d te a c h e r s . With th e su p p ly
o f newly t r a i n e d p e rs o n n e l c u t a t l e a s t i n h a l f f o r a p e rio d
o f f o u r or f i v e y e a r s , a l o s s h as r e s u l t e d w hich i s e x tre m e ly
d i f f i c u l t to overcom e.
B i r t h r a t e h as in c r e a s e d . O ther f a c t o r s , to o , a re
l i k e l y to a c c e n tu a te th e s h o r ta g e . The p e r io d s in c e th e
b e g in n in g o f World War I I h as se e n a sh arp r i s e i n th e b i r t h
I s
r a t e . I n C a l i f o r n i a th e r i s e h a s been u n p re c e d e n te d .
A p proxim ately 557,000 b i r t h s were re c o rd e d i n C a l i f o r n i a
betw een A p r il, 1940 and Ja n u a ry , 1944. T here i s no com parable
r e c o r d i n th e s t a t e ’ s h i s t o r y . N a tu r a l in c r e a s e , as m easured
by e x c e s s o f b i r t h s o v e r d e a th s , r o s e from 4 .6 p e r thousand
p o p u la tio n i n 1940 to 1 0 .2 i n 1943. A h ig h m a rria g e r a t e
and a co n seq u en t h ig h b i r t h r a t e w i l l alm o st c e r t a i n l y con
t in u e w ith th e r e t u r n o f th e m i l l i o n s o f men i n th e armed
s e r v i c e s . The s c h o o ls can, t h e r e f o r e , e x p e c t to be f i l l e d
w ith more p u p i l s th a n i n th e decade p r e v io u s to th e w ar.
1 5
C a lifo rn ia S ta te R econstruction and Reemployment
Commission, "Estimate of Population Growth in C a lifo rn ia ,
1940-1950,” June, 1944, p. 1.
13
E d u c a tio n a l s e r v ic e s have been expanded. The tre n d
tow ard in c re a s e d e d u c a tio n a l s e r v ic e s should a ls o tend to
in c r e a s e th e demand f o r te a c h e r s . T h is h a s been an e v o lu
t io n a r y p r o c e s s , c h a r a c te r iz e d by such f a c t o r s as g ra d u a lly
in c r e a s in g le n g th o f sc h o o l y e a r le n g th , g r e a t e r p e rc e n ta g e
o f t o t a l number o f youth in s c h o o l, and a g r e a t e r av erag e
number o f y e a r s c o n tin u a n c e i n sc h o o l p e r s tu d e n t. The
p r o c e s s shows no s ig n s o f c e a s in g . I l l u s t r a t i v e i n re c e n t
y e a rs h as b een e d u c a tio n ’ s e x te n s io n downward. The k in d e r
g a r te n i s now common and th e n u rs e r y sc h o o l movement,
a c c e n tu a te d by th e f lo c k in g o f m o th e rs i n t o in d u s t r y d u rin g
th e war y e a r s , w i l l l i k e l y c o n tin u e a s an i n c r e a s in g l y im p o rt
a n t f a c t o r i n th e n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n a l o f f e r i n g .
Nor does i t ap p e ar t h a t fo rm al e d u c a tio n w i l l s la c k e n
i n i t s e x te n s io n upw ard. The s o - c a lle d nG. I . B i l l o f
R i g h t s , * w hich s u b s id iz e s th e r e tu r n e d s e r v ic e man i n f u r t h e r
in g h i s e d u c a tio n , b ro u g h t a flo o d o f a d u lt s tu d e n ts i n t o th e
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s d u rin g th e y e a r s im m ed iately fo llo w in g
th e c lo s e o f th e w ar. The ju n io r c o l le g e s and th e t e c h n i c a l
s c h o o ls , p a r t i c u l a r l y , seem d e s tin e d t o r e c e i v e in c re a s e d
c a l l s f o r s e r v i c e . I t ap p e a rs t h a t th e momentum th u s gained
w i l l n o t be a p p r e c ia b ly le s s e n e d f o r some y e a rs a t l e a s t .
Many l a t e r a l e x te n s io n s of e d u c a tio n , to o , ap p ear to
be p lan n ed f o r e i t h e r th e im m ediate f u t u r e o r a re a lre a d y
la u n c h e d . T y p ic a l a re th e in c re a s e d h e a l t h s e r v ic e o f th e
15
s c h o o ls , th e g r e a t e r con cern o f th e s c h o o ls f o r th e r e c r e
a t i o n o f youth h o th i n a f t e r s c h o o l h o u rs and d u rin g th e
sc h o o l m onths, th e i n c r e a s in g g u id an ce program , th e p r o
v i s i o n f o r work and camp e x p e rie n c e , e t c e t e r a . I l l such
a c t i v i t i e s c a l l f o r a d d i t i o n a l tr a in e d e d u c a tio n a l p e rs o n n e l
and w i l l alm ost s u r e ly add to an a lre a d y p e r s i s t e n t demand
f o r more te a c h e r s .
V. 30OPE OF THE PR0BI*EM
Em phasis on r e c r u itm e n t i s e s s e n t i a l . I n e v i t a b l y ,
when th e v a r io u s s t a t e s found th e m se lv e s fa c e d w ith a
c r i t i c a l te a c h e r s h o rta g e , th e y a tte m p te d t o do som ething
about i t . The is s u a n c e o f em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s , th e m ost
s u c c e s s f u l p ro c e d u re o f a te m p o ra ry , p a l l i a t i v e n a t u r e , was
b u t one o f th e many m ethods o r p r o c e s s e s o f s e c u r in g te a c h
in g p e rs o n n e l in tro d u c e d by s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts , te a c h e r t r a i n
in g i n s t i t u t i o n s , and sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s . Many o f th e s e p r o
c e d u re s have been a tte m p te d w ith l i t t l e th o u g h t f o r t h e i r
perm anent v a lu e o r u l t i m a t e e f f e c t upon th e e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s .
As th e war c o n tin u e d y e a r a f t e r y e a r, how ever, some o f th e
more f a r s ig h te d a u t h o r i t i e s b egan to lo o k f o r th e u n d e r ly in g
c a u s e s o f th e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e and t o a p p r a is e r e c r u itm e n t
p ro c e d u re s b o th as to t h e i r im m ediate v a lu e and u lti m a t e
e f f e c t . The p r e s e n t stu d y i s an a tte m p t to su rv e y th e b e s t
14
c u r r e n t th in k in g on th e q u e s tio n w ith p a r t i c u l a r em phasis on
e x p r e s s io n s o f o p in io n from e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s .
C e r ta in a s p e c ts a re em phasized i n s tu d y . As in d ic a te d
i n th e s ta te m e n t of th e problem t h i s s tu d y i s a su rv e y of
o p in io n on c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s o f te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
E v a lu a tio n s have been sought on th e f o llo w in g : v a r io u s
em ergency r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s , s u g g e s tio n s f o r r e l a x i n g
o f perm anent c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s , p la n s f o r a c c e l e r a t i o n
o f t r a i n i n g , p u b l i c i t y te c h n iq u e s c o n c e rn in g e d u c a tio n ’ s
n e e d s and ad v a n ta g e s, p ro c e d u re s f o r th e p u rp o se o f i n
f lu e n c in g y o u th to choose e d u c a tio n a s a c a r e e r , p ro c e d u re s
f o r m od ify in g e d u c a tio n a l o r g a n iz a tio n i n an a tte m p t to r e
duce need f o r te a c h e r s , and m ethods f o r im p ro v in g m a te r ia l
w e lf a re o f t e a c h e r s .
O pinion i s so u g h t, to o , as to which r e c r u itm e n t p ro
c e d u re s should be used o n ly as em ergency m easu res i n tim e s
o f te a c h e r s h o r ta g e and w hich in v o lv e in h e r e n t d an g e rs to
e d u c a tio n . The e x te n t t o w hich e d u c a to rs w ith v a ry in g r e s
p o n s i b i l i t i e s and i n v a r y in g g e o g ra p h ic a l a r e a s a g ree on
r e c r u itm e n t s u g g e s tio n s i s a f u r t h e r co n c e rn o f t h i s s tu d y .
Many a s p e c t s a r e n o t c o n s id e r e d . A number o f f a c t o r s
p e r t a i n i n g to r e c r u itm e n t, w h ile o f r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , a re
to be d e l i b e r a t e l y e lim in a te d from c o n s id e r a ti o n . Some o f
15
them, n o ta b ly " f a c t o r s o f su p p ly and demand" and " f a c t o r s
a c tin g a s d e t e r r e n t s i n th e c h o ic e o f te a c h in g as a c a r e e r , "
have been c a r e f u l l y surveyed by o th e r s tu d e n ts , and t h e i r
f in d in g s a r e l i b e r a l l y used by th e s tu d y . O ther f a c t o r s ,
w h ile r e c e i v i n g c o n s id e ra b le i n c i d e n t a l a t t e n t i o n i n th e
s tu d y , w i l l n o t be ac ce p ted as th e p rim a ry r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
th e s tu d y ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and any im p lie d f in d in g s c o n c e rn
in g them w i l l n o t be d efen d e d . S p e c i f ic a s p e c ts w hich w i l l
n o t be s tu d ie d a r e th e f o llo w in g :
1. What a r e c o n s id e re d th e b e s t means o f r e g u l a t i n g
te a c h e r su p p ly and demand?
2. To what d eg ree i s r e g u l a t i o n o f te a c h e r su p p ly
c o n s id e re d th e f u n c tio n o f th e s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t,
th e s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n , th e c o lle g e , and
th e l o c a l sc h o o l d i s t r i c t ?
3. To what d eg ree a re c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s o f any
g iv e n s t a t e c o n s id e re d to o h ig h o r to o low a t th e
p r e s e n t tim e?
4. Y/hat a re th e f a c t o r s which cau se young p e o p le t o
r e j e c t te a c h in g a s a c a re e r? What f a c t o r s a re
m ost l i k e l y to cause them to choose i t ? (W hile
c o n s id e r a b le r e f e r e n c e i s made to t h i s t o p i c , i t
can h a r d ly be c a l l e d a s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of
th e s tu d y .)
1 6
5. What a re c o n s id e re d to he th e m ost u s e f u l te c h
n iq u e s o f p lacem en t a s c a r r i e d on hy placem en t
bu reau s?
6. What a re c o n s id e re d to be th e b e s t means of
r e c r u i t i n g p e rs o n n e l f o r te a c h in g i n te c h n ic a l
s c h o o ls , p r i v a t e s c h o o ls , and c o l le g e s and u n i
v e r s i t i e s ?
VI. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
C e r ta in w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d t e n e t s o f e d u c a tio n a l p h i l o
sophy, e i t h e r o f a g e n e ra l n a tu r e o r o f a s p e c i f i c s i g n i
f ic a n c e to a s tu d y o f r e c r u itm e n t, a re h e r e l i s t e d as b a s ic
assum ptions* W hile some o f them m ight n o t b e c o m p le te ly
ac ce p ted by th e la y p u b lic , i t would ap p e ar t h a t th e y a r e so
u n i v e r s a l l y a p a r t o f th e p h ilo s o p h y of e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s
t h a t th e y , t h e r e f o r e , need n o t be d is c u s s e d o r defended i n
a r e s e a r c h s tu d y . Among such t e n e t s a re th e fo llo w in g :
1. World freedom and t r a n q u i l l i t y ca n n o t be co m p lete
l y a t t a i n e d i f p u b lic e d u c a tio n , th e a g e n t of
freedom and t r a n q u i l l i t y , i s m inim ized i n r e l a t i o n
to th e demands o f m i l i t a r y , b u s in e s s , or i n
d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n s .
2. E f f e c t i v e e d u c a tio n f o r l i f e i n a democracy can be
a s s u re d o n ly th ro u g h th e m a in ten an ce o f a c o n tin u
in g su p p ly o f c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d , a d e q u a te ly
e d u c a te d , and a d e q u a te ly p a id p e rs o n n e l.
3 . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r e c r u i t i n g y o u th o f a d e q u a te
i n t e l l e c t u a l endowment, p h y s i c a l sta m in a , and
em o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y f o r th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s io n
17
m ust be sh a re d j o i n t l y by th e s t a t e , th e i n s t i
t u t i o n s f o r te a o h e r p r e p a r a t io n , and p u b lic
sc h o o l sy ste m s.
4. E d u c a tio n should n o t w a it f o r n a t u r a l economic
tr e n d s to r e e s t a b l i s h an ad eq u ate su p p ly o f p e r
so n n e l b u t sh o u ld seek to in f lu e n c e th e su p p ly
th ro u g h c o o r d in a te d , com prehensive s ta te - w id e
p la n n in g .
5. The movement tow ard i n c r e a s in g th e s e r v i c e s
r e q u ir e d o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n , in v o lv in g s u p e r
v i s i o n o f young p e o p le f o r a more ex ten d ed p a r t
o f th e day and f o r a g r e a t e r number o f y e a rs o f
t h e i r l i f e , i s a h e a lth y tr e n d which may be
ex p e cte d t o c o n tin u e i n d e f i n i t e l y .
6. Development by te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s o f
num bers o f t r a i n e d p e rs o n n e l s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r
th a n th e num bers o f p o s i t i o n s t o be f i l l e d i s a
h e a lth y p ro c e d u re s in c e i t te n d s to e lim in a te th e
m ost p o o rly equipped i n d i v i d u a l s from p a r t i c i p a
t i o n i n th e e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s .
7. The g ra d u a l r a i s i n g o f s ta n d a r d s f o r te a c h e r c e r
t i f i c a t i o n , a p r o c e s s lo n g i n e v o lu tio n , i s a
h e a lth y tr e n d and sh o u ld be a c c e le r a te d p a r t i
c u l a r l y among a l l b u t th e m ost e d u c a ti o n a ll y
p r o g r e s s iv e s t a t e s .
8 . There has n e v e r i n t h i s c o u n try been a s u f f i c i e n t
su p p ly o f a d e q u a te ly tr a i n e d te a c h e r s . A pparent
p e r io d s o f o v e rsu p p ly , as i n th e d e p r e s s io n
decade im m ed ia tely p r e v io u s to World War XI,
e x i s te d o n ly b ec au se th e c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a rd s
o f many s t a t e s were w o e fu lly in a d e q u a te .
V II. BELATED STUDIES
L i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s been co m p le te d . T each er r e c r u i t
ment i n th e f i f t e e n y e a r p e r io d im m ed ia tely p r e v io u s to
World War I I was n o t a m ajo r so u rc e o f concern b e c a u se th e
su p p ly o f i n d i v i d u a l s h o ld in g l e g a l te a c h in g c e r t i f i c a t e s
was w e ll i n e x c e s s o f th e demand. The e r a o f World War X
and th e y e a rs im m ed ia tely fo llo w in g was a p e r io d o f te a c h e r
s c a r c i t y . M agazines and s t a t e and f e d e r a l b u l l e t i n s o f th e
p e r io d r e f e r r e d to th e problem and made g e n e r a liz e d s u g g e s t
io n s as to re m e d ie s . I n g e n e ra l t h e i r s u g g e s tio n s were
s i m i l a r to th o s e to be p r e s e n te d i n t h i s s tu d y . A p p a re n tly ,
how ever, no com prehensive p la n f o r te a c h e r p ro cu rem en t was
fo rm u la te d d u rin g th e tim e of World War I . I t would seem,
th e n , t h a t r e c r u itm e n t d u rin g t h a t p e rio d was n o t a s u b je c t
o f r e s e a r c h . The c h i e f le s s o n ta u g h t by t h a t e r a was t h a t
em ergency, s u b - s ta n d a r d te a c h e r s h ir e d i n tim e s o f la b o r
s h o r ta g e s were e x tre m e ly h ard to d is lo d g e and w ere o f te n r e
ta in e d to th e d e trim e n t o f e d u c a tio n g e n e r a lly .
The te a c h e r s c a r c i t y accom panying World War I I has
developed so r e c e n t l y t h a t , so f a r a s can be a s c e r ta in e d ,
no o rg a n iz e d , com prehensive r e s e a r c h h a s b een com pleted.
The r i c h e s t s o u rc e s o f d a ta a re th e num erous f e d e r a l and
s t a t e d ep artm en t b u l l e t i n s and th e w e a lth o f m agazine
a r t i c l e s concerned w ith r e c r u itm e n t. These have been o f
u n u su a l v a lu e i n c o m p ilin g th e q u e s tio n n a ir e and i n s u p p le
m e n tin g th e f i n d i n g s o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e . .S in c e th e s e
a r t i c l e s and b u l l e t i n s a r e quoted l i b e r a l l y th ro u g h o u t th e
stu d y and a re l i s t e d i n th e b ib lio g r a p h y , th e y w i l l n o t be
d is c u s s e d f u r t h e r a t t h i s p o i n t .
19
B a ta w ere found on re a s o n f o r ch o o sin g t e a c h i n g . One
f a c t o r p e r t i n e n t to te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t h as been th e b a s i s
f o r some r e c e n t r e s e a r c h . T h is problem , t h a t o f th e m o tiv es
in f lu e n c in g c h o ic e o f te a c h in g as a c a r e e r , was s tu d ie d by
1 4 . i ^
R obinson i n 1944 and B iden i n 1945. Among R o b in so n ’ s
f in d in g s were th e s e :
a. The av e ra g e woman te a c h e r makes h e r d e c is io n to
te a c h a t age o f 1 5 .8 y e a rs w h ile th e man d e c id e s
a t 1 9 .5 y e a rs .
b. F i n a n c i a l r e a s o n s prom pted th e g r e a t e s t number o f
men to e n t e r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g . Among th e women
lo v e o f te a c h in g and o f c h i ld r e n was th e g r e a t e s t
in f lu e n c e .
c. More th a n h a l f o f i n - s e r v i c e te a c h e r s found i n
c re a s e d e n th u siasm w ith c o n tin u e d te a c h in g .
d. Of men le a v in g te a c h in g f o r some o th e r p r o f e s s io n
ab o u t t h r e e - f o u r t h s l e f t b ec au se o f low s a l a r i e s ;
and o f th e women who l e f t , about t h r e e - f o u r t h s
l e f t b ec au se o f m a rria g e .
e . L arge num bers o f men who have l e f t th e p r o f e s s io n
s in c e 1940 a re th o se who d r i f t e d i n to te a c h in g
d u rin g th e d e p r e s s io n f o r la c k o f o th e r v o c a tio n
a l o p p o r tu n ity . R a is in g o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s ta n d a rd s
w i l l ten d to e lim in a te th e s e " d r i f t e r s . "
f . V o c a tio n a l gu id an ce c o u rs e s in f lu e n c e d th e te a c h
in g c h o ic e o f 10 p e r c e n t o f th e p r o s p e c tiv e
te a c h e r s .
14
Donald W ittm er R obinson, An A n a ly s is of M otives f o r
The C hoice .o f a. T eaching C a re e r ( P h ila d e lp h ia : U n iv e r s ity of
P e n n sy lv a n ia P r e s s , 1944}, 108 pp.
15
M a rg aret G. B id en , " F a c to rs I n f lu e n c in g C hoice o r
R on-C hoice o f T each in g as a P r o f e s s i o n ," (u n p u b lish e d M a s te r’ s
t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A ngeles,
1945), 129 pp.
20
B iden*s r e s e a r c h in d ic a te d t h a t among young p e o p le
who had a lre a d y chosen te a c h in g a s a p r o f e s s i o n th e s e
f a c t o r s p r e v a i le d :
a. A ff e c tio n f o r c h i ld r e n and o p p o r tu n ity to s e rv e
hum an ity ran k ed h ig h e s t as r e a s o n s f o r d e s i r i n g
to te a c h .
b . Among th o s e who had d e c id ed a g a in s t te a c h in g
v a r io u s economic c o n s id e r a ti o n s , such as low
b e g in n in g s a l a r i e s and p o o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
f i n a n c i a l advancem ent, w ere th e c h i e f f a c t o r s
in v o lv e d .
c . The c h i e f so u rce o f in f lu e n c e i n b r in g in g e i t h e r
a c c e p ta n c e o r d e n i a l o f te a c h in g as a p r o f e s s i o n
was th e in f lu e n c e o f h ig h sc h o o l and c o lle g e
c o u rs e s and f a c u l t y members.
S upply and demand s t u d i e s a re num erous. W hile r e
s e a rc h on r e c r u itm e n t i s sm a ll i n amount, t h a t on an a l l i e d
to p ic , * * te a c h e r su p p ly and dem and,1 1 i s u n u s u a lly v o lum inous.
L i t e r a l l y h u n d red s o f f e d e r a l and s t a t e b u l l e t i n s and
p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s have appeared i n th e l a s t tw e n ty - f iv e
y e a rs concern ed i n some way w ith th e f o r e c a s t i n g and r e g u l a
t i n g o f su p p ly and demand.
S ta te - w id e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f su p p ly and demand have
been p o p u la r w ith tw en ty -tw o s t a t e s m aking one o r more ex
t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s t u d i e s a r e th e ones
by Buckingham f o r Ohio i n 1 9 2 6 ,16 B a ile y f o r Vermont i n
16
B. R. Buckingham, Supply and Demand i n T eacher
T ra in in g (Ohio S t a t e U n iv e r s ity S tu d ie s , V ol. 2, No. 15,
B ureau o f E d u c a tio n a l R e sea rc h M onographs, No. 4, 1926),
182 p p .
21
1 9 3 9 ,17 and Noble f o r Utah i n 1 9 4 4 .18
W hile th e many s t a t e su p p ly and demand s t u d i e s v a ry
i n d e t a i l , th e r e i s an u n u su a l s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e i r m ajor
c o n c lu s io n s and recom m endations c h i e f o f w hich a re th e f o l
lo w in g :
1. Some means o f b a la n c in g su p p ly and demand should
he secured*
S. T eacher t r a i n i n g f o r each s t a t e sh o u ld he co
o r d in a te d u n d er a s ta te - w id e p la n .
3* The p e r t i n e n t f a c t o r s to su p p ly and demand sh o u ld
he u nder c o n tin u o u s stu d y hy th e v a r io u s s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n ts o f e d u c a tio n .
4. T eacher t r a i n e e s sh o u ld he c a r e f u l l y guided as to
employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n th e v a r io u s sc h o o l
d i v i s i o n s and s u b je c t f i e l d s .
5. A d e f i n i t e , o rg a n iz e d r e c r u itm e n t program should
he th e c o o p e ra tiv e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s t a t e d e p a r t
m ents o f e d u c a tio n , th e te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u
t i o n s , and th e p r o f e s s io n g e n e r a lly .
17
F r a n c is L. B a ile y , A P lan n ed S upply o f T each ers
F o r Vermont ( C o n tr ib u tio n s to E d u c a tio n , No. 7*7T, B ureau o f
P u b l i c a t i o n s , T each ers C o lle g e , Colum bia U n iv e r s ity , 1933),
88 p p .
18
Le Grande N oble, "A P rogram of S t a t e R e g u la tio n
o f T each er Supply and Demand f o r U ta h ,” (u n p u b lish e d
D o c to r’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a ,
Los A ngeles, 1944), 187 pp.
C H A P T E R I I
THE PROCEDURE
C h a p te r I was devoted to a c l a r i f i c a t i o n and de
l i m i t a t i o n o f th e problem and an a n a l y s i s o f th e need f o r
th e s tu d y and a re v ie w o f r e l a t e d in v e s tig a tio n s * C h ap ter
I I i s dev o ted to an o u t l i n e o f th e p ro c e d u re o f th e stu d y .
B r i e f l y , th e s te p s ta k e n i n t h i s a n a ly s is o f P r o
c e d u re s i n T eacher R e c ru itm e n t w ere th e s e :
1 . A su rv e y and a p p r a i s a l o f th e w r i t i n g found i n
r e s p o n s i b le c u r r e n t e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e .
2. P o rm a tio n o f t e n t a t i v e l i s t o f r e c r u itm e n t
m ethods i n t o q u e s tio n n a ir e form .
3 . S ubm ission o f t e n t a t i v e q u e s tio n n a i r e to com
m it te e o f e d u c a tio n a l a u t h o r i t i e s f o r p u rp o se o f
r e f in e m e n t.
4. S p o n so rsh ip by C a l i f o r n i a T each ers A s s o c ia tio n .
5. S e l e c t i o n o f a l i s t o f r e c i p i e n t s o f q u e s tio n
n a i r e and su b m issio n o f q u e s tio n n a ir e .
6. C o l le c tio n and t a b u l a t i o n o f q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s
p o n se s.
7. A n a ly s is o f d a ta .
8 . Summary.
I . SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE
23
B e g in n in g e a r l y i n 1942 c u r r e n t e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a
tu r e h a s g iv e n much a t t e n t i o n to th e s h o rta g e of te a c h e r s i n
th e p u b lic s c h o o ls o f th e n a t io n . A l a r g e v a r i e t y of p r o
ce d u re s have been recommended as p o s s i b le means o f re d u c in g
th e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e . W hile some o f th e s u g g e s tio n s have
been i n th e re a lm o f u n t r i e d th e o ry , o th e r s have come as a
r e p o r t o f program s a c t u a l l y i n i t i a t e d and i n o p e r a tio n i n
v a r io u s p a r t s o f th e c o u n try .
An im p o rta n t p a r t o f t h i s stu d y was a c a r e f u l p e r u s a l
and a n a ly s is o f a l l such l i t e r a t u r e a p p e a rin g i n r e p u ta b le
e d u c a tio n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . B ecause o f th e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f
f a c t o r s in v o lv e d and b e c a u se s u f f i c i e n t tim e h as n o t y e t
e la p se d f o r th e u lti m a t e e f f e c t t© b e f e l t , l i t t l e a tte m p t
h as b een made t o a p p r a is e o b j e c t i v e l y th e r e s u l t s of th e
te c h n iq u e s em ployed. D ata a re a v a i l a b l e , how ever, c o n c ern
in g th e number o f r e c r u i t s se cu red th ro u g h th e p ro c e d u re o f
s u b -s ta n d a rd em ergency c e r t i f i c a t i o n w hich has b een alm ost
u n i v e r s a l l y em ployed. These f i g u r e s w i l l a p p e a r i n l a t e r
c h a p te r s o f th e s tu d y .
I n a d d i t i o n t o m a t e r i a l i n m agazine a r t i c l e s , numer
ous b u l l e t i n s w ere a v a i l a b l e from s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts o f
e d u c a tio n , s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c ia tio n s , th e N a tio n a l Edu
c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , and th e U nited S t a t e s O ffic e o f
24
E d u c a tio n . S e v e ra l h ig h sc h o o l g u id a n ce b u l l e t i n s and r e
c ru itm e n t b u l l e t i n s from c o l le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w ere
a v a i l a b l e f o r a n a l y s i s . I n some in s t a n c e s th e m ethods u nder
a n a l y s i s i n t h i s stu d y have been i n e x is te n c e s u f f i c i e n t l y
lo n g to come t o th e a t t e n t i o n o f te x tb o o k w r i t e r s i n th e
f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n . T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f th o s e
ite m s grouped u n d er th e h e a d in g " M a te ria l Im provem ent o f
T each in g C o n d itio n s Which I r e Not P r im a r ily C on co m itan ts o f
th e P r e s e n t E m ergency." H ere such f a c t o r s as s a l a r y ,
e q u a l i z a t i o n o f f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t, r e tir e m e n t, and te n u re
a r e c o n s id e re d , and much a u t h o r i t a t i v e p u b lis h e d work i s
a v a ila b le f o r c o n s id e r a ti o n .
As in d ic a t e d i n C h a p te r I , m ost o f th e r e s e a r c h
s t u d i e s a p p lic a b le to an a n a l y s i s o f r e c r u itm e n t a r e lim ite d
to su p p ly and demand s t u d i e s . To th e d eg ree t h a t th e y are
p e r t i n e n t , th e y have been c o n s id e re d and quoted i n t h i s
s tu d y . A ll books, r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s , b u l l e t i n s , and a r t i c l e s
to w hich r e f e r e n c e i s made i n t h i s s tu d y a r e l i s t e d in th e
b ib lio g r a p h y .
I I . FORMATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE
One o f th e e s s e n t i a l r e a s o n s f o r th e p e r u s a l of th e
l i t e r a t u r e was th e c o m p ila tio n o f a com prehensive l i s t o f
r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s . Many su g g e ste d m ethods w ere fo u n d .
A fte r e l im in a tio n o f d u p l i c a t i o n s and n e a r d u p lic a t io n s
th e r e s t i l l rem ained a p p ro x im a te ly f o r t y recommended t e c h
n iq u e s o r m ethods f o r i n c r e a s in g th e su p p ly o f te a c h e r s .
S e v e r a l a d d i tio n s were made to th e l i s t and a few ite m s
combined o r e lim in a te d i n th e num erous c o n fe re n c e s w ith edu
c a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s .
The e x p la n a to ry p a ra g ra p h s o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e and
th e arran g em en t o f ite m s u n d er th e seven m ain h e a d in g s
g r a d u a lly ev o lv ed a s a r e s u l t o f c o n fe re n c e s w ith le a d in g
e d u c a to rs i n th e p u b lic s c h o o ls o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a and
e v a lu a tio n s by p r o f e s s o r s o f E d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f
S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a .
The q u e s tio n n a ir e , as i t ap p eared in i t s f i n a l form ,
was o rg a n iz e d i n t o seven m ain d i v i s i o n s as fo llo w s
1. I s s u a n c e o f Emergency P e r m its .
R esp o n d en ts were asked to r a t e seven g r a d a tio n s o f
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g a s a b a s i s f o r c e r t i f y i n g emergency te a c h
e r s f o r e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls . These v a r ie d from a l e v e l
ap p ro x im a tin g norm al c e r t i f i c a t i o n re q u ire m e n ts i n th e m ost
la x s t a t e s to a com plete ab sen ce o f re q u ire m e n ts f o r c e r t i
f i c a t i o n .
2. P erm anent A l t e r a t i o n o f R e g u la r C e r t i f i c a t i o n
Program .
1
A copy o f th e p r in te d form w i l l be found i n th e
A ppendix.
2 6
E ig h t su g g e ste d a l t e r a t i o n s w ere p r e s e n te d . Each o f
th e s e was a p o s s i b l e m o d if ic a tio n o r r e l a x a t i o n o f r e q u i r e
m ents aimed a t g a in in g a l a r g e r number o f r e g u l a r l y c e r t i
f i e d p e r s o n n e l. As i n a l l s e c t i o n s , th e s e s u g g e s tio n s
v a r ie d from m odest a d ju s tm e n ts to r e v o lu ti o n a r y , h ig h ly
c o n t r o v e r s i a l p la n s .
3 . E x p e d itin g T r a in in g O p p o r tu n itie s o f P r e s e n t
T e a c h e rs.
The f o u r p la n s p r e s e n te d h e re were su g g e ste d te c h
n iq u e s f o r a c c e l e r a t i n g th e norm al p e r io d o f te a c h e r t r a i n
in g f o r b o th emergency and s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n t e a c h e r s .
These p la n s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , w ere develo p ed d u rin g th e
r e c e n t p e r io d o f s e r io u s te a c h e r s h o r ta g e .
4. In c re a s e d P u b l i c i t y C oncerning Need P o r T ea ch ers.
The p u b l i c i t y d e v ic e s h e re p re s e n te d f o r r a t i n g , p lu s
c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l ones su g g e ste d by some o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts ,
in c lu d e d id e a s as y e t g e n e r a lly u n tr ie d th ro u g h o u t th e
n a t io n .
5. R e c ru itm e n t P o r T each er T ra in in g .
P ro c e d u re s f o r b r in g in g young p e o p le i n t o c o lle g e
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g program s w ere p r e s e n te d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . A
m a jo r i ty o f th e e i g h t su g g e ste d m ethods w ere n o t c r e a te d
d u rin g th e r e c e n t em ergency b u t have r e c e iv e d new em p h asis
b e c a u se o f th e r e c e n t d e a r th o f te a c h e r s i n our t r a i n i n g
i n s t i t u t i o n s .
27
6. M is c e lla n e o u s P ro c e d u re s to A l l e v i a t e T eacher
S h o rta g e .
T h is group o f e i g h t s u g g e s tio n s c o n ta in e d s e v e r a l
aims n o t a t s e c u r in g more te a c h e r s b u t r a t h e r , th ro u g h v a r i
ous a d m in is t r a tiv e a d ju s tm e n ts , a t re d u c in g th e need f o r many
p r e s e n t te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s . In c lu d e d h e re w ere s u g g e s tio n s
f o r m aking r e c r u itm e n t th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s t a t e and n a t i o n
a l a g e n c ie s .
7. Im provem ent o f T each in g C o n d itio n s .
The te n su g g e ste d p la n s h e re p r e s e n te d w ere n o t, f o r
th e m ost p a r t , c o n c o m ita n ts of th e p r e s e n t em ergency. R a th e r
th e y have been th e f o c a l p o i n t s of te a c h e r demands f o r many
y e a r s . B ecause o f th e n e a r l y u n iv e r s a l a p p ro v a l g iv e n to
m ost o f th e s e ite m s , a u n ifo rm ly h ig h r a t i n g co u ld be a n t i
c i p a te d . Y et s in c e th e y a re so d e f i n i t e l y an i n t e g r a l p a r t
o f th e t o t a l p i c t u r e , i t was f e l t t h a t th e y should be i n
clu d ed i n o rd e r t h a t th e problem m ig h t be view ed i n i t s
e n t i r e t y .
R e c ip i e n ts o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e w ere asked t o r a t e
each ite m on a f o u r p o in t b a s i s :
A. Of param ount im p o rta n c e . I f v ig o r o u s ly and
s u c c e s s f u l l y prom oted i t w i l l a id m a t e r i a l l y i n
in c r e a s in g th e number o f a c c e p ta b le c a n d id a te s
f o r te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s a n d /o r e n r o llm e n ts i n
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s w ith o u t m a t e r i a l o r
28
perm anent i n j u r y to th e e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s .
B. P ro b a b ly h a s some v a lu e . I t m ight le a d to m odest
s u c c e s s i n te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
0 . Of no v a lu e . I t would p ro b a b ly have l i t t l e o r no
e f f e c t on te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
D. Would in tr o d u c e a t te n d a n t e v i l s . W hile p ro b a b ly
ad d in g somewhat to th e p r e s e n t su p p ly o f te a c h e r s ,
i t would in tr o d u c e an elem ent i n t o th e p r o f e s s io n
which would m i l i t a t e a g a in s t i t s p r o g r e s s a n d /o r
re d u c e th e u lti m a t e v a lu e o f th e e d u c a tio n a l o f f e r
in g .
R esp o n d en ts were encouraged to add te c h n iq u e s o f t h e i r
own ch o o sin g t o th e p re p a re d l i s t and to comment f u l l y on any
su g g e ste d ite m . As a f i n a l e x p re s s io n o f o p in io n on r e c r u i t
m ent each re s p o n d e n t was asked to l i s t i n o rd e r th e fo u r
m ethods c o n s id e re d m ost s u c c e s s f u l to te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
I I I . SUBMISSION TO EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITIES
The l i s t o f p o s s i b l e r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s , a rra n g e d
i n q u e s tio n n a i r e form , was th e n su b m itte d t o a group o f
e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s f o r c r i t i c i s m and m o d if ic a tio n . T h is
group in c lu d e d th e fo llo w in g men:
C. G. T rillin g h a m S u p e rin te n d e n t o f Los A ngeles
County S c h o o ls
R .,B . W a lte r C h ie f Deputy S u p e rin te n d e n t o f
Los A ngeles County S ch o o ls
29
C a rl A. Bowman D ir e c to r o f T eacher P la c e m e n t,
C a l i f o r n i a T e a c h e rs A s s o c ia tio n
P a u l E* Wehb A s s i s t a n t S u p e rin te n d e n t o f Los
A ngeles C ity S c h o o ls, i n Charge
o f P e rs o n n e l
I r v i n g R. Melbo A s s o c ia te P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a tio n ,
U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a
John A. Sexson S u p e rin te n d e n t o f P a sa d e n a C ity
I n p r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry in s t a n c e members o f t h i s group g ra n te d
a p e r io d f o r extended d is c u s s io n ; and a s a r e s u l t num erous
ch an g es w ere made, p a r t i c u l a r l y a s t o th e w ording o f ques
t i o n n a i r e Ite m s . S e v e r a l new ite m s were in c lu d e d . F i n a l l y
th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was su b m itte d to th e members o f th e
g ra d u a te com m ittee u n d er whose g u id a n c e th e d i s s e r t a t i o n was
b e in g d ev e lo p ed .
A t r i a l re s p o n s e t o th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was se c u re d by
s u b m ittin g i t to a sem in ar o f d o c t o r a l c a n d id a te s , a l l
e x p e rie n c e d e d u c a to r s , who r a t e d a l l q u e s tio n n a ir e ite m s and
gave a c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l o f th e co v erag e and te rm in o lo g y .
M inor r e v i s i o n s w ere made as a r e s u l t o f t h i s t r y o u t .
IT . SPONSORSHIP BY CALIFORNIA TEACHERS ASSOCIATION
The C a l i f o r n i a T ea ch ers A s s o c ia tio n , S o u th e rn S e c tio n ,
was th e n approached c o n c e rn in g th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f sp o n so r
s h ip . That o r g a n iz a tio n , an x io u s to prom ote any a c t i v i t y
te n d in g to f u r t h e r e f f e c t i v e te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t, agreed to
p r i n t th e q u e s tio n n a ir e and p r e p a r e a c o v e rin g l e t t e r u rg in g
i t s com pletion* Corey, E x e c u tiv e S e c r e ta r y o f th e o r g a n i
z a tio n , o a re flo lly surv ey ed th e q u e s tio n n a ir e m a t e r i a l s ,
2
p re p a re d th e l e t t e r , and made a rra n g e m e n ts f o r m a ilin g .
v . s e l e c t i o n car r e c i p i e n t s m q w s T X Q M u a m
Among th e num erous ty p e s o f e d u c a tio n a l w o rk e rs who
a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y co n cern ed w ith te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t fo u r
w ere s e l e c t e d a s r e c i p i e n t s o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e . They w ere
th e fo llo w in g :
1. S t a t e S u p e r in te n d e n ts o f S c h o o ls.
2. E x e c u tiv e S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e T e a c h e rs A sso c i
a t i o n s .
5. D ir e c t o r s o f T eacher T ra in in g i n C o lle g e s and
U n i v e r s i t i e s .
4. Head G uidance O f f ic e r s i n High S c h o o ls and J u n io r
C o lle g e s .
The q u e s tio n n a ir e was s e n t t o a l l f o r t y - e i g h t s t a t e d e p a r t
m ents and s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s . The n e c e s s i t y o f
o b ta in in g r e t u r n s from a l l p a r t s o f th e n a t i o n r e q u ir e d t h a t
th e b u l l e t i n be s e n t to c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s and to
h ig h s c h o o ls and j u n i o r c o l le g e s i n P e n n s y lv a n ia and
2
A copy o f the f i r s t covering l e t t e r , prepared by the
C a lifo rn ia Teachers A sso cia tio n , Southern S ectio n , w ill be
found in the Appendix.
31
C o n n e c t!o u t i n th e E a s t, L o u is ia n a and S outh C a ro lin a i n th e
S o u th , W isco n sin and K ansas i n th e M iddle S t a t e s , and
C olorado and C a l i f o r n i a i n th e F a r W est.
The m a ilin g l i s t was p re p a re d hy r e f e r e n c e to th e
s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l g u id e hooks o f th e e i g h t s t a t e s and to th e
e d u c a tio n a l d i r e c t o r i e s p re p a re d by N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n
A s s o c ia tio n . The q u e s tio n n a ir e was s e n t o n ly to th o s e c o l
le g e s h a v in g a te a c h e r t r a i n i n g program and w ith e n r o llm e n ts
i n e x c e ss o f one th o u san d . I t was s e n t to h ig h s c h o o ls w ith
e n r o llm e n ts i n e x c e s s o f tw elv e hundred and to ju n io r c o l
le g e s w ith e n r o llm e n ts i n e x c e s s o f seven hundred and f i f t y .
A p rim a ry p u rp o se f o r th e m aking o f t h i s stu d y was
th e d is c o v e ry o f recommended p ro c e d u re s f o r te a c h e r r e c r u i t
m ent i n C a l i f o r n i a . I t seemed d e s i r a b l e , i n so f a r a s
r e t u r n s from se c o n d a ry and c o l l e g i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s w ere con
c e rn e d , to show C a l i f o r n i a r e t u r n s s e p a r a te ly and to p o o l
r e t u r n s from th e o th e r seven s t a t e s . Thus, any tr e n d s of
o p in io n i n th e n a t io n as a whole co u ld be compared w ith th o s e
o f C a l i f o r n i a .
F o r each o f th e se v e n s e c tio n s o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e ,
t h e r e f o r e , s i x s e t s o f r a t i n g s w ere p r e s e n te d i n t a b l e form
as fo llo w s :
1 . R a tin g s by s t a t e d ep a rtm en t o f e d u c a tio n d i r e c t o r s .
2. R a tin g s by e x e c u tiv e s e c r e t a r i e s o f s t a t e te a c h e r
a s s o c i a t i o n s .
3 £
3. R a tin g s by C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e and u n i v e r s i t y
d i r e c t o r s o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g .
4. R a tin g s by d i r e c t o r s o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n c o l
le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o u ts id e C a l i f o r n i a .
5. R a tin g s by d i r e c t o r s o f g u id a n ce i n C a l i f o r n i a
h ig h s c h o o ls and ju n io r c o l l e g e s .
6. R a tin g s by d i r e c t o r s o f g u id an ce i n h ig h s c h o o ls
and j u n i o r c o lle g e s o u ts id e C a lif o r n ia *
V I. COLLECTION AND TABULATION OF
QUESTION AIRE RESPONSES
E x a c tly f i v e hundred e d u c a to rs w ere s e n t q u e s tio n
n a i r e s and th e o r i g i n a l c o v e rin g l e t t e r a t th e f i r s t m a ilin g .
A fo llo w -u p p o s t ca rd was m a ile d th r e e w eeks l a t e r to a l l who
had n o t r e tu r n e d th e q u e s tio n n a i r e . A fte r f o u r a d d i t i o n a l
weeks a second copy o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was m a ile d to a l l
s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t, s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n , and C a l i f o r n i a
c o lle g e o f f i c i a l s who had n o t y e t re sp o n d e d . The C a l i f o r n i a
T ea ch ers A s s o c ia tio n a g a in made a c o v e rin g l e t t e r a v a i l a b l e . 3
The c o m p a ra tiv e ly few C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e s and u n iv e r
s i t i e s a v a i l a b l e f o r q u e s tio n in g made i t p a r t i c u l a r l y
d e s i r a b l e to have a h ig h p e r c e n ta g e o f r e t u r n s from them.
3
A copy o f the second covering l e t t e r , prepared by
the C a lifo rn ia Teachers A sso cia tio n , Southern S ectio n , w ill
be found in the Appendix.
33
When th e second m a ilin g o f a q u e s tio n n a ir e copy f a i l e d to
s e c u re two o f th e t o t a l number, te le g ra m s w ere s e n t t o th e
i n s t i t u t i o n s in v o lv e d . T h e ir r e t u r n s were r e c e iv e d , and
100 p e r c e n t r e t u r n s w ere a v a i l a b l e from C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e s
and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
I n a l l , 308 q u e s tio n n a i r e s were r e tu r n e d ; 301 o f them
were c o n s id e re d answered w ith s u f f i c i e n t co m p leten ess to be
re c o rd e d . S in c e t h i s r e t u r n s l i g h t l y ex c ee d s 60 p e r c e n t,
th e number i s more th a n ample to co m p rise a v a l i d sam p lin g
o f th e f i v e hundred t o whom th e form was s e n t .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of th e q u e s tio n n a ir e and th e r e t u r n s
were as f o llo w s :
R e c ip ie n t Number Number
s e n t r e tu r n e d
S t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts 48 40
S t a t e T e a c h e rs A s s o c ia tio n s 48 34
C o lle g e s i n C a l i f o r n i a 17 17
C o lle g e s o u ts id e C a l i f o r n i a 73 47
G uidance d i r e c t o r s i n C a l i f o r n i a 112 70
G uidance d i r e c t o r s o u ts id e C a l i f o r n i a 202 93
T o ta l
500 301
V II. ANALYSIS OF DATA
P e rc e n ta g e o f a c c e p ta b le r a t i n g s were r e c o r d e d .
T ren d s i n o p in io n r a n g in g from s tr o n g a p p ro v a l to r a t i n g a s
34
♦•dangerous to th e e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s ” w ere t a b u l a t e d . P e r
c e n ta g e o f a p p ro v a l was shown f o r a l l ♦ ’A” , o r u n q u a l if i e d
r a t i n g s . D if f e r e n c e s among d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f e d u c a tio n a l
w o rk ers w ere n o te d and a n a ly z e d . V a r ia tio n s betw een
o p in io n s o f e d u c a tio n i n C a l i f o r n i a and th o s e i n o th e r p a r t s
o f th e n a t io n w ere e a r e f u l l y n o te d .
The s tu d y was aimed a t d e te rm in in g e x p e rt o p in io n
c o n c e rn in g te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t b o th from a q u a n t i t a t i v e and
a q u a l i t a t i v e s ta n d p o in t. Those su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s w hich
r e c e iv e d a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p e r c e n t o f "D” r a t i n g s (would
in tr o d u c e a tte n d a n t e v i l s ) were s u b je c te d to a p a r t i c u l a r l y
c r i t i c a l s c r u ti n y even when th e y would a d m itte d ly b r in g i n
num erous r e c r u i t s .
S in c e th e s tu d y aimed a t a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n betw een
tem p o rary em ergency m easu res and th o s e w orthy o f perm anent
r e t e n t i o n , c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n was g iv e n to th e column
i n which ite m s co u ld be marked as d e s i r a b l e p e rm a n e n tly .
The p e r c e n t o f i n d ic a t e d d e s i r e f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n was
r e c o rd e d .
I n th e a n a l y s i s and d is c u s s io n o f each ite m i n th e
q u e s tio n n a ir e , r a t i n g s w ere c o n s i s t e n t l y compared w ith
a u t h o r i t a t i v e o p in io n as e x p re sse d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . S ig
n i f i c a n t e x p re s s io n s o f o p in io n s from th e l i t e r a t u r e were
quoted d i r e c t l y a s w ere a number o f su p p le m en tary comments
made by re s p o n d e n ts o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e .
35
V a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y were i n v e s t i g a t e d . I n
v a l i d a t i n g q u e s tio n n a ir e ite m s , an a f f i r m a t i v e answ er was
so u g h t f o r two q u e s tio n s : W ill th e ite m be c o m p le te ly u n d e r
sto o d ? Do th e ite m s co v er s u f f i c i e n t l y th e f a c t o r s w hich
a f f e c t te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t? W ith th e s e q u e s tio n s a s
c r i t e r i a , th e ite m s w ere a l t e r e d o v e r an ex ten d ed p e r io d by
r e v i s i o n s , a d d i tio n s , and d e l e t i o n s . As i n d ic a t e d above,
v a l i d a t i o n was sought by s u b je c ti n g q u e s tio n n a ir e m a t e r i a l s
to th e f o llo w in g s te p s : (1) th o ro u g h su rv e y o f th e l i t e r a
t u r e to s e c u re i n i t i a l l i s t o f su g g e ste d r e c r u itm e n t p r o
c e d u re s ; (2) a n a l y s i s o f a t e n t a t i v e q u e s tio n n a ir e by group
o f o u ts ta n d in g e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r s ; (3) a n a ly s is of a
t e n t a t i v e q u e s tio n n a i r e by g ra d u a te com m ittee in c lu d in g
p r o f e s s o r s o f sc h o o l a d m in is t r a tio n , sc h o o l c u rric u lu m ,
e d u c a tio n a l p sy c h o lo g y , and e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h y ; (4)
a n a l y s i s by o f f i c i a l s o f th e C a l i f o r n i a T e a c h e rs A s s o c ia tio n ;
(5) t r i a l r a t i n g o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e ite m s by a group o f
d o c t o r a l c a n d id a te s . When th e f i n a l form o f th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e evoked no more c r i t i c i s m , i t was c o n s id e re d re a d y f o r
adm ini s t r a t i o n .
S in c e th e s tu d y i s one o f s u b je c ti v e o p in io n th e
d e g re e o f c o n s is te n c y , i n th e u s u a l s e n s e , was n o t ea sy to
m easu re. S am pling r e l i a b i l i t y , how ever, ap p eared adequate.*
W ith r e t u r n s from each s e c t i o n o f th e c o u n try w e ll d i s t r i
b u te d and w ith more th a n 60 p e r c e n t o f re s p o n s e s on a l l
q u e s tio n n a i r e s , co v e ra g e seemed s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s t r i b u t e d and
co m p lete.
V I I I . SUM M ARY AND RECOMMENDATION OF RECRUITMENT
PROCEDURES FOR THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA
The u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s tu d y was th e d e v e lo p
ment o f recommended p ro c e d u re s f o r r e c r u itm e n t o f C a l i f o r n i a
te a c h e r s . I t does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y fo llo w t h a t a p ro c e d u re ,
d e f e n s ib le and e f f e c t i v e i n one s e c t i o n o f th e c o u n try , w i l l
be e q u a lly d e s i r a b l e i n a l l o t h e r s . Y et c e r t a i n l y one which
r e c e iv e s g e n e ro u s and g e n e r a l a p p ro v a l n a t i o n a l l y i s l i k e l y
to be a d e s i r a b l e method f o r C a l i f o r n i a s c h o o ls . Thus, th e
tr e n d s o f a p p ro v a l as found i n th e l i t e r a t u r e and i n th e
q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s were r e f l e c t e d f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t l y i n
th e recom m endations f o r C a l i f o r n i a . H ere a g a in recommend
a t i o n s were c l a s s i f i e d a s em ergency m easures and a s recom
m e n d atio n s o f a perm anent n a t u r e .
I n f o rm u la tin g q u e s tio n n a i r e ite m s , an a tte m p t was
made to l i m i t su g g e ste d m ethods t o t a n g i b l e p ro c e d u re s w hich
co u ld be r e f l e c t e d i n c o n c re te b o a rd a c t i o n o r l e g i s l a t i v e
e n a c tm e n t. Numerous i n t a n g i b l e s ap p eared to be so s i g n i
f i c a n t to th e f u r th e r a n c e o f te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t, how ever,
t h a t th e y could n o t be e n t i r e l y ig n o re d . Both i n th e
l i t e r a t u r e and i n a d d i t i o n a l comments by r e s p o n d e n ts to th e
q u e s tio n n a i r e th e s e i n t a n g i b l e s r e c e iv e d e n t h u s i a s t i c
37
s u p p o rt. I t was c o n s id e re d d e s i r a b l e , t h e r e f o r e , b o th i n
th e body o f th e s tu d y and i n th e c h a p te r o f recommended p r o
c e d u re s , to g iv e some c o g n izan c e to th e s e ite m s and i n th e
l a t t e r c h a p te r t o make s u g g e s tio n s f o r t h e i r i n c l u s i o n in
any com prehensive r e c r u itm e n t program .
Q u e s tio n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts were asked t o s e l e c t th e
f o u r r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s among a l l c o n s id e re d w hieh th e y
b e lie v e d to be m ost fu n d a m e n ta l to s u c c e s s f u l te a c h e r r e
c ru itm e n t. T h e ir answ ers ap p e ar i n t a b l e form i n t h e sum
mary c h a p te r . W hile th e y r e p r e s e n t o p in io n from a l l
s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n try , th e d a ta a r e none th e l e s s v a lu a b le
i n a p p r a i s a l of p o s s i b l e p ro c e d u re s f o r C a l i f o r n i a .
C H A P T E R I I I
THE EMERGENCY CREDENTIAL AS A KEORUITMENT DEVICE
I. ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
U n lik e l a t e r c h a p te r s o f t h i s stu d y , C h a p te r I I I i s
concern ed w ith h u t one r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re — t h a t o f i s s u i n g
s u b - s ta n d a r d , em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s . S e v e r a l d i f f e r i n g b a s e s
f o r such is s u a n c e w ere p r e s e n te d f o r r a t i n g i n ' S e c tio n I o f
th e q u e s tio n n a i r e . F o r th e m ost p a r t , how ever, comment on
em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s , b o th i n th e l i t e r a t u r e and on th e
q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s , was d i r e c te d a t th e em ergency c r e
d e n t i a l i n g e n e r a l r a t h e r th a n a t th e v a r io u s su g g e ste d
s ta n d a r d s f o r i t s is s u a n c e .
The d is c u s s io n i n C h a p te r I I I w i l l be u n d er th e f o l
lo w in g m ain h e a d in g s:
1. A p p ra is a l o f th e em ergency c r e d e n t i a l as found i n
e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e .
2. A p p ra is a l o f th e em ergency c r e d e n t i a l as found i n
comments on q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s .
5. Emergency p e r m its b ased on two y e a r s c o l le g e p lu s
one y e a r e x p e rie n c e .
4 . Emergency p e r m its based on two y e a r s c o lle g e p lu s
i n t e n s i v e i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g program .
5. Emergency p e rm its b ased on two y e a r s c o lle g e p lu s
39
tw e lv e se m e ste r u n i t s i n e d u c a tio n .
6* Emergency p e r m its based on two y e a r s c o lle g e w ith
no a d d i t i o n a l re q u ir e m e n ts .
7. Emergency p e r m its b ased on h ig h sc h o o l g r a d u a tio n
p lu s i n t e n s i v e summer sc h o o l c o u rs e w ork.
8 . Emergency p e r m its based on h ig h se h o o l g ra d u a tio n
p lu s i n t e n s i v e i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g program .
9. Emergency p e r m its g ra n te d w ith no s p e c i f i c r e
q u ire m e n ts; d eterm in ed by n e e d s.
XI. APPRAISAL OF THE EMERGENCY CREDENTIAL IS FOUND
IN EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE
Emergency p e r m its w ere l e g a l i z e d . D uring th e p e rio d
o f se v e re t e a c h e r s h o rta g e b e g in n in g w ith th e o u tb re a k o f
World War I I th e v a r io u s s t a t e s began th e p a s s a g e o f l e g i s
l a t i o n p e r m i t t i n g th e g r a n tin g o f te m p o ra ry , em ergency
c e r t i f i c a t e s . I n m ost s t a t e s th e s e were e f f e c t i v e f o r one
y e a r o n ly . The t y p i c a l c e r t i f i c a t i o n s t a t u t e was to become
i n o p e r a tiv e a t , o r s h o r t l y a f t e r , th e tim e when th e l e g i s
l a t u r e d e c la re d th e em ergency a t an end. By th e c lo s e of
th e war i n 1945, each o f th e f o r t y - e i g h t s t a t e s had p assed
some such em ergency l e g i s l a t i o n .
R eq u irem en ts as to minimum t r a i n i n g of t h i s em ergency
p e r s o n n e l v a r ie d g r e a t l y . Some s t a t e s p la c e d v i r t u a l l y no
l i m i t s a s to t r a i n i n g , le a v in g to l o c a l d i s t r i c t s th e r i g h t
40
to r e q u e s t c e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r any one whom l o c a l o f f i c i a l s
f e l t to he s a t i s f a c t o r y . I n th o s e s t a t e s such a r e q u e s t
when made th ro u g h p r o p e r c h a n n e ls r e c e iv e d alm o st u n i v e r s a l
a p p ro v a l. A few s t a t e s lim ite d c r e d e n t i a l s t o h ig h se h o o l
g r a d u a te s or to th o s e who com pleted an i n t e n s i v e summer
sc h o o l ”b ru s h -u p ” c o u rs e .
One s t a t e p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n p e r m i t t i n g th e g r a n tin g
o f te m p o rary c r e d e n t i a l s t o any h ig h s e h o o l g r a d u a te s who
were e ig h te e n y e a rs o f age and who w ere n o t r e l a t e d to any
member o f th e h o a rd . T h is was n o t a t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n , how-
1
e v e r . T h i r t y - e i g h t s t a t e s r e q u ir e d some c o lle g e t r a i n i n g .
I n some s t a t e s t h i s co u ld he l i m ite d to a summer " b ru s h -u p ”
c o u rs e .
A m a jo r i ty o f s t a t e s a tte m p te d t o s a fe g u a rd a g a in s t
th e e x p e rie n c e s o f World War I when l a r g e num bers o f sub
s ta n d a r d te a c h e r s w ere g iv e n perm anent c e r t i f i c a t i o n . T h is
to o k th e form o f re q u ire m e n ts t o th e e f f e c t t h a t em ergency
c e r t i f i c a t e s n o t be ren ew a b le and t h a t th e y b e g ra n te d o n ly
i f a l l e f f o r t s a t g e t t i n g r e g u l a r c e r t i f i e d p e rs o n n e l f a i l e d .
Emergency c r e d e n t i a l s i n C a l i f o r n i a a re is s u e d o n ly
on th e b a s i s o f a sig n e d s ta te m e n t o f need and f o r a p e r io d
o f one y e a r o n ly . They a re is s u e d u n d e r a u t h o r i t y o f
1 D. M. B l y l e r , ’’Emergency T each in g P e r m its f o r E le
m entary S ch o o l T e a c h e r s ,” E lem en ta ry S ch o o l J o u r n a l . 4 6 :2 0 9 -
13, December, 1945.
E d u c a tio n Code, S e c tio n 12060, on th e "basis o f "recommend
a t i o n o f th e Commission o f C r e d e n tia ls co n c u rred i n by th e
2
S u p e r in te n d e n t o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n . " The sc h o o l eode
does n o t s e t up s p e c i f i c academ ic o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s ta n d a r d s
f o r em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s . C o u n tie s w ere p e r m itte d to do
so , how ever. T h is means t h a t r e q u ire m e n ts a re n o t u n ifo rm
th ro u g h o u t th e s t a t e . Los A ngeles C ounty’ s s ta n d a rd f o r th e
em ergency g e n e ra l e le m e n ta ry c r e d e n t i a l i s two y e a rs o f
c o lle g e p l u s one y e a r ’ s te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e o r th r e e y e a r s ’
c o l le g e .
Many w ere employed w ith em ergency p e r m i t s . From a
q u a n t i t a t i v e s ta n d p o in t th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e em ergency
c r e d e n t i a l law s i n th e v a r io u s s t a t e s can n o t be q u e s tio n e d .
B e g in n in g w ith 46,550 em ergency te a c h e r s i n th e U nited
S t a t e s f o r th e academ ic y e a r o f 1941-42 th e number h as
s t e a d i l y in c r e a s e d u n t i l i n 1945-46 a t w hich tim e some e s t i
m ates p la c e d th e number as h ig h a s 1 7 5 ,0 0 0 .3 Thus, a p p r o x i
m a te ly 17 p e r c e n t o f th e n a t i o n ’ s te a c h in g p e rs o n n e l i n
p u b lic e le m e n ta ry and se co n d ary s c h o o ls w ere s u b - s ta n d a r d ,
2
J o e l A. Burkman, " I n c r e a s e i n Number o f C e r t i f i c a
t i o n Documents Is s u e d to E d u c a tio n a l P e rs o n n e l i n C a l i f o r n i a
C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o ls . No. 5, 1 7 :1 2 1 , May, 1946.
3 H arry E. E ld e r , "The T eacher S h o rta g e : From A cute
to A la rm in g !" Am erican A s s o c ia tio n o f C o l le g i a te R e g i s t r a r s
J o u r n a l , 2 1:67, O cto b er, 1945.
42
a t l e a s t i n so f a r as c e r t i f i o a t i o n l e v e l s a re co n c ern ed .
4
A ccording to a r e p o r t i n A p r il o f 1946, i n C a l i f o r n i a , o u t
o f a p p ro x im a te ly f i f t y thousand te a c h e r s i n 1945-46, a p p ro x i
m a te ly te n th o u sa n d , o r 20 p e r c e n t, w ere w orking on emer
gency c r e d e n t i a l s .
Much o p p o s itio n t o , em ergency l e g i s l a t i o n h as been
e x p r e s s e d . S in c e th e em ergency c r e d e n t i a l was so u n i v e r s a l l y
used and c o n tr ib u te d p e rs o n n e l i n such l a r g e num bers i t may
be a cau se o f some s u r p r i s e to f in d e d u c a to rs i n such g r e a t
num bers "dam ning” i t as a dang ero u s and u n f o r tu n a te s te p .
T y p ic a l o f r e a c t i o n i n e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e i s th e t i r a d e
o f W a lle r o f Colum bia U n iv e r s ity .
Of c o u rse we s h a l l manage to keep m ost o f th e sc h o o ls
g o in g somehow b u t i n o r d e r to f i l l th e v a c a n t p o s i t i o n s
we s h a l l have to is s u e em ergency c e r t i f i c a t e s to th o u
san d s o f p e rs o n s to o o ld , to o young, and to o p o o r ly
b a la n c e d to m eet o u r o r d in a r y r e q u ir e m e n ts . We s h a l l
heed to ro b th e c r a d le and th e g ra v e and to im p re s s th e
h a l t and th e b lin d a s w e ll as th e b e t t e r g ra d e s o f
m orons. Some m i l l i o n s o f c h i ld r e n w i l l be s h o r t changed,
and t h e y - w i l l p r e s e n t t h e i r b i l l f o r damages i n th e y e a r s
to come.
A s ta te m e n t i n much th e same v e in comes from W aite o f
M ilwaukee S t a t e T e a c h e rs C o lle g e .
We have dragged out o f r e tir e m e n t u n q u a l if i e d p e rs o n s
who have had some te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e i n th e d i s t a n t
4
Of. a n t e , p . 9.
5
IT illa rd W a lle r, "R e v o lt i n th e C lassroom , ” High
P o i n t s , 2 5 :5 -1 2 , O c to b e r, 1943.
43
p a s t . We have g iv e n them " c o n d itio n e d ” c e r t i f i c a t e s f o r
a t t e n d i n g cheap and s u p e r f i c i a l " r e f r e s h e r " c o u rs e s and
tu rn e d them lo o s e to p re y upon our c h i l d r e n . We m ust
n o t d e lu d e o u r s e lv e s as to th e harm th e s e p e o p le w i l l do
o r as to th e l e v e l to w hich th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s io n h as
f a l l e n .
M ild e r h u t none th e l e s s d e f i n i t e o p p o s itio n was
v o ic e d by E ld e r when he p o in te d o u t t h a t , i n many c a s e s , r e
q u ire m e n ts o f a s p e c i f i c number o f p r o f e s s i o n a l u n i t s i n
e d u c a tio n p la c e d no l i m i t s a s to th e d a te when th e c r e d i t s
7
w ere e a rn e d .
F u l l e r i n November o f 1944 i n s i s t e d t h a t " te a c h in g
s ta n d a r d s a r e d e t e r i o r a t i n g and damage i s b e in g done to th e
0
p r o f e s s io n w hich w i l l ta k e y e a rs to r e p a i r . "
Many f e a r perm anent r e t e n t i o n . One o f th e c h i e f
p o i n t s o f o b je c ti o n was th e d anger o f " b la n k e tin g " em ergency
9
te a c h e r s i n t o p erm an en t s t a t u s . Burkman, A s s i s t a n t D ir e c to r
o f E d u c a tio n , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n ,
p o in te d o u t t h a t many such te a c h e r s do n o t co m plete r e q u ir e d
t r a i n i n g and m eanw hile become p e rm a n e n tly e s t a b l i s h e d i n
a
W . H. W aite, "The T each er Looks I n to th e F u t u r e ,"
Peabody J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n , 2 2 :3 5 6 , May, 1945.
7
E ld e r , o p . e i t . , p . 65.
Q
H elen F u l l e r , "T eacher S h o r t a g e s ,” P r o g r e s s iv e Edu
c a t i o n . 2 2 :9 , November, .1944.
9
J o e l A. Burkman, "T eacher Supply and Demand i n
C a l i f o r n i a , " C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o ls . 1 5 :2 4 -2 6 , O cto b er, 1944.
44
t h e i r com m unities. P r e s s u r e i s th e n b ro u g h t on s t a t e b o a rd s
who f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t to r e f u s e re n e w a l o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
A s i m i l a r d an g er was v o ic e d by an e d i t o r i a l commenta
t o r who m a in ta in e d t h a t rem oval o f war em ergency te a c h e r s ;
. . . p r e s e n t a p ro b lem t h a t w i l l n o t re v o lv e i t s e l f
e a s i l y . E x is ti n g l e g i s l a t i o n • • . w i l l n o t e n t i r e l y
f r e e l o c a l b o a rd s o f e d u c a tio n and s u p e r in te n d e n ts from
c o n s id e r a b le p r e s s u r e to r e t a i n th e s e em ergency te a e h e r s
lo n g a f t e r th e need f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s i s p a s t * . .
The com bating o f such p r e s s u r e i s a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w hich
em ploying o f f i c i a l s ca n n o t ta k e l i g h t l y . 10
A w arn in g was v o ic e d i n s i m i l a r to n e by Donohue o f
th e U n iv e r s ity o f D e t r o i t ;
. . . T here w i l l be s tr o n g p r e s s u r e upon th e s t a t e
c e r t i f y i n g o f f i c i a l s to r e t a i n em ergency c e r t i f i c a t e s i n
f o r c e by some k in d o f b la n k e t p r o v is io n . T h is p r e s s u r e
w i l l be r e s i s t e d i n some s t a t e s , b u t i n o th e r s t a t e s a
f e e l i n g o f m oral o b l i g a t i o n tow ard th o s e who so v a l i a n t
l y t r i e d to h e lp may combine w ith p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e to
c o n v e rt emergency c e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t o what w i l l be
v i r t u a l l y l i f e c e r t i f i c a t i o n . The t r a n s i t i o n y e a rs
betw een th e end o f th e war and th e re su m p tio n o f norm al
te a c h e r su p p ly w i l l be a c r i t i c a l p e r io d o f p r e s s u r e
upon c e r t i f y i n g a u t h o r i t i e s . . . 11
1X1. APPRAISAL OP THE EMERGENCY CREDENTIAL AS FOUND
IN COM M ENTS ON QUESTIONNAIRE RETURNS
T hroughout th e q u e s tio n n a ir e space was l e f t , fo llo w in g
E d i t o r i a l Comment, S chool Board J o u r n a l . 1 0 9 :1 4 ,
November, 1944.
11 F r a n c is J . Donohue, 1 1 The War Emergency T eacher
A f te r th e W ar,ft Am erican S ch o o l Board J o u r n a l . 1 1 0 :2 7 -2 8 ,
F e b ru a ry , 1945.
45
each s e c tio n , f o r a d d i t i o n a l comment. F o llo w in g th e s u g g e s t
ed p ro c e d u re s f o r em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s w ere found num erous
comments, th e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f w hich were of a c r i t i c a l
n a t u r e .
As w i l l be n o tic e d i n th e f i r s t se v en t a b l e s , s t a t e
te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s and s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts o f e d u c a tio n
w ere r e l a t i v e l y l e s s c r i t i c a l o f em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s .
From t h e i r p o s i t i o n d i r e c t l y ”on th e f i r i n g l i n e ” w here th e
need was m ost a p p a re n t and from w here em ergency c e r t i f i c a t e s
w ere b e in g p ro c e s s e d , th e y w ere h a r d ly i n a p o s i t i o n to con
demn them I n t o t o .
I t was from d e p a rtm e n ts o f e d u c a tio n i n c o l le g e s and
u n i v e r s i t i e s t h a t o p p o s itio n was m ost p ro n o u n ced . Remarks a
d i r e c t o r o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g from a te a c h e r s c o lle g e i n th e
m id -w e st, " I ’ d g e t r i d o f a l l em ergency c e r t i f i c a t e s — n o t
lg
en c o u ra g e t h e i r u s e . ” From a n o th e r m id -w e ste rn c o lle g e
came t h i s a s s e r t i o n :
Cheap p r o d u c ts d r iv e o u t good p r o d u c ts , s u p p o rt o f
p u b lic e d u c a tio n m ust m eet c o n d i tio n s o f o th e r co m p eti
t i v e a g e n c ie s . T e a c h e r s ’ q u a l i f i c a t i o n s m ust be k e p t
i n l i n e w ith co m p en satio n f o r same. 3
A P e n n s y lv a n ia d i r e c t o r o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g a s s e r t s ,
12
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , a d i r e c t o r
o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n a K ansas s t a t e te a c h e r s c o lle g e .
13
Comment by respondent to q u estion n aire, a d irecto r
o f teacher tr a in in g in a W isconsin s ta te teach ers c o lle g e .
46
a f t e r g iv in g each o f th e em ergency p ro c e d u re s ite m s a "D"
r a t i n g :
I do n o t b e l ie v e th e re q u ire m e n ts sh o u ld be lo w ered .
We would l o s e to o much by such a p ro c e d u re . I would
r a t h e r see s c h o o ls c lo s e d ; t h a t m ight b r in g more h e lp
from o u ts i d e th e p r o f e s s io n .
The dean o f th e sc h o o l o f e d u c a tio n o f a famous e a s t
e rn u n i v e r s i t y , i n com menting on S e c tio n I o f th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e , s t a t e s b l u n t l y , " I cannot se e how anyone co u ld
s u b s c r ib e to t h a t . . . I would r e t a i n none o f th e above.
T h is w i l l re d u c e th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n to a m is e ra b ly low
s ta n d a r d
Some o f th e m ost vehem ent p r o t e s t s came from h ig h
sc h o o l g u id an ce d i r e c t o r s . A S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a d i r e c t o r
a s s e r t s , "T hese {the sev en su g g e ste d em ergency p ro c e d u re s )
a l l te n d t o lo w er s ta n d a r d s . . . I t shows ho v i s i o n and
* 1«
does n o t r e a c h th e r e a l c a u se o f th e d i f f i c u l t y . " From
n o r th e r n C a l i f o r n i a a h ig h sc h o o l d i r e c t o r m a in ta in s :
Low ering s ta n d a r d s won*t h e lp th e s i t u a t i o n . I n n in e
c a s e s o u t o f te n i t would be much b e t t e r to have no
s c h o o ls a t a l l th a n to have one i n p o o r h a n d s. T here
14
Comment by r e s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a ir e , a d i r e c t o r
o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n a P e n n s y lv a n ia s t a t e te a c h e r s c o lle g e .
15
Comment by re sp o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a ir e , Dean,
S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n , o f a P e n n s y lv a n ia u n i v e r s i t y . ,
1 /»
Comment by respondent to q u estion n aire, a d ir e c to r
o f guidance in a C a lifo r n ia high sch o o l.
47
17
are b e tte r ways to a ttr a c t tea ch ers.
I n l i k e v e in w r i t e s a n o th e r g u id a n ce d i r e c t o r from S o u th e rn
C a l i f o r n i a , "Such s te p s would o r w i l l i n e v i t a b l y cau se our
p r o f e s s io n to d e g e n e ra te i n t o an u n sa v o ry o c c u p a tio n . I t
would r u i n o u r s c h o o ls — b r in g them down to th e l e v e l o f some
18
s o u th e rn s c h o o l s . ”
Two P e n n s y lv a n ia h ig h s c h o o l d i r e c t o r s w ere j u s t a s
vehem ent. One m a in ta in e d , ”1 would r a t h e r c lo s e some s c h o o ls
19
in o r d e r to b r in g th e te a c h e r s i t u a t i o n f o r c i b l y to m in d .”
A nother demanded, ”Do away w ith em ergency p e r m its . R e q u ire
20
f o u r y e a rs o f c o l l e g e . ”
IV. GRANTING OF EMERGENCY PERMITS WITH VARYING
EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS
Two y e a r s c o lle g e p lu s one y e a r ' s e x p e rie n c e was con
s id e re d p r a c t i c a l by _a m i n o r i t y . J u s t a s th e w r i t e r s in
e d u c a tio n p e r i o d i c a l s tended to see d a n g e rs i n th e em ergency
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , a d i r e c t o r
o f g u id a n c e i n a C a l i f o r n i a h ig h s c h o o l.
18
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , a d i r e c t o r
o f g u id a n ce i n a C a l i f o r n i a h ig h s c h o o l.
19
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to ' q u e s tio n n a i r e , a d i r e c t o r
o f g u id a n ce in a P e n n s y lv a n ia h ig h s c h o o l.
20
Comment by respondent to q u estio n n a ire, a d irecto r
o f guidance in a Pennsylvania high sch o o l.
48
c r e d e n t i a l , so was i t g iv e n a low r a t i n g i n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e
r e t u r n s . As p o in te d o u t i n C h a p te r I I , re s p o n d e n ts w ere
asked t o r a t e a l l r e c r u itm e n t m ethods on a f i v e p o in t s c a l e
as f o llo w s : "A” i s o f param ount im p o rta n c e ; "B" p ro b a b ly h a s
some v a lu e ; "C" i s o f no v a lu e ; "D" would in tr o d u c e a tte n d a n t
e v i l s . S in c e th e r e was c o n s id e r a b le v a r i a t i o n betw een th e
e le m e n ta ry and se c o n d a ry l e v e l s among th e s t a t e s a s to s ta n d
a rd s f o r em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s , t h i s f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h e
q u e s tio n n a ir e was lim ite d to r a t i n g s f o r e le m e n ta ry t e a c h e r s .
On t h i s f i r s t q u e s tio n n a i r e ite m and on each o f th e
o th e r s i n th e e n t i r e stu d y , p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n w i l l be
c a l l e d to p e r c e n ta g e s o f "A*1 o r u n q u a l if i e d r a t i n g s s in c e
th e s e r e p r e s e n t e x p r e s s io n s o f o p in io n as to v a lu a b le r e
c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u re s . S p e c i f ic r e f e r e n c e w i l l be made a ls o
to r e t u r n s i n th e " r e t a i n 1 1 column which r e p r e s e n t s th e r e s
pondents* b e l i e f s as t o p ro c e d u re s w hich would be v a lu a b le
on a perm anent b a s i s a f t e r th e p a s s a g e o f th e te a c h e r s h o r t
age.
When marked v a r i a t i o n s i n r a t i n g s ap p ear among th e
s i x q u e s tio n n a ir e g ro u p s, a t t e n t i o n w i l l be c a lle d to them .
C om parisons o f o p in io n betw een C a l i f o r n i a e d u c a to rs and
th o s e i n th e r e s t o f th e n a t i o n w i l l be m entioned w herever
th e d i f f e r e n c e i s m arked. N orm ally, how ever, f i g u r e s i n th e
" t o t a l " column w i l l be quoted r a t h e r th a n th o s e f o r i n d i
v id u a l g ro u p s.
49
T ab le X p r e s e n t s q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s on th e s u g g e s t
io n o f l i m i t i n g em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s to th o s e who have com
p l e t e d two y e a rs o f c o l le g e p lu s one y e a r f s e x p e rie n c e i n
some o th e r s t a t e . W hile t h i s r e p r e s e n te d a h ig h e r r e q u i r e
m ent th a n was demanded f o r em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s i n a
m a jo r i ty o f th e s t a t e s i t f a i l e d to r e c e i v e e n t h u s i a s t i c
in d o rse m e n t.
The c o l l e g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e s , d id
n o t c o n s id e r i t to have much m e r it . Not a s i n g l e h ig h e r
i n s t i t u t i o n i n C a l i f o r n i a gave i t an "A" r a t i n g , and o n ly 17
p e r c e n t o f c o lle g e i n s t i t u t i o n s o u ts id e o f C a l i f o r n i a gave
i t such an in d o rse m e n t. B ut s l i g h t l y more th a n o n e - q u a r te r
o f a l l th e r e s p o n d e n ts p la c e d th e p ro c e d u re i n th e "A" column.
N e a rly o n e - h a l f of th e re s p o n d e n ts awarded i t th e
m e d io cre M Btf r a t i n g (would le a d to m odest s u c c e s s in r e c r u i t
i n g ) . S t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n s ’ i n
dorsem ent was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y above th e a v e ra g e o f a l l
re s p o n s e s ; and s in c e th o s e o r g a n iz a tio n s a re c l o s e s t to th e
p roblem o f em ergency c e r t i f i c a t i o n , i t may be co ncluded t h a t
two y e a r s o f c o l le g e p lu s one y e a r o f te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e i s
n o t g e n e r a lly c o n s id e re d a d e s i r a b l e s ta n d a rd f o r th e
s e l e c t i o n of em ergency te a c h e r s .
R e fe re n c e t o T ab le X would i n d i c a t e , how ever, t h a t
some re s p o n d e n ts would r e t a i n such c e r t i f i c a t i o n p e rm a n e n tly .
W hile c o l le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w ere a g a in alm o st c o m p le te ly
TABLE I
ISSUANCE OF EMERGENCY PERMITS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AFTER
MINIMUM OF T W O YEARS COLLEGE TRAINING A N D ONE YEAR TEACHING EXPERIENCE
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 28 10 6 6 6 6 8 35.7 21.4
State Teachers*
Associations 27 6 12 5 4 2 6 22.2 7.4
Colleges in
California 17 0 15 1 1 0 3 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 41 7 16 6 12 2
@
17.1 4.9
Guidance Directors
in California 59 17 31 3 8 10 10 28.8 16.9
Guidance Directors
outside California 82 27 37 5 13 19 18 32.9 23.2
Total 254 67 117 26 44 39 53 26.4 15.4
Oi
O
51
opposed to perm anent r e t e n t i o n , an a p p r e c ia b le p e rc e n ta g e o f
s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s and g u id a n ce d i r e c t o r s would keep
such c e r t i f i c a t e s v a l i d . I f o v er 20 p e r c e n t o f s t a t e de
p a rtm e n ts a r e w i l l i n g to p e r p e t u a te su ch em ergency c e r t i f i c a
t i o n , t h e r e may be some b a s i s f o r b e l i e f t h a t such c e r t i f i
c a t e s w i l l be d i f f i c u l t to e r a d i c a t e .
Two y e a r s c o lle g e p lu s i n - s e r v ic e t r a i n i n g p r o g r am
r e c e iv e d h ig h e s t m in o r ity a p p r o v a l. T ab le I I p o r tr a y s r e
a c tio n to i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g co u p led w ith two y e a rs c o lle g e
a s a minimum b a s i s f o r em ergency c e r t i f i c a t i o n . A cceptance
by q u e s tio n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r th a n
f o r th e s ta n d a r d j u s t p r e s e n te d . More th a n 40 p e r c e n t o f
s t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n and s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s
r a t e i t a s a c c e p ta b le and co n d u civ e o f m a t e r i a l r e s u l t s .
The c o l le g e s , to o , a re d i s t i n c t l y more w i l l i n g to a c c e p t th e
i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g b a s i s th a n th e y w ere th e y e a r - o f -
e x p e rie n c e p r o v is io n . More th a n o n e - t h i r d o f a l l re s p o n d
e n t s gave th e p ro c e d u re th e "A* r a t i n g . The W BH r a t i n g ,
how ever, was th e modal r e s p o n s e f o r a l l b u t one group of
r e s p o n d e n ts .
F o rty o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts , o r a p p ro x im a te ly 15 p e r c e n t,
i n d i c a t e d by a "D" r a t i n g t h a t th e y saw d a n g e rs i n th e p ro c e
dure. s u g g e s te d . N e v e r th e le s s , t h i s second o f th e seven
s u g g e s te d b a s e s f o r is s u a n c e o f em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s was by
TABES I I
ISSUANCE OF EM ERGENCY PERMITS FOR ELffilNTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AFTER
MINIMUM OF T W O YEARS COLLEGE PLUS INTENSIVE IN-SERVICE TRAINING PRO G RA M
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 27 11 7 3 6 7 11 40.7 25.9
State Teachers’
Associations 29 13 11 3 2 9 7 44.8 31.0
Colleges in
California 17 4 U 0 2 0 4 23.5 0.0
Colleges outside
California 44 11 18 4 11 5 12 25.0 11.4
Guidance Directors
in California 64 27 29 1 7 14 13 42.2 21.9
Guidance Directors
outside California 85 25 45 3 12 • 19 18 29.4 22.4
Total 270 91 125 14 40 54 65 33.7 20.0
55
f a r th e m ost a c c e p ta b le o f th e group* I t m ust be co n clu d ed ,
th e n , t h a t r e s p o n d e n ts to th e q u e s tio n n a i r e a r e u n w illin g
to in d o r s e th e em ergency c r e d e n t i a l a s a r e c r u itm e n t p r o
c e d u re . Such a s ta n d seems c o m p le te ly in c o n g ru o u s i n l i g h t
o f th e u n iv e r s a l p r a c t i c e of i s s u i n g em ergency te a c h in g
p e r m it s . P e rh a p s th e s e f in d in g s i n d i c a t e a b e l i e f t h a t
em ergency c e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a n e c e s s a ry e v i l and, t h e r e f o r e ,
should n o t be d i g n i f i e d w ith r e c o g n i t i o n a s a v a l i d means
o f t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
Of a l l th e r e s p o n d e n ts , 20 p e r c e n t w ere w i l l i n g to
r e t a i n p e rm a n e n tly any c e r t i f i c a t i o n b a se d on r e q u ire m e n ts
ad ding i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g t o two y e a r s o f c o lle g e .
C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e o f f i c i a l s w ere a g a in u n i v e r s a l l y opposed
to such r e t e n t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t , 31 p e r e e n t o f s t a t e te a c h
e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s w ere w i l l i n g to p e rm a n e n tly r e t a i n
p e rs o n n e l c e r t i f i c a t e d i n t h i s m anner.
Two y e a r s c o lle g e p lu s tw e lv e s e m e s te r u n i t s i n edu
c a t i o n r e c e iv e d m in o r ity s u p p o r t. T able I I I p r e s e n t s
r e a c t i o n s to q u e s tio n n a i r e when two y e a r s o f c o lle g e , as a
b a s i s f o r i s s u i n g em ergency te a c h in g p e r m its , in c lu d e s a t
l e a s t tw e lv e s e m e ste r u n i t s i n e d u c a tio n . W ith th e two-
y e a r - e o l le g e t r a i n i n g a c o n s ta n t f a c t o r i n th e f i r s t f o u r
s u g g e s tio n s i n th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , one h as some b a s i s f o r
v ie w in g r e a c t i o n to su g g e ste d s u p p le m e n ta tio n s to t h a t
TABLE I I I
ISSUANCE OF EMERGENCY PERMITS EOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AFTER
MINIMEM OF TWO YEARS COLLEGE TRAINING INCLUDING TWELVE SEMESTER
UNITS IN EDUCATION
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 89 7 13 3 6 4 10 24.1 13.8
State Teachers*
Associations 30 10 11 7 2 5 7 33.3 16.7
Colleges in
California 17 3 9 2 3 0 4 17.6 0.0
Colleges outside
California 43 12 18 4 9 3 13 27.9 7.0
Guidance Directors
in California 61 16 34 3 8 7 @ 26.2 11.5
Guidance Directors
outside California 86 27 40 3 16 20 15 31.4 23.3
Total 266 73 125 22 44
\
39 57 28.2 14.7
ci
55
tr a in in g * I n t h a t c o n n e c tio n , tw elv e u n i t s o f e d u c a tio n
ap p eared s l i g h t l y l e s s v a lu a b le th a n i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g and
s l i g h t l y more d e s i r a b l e th a n a y e a r o f e x p e r ie n c e .
A p p ro x im ately 28 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l group gave
t h i s t h i r d s u g g e s tio n an nAtT r a t i n g . A gain, M B” r a t i n g was
th e modal r e s p o n s e , and ab o u t 17 p e r c e n t in d i c a t e d a b e l i e f
i n in h e r e n t d a n g e rs by a ttDw r a t i n g . A gain th e C a l i f o r n i a
c o l le g e s e x p re s se d g r e a t e s t o p p o s itio n to th e p ro c e d u re ; and,
a s i n th e im m ed ia tely p r e c e d in g s u g g e s tio n , s t r o n g e s t s u p p o rt
came from s t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s .
C o m p a ra tiv e ly l i t t l e s u p p o rt was i n d i c a t e d f o r p e r
m anent r e t e n t i o n . No C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e o f f i c i a l w anted i t
r e t a i n e d . Only th r e e c o lle g e o f f i c i a l s o u ts i d e C a l i f o r n i a
th o u g h t r e t e n t i o n d e s i r a b l e . L ess th a n 15 p e r c e n t o f a l l
re s p o n d e n ts su g g e ste d m aking th e p ro c e d u re p e rm a n e n t.
*
Two y e a rs c o l le g e w ith no a d d i t i o n a l re q u ire m e n ts was
g e n e r a lly condemned. T ab le IV p r e s e n t s th e r e a c t i o n s o f
q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts to th e s u g g e s tio n o f aw arding
em ergency p e r m its b ased on two y e a rs c o l le g e t r a i n i n g w ith
o u t f u r t h e r re q u ire m e n t as to t r a i n i n g o r e x p e r ie n c e . The
g e n e r a l r e a c t i o n i s d i s t i n c t l y more a d v e rs e th a n t h a t found
f o r th e t h r e e s u g g e s tio n s im m e d ia te ly above. W DW r e s p o n s e s ,
i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f t h a t a tte n d a n t e v i l s would r e s u l t , i s
th e m ost f r e q u e n t r e s p o n s e . Only 11 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l
TABLE IV
ISSUANCE OF EM ERGENCY PERMITS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AFTER
MINIMUM OF T W O YEARS COLLEGE TRAINING
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 27 5 9 6 7 4 10 18.5 14.8
State Teachers'
Associations 30 6 10 6 8 3 4 20.0 10.0
Colleges in
California 15 0 4 3 8 0 1 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 42 0 13 7 22 0 1 0.0 0.0
Guidance Directors
in California 60 6 19 12 23 5 7 10.0 8.3
Guidance Directors
outside California 80 11 26 14 29 10 9 13.8 12.5
Total 254 28 81 48 97 22 32
11*0
8.7
01
o>
r e s p o n s e s a re i n th e ,fA” column w ith n o t a s i n g l e c o lle g e
o f f i c i a l i n s i d e o r o u ts id e C a l i f o r n i a aw arding th e p ro c e d u re
an "A ” r a t i n g . S t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s a g a in
m ost f r e q u e n t l y saw d i s t i n c t v a lu e i n th e p ro c e d u re h u t even
among t h a t group b u t 20 p e r c e n t gave th e "A” r a t i n g w ith a
g r e a t e r number p la c in g th e r a t i n g i n th e W DW column.
D e sire f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n o f two y e a rs o f c o lle g e
o n ly as a b a s i s f o r aw ard in g em ergency p e r m its was even l e s s
th a n i n d ic a t e d i n th e "A" r a t i n g column. W ith b u t 8 .7 o f
t o t a l r e s p o n d e n ts s u g g e s tin g th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f r e t e n t i o n
g e n e r a l d is a p p r o v a l o f th e s u g g e s tio n a p p e a rs w e ll e s t a b l i s h
ed . S in c e 1942, l i t e r a l l y th o u sa n d s o f p e rs o n s have r e c e iv e d
tem p o rary c e r t i f i c a t i o n w ith no more t r a i n i n g th a n su g g e ste d
by f a b l e IV, page 56. L e g i s l a t i o n h a s been w r i t t e n i n a
m a jo r ity o f s t a t e s w hich makes such p ro c e d u re l e g a l . Such
w ide d iv e rg e n c e betw een th e o ry and p r a c t i c e may be s u r p r i s i n g
to many. The e x p la n a tio n may b e, i n p a r t , th e g ru d g in g
a c c e p ta n c e o f such c e r t i f i c a t i o n as a n e c e s s a r y e v i l w ith a
co n se q u e n t u n w illin g n e s s to d ig n if y i t by a f a v o r a b le q u es
t i o n n a i r e r a t i n g .
High s c h o o l g r a d u a tio n p lu s summer sc h o o l was n o t
s u p p o r te d . T ab le V p r e s e n t s o p in io n o f q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s
p o n d e n ts as t o th e g r a n tin g o f em ergency c e r t i f i c a t i o n to
h ig h sc h o o l g r a d u a te s who com plete an i n t e n s i v e summer
TAELS V
I S S U A N C E 07 U R G E N C Y P E R M I T S F O R E L E M E N T A R Y S C H O O L T E A C H E R S A F T E R
H I G H S C H O O L G R A D U A T I O N P L U S I N T E N S I V E S O M M E R S C H O O L C O U R S E W C B K
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 27 2 5 0 20 0 6 7.4 0.0
State Teachers'
Associations 29 0 3 6 20 0 3 0.0 0.0
Colleges in
California 16 0 1 0 15 0 1 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 43 2 1 5 35 1 2 4.7 2.3
Guidance Directors
in California 61 2 1 4 54 1 0 3.3 1.6
Guidance Directors
outside California 82 3 6 7 66 3 1 3.7 3.7
Total 258 9 17 22 210 5 13 3.5 1.9
5 9
program o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g . D isa p p ro v a l o f such a p r o
ce d u re i s d e c i s i v e . B ut 3 .5 p e r c e n t o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts
gave i t an u n q u a l if i e d in d o rsem en t w h ile more th a n 75 p e r
c e n t b randed i t w ith t h e "D” r a t i n g i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f t h a t
a tte n d a n t e v i l s would r e s u l t .
P r a c t i c a l l y no one w anted to r e t a i n su ch a p ro c e d u re
a f t e r a norm al su p p ly o f te a c h e r s i s a v a i l a b l e . Both s t a t e
d ep a rtm en t and s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s jo in e d
C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e s i n 100 p e r c e n t r e f u s a l o f perm anency
f o r t h i s method o f r e c r u i t m e n t . L ess th a n 2 p e r c e n t o f a l l
re s p o n d e n ts su g g e ste d such r e t e n t i o n . I f one can assume
t h a t th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts c l o s e l y r e f l e c t n a t i o n a l
f e e l i n g i n th e m a tte r , th e n he can r e s t a s s u re d t h a t c e r t i
f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s w i l l n o t be s e t on th e b a s i s o f h ig h
sc h o o l g r a d u a tio n . N e v e r th e le s s , a s p o in te d o u t above,
s e v e r a l s t a t e s have p e r m itte d such a c e r t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e d u re
d u rin g th e p e rio d o f g r e a t te a c h e r s h o r ta g e .
High sc h o o l g r a d u a tio n p lu s i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g p r o
gram was condemned. As i n d i c a t e d i n T able YI q u e s tio n n a ir e
re s p o n d e n ts alm o st c o m p le te ly n e g a te d th e s u g g e s tio n o f
c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f te a c h e r s who co u p led i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g
w ith h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a tio n . B ut se v en o f th e 257 p e rs o n s
re s p o n d in g w ere w i l l i n g to s u g g e s t an "A" r a t i n g . T h is
r e p r e s e n t s b u t 2 .7 p e r c e n t and can be c o n t r a s te d w ith th e
TABLE V I
ISSUANCE OP EMERGENCY PERMITS PGR ELEMENTARY SCHOOI TEACHERS AFTER
HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION PLUS INTENSIVE IN-SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM
Respondent
Total
Responses A B G
D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 27 2 1 2 22 0 3 7.4 0.0
State Teachers*
Associations 28 0 1 7 20 0 1 0.0 0.0
Colleges in
California 16 0 1 0 15 0 1 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 42 1 2 4 35 0 1 2.4 0.0
Guidance Directors
in California 60 1 3 3 53 0 0 1.7
0.0
Guidance Directors
outside California 82 3 4 8 67 2 1 3.7 2.4
Total 257 7 12 23 215 2 7 2.7 .8
o >
o
61
more th a n 80 p e r c e n t who r a t e d th e p ro c e d u re lfD ".
R e fu s a l to a sk f o r perm anency of such c e r t i f i c a t i o n
was even more d e c i s i v e . I n a l l g ro u p s o f re s p o n d e n ts h u t
one, t h e r e was n o t a s i n g l e r e q u e s t f o r r e t e n t i o n o f th e
p ro c e d u re on a p erm anent h a s i s . L ess th a n 1 p e r c e n t of
t o t a l re s p o n d e n ts su g g e ste d perm anency a s d e s i r a b l e . Re
j e c t i o n o f th e p ro c e d u re a p p e a rs co m p lete.
P e r m its w ith o u t s p e c i f i c r e q u ire m e n ts w ere n o t con
s id e r e d a c c e p t a b l e . S e v e r a l s t a t e s , in c lu d in g C a l i f o r n i a ,
have n o t b ee n s p e c i f i c i n t h e i r re q u ire m e n ts a s t o t r a i n i n g
n e c e s s a r y f o r g r a n tin g o f em ergency p e r m its . Such a p r o
ce d u re h as been d efended by th e argum ent t h a t n ee d s sh o u ld
d e te rm in e t r a i n i n g s ta n d a r d s and t h a t such f l e x i b i l i t y w i l l
p ro v id e th e maximum number o f te a c h e r s w ith o u t n e c e s s a r i l y
r e d u c in g th e q u a l i t y . A s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l commented
on th e q u e s tio n n a ir e as f o llo w s :
A fte r a d m in is te r in g such a p la n f o r f i v e y e a r s I have
come to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t n ee d s sh o u ld d e te rm in e th e
is s u a n c e o f em ergency p e r m its . The q u a l i t y o f a v a i l a b l e
m a t e r i a l v a r i e s g r e a t l y a c c o rd in g to g e o g ra p h ic
l o c a t i o n s . I n some c i t y d i s t r i c t s s u f f i c i e n t te a c h e r s
may be found who h ave d e g re e s , w h ile some r u r a l d i s t r i c t s
w i l l do w e ll to f i n d i n d i v i d u a l s who w i l l q u a l i f y u n d e r,
«f»t (h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a tio n p lu s i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g ) .
As i n d i c a t e d by T a b le V II, how ever, g e n e r a l q u e s tio n
n a i r e re s p o n s e was th o ro u g h ly opposed to g r a n tin g em ergency
2 1
Comment by r e s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , a s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l i n Rocky M ountain s t a t e .
TABLE V II
HO SPECIFIC REQ.UIRMMTS FOB ISSUANCE OF EMERGENCY PERMITS FOR
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS; DETERMINED BY NEEDS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B D Retain fieant
Per cent of
A to Total
per eent
Retain
State
Departments
State Teachers1
Associations
26
28
1 22
2 24
3.8
7.1
0.0
3.6
Colleges in
California 16 1 14 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 41 2 38 0.0 0.0
Guidance Directors
in California 61
Guidance Directors
outside California 81
1 59
79
1.6
0.0
1.6
0.0
Total 253 4 9 236 1.6 .8
p e r m its on th e b a s i s o f n e e d . H a lf o f th e g ro u p s did n o t
have a s i n g l e re s p o n d e n t g iv in g i t an u n q u a l i f i e d i n d o r s e
ment and o n ly 1 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l group so r a t e d i t .
More th a n 90 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts a s s ig n e d th e p r o
c e d u re th e M DW r a t i n g i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n a t te n d a n t
e v i l s . A gain, t h e r e i s c o n s id e r a b le v a r ia n c e betw een th e o ry
and p r a c t i c e . Only two o f a l l th e r e s p o n d e n ts , l e s s th a n 1
p e r c e n t, su g g e ste d i t sh o u ld be r e t a i n e d on a perm anent
b a s i s . C e r t a in l y t h e r e i s no l i k e l i h o o d , on th e b a s i s o f
q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s , t h a t e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s w i l l
a tte m p t to p e r p e t u a t e te a c h i n g c e r t i f i c a t e l e g i s l a t i o n o f
t h i s n a t u r e .
Y. SUM M ARY OF OPINION BEGIRDING- ISSUANCE
OF EMERGENCY TEACHING PERMITS
With th e a d v e n t o f th e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e i n c i d e n t a l to
World War I I , a l l s t a t e s p assed l e g i s l a t i o n p r o v id in g f o r
s u b - s ta n d a r d em ergency te a c h in g c e r t i f i c a t e s . The number o f
t e a c h e r s h ir e d u n d er t h i s p la n g r a d u a l ly in c r e a s e d u n t i l th e
number reac h ed an e s tim a te d 175,000 d u rin g th e sc h o o l y e a r
1945-1946.
D e s p ite th e u n i v e r s a l employmeiit o f t h e em ergency
te a c h e r p la n , p u b lis h e d o p in io n has p re d o m in a te ly opposed
th e p ro c e d u re . C r i t i c s have m a in ta in e d t h a t low ered t r a i n
in g s ta n d a r d s w i l l re s u lt* i n low ered p u p i l d ev elo p m en t.
64
They also expressed the fear that public opinion would lead
to permanent le g a liz in g of these sub-standard c e r tific a te s .
I n th e f i r s t s e c t i o n o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , resp o n d
e n t s w ere asked to r a t e se v en v a r i e d t r a i n i n g m inim a f o r
is s u a n c e o f th e em ergency c r e d e n t i a l to e le m e n ta ry sc h o o l
te a c h e r s . Hone o f them r e c e iv e d g e n e r a l s u p p o rt. On th e
b a s i s o f "A” r a t i n g s , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n m a t e r i a l v a lu e
t o r e c r u itm e n t, th e s t r o n g e s t s u p p o rt was g iv e n to th e p la n
o f two y e a r s c o lle g e co u p led w ith i n t e n s i v e i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n
in g . Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts , 3 3 .7 p e r c e n t awarded an "A” r a t i n g
to t h i s p la n . N ext h ig h e s t ,fAt! r a t i n g , 2 8 .2 p e r c e n t, was
g iv e n to a p la n p r o v id in g two y e a rs c o l le g e in c lu d in g tw e lv e
se m e ste r u n i t s i n e d u c a tio n . N ext i n d e g re e o f a c c e p ta n c e
co u p led two y e a r s c o lle g e w ith one y e a r te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e .
F o r t h i s s u g g e s tio n 2 6 .4 o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts awarded an ’’A”
r a t i n g . F o u rth i n d e g re e o f a c c e p ta n c e was a p la n c a l l i n g
f o r no r e q u ire m e n ts o th e r th a n two y e a r s c o l l e g e . H ere th e
"A" r a t i n g was red u ce d to 1 1 .0 p e r c e n t.
The l a s t t h r e e s u g g e s tio n s w ere a lm o st c o m p le te ly
r e p u d ia te d by th e r e s p o n d e n ts . H igh sc h o o l g r a d u a tio n p lu s
summer c o u rse work re c e iv e d 3 .5 p e r c e n t o f tfAft r a t i n g s .
B ut 2 .7 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts r a t e d a s ”Atf th e s u g g e s tio n
o f h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a tio n p lu s i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g . A
s u g g e s tio n f o r no s p e c i f i c r e q u ir e m e n ts , p e r m i t t i n g d eg ree
o f need to d e te rm in e e d u c a tio n a l s ta n d a r d s , r e c e iv e d 1 .6 p e r
65
cent of 1 1 A” r a tin g s .
B e q u e s ts f o r perm an en t r e t e n t i o n o f th e s e seven
s u g g e s tio n s were a ls o s l i g h t . I n a lm o st a l l c a s e s th e y were
c o n s id e r a b ly below t h a t o f "A” r a t i n g s . W hile a l l r a t i n g
g ro u p s d e c i s i v e l y r e p u d ia te d a l l seven s u g g e s tio n s , th e
h ig h e s t d e g re e o f a c c e p ta n c e g e n e r a l l y came from s t a t e de
p a rtm e n t and s t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s . C o lle g e s
and u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s w ere m ost d e c i s i v e i n t h e i r d e n i a l
o f th e p l a n s . I n n o t one in s t a n c e d id a C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e
o f f i c i a l a s h f o r a perm anent r e t e n t i o n o f one o f th e su g
g e s te d p r o c e d u r e s .
C H A PT E R IV
PERMANENT .ALTERATION OF REGULAR
CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
I . ORGANIZATION OP THE CHAPTER
D is c u s s io n o f p ro c e d u re s f o r a l t e r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r
c e r t i f i c a t i o n w i l l b e g in w ith a su rv e y o f o p in io n o f such
a l t e r a t i o n i n g e n e r a l. I t w i l l th e n p ro c e e d to a n a ly z e th e
v ie w s c o n c e rn in g th e e i g h t p ro c e d u re s p r e s e n te d f o r r a t i n g
i n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e , w hich a r e e x p re s se d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e
and on q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s . The m ain d i v i s i o n s o f th e
c h a p te r a r e a s f o llo w s :
a . G en e ra l r e a c t i o n to perm anent a l t e r a t i o n o f c e r t i -
/
f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s .
b . Renewing a l l c r e d e n t i a l s v a l i d a t any tim e d u rin g
p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s .
c . M aking m inor a d ju s tm e n ts i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e
m ents n o t in v o lv in g a p p r e c ia b le lo w e rin g o f
s ta n d a r d s .
d. S u sp en d in g a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g re q u ir e m e n ts f o r
re n e w a l o f c r e d e n t i a l s i n s t a t e s w here i t i s r e
q u ir e d .
e . P e r m itt in g c e r t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h e x a m in a tio n to
supplem ent c e r t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h c o u rs e w ork.
67
f . Low ering i n d i v i d u a l s u b je c t re q u ire m e n t f o r
c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
g . . S tr e a m lin in g p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a tio n r e q u ire m e n ts
w ith em phasis on e l im in a tio n o f d u p l i c a t i o n s .
h. A b o lis h in g re q u ir e m e n ts t h a t te a c h e r s have s p e c i
f i e d number o f u n i t s o f c o l le g e c r e d i t ea rn e d
w ith in th e s t a t e .
i . P erm anent c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f em ergency te a c h e r s
a f t e r two y e a rs te a c h in g on recom m endation o f
sc h o o l o f f i c i a l s .
- I I . GENERAL REACTION TO PERMANENT ALTERATION
OF CERTIFICATION STANDARDS
I n S e c tio n I o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e , co n cern ed w ith
em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s , t h e r e w ere p r e s e n te d se v en d i f f e r e n t
b a s e s f o r s ta n d a r d s l e a d in g to th e g r a n tin g o f th e em ergency
c r e d e n t i a l . I n o th e r w ords each o f th e s u g g e s te d m ethods
was aimed a t one r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re , th e g r a n tin g o f a
s p e c i a l , s u b - s ta n d a rd te a c h in g p e r m it.
I n a l l th e o th e r s e c t i o n s th e v a r io u s s u g g e s te d p ro
c e d u re s each r e p r e s e n t a d i f f e r e n t te c h n iq u e o r d e v ic e f o r
r e c r u i t i n g t e a c h e r s . Much o f th e comment found i n e d u c a tio n
a l l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e f o r e , w hich i s a p p l ic a b le to th e l a s t s ix
s e c t i o n s , i s aimed a t s p e c i f i c ite m s r a t h e r th a n th e g e n e ra l
h e a d in g s u n d er w hich th e y a r e g ro u p ed .
Numerous e x c e p tio n s can be n o te d , how ever. Many r e s
p o n d e n ts to th e q u e s tio n n a i r e su pplem ented low r a t i n g s o f
S e c tio n I I w hich d e a l t w ith perm anent a l t e r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r
c e r t i f i c a t i o n , by condemning any such a c t i v i t y . Comments
from two m id d le w e s te rn s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n heads a re
t y p i c a l . From th e f i r s t , " C e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s sh o u ld be
in c r e a s e d i n many s t a t e s even though we have a s h o r ta g e o f
te a c h e r s ." " 1 * D ec la re d th e seco n d , " I v/ould make no perm an en t
a l t e r a t i o n s — a l t e r a t i o n s sh o u ld be te m p o ra ry and to co v er
g
th e p e r io d o f th e em erg en cy ."
Comments from c o l le g e s w ere i n a s i m i l a r v e in . From
a m id -w e ste rn c o lle g e came th e a s s e r t i o n , "We sh o u ld n o t
low er s ta n d a r d s from h e re on o u t. In K ansas we p la n t o r e
q u ire d e g re e s by 1956 i f n o t b e f o r e . ” From th e same s t a t e
comes th e p l e a , " R a ise s ta n d a rd s -r-n o t lo w e r. Low ering
s ta n d a r d s w i l l n o t b r in g te a c h e r s i n t o th e p r o f e s s i o n .
(N ote: P r o f e s s i o n *— n o t jo b * )"
JLn e a s t e r n c o lle g e o f f i c i a l a s s e r t s :
1
Comment by re s p o n d e n t t o q u e s tio n n a i r e , e x e c u tiv e
s e c r e t a r y o f a s t a t e t e a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n i n a m id -w e ste rn
s t a t e .
g
Comment by re s p o n d e n t t o q u e s tio n n a i r e , e x e c u tiv e
s e c r e t a r y o f a s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n i n a m id -w e ste rn
s t a t e .
3
Comment by respondent to q u estio n n a ire, d ir e c to r
o f teacher tr a in in g in a Kansas s ta te te a c h e r s c o lle g e .
6 9
A ll th e s e a re p a l l i a t i v e s and sh o u ld n o t he employed
when th e y m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t h ig h e r s a l a r i e s . I t i s
u n e t h i c a l f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s anywhere to l e t down b a r s .
T hat r e l i e v e s p r e s s u r e on l o c a l i t i e s f o r h ig h e r paym ent
t o te a c h e r s .
O p p o s itio n to any lo w e rin g o f s ta n d a r d s was p ro m in en t
i n th e r e t u r n s from h ig h sc h o o l and j u n io r c o l le g e g u id an ce
d i r e c t o r s a l s o . A C a l i f o r n i a c i t y sc h o o l o f f i c i a l comments,
" ( A l t e r i n g perm anent re q u ir e m e n ts ) does n o t seem d e s i r a b l e .
5
We would by t h i s p ro c e d u re lo w er s t a n d a r d s ." From th e same
s t a t e comes th e comment, "Low ering s ta n d a r d s i s a v e r y po o r
0
ap proach to th e u l t i m a t e en d s to be s e r v e d ."
From a m id -w e ste rn h ig h sc h o o l comes th e demand, "Do
n o t lo w e r s ta n d a r d s even i f i t means c l o s in g o f some s c h o o ls
o r d e p a rtm e n ts . T each in g w i l l n e v e r become a p r o f e s s i o n i f
7
we d o ."
T hree P e n n s y lv a n ia h ig h sc h o o l o f f i c i a l s a r e j u s t a s
d e f i n i t e . A s s e r ts one, "Would n o t lo w er s ta n d a r d s one i o t a .
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , d i r e c t o r
o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n an endowed p r i v a t e c o lle g e i n
P e n n s y lv a n ia .
5
Comment by re sp o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , d i r e c t o r o f
g u id a n c e i n a C a l i f o r n i a j u n i o r c o l le g e .
a
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , d i r e c t o r o f
g u id a n c e i n a C a l i f o r n i a h ig h s c h o o l.
7
Comment by respondent to q u estion n aire, d ir e c to r o f
guidance in a W isconsin high school*
70
8
S ta n d a rd s a r e to o low now.* A nother p o i n t s o u t, "O th er p r o
f e s s i o n s a re n o t lo w e rin g t h e i r s ta n d a r d s — why should we? I n
m ost s t a t e s i t i s la c k o f a t t r a c t i v e p ay t h a t i s c a u s in g th e
9
s h o r ta g e ." The t h i r d demands s u c c i n c t l y , " B rin g up th e
- IQ
s t a n d a r d s ! "
I I I . RENEWING- ALL CREDENTIALS VALID AT ANY TIME
BORING PAST FIFTEEN YEARS
P erm anent s ta n d a r d s were r e l e a s e d . D e s p ite th e
a p p a re n t s tr o n g f e e l i n g a g a in s t such a p ro c e d u re ev id en ce d
by th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to p o in t o u t
t h a t some r e l a x a t i o n a s to re n e w a ls was i n s t i t u t e d by a
m a jo r i ty o f th e s t a t e s when th e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e became
a c u te .
The C a l i f o r n i a arran g em en t p ro v id e d t h a t d u rin g th e
c o n tin u a n c e o f th e p r e s e n t n a t i o n a l em ergency d e c la r e d by
th e P r e s id e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , a v a l i d r e g u l a r c r e
d e n t i a l may b e renew ed on o r a f t e r May 1 o f any y e a r , f o r a
p e r io d en d in g June 30 o f th e su c c e e d in g y e a r . T h is may be
done w ith o u t m e e tin g th e re q u ire m e n t f o r re c e n c y o f
Q
Comment by r e s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , d i r e c t o r o f
g u id a n ce i n a P e n n s y lv a n ia h ig h s c h o o l.
9
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , d i r e c t o r o f
g u id a n c e i n a P e n n s y lv a n ia h ig h s c h o o l.
10 Comment by respondent to q u estion n aire, d irecto r o f
guidance in a P ennsylvania high sch o o l.
71
e x p e rie n c e o r t r a i n i n g . 11 T h is y e a r - b y - y e a r arra n g e m e n t,
w h ile o b v io u s ly much l e s s sw eeping th a n a b la n k e t re n e w a l o f
once v a l i d c r e d e n t i a l s , i n d i c a t e s a tre n d w r i t t e n i n t o th e
l e g i s l a t i o n o f many s t a t e s tow ard lo w e rin g o f p erm anent
s ta n d a r d s .
One re s p o n d e n t o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e from a w e s te rn
s t a t e d ep a rtm en t o f e d u c a tio n , i n r e f e r e n c e to re n e w a l o f
a l l c r e d e n t i a l s v a l i d d u r in g p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s , rem ark ed ,
"We have b een com pelled to fo llo w such a p r a c t i c e i n i s s u i n g
12
c e r t i f i c a t e s w ith c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s . 1 1 A nother s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l commented, "We seem to be f in d in g our
b e s t t e a c h e r s from such a g r o u p ." A t h i r d s t a t e o f f i c i a l ,
w h ile n o t s u g g e s tin g t h a t such fo rm e r te a c h e r s be g iv e n p e r
m anent c e r t i f i c a t i o n , m a in ta in e d , "Many o f o u r b e s t em ergency
te a c h e r s a r e fo rm e r te a c h e r s who w ere c e r t i f i e d when r e q u i r e
m ents w ere much lo w e r th a n th e y a r e now.
1 1
J o e l A* Burkman, "Renewal o f C r e d e n t i a l s , " S i e r r a
E d u c a tio n a l Hews. 4 1 :2 4 , M arch, 1945.
12
Comment by re s p o n d e n t t o q u e s tio n n a i r e , s t a t e
s u p e r in te n d e n t o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n o f a f a r w e s te rn s t a t e .
13
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s tio n n a i r e , s t a t e
s u p e r in te n d e n t o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n o f a m id -w e ste rn s t a t e .
, 14 Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , s t a t e
s u p e r in te n d e n t o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n o f a m id -w e ste rn
s t a t e .
Q,uest i o n n a i r e r e t u r n s i n d i c a t e o p p o s itio n to ren ew al
o f la p s e d c r e d e n t i a l s . T h at such se n tim e n t was n o t t y p i c a l
among s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f e d u c a tio n o f f i c i a l s i s c l e a r l y i n
d ic a te d by T ab le V I I I which p r e s e n t s q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s
on "Renewing 111 C r e d e n t i a l s V a lid a t Any Time D uring P a s t
F i f t e e n Y e a r s ." Out o f t h i r t y - t w o s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t r e t u r n s ,
o n ly f o u r , o r 1 2 .5 p e r c e n t, gave th e p ro c e d u re an u n q u a li
f i e d "A" r a t i n g and o n ly f i v e , o r 1 5 .6 p e r c e n t, awarded i t
th e l i m i t e d a c c e p ta n c e o f a f,Bf* r a t i n g . The v a s t m a jo r i ty ,
6 2 .5 p e r c e n t, saw i n such p ro c e d u re d an g e r t o th e e d u c a tiv e
p r o c e s s and to th e p r o f e s s i o n and r a t e d i t "D ".
S t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s w ere, f o r th e m ost p a r t ,
s i m i l a r l y opposed— w ith 6 2 .1 p e r c e n t condem ning i t w ith a
"Dtf r a t i n g . Not a s i n g l e C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e o f f i c i a l gave
an tfAn in d o rse m e n t t o th e su g g e ste d p r o c e d u r e . C o lle g e s
o u ts i d e C a l i f o r n i a and b o th g roups o f g u id a n ce d i r e c t o r s
w ere a lm o st as c o m p le te ly opposed. W ith 118 re s p o n d e n ts o u t
o f 265 t o t a l , th e "D" r a t i n g e a s i l y became th e m odal re s p o n s e
Thus, n e a r l y 45 p e r c e n t saw i n th e ren ew al o f la p s e d c r e
d e n t i a l s a d an g er to e d u c a tio n .
S in c e a l l ite m s d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p te r were p r e s e n t
ed f o r r a t i n g i n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e on th e b a s i s o f perm anent
r e t e n t i o n , th e column i n t h e q u e s tio n n a ir e a s k in g f o r e v a lu
a t i o n o f r e t e n t i o n i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t th a n i n o th e r c h a p te r s
N e v e r th e le s s , th e c o n s i s t e n t r e f u s a l o f a l l g ro u p s to a s k f o r
TABLE V I I I
PERMANENT ALTERATION OE REGULAR CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS BY RENEWING
ALL CREDENTIALS VALID AT ANY TIME DURING PAST FIFTEEN YEARS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per eent of
A to Total
per eent
Retain
State
Departiaemts 32 4 5 3 20 4 8 12.5 12.5
State Teachers*
Associations 29 3 4 4 18 2 2 10.3 6.9
Colleges in
California 17 0 6 3 8 0 1 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 43 3 14 8 18 3 3 7.0 7.0
Guidance Directors
in California 63 4 20 9 30 2 6 6.3 3.2
Guidance Directors
outside California 81 14 27 16 24 9 17 17.3 11.1
Total 265 28 76 43 118 20 37 10.6 7.5
74
p erm an en t r e t e n t i o n o f la p s e d c r e d e n t i a l s r e i n f o r c e s th e
accom panying d a ta . O b v io u sly , th e n , no s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t
age o f any group o f e d u c a tio n a l w o rk e rs w ant th e r e i n s t a t e
m ent o f la p s e d te a c h in g c r e d e n t i a l s .
IT . MAKING MINOR ADJUSTMENTS IN CERTIFICATION
REQUIREMENTS NOT INVOLVING APPRECIABLE
LOWERING OF STANDARDS
T h is s u g g e s tio n was n o n - s p e c i f i c i n n a t u r e . One can
h a r d ly c l a s s i f y "making m in o r a d ju s tm e n ts " a s a s p e c i f i c r e
c ru itm e n t p ro c e d u re . R a th e r i t i s a sum m arizing s ta te m e n t
a p p l ic a b le i n some m easure to a m a jo r ity o f th e ite m s i n
S e e tio n I I o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e w hich i s concern ed w ith
perm anent a l t e r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r c e r t i f i c a t i o n . S in c e sp a c e
l i m i t a t i o n s on th e q u e s tio n n a i r e d id n o t p e rm it in c l u s i o n o f
i l l u s t r a t i v e m inor a d ju s tm e n ts , th e r e s p o n d e n t was r e q u ir e d
to su p p ly from h i s own e x p e rie n c e and p h ilo s o p h y such p o s
s i b l e a d ju s tm e n ts i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n . J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i n
e l u s io n o f such a g e n e r a liz e d s ta te m e n t i n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e
m ig h t be made on th e b a s i s o f g e t t i n g e x p e r t r e a c t i o n to
change i n g e n e r a l, i f such change be p o s s i b l e , w ith o u t an
a p p r e c ia b le lo w e rin g o f s ta n d a r d s .
O n e -th ird o f r e s p o n d e n ts gave a p p r o v a l. As m ig h t be
a n t i c i p a t e d , a c c e p ta n c e o f such a g e n e r a liz e d s ta te m e n t by
75
th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts was somewhat h ig h e r th a n t h a t
g iv e n to m ost o f th e s p e c i f i c su g g e ste d p r o c e d u re s i n t h i s
s e c t i o n . As in d i c a t e d i n T able IX, o v er h a l f o f th e s t a t e
t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n group c o n s id e re d such a s ta te m e n t
s u f f i c i e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t to m e r i t an "A" r a t i n g . Not a
s i n g l e C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e so r a t e d , h u t a l l o th e r g ro u p s
w ere i n e x c e s s o f 30 p e r c e n t on "A” r a t i n g s . The nBn column,
i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n m odest te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t v a lu e , r e
c e iv e d th e h ig h e s t number o f re s p o n s e s . ttDn r a t i n g s , i n d i
c a t i n g d a n g e rs to e d u c a tio n , w ere few i n num ber.
R e q u e sts f o r p erm anent r e t e n t i o n o f any s o - c a l l e d
m inor a d ju s tm e n ts i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n w ere l e s s f r e q u e n t th a n
w ere ’’A” r a t i n g s . C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e o f f i c i a l s were a g a in
l e a s t f r e q u e n t i n such r e a c t i o n b u t no group showed s i g n i
f i c a n t e n th u sia s m i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n . B ut 2 2 .5 p e r c e n t o f
th e t o t a l group su g g e ste d a d e s i r e f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n .
I t would a p p e a r, th e n , t h a t n e i t h e r as a te m p o rary m easure
n o r a s perm an en t p o l i c y do th e r e s p o n d e n ts approach a
m a jo r ity v o te f o r m in o r a l t e r a t i o n o f c r e d e n t i a l r e q u i r e
m e n ts. They, a s a g ro u p , would s e a rc h e lse w h e re f o r s u c c e s s
f u l r e c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u r e s .
Y. SUSPENDING ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR RENEWAL
OF CREDENTIALS IN STATES W HERE REQUIRED
A d d itio n a l t r a i n i n g was n o rm a lly r e q u i r e d . I t h as
TABLE IX
P E R M A N E N T A L T E R A T I O N O B ' R E G U L A R C E R T I F I C A T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S B Y M A K I N G
M I N O R A D J U S T M E N T S IN C E R T I F I C A T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S N O T I N V O L V I N G
A P P R E C I A B L E L O W E R I N G O F S T A N D A R D S
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 32 12 12 4 4 7 11 37.5 21.9
State Teachers *
Associations 32 19 10 2 1 8 8 59.4 25.0
Colleges in
California 17 0 12 3 2 2 5 0.0 11.8
Colleges outside
California 42 13 18 6 5 6 3 31.0 14.3
Guidance Directors
in California 69 23 36 5 5 14 12 33.3 20.3
Guidance Directors
outside California 34 26 44 10 4 25 23 31.0 29.8
Total 276 93 132 30 21 62 67 33.7 22.5
< a
o >
77
■become common p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th o s e s t a t e s w ith
th e h ig h e s t t r a i n i n g re q u ire m e n t f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n , to r e
q u ir e a d d i t i o n a l c o lle g e u n i t s as a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o ren ew al
o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n . The C a l i f o r n i a re q u ire m e n t, f o r exam ple,
p r o v id e s t h a t u n le s s a c e r t i f i c a t e d te a c h e r h a s ta u g h t a
minimum o f f i v e m onths d u rin g th e p r e c e d in g f i v e y e a rs ,
th e n he m ust subm it a t r a n s c r i p t show ing a t l e a s t s ix
se m e ste r h o u rs o f a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g from an a c c r e d it e d
15
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n . T h is t r a i n i n g m ust be s e
cu red d u rin g th e p r e c e d in g f i v e - y e a r p e r io d . W hile a l a r g e
m a jo r ity o f te a c h e r s would q u a l i f y f o r ren ew a l th ro u g h te a c h
in g e x p e rie n c e , th e r e a re n o rm a lly a s i z e a b l e number o f
g r a d u a te s who t r a i n f o r te a c h in g b u t who e i t h e r b ec au se o f
m a rria g e o r change o f v o c a tio n a l p la n s do n o t e n t e r th e p r o
f e s s i o n .
A number o f s t a t e s have made tem p o rary p r o v i s i o n d u r
in g th e war p e rio d p e r m i t t i n g e x t e n ti o n o f a l l c r e d e n t i a l s
16
v a l i d a t th e tim e . N orm ally th e s e em ergency p r o v is io n s
have b een extended f o r tw o -y e a r p e r io d s o n ly so t h a t sub
se q u e n t l e g i s l a t i v e s e s s io n s could make p e r io d ic d e c is io n s
15
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n , R e g u la
t i o n s R e la t in g to C r e d e n tia ls f o r P u b lic S chool S e r v i c e ,
No. 1, 1 5 :4 , March, 1946.
16
S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , E d u c a tio n Code, 1945, S e c tio n
12010, p . 226.
78
as to th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f t h e i r c o n tin u a n c e .
Those who would s u p p o rt rem o v al o f t r a i n i n g or ex
p e r ie n c e re q u ir e m e n ts a f t e r th e i n i t i a l g r a n t i n g o f a
c e r t i f i c a t e f r e q u e n t l y m a in ta in t h a t such a p r a c t i c e , w h ile
n o t i d e a l , does make a v a i l a b l e a new s o u rc e o f p e rs o n n e l
who have a t t a i n e d s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n , and t h a t , i f th e y
can be in d u ced to r e t u r n to th e p r o f e s s i o n , th e n e c e s s i t y
o f em ploying s u b - s ta n d a r d em ergency t e a c h e r s w i l l to t h a t
e x t e n t be re d u c e d . Those who oppose such a p r a c t i c e a re
l i k e l y to m a in ta in t h a t th e number g a in e d f o r te a c h in g
would n o t be g r e a t and t h a t th e p r i n c i p l e i s bad s in c e i t
s t a r t s a tr e n d tow ard lo w ered s ta n d a r d s f o r perm anent c e r t i
f i c a t i o n .
L i t t l e v a lu e was seen i n su sp e n d in g r e q u ir e m e n ts .
The q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s a r e based on a p p r a i s a l o f in d e
f i n i t e s u s p e n s io n o f a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g r e q u ir e m e n ts . As
in d ic a t e d i n T ab le X, none o f th e s i x v a r i e d g ro u p s o f edu
c a t o r s saw v a lu e i n th e p ro c e d u re . Only 7 .4 p e r c e n t of
a l l re s p o n d e n ts su b m itte d an "A” r a t i n g . "BM r a t i n g s , i n d i
c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n m odest r e c r u itm e n t r e s u l t s , w ere much
more f r e q u e n t; b u t o n ly o n e - t h i r d o f th e t o t a l group p la c e d
r a t i n g s i n th e ’’B” column. "D" r a t i n g s , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f
i n d a n g e rs to th e p r o f e s s i o n , r e p r e s e n te d th e m odal r e s p o n s e .
E m phasis on th e e f f e c t s of m aking such a p ro c e d u re
TABLE X
PERMANENT ALTERATION OF REGULAR CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS BY SUSPENDING
ADDITIONAL TRAINING REQUIREMENTS FOR RENEWAL OF CREDENTIALS IN
STATES 1B0SRS. IT, IS REQUIRED
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 31 5 4 8 14 2 7 16.1 6.5
State Teachers1
Associations 29 3 6 4 16 2 3 10.3 6.9
Colleges in
California 17 1 7 5 4 0 3 5.9 0.0
Colleges outside
California 40 0 9 11 20 0 2 0.0 0.0
Guidance Directors
in California 64 10 24 14 16 3 5 15.6 4.7
Guidance Directors
outside California 77 0 36 21 20 2 9 0.0 2.6
Total 258 19 @6 63 90 9 29 7.4 3.5
perm anent may be se e n i n th e " r e t a i n " column o f T able X,
page 79. H ere th e n e g a tio n o f th e s u g g e s te d r e c r u itm e n t
method i s even more prono u n ced . Only 3*5 p e r c e n t o f a l l
re s p o n d e n ts asked f o r such r e te n tio n * Not a s i n g l e r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e o f e i t h e r c o lle g e group fa v o re d i t . I f one i s to
c o n s id e r th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s as t y p i c a l o f e d u c a tio n a l
t h in k in g g e n e r a l l y , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t he can e n t i r e l y e l i
m in a te s u s p e n s io n o f a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g r e q u ire m e n ts f o r
re n e w a l o f c r e d e n t i a l s a s a p o s s i b l e means o f te a c h e r r e
c r u itm e n t.
VI. PERMITTING CERTIFICATION THROUGH EXAMINATION
TO SUPPLEMENT CERTIFICATION THROUGH COURSE W ORE
E x am in atio n was u s u a l b a s i s i n p a s t . C e r t i f i c a t i o n
by means o f e x a m in a tio n was th e common p r a c t i c e d u rin g th e
n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . As l a t e as 1906, C u b b e rley r e p o r te d
t h a t c e r t i f i c a t i o n was alm o st w h o lly on th e co u n ty -w id e b a s i s
w ith th e co u n ty e x a m in a tio n as th e m ost t y p i c a l means o f
17
q u a l if y i n g f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n . U n til q u ite r e c e n t l y , many
s t a t e s p e r m itte d such c e r t i f i c a t i o n a s an a l t e r n a t i v e means
to m e e tin g c o l le g e u n i t re q u ire m e n ts . Some v e s t i g e s o f th e
sy stem s t i l l rem a in i n p r e s e n t- d a y c e r t i f i c a t i o n la w s.
17
Ellw ood P. C u b b e rley , "The C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T each-
e r s >” F i f t h Yearbook o f th e N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r th e S tu d y
o f E d u c a tio n . P a r t I I , 19G6, p . 65.
Those who a tte m p te d to j u s t i f y such p ro c e d u re argued t h a t
i t made p r o v i s i o n f o r th e s e l f - e d u c a t e d i n d i v i d u a l and t h a t
c o l le g e c r e d i t s w ere an a r t i f i c i a l m easure o f t r a i n i n g , w ith
th e em phasis on q u a n t ity r a t h e r th a n q u a l i t y .
A lthough f i n d i n g i t d i f f i c u l t to deny c o m p le te ly th e
v a l i d i t y o f th e above arg u m en ts, e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s have
18
n e v e r t h e l e s s a lm o st c o m p le te ly abandoned su ch p r a c t i c e s .
S t a t e a f t e r s t a t e h a s e lim in a te d th e e x a m in a tio n as a means
o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n . They have se en i n th e t e a c h e r s ’ exam in
a t i o n a p ro c e d u re more a r t i f i c i a l th a n c o lle g e u n i t s , f o r
i t s em phasis i s p u r e ly upon in f o r m a tio n w ith no a tte m p t to
ju d g e p e r s o n a l i t y , le a d e r s h i p , s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t, and th e
many o th e r q u a l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y to s u c c e s s f u l te a c h in g .
T here te n d e d , to o , to be g r e a t l a c k o f u n if o r m ity i n th e
s ta n d a r d s o f th e e x a m in a tio n . I n th o s e s t a t e s w here each
co u n ty was p e r m itte d to a d m in is te r and i n some c a s e s con
s t r u c t th e e x a m in a tio n s , th e t e s t s v a r ie d g r e a t l y a s to
s u b j e c t m a tte r co v ered and minimum o f ach iev em en t r e q u i r e d .
I n some a r e a s , in d e e d , th e e x a m in a tio n was a v i r t u a l f a r c e ,
r e q u i r i n g b u t th e s c a n t i e s t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n .
Where such a c o n d itio n p re v a ile d , i t was a lm o st i n v a r i a b l y
c o e x i s t e n t w ith low s a l a r i e s , s h o r t s c h o o l te rm s , and low
R o b e rt C a r lto n W o elln er and M. A u r i l l a Wood,
R e q u irem e n ts F o r C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T e a c h e rs and A d m in is tra to r s
fC hicago: The U n iv e r s it y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ).
e d u c a tio n a l s ta n d a r d s g e n e r a l l y .
88
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s oondearned e x a m in a tio n s . T here
h a s "been some s u g g e s tio n t h a t c e r t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h exam in
a t i o n he r e in tr o d u c e d a s an im p e tu s to r e c r u itm e n t o f te a c h
e r s . T ab le XI shows th e r e a c t i o n o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e
r e s p o n d e n ts t o th e s u g g e s tio n . S u p p o rt from each group was
v e r y m eager. Only 6 .8 p e r c e n t o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts su b m itte d
an "A" r a t i n g . Again n o t a s i n g l e C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e
o f f i c i a l would so r a t e th e p ro c e d u r e . The "D" r a t i n g , i n d i
c a t i n g in h e r e n t d a n g e rs , was th e m ost f r e q u e n t r e s p o n s e w ith
more th a n 40 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts g iv in g t h i s r a t i n g .
The " r e t a i n p e rm a n e n tly " column a ls o shows a c o n s i s t
e n t l y low r e t u r n w ith b u t 9 .1 p e r e e n t of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts
i n d i c a t i n g a p p ro v a l o f such r e t e n t i o n . R esp o n se s from a l l
g ro u p s a r e low and v e r y u n ifo rm , sa v e f o r C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e s
w hich once more a re 100 p e r e e n t i n t h e i r n e g a tio n o f th e
su g g e s te d p r o c e d u re . T ab le XI p r e s e n t s a u n ifo rm and con
v in c in g p i c t u r e o f r e f u s a l to a c c e p t a te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t
p la n w hich e n t a i l s c e r t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h e x a m in a tio n .
V II. LOWERING INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT REQUIREMENT
FOR CERTIFICATION
S u b je c t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n was q u e s tio n e d by some. At a
n o t so rem o te tim e i n th e e d u c a tio n a l h i s t o r y o f our c o u n try
VBBW M T ADTERATION OF RMJULAR CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS BY EMITTING
CERTIFICATION THROUGH EXAMINATION TO SUEKBHEHT CERTIFIGATOT
, . , . THROUGH C OURSE WORK:
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 31 5 8 3 15 5 8 16.1 9.7
State Teachers’
Associations 28 1 10 5 12 3 3 3.6 10.7
Colleges in
California 17 0 5 2 10 0 1 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 43 5 10 7 21 4 2 11.6 9.3
Guidance Directors
in California 64 2 24 8 30 w 5 3.1 7.8
Guidance Directors
outside California 81 5 29 22 25 9 12 6.2 11.1
Total 264 18 86 47 113 24 31 6.8 9.1
i t was assumed t h a t a good g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n was a l l t h a t
was n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s f u l te a c h in g . The t w e n t ie t h
c e n tu ry , how ever, h a s w itn e s s e d th e developm ent o f two t r e n d s
a s to r e q u ir e m e n ts . One h a s b een th e g r a d u a lly ex p an d in g
demand f o r more and more c o u rse work i n p r o f e s s i o n a l ed u ca
t i o n . The o th e r h as been t h e * i n c r e a s i n g l y r i g i d re q u ire m e n t
f o r c o l l e g e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n th e e x p e c te d te a c h in g f i e l d .
T h is second tr e n d le d to th e u n i v e r s a l p r a c t i c e o f
r e q u i r i n g a c o l le g e m a jo r and m in o r, co u p led w ith th e r e
q u ire m e n t t h a t te a c h in g be l i m i t e d to th o s e f i e l d s o f
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . Q u a n t i t a t i v e s ta n d a r d s as to c o l le g e u n i t s
i n th e m ajo r and m in o r g r a d u a l ly r o s e to o , w ith t h i r t y o r
19
more s e m e s te r u n i t s f o r th e m a jo r a n o t in f r e q u e n t demand.
Few would q u a r r e l w ith s ta n d a r d s dem anding m a ste ry o f
a te a c h in g f i e l d . O th er t h i n g s b e in g e q u a l one can o b v io u s ly
te a c h b e s t th e t h i n g he knows b e s t . Borne, how ever, have
p o in te d to p o s s i b l e d a n g e rs i n o v e r - s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . They
have arg u ed t h a t co m p lete m a s te ry o f a narro w f i e l d o f
know ledge i s l e s s v a lu a b le th a n m e d io c re u n d e rs ta n d in g
co u p led w ith g e n e r a liz e d t r a i n i n g i n a l l i e d f i e l d s . They
p o i n t o u t t h a t t r a i n i n g i n a vacuum w ould be o f l i t t l e u s e ,
t h a t a l l e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s ten d to be i n t e r r e l a t e d ,
and t h a t im p a r tin g o f in f o r m a tio n sh o u ld be d i s t i n c t l y
19
W oellner and Wood, o£. o i t .
85
se c o n d ary to g e n e r a l t r a i n i n g f o r d e m o c ra tic l i f e .
Thus, i n th e l a s t d ecad e th e pendulum h a s ten d ed to
sw ing a l i t t l e away from th e n arro w s u b je c t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n .
P r o s p e c tiv e te a c h e r s i n some i n s t i t u t i o n s have been ad v ised
to m a jo r i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s r a t h e r th a n h i s t o r y o r i n g e n e r a l
s c ie n c e r a t h e r th a n c h e m is try . I n many c a s e s t h i s h as p e r
m itte d th e c o lle g e o r u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t to sp re a d h i s t r a i n
in g o v er a number o f f i e l d s and s t i l l m eet t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e
m ents f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
O b v io u sly any m a t e r i a l e x te n s io n o f t h i s movement
would te n d to make a g r e a t e r number o f c o l le g e g r a d u a te s
e l i g i b l e f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n and would have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r
te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t. S u f f i c i e n t l y l i b e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
o f th e t r a n s c r i p t s o f c r e d i t o f p r e s e n t c o l le g e g r a d u a te s
would mean t h a t many who had n o t p la n n e d t o te a c h would
q u a l if y f o r c e r t i f i c a t e s . A m o d if ic a ti o n i n a somewhat
s i m i l a r d i r e c t i o n would be th e p e r m is s io n o f n o t o n ly a
w idened b a s e f o r th e m a jo r f i e l d b u t an a c t u a l r e d u c t io n o f
u n i t s r e q u ir e d even though th e b a s e be w idened.
R esp o n d en ts r e j e c t e d academ ic r e d u c t i o n . T ab le X II
p r e s e n t s th e r e a c t i o n o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts to
a c t u a l r e d u c t io n o f t o t a l academ ic r e q u ir e m e n ts . T h e ir
r e j e c t i o n o f th e s u g g e s tio n i s c o n v in c in g ly u n ifo rm and
p ro n o u n ced . B ut 4 .7 p e r c e n t o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts su b m itte d
*PATm? "YTT
I A H
P E R M A N E N T A L T E R A T I O N O F R E G U L A R C E R T I F I C A T I ® R E Q U I R E M E N T S B Y L O W E R I N G
P R E S E N T A C A D E M I C C E S P E C I A L S U B J E C T R E Q U I R E M E N T S T O R C E R T I F I C A T I O N
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per eent of
A to Total
per eent
Retain
State
Departments 30 1 9 7 13 1 5 3.3 3.3
State Teachers'
Associations 30 1 4 8 17 1 2 3.3 3.3
Colleges in
California 17 0 5 4 8 0 4 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 43 4 3 12 24 1 4 9.3 2.3
Guidance Directors
in California 60 3 13 14 30 1 2 5.0 1.7
Guidance Directors
outside California 76 3 20 12 41 4 2 3.9 5.3
Total 256 12 54 57 133 8 19 4.7 3.1
C D
c »
87
an "An r a t i n g and "B" r a t i n g s , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n m odest
v a lu e , a r e a l s o c o m p a ra tiv e ly i n f r e q u e n t . A g r e a t e r number
a r e i n th e !tC,f colum n, i n d i c a t i n g no v a lu e . The g r e a t e s t
re s p o n s e f e l l i n th e ,fDft c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w ith more th a n 50
p e r c e n t i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n in h e r e n t d a n g e rs .
The q u e s tio n n a i r e column a s k in g f o r e v a lu a t io n o f
p erm an en t r e t e n t i o n o f th e s u g g e s te d p ro c e d u re shows an even
more pronounced r e j e c t i o n . Only 3 .1 p e r c e n t o f a l l resp o n d '
e n t s i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e f o r perm anent r e d u c t i o n o f academ ic
re q u ir e m e n ts , and each of th e s ix g ro u p s k e p t u n d er 6 p e r
c e n t. C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e and C a l i f o r n i a g u id a n c e o f f i c i a l s
once more w ere th e m ost co m p lete i n t h e i r r e j e c t i o n o f th e
p r o c e d u re . On th e b a s i s o f q u e s tio n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts , th e n ,
th e r e a p p e a rs t o be no demand f o r in c r e a s e d c e r t i f i c a t i o n
th ro u g h lo w e rin g o f s u b j e c t re q u ire m e n ts*
V I I I . STREAMLINING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION REQUIREMENTS
WITH EMPHASIS ON ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATIONS
Amount and o r g a n iz a tio n o f e d u c a tio n c o u rs e s w ere
f r e q u e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d . T ra in in g i n p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a tio n
h a s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , been a tw e n t ie t h c e n tu r y d e v e lo p
m ent. C o u rses i n h i s t o r y and p h ilo s o p h y o f e d u c a tio n ,
te a c h in g m ethods, c u rric u lu m , e d u c a tio n a l p sy c h o lo g y , e t
c e t e r a , have a p p e ared u n d er many t i t l e s and i n b e w ild e r in g
num bers. Most s t a t e s r e q u i r e e ig h te e n o r more s e m e ste r
8 8
h o u rs o f such p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u r s e s f o r any perm anent te a c h -
20
in g c e r t i f i c a t e . The m a jo r i ty o f e d u c a to r s and t r a i n e d
laym en r e c o g n iz e th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f some p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n
in g f o r t e a c h e r s . They b e l i e v e t h a t "how to te a c h " i s a s
im p o rta n t as "w hat t o te a c h " and t h a t th e "how" does n o t
come a u to m a tic a lly b u t i s r a t h e r a r e s u l t o f ex ten d ed s tu d y .
B ut a s i z e a b l e m in o r ity o f e d u c a te d p e o p le , b o th
i n s i d e and o u ts i d e th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n , a r e e x tre m e ly
c r i t i c a l o f th e modern em phasis on c o u r s e s i n E d u c a tio n .
Many c o lle g e p r o f e s s o r s i n academ ic f i e l d s a r e among th e s e
21
c r i t i c s . C h a n c e llo r H u tc h in s o f C hicago U n iv e r s it y , f o r
exam ple, i n s i s t s t h a t any n o rm a lly i n t e l l i g e n t i n d i v i d u a l ,
p r o p e r ly t r a i n e d i n th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f h i s f i e l d , can
te a c h e f f e c t i v e l y . T h e r e fo re , he m a in ta in s , c o u r s e s i n ed u -
og \
c a t i o n a re l a r g e l y a w a ste o f tim e .
P ro b a b ly th e m ost f r e q u e n t c r i t i c i s m v o ic e d by c o lle g e
s tu d e n ts and te a c h e r s a l i k e i s t h a t t h e r e i s a v a s t amount o f
o v e r la p p in g and m onotonous r e p e t i t i o n i n E d u c a tio n c o u r s e s .
Soma even i n s i s t t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h e r s o f e d u c a tio n , i n
o r d e r t o m ag n ify th e im p o rta n c e o f t h e i r o f f e r i n g , have
W o elln er and Wood, o p . c i t .
21
Ja c q u e s B a rz an , T ea ch er i n A m erica (B o sto n : L i t t l e ,
Brown and Company, 1 9 4 5 ), p p . 203-207.
22
R. M. H u tc h in s , The H ig h e r L e a rn in g i n A m erica
(Hew Haven: Y ale U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 3 6 ), p . 56.
89
c r e a te d a s u c c e s s io n o f c o u r s e s o f w hich t h e number i s n o t
j u s t i f i e d by th e amount o f s u b je c t m a tte r e x t a n t .
• Many m ild e r c r i t i c s , w h ile f u l l y a c c e p tin g th e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f e x te n d e d t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , f e e l t h a t th e r e
i s a need f o r s tr e a m li n in g e d u c a tio n c o u r s e s . They would
d i f f e r e n t i a t e more s h a r p ly betw een th e v a r io u s s u b j e c t s
o f f e r e d . They would a tte m p t to g iv e t o each c o u rs e th e new
n e s s o f v ie w p o in t and o r i g i n a l i t y o f a p p ro ac h w hich b re e d s
i n t e r e s t i n th e s tu d e n t. I n th e p r o c e s s many c o u rs e s would
be combined and o t h e r s e l im in a te d .
At l e a s t two i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t can
be found i n th e above d i s c u s s i o n . F i r s t o f a l l , i f c o u rs e s
i n e d u c a tio n can th u s be made more dynamic and c h a lle n g in g ,
• a g r e a t e r number o f s tu d e n ts w ith a b i l i t y w i l l e n t e r and
co m p lete a program o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g . S eco n d ly , i f
e f f e c t i v e c o m b in a tio n s and e l i m i n a t i o n s can be made w ith o u t
d e c re a s in g th e q u a l i t y o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s, te a c h
e r t r a i n i n g can be e x p e d ite d . I n t h i s way c o l le g e s tu d e n ts
can be more q u ic k ly t r a i n e d f o r th e many v a c a n c ie s now
e x i s t i n g , and i n d i v i d u a l s p r e v io u s l y t r a i n e d f o r o t h e r p r o
f e s s i o n s can be more e a s i l y c o n v e rte d i n t o t e a c h e r s .
Q .u e stio n n a ire r e t u r n s i n d ic a t e d c o n s id e r a b le s u p p o rt
f o r s t r e a m li n in g e d u c a tio n c o u r s e s . T ab le X I I I shows th e
d eg ree o f s u p p o rt s u g g e s te d by q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts .
TABLE X I I I
permanent alteration of regular certification bequirements by streamlining
PRESENT REQUIREMENTS IN PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION FOR CERTIFICATION
WITH EMPHASIS ON ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATIONS . .
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per cent of
A to Total
per eent
Retain
State
Departments 38 6 17 4 1 8 12 21.4 28.6
State Teachers*
Associations 28 18 6 1 3 14 9 64.3 50.0
Colleges in
California 16 8 2 6 0 6 10 50.0 37.5
Colleges outside
California 42 14 19 7 2 14 12 33.3 33.3
Guidance Directors
in California 69 34 23 9 3 28 10 49.3 40.6
Guidance Directors
outside California 79 23 36 11 9 24 16 29.1 30.4
Total 262 103 103 38 18 94 69 39.3 35.9
to
o
91
The a p p ro x im a te ly 40 p e r c e n t o f ,fAw r e s p o n s e s would i n d i
c a te a c o n s id e r a b le m easure o f b e l i e f i n th e v a lu e o f such
a p ro c e d u re a s a m eans o f r e c r u i t m e n t . S t a t e te a c h e r
a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y v ig o r o u s i n t h e i r
a p p ro v a l o f th e s u g g e s tio n w ith 6 4 .3 p e r c e n t p r e s e n tin g
th e "A" r a t i n g .
C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e s and C a l i f o r n i a g u id an ce o f f i c i a l s ,
who have been th e m ost c r i t i c a l o f many o f th e su g g e ste d
p ro c e d u re s i n t h i s c h a p te r , a r e h e r e among th e s t r o n g e s t
s u p p o r te r s , w ith a p p ro x im a te ly 50 p e r c e n t g iv in g "Aff r e s
p o n s e s . C o lle g e d e p a rtm e n ts o f e d u c a tio n m ig h t be e x p e c te d
to s tr o n g ly oppose a s u g g e s tio n c a l l i n g f o r m o d if ic a tio n o f
c o u r s e s i n e d u c a tio n . C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e s , how ever, gave
i t c o m p a ra tiv e ly s tr o n g s u p p o rt and r e s p o n s e s from c o l le g e s
o u ts i d e C a l i f o r n i a approached th e a v e ra g e o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts
i n d e g re e o f s u p p o r t. R esp o n ses i n th e ftBw column e q u a lle d
,fA,f re s p o n s e s and t o g e t h e r r e p r e s e n te d n e a r l y 80 p e r c e n t o f
t o t a l r e s p o n s e s . C o m p a ra tiv e ly few r e t u r n s w ere i n th e ,fDft
column, i n d i c a t i n g i n h e r e n t d a n g e rs .
S u p p o rt f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n o f s tr e a m lin e d edu
c a t i o n a l c o u r s e s was alm o st as g r e a t a s w ere th e "A" r e s
p o n s e s . F i f t y p e r c e n t o f te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s
i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e f o r r e t e n t i o n and more th a n 35 p e r c e n t
o f th e t o t a l group r e q u e s te d perm anency. Some r e s p o n d e n ts ,
p o s s i b ly , gave a f a v o r a b le r a t i n g to t h i s p ro c e d u re b e c a u se
92
o f a b e l i e f i n i t s v a lu e g e n e r a l l y . B e l i e f i n i t s v a lu e as
a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e may have been a se c o n d a ry c o n s i d e r a t i o n
w ith them . N e v e r th e le s s , th e c o n s is te n c y o f s u p p o rt would
i n d i c a t e t h a t e d u c a tio n a l s t r e a m li n in g sh o u ld n o t be ig n o re d
i n any co m p reh en siv e p la n f o r te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
IX. ABOLISHING REQUIREMENT OF SPECIFIED COLLEGE COURSES
WITHIN THE STATS
C e r t i f i c a t i o n b a r r i e r s l i m i t m i g r a t i o n . The f e d e r a l
c o n s t i t u t i o n le a v e s e d u c a tio n e n t i r e l y i n th e hands o f th e
s e v e r a l s t a t e s . Thus, each s t a t e h a s i t s own c e r t i f i c a t i o n
law s w hich th ro u g h th e y e a rs have v a r ie d g r e a t l y . R e c ip ro
c i t y among th e s t a t e s a s to c e r t i f i c a t i o n i s v i r t u a l l y non
e x i s t e n t . R e g a rd le s s o f th e t r a i n i n g and c e r t i f i c a t i o n
s t a t u s o f an i n d i v i d u a l he i s r e q u ir e d to s e c u re a new c e r
t i f i c a t e i f he w ish e s to te a c h i n a d i f f e r e n t s t a t e .
The m ost f r e q u e n t argum ent f o r such b a r r i e r s i s th e
d e s i r e to p r e v e n t i n d i v i d u a l s who come from s t a t e s w ith
lo w er c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u ire m e n ts to e n t e r a s t a t e and th u s
lo w er i t s a v e ra g e o f t r a i n i n g . Even when c e r t i f i c a t i o n
s ta n d a r d s have been a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l, te a c h e r s from s t a t e s
w ith lo w er s a l a r y a v e ra g e s would tend to flo w i n t o s t a t e s
w ith b e t t e r econom ic s ta n d a r d s u n le s s d e t e r r e d by c e r t i f i c a
t i o n r e q u ir e m e n ts . Such a movement, by c r e a t i n g an o v e r
su p p ly o f t e a c h e r s , would te n d to lo w e r s a l a r y l e v e l s .
9 5
The argum ent i s f r e q u e n tly advanced t h a t each s t a t e
sh o u ld p r o t e c t i t s own c i t i z e n s , t h a t any jo b s a v a i l a b l e
sh o u ld he g iv e n to p e o p le l i v i n g w ith in i t s own b o r d e r s
w henever p o s s i b l e .
Many s t a t e s have n o t o n ly r e q u ir e d t h a t new c e r t i f i
c a t e s be se c u re d b ased on t r a i n i n g co m p arab le to t h a t r e
q u ire d ' l o c a l l y b u t have i n s i s t e d i n a d d i t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n
c o u r s e s b e ta k e n w hich a r e o f f e r e d o n ly w ith in th e c e r t i f y i n g
s t a t e . M ontana, New M exico, Oregon, and Texas have s p e c i
f i c r e q u ir e m e n ts as to a tte n d a n c e a t t h e i r own e d u c a ti o n a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s , and s e v e r a l o t h e r s t a t e s r e q u i r e c o u r s e s o f
such a s p e c i f i c n a t u r e t h a t th e y a re r a r e l y d u p lic a t e d on th e
t r a n s c r i p t s o f r e c o r d o f t r a n s f e r r i n g t e a c h e r s . Numerous
s t a t e s r e q u i r e t h a t p r o s p e c tiv e te a c h e r s have c o u rs e s i n th e
s t a t e ’ s sc h o o l law , h i s t o r y , c o n s t i t u t i o n , o r c o u rs e o f
24
s tu d y o r t h a t th e y p a s s e x a m in a tio n s on them . Such a r e
q u irem e n t h a s th e e f f e c t o f m aking a tte n d a n c e a t i n s t i t u t i o n s
o f th e new s t a t e a v i r t u a l n e c e s s i t y .
The p e r io d o f te a c h e r s h o r ta g e h as ten d ed to m odify
D. M. B l y l e r , " C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f E le m e n ta ry S chool
T e a c h e rs i n th e U n ited S t a t e s , " E lem en ta ry S ch o o l J o u r n a l .
4 5 :5 8 0 , Ju n e , 1945.
24
W illia m D. S t r a t f o r d , Some R e s t r i c t i o n s and L im i
t a t i o n s to th e F re e I n t e r s t a t e Movement of T e a c h e rs
t o o n t r i b u t i o n s to E d u c a tio n , No. 851. New Y ork: B ureau o f
P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , C olum bia U n iv e r s it y , 1942),
pp. 132-141.
94
OK
th e p r a c t i c e o f d is c o u ra g in g i n t e r s t a t e te a c h in g . T here
seem s t o he a w e ll d e fin e d tr e n d tow ard e l i m i n a t i o n o f
s p e c i f i c c o u rs e s p e c u l i a r to a g iv e n s t a t e . Where such
c o u rs e s a r e s p e c i f i e d hy r e g u l a t i o n , th e t r e n d a p p e a rs to
he tow ard r e s c in d in g th e r e g u l a t i o n ; and when s p e c i f i e d hy
s t a t u t e , th e tr e n d i s tow ard m in im iz a tio n th ro u g h l i b e r a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
U n q u e stio n a b ly , i f te a c h e r s a r e p e r m itte d to move
from s t a t e to s t a t e w ith o u t c e r t i f i c a t i o n b a r r i e r s , more
te a c h e r s w i l l he a v a i l a b l e f o r te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s . The r a p id
p o p u la tio n s h i f t i n c i d e n t a l to World War I I h a s made g r e a t e r
th e need f o r e x p e d itin g c e r t i f i c a t i o n . Few would deny th e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f f u r t h e r i n g such a program , a t l e a s t i n tim e s
o f te a c h e r s h o r ta g e , i f th e y co u ld b e a s s u re d t h a t s ta n d a r d s
would n o t be th u s lo w ered i n th o s e s t a t e s w ith th e h i g h e s t
p r o f e s s i o n a l r e q u ir e m e n ts .
C u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts opposed b a r r i e r s . T ab le
XXV p r e s e n t s a c o n s id e r a b le demand f o r a b o l is h in g th e r e
q u ire m e n ts e x i s t i n g i n some s t a t e s t h a t t e a c h e r s m ust have
a s p e c i f i e d number o f u n i t s o f c o l le g e c r e d i t ea rn e d w ith in
th o s e s t a t e s . More th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and
25
T. M. S t i n n e t t , " C u rre n t S t a t u s o f R e c i p r o c i t y in
T ea ch er E d u c a tio n ,” N o rth C e n tr a l A s s o c ia tio n Q u a r t e r l y ,
1 9 :3 5 6 , A p r il, 1945.
TABLE XIV
m m m rn r alteration of regular certification requirements by abolishing
REQ.UIREBfflNT, OF SOME STATES THAT , TEACHER. MUST HAVE . SPECIFIED NUMBER OF
UNITS OF COLLEGE CREDIT EARNED WITHIN THOSE STATES
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per eent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 29 15 7 3 4 10 6 51.7 34.5
State Teachers’
Associations 27 14 9 2 2 11 5 51.9 40,7
Colleges in
California 17 6 8 3 0 2 4 35.3 11.8
Colleges outside
California 42 18 15 6 3 13 5 42.9 31.0
Guidance Directors
in California 63 20 29 8 6 20 6 31.7 31.7
Guidance Directors
outside California 80 41 19 9 11 31 15 51.3 38.8
Total 258 114 87 31 26 87 41 44.2 33.7
< 0
01
96
s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s g iv e t h i s s u g g e s te d p r o
c e d u re an "A" r a t i n g . G uidance d i r e c t o r s o u ts i d e C a l i f o r n i a
p r e s e n t a s i m i l a r s u p p o r t.
L ess s u p p o rt f o r su ch a s u g g e s tio n from a s t a t e w ith
h ig h c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s m ig h t he e x p e c te d . The q u es
t i o n n a i r e r e t u r n s te n d to s u b s t a n t i a t e t h a t b e l i e f f o r
c o l le g e and g u id a n c e o f f i c i a l s o f C a l i f o r n i a p r e s e n t th e
lo w e s t p e r c e n ta g e s o f "A" r a t i n g s . Even w ith th e s e two
g ro u p s s u p p o rt i s s u b s t a n t i a l and th e a v e ra g e o f "A" r a t i n g s
f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n ts i s 4 4 .2 p e r c e n t. "D" r a t i n g s , i n d i
c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n in h e r e n t d a n g e rs , r e p r e s e n t 10 p e r c e n t
o f t o t a l r e s p o n s e s .
When th e perm anency f a c t o r o f t h i s s u g g e ste d p ro c e d u re
i s em phasized by r e f e r e n c e to th e " r e t u r n " colum n, c o n s id e r
a b le s u p p o r t i s s t i l l a p p a re n t. A lth o u g h C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e
o f f i c i a l s a r e d o u b tf u l o f th e s u g g e s tio n , c o n s i s t e n t s u p p o rt
from th e o th e r g ro u p s b r in g a t o t a l o f 3 3 .7 o f a l l r e s p o n s e s
i n f a v o r o f p erm anent r e t e n t i o n . I t would seem, th e n , t h a t
a p p ro x im a te ly t w o - t h i r d s o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts fa v o r some
d e g re e o f s t a t e c e r t i f i c a t i o n b a r r i e r s d u r in g tim e s o f
n o rm al te a c h e r s u p p ly . On th e o th e r hand, w ith more th a n
75 p e r c e n t of a l l r e s p o n s e s i n th e "A” o r "33" colum ns,
th e r e i s a s tr o n g ly e x p re s s e d b e l i e f i n th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f
rem oval o f such b a r r i e r s d u r in g th e tim e s o f te a c h e r s c a r c i
ty .
9 7
X. GIVING REGULAR CERT IPIG ATI ON TO EMERGENCY TEACHERS
AFTER TW O YEARS TEACHING ON RECOMMENDATION
OF SCHOOL OFFICIAL
P r e s s u r e f o r r e t e n t i o n may be e x p e c te d . A fte r World
War I g r e a t num bers o f th e s u b - s ta n d a r d em ergency te a c h e r s
rem ain ed i n th e p r o f e s s i o n . In some e a s e s s t a t e l e g i s
l a t u r e s gave " b l a n k e t ” perm anent s t a t u s to th o s e who had
k e p t th e s c h o o ls g o in g d u r in g th e em ergency. Any a tte m p t
to e l im in a te even n o m in a lly s u c c e s s f u l em ergency te a c h e r s
was met by r e s i s t a n c e from t h a t s e c t i o n o f th e l a y p u b lic
w hich w ished to se e th e jo b s o f i t s f r i e n d s p e r p e t u a te d .
World War I I was o f much lo n g e r d u r a t i o n and by th e
end o f th e 1945-1946 sc h o o l y e a r th e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s
te a c h in g on em ergency c e r t i f i c a t e s ap p ro x im ated 1 7 5 ,0 0 0 . I t
co u ld be e x p e c te d , th e n , t h a t any a tte m p t t o e l i m i n a t e su ch
l a r g e num bers from th e p r o f e s s i o n would m eet w ith s tr o n g
o p p o s it io n . A lthough th e war had b een o v e r f o r n e a r l y a
y e a r , by t h a t tim e t h e r e had b een no a p p r e c ia b le r e d u c t io n
i n th e n e e d s f o r te a c h e r s so th e i n e v i t a b l e p r e s s u r e move
ment to r e t a i n t h e em ergency p e r s o n n e l had n o t y e t begun.
The argum ents f o r r e t e n t i o n o f such p e r s o n n e l c o u ld
be e x p e c te d to ru n so m eth in g a s f o llo w s : "They h e ld th e
l i n e when th e y w ere d e s p e r a t e l y needed so th e y sh o u ld be
re w a rd e d . They now a r e e x p e rie n c e d te a c h e r s and a r e th u s
98
more v a lu a b le th a n new ly c e r t i f i e d p e r s o n n e l. Many o f them
a r e d o in g s p le n d id jo b s and sh o u ld n o t be exchanged f o r
u n t r i e d te a c h e r s who may o r may n o t b e s u c c e s s f u l . F u r t h e r
more c e r t i f i c a t i o n i s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , a r a t h e r a r t i f i
c i a l t h i n g b ased on th e a c c u m u la tio n o f c r e d i t s . C e r t i f y i n g
b o d ie s would f in d i t im p o s s ib le t o a p p r a is e a l l th e i n
ta n g i b l e q u a l i t i e s w hich p ro d u c e a s u c c e s s f u l t e a c h e r . ”
S in c e many em ergency te a c h e r s q u i t e o b v io u s ly do n o t
m eet th e s ta n d a r d s s e t by a v e ra g e c e r t i f i e d p e rs o n n e l th e
argum ent may be advanced t h a t o n ly s e l e c t e d num bers o f them
sh o u ld be r e t a i n e d i n perm anent s t a t u s . Some would a g re e
t h a t th e te a c h e r who had se rv e d f o r two o r more y e a rs and
who co u ld s e c u re a r a t i n g o f s u c c e s s f u l from h i s s u p e r in
te n d e n t o r sc h o o l b o a rd sh o u ld be r e t a i n e d r e g a r d l e s s o f
n e a r n e s s to norm al c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
E d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s opposed r e t e n t i o n . The v a s t
m a jo r i ty o f e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s a re opposed to any
s u g g e s tio n o f p erm an en t r e t e n t i o n o f s u b - s ta n d a r d p e r s o n -
26
n e l . They a r e r e a d y t o adm it t h a t many em ergency te a c h e r s
have done a s p le n d id job and t h a t i n many c a s e s th e y would
be s u p e r i o r to new ly c e r t i f i e d r e p la c e m e n ts . T h e ir
o p p o s itio n i s b ased upon th e lo n g -tim e e f f e c t on th e
26
G f. a n te , p p . 4 3 -4 4 .
p r o f e s s i o n and on th e e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s i t s e l f . They p o in t
o u t t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f r a i s i n g c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s h a s
been a lo n g and p a i n f u l one and t h a t b e t t e r s a l a r i e s and
b e t t e r w orking c o n d itio n s p r e v a i l w h erev er h ig h s ta n d a r d s
a r e i n e x i s t e n c e .
They i n s i s t , f u rth e rm o r e , t h a t , by and l a r g e , th e
te a c h e r who h a s d e l i b e r a t e l y chosen th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n
and p e r s i s t e d i n h i s t r a i n i n g u n t i l he h as o b ta in e d s ta n d a r d
c e r t i f i c a t i o n w i l l h e lp e l e v a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l s ta n d a r d s and
w i l l make e d u c a tio n h i s l i f e work. I n th e lo n g ru n , th e s e
e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s f e e l he w i l l be a b e t t e r t e a c h e r th a n
even th e s u c c e s s f u l l y - r a t e d em ergency w o rk e r. They p o i n t
o u t, f u r t h e r , t h a t i f th e s u b - s ta n d a r d te a c h e r o f two y e a r s ’
d u r a t i o n h a s been s e r io u s a b o u t m aking e d u c a tio n h i s l i f e
w ork, he c o u ld have com pleted much o f th e t r a i n i n g n e c e s s a r y
f o r s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n d u rin g t h a t tim e and c o u ld , i n
m ost c a s e s , soon r e a c h s ta n d a rd s t a t u s .
Q ,u e stio n n a ire r e t u r n s showed s tr o n g o p p o s i t i o n . The
q u e s tio n n a i r e re s p o n s e s , as in d i c a t e d by T ab le X V ", show a l
m ost co m plete o p p o s it io n to c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f em ergency te a c h
e r s even i f s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s r a t e tham as s u c c e s s f u l a f t e r
two f u l l y e a r s o f te a c h in g on em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s . Only
5 .4 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts g iv e th e s u g g e s te d p ro c e d u re an
"A” r a t i n g . Among s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s and
TABLE XV
P E R M A N E N T A L T E R A T I O N O F B E G U L A R C E R T I F I C A T I O N H E ^ U IR E M T S B Y M N T
C E R T IF IC A T I® O F S U B S T A N D A R D E M E R G E N C Y T E A C H E R S A F T E R T W O F U I L Y E A R S O F
. T E A C H I N G I F R A T E D A S. S U C C E S S F U L B Y S C H O O L D I S T R I C T O F F IC IA IS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 31 1 2 4 24 0 4 3*2 0.0
State Teachers’
Associations 31 0 4 4 23 0 3 0.0 0.0
Colleges in
California 17 0 0 2 15 0 2 0.0 0.0
Colleges outside
California 43 0 8 5 30 1 1 0.0 2.3
Guidance Directors
in California 63 4 12 9 38 3 6 6.3 4.8
Guidance Directors
outside California 78 4 14 13 47 1 5 5.1 1.3
Total 263
9
40 37 177 5 21 3.4 1.9
100
101
o f f i c i a l s from th e two c o l l e g e g ro u p s n o t, a s i n g l e "A" r a t i n g
was p r e s e n te d . A p p ro x im ate ly t w o - t h i r d s o f a l l r e s p o n s e s
were i n th e ttDn column i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n in h e r e n t
d a n g e rs i n th e s u g g e ste d p ro c e d u re .
When p erm an en t r e t e n t i o n i s em phasized i n th e column
f o r t h a t p u rp o se , s u p p o rt i s even more c o m p le te ly a b s e n t.
L e ss th a n 2 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e a d e s i r e f o r
su ch r e t e n t i o n . Wot a s i n g l e r e q u e s t f o r perm anency comes
from s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts , s t a t e t e a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s , o r
c o l l e g e s i n C a l i f o r n i a . I t may b e assumed th e n , i f th e q u es
t i o n n a i r e r e t u r n s a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f e d u c a tio n a l th in k i n g
g e n e r a l l y , t h a t e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s a r e alm o st c o m p le te ly
opposed to p erm anent c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f te a c h e r s w ith su b
s ta n d a r d c r e d e n t i a l s . I f p r e s s u r e f o r r e t e n t i o n o f such
te a c h e r s i s to come, i t would a p p e a r t h a t i t w i l l come p r i n
c i p a l l y from th e la y p u b lic and th e em ergency t e a c h e r s them
s e l v e s .
XI. SUM M ARY OF OPINION REGARDING PERMANENT ALTERATION
OF REGULAR CERTIFICATION
I n g e n e r a l a l l g ro u p s o f s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s were opposed
to perm anent a l t e r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s .
S e v e r a l q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts v o lu n te e r e d th e o p in io n
t h a t lo w e rin g p erm an en t s ta n d a r d s would i n e v i t a b l y m i l i t a t e
102
a g a in st the p rogress o f ed u cation .
Of th e e i g h t s u g g e s te d p ro c e d u re s p r e s e n te d i n th e
q u e s tio n n a i r e f o r r a t i n g , n o t one ap p ro ach ed m a jo r i ty
s u p p o rt as a perm an en t p r o c e d u re . W hile th e c o l l e g e s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e o f C a l i f o r n i a , w ere m ost opposed to p e r
m anent lo w e rin g o f s t a n d a r d s , m a jo r i ty p r o t e s t came from
a l l g ro u p s.
G r e a te s t p e r c e n ta g e s f o r r e t e n t i o n , 3 5 .9 p e r c e n t o f
a l l r e s p o n s e s , was g iv e n to s tr e a m li n in g p r e s e n t r e q u i r e
m ents i n p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a ti o n a l c o u r s e s . Of t h e re s p o n d
e n t s , 3 3 .7 p e r c e n t asked f o r r e t e n t i o n o f rem o v a l o f
re q u ir e m e n ts o f some s t a t e s t h a t te a c h e r s have s p e c i f i e d
number o f u n i t s o f c o l le g e c r e d i t earn ed w ith in th o s e s t a t e s .
Of th e r e s p o n d e n ts , 2 2 .5 p e r c e n t w ere w i l l i n g to r e t a i n th e
g e n e r a liz e d p r i n c i p l e o f m aking m inor a d ju s tm e n ts i n c e r t i
f i c a t i o n re q u ir e m e n ts n o t in v o lv in g a p p r e c ia b le lo w e rin g o f
s ta n d a r d s .
S u p p o rt f o r th e o th e r f i v e su g g e ste d p r o c e d u re s f e l l
o f f s h a r p ly . B ut 9 .1 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts would
r e t a i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h e x a m in a tio n to su p p lem en t c e r t i
f i c a t i o n th ro u g h c o u rs e w ork. Only 7 .5 p e r c e n t would renew
p e rm a n e n tly any c r e d e n t i a l s v a l i d a t any tim e d u rin g p a s t
f i f t e e n y e a r s . B ut 3 .5 p e r c e n t w ould a b o l is h p e rm a n e n tly
a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r re n e w a l o f c r e d e n t i a l s .
L ow ering academ ic o r s p e c i a l s u b je c t r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r
105
c e r t i f i c a t i o n was su p p o rte d as a p erm anent p ro c e d u re "by o n ly
5 .1 p e r c e n t. L e a s t s u p p o r t, 1 .9 p e r c e n t, was g iv e n to th e
s u g g e s tio n f o r p erm anent c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f s u b - s ta n d a r d
em ergency t e a c h e r s a f t e r two y e a r s o f te a c h in g i f th e y w ere
r a t e d a s s u c c e s s f u l by s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o f f i c i a l s .
C H A PT E R V
EXPEDITING TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR BOTE EMERGENCY
AND STANDARD CERTIFICATION
I . ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
D is c u s s io n o f p ro c e d u r e s f o r e x p e d iti n g t r a i n i n g
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n w i l l b e g in w ith a su rv ey o f
such a c c e l e r a t i o n i n g e n e r a l. I t w i l l th e n p ro c e e d to an
a n a l y s i s o f view s e x p re s s e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e and on q u es
t i o n n a i r e r e t u r n s r e l a t i n g to th e f o u r p r o c e d u re s a v a i l a b l e
f o r r a t i n g i n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The m ain d i v i s i o n s o f th e
c h a p te r w i l l be a s f o llo w s :
a. G en e ra l r e a c t i o n to e x p e d itin g t r a i n i n g o p p o r
t u n i t i e s .
b . R unning c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s on a t h r e e -
seme s t e r - a -y e a r b a s i s .
c . P ro v id in g r e f r e s h e r , su p p le m e n ta ry , o r i n t e n s i v e
c o u r s e s i n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s .
d. E s t a b l i s h i n g e x t e n s io n te a c h e r t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s
f o r t e a e h e r s who can n o t a t t e n d r e g u l a r t e a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s .
e . D i s t r i c t s u b s i d i z i n g o f t r a i n i n g f o r th o s e em er
gency te a c h e r s on lo w er s a l a r y th a n o th e r b e g in
n in g t e a c h e r s so a s to e n c o u ra g e s ta n d a r d
c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
I I . GENERAL REACTION TO EXPEDITING
TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES
A c c e le r a tio n h a s b een p r a c t i c e d d u r in g s h o r t a g e . Some
means o f a c c e l e r a t i n g th e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s to i n c r e a s e
th e su p p ly o f te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l was g e n e r a l l y so u g h t as soon
a s th e te a c h in g s h o r ta g e became a p p a r e n t. Most o f th e
m e asu res i n s t i t u t e d in v o lv e d an in c r e a s e d u se o f th e f a c i l i
t i e s o f h ig h e r e d u c a ti o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The c o lle g e s and
u n i v e r s i t i e s w ere c a l l e d upon t o n o t o n ly add to th e q u a n t i t y
o f p e r s o n n e l h u t to im prove th e q u a l i t y a s w e ll by v a r i o u s
ty p e s o f su p p le m e n ta ry c o u rs e work, e i t h e r on th e campus o r
th ro u g h e x t e n s io n c o u r s e s .
I n many c a s e s , t h e l o c a l d i s t r i c t s gave im p e tu s to
such t r a i n i n g e i t h e r by r e q u i r i n g i t i n o r d e r t o s e c u r in g a
te a c h in g p o s i t i o n o r by m o tiv a tin g i t th ro u g h i n c r e a s i n g th e
f i n a n c i a l r e m u n e ra tio n o f th o s e who to o k a d v a n ta g e o f such
t r a i n i n g . Such a c c e l e r a t e d program s w ere a v a i l a b l e b o th f o r
th e te a c h e r w ith s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n and th e one l im ite d
to th e em ergency c r e d e n t i a l . I t was c h i e f l y f o r th e l a t t e r ,
how ever, t h a t such e x p e d itin g m e a su re s w ere i n s t i t u t e d .
D isa g re em e n t on a c c e l e r a t i o n was p ro n o u n c e d . F o r th e
m ost p a r t o v e r a l l r e a c t i o n to e x p e d itin g t r a i n i n g
106
o p p o r t u n i t i e s was s u p p o rte d , b o th i n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e
r e t u r n s and i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . T here was a g e n e r a lly ex
p r e s s e d b e l i e f t h a t th e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f p e r s o n n e l
would be th u s im proved. As i n d i c a t e d i n T a b le s XVI th ro u g h
XIX, p a g e s 107 to 110 i n c l u s i v e , q u i t e a c o n s id e r a b le p e r
c e n ta g e would m a in ta in su c h p ro c e d u r e s on a perm an en t b a s i s .
A p p ro v al o f p la n s f o r e x p e d itin g t r a i n i n g was n o t
u n i v e r s a l , how ever. Commenting on th e q u e s tio n n a i r e ite m s ,
Burkman, A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r o f E d u c a tio n f o r th e S t a t e o f
C a l i f o r n i a , s a i d , "The above a p p e a r v a lu a b le i n th e o ry b u t
do n o t w ork i n p r a c t i c e . O p p o s itio n t o r e t e n t i o n o f su c h
d e v ic e s , on a perm anent b a s i s , was v o ic e d by th e dean o f th e
sc h o o l o f e d u c a tio n i n a l a r g e m id -w e s te rn u n i v e r s i t y who
commented on th e q u e s tio n n a i r e , tfThe s tr e a m lin e d , e x p e d ite d
c o u r s e s o f th e w ar p e r io d seem d o u b tf u l e x p e d ie n ts f o r p e a c e
tim e u s e . A lo n g e r p e r io d f o r grow th and r i p e n i n g o f
2
c a n d id a te s i s d e s i r a b l e . ”
I I I . RUSHING COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ON A
THREE-SEMESTER A YEAR BASIS
T h re e - s e m e s te r p la n was common d u r in g w a r. The
1 J o e l A. Burkman, r e s p o n s e to q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
2
Comment by respondent to q u estio n n a ire, dean o f the
sch ool o f education in a m id-w estern s t a t e .
TABLE XVI
EXPEDITING TRAINING OEPGRTONITIES FOR BOTH MERGENCY AND STANDARD CERTIFICATION
TEACHERS THROUGH RUNNING COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES GN A THREE-SEEIEST1R-A-YEAR BASIS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 29 7 15 6 1 7 10 24.1 24.1
State Teachers*
Associations 31 16 10 4 1 10 10 51.6 32.3
Colleges in
California 17 2 7 6 2 3 5 11.8 17.6
Colleges outside
California 44 13 14 12 5 5 13 29.5 11.4
Guidance Directors
in California 66 17 21 19 9 9 7 25.8 13.6
Guidance Directors
outside California 76 30 29 10 7 23 17 39.5 30.3
Total 263 85 96 57 25 57 62 32.3 21.7
t a b ie x v i i
EXPEDITING TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR BOTH EMERGENCY AND STANDARD CERTIFICATION
TEACHERS THROUGH PROVIDING REFRESHER, SUPPLEMENTARY, OR INTENSIVE COURSES IN
TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS FOR PERSONS RETURNING TO TEACHING OR
TRANSFERRING TO SHORTAGE FIELDS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 33 19 10 4 0 13 21 57.6 39.4
State Teachers*
Associations 33 25 7 1 0 21 14 75.8 63.6
Colleges in
California 17 8 9 0 0 7 10 47.1 41.2
Colleges ontside
California 46 25 18 3 0 10 23 54.3 21.7
Guidance Directors
in California 70 38 29 3 0 22 20 54.3 31.4
Guidance Directors
outside California 87 39 43 4 1 30 31 44.8 34.5
Total 286 154 116 15 1 103 119 53.8 36.0
table xviii
EXPEDITING TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR BOTH EMERGENCY AND STANDARD CERTIFICATION
TEACHERSTHRGTJGH ESTABLISHING, WITH CGIIEGE SUPERVISION AND C1EDIT,
EXTENSION TEACHER TRAINING CLASSES FOR. TEACHERS WHO CANNOT ATTEND
REGULAR TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B
Signi- Per cent of Per cent
C D Retain fieant A to Total Retain
State
33 14 13 13 15 42*4 39*4
State Teachers1
Associations 34 23 19 15 67.6 55.9
Colleges in
California 17 10 0 10 10 58.8 58.8
Colleges outside
California 45
Guidance Directors
in California 70
16 26
29 34
1 10
2 20
15
15
35.6
41.4
22.2
28.6
Guidance Directors
outside California 82 37 37 2 36 18 45.1 43.9
Total 281 129 126 20 6 108 88 45.9 38.4
TABLE XIX
EXPEDITING TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR BOTH MERGENCY AND STANDARD CERTIFICATION
TEACHERS THROUGH DISTRICT SUBSIDIZATION.OF TRAINING FOR THOSE EEMG1NCY TEACHERS
ON LOWER SALARY THAN OTHER BEGINNING TEACHERS SO AS TO ENCOURAGE
STANDARD CERTIFICATION
Respondent
Total
-Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 37 7 9 4 7 3 7 25.9 11.1
State Teachers*
Associations 29 6 7 6 10 4 3 20.7 13.8
Colleges in
California 17 5 11 0 1 1 5 29.4 5.9
Colleges outside
California 42 12 19 6 5 . 9 5 28.6 21.4
Guidance Directors
in California 68 20 30 7 11 11 9 29.4 16.2
Guidance Directors
outside California 80 26 34 12 8 20 14 32.5 25.0
Total 263 76 110 35 42 48 43 28.9 18.3
1 1 0
I l l
a c c e l e r a t e d c o l l e g e s c h e d u le was i n u se a s e a r l y a s th e
summer o f 1942. By th e summer o f 1946, 76 p e r c e n t o f th e
h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g p la n n e d to have some ty p e
< 3 t
o f a c c e l e r a t e d program f u n c tio n i n g .
An Ohio S t a t e r e s e a r c h s tu d y p r e s e n t s much e v id e n c e
to m a in ta in t h a t an a c c e l e r a t e d c o l le g e p ro g ra m d o es n o t
ham per th e a l l - a r o u n d developm ent o f th e s t u d e n t . S e l e c t i n g
t h r e e y e a r s (1926-27, 1 9 2 7 -2 8 , and 1953-34) t h e r e s e a r c h e r
s tu d i e d a l l th e s e v e n ty - n in e g r a d u a te s o f th e s c h o o l o f edu
c a t i o n who r e c e iv e d t h e i r d e g re e s from Ohio S t a t e a t ag e s o f
n in e te e n o r tw e n ty . They w ere m atched a s to s e x , e n tr a n c e
a b i l i t y , and g ra d e p o i n t a v e ra g e a t g r a d u a tio n w ith a l i k e
number o f g r a d u a te s who r e c e iv e d t h e i r d e g re e s a t age tw e n ty -
tw o. I n a tte m p tin g to m easu re t h e i r s u c c e s s a f t e r more th a n
a decad e o f p o s t c o l le g e l i f e th e younger group was found to
e x c e l t h e o ld e r on a lm o st a l l c o u n ts . The r e s e a r c h e r con
c lu d e s :
Did th e y g r a d u a te to© young? Were th e y im m ature?
W ith in th e o b v io u s l i m i t a t i o n s i n th e s tu d y j u s t r e p o r t e d ,
th e answ er i s an em p h atic n e g a tiv e . These y o u n g er g ra d u
a t e s o u td id t h e i r e l d e r s i n s e c u r in g advanced d e g r e e s . A
g r e a t e r number o f them s e c u re d te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s im
m e d ia te ly a f t e r g r a d u a t io n . The y o u n g er women demon
s t r a t e d s u c c e s s e q u a l to t h a t o f t h e i r e l d e r s i s t e r s i n
s e c u r in g m a te s . More o f them w ere a b le to s e c u r e to p
3
H arry S. E ld e r , "The T ea ch er S h o rta g e : From A cute
to A la rm in g !" A m erican A s s o c ia tio n o f C o l l e g i a t e R e g i s t r a r s
J o u r n a l . 2 1 :6 5 , O c to b e r, 1945.
112
s a l a r i e s i n th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n . They im p re sse d
t h e i r sc h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a s t e a c h e r s . T hroughout,
th e r e c o r d o f th e y o u n g er g r a d u a te s i s a s good a s , o r
b e t t e r th a n , t h a t o f th e o l d e r . 4
Soon a f t e r th e w ar b e g a n , th e B ureau o f E d u c a tio n a l
R e se a rc h u n d e rto o k i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f war tim e a c c e l e r a t i o n
program s a t Ohio S t a t e w ith e s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to p o s s i b l e
r e l a t i o n s to p o stw a r e d u c a tio n . T hese s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t
th o s e o f good a b i l i t y and good h e a l t h can co m p lete a c o l le g e
program w ith o u t lo w e rin g th e q u a l i t y o f academ ic w ork, in
d i s t i n c t l y l e s s tim e th a n was t r a d i t i o n a l b e f o r e t h e w ar.
T hese r e s u l t s w ere s e c u r e d , a p p a r e n tly , w ith o u t e l i m i n a t i n g
d e s i r a b l e a c t i v i t i e s and r e c r e a t i o n , o r c a u s in g o th e r un
d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s .
A r e p o r t i n t h e E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h B u l l e t i n , con
c e rn in g th e above i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w r i t t e n by K le in , s u g g e s ts
t h a t such an a c c e l e r a t e d p ro g ram seem s e s p e c i a l l y tim ed now
b e c a u se o f th e s h o r ta g e o f t e a c h e r s and th e need to en c o u ra g e
s u p e r i o r i n d i v i d u a l s to e n t e r th e p r o f e s s i o n . K le in a ls o
u rg e d p e r i o d i c a tte n d a n c e a t summer s c h o o l f o r p r o s p e c tiv e
te a c h e r s i n o r d e r to p r o v id e c o n t a c t w ith e x p e rie n c e d te a c h
e r s and t h a t th e y m ig h t d e r iv e th e " b e n e f i t from th e more
p r o f e s s i o n a l ap p ro ac h o f many summer sc h o o l c l a s s e s . " 5
4 M arie A. F le s h e r , "Did They G rad u ate Too Young?"
E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h B u l l e t i n . 2 4 :2 2 1 , November 14, 1945.
5
A rth u r J . K le in , " A c c e le r a tio n and th e D em obilized
S tu d e n t i n E d u c a tio n ," E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h B u l l e t i n . 2 4 :8 5 -7 ,
A p r i l, 1945.
113
L o sse s i n h e r e n t i n lo n g v a c a t i o n s was th e b a s i s o f
P o r t e r f i e l d ’ s o p p o s it io n to th e two s e m e s te r p l a n . He w ro te :
The tw o -te rm sy stem , w ith i t s l a p s e s i n t o c o n fu s in g
i n a c t i v i t y and i t s gnaw ing d e d u c tio n s t h a t can o n ly be ,
w r i t t e n o f f a s so much c u t - r a t e b a r g a i n in g , i s m e d ie v a l
i n b o th h i s t o r i c a l o r i g i n and p e r p e t u a l i n e f f i c i e n c y . b
T h re e -s e m e s te r p la n was f r e q u e n t l y o p p o se d . Argum ents
i n o p p o s it io n to th e a c c e l e r a t e d c o lle g e program w ere com
p a r a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e a l s o . When th e y w ere
made th e y w ere n o rm a lly b a se d on th e b e l i e f s w hich th e above
quoted Ohio S t a t e r e s e a r c h h a s s in c e te n d e d to r e f u t e .
One o f t h e m ost e lo q u e n t o p p o n e n ts o f a c c e l e r a t i o n
was Nason o f th e Swathmore C o lle g e f a c u l t y who i n s i s t s :
. . . C o n tin u ed a c c e l e r a t i o n i s u n d e s ir a b le from th e
p o in t o f view o f t h e s t u d e n t s . The heavy s t r a i n o f
c o n tin u o u s work i s n o t good f o r m ost s t u d e n t s and i s
q u i t e d e f i n i t e l y bad f o r some . . . F u rth e rm o re ,
s tu d e n ts u n d e r th e a c c e l e r a t e d p ro g ram do n o t l e a r n so
much a s u n d er th e o ld e r and more l e i s u r e l y program .
T here i s a p p a r e n tly a c o e f f i c i e n t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
a b s o r p ti o n . T h ere i s i n t e l l e c t u a l f a t i g u e and th e law
o f d im in is h in g r e t u r n s d o e s e v e n t u a l l y s e t i n . To
change my m etap h o r a b r u p tly , th e v a c a t i o n s s e rv e as a
p e r io d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l g e s t a t i o n d u r in g w hich th e id e a s
o f th e s tu d e n ts m a tu re slo w ly and s o r t th e m s e lv e s o u t
i n such a way t h a t th e s tu d e n t comes b a c k to c o l le g e n o t
o n ly r e f r e s h e d b u t w ith a r e a s o n a b ly o r d e r l y m ind. . . 7
6 A lle n W. P o r t e r f i e l d , "A C o lle g e D egree i n One
Y e a r ,” S ch o o l and S o c i e t y , 5 9 :1 6 3 , March 4, 1944.
7
John W. N ason, "S hould A c c e le r a tio n a t th e C o lle g e
L evel Be C o n tin u ed A f t e r th e War?" A m erican A s s o c ia tio n o f
U n iv e r s it y P r o f e s s o r s B u l l e t i n . 3 0 :2 2 2 , Ju n e , 1944.
114
F u r t h e r arg u m en ts advanced by Nason w ere t h a t a c c e l e r
a t i o n i s d e l e t e r i o u s to th e f a c u l t y , to o e x p e n siv e on th e
p r i v a t e c o l l e g e w hich i s s u p p o rte d c h i e f l y by endowment, to o
e x p e n siv e f o r p a r e n t s , and d e t e r i o r a t i v e o f s tu d e n t o p p o r-
8
t u n i t y f o r much needed work e x p e r ie n c e .
F u l l summer te rm was a d v o c a te d . Many who fa v o re d
a c c e l e r a t i o n as a means o f i n c r e a s i n g th e su p p ly o f t e a c h e r s
p r e f e r to keep th e tw o -se m e ste r sy stem and su pplem ent i t w ith
an i n t e n s i v e tw e lv e -w e e k s summer te rm . I n s t i t u t i o n s u s in g
t h e q u a r t e r sy stem n a t u r a l l y fa v o r th e summer te rm . S e v e r a l
s t a t e s u p e r in t e n d e n t s supp lem en ted t h e i r q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s
by a d v o c a tin g th e tw e lv e -w e e k s summer te rm a s a su pplem ent to
9
th e tw o -s e m e s te r sy ste m . One q u e s t i o n n a i r e re s p o n d e n t from
a p r i v a t e C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e rem a rk e d :
A d o u b le summer s e s s i o n h as a l l th e a d v a n ta g e s o f a
t h i r d s e m e s te r and a v o id s some o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e s . We
have f o r th e p a s t th r e e summers made i t p o s s i b l e f o r
summer s c h o o l s tu d e n t s to e a rn a maximum o f tw e lv e
u n i t s . 10
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r a t i n g s showed p l a n n o t s u p p o r te d .
T ab le XVI, page 107, p r e s e n t s th e r e a c t i o n o f q u e s tio n n a i r e
8 I b i d . . p p . 222-26.
9
Comment by r e s p o n d e n t to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , S t a t e S u p e r
i n t e n d e n t s o f S c h o o ls i n T exas, K entucky, N o rth C a ro lin a , and
L o u is ia n a .
10 Comment by respondent to q u estio n n a ire, d ir e c to r o f
teach er tr a in in g in a p r iv a te C a lifo r n ia c o lle g e .
115
re s p o n d e n ts to ru n n in g c o l le g e program s f o r t h r e e s e m e s te rs
y e a r l y . I n g e n e r a l, th e y d id n o t see m a t e r i a l v a lu e t o
r e c r u itm e n t i n su ch a p r o c e d u re . Only among s t a t e te a c h e r
a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s d id a s many a s 50 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s
p o n se s f a l l i n th e ”A,f colum n. C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e o f f i c i a l s
te n d e d to deny t h a t th e p ro c e d u re would h ave m a t e r i a l v a lu e ,
s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t h e a d s e x p re s s e d c o n s id e r a b le d o u b t a l s o .
L e ss th a n o n e - t h i r d o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts saw s u b s t a n t i a l v a lu e
i n th e s u g g e s tio n . A s l i g h t l y l a r g e r group re sp o n d e d i n th e
"B" column, i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f t h a t m odest r e c r u itm e n t
r e t u r n s m ig h t r e s u l t * S l i g h t l y l e s s th a n 10 p e r c e n t o f a l l
r e s p o n d e n ts , a s i n d i c a t e d by f,D" r a t i n g s , saw in h e r e n t d a n g e rs
i n th e p ro c e d u re . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f perm anent r e t e n t i o n o f
th e t h r e e - s e m e s t e r - a - y e a r p la n was even l e s s f a v o r a b ly r e
c e iv e d . B ut 2 1 .7 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts i n d i c a t e d th e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f r e t e n t i o n . I n none o f th e g ro u p s d id a s
many a s o n e - t h i r d f a v o r a perm an en t th r e e - s e m e s te r y e a r . The
c o l le g e and u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s , who sh o u ld be a b le to speak
m ost a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y o f t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f t h e p ro g ram s,
w ere d i s t i n c t l y l e s s f a v o r a b le th a n w ere th e o t h e r g ro u p s,
c o n s id e re d a s a w h o le.
I t would seem th e n , t h a t n o tw ith s ta n d in g t h e p r e v a l
ence o f th e p ro c e d u re d u r in g th e y e a r s o f World War I I , i t
was n o t a b le to w in g e n e r a l f a v o r . T h e re fo re , i t i s n o t
l i k e l y to f i g u r e p ro m in e n tly i n any com preh en siv e p ro g ram o f
n e
te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t* T hree q u a r t e r s o r two s e m e s te rs p lu s
a s u b s t a n t i a l summer te rm would a p p e a r m ost l i k e l y to a g a in
become th e norm al p ro c e d u re .
IV* PROVIDING REFRESHER COURSES IN
TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
V a rio u s r e f r e s h e r p r a c t i c e s w ere a d o p te d . By th e
summer o f 1942 c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o f th e c o u n try began
r e o r g a n i z i n g t h e i r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g program s i n o r d e r to m eet
th e demands o f th e ex p a n d in g t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e . One common
p r a c t i c e was th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f su p p le m e n ta ry , i n t e n s i v e
r e f r e s h e r c o u rs e s a d a p ta b le to th e n e e d s o f em ergency te a c h
e r s and to r e g u l a r l y c e r t i f i e d p e r s o n n e l who w ere a s s ig n e d
c l a s s e s o u ts i d e t h e i r f i e l d s o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
Most o f th e s e c o u rs e s em phasized c o n t e n t. Many, on
th e j u n i o r and s e n io r h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l , w ere o f f e r e d i n th e
f i e l d s o f g r e a t e s t s h o r ta g e s , nam ely m a th e m a tic s , s c ie n c e ,
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n , and p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n , some o f th e
c o u rs e s gave b r i e f a t t e n t i o n to te a c h in g m ethods a s w e ll .
The t y p i c a l o f f e r i n g was a v a i l a b l e i n summer sc h o o l o n ly and
was n o rm a lly r a t h e r i n t e n s i v e i n c h a r a c t e r , m e e tin g each day
o f th e week, f r e q u e n t l y f o r two p e r io d s a day.
A few s t a t e s , a t l e a s t e a r l y i n th e em ergency p e r io d ,
made c o m p le tio n o f such a r e f r e s h e r program a p r e r e q u i s i t e
117
11
t o te a c h in g w ith em ergency c e r t i f i c a t e s . I n o th e r c a s e s
i n d i v i d u a l d i s t r i c t s r e q u ir e d such a program f o r t e a c h e r s
w ith s u b - s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n . Some d i s t r i c t s p a r t i a l l y
s u b s id iz e d such t r a i n i n g . D i s t r i c t s te n d e d to f e e l p a r t i
c u l a r l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r su ch f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e when
r e g u l a r s t a f f members w ere asked t o a c c e p t a s sig n m e n ts i n
th e s h o r ta g e te a c h in g f i e l d s w hich w ere f o r e i g n t o t h e i r
a r e a o f t r a i n i n g .
Some o f th e r e f r e s h e r c o u rs e s w ere n o t u n d e r t h e
s u p e r v is io n o f th e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s and d id n o t
o f f e r c o l le g e c r e d i t . A few o f th e l a r g e r d i s t r i c t s a tte m p t
ed t o c a r r y on t h e i r own p ro g ram o f t r a i n i n g . I n 1945 th e
West V i r g i n i a S t a t e D ep artm en t i n s t i t u t e d r e f r e s h e r s h o r t
12
c o u r s e s i n each co u n ty f o r a l l em ergency t e a c h e r s .
The summer w orkshop p ro g ram , i n common u s e a s a t r a i n
in g d e v ic e even d u rin g th e d e p r e s s io n p e r io d p r e v io u s t o
W orld War I I , was f r e q u e n t l y expanded to p r o v id e t r a i n i n g f o r
em ergency t e a c h e r s . T h is more in f o rm a l ap p ro a c h to m e e tin g
t r a i n i n g n e e d s was f r e q u e n t l y employed by co u n ty o f f i c e s as
w e ll a s by te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n t h e q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e t u r n s , s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t h ead s from M i s s i s s i p p i ,
^ R o b e rt C a r lto n W o e lln e r and M. A u r i l l a Wood,
R e q u irem e n ts f o r C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T e a c h e rs and A d m in is tr a to r s
{C hicago: fhe- U n iv e r s it y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ), p . 102.
12
E d i t o r i a l comment, E d u c a tio n F or V i c t o r y , No. 3,
2 :3 , A ugust 2, 1943.
T e n n e sse e , and K entucky each made s p e c i a l comment a s t o th e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e summer w orkshop f o r em ergency te a c h e r
13
t r a i n i n g .
Q u e s t!o n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts v a lu e d th e p l a n . As i n d i
c a te d by T a b le XVII, p age 108, f a i r l y s u b s t a n t i a l s u p p o rt
was g iv e n to th e r e f r e s h e r c o u rs e a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e .
f,AM r e s p o n s e s w ere c o m p a ra tiv e ly num erous b u t w ere p a r t i
c u l a r l y so from s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s , more
th a n 75 p e r c e n t o f w hich i n d i c a t e d a b e l i e f i n m a t e r i a l
v a lu e i n th e p r o c e d u r e . More th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s
p o n se s w ere i n th e "A” colum n. N e a rly a l l r e s p o n s e s n o t
found i n th e M Att column w ere grouped i n th e "B" c a te g o r y ,
i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n m odest v a lu e f o r th e p ro c e d u re . Thus,
more th a n 94 p e r c e n t se e some v a lu e i n th e su p p le m e n ta ry o r
r e f r e s h e r c o u rs e .
When th e p ro c e d u re i s c o n s id e r e d a s a p o s s i b l e perm a
n e n t a c t i v i t y , s u p p o rt i s l e s s p ro n o u n c e d . Of a l l re s p o n d
e n t s , 36 p e r c e n t would r e t a i n th e a c t i v i t y a f t e r th e t e a c h e r
su p p ly becom es a d e q u a te . H ere a g a in s t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i
a t i o n o f f i c i a l s r e g i s t e r th e g r e a t e s t a p p ro v a l w ith 6 3 .6 p e r
c e n t d e s i r i n g perm anency. A s u b s t a n t i a l num ber, 4 1 .3 p e r
c e n t, o f C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e o f f i c i a l s approved r e t e n t i o n o f
13
Comment by r e s p o n d e n ts to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , S t a t e
D epartm ent o f f i c i a l s from M i s s i s s i p p i , T e n n e sse e , and
K entucky.
119
th e a c t i v i t y .
Assuming th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s r e p r e s e n t a
t y p i c a l p i c t u r e o f n a t i o n a l e d u c a ti o n a l f e e l i n g , th e r e f r e s h
e r c o u rs e m ig h t w e ll he c o n s id e re d a s d e f i n i t e l y v a l u a b le
d u r in g th e tim e o f t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e . I t c o u ld h a r d ly he
ig n o re d w h ile em ergency te a c h e r s a r e h e in g em ployed i n su b
s t a n t i a l num bers. I t s v a lu e a s a r e c r u i t m e n t d e v ic e o f a
p erm a n en t n a t u r e i s much more d o u b tf u l i f th e r e a c t i o n o f
th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts i s a c c e p te d .
V. ESTABLISHING EXTENSION CLASSES FOR THOSE UNABLE TO
ATTEND REGULAR TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
E x te n s io n c o u r s e s a r e w id e ly u s e d . F o r a number o f
y e a r s some h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s have come t o th e
s tu d e n t when th e s tu d e n t h a s b e e n u n a b le o r u n w i l l i n g to
come t o them . T h is c o l l e g e e x te n s io n program h a s n o rm a lly
b e e n found i n m e tr o p o l ita n a r e a s where a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e
number o f s t u d e n t s co u ld b e found to make a c l a s s j u s t i f i a b l e .
O fte n s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s o r s t a t e t e a c h e r s c o l le g e s have s e n t
members o f t h e i r s t a f f to a d j a c e n t l a r g e c i t i e s t o o rg a n iz e
and c o n d u c t such a program f o r th e t e a c h e r s em ployed i n th e
one d i s t r i c t . F r e q u e n tly , such c l a s s e s have m et b u t once a
week f o r an e x te n d e d c l a s s p e r i o d . I n a lm o st a l l c a s e s
c o l le g e c r e d i t h a s b ee n g iv e n to th o s e s t u d e n t s who s u c c e s s
f u l l y c o m p lete su c h a program .
The r e c e n t t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e , w ith i t s accom panying
n eed f o r e x p e d itin g t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , h a s le d to i n
c r e a s e d u se o f e x t e n s io n e d u c a tio n . At tim e s th e te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s have co n d u cted r e f r e s h e r c o u r s e s on
th e e x te n s io n p la n . The p r e s s u r e w hich many d i s t r i c t s have
b ro u g h t on em ergency t e a c h e r s to a t t a i n s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a
t i o n h a s c a l l e d f o r in c r e a s e d u s e o f e x te n s io n c l a s s e s a l s o .
A n o th er f a c t o r d u r in g t h e y e a r s o f World War I I w hich made
t h e c o l l e g e s a n x io u s t o c o o p e ra te i n such a program was th e
sh a rp drop i n r e g u l a r e n ro llm e n t i n te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i
t u t i o n s . The f r e q u e n t r e s u l t was an e m b a rra s s in g o v e r - s u p p ly
o f s t a f f , many o f whom could w e ll be em ployed i n e x te n s io n
e d u c a tio n .
E x te n s io n e d u c a tio n would a p p e a r from th e l i t e r a t u r e
to be a w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d t r a i n i n g d e v ic e . V ery l i t t l e q u es
t i o n was r a i s e d a s to th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f i t s c o n tin u e d u s e .
I n t h e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s , how ever, t h e r e was some ad
v e r s e comment a s t o th e e f f i c a c y o f su c h a p ro c e d u r e . Thus,
a P e n n s y lv a n ia c o l l e g e o f f i c i a l m a in ta in e d , " C r e d its e a rn e d
i n e x te n s io n a r e j u s t t h a t ; th e y a re u s u a l l y o f l i t t l e p r o -
14 15
f e s s i o n a l v a l u e . " As i n d i c a t e d above, Burkman o f th e
14
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , d i r e c t o r
o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n a P e n n s y lv a n ia s t a t e t e a c h e r s
c o l l e g e .
15
O f. a n t e , p . 106.
121
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e D epartm ent q u e s tio n e d t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f
e i t h e r r e f r e s h e r o r e x te n s io n c o u r s e s .
Q .u e stio n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts r a t e d p la n h i g h l y . The
q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s as shown i n T able X V III, p ag e 109,
in d i c a t e d c o n s id e r a b le s u p p o r t f o r th e e x te n s io n c o u rs e as
a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e . S t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s
a g a in e x h i b ite d th e g r e a t e s t e n th u s ia s m w ith 6 7 .6 p e r c e n t
o f t h e i r r e t u r n s i n th e nA,f colum n. Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts ,
4 5 .9 p e r c e n t r a t e d th e p ro c e d u re "A” . Almost a s l a r g e a
number o f r e s p o n s e s w ere i n th e M BH column i n d i c a t i n g a b e
l i e f i n m odest r e c r u i t m e n t v a l u e . Thus, a p p ro x im a te ly 90
p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n s e s f e l l i n "A" o r "B" c a te g o r y . "Dtf
r e s p o n s e s , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n i n h e r e n t d a n g e rs , w ere
n e g l i g i b l e .
D e s ire f o r perm an en t r e t e n t i o n o f e x te n s io n c o u r s e s
a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e was e x p re s s e d f r e q u e n t l y . More th a n
50 p e r c e n t o f s t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n and C a l i f o r n i a c o l
le g e o f f i c i a l s i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e f o r perm anency. Of a l l
re s p o n d e n ts , 3 8 .4 p e r c e n t asked t h a t th e p ro c e d u re be
r e t a i n e d . The r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll number o f r e q u e s t s f o r p e r
manency from c o l l e g e s o u ts i d e C a l i f o r n i a a s com pared to th o s e
i n C a l i f o r n i a m ig h t i n d i c a t e th e p ro c e d u re t o be l e s s used
e lse w h e re th a n i n C a l i f o r n i a .
I t would a p p e a r, th e n , t h a t e x te n s io n c o u r s e s c a n n o t
be ig n o re d a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e . A m a j o r i t y o f q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts would make i t an a c t i v e p r o c e d u re d u r in g
th e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e ; 3 8 .4 p e r c e n t w ould r e t a i n i t i n
n o rm al tim e s a s p a r t o f a com prehensive r e c r u i t m e n t program .
V I. SUBSIDIZING OF TRAINING FOR EMERGENCY TEACHERS
ON LOW ER SALARY THAN OTHER BEGINNING TEACHERS
TO ENCOURAGE STANDARD CERTIFICATION
Many a r e n o t s e e k in g s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n . A u th o ri
t i e s a g re e t h a t th e p r e s e n c e o f more th a n one hundred th o u sa n d
em ergency t e a c h e r s i n o u r c la s s ro o m s i s a s e r i o u s t h r e a t to
e d u c a ti o n a l s ta n d a r d s . The end o f th e w ar h a s n o t found
fo rm e r t e a c h e r s r e t u r n i n g to th e p r o f e s s i o n i n t h e num bers
many e x p e c te d . Thus, i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t many o f t h i s em er
gency g ro u p , a t l e a s t , w i l l be employed a s t e a c h e r s f o r an
i n d e f i n i t e p e r io d o f tim e . As i n d i c a t e d above, p r e s s u r e w i l l
a lm o st s u r e l y be b r o u g h t to b e a r to g iv e th e group perm anent
16
c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
Emergency te a c h e r s have been u rg e d i n th e s t r o n g e s t
te rm s to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e many o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e
to a t t a i n s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n . C o rresp o n d en ce c o u r s e s ,
e x te n s io n c o u r s e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y th e r e g u l a r summer sc h o o l
p ro g ram s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o th e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f su ch p e r s o n n e l.
1 6
O f. a n t e , p p . 4 3 -4 4 .
123
U n f o r tu n a te ly , em ergency t e a c h e r s h av e n o t ta k e n a d v a n ta g e
o f such o p p o r t u n i t i e s to th e e x te n t hoped f o r hy e d u c a tio n a l
l e a d e r s . F o r many, th e p r o s p e c t o f one to two academ ic
y e a rs o f t r a i n i n g r e q u ir e d h as seemed a h u r d le to o s e v e re to
a tte m p t.
One p o s s i b l e s u g g e s tio n f o r a c c e l e r a t i n g th e movement
o f em ergency t e a c h e r s i n t o f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g i s s u b s i d i z a t i o n
o f su ch t r a i n i n g by th e d i s t r i c t . A m a j o r i t y o f such p e r
so n n e l a r e on a lo w er s a l a r y l e v e l th a n a r e t h e te a c h e r s
w ith s ta n d a rd c e r t i f i c a t i o n . F o r them s i z e a b l e s a l a r y i n
c rem en ts co u ld b e o f f e r e d o n ly upon th e c o m p le tio n o f a f u l l
program o f summer s tu d y . T h is would te n d to make a h e a lth y
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among th e many em ergency te a c h e r s and, i f
i n t e l l i g e n t l y a d m in is te r e d , sh o u ld send them to summer s c h o o l
i n much g r e a t e r num bers th a n was common d u r in g th e war y e a r s .
W hile t h i s s u g g e s tio n i s one n o t f r e q u e n t l y p r a c t i c e d
d u r in g th e w ar p e r io d , t h e r e was some f a v o r a b le comment by
q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts . S e v e r a l c o lle g e r e s p o n d e n ts
u rg ed i t s u s e . A few would even make i t a p a r t o f th e con
t r a c t u a l ag reem en t th u s m aking t h e i r c o n tin u e d te a c h in g
d ep en d en t upon i t .
M in o rity o f q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts approved sub
s i d i e s f o r em ergency te a c h e r t r a i n i n g . As a group th e r e s
p o n d e n ts w ere n o t pronounced i n t h e i r e n th u sia s m f o r
124
d i s t r i c t s u b s i d i e s o f em ergency te a c h e r t r a i n i n g . R e fe re n c e
to T ab le XIX, page 110, shows t h a t o n ly 2 8 .9 p e r c e n t o f th e
t o t a l g ro u p gave i t an nA,f r a t i n g . ttAM r e s p o n s e s w ere q u ite
c o n s i s t e n t among th e s i x g ro u p s, a l l f a l l i n g b etw e en 20 and
S3 p e r c e n t. "B" r e s p o n s e s w ere more f r e q u e n t w ith a p p r o x i
m a te ly 40 p e r c e n t of t h e r e t u r n s f a l l i n g i n t h a t c a te g o r y .
S in c e t h i s s u g g e s te d p ro c e d u re was c o n c ern ed w ith
em ergency t e a c h e r s , t h e column a s k in g f o r r a t i n g a s a p e r
m anent m ethod o f r e c r u itm e n t i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t th a n u s u a l .
Only 1 8 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts f e l t s u b s i d i e s f o r
t e a c h e r s ’ t r a i n i n g to be d e s i r a b l e on a p erm an en t b a s i s .
Q u ite p o s s i b l y t h e e x p e c ta tio n t h a t em ergency te a c h e r s would
n o t be u se d i n d e f i n i t e l y te n d e d to re d u c e th e d e s i r e f o r p e r
manency o f th e p r o c e d u r e .
I t would a p p e a r, th e n , t h a t d i s t r i c t s u b s i d i e s f o r
em ergency t e a c h e r s co u ld be c o n s id e r e d a m a rg in a l p ro c e d u re
f o r th e r e c r u itm e n t o f t e a c h e r s . I t s la c k o f e x t e n s iv e u s e
th u s f a r p r e v e n t s s u b s t a n t i a t e d e s tim a te s o f i t s e f f e c t i v e
n e s s . The h e s ita n c y o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts to in d o r s e
i t w h o le - h e a r te d ly would i n d i c a t e th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f e x p e r i
m e n ta tio n w ith t h e p ro c e d u re b e f o r e i t be g iv e n co m p lete
in d o r s e m e n t.
V II. SUMMARY OF OPINION REGARDING EXPEDITING TRAINING
F€R BOTH EMERGENCY AND STANDARD CERTIFICATION
125
C o n s id e ra b le d iv e rg e n c y o f o p in io n was e v id e n c e d by
d i s c u s s i o n i n e d u c a ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e and i n th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e t u r n as to th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a tte m p tin g to
e x p e d ite t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t e a c h e r s . Of th e f o u r
p r o c e d u r e s p r e s e n te d f o r r a t i n g i n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , t h a t
o f r e f r e s h e r and su p p le m e n ta ry c o u r s e s f o r new te a c h e r s was
b e s t r e c e iv e d by q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts . Of a l l r e s p o n s
e s , 5 5 .8 p e r c e n t w ere i n t h e "A" c a te g o r y and a p p ro x im a te ly
94 p e r c e n t w ere e i t h e r "A" o r "B ". The w orkshop r e c e iv e d
much i n c i d e n t a l in d o rsem en t a s an ap p ro ach t o r e f r e s h e r
t r a i n i n g . Thus, n e a r l y a l l r e s p o n d e n ts saw a t l e a s t m odest
v a lu e t o r e c r u itm e n t i n th e d e v ic e . Of th e t o t a l g roup,
3 6 .0 p e r c e n t would r e t a i n th e r e f r e s h e r c o u rs e p e rm a n e n tly .
E x te n s io n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s r e c e iv e d th e n e x t
h i g h e s t in d o rs e m e n t. Of th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s , 4 5 .9
p e r c e n t were i n th e ttAw column w ith a p p ro x im a te ly 90 p e r
c e n t of th e t o t a l i n e i t h e r th e M A" o r "B" g ro u p . Of a l l
t h e r e s p o n d e n ts , 3 8 .4 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e to r e t a i n
e x t e n s io n te a c h e r t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s a f t e r th e end o f th e
te a c h e r s h o r ta g e .
The t h r e e - s e m e s t e r - a - y e a r p l a n f o r c o l l e g e s and u n i
v e r s i t i e s a p p e ared to b e th e m ost c o n t r o v e r s i a l o f th e f o u r .
E x te n s iv e r e s e a r c h a t Ohio S t a t e U n iv e r s it y i n d i c a t e d t h a t
su ch an a c c e l e r a t e d c o l le g e program had no i l l e f f e c t on th e
s tu d e n t o r th e q u a l i t y o f th e t r a i n i n g . Numerous
126
com m entators i n e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e , how ever, f e l t t h a t
su ch a p r a c t i c e would m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t h e a lth o r i n t e l l e c t u
a l m a tu rity * Numerous q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts e x p re s s e d
a p r e f e r e n c e f o r two s e m e s te r s su p p lem en ted hy f u l l te rm
summer s c h o o ls . Only 3 2 .3 p e r c e n t o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s
p o n d e n ts gave an "A" r a t i n g to th e th r e e - s e m e s t e r p la n . But
21#7 p e r c e n t o f them would r e t a i n i t p e rm a n e n tly .
S ch o o l d i s t r i c t s u b s i d i z i n g o f t r a i n i n g f o r em ergency
t e a c h e r s r e c e iv e d th e lo w e s t in d o rse m e n t i n th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e t u r n . B ut 2 8 .9 p e r c e n t o f a l l t h e r e s p o n d e n ts gave
th e p ro c e d u re an "A” r a t i n g and 1 8 .3 p e r c e n t s u g g e s te d i t s
p erm a n en t r e t e n t i o n . T h is s u g g e s te d p ro c e d u r e , u n l i k e th e
o th e r t h r e e , was n o t u sed e x t e n s iv e ly d u r in g th e p e r io d o f
W orld War I I .
INCREASED PUBLICITY CONCERNING EDUCATION’S NEEDS
AND ITS PERSONNEL
I . ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p te r i s o rg a n iz e d u n d e r
t h r e e m ain h e a d in g s . The f i r s t two a re th e ite m s p r e s e n te d
f o r r a t i n g i n S e c tio n IV o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w hich w ere th e
fo llo w in g :
1 . I n t e n s i v e n ew sp ap er, m a g azin e, and r a d i o p u b l i c i t y
c o n c e rn in g th e need f o r t e a c h e r s and th e o p p o r
t u n i t i e s f o r employment i n th e p r o f e s s i o n .
2. N a ti o n a l and s t a t e p o s t e r cam paigns co m p arab le to
t h a t u sed f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s and n u r s e s a i d s .
To th e above w i l l be added a t h i r d s e c t i o n w hich was n o t
p r e s e n te d f o r r a t i n g i n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , nam ely:
5 . P u b l i c i t y f o r th e p u rp o se o f im p ro v in g t h e s o c i a l
s t a t u s o f t e a c h e r s .
I I . PROVIDING INTENSIVE NEWSPAPER, MAGAZINE, AND RADIO
PUBLICITY ON NEED FOR TEACHERS AND OPPORTUNITY
FOR EMPLOYMENT
N eeds r e c e n t l y g iv e n w ide p u b l i c i t y . As th e t e a c h e r
s h o r ta g e became more c r i t i c a l w ith th e p a s s in g o f th e war
y e a r s th e p u b l i c was made i n c r e a s i n g l y aw are o f th e unw hole
some s i t u a t i o n . N ew spapers c a r r i e d s t o r i e s o f b o th l o c a l
and n a t i o n a l n e e d s . P o p u la r m a g a z in e s, to o , p u b l i c i z e d
c o n d itio n s i n th e p r o f e s s i o n . These p u b l i c a t i o n s n o t o n ly
p r e s e n te d th e n a t u r e and e x t e n t o f s h o r ta g e s , b u t i n many
c a s e s , a tte m p te d to a n a ly z e th e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r e x i s t e n c e .
E d u c a tio n ’ s f,d i r t y l i n e n ” was a i r e d f o r laym en. Such un
d e s i r a b l e f a c t o r s a s low s a l a r i e s , r e l a t i v e l y p o o r o p p o r
t u n i t y f o r l a r g e s a l a r y in c re m e n ts , u n e q u a l e d u c a ti o n a l
o p p o r tu n ity among d i s t r i c t s and s t a t e s , u n c e r t a i n te n u r e ,
heavy t e a c h i n g lo a d , a u t o c r a t i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and an a lle g e d
low p r e s t i g e o f th e p r o f e s s i o n i n g e n e r a l w ere a l l p r e s e n te d
to th e p u b l i c a s c a u s e s f o r th e exodus from th e p r o f e s s i o n . 1
I n g e n e r a l e d u c a to r s welcomed su ch p u b l i c i t y , f e e l i n g
t h a t th e p u b lic m ust be made aw are o f e d u c a ti o n ’ s n e e d s . I n
f a c t th e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f such p u b l i c i t y o r i g i n a t e d w ith
e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s who w ere g e n e ro u s w ith new spaper r e l e a s
e s . Many s c h o o l sp o n so re d r a d i o p ro g ra m s t o l d th e s t o r y to
th e g e n e r a l p u b l i c , and p o s t e r s and c a r to o n s w ere b ro u g h t
i n t o p la y a s w e l l .
A t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s need p u b li o i t y . The l a r g e m easure
o f g e n e r a l a c c e p ta n c e o f p u b l i c i t y a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e
1 G w enita S a n d e r lin , ’’Ouch! T h a t W hite C o lla r
P i n c h e s , ” S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t , No. 4 , 2 1 6 :3 6 -5 9 , J u ly 22,
1944.
139
c a n b e r e a d i l y s e e n from a p e r u s a l o f T ab le XX. L arg e
num bers o f i n d i v i d u a l s , how ever, saw d a n g e rs i n ra m p a n t,
u n s e le c te d news r e l e a s e s . Some w r i t e r s f e l t t h a t a i r i n g th e
c a u s e s o f s h o r ta g e s would d r iv e away th o s e whom th e p r o f e s
s io n w anted to a t t r a c t . Bowman, D ir e c t o r of T e a c h e r P la c e
ment f o r th e C a l i f o r n i a T e a c h e rs A s s o c ia tio n , S o u th e rn
S e c t io n , e x p re s s e d d oubt a s to th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f th e pub
l i c i t y a p p e a r in g i n la y m a g a z in e s. He w arns t h a t :
So lo n g a s such a r t i c l e s can be p u b lis h e d i n our
p o p u la r m ag azin es th e y w i l l te n d t o d is c o u ra g e o u r b e s t
young men and women fro m becom ing t e a c h e r s . I t w i l l be
d i f f i c u l t to make s u p e r i o r young p e o p le b e l i e v e t h a t th e y
sh o u ld j o i n th e s o - c a l l e d group o f f o r g o t t e n p e o p le .
Many r e s p o n d e n ts to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e saw th e d e s i r a
b i l i t y o f s t r e s s i n g th e a t t r a c t i o n s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n r a t h e r
th a n p u b l i c i z i n g i t s d i r e n e e d . I n th e w ords o f a s t a t e
s u p e r in te n d e n t from t h e Rooky M ountain a r e a , " I n d i v i d u a l s
alw ays clam o r to j o i n th e p o p u la r th in g . We m ust ta k e c a re
t h a t o u r p sy c h o lo g y o f a d v e r t i s i n g d o e s n ’ t j u s t a d v e r t i s e
an u n p o p u la r s h o r t a g e . " 3
S e v e r a l h e a d s o f s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s v o lu n
t e e r e d th e same a d v ic e , e . g . c a l l i n g f o r "a more ’rosy*
o
C a r l A. Bowman, "T ea ch e r S h o r ta g e ," S i e r r a E d u c a tio n
a l News, 4 1 :3 0 , J a n u a ry , 1945.
3
Comment by respondent to q u estio n n a ire, a s ta te
su perinten dent o f sch o o ls in a Rocky Mountain s t a t e .
TABLE XX
INCREASED PUBLICITY CONCERNING NEED FOR TEACHERS BY INTENSIVE NEWSPAPER, MAGAZINE,
AND RADIO PUBLICITY CONCERNING NEED FOR TEACHERS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMPLOYMENT
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per cent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 31 21 6 2 2 16 17 67.7 51.6
State Teachers 1
Associations 33 21 11 0 1 14 10 63.6 42.4
Colleges in
California 17 11 3 1 2 8 5 64.7 47.1
Colleges outside
California 46 31 10 5 0 22 16 67.4 47.8
Guidance Directors
in California 69 43 21 3 2 16 26 62.3 23.2
Guidance Directors
outside California 88 41 29 9 9 32 23 46.6 36.4
Total
284 168 80 20 16 108 97 59*2 38.0
151
p i c t u r e to th e p r o f e s s i o n , " an "em p h asis upon th e a d v a n ta g e s
o f th e p r o f e s s i o n , ” and i n c l u s i o n o f in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g
" p r o f e s s i o n a l and p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s i n te a c h in g .
D ram atic f e a t u r e s need e m p h a sis. A s t r i k i n g c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c o f th e d i s c u s s i o n i n th e l i t e r a t u r e and th e comments i n
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e t u r n s was th e a s s e r t e d need f o r p r e s e n t -
in g th e p r o f e s s i o n i n a d r a m a tic , e n t i c i n g l i g h t . The word
"g lam o u r” ap p e a re d a g a in and a g a in i n th e comments o f th o s e
who would g u id e th e n a t u r e o f p u b l i c i t y . A c o n v in c in g p l e a
f o r su ch em phasis i n e d u c a ti o n a l p u b l i c i t y was made by
J o h n s to n , P r e s i d e n t o f th e Chamber o f Commerce f o r th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , and r e c e n t l y a p p o in te d head o f th e M otion P i c t u r e
A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erica.
. . . L e t ’ s s e e i f we can g e t some f i c t i o n w r i t e r s
i n t e r e s t e d i n w ra p p in g some w ords a b o u t p l o t s l a i d i n
s c h o o ls w ith t e a c h e r s and s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s as
c h a r a c t e r s . L e t ’ s p la y alo n g w ith th e men and women who
w r i t e m agazine a r t i c l e s , rem em bering alw ays t h a t th e s e
p e o p le , l i k e th e n o v e l i s t , have g o t to have a s t o r y . . .
And l e t ’ s keep th e s t o r y s im p le . L e t ’ s t e l l i t i n a
la n g u a g e p e o p le u n d e r s ta n d . L e t ’ s ta k e a l i t t l e le s s o n
from th e com ic s t r i p s . They c o u n t t h e i r r e a d e r s i n th e
umpty m i l l i o n s • . . M eanw hile th e a l l e g e d l y e r u d i t e
j o u r n a l s c o u n t t h e i r r e a d e r s i n sm a ll num bers . . .
You can c o u n t on th e m o tio n p i c t u r e t o do i t s p a r t
4
Comments by re s p o n d e n ts t o q u e s tio n n a i r e , t h r e e
e x e c u tiv e s e c r e t a r i e s o f s t a t e t e a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s .
Osman R. H u ll, " R e c r u it Young P e o p le f o r T e a c h in g !"
The P h i D e lta K appan, 2 8 :1 0 , S ep tem b er, 1946.
152
. . . I m e n tio n th e m o tio n p i c t u r e i n d u s t r y o n ly a s an
exam ple o f th e d ra m a tic a p p e a l w hich m ust h e com bined
w ith a p r a c t i c a l a p p ro a c h i n th e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s r i d d l e
o f how to s e l l e d u c a tio n .
To my mind t h e r e i s a g r e a t s t o r y i n e d u c a tio n , a
s u c c e s s io n o f s t o r i e s . E d u c a tio n i s d r a m a tic . I t has
e v e r y th in g to make i t so : s t r u g g l e , p a th o s , triu m p h ,
c o m p e titio n , good humor, and i n t e r e s t i n g p e o p le . J u s t
as b u s in e s s n e e d s good c u s to m e rs, e d u c a tio n n e e d s more
e n t h u s i a s t s . F o r my p a r t 1*11 buy i t , and w h a t’ s more
I ’ l l b e t we can s e l l th e s t o r y . 6
R e sp o n d e n ts to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e commented f r e q u e n t l y
on th e need f o r g la m o u riz in g th e p r o f e s s i o n w ith some s p e c i f i c
s u g g e s tio n s f o r u s in g m o tio n p i c t u r e s , n o v e ls , and m agazine
a r t i c l e s . ^ One s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l f e l t t h a t
e d u c a tio n was la g g in g b eh in d n u r s in g , m e d ic in e , and law i n
0
s t r i v i n g f o r a d ra m a tic a p p ro a c h . One s t a t e s u p e r in te n d e n t
o f s c h o o ls s u g g e s te d , ’’Have Hedy Lam arr b e a t e a c h e r i n a
bang-up good movie i n d i c a t i n g a good l i f e and o p p o r t u n i t i e s
o f t e a c h i n g . ” 9
P u b l i c i t y n e e d s t o b e s e l e c t i v e . S t i l l a n o th e r f r e
q uent q u a l i f i c a t i o n p la c e d on p u b l i c i t y c o n c e rn in g e d u c a tio n
ft
E r i c A. J o h n s to n , ’’More Oomph i n E d u c a t i o n ,” The
N a tio n ’ s S c h o o ls . 3 7 :5 2 , A p r i l, 1946.
7
Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , an e x e c u tiv e
s e c r e t a r y o f a s t a t e t e a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n .
8 Comment by re s p o n d e n t t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e , an e x e c u tiv e
s e c r e t a r y o f a s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n .
9 Comment by re s p o n d e n t to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a s t a t e
s u p e r in t e n d e n t o f s c h o o ls .
was th e d a n g e rs i n h e r e n t i n u n s e le c te d r e c r u i t m e n t . Many
f e l t t h a t a w h o le s a le p r e s e n t a t i o n o f jo b o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n
e d u c a tio n would ten d to b r in g e v e ry o n e b u t th e c h o ic e .
S e v e r a l r e s p o n d e n ts to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u g g e s te d t h a t some
s c r e e n in g d e v ic e b e in c o r p o r a te d w ith any w h o le s a le a p p e a l
to th e p u b l i c . Some saw i n th e i n f l u x o f p o o rly t r a i n e d
t e a c h e r s a co n se q u e n t lo w e rin g o f th e p r e s t i g e o f th e p r o
f e s s i o n w hich would u l t i m a t e l y te n d t o d is c o u ra g e th e r e
c r u itm e n t o f c h o ic e p e o p le .
A f e e l i n g was e x p re s s e d a ls o t h a t s e l e c t i v i t y sh o u ld
be s t r e s s e d a s to th e n a t u r e o f n e e d s . At th e apex o f th e
te a c h e r s h o r ta g e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e w ere c o m p a ra tiv e ly few
r e q u e s t s f o r E n g lis h and f o r e i g n la n g u a g e t e a c h e r s w hereas
m a th e m a tic s, s c ie n c e , v o c a t i o n a l , and p h y s i c a l e d u c a tio n
r e c r u i t s w ere v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t . The demands f o r e l e
m e n tary t e a c h e r s te n d ed to a c c e l e r a t e a s th e war p r o g r e s s e d ;
and th e sudden s u rg e upward o f th e b i r t h r a t e , w hich began
i n 1940 and w hich ap p e a re d d e s tin e d to c o n tin u e f o r some
y e a r s a f t e r th e w a r 's c l o s e , i n d i c a t e d t h a t even g r e a t e r
demands f o r e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l te a c h e r s can soon be e x p e c te d .
T here was a demand, th e n , f o r a p la n n e d , c o n tin u o u s
p u b l i c i t y program p r o j e c t e d a s a p erm an en t p a r t o f s t a t e
e d u c a ti o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . 10 Such a p la n o b v io u s ly would
10 Comment by respondent to q u estio n n a ire, a s ta te
su perinten dent o f sc h o o ls in a New England s ta t e .
134
in c lu d e a c o n tin u o u s su p p ly and demand s tu d y i n an a tte m p t
to f o r e c a s t a c c u r a t e l y th e te a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l n e e d s o f th e
f u t u r e .
The m o tio n p i c t u r e h a s p u b l i c i t y v a l u e . The d e s i r a
b i l i t y o f a d ra m a tic p r e s e n t a t i o n and s t r e s s on s e l e c t i v i t y
a r e j u s t a s a p p l i c a b l e t o m o tio n p i c t u r e p u b l i c i t y as to t h a t
p r e s e n te d th ro u g h p r i n t e d m ed ia. R e fe re n c e h as a l r e a d y b een
made to demands f o r p r e s e n t i n g e d u c a tio n and i t s w o rk e rs a s
s u b j e c t s f o r e n te r ta in m e n t m o tio n p i c t u r e s . The d o c to r, f o r
i n s t a n c e , i s a lm o st i n v a r i a b l y shown i n th e m o tio n p i c t u r e
f i l m a s an h e r o ic f i g u r e , d e v o ted to th e i d e a l o f s e r v i c e
and a s g e n e r a l l y s u c c e s s f u l i n s o lv i n g l i f e ’ s d i f f i c u l t
p ro b le m s . By c o n t r a s t th e s c h o o l room i s f r e q u e n t l y p i c t u r e d
as a d i s o r d e r l y sc en e w ith p u p i l s r e s t i v e u n d e r unw anted
sc h o o l a tte n d a n c e and w ith a s l i g h t l y r i d i c u l o u s , u n w o rld ly
te a c h e r s t r u g g l i n g v a i n l y to r e t a i n th e a t t e n t i o n o r r e s p e c t
o f th e p u p i l s . O b v io u sly , i f e le m e n ts o f su ch an e d u c a tio n
a l scen e a r e p i c t u r e d even o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e r e r e s u l t s a
p o w e rfu l d e t e r r e n t to te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . 11
P o s s i b l y th e m o tio n p i c t u r e i n d u s t r y n ee d s o n ly to be
shown th e d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t s o f such p u b l i c i t y i n o r d e r to
1 1
M a rg a re t G. B id en , " F a c to r s I n f lu e n c in g C hoice or
N on-C hoice o f T ea ch in g a s a P r o f e s s i o n , " (u n p u b lish e d
M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los
i n g e l e s , 1 9 4 5 ), p . 127.
135
e r a d i c a t e any such p o r t r a y a l s . I f t h a t i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t
i t may he d e s i r a b l e t o u se th e power i n h e r e n t i n a m i l i t a n t ,
o rg a n iz e d p r o f e s s i o n to c o n v in c e th e m o tio n p i c t u r e i n d u s t r y
o f th e need o f a more wholesome p o r t r a y a l .
The e d u c a ti o n a l f i l m , to o , can be e f f e c t i v e l y used a s
a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e . The N a ti o n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n
h a s r e c e n t l y produced a p i c t u r e e n t i t l e d "A ssignm ent
Tom orrow ,” i n w hich te a c h in g i s p o r tr a y e d a s an e x c i t i n g ,
im p o r ta n t v o c a tio n . I t i s a v a i l a b l e as a g u id a n c e medium i n
h ig h s c h o o ls and c o l l e g e s . O th er exam ples o f e d u c a ti o n a l
f ilm s a v a i l a b l e f o r g u id a n c e tow ard te a c h in g a r e T ,The W ilson
Dam S c h o o l ,” a v a i l a b l e th ro u g h T r a in in g A ids D iv is io n o f TVA,
K n o x v ille , T e n n e ssee , and "B acking Up th e G u n s,” p ro d u ced by
th e I l l i n o i s E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts u rg ed p u b l i c i t y . I n d i c a t i o n
o f o p in io n r e g a r d in g n ew sp ap er, m ag azin e, and r a d i o p u b l i c i t y
a s a t e a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t d e v ic e can be seen by r e f e r e n c e to
T ab le XX, page 130. Among a l l g roups sa v e t h a t o f G uidance
D i r e c t o r s O u ts id e C a l i f o r n i a , th e p e rc e n ta g e o f "A" r e s p o n s e s
i s re m a rk a b ly c o n s i s t e n t . N e a rly t w o - th ir d s o f t h e f i r s t
f i v e g ro u p s i n d i c a t e a b e l i e f i n m a t e r i a l v a lu e o f such pub
l i c i t y . The r e l a t i v e l y s m a lle r s u p p o r t by o u t - o f - C a l i f o r n i a
g u id a n c e d i r e c t o r s , how ever, re d u c e d th e t o t a l "A” p e r c e n t
age to 5 9 .S. A few i n d i c a t e d by W D" r a t i n g s a b e l i e f i n
136
i n h e r e n t d a n g e rs , h u t t h e i r num bers w ere c o m p a ra tiv e ly s m a ll.
The p o s s i b i l i t y o f perm anent r e t e n t i o n o f new spaper,
m ag azin e, and r a d io p u b l i c i t y as a r e c r u i t m e n t p ro c e d u re was
l e s s w e ll r e c e iv e d . Only among s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s
w ere a s many a s 50 p e r c e n t of th e r e s p o n s e s f a v o r a b le to
perm an en t r e t e n t i o n . Of th e t o t a l r e s p o n d e n ts , 3 8 .0 p e r
c e n t su g g e ste d th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f perm anency. C a l i f o r n i a
g u id a n c e o f f i c i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , i n d i c a t e d d o u b t a s to th e
v a lu e o f r e t e n t i o n .
I n g e n e r a l th e s u g g e s tio n of u s in g n ew sp a p er, m agazine,
and r a d i o p u b l i c i t y was w e ll r e c e iv e d by q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s
p o n d e n ts . C e r t a i n l y a s an em ergency m easu re t h e r e was i n d i
c a t i o n a s to b e l i e f i n i t s v a lu e . B ut when asked to r a t e
su ch p u b l i c i t y a s a perm an en t p ro c e d u re , w ith o u t q u a l i f i c a
t i o n a s to th e n a t u r e o f su ch p u b l i c i t y , r e s p o n d e n ts were
much l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c .
X II. USING POSTERS IS A RECRUITMENT DEVICE
P o s t e r s a re common r e c r u itm e n t medium. A ty p e o f
p u b l i c i t y a t c o n s id e r a b le v a r ia n c e from t h a t d is c u s s e d above
i s th e u se o f p o s t e r s to show n ee d s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n
e d u c a tio n . The p o s t e r , o f c o u rs e , i s among th e m ost common
o f a d v e r t i s i n g m ed ia. V i r t u a l l y e v e ry p ro d u c t d e p e n d in g on
n a tio n - w id e s a l e s u s e s th e d is p l a y p o s t e r i n s t o r e s and on
b i l l - b o a r d s to a t t r a c t th e p u b l i c .
137
The p o s t e r a s a r e c r u i t i n g d e v ic e h a s a l s o been u sed
w id e ly . The armed s e r v i c e s have used th e method e x t e n s i v e l y
o v e r a p e r io d o f y e a r s . The handsom e, a g g r e s s iv e m a rin e o r
s a i l o r m aking h i s a p p e a l from th e p a s te - b o a r d p o s t e r i s a
common s i g h t . W orld War I I saw th e a d d i t i o n o f th e v a r io u s
women*s b ra n c h e s o f s e r v i c e to th e g ro u p s a tte m p tin g to
r e c r u i t by p o s t e r . The n u r s in g c o rp s and th e Bed C ro ss used
th e d e v ic e e x t e n s i v e l y , to o .
S e v e r a l s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s ado p ted th e p o s t e r
m ethod o f t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t d u rin g th e World War I I p e r io d .
P ro b a b ly th e b e s t known was t h a t d ev e lo p ed i n Maine f e a t u r
in g th e s lo g a n , "JOIN TEH ) WITS— (Women i n T ea ch in g S e r v i c e ) . ft
The p o s t e r c o n ta in e d , a s w e ll, th e p i c t u r e o f an a t t r a c t i v e
woman te a c h e r and a b r i e f a p p e a l f o r i n d i v i d u a l s to e n t e r
th e te a c h in g s e r v i c e . The p o s t e r u sed b y th e S t a t e of
W ashington had a s i m i l a r a p p e a l. I t was d i r e c t e d p a r t i c u l a r
ly a t h ig h sc h o o l s e n i o r s and b la z e n e d f o r t h th e a p p e a l,
"YOU ARE NEEDED TO TEACH."
The e a r to o n and th e d i s p l a y a d v e r tis e m e n t i n m ag azin es
and n ew sp a p e rs, b o th o f w hich a re somewhat a n a la g o u s t o th e
p o s t e r , r e c e iv e d some u se by sc h o o l o f f i c i a l s . The c a rto o n ,
show ing th e n e e d s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f e d u c a tio n , commonly
12
a p p e ared i n p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a tio n a l j o u r n a l s and d u rin g
12
e . g . , The A m erican S ch o o l B oard J o u r n a l f e a t u r e s
a c a r to o n each m onth.
138
the recen t p eriod o f teach er shortage has been copied in lay
p u b l i c a t i o n s . I l l u s t r a t i v e i s th e c a r to o n used i n N o rth
D akota, w hich p i c t u r e d a c lo s e d s c h o o l door b e a r in g th e *
s ig n , "CLOSED— NO TEACHER." At t h e to p o f th e draw ing was
th e ad m o n itio n , "YOU CAN STOP THIS— TEACH." At th e b o tto m
ap p e a re d th e names and a d d r e s s e s o f th e f i v e s t a t e t e a c h e r s
13
c o l l e g e s .
R e a c tio n to th e p o s t e r a s a t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t
m ethod was m ixed. An a p p r e c ia b l e p e r c e n ta g e o f q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts f e l t i t would be e f f e c t i v e i n g a in in g
r e c r u i t s . Many f e l t , how ever, t h a t p o s t e r s would te n d to
a t t r a c t o n ly th e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e — t h a t i t s s e l e c t i v i t y would
b e even p o o r e r th a n new spaper a r t i c l e s . Many f e l t t h a t i t
would cheapen th e p r o f e s s i o n . They p o in te d o u t t h a t o th e r
p r o f e s s i o n s do n o t a d v e r t i s e and t h a t e d u c a tio n would th u s
weaken i t s c la im to p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s . I n th e w ords o f
one q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n t, "T ea ch e r r e c r u itm e n t o ught n o t
to be p u t on th e same b a s i s a s a s e l l i n g cam paign f o r
14
so a p ” ; and i n th e w ords o f a n o th e r , " I t would be a n a la g o u s
15
to p u b l i c i z i n g th e m i n i s t r y . "
17 >
U nsigned a r t i c l e , E d u c a tio n F or V i c t o r y , August 2,
1943.
14
Comment by r e s p o n d e n t to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a d i r e c t o r
o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n a W isco n sin t e a c h e r s c o l l e g e .
15
Comment by respondent to q u e stio n n a ire, a guidance
d ir e c to r in a L ouisiana high sch o o l.
159
R e sp o n d e n ts d o u b ted v a lu e o f p o s t e r s . T ab le XXI
p r e s e n t s th e f e e l i n g o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts tow ard
u se o f p o s t e r s as a r e c r u itm e n t d e v i c e . R e a c tio n was con
s i s t e n t l y l e s s f a v o r a b le th a n f o r n ew sp ap er, m a g azin e, and
r a d i o p u b l i c i t y . Only 3 5 .5 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts su b
m it te d an "A” r a t i n g f o r p o s t e r p u b l i c i t y . F o r none o f th e
g ro u p s was t h e r e a 50 p e r c e n t t,A# l r e s p o n s e . W hereas
a p p ro x im a te ly tw o - t h i r d s o f s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s gave
"A* r a t i n g s to n ew sp ap er, m agazine, and r a d i o p u b l i c i t y ,
o n ly o n e - t h i r d o f t h a t group gave a l i k e r a t i n g t o p o s t e r s . •
N e v e r th e le s s , when th e t o t a l number o f “A" r e s p o n s e s w ere
added to a l l w Bn r e t u r n s t h e t o t a l becom es a p p ro x im a te ly 77
p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n a t l e a s t
m odest v a lu e i n p o s t e r p u b l i c i t y .
R e sp o n d e n ts w ere much l e s s w i l l i n g t o s u p p o rt a su g - •
g e s t i o n f o r p erm anent r e t e n t i o n o f p o s t e r p u b l i c i t y . But
8 6 .1 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts i n d i c a t e d such a p r a c t i c e
to be d e s i r a b l e . W hile t h e r e was some v a r i a t i o n among
g ro u p s, o p p o s it io n t o perm anency was e x tre m e ly s tr o n g from
each g ro u p .
I t would a p p e a r, th e n , t h a t p o s t e r s as a m ethod o f
r e c r u itm e n t r e c e iv e d m a rg in a l a c c e p ta n c e by q u e s tio n n a i r e
r e s p o n d e n ts . As a group th e y i n d i c a t e d d oubt a s t o t h e i r
m a t e r i a l v a l u e . As a method of p erm an en t r e c r u i t m e n t , a f t e r
th e p a s s in g o f th e s e r i o u s te a c h e r s h o r ta g e , th e r e s p o n s e s
TABLE XXI
INCREASED PUBLICITY CONCERNING NEED FOR TEACHERS BY NATIONAL AND STATE POSTER
CAMPAIGN COMPARABLE TO THAT USED FOR MILITARY SERVICES AND NURSES AIDS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 31 8 17 2 4 8 11 25*8 25.8
State Teachers*
Associations 32 14 12 4 2 10 11 43.8 31.3
Colleges in
California 17 6 6 3 2 6 5 35.3 35.3
Colleges outside
California 45 22 16 4 3 16 11 48.9 35.6
Guidance Directors
in California 66 18 34 8 6 12 11 27.3 18.2
Guidance Directors
outside California 85 30 30 14 11 20 15 35.3 23.5
Total 276 98 115 35 28 72 64 35.5 26.1
140
141
r e p r e s e n te d a r a t h e r c o n v in o in g r e j e c t i o n . I n th e l i g h t o f
su ch a d e f i n i t e e x p r e s s io n o f o p in io n , e x te n s iv e u se o f
p o s t e r s on a p erm an en t b a s i s would he d i f f i c u l t to d e fe n d .
IV. PROVIDING PUBLICITY FOR PURPOSE OF IMPROVING
SOCIAL STATUS OF TEACHERS
Low p r e s t i g e i s a cau se f o r c o n c e r n . I n l i s t i n g
r e c r u i t m e n t p ro c e d u re s f o r q u e s t i o n n a i r e r a t i n g , an a tte m p t
was made t o l i m i t t h e ite m s to o b j e c t i v e p ro c e d u r e s w hich
c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly le n d th e m s e lv e s to a d e f i n i t e c o u rs e o f
a c t i o n . I t was assumed t h a t each o f them , i f d e s i r e d , co u ld
be i n i t i a t e d as a l e g i s l a t i v e s t a t u t e , a s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t
r u l i n g , an ado p ted p o l i c y by a t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n ,
a d i s t r i c t b o ard r u l i n g , o r a s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r * s d i r e c t
i v e . The p e r u s a l o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , how ever, and e s p e c i a l l y
th e a n a l y s i s o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s , in d i c a t e d th e
n e c e s s i t y f o r g iv in g a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n s u b j e c t i v e i n t a n g i
b l e s .
Most s i g n i f i c a n t among th e s e i n t a n g i b l e f a c t o r s was
th e m a tte r o f p r e s t i g e . C u rre n t e d u c a tio n a l th o u g h t, as
e x p re s s e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e and i n comments i n th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e t u r n s , was d e e p ly co n cern ed a b o u t r a i s i n g th e p r e s
t i g e or s o c i a l s t a t u s o f t e a c h e r s as i n d i v i d u a l s and th e
te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n i n g e n e r a l . W hile t h i s i s n o t a m a tte r
o f e d u c a ti o n a l p u b l i c i t y a lo n e , i t i s , to an im p o rta n t d e g re e ,
a m a tte r o f m o d ify in g and r e s h a p in g l a y o p in io n . I n t h a t
p r o c e s s i n t e l l i g e n t p u b l i c i t y i s o f param ount im p o rta n c e .
I t i s o b v io u s t h a t th e te a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n f a i l s t o
s e c u r e th e same r e s p e c t a s i s a c co rd ed to law , m e d ic in e , and
e n g in e e r in g , f o r exam ple. I t i s n o t th e u s u a l t h in g f o r
p a r e n t s from th e h ig h e r so c io -e c o n o m ic l e v e l s to recommend
e d u c a tio n a s a c a r e e r f o r t h e i r own so n s and d a u g h te r s .
In d e e d many e d u c a to r s th e m s e lv e s w i l l n o t u rg e th e p r o f e s
s io n upon t h e i r b e s t s t u d e n t s . T h is c o m p a ra tiv e ly low p r e s
t i g e i s due i n g r e a t m e asu re, o f c o u r s e , to th e low incom e
l e v e l p r e v a l e n t i n e d u c a tio n ; t h i s f a c t o r m ust r e c e i v e much
16
a t t e n t i o n i n any perm anent r e c r u i t m e n t program . Many
o th e r f a c t o r s , how ever, e n t e r i n t o any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f
p r e s t i g e , and w ith a l l o f them w is e p u b l i c i t y i s an im p o r t
a n t p ro c e d u r e i n f u r t h e r i n g r e c r u i t m e n t .
Many e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s a r e s e e in g i n t h i s l a c k of
s o c i a l s t a t u s a c a u se f o r a la rm . B a g le y , l a t e p r o f e s s o r o f
E d u c a tio n a t T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , C olum bia U n iv e r s it y , and
e d i t o r o f S ch o o l and S o c i e t y , a d m itte d e d u c a tio n to b e th e
t1 C i n d e r e l l a o f th e p r o f e s s i o n s . ” He m a in ta in e d t h a t th e
p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o ls f o r t e a c h e r s s t i l l f a i l to a t t r a c t a
f a i r q u o ta o f th e b e s t s t u d e n t s . He e x p re s se d th e b e l i e f
t h a t t h e r e a r e r e a s o n s o th e r th a n f i n a n c i a l f o r th e sh u n n in g
143
o f th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n hy many men and women and a s s e r t
ed t h a t "an enhancem ent i n th e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f t e a c h e r s i n
th e lo w e r s c h o o ls i s now th e prim e c o n d i tio n o f s i g n i f i c a n t
17
p r o g r e s s i n p u b l i c e d u c a ti o n ."
Over f e m in i z a t io n may lo w e r p r e s t i g e . One f a c t o r
w hich may te n d to lo w er th e p r e s t i g e o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n
g e n e r a l l y i s th e h ig h p e r c e n ta g e o f women i n i t s r a n k s .
T here i s a te n d en cy f o r th e laym en to t h i n k o f th e t y p i c a l
te a c h e r a s a woman and hence to be a l i t t l e contem ptuous o f
th e man who i s engaged i n th e p r o f e s s i o n . Any p o l i c y ,
f i n a n c i a l o r o th e rw is e , w hich b r i n g s men i n t o te a c h in g i n
g r e a t e r num bers i s l i k e l y t o add t o th e r e s p e c t w hich such
work r e c e i v e s g e n e r a l l y .
From th e s ta n d p o in t o f p u b l i c i t y , one f a c t o r c o n c e rn
in g men i n e d u c a tio n i s w orthy o f n o te . T h ere i s a te n d e n c y
f o r many s p e a k e r s and w r i t e r s , when sp e a k in g o f a t e a c h e r i n
g e n e r a l, to u se th e pro n o u n " sh e " r a t h e r th a n " h e ."
i ft
E c k e lb e r ry o f th e S chool o f E d u c a tio n , Ohio S t a t e U n iv e r
s i t y , c a l l s th e p r a c t i c e o b j e c t i o n a b l e b e c a u se , by s u g g e s tin g
t h a t te a c h in g i s women’ s w ork, i t te n d s to d is c o u ra g e men
17
W illia m C. B a g le y , "The S o c ia l S t a t u s o f th e P u b lic
S chool T e a c h e r ," S ch o o l and S o c i e t y . 6 0 :1 8 0 -1 , S eptem ber 16,
1944.
lft
B. H. E c k e lb e r r y , " L e t’ s Say ’H e’ I n s te a d o f ’S h e , ’ "
E d u c a tio n a l B e se a rc h B u l l e t i n . 2 4 :1 8 9 , O c to b e r, 1945.
144
from e n t e r i n g th e p r o f e s s i o n . He f e l t t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e s ir a b le a t t h i s tim e when many v e t e r a n s
a r e m aking d e c i s i o n s a b o u t c a r e e r s . He a s s e r t e d t h a t no
"he man" from G u a d a lc a n a l w i l l be a t t r a c t e d to a p r o f e s s i o n
i n w hich he w i l l commonly be r e f e r r e d to a s " s h e ."
S t a t u s lo w ered by com munity r e s t r i c t i o n . A nother
f a c t o r te n d in g to re d u c e th e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f t e a c h e r s i s
th e w a l l o f p u r i t a n i c and u n n a t u r a l r e s t r i c t i o n s on p e r s o n a l
freed o m w h ich , i n many a r e a s , h as hedged them a b o u t. I n th e
w ords o f th e N in th Y ea rb o o k . D epartm ent o f C lassro o m T e a c h e rs
o f th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n :
. . . By c o n t r a c t u a l ag reem en t o r th e p r e s s u r e o f
p u b lic s e n tim e n t th e t e a c h e r o f t e n i s d e n ie d th e r i g h t to
manage h e r own s t r i c t l y p e r s o n a l a f f a i r s . I n some e a s e s
she m ust avoid a l l f r i e n d s h i p s e x c e p t w ith p e r s o n s o f h e r
own se x . Som etim es sh e m ust buy h e r c l o t h e s from c e r t a i n
l o c a l s t o r e s . She i s r e q u ir e d to te a c h a Sunday S ch o o l
c l a s s and c o n t r i b u t e to e v e ry c h a r i t y . . . She m ust
h o ld th e " r i g h t " o p in io n s on c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s tio n s and
w ith o u t cam paigning i n any e l e c t i o n , q u i e t l y v o te th e
" r i g h t " t i c k e t . She m ust n o t recommend books by c e r t a i n
a u th o r s , n o t in d e e d w ith d raw c e r t a i n boo k s from th e
p u b lic l i b r a r y . . . Above a l l she m ust n o t m a rry , f o r ,
i f sh e does so , h e r job i s gone . . . The r e s u l t o f
t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n , and o f e v e ry o t h e r d i s c r i m i n a t o r y and
u n n a t u r a l l i m i t a t i o n im posed on t e a c h e r s , i s a lm o st
c e r t a i n l y to be f e a r , s u b s e rv ie n c y , d e c e p tiv e n e s s , and
e m b itte rm e n t . .
19
D epartm ent o f C lassro o m T e a c h e rs , " E i t To T e a c h ,"
N in th Y ea rb o o k . N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A ssoci a t i o n (W ashington
D .C .: N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 8 7 -8 8 .
145
gO
W a lle r, i n p i c t u r i n g th e low s o c i a l s t a t u s o f th e
t y p i c a l t e a c h e r , f e e l s t h a t th e h u m i l i a t i o n th u s p ro d u ced i s
a prim e f a c t o r i n c r e a t i n g te a c h e r u n r e s t . He, to o ,
p i c t u r e s th e many r e s t r i c t i o n s w hich a r e a s s e r t e d l y p la c e d
on th e te a c h e r p o r t r a y i n g him a s a " s l i g h t l y r i d i c u l o u s
c h a r a c t e r who i s n o t q u i t e a man n o r a norm al woman, f o r
t h a t m a t t e r . " He d e s c r i b e s th e s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n p la c e d on
t e a c h e r s a s a " l u d i c r o u s m o r a li ty " and s e e s th e " s c h o o l-
marm" a s such a r i d i c u l o u s and y e t t e r r i f y i n g f i g u r e t h a t
many young women f in d i t d e s i r a b l e to h id e t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n
from men th e y have j u s t m et.
21
Cobb m a in ta in e d r e c e n t l y t h a t th e blam e f o r th e
young woman’ s r e l u c t a n c e to e n t e r th e te a c h i n g f i e l d r e s t s
on a b r o a d e r f o u n d a tio n th a n mere m o n etary c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
She f e e l s t h a t th e la y p u b lic h a s a f ir m ly f ix e d im p re s s io n
o f th e woman te a c h e r a s an ” . . . o ld m aid . . . a s la c k in g
i n s t y l e , and a s th e p o s s e s s o r o f an o v e r b e a rin g , s e n t e n t i
ous p e r s o n a l i t y . . . " Cobb s e e s i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n a pow er
f u l d e t e r r e n t to e f f e c t i v e r e c r u itm e n t, m a in ta in in g t h a t
" n a t u r a l l y th e a v e ra g e young woman, no m a tte r how s u i t e d to
th e w ork, i s n o t en co u rag ed to e n t e r a p r o f e s s i o n s t u l t i f i e d
PO
W illa rd W a lle r, "B e v o lt i n th e C lassroom , " High
P o i n t s . 2 5 :5 -1 2 , O c to b e r, 1943.
2 1
D u c e lia McLeod Cobb, "T each er S h o r ta g e ," S i e r r a
E d u c a tio n a l News. 4 1 :4 1 -4 4 , November, 1945.
146
by such a r e p u t a t i o n . 1 1 She a s s e r t s t h a t i t i s a m ark of
honor f o r t e a c h e r s to a c c e p t th e b e n e d ic t io n , "You d o n ’ t
lo o k a t a l l l i k e a t e a c h e r ! " and d e p lo r e s th e p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t one sh o u ld c o n s id e r i t a com plim ent t o be t o l d he does
n o t lo o k l i k e a member o f a chosen and honored p r o f e s s i o n
b u t a s s e r t s t h a t any i d e a t h a t te a c h e r s f i t i n t o any ty p e
o f p a t t e r n i s p u re f i c t i o n w hich sh o u ld b e denounced th ro u g h
a l l m edia o f in f o r m a tio n .
l a c k o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n community l i f e may lo w e r
p r e s t i g e . S t i l l a n o th e r f a c t o r w hich m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t th e
p r o f e s s i o n ’ s p r e s t i g e i s an a s s e r te d te n d e n c y to e x c lu d e th e
te a c h e r from norm al community l i f e . I n th e s m a lle r com
m u n ity , p a r t i c u l a r l y , he i s u s u a lly an o u t s i d e r , h i r e d to
t r a i n th e y o u th o f th e com munity. H is job i s to p e r p e t u a t e
th e s k i l l s and l e a r n i n g o f s o c i e t y r a t h e r th a n to a c t i v e l y
go
i n f l u e n c e community p r o g r e s s . Such a p a s s iv e e x i s t e n c e
f a i l s to c h a lle n g e a g g r e s s iv e , t a l e n t e d young p e o p le and
m ust n o t p e r s i s t i f w o rth w h ile i n d i v i d u a l s a r e t o b e r e c r u i t
ed .
C o u n ts, i n one o f h i s b e s t known w o rk s, a rg u e s
e lo q u e n tly f o r te a c h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n community l i f e :
W illa r d W a lle r, The S o c io lo g y o f T each in g (Hew
Y ork: John W iley and Sons, 1 9 3 2 ), p . 419.
147
. . . I n o r d e r to be e f f e c t i v e th e y ( te a c h e r s ) m ust
throw o f f c o m p le te ly th e s la v e p sy c h o lo g y t h a t h as
dom inated th e mind o f th e pedagogue more o r l e s s s in c e
th e days o f a n c ie n t G re ec e. They m ust be p re p a re d to
s ta n d on t h e i r own f e e t and w in f o r t h e i r i d e a s th e
su p p o rt o f th e m asses o f t h e p e o p le . E d u c a tio n as a
f o r c e f o r s o c i a l r e g e n e r a t i o n m ust m arch hand i n hand
w ith th e l i v i n g and c r e a t i v e f o r c e s o f th e s o c i a l o r d e r .
In t h e i r own l i v e s te a c h e r s m ust b r id g e th e gap betw een
sc h o o l and s o c i e t y and p la y some p a r t i n th e f a s h io n i n g
o f th o s e g r e a t common p u rp o s e s w hich sh o u ld b in d th e two
t o g e t h e r . 23
Moehlman a g r e e s t h a t th e te a c h e r m u st u n d e rs ta n d h i s
c u l t u r e as w e ll a s th e f u n c t i o n a l p roblem s o f d e m o c ra tic
i n s t i t u t i o n s . He a s s e r t s :
. . . A c l o i s t e r e d e x i s t e n c e i s no lo n g e r p o s s i b l e
f o r th e p u b lic s c h o o l c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r . The sc h o o l a s
a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n c a n n o t be hung i n sp a ce and i n
s u la te d from a l l c o n t a c t w ith r e a l l i f e . I t m ust l e a r n
to f u n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y , i n th e m id s t o f a v e r y com
p l i c a t e d community p a t t e r n . . . 24
I f th e s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s a r e a s heavy and th e com
m u n ity i s o l a t i o n a s c o m p lete a s p i c t u r e d by W a lle r, Cobb,
C o u n ts, and Moehlman, any p u b l i c i t y program to r a i s e te a c h e r
p r e s t i g e w i l l have g ra v e d i f f i c u l t i e s to overcom e. H a p p ily
t h e r e i s c o n s id e r a b le i n d i c a t i o n t h a t such p o r t r a y a l s more
a c c u r a t e l y p i c t u r e d a c o n d i tio n o f a g e n e r a tio n ago r a t h e r
th a n to d a y . I t i s common know ledge t h a t i n many, and
2 3
G eorge S. C o u n ts, Dare The S ch o o l B u ild A New
S o c i a l O rd er? (New Y ork: Jo h n Day, 1 9 3 3 ), p p . 3 0 -3 1 .
A rth u r B. Moehlman, S o c ia l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n (New
Y ork: D. A p p leto n C e n tu ry Company, 1 9 3 8 ), p . 229.
148
p r o b a b ly a m a jo r i ty o f com m unities t e a c h e r s 1 l i v e s a r e n o t
c irc u m s c rib e d to th e d e g re e t h a t some w r i t e r s would have
one b e l i e v e . F u r t h e r , num erous t e a c h e r s a re p a r t i c i p a t i n g
i n community l i f e , and many o f them a re ta k in g p l a c e s o f
le a d e r s h i p t h e r e i n . The s c a r c i t y o f te a c h e r s i n c i d e n t a l to
World War I I made s c h o o l b o a rd s and co m m u n ities l e s s demand
in g o f te a c h e r s th a n i n th e p a s t , and t h e r e i s r e a s o n to
b e l i e v e t h a t many o f th e s e g a in s can be r e t a i n e d when te a c h
e r su p p ly and demand a re more n e a r l y e q u a l.
The sm a ll amount o f r e s e a r c h w hich does e x i s t c o n c e rn
in g r e s t r i c t i o n s on t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e s c l e a r l y t h a t su ch
l i m i t a t i o n s , i f th e y did e x i s t i n th e p a s t , a r e now COm-
25
p a r a t i v e l y s m a ll. L i c h l i t e r , i n a s tu d y w hich won a
r e c e n t P i Lambda T h e ta award f o r r e s e a r c h , rev ie w e d r e s t r i c t
io n s on te a c h e r s i n s m a lle r com m unities w here th e g r e a t e s t
d e g re e o f l i m i t a t i o n a d m itte d ly e x i s t s . Her c o n c lu s io n s
w ere t h a t r e s t r i c t i o n s a re n o t n e a r l y as bad a s p i c t u r e d .
T w enty-seven p e r c e n t o f h e r r e s p o n d e n ts r e p o r te d t h a t t h e r e
w ere a b s o l u t e l y no r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t h e i r co m m u n ities. The
s tu d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t l i m i t a t i o n s by c o n t r a c t o r s c h o o l b o a rd
a c t i o n a r e v e r y few and t h a t th o s e r e s t r i c t i o n s re m a in in g
a r e i n th e n a t u r e o f community p r e s s u r e . Fven when t h i s
25
Mary L i c h l i t e r , " S o c ia l O b lig a tio n s and R e s t r i c t
io n s P la c e d on Women T e a c h e r s ," The S ch o o l Review, 5 4 :1 4 -2 3 ,
Ja n u a ry , 1946.
149
u n o f f i c i a l community p r e s s u r e was in c lu d e d i n th e r e t u r n s ,
o n ly 9 p e r c e n t o f th e t e a c h e r s c o n s id e re d th e m s e lv e s com
p e l l e d to te a c h Sunday S chool c l a s s e s . T w en ty -n in e p e r c e n t
w ere e x p e c te d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n community a c t i v i t i e s , smok
in g was frow ned upon among 58 p e r c e n t o f th o s e r e p o r t i n g .
Only 11 p e r c e n t f e l t any l i m i t a t i o n as to ty p e and s t y l e o f
c l o t h e s w orn. F i f t e e n p e r c e n t e n c o u n te re d o b j e c t i o n to
m a rria g e w h ile em ployed a s t e a c h e r s . S in c e L i c h l i t e r 1s
s tu d y was l i m i t e d t o tovms u n d er tw e lv e th o u san d p o p u la tio n
i t can r e a d i l y b e assum ed t h a t th e p e r c e n ta g e s would have
b een s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a lle r i f a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f th e e n t i r e
p o p u la tio n had been q u e s tio n e d .
W ise p u b l i c i t y can r a i s e t e a c h e r p r e s t i g e . The
le s s o n s ta u g h t by su ch f i n d i n g s a r e o b v io u s . E d u c a tio n m ust
p e r s i s t i n dem anding f o r i t s p e r s o n n e l a norm al community
e x i s te n c e i n w hich t e a c h e r s may m a in ta in r e a s o n a b le in d e p e n d
ence i n t h e i r p r i v a t e l i v e s and i n w hieh th e y may a t t a i n th e
p o s i t i o n s o f community l e a d e r s h i p w hich t h e i r a b i l i t y and
t r a i n i n g would n o rm a lly g iv e them . At th e same tim e ed u ca
t i o n ’ s p u b l i c i t y program m ust h e lp d e s tr o y th e myth t h a t t o
be a te a c h e r i s t o be one c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f e a r and su b
s e r v ie n c y . Wholesome p u b l i c i t y i n t h i s r e s p e c t sh o u ld s t a r t
n o t l a t e r th a n th e h ig h sc h o o l g u id a n c e pro g ram . I f th e
Gf. p o s t , pp. 163-73.
150
e d u c a ti o n a l p r o f e s s i o n becomes a s u b j e c t f o r s o e i a l s t u d i e s
0 7
c o u rs e w ork, a n o th e r o p p o r tu n ity w i l l be g iv e n to p r e s e n t
a more a t t r a c t i v e p i c t u r e . N a tio n a l and s t a t e te a c h e r s
a s s o c i a t i o n s and d e p a rtm e n ts o f e d u c a tio n may be a b le to
e x e r t some p r e s s u r e on th e l a y p r e s s , th e r a d i o , and th e
m o tio n p i c t u r e i n d u s t r y to p o r t r a y th e te a c h e r and e d u c a tio n
i n g e n e r a l i n a more a t t r a c t i v e l i g h t . T ea ch er t r a i n i n g
i n s t i t u t i o n s have a d u ty to e n l ig h te n p r o s p e c t i v e te a c h e r s
as to t h e i r s o e i a l o b l i g a t i o n to th e com m unities w hich th e y
w i l l s e r v e . A r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e sh o u ld be p r e s e n te d t h e r e ,
and th o s e who w i l l be r e s t i v e u n d e r th e r e s t r a i n t s w hich a r e
i n h e r e n t i n even th e m ost l i b e r a l o f e d u c a tio n a l s i t u a t i o n
sh o u ld be u rg ed to t r a i n th e m se lv e s f o r some o th e r v o c a tio n .
T each er i s m ost im p o r ta n t p u b l i c i t y a g e n t . As num er
o us w r i t e r s have p o in te d o u t, th e s c h o o l te a c h e r h im s e lf can
a c c e p t no s m a ll p a r t o f th e blam e f o r th e in c o n s p ic u o u s
p o s i t i o n w hich i s f r e q u e n t l y a l l o t t e d him i n th e community.
The r e a l p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n i s o f c o m p a ra tiv e
r e c e n t o r i g i n . G re a t num bers o f im m ature men and women a re
f i l l i n g te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s , many w ith l i t t l e more th a n a
h ig h sc h o o l e d u c a tio n . Many, i n and o u t o f te a c h i n g , view
i t as a s te p p in g - s to n e p r o f e s s i o n . I t can h a r d ly be
97
Gf. p o s t, pp. 158-65.
151
c o n s id e re d h e r e s y , t h e r e f o r e , when a p a r t o f th e blam e i s
s h i f t e d on th e t e a c h e r .
The a b le , h ig h ly p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h e r , on th e o th e r
hand, i s a su p rem ely im p o rta n t f a c t o r i n th e t o t a l p ro g ram
o f te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . I n t h i s c o n n e c tio n H u ll, Dean o f
th e S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a ,
p o i n t s o u t:
We c a n n o t a t t a c h to o much im p o rta n c e to th e i n f lu e n c e
upon a b r i g h t and c a p a b le h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n t o f a h ig h
ly q u a l i f i e d and p r o f e s s i o n a l l y com p eten t t e a c h e r whose
i n t e r e s t i n t h i s p u p i l as a p o t e n t i a l l y s u p e r i o r te a c h e r
may w in h i s i n t e r e s t i n th e p r o f e s s i o n . To a c h ie v e t h i s
g o a l, how ever, t e a c h e r s i n s e r v i c e m ust g iv e c l e a r
e v id e n c e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . A few h ig h ly p r o f e s s i o n a l
te a c h e r s on a sc h o o l s t a f f can do much, th ro u g h l e a d e r
s h ip , t o e l e v a t e th e to n e o f th e w hole f a c u l t y . T h is
e v id e n c e o f th e o p p o r tu n ity f o r and th e p r a c t i c e o f
h i g h - q u a l i t y p e r s o n a l s e r v ic e to c h i l d r e n makes a s tr o n g
a p p e a l t o y o u th , and e s p e c i a l l y to th o s e o f th e c h a r a c t e r
and i n t e l l i g e n c e m ost d e s i r a b l e f o r th e te a c h in g p r o f e s -
s i o n . 29
An a p o lo g e tic a t t i t u d e by te a c h e r s c o n c e rn in g t h e i r
p r o f e s s i o n i s th e w o rs t ty p e o f p u b l i c i t y . I t lo w e rs th e
p r e s t i g e o f te a c h in g i n g e n e r a l and te n d s to d is c o u r a g e a b le
young p e o p le from e n t e r i n g i t . T h is p o s i t i o n i s p r e s e n te d
f o r c e f u l l y by B rew ley o f th e Com m ittee on T each er R e c r u i t
m ent and T r a in in g , C a l i f o r n i a T e a c h e rs A s s o c ia tio n , S o u th e rn
2 H. M. L a f f e r t y , "The S o c i a l S t a t u s o f th e T e a c h e r,"
E d u c a tio n a l A d m in is tr a tio n - and S u p e r v is io n . 2 7 :6 4 9 , December,
1941.
29
H u ll, op. j s i t . , p . 9.
152
S e c tio n :
. . . Eaeh o f u s , no m a tte r w hat o u r p r o f e s s i o n a l
p o s i t i o n s , m ust drop t h e a p o lo g e tic a t t i t u d e e x p re s s e d
by th e p h r a s e , " I am JUST a t e a c h e r . ” We m ust say w ith
p r i d e and a g g r e s s iv e s p i r i t , ”1 A M A TEACHER.” How d a re
we show p a r e n t s such e f f r o n t e r y a s to he ashamed to he
w orking w ith t h e i r c h i ld r e n ? How can we he so i r r e s
p o n s ib le a s to c o n s id e r a p o l o g e t i c a l l y th e work we do
d e v e lo p in g c i t i z e n s f o r o u r c o u n try ? And why would
i n t e l l i g e n t young p e o p le ch o o se t o he one o f us i f we
p e r s i s t i n o u r s e l f p i t y and shame? P r i d e w i l l he a
t o n i c to o u r s e lv e s and an i n c e n t i v e to o t h e r s . . . 30
W a lle r s u g g e s ts t h a t a g g r e s s iv e n e s s and in d e p en d en c e
sh o u ld c h a r a c t e r i z e th e t e a c h e r ’ s e n t i r e gamut o f s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s :
. . . I f t e a c h e r s began tom orrow t o arg u e i t o u t and
f i g h t i t o u t w ith t h e i r com m unities, i f th e y i n s i s t e d
upon th e r i g h t t o p la y g o l f on th e S a b b a th , to smoke on
th e s t r e e t s , to c u rs e th e g a ra g e man and k ic k l i f e -
in s u r a n c e sa lesm en th ro u g h th e f r o n t d o o r, i f th e y
i n v a r i a b l y met th e s ta te m e n t ’’T h a t’ s no way f o r a te a c h
e r to a c t , ” w ith a cacophonous j e e r , th e n th e s o c i a l
p o s i t i o n o f th e p r o f e s s i o n m ig h t b e changed i n a v e ry
few y e a r s . .
Numerous e d u c a to r s , b o th i n c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e and i n
comments on th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s , arg u ed f o r th e d ev e lo p
m ent o f i n t e r e s t s o u ts i d e th e p r o f e s s i o n a s a means o f r a i s
in g te a c h e r p r e s t i g e . O fte n th e s e i n t e r e s t s w i l l e v o lv e
n a t u r a l l y from th e te a c h i n g f i e l d . Thus, i f one te a c h e s
s c ie n c e i t sh o u ld n o t b e a s e p a r a t e , s t a t i c t h i n g b u t an
30
F re d ¥/. B rew ley, ’’T each er R e c ru itm e n t and T r a in
i n g , ” S i e r r a E d u c a tio n a l News. 4 1 :1 4 , Ju n e , 1945.
Waller, oj>. c i t .. pp. 455-56.
153
o u t l e t f o r a n a t u r a l i n t e r e s t t h a t c a r r i e s o v e r i n t o h o b b ie s ,
p r i v a t e r e s e a r c h , o r community s e r v i c e . I f th e te a c h in g
f i e l d d o es n o t le n d i t s e l f n a t u r a l l y to o u t - o f - s c h o o l a c t i
v i t y , th e c o m p a ra tiv e ly s h o r t w orking day and lo n g v a c a ti o n s
s t i l l g iv e s u n u s u a l o p p o r tu n ity f o r n o n -s c h o o l a c t i v i t y .
Thus, many a rg u e , th e e d u c a to r w i l l no lo n g e r be a n . . .
d u l l , p e d a n tic t e a c h e r , g r in d in g o u t th e te d io u s s t i p u l a t e d
h o u rs i n h e r c la ssro o m . . . »32 i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r r e c r u i t
ment a r e found h e re i n th e need f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i
t u t i o n s to s e l e c t p e o p le w ith v a r ie d i n t e r e s t s o r to d e v e lo p
such i n t e r e s t s . Such p e o p le , i n t u r n , w i l l te n d t o r a i s e
th e p r e s t i g e o f te a c h in g g e n e r a l l y and th u s to en co u rag e
young p e o p le t o ch o o se e d u c a tio n a s a l i f e w ork.
33
B id en , i n a r e c e n t r e s e a r c h s tu d y c o n c e rn in g th e
f a c t o r s le a d in g t o th e c h o ic e o r n o n -c h o ic e o f te a c h in g as
a c a r e e r , found h ig h sc h o o l and j u n i o r c o l le g e s t u d e n t s
l i s t i n g h ig h s c h o o l and c o l le g e f a c u l t y members a s th e m ost
p o w e rfu l s o u rc e o f in f lu e n c e f o r a d e c i s i o n a s to a c a r e e r
i n e d u c a tio n . T h is was t r u e f o r b o th th o s e who w anted to
become t e a c h e r s and th o s e who r e j e c t e d te a c h in g .
Many t e a c h e r s r e s e n t th e p u b lic s c r u t i n y t o w hich th e y
32
Opie B la c k w e ll W hitney, "A D ouble L if e f o r The
T e a c h e r ," S ch o o l E x e c u tiv e . 5 9 :1 7 , Ju n e , 1940.
33 B id en , o p . c i t . . p p . 1 2 4 -5 .
154
a r e s u b je c te d , b u t even i n th e l a r g e s t and m ost l i b e r a l of
com m unities th e y i n e v i t a b l y w i l l be c l o s e l y o b se rv e d by
t h e i r s t u d e n t s . The im p re s s io n th e y le a v e w ith th e s e y o u th
can h a r d ly be o v e r - e s tim a te d i n i t s e f f e c t on r e c r u i t m e n t .
I f any r e c r u itm e n t program i s to be r e a l l y e f f e c t i v e th e
t e a c h e r s m ust be p e r s o n a l p u b l i c i t y a g e n t s . , T h e ir p e r s o n
a l i t i e s and t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s m ust " s e l l ” e d u c a tio n t o th e
34
y o u th o f A m erica.
V. SUM M ARY OF OPINION REGARDING PUBLICITY GN
EDUCATION’S NEEDS AND ITS PERSONNEL
W r ite r s o f e d u c a ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e , i n d i s c u s s i n g new s
p a p e r , m ag azin e, and r a d i o p u b l i c i t y , and p u b l i c i t y th ro u g h
th e u se o f p o s t e r s te n d ed to m a in ta in t h a t em phasis on low
s a l a r i e s and o th e r unwholesome te a c h in g c o n d i tio n s o f te n
r e p e l s d e s i r a b l e c a n d id a te s fro m e n t e r i n g th e p r o f e s s i o n .
Such w r i t e r s f e l t t h a t th e em p h asis i n p u b l i c i t y sh o u ld be
on t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and a t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f a c a r e e r i n
e d u c a tio n . Much em phasis i n e d u c a ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was
g iv e n to th e n eed f o r p u b l i c i z i n g th e d ra m a tic q u a l i t i e s o f
work i n e d u c a tio n . Many w r i t e r s p o in te d to th e need o f
s e l e c t i v e r e c r u i t m e n t . S e l e c t i v i t y , th e y p o in te d o u t, i s
o f t e n d e f e a te d by ram pant p u b l i c i t y . Numerous com m entators
H ull, lo c . c i t .
155
p o in te d t o th e need f o r s y m p a th e tic tr e a tm e n t o f e d u c a tio n
i n m o tio n p i c t u r e s i n o r d e r to g iv e i t f a v o r a b le p u b l i c i t y
f o r r e c r u i t m e n t .
I n r a t i n g n ew sp ap er, m ag azin e, and r a d i o p u b l i c i t y ,
5 9 .2 p e r c e n t o f q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts p la c e d th e sug
g e s te d r e c r u i t m e n t p ro c e d u re i n th e "A” colum n, i n d i c a t i n g
a b e l i e f i n m a t e r i a l v a lu e . Of t h a t g ro u p , 3 8 .0 p e r c e n t
would r e t a i n su ch p u b l i c i t y on a perm anent b a s i s . I n
r a t i n g p o s t e r s as a p u b l i c i t y m ethod b u t 3 5 .5 p e r c e n t o f
r e s p o n s e s w ere i n th e "A” c a te g o r y and o n ly 2 6 .1 p e r c e n t
asked f o r perm anency.
Much em phasis i n e d u c a ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e was d i r e c t e d
to w ard a d v o c a tio n o f a ty p e o f p u b l i c i t y w hich w ould r a i s e
th e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f te a c h e r s and th e p r e s t i g e o f th e p r o
f e s s i o n g e n e r a l l y . Many i n s i s t e d t h a t low p r e s t i g e was
among th e g r e a t e s t d e t e r r e n t s t o r e c r u i t m e n t .
One f a c t o r p r e s e n te d was an a l le g e d o v e r - f e m in iz a ti o n
o f th e p r o f e s s i o n due t o em ploym ent o f a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e
number o f women and th e ab sen ce o f u s e o f th e g e n e r ic rlh e tf
i n r e f e r r i n g to t e a c h e r s . Many w r i t e r s a ls o i n s i s t e d t h a t
t e a c h e r s ’ p r i v a t e l i v e s w ere o v e r ly c irc u m s c rib e d by b o ard
a c t i o n and community p r e s s u r e . The c la im was made by
s e v e r a l com m entators t h a t t e a c h e r s w ere n o t g iv e n p l a c e s o f
l e a d e r s h i p i n co m m u n ities, t h a t th e y were p e r m itte d o n ly to
p a s s down t o th e y ounger g e n e r a tio n th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f
o t h e r s r a t h e r th a n h e lp in g to mold community th o u g h t and
a c t i v i t y .
Numerous o th e r comments i n e d u c a ti o n a l l i t e r a t u r e
w ere l e s s p e s s i m i s t i c c o n c e rn in g th e f u t u r e o f te a c h e r p r e s
t i g e . R e s e a rc h was p r e s e n te d w hich te n d e d to i n d i c a t e th e
e x i s te n c e o f c o m p a ra tiv e ly l i t t l e r e s t r i c t i o n on t e a c h e r s ’
p r i v a t e l i v e s . Many f e l t t h a t t e a c h e r s w i l l r e c e i v e
p o s i t i o n s o f community l e a d e r s h i p i f th e y se ek them more
a c t i v e l y . These w r i t e r s i n s i s t e d t h a t te a c h e r s m ust a c c e p t
much o f th e blam e f o r any l a c k o f p r e s t i g e . They m ust a v o id
an a p o lo g e tic a t t i t u d e r e g a r d in g t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n , d e v e lo p
i n t e r e s t s o u ts i d e t h e i r w ork, and a c t i v e l y se ek l e a d e r s h i p .
CHAPTER V II
RECRUIT1MT FOR TEACHER TRAINING
I . ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
Two m ain p h a s e s m ust e x i s t i n any e f f e c t i v e , com pre
h e n s iv e p ro g ram o f te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . One i s co n c ern ed
w ith t h e im m ediate c h a n n e lin g o f t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l i n t o
e x i s t i n g v a c a n t te a c h i n g p o s i t i o n s . The o th e r d e a ls w ith
th e g u id in g o f y o u th to a c h o ic e o f te a c h in g a s a l i f e
c a r e e r . The f i r s t p h a se was em ph asized i n th e e a r l y ch ap
t e r s o f t h i s s tu d y and w i l l r e c e i v e f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n
C h a p te rs V I I I and IX. The second p h a s e , t h a t o f b r in g in g
y o u th i n t o t r a i n i n g f o r a c a r e e r i n e d u c a tio n , w i l l be th e
b a s i s f o r th e s u b j e c t m a tte r o f t h i s c h a p te r . O th er s e c t i o n s
o f th e w ork, n o ta b ly th e im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g c h a p te r d e a l
in g w ith p u b l i c i t y , a l s o have num erous i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r
r e c r u itm e n t f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g .
The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p te r w i l l be o rg a n iz e d
around th e e i g h t m ethods p r e s e n te d f o r r a t i n g i n S e c tio n V
o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a l l o f w hich w ere p r e s e n te d a s p o s s i b l e
p r o c e d u re s i n r e c r u itm e n t f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g .
The r a t e d q u e s tio n n a i r e ite m s were as fo llo w s :
a . P r o v i s i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e u n i t s i n h ig h
sc h o o l and j u n i o r c o l le g e s o c i a l s t u d i e s c o u r s e s
i n which e d u c a tio n r e c e i v e s a t l e a s t e q u a l
em p h asis w ith o th e r p r o f e s s i o n s .
158
5 . Em phasis i n h ig h sc h o o l and j u n i o r c o l le g e g u id
ance p ro g ram on e d u c a tio n as a c a r e e r among th o s e
f i t t e d f o r s u c c e s s f u l t e a c h i n g .
c. C o n fe re n c e s i n h ig h sc h o o l and j u n i o r c o l le g e s
w ith r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from t e a c h i n g t r a i n i n g i n s t i
t u t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f e n t e r i n g
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g .
d. S t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n
r e c r u i t m e n t b u l l e t i n s p la c e d i n han d s o f g r a d u a t
in g h ig h s c h o o l and j u n i o r c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s .
e . E lim in a tio n o f a l l t u i t i o n f e e s i n s t a t e s u p p o rte d
i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c o u rs e s .
f . S c h o la r s h ip s , fin a n c e d by p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e fu n d s ,
f o r t r a i n i n g o f p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s .
g. D e f i n i t e r e c r u i t m e n t p ro g ram among l i b e r a l a r t s
s t u d e n t s i n c o l l e g e s who o th e rw is e do n o t have
w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d p r o f e s s i o n a l aim s.
h . O rg a n iz a tio n o r in c r e a s e d em p h asis o f F u tu re
T eacher o f A m erica C lubs i n h ig h s c h o o ls and c o l
le g e s .
I I . EMPHASIZING IN SOCIAL STUDIES COURSES THE VALUE OF
EDUCATION AS A VOCATION
S tudy o f v o c a tio n s h a s lo n g been p r a c t i c e d . The
fo rm a l c o u rs e i n "V ocations'" o r " O c c u p a tio n s" h a s b een a
s ta n d a r d o f f e r i n g i n th e n i n t h o r t e n t h g ra d e s f o r s e v e r a l
d e c a d e s. T extbooks i n th e s e c o u rs e s have g iv e n f o r a l l th e
le a d in g v o c a tio n s , in c lu d in g e d u c a tio n , a p o r t r a y a l o f
a d v a n ta g e s and d is a d v a n ta g e s and c o n s id e r a b le d a t a as to
num bers em ployed, a v e ra g e wage, e t c e t e r a . E d u c a tio n a s a
v o c a tio n h a s had l i t t l e o p p o r tu n ity to win c o n v e r ts from
159
su c h a p r e s e n t a t i o n s in c e t h e t a n g i b l e re w a rd s have a p p e ared
low a s compared t o o th e r v o c a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g s i m i l a r t r a i n
in g .
The more r e c e n t ad v en t o f c o o r d in a te d s o c i a l s t u d i e s
p ro g ram s, em p h a siz in g th e u se o f s o c i a l s t u d i e s r e a d e r s i n
th e lo w e r g ra d e s , h a s p r e s e n te d a new medium f o r v o c a t i o n a l
g u id a n c e . The s o c i a l l y u s e f u l w ork o f th e p o lic e m a n , th e
fire m a n , th e g r o c e r , th e fa r m e r , and o t h e r s have b ee n p o r
tr a y e d to th e e le m e n ta ry p u p i l . The se c o n d a ry s c h o o l, to o ,
h as i n some i n s t a n c e s in c o r p o r a te d such m a t e r i a l s i n t o i t s
c o u rs e o f s tu d y . I n some s o c i a l s t u d i e s te x tb o o k s e r i e s ,
th e te a c h e r and h i s work have b ee n d is p la y e d t o th e e l e
m e n tary o r se c o n d a ry p u p i l .
C e r t a i n l y few co u ld o b j e c t to g iv in g e d u c a tio n em
p h a s i s e q u a l to o th e r v o c a tio n s i n t h i s p ro c e d u r e . Some
d is a g re e m e n t m ig h t a r i s e , how ever, r e g a r d in g th e t o t a l
amount o f em p h asis to be g iv e n to v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e i n
th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s c u r r ic u lu m . O th e rs o b j e c t go g iv in g edu
c a t i o n a s o - c a l l e d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e em p h asis. The s c h o o l,
th e y f e e l , i s no p la c e to p r o s e l y t e . Even i n a tim e o f
g r e a t t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e th e y b e l i e v e e d u c a ti o n ’ s n e e d s m ust
be p r e s e n te d i n a d i s p a s s i o n a t e , u n b ia s e d m anner w ith no
more em phasis th a n f o r any o th e r d e s i r a b l e v o c a tio n .
O th e r s , w h ile n o t d e r o g a tin g th e above s ta n d , se e
i n e d u c a tio n th e g r e a t e s t s o u rc e o f w o rld p r o g r e s s and th e
o n ly hope f o r d e m o c ra c y 's s u rv iv a l* They would d e f i n i t e l y
u se th e c u r ric u lu m a s a means o f r a i s i n g th e p r e s t i g e o f
e d u c a tio n and o f r e c r u i t i n g t e a c h e r s . One r e s p o n d e n t to
n
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r , u rg e d , " I n c lu d e
i n th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s c o u r s e s , a t a l l l e v e l s , a p p r o p r ia te
m a t e r i a l s em p h asiz in g im p o rta n c e o f th e p u b l i c sc h o o l sy stem
as a fu n d a m e n ta l means o f s o c i a l im p ro v em en t."
B e se a rc h s u p p o rte d v o c a t i o n a l e m p h a s is . R e se a rc h i n
to th e e f f e c t o f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e c o u r s e s upon th e r e
c r u itm e n t o f t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e s i t t o h e an e f f e c t i v e
£
p ro c e d u re . R o b in so n , i n a d o c t o r a l s tu d y on " A n a ly s is o f
M o tiv es f o r th e C hoice o f a T ea ch in g C a r e e r ," found t h a t
v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e c o u r s e s o f f e r e d i n s c h o o l in f lu e n c e d th e
c h o ic e f o r te a c h in g o f 10 p e r c e n t o f a l l th e p r o s p e c tiv e
t e a c h e r s q u e r ie d .
g
B iden found t h a t f o r th o s e who d e c id e d a g a in s t
te a c h in g as a c a r e e r th e a v e ra g e age f o r su ch d e c i s i o n was
1 R esp o n d en t to q u e s t i o n n a i r e , u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r
i n a P a c i f i c C o ast u n i v e r s i t y .
2
Donald W ittm er R o b in so n , An A n a ly s is o f M o tiv es
f o r th e C hoice o f a T each in g C a re e r ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n iv e r
s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ), p . 102.
3
M a rg a re t G -. B id en , " F a c to r s I n f l u e n c i n g C hoice o r
N on-C hoice o f T e a c h in g a s a P r o f e s s i o n ," (u n p u b lis h e d
M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los
A n g eles, 1 9 4 5 ), p . 122.
161
tw e lv e , w ith many m aking such a d e c i s i o n b e f o r e th e age o f
t e n . She recommended, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t i n o r d e r to p r e v e n t
n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s from fo rm in g e a r l y i n l i f e and to keep
th e d e c is io n a g a i n s t te a c h in g i n abeyance u n t i l a d e q u a te
g u id a n c e can be g iv e n , a program be e v o lv e d w hich would
re a c h even th e e le m e n ta ry p u p i l .
B id en f e l t t h a t an a c t i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l g u id a n c e p r o
gram was n o t p r a c t i c a l f o r th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l, hen ce she
recommended m a t e r i a l s f o r th e e a r l y s c h o o l l e v e l i n w hich
th e te a c h e r and th e sc h o o l co u ld be p r e s e n te d i n a f a v o r a b l e
l i g h t . She s u g g e ste d a s o c i a l s t u d i e s u n i t f o r th e c o u r s e
o f s tu d y w hich would b e g in i n th e k in d e r g a r te n and g r a d u a l ly
u n f o ld th ro u g h th e e le m e n ta ry g r a d e s . I t would show t h a t
e d u c a tio n i s a d e s i r a b l e v o c a tio n , t h a t e d u c a to r s a r e honored
and h u m a n ita ria n w o rk e rs, and t h a t to be a te a c h e r i s a v e r y
s a t i s f a c t o r y l i f e w ork.
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s showed b e l i e f i n v a lu e o f
v o c a t i o n a l em p h asis i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s . T ab le XZII shows th e
r e a c t i o n o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts t o th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e to " p ro
v i s i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l u n i t s i n h ig h s c h o o ls and j u n i o r c o l
le g e s o c i a l s t u d i e s c o u r s e s i n w hich e d u c a tio n r e c e i v e s a t
l e a s t e q u a l em p h asis w ith o th e r p r o f e s s i o n s . 1 1 A l a r g e
m a j o r i t y f e l t t h a t v o c a t i o n a l u n i t s w ith e d u c a tio n a l
em phasis would be p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l u a b le a s a r e c r u itm e n t
d e v ic e . More th a n 80 p e r c e n t o f s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and s t a t e
table m i
PROVISION O F VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE UNITS IN HIGH SCHOOL AND JUNIOR COLLEGE SOCIAL
STUDIES COURSES IN 1HICH EDUCATION RECEIVES AT LEAST EQUAL EMPHASIS
WITH OTHER PROFESSIONS .
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 35 88 5 1 1 83 18 80.0 65.7
State Teachers*
Associations 34 88 6 0 0 89 11 88.4 85.3
Colleges in
California 17 15 1 0 1 13 11 88.8 76.5
Colleges outside
California 44 38 5 1 0 35 84 86.4 79.5
Guidance Directors
in California 65 40 83 8 0 45 86 61.5 69.8
Guidance Directors
outside California 89 61 83 5 0 59 38 68.5 66.3
Total 884 810 63 9 8 804 188 73,9 71.8
H
0 >
C O
163
t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s gave th e p ro c e d u re an "A”
r a t i n g i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n i t s param ount im p o rta n c e .
C o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , b o th i n s i d e and o u ts i d e
C a l i f o r n i a , ex ceed ed 85 p e r c e n t . G uidance d i r e c t o r s , how
e v e r , w h ile s t r o n g l y in d o r s in g th e p ro c e d u r e , w ere somewhat
l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c as i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r a p p ro x im a tin g 65 p e r
c e n t o f M AM r a t i n g s .
W hile th e le s s e n e d em p h asis from g u id a n c e d i r e c t o r s
re d u c e d th e t o t a l f,Atf r a t i n g to a p p ro x im a te ly 74 p e r c e n t,
th e r e s p o n d e n ts as a group s t i l l o v erw h elm in g ly fa v o re d
s o c i a l s t u d i e s u n i t s a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e . The m i n o r it y
n o t g iv in g i t to p r a t i n g a r e found a lm o st e n t i r e l y i n th e
*33w c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , ”0 ” and ”0 ” r a t i n g s b e in g n e g l i g i b l e .
S o c i a l s t u d i e s u n i t s w ere a c c e p te d w h o le h e a rte d ly ,
a l s o , a s a d e s i r a b l e perm anent f e a t u r e i n a r e c r u itm e n t p r o
gram. A p p ro x im ate ly 72 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts would
r e t a i n such u n i t s i n d e f i n i t e l y . The g e n e r a l f e e l i n g seemed
t o b e t h a t r e c r u itm e n t i s a j u s t i f i a b l e e lem e n t i n th e aims
o f th e c u rr ic u lu m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f e d u c a tio n i s n o t g iv e n a
d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e em p h asis o v e r o th e r s o c i a l l y u s u a l v o c a
t i o n s .
I I I . EMPHASIZING EDUCATION AS A VOCATION IN HIGH SCHOOL
AND JUNIOR COLLEGE GUIDANCE PROGRAMS
Guidance i s important school o ffe r in g . The guidance
164
program , a s found i n th e t y p i c a l l a r g e h ig h s c h o o l o r
ju n i o r c o l l e g e o f to d a y , i s of more r e c e n t d ev elo p m en t th a n
i s th e v o c a tio n s c o u rs e j u s t d is c u s s e d . The o r g a n i z a t i o n
v a r i e s g r e a t l y from s c h o o l to s c h o o l b u t c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s
f r e q u e n t l y a p p e a r. The home-room o r g a n i z a t i o n , w ith th e
home-room te a c h e r a c t i n g as p a r t - t i m e g u id a n c e c o u n s e lo r
f o r h i s g roup, i s a f r e q u e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n th e h ig h
s c h o o l p r o c e d u re . The p re s e n c e o f one o r more f u l l - t i m e
g u id a n c e c o u n s e lo r s to c o o r d in a te th e program i s a l s o an
a lm o st u n v a r ie d f e a t u r e .
The w ork o f th e g u id a n c e c o u n s e lo r i s v a r i e d . Voca
t i o n a l g u id a n c e i s b u t one f a c e t . E d u c a tio n a l g u id a n c e ,
h e a l t h g u id a n c e , s o c i a l g u id a n c e , and r e c r e a t i o n a l g u id a n c e
a l l a r e im p o r ta n t f e a t u r e s o f any w e ll rounded program .
O b v io u sly many o f th e s e s u b - d i v i s i o n s o f g u id a n c e o v e rla p
and i n f l u e n c e each o t h e r .
A t y p i c a l f e a t u r e o f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e i s th e ad
m i n i s t r a t i o n o f b a t t e r i e s o f t e s t s w hich a tte m p t to p ro g
n o s t i c a t e s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s and a b i l i t i e s . A n o th er f r e q u e n t
p ro c e d u re i s th e b r in g in g i n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from le a d in g
v o c a tio n s to p r e s e n t t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r l i f e work as a p o s s i b l e
v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e . I n th e l a s t d e c a d e , th e v o c a t i o n a l m o tio n
p i c t u r e h a s become a n o th e r e s s e n t i a l t o o l i n d r a m a tiz in g th e
many p o s s i b l e o c c u p a tio n a l o u t l e t s . S t i l l a n o th e r p a r t o f
th e g u id a n c e c o u n s e lo r ’ s job i s th e s e l e c t i n g and m o tiv a tin g
of a vocation al lib ra ry of books and pamphlets.
At th e h e a r t o f th e g u id a n c e program i s th e i n d i v i d u a l
c o n fe re n c e w ith th e h ig h sc h o o l o r j u n i o r c o l le g e s tu d e n t.
The e f f e c t i v e c o u n s e lo r c o n d u c ts such a c o n fe re n c e o n ly a f t e r
a p r e lim in a r y a n a l y s i s o f th e s t u d e n t f s s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d ,
i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t , r a t i n g by t e a c h e r s , r e c o r d i n sc h o o l
a c t i v i t i e s , work e x p e rie n c e , e t c e t e r a . The aim i s to o r i e n t
th e s tu d e n t, th ro u g h such c o n f e r e n c e s , to v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e s
w hich a r e i n th e re a lm o f h i s i n t e r e s t and c a p a c i t y . The
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f g u id a n c e pro g ram s v a r i e s g r e a t l y d ep e n d in g ,
among o th e r t h i n g s , upon th e g u id a n c e b u d g e t, th e d e g re e o f
c o o p e r a tio n o f s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s , and th e
i n t e r e s t , t r a i n i n g , and p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e g u id a n c e c o u n s e l
o r s .
P o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f g u id a n c e tow ard te a c h i n g i s f r e
q u e n tly n o t r e a l i z e d . E d u c a tio n a s a p o s s i b l e c a r e e r h a s
r e c e iv e d some a t t e n t i o n i n th e t y p i c a l g u id a n c e program .
Many c o u n s e lo r s , how ever, have b een s e l f - c o n s c i o u s about th e
r e l a t i v e l y low m o n etary r e t u r n s in v o lv e d and have te n d e d to
m in im ize te a c h in g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e g u id a n c e o f b o y s w ith
s u p e r i o r i n t e l l e c t u a l eq u ip m en t. D u rin g m ost o f th e p e r io d
betw een th e two World W ars, th e te n d e n c y tow ard a s u r p lu s o f
t e a c h e r s p re v e n te d encouragem ent o f th e c h o ic e o f a l i f e
work i n te a c h in g .
166
The s h o r ta g e o f te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l w hich began to
a p p e a r a b o u t 1941 le d to much demand f o r te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t
th ro u g h th e h ig h s c h o o l and j u n i o r c o l le g e g u id a n c e program*
D uring t h e w ar y e a r s , how ever, th e armed s e r v i c e s and
i n d u s t r y w ere more dem anding i n t h e i r a p p e a ls f o r p e r s o n n e l
th a n was e d u c a tio n ; and even a f t e r th e c lo s e o f h o s t i l i t i e s ,
t h e r e w ere many com peting v o c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . F u r t h e r
m ore, as a r e s u l t o f war s e r v i c e and v o c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s ,
e n ro llm e n t i n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s d u r in g th e war
y e a r s d e c re a s e d to a sm a ll f r a c t i o n o f n o rm al.
O p in io n d i f f e r s a s t o d e s i r a b i l i t y o f g u id a n c e a s
r e c r u itm e n t medium. As i n d i c a t e d i n th e d i s c u s s i o n on r e
c ru itm e n t th ro u g h s o c i a l s t u d i e s c o u r s e s , t h e r e e x i s t s a
w ide d iv e rg e n c e o f o p in io n a s to d e s i r a b l e em p h asis to be
g iv e n , even i n tim e s o f t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e s , to th e r e c r u i t
m ent o f y o u th f o r a c a r e e r i n e d u c a tio n . Some f e e l t h a t th e
g u id a n c e program m ust c a r e f u l l y and d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y g iv e
e q u a l em phasis t o a l l p o s s i b l e v o c a t i o n s . They would make
a v a i l a b l e a s much v o c a t i o n a l i n f o r m a ti o n as p o s s i b l e , d i s
c o u ra g e c a r e e r c h o ic e s f o r w hich y o u th a r e o b v io u s ly n o t
f i t t e d , b u t r e f r a i n from u r g in g any one o r two o c c u p a tio n s
upon any y o u th .
O th e rs se e i n e f f e c t i v e e d u c a tio n th e g r e a t e s t hope
f o r dem ocracy’ s s u r v i v a l and would f r a n k ly and p e r s i s t e n t l y
167
p r o s e l y t i z e among t h e m ost g i f t e d young p e o p le i n o u r
se c o n d a ry s c h o o ls and c o l l e g e s . H a g g a rd ,4 P r e s i d e n t o f
7 /e ste rn W ashington C o lle g e o f E d u c a tio n , s e e s i n th e h ig h
sc h o o l t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e ap p ro ach to th e p ro b lem o f r e c r u i t
m ent. He v iew s th e im provem ent o f th e p r o f e s s i o n by e f f e c t
i v e r e c r u i t m e n t a s a lo n g ra n g e m a tte r and u r g e s t h a t
s u p e r in t e n d e n t s , p r i n c i p a l s , c o u n s e lo r s , and te a c h e r s d i r e c t
more young p e o p le o f l e a d e r s h i p tow ard te a c h i n g a s a p r o
f e s s i o n . He s u g g e s ts v o c a t i o n a l a s s e m b lie s and c o n f e re n c e s
i n w hich te a c h in g i s alw ay s em phasized and recommends a
g r e a t e r amount o f v o c a t i o n a l l i b e r a t u r e i n s c h o o l l i b r a r i e s
w hich p r e s e n t s th e d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s o f a te a c h i n g c a r e e r .
He p o i n t s o u t:
. . . E l e c t r i c a l e n g in e e r in g i s n e v e r o v e rlo o k e d ,
and sh o u ld n o t be o v e rlo o k e d , b e c a u se t h i s i s an
e l e c t r i c a l age, b u t te a c h in g as human e n g in e e r in g i s 5
even more im p o r ta n t i n te rm s o f th e w e lf a r e o f s o c i e t y .
G uidance program can be s e l e c t i v e . Many w r i t e r s
p o i n t o u t th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f m aking te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t
s e l e c t i v e . One o f th e c h i e f c r i t i c i s m s le v e le d a t n ew sp ap er,
m ag azin e, and r a d i o p u b l i c i t y c o n c e rn in g need f o r t e a c h e r s
was t h a t i t would te n d to a t t r a c t many u n d e s ir a b le c a n d id a te s
4
W. W. H aggard, " E e c ru itm e n t o f th e P r o f e s s i o n , ”
Peabody J o u m a l o f E d u c a tio n . 2 3 :8 6 -8 7 , S ep tem b er, 1945.
Loo. c i t .
168
f o r te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s . The h ig h sc h o o l and j u n i o r c o l l e g e
g u id a n c e p ro g ram , on t h e o t h e r hand, h a s an e x c e p tio n a l
o p p o r tu n ity to d is c o u r a g e th o s e o f m e d io cre a b i l i t y and
p e r s o n a l i t y and to g u id e th o s e w ith l e a d e r s h i p and s u p e r i o r
m e n ta l eq u ipm ent tow ard an e d u c a tio n a l c a r e e r .
The p la n h a s b een s u b s t a n t i a t e d . W r ite r s a re a lm o st
unanim ous i n r a n k in g th e g u id a n c e p rogram as among th e m ost
e f f e c t i v e o f te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t p r o c e d u r e s . H aggard, i n
d i s c u s s i n g r e c r u i t m e n t p r o c e d u r e s , m a in ta in s , ” . . . The
h ig h s c h o o l, i n i t s g u id a n c e program , can be more e f f e c t i v e
th a n any o th e r ap p ro ach th u s f a r s tu d i e d o r t r i e d • . .
A p e r f u n c to r y a p p ro a c h t o g u id a n c e w i l l be o f l i t t l e
a id , how ever. Thorough o r g a n i z a t i o n and p e r s i s t e n t e f f o r t
7
a r e e s s e n t i a l to e f f e c t i v e r e s u l t s . H e r lin g e r , S u p e rin
te n d e n t o f S c h o o ls i n Mount Lebanon, P e n n s y lv a n ia , h as
p r e s e n te d a p i c t u r e o f a g u id a n c e program le a d in g to e f f e c t
iv e te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t i n h i s h ig h s c h o o l. The e x p e rim e n t
was c o n d u c ted w ith th e 161 g i r l s i n th e 1944 g r a d u a tin g
c l a s s . At f i r s t a m e e tin g was announced f o r a l l th o s e who
w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n t e a c h i n g . Only te n re sp o n d e d . Then a l l
Loc. c i t .
7
H arry Y. H e r lin g e r , "And G la d ly T e a c h ," O c c u p a tio n s ,
£ 3 :1 4 7 -5 1 , December, 1944.
169
161 w ere c a l l e d i n t o a m e e tin g and asked t o p r e s e n t w r i t t e n
answ ers to one o f two q u e s tio n s : (1) "Why would I l i k e to
become a t e a c h e r ? " o r (2) "Why w ould I n o t l i k e t o become a
te a c h e r ? " F o r ty - o n e resp o n d e d to th e f i r s t q u e s tio n i n d i
c a t i n g t h a t th e y had some i n t e r e s t i n te a c h in g a s a c a r e e r .
A s p e c i a l g u id a n c e com m ittee o f sev en t e a c h e r s was
th e n a p p o in te d to work u n d e r th e s u p e r v is io n o f th e g i r l s *
c o u n s e lo r . T h is group met once a week f o r s i x weeks w ith
th e f o r t y - o n e g i r l s , c o u n s e lin g them as to th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f a te a c h i n g c a r e e r . W henever p o s s i b l e , in te r v i e w s w ere
h e ld w ith th e p a r e n t s o f th e g i r l s . At th e end o f t h i s
p e r io d , t h i r t y - s e v e n g i r l s d e f i n i t e l y s i g n i f i e d t h e i r i n
t e n t i o n o f becom ing t e a c h e r s . Gf t h i s g ro u p , f o u r , b e c a u s e
o f t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l o r p e r s o n a l i t y l i m i t a t i o n s , w ere ad
v is e d to change t h e i r v o c a t i o n a l p l a n s . The group o f t h i r t y -
t h r e e r e m a in in g a l l a p p e a re d to be u n u s u a lly good p r o s p e c t s
f o r te a c h i n g c a r e e r s . They had u n u s u a lly good s c h o l a s t i c
r e c o r d s and a m edian i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n t o f b e t t e r th a n
120.
As a r e s u l t o f t h i s e x p e rim e n t t h e Mount Lebanon h ig h
sc h o o l h a s in a u g u ra te d a p erm an en t p ro g ram o f t e a c h e r r e
c r u itm e n t. A p erm anent g u id a n c e com m ittee h as b een a p p o in te d
w hich b e g in s w ith t e n t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s i n i t s p la n o f d i s
c u s s io n s and encouragem ent o f te a c h in g a s a v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e .
I n th e e le v e n th y e a r i n t e r e s t e d s tu d e n t s a r e e n r o l l e d i n a
170
F u tu r e T e a c h e rs o f A m erica Club which c a r r i e s on an a c t i v e
s o c i a l program i n a d d i t i o n to f u r t h e r i n g th e r e c r u itm e n t o f
te a c h in g . I n t h e e le v e n th y e a r l a r g e num bers o f th e s e
p r o s p e c tiv e e d u c a to r s become te a c h e rs * h e l p e r s i n th e e l e
m e n ta ry and se c o n d a ry s c h o o ls o f th e c i t y . They h e lp t e a c h
e r s p r e p a r e u n i t s and l e s s o n p la n s , check p a p e r s , and a re
g e n e r a l l y u s e f u l . I n th e t w e l f t h g ra d e an i n t e n s i v e program
o f c l a s s v i s i t a t i o n i s added, and th e c a d e ts a r e g iv e n f u r
t h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as t e a c h e r s ’ a s s i s t a n t s . Numerous
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a re
b ro u g h t i n t o sp eak to and c o n f e r w ith th e i n t e r e s t e d g ro u p ,
and a w e a lth o f books and b u l l e t i n s a re made a v a i l a b l e f o r
th o s e who a re c o n s id e r in g te a c h in g a s a c a r e e r .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s showed v a lu e o f p l a n . As
i n d i c a t e d i n T able X X III th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e t u r n s te n d to
s u b s t a n t i a t e th e tr e n d o f b e l i e f e x p re s s e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e
c o n c e rn in g g u id a n c e a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e . The v a s t
m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n ts gave i t th e ’’A” r a t i n g , i n d i c a t i n g
th e y c o n s id e re d i t to be a v e r y e f f e c t i v e p ro c e d u r e . Over
90 p e r c e n t o f s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s r a t e d i t "A" w h ile
s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s , c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s i n
C a l i f o r n i a , and c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o u t s i d e C a l i f o r n i a
a v e ra g e d above an 85 p e r c e n t f i g u r e .
Guidance d ir e c to r s, both in sid e and ou tside C aliforn ia,
TABLE X X III
E M E H A S I S I N H I G H S C H O O L A N D J U N I O R C O L L E G E G U I D A N C E P R O G R A M O N E D U C A T I O N
. . A S A .C A R E E R A M O N G . T H O S E T IM E D F O R S U C C E S S F U L T E A C H I N G
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 35 32 2 1 0 30 22 91.4 85.7
State Teachers*
Associations 34 29 5 0 0 30 12 85.3 88.2
Colleges in
California 17 15 2 0 0 14 10 88.2 82.4
Colleges outside
California 44 37 6 1 0 37 22 84.1 84.1
Guidance Directors
in California 70 52 17 1 0 46 31 74.3 65.7
Guidance Directors
outside California 91 69 17 4 1 59 46 75.8 64.8
Total 891 234 49 7 1 216 143 80.4 74.2
171
a r e somewhat l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c , t h e i r ”A,f r a t i n g s “ b ein g
a p p ro x im a te ly 75 p e r c e n t. S in ce t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s u g g e ste d
r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re i s co n c ern ed s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith g u id
ance a c t i v i t y , th e g u id a n c e d i r e c t o r s sh o u ld be i n t h e b e s t
p o s s i b l e p o s i t i o n t o e v a lu a t e th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a g u id
ance p ro g ram i n th e r e c r u itm e n t o f t e a c h e r s . They a re i n
th e b e s t p o s i t i o n to see th e p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s m i l i
t a t i n g a g a i n s t th e 100 p e r c e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f any
g u id a n c e g o a l; so i t i s p e rh a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t 25 p e r
c e n t o f them w ere n o t w i l l i n g to g iv e i t u n q u a l i f i e d in d o r s e
m ent a s a r e c r u itm e n t m ethod. I n g e n e r a l, th e a p p ro x im a te ly
80 p e r c e n t o f "A" r a t i n g s r e p r e s e n t a v e r y s tr o n g b e l i e f i n
th e e f f i c a c y o f g u id a n c e i n s e c u r in g t e a c h e r s .
By a l a r g e m a j o r i t y , th e r e s p o n d e n ts would r e t a i n
h ig h s e h o o l and j u n i o r c o lle g e g u id a n c e a c t i v i t y as a perm a
n e n t f e a t u r e o f a te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t program . Among s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s , s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s ,
and c o l le g e and u n i v e r s i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s th e demand was
p a r t i c u l a r l y h ig h , a p p ro x im a te ly 85 p e r c e n t, on th e a v e ra g e
a s k in g f o r r e t e n t i o n . Among g u id a n c e d i r e c t o r s , how ever,
th e r e s p o n s e a g a in was much l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c w ith a p p ro x i
m a te ly 65 p e r c e n t d e s i r i n g r e t e n t i o n . W hile t h i s s m a lle r
p e r c e n ta g e s t i l l c o n s t i t u t e s a c o n s id e r a b le d e g re e of
in d o rse m e n t o f g u id a n c e a s a t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t m ethod,
i t s r e l a t i v e s i z e may be s u r p r i s i n g . One p o s s i b l e r e a s o n
173
may be a d e s i r e o f g u id an ce d i r e c t o r s to be o b j e c t i v e . Many
may f e e l t h a t t h e i r jo b i s to p r e s e n t th e a d v a n ta g e s and
d is a d v a n ta g e s o f a l l v o c a tio n s i n a d i s p a s s i o n a t e m anner
w ith a l l e le m e n ts o f p r o s e l y t i z a t i o n e l im in a te d .
IV. PROVIDING CONFERENCE WITH REPRESENTATIVES
FROM TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
Much v i s i t a t i o n was p r a c t i c e d i n p a s t . The p r a c t i c e
o f se n d in g c o lle g e and u n i v e r s i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s to h ig h
s c h o o ls and j u n i o r c o l l e g e s in o r d e r to u rg e c o lle g e a t t e n d
ance h a s lo n g been i n v ogue. N o rm ally t h i s h as n o t been
w e ll c o o r d in a te d i n so f a r as th e s c h o o ls v i s i t e d a r e con
c e rn e d . A c c re d ite d s c h o o ls w ith in th e s t a t e have g e n e r a l l y
b een p e r m itte d to send t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , b u t o n ly p a r t
o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s have ta k e n a d v a n ta g e o f th e o p p o r tu n ity .
Some t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s have s e n t r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s i n t h i s m anner o v e r a p e r io d o f many y e a r s . The
i n t e n s i t y o f t h i s program h a s had l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e
su p p ly and demand f o r t e a c h e r s . S in c e th e s t a t e h a s made
no a tte m p t to s e t q u o ta s based on need and s in c e th e p r o
f e s s i o n i t s e l f , u n lik e th e m e d ic a l p r o f e s s i o n , h as n e v e r
a tte m p te d to r e g u l a t e th e number t o be c e r t i f i e d , te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , l i k e many o th e r v o c a t i o n a l g ro u p s,
have b een f r e e t o com pete f o r s t u d e n t s .
Such c o l le g e v i s i t a t i o n would o b v io u s ly be more
174
e f f e c t i v e i f c o o rd in a te d w ith th e h ig h s c h o o l and j u n i o r
c o l le g e g u id a n ce program . I f th e c o lle g e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e can
he b ro u g h t i n a t th e r i g h t p s y c h o lo g ic a l tim e , a f t e r th e
g u id a n c e c o u n s e lo r h a s e lim in a te d from th e group th o s e w ith
no i n t e r e s t i n o r t a l e n t f o r te a c h in g , b e t t e r r e s u l t s may be
e x p e c te d . Such a p ro c e d u re w i l l a ls o in tr o d u c e th e e lem e n t
o f s e l e c t i v i t y w hich i s so d e s i r a b l e i n any perm an en t r e
c r u itm e n t program . The se c o n d a ry s c h o o l a ls o sh o u ld e x e r
c i s e i t s p r e r o g a t i v e o f c h o o s in g th o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s w hich a r e
to c o n t a c t i t s s t u d e n t s . O fte n s c h o o ls o f d o u b tf u l a c c r e d i t
in g and q u e s tio n a b le c u r r i c u l a a r e th e m ost p e r s i s t e n t i n
t h e i r demands f o r tim e to c o n ta c t h ig h sc h o o l and j u n i o r
c o l le g e s tu d e n t s .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r a t i n g s in d i c a t e d s u p p o r t f o r v i s i t a t i o n .
T ab le XXIV i n d i c a t e s th e r e a c t i o n o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s
p o n d e n ts to v i s i t a t i o n by c o l le g e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a s a r e
c r u itm e n t d e v ic e . T h e ir a c c e p ta n c e o f th e m ethod i s s tr o n g
b u t d i s t i n c t l y l e s s so th a n f o r r e c r u itm e n t th ro u g h t h e
g u id a n c e program . S t a t e d e p a rtm e n t, s t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i
a t i o n , and c o l le g e and u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s w ere r a t h e r
c o n s i s t e n t i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e , w ith "A” r a t i n g s a v e ra g in g a
l i t t l e more th a n 70 p e r c e n t .
As i n o t h e r m ethods th u s f a r p r e s e n te d i n t h i s c h a p te r ,
g u id a n c e d i r e c t o r s w ere l e s s p ro n e to r a t e i t h ig h ly . F or
t a b l e xxnr
C O N F E R E N C E S I N H I G H S C H O O L M D J U N I O R C O H E G E S W I T H E B P R E S E N T A T I V E S ¥R C M
T E A C H E R T R A I N I N G I N S T I T U T I O N S C O N C E R N I N G D E S I R A B I L I T Y 01 E N T E R I N G T E A C H E R T R A I N I N G
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 35 24 10 1 0 24 17 68.6 68.6
State Teachers1
Associations 34 24 9 1 0 28 10 70.6 82.4
Colleges in
California 17 13 4 0 0 11 14 76.5 64.7
Colleges outside
California 45 33 12 0 0 31 27 73.3 68.9
Guidance Directors
in California 67 38 24 5 0 36 22 57.0 55.8
Guidance Directors
outside California 86 49 30 7 0 48 38 55.8 57.0
Total 284 181 89 14 0 178 128 63.7 62.7
175
176
n e a r l y h a l f o f th e g u id a n c e p e o p le , c o l le g e v i s i t a t i o n
ap p e ared a t b e s t o n ly a c o u rs e o f m odest s u c c e s s i n te a c h e r
r e c r u i t m e n t • D ir e c t io n o f any such v i s i t a t i o n program i s
g e n e r a l l y th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f g u id a n c e o f f i c i a l s . They
a r e a ls o i n th e b e s t p o s i t i o n to ju d g e t h e r e s u l t s o f any
v i s i t a t i o n w hich h as ta k e n p la c e i n th e p a s t . T h e ir ju d g
m ent, t h e r e f o r e , would a p p e a r to be d e s e r v in g o f s e r i o u s
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n any o v e r - a l l r a t i n g o f t h i s s u g g e s te d r e
c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u r e .
E e sp o n d e n ts who q u a l i f i e d t h e i r a c c e p ta n c e o f c o l le g e
v i s i t a t i o n te n d ed to do so by r a t i n g i t i n th e ”B,f column o f
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Not one o f th e 284 r e s p o n d e n ts saw i n
th e p r a c t i c e any d a n g e r to th e e d u c a ti o n a l p r o c e s s o r to th e
p r o f e s s i o n i t s e l f . As i n th e two p r e c e d in g p r o c e d u r e s ,
C a l i f o r n i a r e s p o n s e s , b o th on th e c o l le g e and h ig h s c h o o l
l e v e l , te n d ed to c l o s e l y a p p ro x im a te ly th o s e o f l i k e edu
c a t i o n a l w o rk e rs i n o th e r p a r t s o f th e c o u n try . D if f e r e n c e
o f o p in io n a p p e a re d to be r e f l e c t e d much more d e c id e d ly by
v a r i e t y o f e d u c a ti o n a l s e r v i c e r a t h e r th a n by g e o g r a p h ic a l
h a b i t a t .
More th a n 60 p e r c e n t o f a l l th e r e s p o n d e n ts would
r e t a i n such v i s i t a t i o n as a p erm anent f e a t u r e o f t e a c h e r
r e c r u i t m e n t . The r a t i n g s f o r r e t e n t i o n te n d e d to f o llo w th e
p a t t e r n o f th e ,!AH r a t i n g s w ith th e c o m p a ra tiv e la c k o f
a c c e p ta n c e by g u id a n c e d i r e c t o r s g r e a t l y re d u c in g th e t o t a l
177
p e r c e n ta g e . The g r e a t e s t e n th u s ia s m Tor su ch v i s i t a t i o n
m ig h t he e x p e c te d to come fro m c o l le g e and u n i v e r s i t y
o f f i c i a l s . I n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s , how ever, a p p r o x i
m a te ly o n e - t h i r d d id n o t ask f o r i t s perm an en t r e t e n t i o n .
V. DISTRIBUTING RECRUITMENT BULLETINS TO GRADUATING
HIGH SCHOOL AND JUNIOR COLLEGE STUDENTS
B u l l e t i n s a r e now f r e q u e n t l y u s e d . A nother r e c r u i t
m ent d e v ic e w hich h as h e e n u se d by c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s
f o r a number o f y e a r s i s th e r e c r u i t m e n t b u l l e t i n . Many
i n s t i t u t i o n s u s e t h i s d e v ic e e x t e n s i v e l y , a t te m p tin g to
p la c e su ch a p u b l i c a t i o n i n th e h an d s of e v e ry g r a d u a tin g
h ig h sc h o o l s e n io r i n t h e i r a r e a . T each er t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u
t i o n s and s c h o o ls o f e d u c a tio n i n th e l a r g e u n i v e r s i t i e s
have f r e q u e n t l y fo llo w e d t h e p r a c t i c e , se n d in g t h e i r b u l l e t i n s
to e l i g i b l e s t u d e n t s even d u r in g th o s e p e r io d s when th e te a c h
e r su p p ly m a t e r i a l l y exceeded th e demand.
The r e c e n t p e r io d o f te a c h e r s c a r c i t y , w hich beg an to
d e v e lo p i n 1941, a c c e n tu a te d th e u s e o f th e p r i n t e d b u l l e t i n
a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e . S t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts and s t a t e te a c h
e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s beg an p u b l i s h i n g such m a t e r i a l s a l s o , a
p r a c t i c e w hich th e y had n o t fo llo w e d e x t e n s iv e ly p r e v io u s to
th e d evelopm ent o f th e t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e . The U n ite d S t a t e s
S
O ffic e o f E d u c a tio n a l s o is s u e d a r e c r u i t m e n t b u l l e t i n i n
® B. J . F r a z i e r , T each in g a s a P r o f e s s io n (P am phlet
No. 95. W ash in g to n , D .G .: U. S. O f f ic e o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 4 4 ).
1944.
Some o f t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s w ere l i t t l e more th a n
s t a t i s t i c a l a b s t r a c t s show ing t h e need f o r t e a c h e r s , th e
number o f v a c a n c ie s e x i s t i n g , th e t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s a v a i l a b l e ,
and th e s a l a r i e s w hich co u ld be e x p e c te d . O th e rs w ere q u i t e
e l a b o r a t e , w ere p r o f u s e l y i l l u s t r a t e d , and w ere p r e s e n te d i n
a s t y l e c a l c u l a t e d to a ro u s e th e i n t e r e s t o f y o u th . Among
th e b e s t o f th e b u l l e t i n s is s u e d by s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts was
9
th e Ohio S t a t e D epartm ent p u b l i c a t i o n , is s u e d i n 1944 f o r
d i s t r i b u t i o n among h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s . I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e
more p r e t e n t i o u s b u l l e t i n s is s u e d by c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r
s i t i e s w ere th e o n es p r i n t e d by th e U n iv e r s it y o f M ich ig an
S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n ,10 th e U n iv e r s it y of W isc o n sin S ch o o l
1 1
o f E d u c a tio n , th e W estern S t a t e T e a c h e rs C o lle g e o f
I p
K alam azoo, M ich ig an , and th e Iowa S t a t e T e a e h e rs C o lle g e
o f C edar F a l l s . 13 T h is l a s t named i n s t i t u t i o n h a s is s u e d a
0 H arold J . B ow ers, L e t Us C o n sid e r T ea ch in g ( S t a t e
o f O hio: D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 4 4 ).
in
U n iv e r s ity o f M ich ig an , Should You E n te r th e Teach
in g P r o f e s s i o n ? (Ann A rb o r: S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 3 7 } /
8 p p .
1 1
U n iv e r s it y o f W isc o n sin , T each in g As a C a re e r
(M adison: S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 3 5 ), 48 p p .
1 2
W estern S t a t e T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , T e a ch in g As a
C a re e r (Kalam azoo: T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , 1 9 3 8 ), 49 pp .
13
Iowa S t a t e T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , O p p o r tu n itie s i n Edu
c a t i o n . Q u a r te r ly B u l l e t i n , V o l. XL, No. 3 (C edar F a l l s :
T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , 1 9 3 9 ), 48 pp.
179
u n iq u e and a t t r a c t i v e b u l l e t i n p r e s e n t i n g th e p i c t u r e s and
p r o f e s s i o n a l r e c o r d s o f some o f i t s m ost s u c c e s s f u l g ra d u
a t e s now em ployed i n e le m e n ta ry , se c o n d a ry , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ,
and c o l l e g i a t e e d u c a ti o n a l p o s i t i o n s .
14
L ee, p r e s e n t Dean o f th e S ch o o l o f E d u c a tio n ,
U n iv e r s it y of C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g eles, i s th e a u th o r o f a
b o o k le t w r i t t e n f o r th e p u rp o se o f r e c r u i t i n g men f o r th e
te a c h in g p r o fe s s io n * I t was p r i n t e d u n d er th e s p o n s o rs h ip
o f P h i D e lta Kappa, p r o f e s s i o n a l f r a t e r n i t y o f men i n edu
c a t i o n .
Q .u e stio n n a ire r e t u r n s i n d i c a t e d some v a lu e i n c o l le g e
b u l l e t i n s . T ab le XXV p o r t r a y s th e r e a c t i o n o f th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts to th e u s e o f s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n b u l l e t i n s as a r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re .
A few more th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and c o l le g e
and u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s gave th e b u l l e t i n an "A ** i n d o r s e
m ent, b u t th e d e c id e d ly s m a lle r a c c e p ta n c e by g u id a n c e
o f f i c i a l s red u ce d th e t o t a l "A" r a t i n g to 4 5 .9 p e r c e n t.
I n co m p ariso n w ith v o c a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s
c o u r s e s o r em p h asis on te a c h in g i n g u id a n c e p ro g ra m s, th e
b u l l e t i n a p p e ared much l e s s e f f e c t i v e to th e r e s p o n d e n ts .
14
Edwin A. Lee, T ea ch in g As a Man*s Job (Homewood,
I l l i n o i s : P h i D e lta Kappa, 1 9 3 9 ), 79 pp.
TABLE XXV
STATE DEPARTMENT AMD TEACHES TRAINING INSTITUTION RECRUITMENT BULLETINS
PLACED IN HANDS OP GRADUATING HIGH SCHOOL AND . JUNIOR COLLEGE STUDENTS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B e D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 36 21 11 4 0 18 18 58.3 50.0
State Teachers*
Associations 33 16 13 2 2 19 6 48.5 57.6
Colleges in
California 17 11 6 0 0 9 9 64.7 52.9
Colleges outside
California 44 25 15 4 0 24 22 56.8 54.5
Guidance Directors
in California 67 24 35 8 0 28 18 35.8 41.8
Guidance Directors
outside California 32 31 39 12 0 38 22 37.8 46.3
Total 279 128 119 30 2 136 95 45.9 48.7
181
N e v e r th e le s s , w ith o v er 40 p e r c e n t aw ard in g i t th e nAf 1
r a t i n g and a lm o st a s many r a t i n g i t M Bn ( i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f
t h a t m odest r e s u l t s would r e s u l t ) , th e b u l l e t i n c a n n o t b e
ig n o re d a s a t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e .
N e a rly 50 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts would r e t a i n
th e b u l l e t i n a s a r e c r u itm e n t d e v ic e even a f t e r th e te a c h e r
s h o r ta g e i s a t an end. Alm ost no one in d i c a t e d a b e l i e f i n
th e e x i s te n c e o f d a n g e rs i n th e u s e o f b u l l e t i n s .
V I. ELIMINATING TUITION FEES IN PUBLIC
.TEACHER TRAINING COURSES
Trend i s tow ard f r e e c o l l e g i a t e t u i t i o n . The b a t t l e
f o r f r e e p u b lic s c h o o ls was f o u g h t d u rin g a c o n s id e r a b le
p e r io d i n th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y and r e s u l t e d i n an e s t a b
l i s h e d p o lic y o f f r e e p u b lic e d u c a tio n on th e e le m e n ta ry and
se c o n d a ry l e v e l . I n many s t a t e s t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s i n t e r
p r e te d to in c lu d e f r e e te x tb o o k s . I n many c a s e s th e c o u r t s
have ev en r e f u s e d th e s c h o o ls th e r i g h t to r e q u i r e book
d e p o s i t s and s t u d e n t a c t i v i t y f e e s .
On th e c o l le g e l e v e l , how ever, th e p r i n c i p l e o f com
p l e t e freedom from f e e s h as n o t b ee n u n i v e r s a l l y a d o p te d .
A l a r g e number o f s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s and c o l l e g e s by l e g i s
l a t i v e e d i c t have a d o p te d a r e g u l a r t u i t i o n sc h e d u le t o
su p p lem en t fu n d s a p p o rtio n e d from th e p u b lic t r e a s u r y .
A lm ost a l l h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s , even th o s e which have
182
abandoned t u i t i o n , have a s c h e d u le o f r e g i s t r a t i o n f e e s ,
l a b o r a t o r y f e e s , f e e s f o r s p e c i a l d e p a rtm e n ts such as
m usic and a r t , e t c e t e r a , w hich i n t o t a l amount to a s i z e
a b le e x p e n d itu r e f o r each s t u d e n t .
T u itio n f e e s f o r r e s i d e n t s o f o th e r s t a t e s a r e u n i
v e r s a l and a r e m a rk e d ly h ig h e r th a n f o r th o s e l i v i n g i n th e
s t a t e i n w hich th e i n s t i t u t i o n i s l o c a t e d . M oreover, th e
t r e n d , b o th f o r r e s i d e n t and n o n - r e s i d e n t s t u d e n t s h a s b een
15
s t e a d i l y upward s in c e World War I .
T u iti o n f e e s f o r s tu d e n ts i n n orm al s c h o o ls and te a c h
e r s c o l le g e s have te n d e d to b e somewhat l e s s th a n i n s t a t e
u n i v e r s i t i e s . D uring th e l a s t tw en ty y e a r s l e g i s l a t i o n h a s
b een e n a c te d i n many s t a t e s a b o l is h in g t u i t i o n a l t o g e t h e r
in such i n s t i t u t i o n s . The r a t h e r heavy fe e sy stem , how ever,
i s s t i l l i n vogue.
One o f th e m a jo r f i n a n c i a l b u rd e n s to th e s tu d e n t i n
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , as i n a l l c o l l e g e s , i s th e
c o s t o f b o ard and room . Even b e f o r e th e r a i s e i n c o s t s
i n c i d e n t a l to World War I I b o a rd and room c h a rg e s v a r ie d
from two hundred f i f t y d o l l a r s to f i v e hundred d o l l a r s a
y e a r and p r e v e n te d v a s t num bers o f young p e o p le from g e t t i n g
p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g .
15
W illia m H. McGreay, "The R e g i s t r a t i o n o f Non-
R e s id e n t S tu d e n ts i n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t i e s , " A m erican A s s o c i
a t i o n o f C o l l e g i a t e R e g i s t r a r s J o u r n a l , 1 7 :1 6 1 -8 , F e b ru a ry ,
1942.
183
I n th e l a s t d ecad e th e r e h as b een c o n s id e r a b le
a g i t a t i o n f o r p l a c i n g a l l s t a t e c o l l e g i a t e t r a i n i n g on th e
same t u i t i o n - f r e e b a s i s a s i s th e e le m e n ta ry and se c o n d a ry
s c h o o l, The r e c e n t d e a r t h o f t e a c h e r s a c c e n tu a te d t h i s
a g i t a t i o n i n so f a r a s te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i s c o n c e rn e d . A
few w r i t e r s have ev e n s u g g e s te d th e p o s s i b i l i t y of s t a t e o r
f e d e r a l s u b s id y f o r b o a rd and room.
A f r e q u e n t c r i t i c i s m le v e l e d a t t h i s s u g g e s te d r e
c r u itm e n t d e v ic e i s t h a t i t i s n o n - s e l e c t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r .
Many w ith o u t t a l e n t o r i n t e r e s t i n te a c h i n g m ig h t ch o o se
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g and s u b s e q u e n tly d r i f t i n t o te a c h in g
p o s i t i o n s th u s v i t i a t i n g th e p r o f e s s i o n a t i t s tim e o f g r e a t
e s t n e e d .
Q .u e stio n n a ire r e t u r n s in d i c a t e d l i t t l e v a lu e i n e l i
m in a tio n o f t u i t i o n . E lim in a tio n o f t u i t i o n as a te a c h e r
r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re was r a t e d by th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s
p o n d e n ts a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b le 3QTV X. The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f
re s p o n d e n ts saw l i t t l e v a lu e i n t h i s s u g g e s te d m ethod. The
e x e c u tiv e s e c r e t a r i e s o f s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s gave i t
th e l a r g e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f M Atf r a t i n g s , b u t i n t h i s group
l e s s th a n h a l f p la c e d i t i n th e m ost f a v o r a b le c a te g o r y .
C a l i f o r n i a r e s p o n d e n ts w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y u n e n t h u s i a s t i c
ab o u t th e p ro c e d u re . C o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s o u t
s id e C a l i f o r n i a r a t e d a b o l i t i o n o f t u i t i o n a s much more
TABLE ZXVI
ELMINATIQN OF AIL* TUITION FEES FOR TEACHER TRAINING COURSES IN STATE
. . . .SUPPORTED INSTITUTIONS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B
Signi- Per cent of per cent
D Retain fieant A to Total Retain
State
departments 32
State Teachers1
Associations 33
Colleges in
California 16
Colleges outside
California 44
10 11
15
4
4 7 10
17 13 17 13
31*2
45.5
12.5
38.6
21.9
30.3
12.5
38.6
Guidance Directors
in California 64 12 24 22 8 18.8 12.5
Guidance Directors
outside California 82 15 35 13 19 14 13 18.3 17.1
Total 271 71 96 59 45 58 50 26.2 21.4
185
d e s i r a b l e th a n d id th e l i k e group of C a l i f o r n i a n s . G uidance
d i r e c t o r s b o th i n s i d e and o u t s i d e C a l i f o r n i a e x p re s s e d
s e r io u s d o u b t a s t o th e e f f i c a c y o f t h e p ro c e d u re and th e
t o t a l r e t u r n s found b u t s l i g h t l y more th a n o n e - f o u r th o f
r e s p o n d e n ts aw arding th e "A" r a t i n g .
D e s ire f o r r e t e n t i o n o f f r e e t u i t i o n fo llo w e d th e
same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n a s th e "A" r a t i n g s w ith o n ly a p p r o x i
m a te ly 20 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts d e s i r i n g perm anency f o r
th e p r o c e d u r e . A s i g n i f i c a n t number o f th e t o t a l group
in d i c a t e d a b e l i e f i n in h e r e n t d a n g e rs i n th e s u g g e s te d r e
c r u itm e n t method w ith f o r t y - f i v e , o r a p p ro x im a te ly 17 p e r
c e n t, condem ning i t w ith th e f,Dft r a t i n g .
W hile many o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts who showed la c k o f
e n th u s ia s m f o r f r e e t u i t i o n as a r e c r u i t m e n t d e v ic e d id n o t
e l a b o r a t e on t h e i r r a t i n g s , th o s e who d id g e n e r a lly o b je c te d
to th e n o n - s e l e c t i v i t y o f su ch a p ro c e d u re . They f e l t t h a t
many n o n - t a l e n t e d i n d i v i d u a l s w ould p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s f o r
t r a i n i n g and th e p r o f e s s i o n would s u f f e r as a r e s u l t . The
p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t y o f f in a n c in g such a method may w e ll
have c o lo re d many o f th e r e s p o n s e s a s w e ll .
V II. PROVIDING SCHOLARSHIPS FOR TEACHER TRAINING
P r i v a t e fu n d s w ere u s u a l s o u rc e i n p a s t . C o lle g e
s c h o l a r s h i p s , aw arded on a c o m p e titiv e b a s i s t o s u p e r i o r
s tu d e n ts , have b e e n a v a i l a b l e i n l i m i t e d num bers f o r
1 8 6
g e n e r a tio n s . A m a jo r i ty o f them have been fin a n c e d by
p r i v a t e endowment. They have b een aw arded i n many f i e l d s ,
o f t e n w ith o u t c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e need f o r t r a i n e d
p e r s o n n e l i n th e f i e l d . S c i e n t i f i c and a r t i s t i c re a lm s o f
en d eav o r have b een th e m ost f r e q u e n t r e c i p i e n t s o f such
fu n d s , w h ile te a c h e r t r a i n i n g , c o n s id e r in g i t s n o rm a lly
l a r g e e n r o llm e n t, h a s been one o f th e l e a s t fa v o re d f i e l d s
by g r a n t o r s o f s c h o l a r s h i p s .
S in c e e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l l t u i t i o n f e e s f o r te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i s a n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r o c e d u re , many have s u g g e s te d
s o l i c i t i n g p r i v a t e and p u b lic fu n d s f o r th e f in a n c in g o f
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e num bers o f s c h o l a r s h i p s f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n
in g i n o r d e r to m i t i g a t e th e s h o r ta g e o f te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l.
S e v e r a l such program s have b een in a u g u ra te d s in c e th e b e g in
n in g o f World War I I .
P ro b a b ly th e l a r g e s t award o f p r i v a t e fu n d s was t h a t
made by th e C a l i f o r n i a C o n g ress o f P a r e n t s and T e a c h e rs f o r
16
th e t r a i n i n g o f e le m e n ta ry t e a c h e r s i n t h a t s t a t e . In
1945 th e o r g a n i z a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d a fund o f f i f t y th o u sa n d
d o l l a r s to a t t r a c t s u p e r io r s tu d e n ts to th e p r o f e s s i o n .
More r e c e n t l y an a d d i t i o n a l a l l o c a t i o n o f t h i r t y th o u sa n d
d o l l a r s to th e fund was announced. The s c h o l a r s h i p s a r e f o r
16
E d i t o r i a l comment, " S c h o la r s h ip s f o r P r o s p e c ti v e
T e a c h e r s ." C a l i f o r n i a S c h o o ls , No. 4, 1 7 :1 1 5 , A p r il, 1946.
187
t h r e e h u n d red d o l l a r s a y e a r and may he renew ed f o r a p e r io d
n o t to exceed a t o t a l o f fo u r y e a r s . P r o s p e c ti v e g r a d u a te s
o f h ig h s c h o o ls , j u n i o r c o l le g e s tu d e n t s , and s tu d e n ts
a lre a d y e n r o lle d i n c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g a r e e l i g i b l e to a p p ly .
S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s h i p s o f one hundred d o l l a r s a r e open to
s t u d e n t s o f c o l le g e j u n i o r s ta n d in g o r above who p la n to
ta k e s h o r t c o u r s e s le a d in g to em ergency c e r t i f i c a t i o n . A ll
th e s c h o l a r s h i p s a re aw arded u n d e r th e a rra n g e m e n t t h a t th e
money i s to be re fu n d e d u n le s s th e t r a i n e e c o n tin u e s to
te a c h i n C a l i f o r n i a f o r a minimum o f f o u r y e a r s .
F l o r i d a h a s a m b itio u s s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p p l a n . A
number o f s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s h av e ta k e n r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e
c r i s i s i n e d u c a tio n by a p p r o p r ia ti n g fu n d s t o f in a n c e
t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g s c h o l a r s h i p s . By J u ly o f 1945, Alabama,
C o lo ra d o , F l o r i d a , M aryland, M ich ig an , and New J e r s e y had
a l l in a u g u r a te d such p la n s ; and i n th e y e a r f o llo w in g , a
number o f a d d i t i o n a l s t a t e s w ere m aking p la n s f o r such a
17
program .
P e rh a p s th e m ost a m b itio u s s t a t e p la n was t h a t d e -
18
v e lo p e d f o r F l o r i d a . That s t a t e i s a p p r o p r i a t i n g two
17
H arry E. E ld e r , "The T ea ch er S h o rta g e : From Acute
to A la rm in g !” Im e ric a n A s s o c ia tio n o f C o l l e g i a t e R e g i s t r a r s
J o u r n a l , 2 1 :6 9 , O c to b e r, 1945.
T O
E dgar L. M orphet, " S t a t e S c h o la r s h i p s f o r T each-
e r s ," N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n J o u r n a l , 3 5 :2 7 -2 8 ,
J a n u a ry , 1946.
188
hundred th o u san d d o l l a r s a n n u a lly to f in a n c e f i v e h undred
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g s c h o l a r s h i p s a t f o u r h u ndred d o l l a r s e a c h .
R e c ip i e n ts o f th e aw ards a re s e l e c t e d hy c o m p e titiv e exam in
a t i o n . Each c o u n ty i s g iv e n a q u o ta o f aw ards w hich i t may
n o t ex c ee d . N egroes o f th e s t a t e , i n p r o p o r ti o n to t h e i r
p o p u la tio n , r e c e iv e th e same number o f s c h o la r s h ip s a s do
th e w h ite p e o p le . S c h o la r s h ip s a r e re n e w a b le f o r a maximum
o f f i v e y e a r s . The r e c i p i e n t o f su ch an award s ig n s a n o te
f o r each a n n u a l f o u r hundred d o l l a r g r a n t . When he c o m p le te s
h i s f i r s t y e a r o f te a c h in g t h e f i r s t n o te i s c a n c e lle d and
th e p r o c e s s i s r e p e a te d up to th e maximum o f f i v e y e a r s .
F l o r i d a makes a d u p l i c a t e g r a n t o f two hundred th o u s
and d o l l a r s a n n u a lly to h e lp s u b s i d i z e summer s c h o o l stu d y
f o r th e s t a t e ’ s t e a c h e r s . S e v e n t y - f iv e d o l l a r s i s a l l o t t e d
to each t e a c h e r who co m p le te s an a c c e p ta b le program o f
summer s tu d y . Summer w orkshop s tu d y may be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r
summer s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e u n d er t h i s program . Thus, a p p r o x i
m a te ly o n e - f o u r th of F l o r i d a ’ s t e a c h e r s may a n n u a lly
r e c e i v e f i n a n c i a l a id f o r summer s tu d y .
M a jo r ity o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e g ro u p s r a t e d s c h o l a r s h i p s
h ig h ly . R a tin g s on t e a c h e r s c h o l a r s h i p s as a means o f r e
c r u itm e n t a r e shown i n T ab le XXVII. The d e g re e o f i n d o r s e
m ent v a r i e d c o n s id e r a b ly among th e s e v e r a l g ro u p s. S t a t e
te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n and c o l le g e o f f i c i a l s o u ts i d e C a l i f o r n i a
T A B L E O T H
SCHOLARSHIPS, FINANCED BY PUBLIC OR PRIVATE FUNDS, FOR TRAINING OF
PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B
c
D Retain
Signi
ficant
Fer cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 32 13 13 3 3 16 10 40.6 50.0
State Teaekers*
Associations 34 24 7 2 1 22 8 70.6 64.7
Colleges in
California 17 8 9 0 0 9 10 47.1 52.9
Colleges outside
California 45 32 8 4 1 28 15 71.1 62.2
Guidance Directors
in California 68 35 26 5 2 25 12 51.5 36.8
Guidance Directors
outside California 86 • 45 30 6 5 43 27 52.3 50.0
Total 282 157 93 20 12 143 82 55.7 50.7
189
190
r a t e d th e p ro c e d u re c o n s id e r a b ly h ig h e r th a n d id th e o th e r
r e s p o n d e n ts to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . U n lik e o th e r p ro c e d u re
r a t i n g s p r e s e n te d i n t h i s c h a p te r , n e i t h e r group o f g u id a n c e
d i r e c t o r s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y below th e a v e ra g e i n number o f
w Aft r e s p o n s e s .
T here i s a s u r p r i s i n g d iv e rg e n c e o f o p in io n betw een
s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n r a t i n g s .
S in c e each i s n a tio n -w id e i n sc o p e and r e p r e s e n t s p r a c t i c a l
l y th e same c o v e ra g e as to s t a t e s , th e d i f f e r e n c e ca n n o t be
e x p la in e d on th e b a s i s o f s e c t i o n a l b e l i e f s o r econom ic
v a r i a t i o n . The C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e s a re a ls o te m p e ra te i n
t h e i r a p p r a i s a l o f s c h o l a r s h i p s 'a s a r e c r u itm e n t m ethod.
T hat a lo n e can h a r d ly be c o n s id e r e d a s a d e n i a l o f th e
P a r e n t T each er A s s o c ia tio n aw ards o f t h a t s t a t e s in c e th o s e
aw ards a re o f to o r e c e n t o r i g i n f o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
S in c e more th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f a l l th e re s p o n d e n ts
r a t e d th e p ro c e d u re w ith an "A**, i t would a p p e a r t h a t some
su ch s c h o la r s h ip p la n h a s c o n s id e r a b le s i g n i f i c a n c e and
sh o u ld n o t be f o r g o t t e n i n any co m p reh en siv e r e c r u itm e n t
pro g ram . A lm ost a s many o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e p a r t i c i p a n t s
i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e to r e t a i n th e p ro c e d u re p e rm a n e n tly i n
any r e c r u itm e n t p ro g ram . T h at group s e e s v a lu e i n s c h o l a r
s h ip s f o r te a c h e r s even d u r in g norm al su p p ly and demand
p e r io d s , q u i t e p o s s i b l y b e c a u se i t a f f o r d s an o p p o r tu n ity
f o r s e l e c t i v e r e c r u itm e n t and a co n se q u e n t r a i s i n g o f th e
191
q u a lity le v e l in the p r o fe ssio n .
V I I I . RECRUITING A M O N G COLLEGE LIBERAL ARTS STUDENTS
W H O HAVE NOT M ADE A VOCATIONAL CHOICE
L i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s r e p r e s e n t l a r g e p e r c e n ta g e o f
t o t a l . T housands o f A m erican y o u th n o rm a lly a tte n d th e
s m a lle r l i b e r a l a r t s c o l l e g e s o f th e c o u n try . Most o f th e s e
s c h o o ls have few i f any p r o f e s s i o n a l d e p a rtm e n ts . They
g ra d u a te s t u d e n t s w ith a B a c h e lo r o f A rts d e g re e w ith o u t
a tte m p tin g to t r a i n f o r any s p e c i f i c v o c a t i o n a l f u t u r e . A
m a jo r i ty o f such s c h o o ls o f f e r some c o u r s e s i n e d u c a tio n
w hich c h a n n e l a p o r t i o n o f t h e i r g r a d u a te s i n t o te a c h i n g .
A d d itio n a l th o u sa n d s o f c o l le g e s tu d e n ts a r e e n r o lle d
i n th e l i b e r a l a r t s d e p a rtm e n ts o f th e m a jo r u n i v e r s i t i e s o f
th e c o u n try . They, i n th e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s , a r e s t i l l
u n d ec id ed a s to t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l f u t u r e . Many w i l l change
o v e r to one o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o ls a t th e b e g in n in g o f
t h e i r t h i r d o r f o u r t h y e a r .
L i t t l e h a s been done t o in f l u e n c e v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e
o f l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s . These l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s i n
th e s m a ll c o l le g e s and l a r g e u n i v e r s i t i e s r e p r e s e n t a
f e r t i l e f i e l d from w hich to g a r n e r t e a c h e r s . W hile d e p a r t
m en ts o f e d u c a tio n i n th e sm a ll c o l l e g e s have le d l a r g e
num bers i n t o te a c h e r t r a i n i n g , c o m p a ra tiv e ly l i t t l e a tte m p t
192
h a s been made to i n f l u e n c e th e n o n - p r o f e s s io n a l g roup en
r o l l e d i n th e u n i v e r s i t i e s . U ndoubtedly a p p l i c a t i o n to
t h i s group o f s e v e r a l o f th e m ethods p r e s e n te d i n t h i s
stu d y w ould r e s u l t i n s i z e a b l e num bers e n t e r i n g te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g .
Even i n th o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v in g s c h o o ls o r m a jo r
d e p a rtm e n ts o f e d u c a tio n , th e s tu d e n t n o rm a lly i s n o t en
r o l l e d f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g u n t i l th e b e g in n in g o f h i s
j u n i o r y e a r . I n th e two o r t h r e e y e a r s f o llo w in g , much o f
h i s c o u rs e work w i l l c o n tin u e to be i n academ ic s u b j e c t s
o u t s i d e th e f i e l d o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a tio n . T h is c o n d i tio n
te n d s to m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t members o f o t h e r d e p a rtm e n ts f e e l
in g much in v o lv e d i n th e r e c r u itm e n t o r p r e p a r a t i o n o f te a c h -
19
e r s . I f a means can b e d e v is e d f o r g r e a t e r c o r r e l a t i o n i n
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g among a l l c o l le g e and u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t
m e n ts, b o th r e c r u i t m e n t and q u a l i t y of t r a i n i n g w i l l be
en h an ced .
T h is ite m , p la c e d i n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o r r a t i n g
among th e num erous s u g g e s te d r e c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u r e s can
h a r d ly be c a l l e d a p ro c e d u re a t a l l . R a th e r i t i s a f i e l d
o r segm ent o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n i n w hich r e c r u itm e n t may
be c o n d u c te d . Though i t s i n c l u s i o n a t t h i s p o i n t b re a k s th e
19
Commission on T each er E d u c a tio n , T e a c h e rs F o r Our
Times (W ashington, D .C .: A m erican C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n ,
19447, p . 10.
195
c o n t i n u i t y o f s p e c i f i c p r o c e d u re s i n r e c r u i t i n g i t h as n e v e r
t h e l e s s been in c lu d e d b e c a u se o f i t s p o s s i b l e im p o rta n c e i n
b r in g in g p r o f e s s i o n a l c h o ic e s f o r e d u c a tio n a l c a r e e r s .
P u b l i c i t y c o n c e rn in g te a c h in g o p p o r t u n i t i e s i s one
ap p ro ach to th e l i b e r a l a r t s g ro u p . Such p u b l i c i t y may be
i n th e n a t u r e o f p o s t e r s , a r t i c l e s i n s tu d e n t n ew sp a p ers, o r
b u l l e t i n s and l e a f l e t s d i s t r i b u t e d by th e d e p a rtm e n t o r
sc h o o l o f e d u c a tio n . C o lle g e assem bly s p e a k e r s may be used
to p r e s e n t th e n e e d s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f e d u c a tio n . W ell
p u b lic iz e d i n d i v i d u a l and g roup c o n f e r e n c e s i n w hich o p p o r
t u n i t i e s i n e d u c a tio n a r e p r e s e n te d a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e .
Most p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o ls on u n i v e r s i t y cam puses have
w e ll o rg a n iz e d c lu b s or a s s o c i a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a te s .
T hese o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a r r y on b o th s o c i a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l
a c t i v i t i e s w hich h e lp b u i l d e s p i r i t de c o rp s f o r th e v a r io u s
p r e - v o c a t i o n a l g ro u p s and te n d t o r e c r u i t a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n e e s
f o r th e p r o f e s s i o n i n q u e s tio n .
E d u c a tio n h as b ee n slow to f o llo w th e exam ple s e t by
o th e r p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . Many, i f n o t a m a jo r i ty o f
u n i v e r s i t i e s , have n o t a s i n g l e p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a ti o n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r w hich a l l t h e i r s c h o o l o f e d u c a tio n e n r o l l
m ent a r e e l i g i b l e . The p r e s e n t p e r io d o f te a c h e r s h o r ta g e
h as le d a number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s to i n i t i a t e such o r g a n i
z a t i o n s w ith te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t a s one o f th e m o tiv e s . I n
t h i s c o n n e c tio n , th e F u tu re T e a c h e rs o f A m erica c h a p te r s ,
194
sp o n so re d by th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , a r e th e o n ly
n a tio n - w id e a tte m p t to p r o v id e such o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
Q u est1o n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts opposed r e c r u itm e n t among
l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s . T ab le XXVIII p o r t r a y s o p in io n a s to
a d e f i n i t e te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t program c a r r i e d on among
l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s . The r e s p o n d e n ts , a s a g ro u p , w ere
none to o e n t h u s i a s t i c f o r th e p ro c e d u re . T 1 Btf r a t i n g s , p r e
d i c t i n g o n ly m odest s u c c e s s f o r th e m ethod, s l i g h t l y e x c e e d
ed "A" r a t i n g s . S t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and s t a t e te a c h e r
a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s , r e p r e s e n t i n g an e x p r e s s io n o f f a i r l y
co m p lete n a t i o n a l o p in io n , w ere v e r y s i m i l a r i n t h e i r "A"
r a t i n g s and to g e th e r showed a p p ro x im a te ly 50 p e r c e n t o f "A"
in d o rs e m e n ts .
G uidance d i r e c t o r s o u ts i d e C a l i f o r n i a w ere f a r l e s s
p ro n e to award th e T ,Atf r a t i n g . M oreover, a s i z e a b l e p e r c e n t
age o f th e r a t i n g s o f t h i s group a r e found i n th e f,C,f and
colum ns, i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f t h a t th e p ro c e d u re w ould
h ave no r e c r u i t m e n t v a lu e or would in tr o d u c e a t t e n d a n t e v i l s .
The l a c k o f s u p p o rt f o r t h i s m ethod among g u id a n ce d i r e c t o r s
o u t s i d e C a l i f o r n i a b ro u g h t th e t o t a l "A" r a t i n g s to a p p ro x i
m a te ly 40 p e r c e n t.
Even a sm a ll p e r c e n ta g e o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts w ould
20
Of. p o s t, pp. 196-201.
TABLE X m i l
DEFBTITE RECRUITMENT PROGRAM AMONG LIBERAL ARTS STUDENTS IF COLLEGES
. 1H0 OTHERWISE DO NOT HAVE I f f i L L ESTABLISHED PROFESSIONAL AIMS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 33 16 15 1 1 13 12 48*5 39*4
State Teachers*
Associations 32 17 10 3 2 16 7 53.1 50.0
Colleges in
California 17 9 7 0 1 6 9 52.9 35.3
Colleges outside
California 43 18 18 5 2 14
t
11 41.9 32.6
Guidance Directors
in California 68 31 32 3 2 20 10 45.6 29.4
Guidance Directors
outside California 85 23 36 13 13 25 12 27.1 29.4
Total 278 114 118 25 21 94 61 41.0 33.8
195
196
r e t a i n such r e c r u i t m e n t a c t i v i t y on a perm anent b a s i s . Only
one g ro u p , s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s , had a s many
a s 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r number s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e method
be r e t a i n e d a f t e r th e t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e i s a t an en d . G uid
ance o f f i c i a l s a g a in w ere m ost r e l u c t a n t to r e t a i n r e c r u i t
ment among l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s . One may w e ll wonder h e re ,
a s i n num erous o th e r i n s t a n c e s i n t h i s s tu d y , w h e th e r th e
g u id a n c e d i r e c t o r s ’ c o n s i s t e n t l y s l i g h t s u p p o rt o f th e r e
c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re may n o t stem from a d e s i r e to m a in ta in
i m p a r t i a l , o b j e c t i v e ap p ro a c h to w ard a l l v o c a tio n s .
IX. STRESSING THE PROGRAM OF THE FUTURE TEACHERS
OF AMERICA ORGANIZATION
The o r g a n i z a t i o n i s o f r e c e n t o r i g i n . A program o f
s tu d e n t m em bership i n th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n was
in a u g u ra te d by t h a t body i n 1934. T h is a rra n g e m e n t was
su p e rse d e d by th e F u tu r e T e a c h e rs o f A m erica p la n w hich came
i n t o b e in g d u r in g th e 1938-1939 sc h o o l y e a r . The p la n c a l l s
f o r c h a p te r s i n j u n i o r and s e n i o r c o l l e g e s . An i n s t i t u t i o n
d o es n o t need to have a program o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n
o r d e r to q u a l i f y f o r a c h a p t e r . The s tu d e n t members pay
one d o l l a r n a t i o n a l d u es f o r w hich th e y r e c e i v e a su b
s c r i p t i o n to th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n J o u r n a l ,
a s e r i e s o f F e r s o n a l Growth P a m p h le ts , and th e F u tu r e
T e a c h e rs o f A m erica Y earbook.
197
Fourteen ch ap ters were launched during th e f i r s t
y e a r o f o r g a n i z a t i o n . By th e end o f th e 1944-45 sc h o o l y e a r,
2 1
t h e r e w ere 140 c h a p te r s w ith 3 ,0 0 1 t o t a l mem bers. C h a p te rs
a r e found m ost f r e q u e n t l y i n th e s m a lle r i n s t i t u t i o n s .
C a l i f o r n i a m em bership, f o r exam ple, i s l i m i t e d t o t h r e e
j u n i o r c o l l e g e s i n th e s o u th e rn p a r t o f th e s t a t e .
R e c ru itm e n t f o r te a c h in g i s a m a jo r avowed p u rp o se o f
th e F u tu r e T e a c h e rs o f .America. C h a p te r m e e tin g s a re d ev o ted
to p ro b lem s o f e d u c a tio n and to a s tu d y o f th e o p p o r t u n i t i e s
and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f te a c h in g a s a c a r e e r . The s e r i e s o f
P e r s o n a l Growth P a m p h le ts , p u b lis h e d by th e N a tio n a l E duca
t i o n A s s o c ia tio n , p r o v id e s c o n s id e r a b le in f o r m a tio n and
i n s p i r a t i o n f o r m e e tin g d i s c u s s i o n s . The t y p i c a l c o l le g e
c h a p te r c a r r i e s on an a c t i v e s o c i a l program a s w e l l . T h is
te n d s to add to th e p r e s t i g e o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
The N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n s p o n s o rs a l s o
o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f F u tu re T e a c h e rs o f A m erica C lubs i n h ig h
s c h o o ls . These c l u b s , w hich a re " e x p lo r a to r y , p r e - v o c a t i o n a l ,
and p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l " a r e n a t u r a l l y l e s s t e c h n i c a l th a n th e
op
c o l le g e c h a p te r s . T h e ir s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s r e p r e s e n t a
21
F u tu re T e a c h e rs o f A m erica, F i f t h Y earbook
(W ashington, B .C .: N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 4 5 ),
p . 145.
22
E d i t o r i a l comment, " F u tu re T e a c h e rs o f A m erica
Going F o rw a rd ," N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n J o u r n a l ,
3 0 :2 5 0 , November, 1941.
198
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r p a r t of t h e i r t o t a l program , "but th e y , to o ,
have im p o r ta n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r r e c r u i t m e n t ,
P3
Bow ers, S u p e rv is o r o f T each er E d u c a tio n and C e r t i
f i c a t i o n f o r Ohio S t a t e D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n , r a t e s th e
h ig h s c h o o l F u tu re T e a c h e rs Club a s th e m ost s a t i s f a c t o r y
m ethod o f te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t used i n t h a t s t a t e . He s t a t e s
t h a t t h e r e w ere a p p ro x im a te ly f i f t y such c lu h s i n th e s t a t e
d u rin g th e 1945-46 sc h o o l y e a r .
I t i s w o rth y o f n o te t h a t th e F u tu re T e a c h e rs o f
im e r ic a , a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a rs o f a c t i v e s p o n s o rs h ip by th e
N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , h as f a i l e d t o g a in a f o o t
h o ld i n th e m a j o r i t y o f th e j u n i o r and s e n io r c o l l e g e s o f
th e c o u n try . I t s h i g h e s t m em bership o f a p p ro x im a te ly 3 ,5 0 0
i s s m a ll compared t o s e v e r a l o th e r p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l c o l l e g i a t e
g ro u p s . F o r some re a s o n i t h a s f a i l e d to g a in t h a t p la c e o f
l e a d e r s h i p i n t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t w hich was ex p ected o f i t .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s i n d io a te d o n ly m odest v a lu e i n
th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . Lack o f e n th u s ia s m f o r th e o r g a n i z a t i o n i s
shown by th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts a s p o r tr a y e d i n T able
XXIX. Only o n e - t h i r d o f them , a p p ro x im a te ly , awarded i t th e
to p "A” r a t i n g . S t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s a lo n e
te n d ed to r e g a r d th e o r g a n i z a t i o n as s i g n i f i c a n t , w ith tw o-
H aro ld J . Bow ers, P e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru a ry 27,
1946.
T A B LE x m
ORGANIZATION OR INCREASED EMASIS OF FUTURE TEACHER OF AMERICA CLUBS
IN HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 33 15 18 0 0 15 10 45.5 45.5
State Teachers1
Associations 33 22 10 1 0 23 11 66.7 69.7
Colleges in
California 17 8 6 1 2 8 7 47.1 47,1
Colleges outside
California 43 9 28 4 2 11 8 20.9 25.6
Guidance Directors
in California 64 19 26 18 1 17 9 29.7 26.6
Guidance Directors
outside California 81 20 37 17 7 23 13 24.7 28.4
Total 271 93 125 41 12 97 60 34.3 35.8
199
200
th ir d s o f them p la cin g i t in the "A" column.
I t m ig h t he e x p e c te d t h a t s c h o o ls and d e p a rtm e n ts o f
e d u c a tio n i n th e c o l l e g e s , th e s t u d e n t s o f w hich would
o r d i n a r i l y co m p rise th e m em bership o f such o r g a n iz a tio n s ,
would s u p p o r t th e F u tu r e T e a c h e rs o f A m erica. The q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e t u r n s would n o t i n d i c a t e a s much, how ever. E ig h t of
th e s e v e n te e n C a l i f o r n i a h ig h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s in d o r s e d i t , h u t
o n ly 20 p e r c e n t o f c o l l e g i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s o u t s i d e
C a l i f o r n i a gave i t th e "A" c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . G uidance d i r e c t
o r s i n C a l i f o r n i a and o u t ten d ed to see c o m p a ra tiv e ly l i t t l e
v a lu e i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . A m a j o r i t y o f them , w orking on
th e h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l , c o u ld n o t have h e e n unaw are o f th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n o f F u tu re T ea ch er o f A m erica
C lubs i n th e se c o n d a ry s c h o o ls . Y et th e v a s t m a jo r i ty of
them co u ld s e e , a t b e s t , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o n ly m odest
s u c c e s s r e s u l t i n g .
Even w ith th e modal re s p o n s e f a l l i n g i n th e "B", or
" p o s s i b le m odest r e s u l t s " column, some m ig h t e x p e c t demand
f o r r e t e n t i o n o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . S in c e i t i s an o rg a n iz e d ,
c o n s c io u s a tte m p t a t r e c r u i t m e n t , some m ight a sk f o r i t s
c o n tin u a n c e i n th e h o p es t h a t some r e c r u itm e n t would r e s u l t .
B ut th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s a r e a t v a r ia n c e w ith such a
l i n e o f r e a s o n in g . Only 3 5 .8 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l group o f
re s p o n d e n ts i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e to r e t a i n th e o r g a n iz a tio n
p e rm a n e n tly . I n no group, save s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n
201
o f f i c i a l s , w ere t h e r e a s many a s 50 p e r c e n t who asked f o r
such r e t e n t i o n .
One i s le d to b e l i e v e , th e n , t h a t to th e e x t e n t th e
q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts r e f l e c t th e t h i n k i n g of th e n a t i o n ’ s
e d u c a to r s g e n e r a l l y , th e F u tu re T e a c h e rs o f A m erica o r g a n i
z a t i o n i s n o t to be depended upon f o r a m a jo r c o n t r i b u t i o n i n
t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t. O th er l e s s d i r e c t p r o c e d u r e s , many o f
w hich have b r o a d e r aim s th a n te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t, a r e r a te d
a s p o t e n t i a l l y more e f f e c t i v e .
X. SUM M ARY OF OPINION REGARDING' METHODS OF RECRUITMENT
FOR TEACHER TRAINING
Jmong th e e i g h t su g g e ste d m ethods o f r e c r u itm e n t f o r
t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g w hich w ere p la c e d i n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e f o r
r a t i n g , th e m ost v ig o r o u s ly s u p p o rte d was em phasis i n th e
g u id a n c e program among h ig h sc h o o l and j u n i o r c o lle g e
s t u d e n t s on e d u c a tio n as a c a r e e r . Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts , 8 0 .4
p e r c e n t gave i t th e "A" r a t i n g , and 7 4 .2 p e r c e n t would
r e t a i n th e p ro c e d u re p e rm a n e n tly . The o p p o r tu n ity f o r
s e l e c t i v i t y was a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r among th o s e who
a n n o ta te d t h e i r r e s p o n s e s .
N ext h i g h e s t r a t i n g was awarded to i n c l u s i o n i n s o c i
a l s t u d i e s c o u rs e s o f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i v e
f
to e d u c a tio n ; 7 3 .9 p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts p la c e d th e p r o
c e d u re i n th e "A” colum n and 7 1 .8 asked f o r i t s perm anent
802
r e t e n t i o n . R e p o rts o f re se a rc h , s t u d i e s hy R obinson and
B iden te n d e d to s u b s t a n t i a t e th e v a lu e o f such s o c i a l s t u d i e s
m a t e r i a l s .
C o n fe re n c e s i n h ig h s c h o o ls and ju n io r c o l l e g e s w ith
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s r e c e iv e d th e
t h i r d h i g h e s t r a t i n g by q u e s t i o n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts ; 6 3 .7 gave
i t th e !,Afl r a t i n g and 6 2 .7 w anted i t p e rm a n e n tly r e t a i n e d .
T here ap p eared to be a need f o r b e t t e r j o i n t p la n n in g b e t
ween th e s c h o o ls v i s i t e d and th e i n s t i t u t i o n s m aking th e
v i s i t s i f such a c t i v i t y i s t o b e m ost e f f e c t i v e .
S c h o la r s h ip s f o r t r a i n i n g o f p r o s p e c t i v e te a c h e r s
r e p r e s e n te d th e p ro c e d u r e n e x t h ig h ly r e g a r d e d ; 5 5 .7 p e r c e n t
awarded th e m ethod w ith an fT An and 5 0 .7 p e r c e n t would r e t a i n
i t p e rm a n e n tly . The P a r e n t T eacher A s s o c ia tio n s c h o l a r s h i p s
i n C a l i f o r n i a and th e s t a t e fin a n c e d s c h o la r s h ip p la n in
F l o r i d a a r e among th e m ost p ro m in e n t exam ples o f th e p la n
a lr e a d y i n o p e r a t io n .
The o th e r f o u r p r o c e d u re s w ere r a t e d l e s s h ig h ly .
S t a t e d ep a rtm en t and t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n b u l l e t i n s
w ere g iv e n an W AW r a t i n g o f 4 5 .9 p e r c e n t . R e c ru itm e n t p r o
gram s among c o l l e g e l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s found 4 1 .0 p e r
c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts i n th e T ,A" colum n; o n ly 3 4 .3 p e r c e n t o f
th o s e an sw e rin g th e q u e s tio n n a i r e gave th e F u tu r e T e a c h e rs
o f A m erica to p r a t i n g . Most l i g h t l y re g a rd e d of th e p r o c e
d u re s among th e group o f e i g h t was th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l l
t u i t i o n f e e s f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s w ith h u t 2 6 ,2 p e r
c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n m a t e r i a l r e c r u i t
ment r e s u l t i n g .
I n a l l e i g h t o f th e su g g e s te d p r o c e d u re s f o r r e c r u i t
ment f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g , b e l i e f i n th e d e s i r a b i l i t y f o r
p erm an en t r e t e n t i o n c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d 1 1 An r a t i n g s . No
prono u n ced v a r ia n c e was a p p a re n t b etw een C a l i f o r n i a r e t u r n s
and th o s e from th e r e s t o f th e n a t i o n . C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e s ,
f o r f i v e p r o c e d u r e s o u t o f e i g h t , gave s l i g h t l y h ig h e r
r a t i n g s th a n o th e r c o l l e g e s ; and C a l i f o r n i a g u id a n c e o f f i c e r s ,
a ls o f o r f i v e p r o c e d u r e s o u t o f e i g h t , saw r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r
v a lu e i n th e su g g e ste d m eth o d s. Much g r e a t e r v a r ia n c e was
a p p a re n t among th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f e d u c a ti o n a l w o rk e rs .
G uidance d i r e c t o r s w ere a lm o st alw ays more r e l u c t a n t t o se e
m a t e r i a l v a lu e i n th e s u g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s th a n w ere o th e r
r e s p o n d e n ts . S t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s te n d e d to
e x h i b i t th e m ost e n th u sia s m f o r th e s u g g e s tio n s .
CHAPTER V IIX
MISCELLANEOUS PROCEDURES TO ALLEVIATE TEACHER SHORTAGES
I . ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
C e r t a i n p r o c e d u r e s , recommended i n e d u c a ti o n a l l i t e r a
t u r e as a means o f r e l i e v i n g te a c h e r s h o r ta g e s , c o u ld n o t he
c l a s s i f i e d e a s i l y i n t o th e p r e v io u s l y p r e s e n te d m ain h e a d
in g s o f t h i s s tu d y . Some o f them w ere n o t o f f e r e d as a
means o f te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t h u t r a t h e r as an a tte m p t a t a
more e x p e d iti o u s u se o f th e p r e s e n t s t a f f . These ite m s
a p p e ared a s m ain d i v i s i o n VI o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The d i s
c u s s io n i n t h i s c h a p te r w i l l c e n t e r around th o s e e i g h t sug
g e s t i o n s w hich a r e :
1 . E lim in a te many o f th e sm a ll c l a s s e s i n m a rg in a l
" n o n - e s s e n t i a l ” c o u r s e s .
2. I n c r e a s e norm al c l a s s s i z e s 20 p e r c e n t to 30 p e r
c e n t.
3 . E x p e d ite , th ro u g h l e g i s l a t i v e e n a c tm e n t, c o n s o l i
d a t io n o f r u r a l s c h o o ls so a s to re d u c e number o f
t e a c h e r s n ee d ed .
4 . P e rm it c o lle g e s t u d e n t s i n l a s t y e a r o f t r a i n i n g
to a c t a s p a id t e a c h e r s , u n d e r s p e c i a l s u p e r
v i s i o n , i n l i e u o f r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e te a c h i n g .
5. C o n tro l t e a c h e r s u p p ly th ro u g h f l e x i b l e r e g u l a t i o n
o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s hy s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts .
6 . Empower s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts to s e t y e a r l y q u o ta s ,
b ased on n ee d , r e g u l a t i n g number o f s t u d e n t s p e r
m it te d to e n t e r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s .
7. R e q u ire t e a c h e r c a n d id a te r e g i s t r a t i o n and
305
d i s t r i c t v ac an c y l i s t i n g w ith s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t
w hich w i l l th e n become e x c l u s i v e c l e a r i n g house
f o r a l l t e a c h e r p la c e m e n t.
8 . R e q u ire te a c h e r c a n d id a te r e g i s t r a t i o n and d i s
t r i c t v ac an c y l i s t i n g w ith s t a t e o r f e d e r a l
employment s e r v i c e w hich w i l l th e n become ex
c l u s i v e c l e a r i n g h o u se f o r a l l t e a c h e r p la c e m e n t.
I I . ELIMINATING THE SMALL CLASSES IN MARGINAL,
"NON-ESSENTIAL" COURSES
T h is was a d v o c a te d b o th d u r in g econom ic d e p r e s s io n and
p e r io d o f W orld War I I . The c ry to e l i m i n a t e s m a ll c l a s s e s
was a common one d u r in g th e d e p r e s s io n o f th e 1 9 3 0 f s . At
th e tim e sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s w ere r e d u c in g b u d g e ts d r a s t i c a l l y ,
and many e d u c a to r s found i t d i f f i c u l t to j u s t i f y e le m e n ta ry
g ra d e rooms o r h ig h s c h o o l c l a s s e s w ith l e s s th a n tw en ty
p u p i l s e n r o l l e d . The c o m b in a tio n s o f c l a s s e s e f f e c t e d a t
t h a t tim e was o f t e n a h e a lth y p r o c e s s , r e p r e s e n t i n g good
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p ro c e d u re w hich did n o t re d u c e e f f i c i e n c y .
Some t y p i c a l h ig h s c h o o l c l a s s e s , how ever, te n d ed to
be s m a ll w h erev e r found and d id n o t le n d th e m s e lv e s w e ll to
c o m b in a tio n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s m a ll s c h o o l sy ste m s. Advanced
a lg e b r a , s o l i d g eo m etry , tr ig o n o m e tr y , and advanced f o r e i g n
la n g u a g e c l a s s e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , n o rm a lly do n o t a t t r a c t
l a r g e e n r o llm e n ts ; and i f o f f e r e d i n th e s m a lle r h ig h s c h o o ls ,
th e c l a s s e s w ere i n e v i t a b l y s m a ll. Many m usic and a r t c l a s s
e s and many v o c a t i o n a l c o u rs e s a re t y p i c a l l y s m a ll, a s w e l l ,
and w ere f o rc e d t o defend th e m s e lv e s d u r in g th e d e p r e s s io n
p e r i o d .
The p e r io d o f te a c h e r s h o r ta g e w hich fo llo w e d so soon
a f t e r th e d e p r e s s io n was s i m i l a r i n some r e s p e c t s . I n t h e
second i n s t a n c e , few er t e a c h e r s w ere a v a i l a b l e , n o t so much
b e c a u se o f low ered b u d g e ts a s b e c a u se o f th e c o m p e titio n
f o r manpower.
W hile m ost a u t h o r i t i e s w ould a g re e to e l i m i n a t i o n o f
n o n - e s s e n t i a l c o u r s e s i n tim e s o f te a c h e r s h o r ta g e , th e
p ro b lem a r i s e s o f d e f i n i n g w hat i s e s s e n t i a l . The n a t u r e o f
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d id n o t make i t f e a s i b l e t o a tte m p t d e
f i n i t i o n o r i l l u s t r a t i o n ; ea ch r e s p o n d e n t had to r a t e th e
ite m on th e b a s i s o f h i s own p h ilo s o p h y .
The b ran d " n o n - e s s e n t i a l ” was u se d by many. Many
t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s who d e c r ie d th e te n d e n c y o f s c h o o ls t o add
th e s o - c a l l e d " f r i l l s " to th e c o u rs e o f s tu d y w ere among
th e f i r s t t o c a l l f o r e l i m i n a t i o n o f some o f th e new er
c o u r s e s i n tim e s o f t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e . They m a in ta in e d t h a t
th e em ergency was a l o g i c a l tim e to go back to th e fu n d a
m e n ta ls i n e d u c a tio n .'1 ' The wave o f c r i t i c i s m a t th e tim e
from m i l i t a r y and i n d u s t r i a l l e a d e r s c o n c e rn in g an a lle g e d
■ * * W. W. Ludeman, "Back to a Meat and P o ta to e s C u r ri
c u lu m ," A m erican S ch o o l B oard J o u r n a l . 1 0 4 :2 5 , F e b ru a ry ,
207
l a c k o f background i n fu n d a m e n ta ls among r e c e n t s c h o o l
g r a d u a te s seemed to le n d c re d e n c e to su c h e d u c a tio n a l t r a -
d i t i o n a l i s t s .
Some w r i t e r s a s s e r t e d t h a t s u b j e c t s had c r e p t i n t o
th e c o u rs e o f s tu d y and w ere allo w ed t o re m a in b e c a u se o f
i n e r t i a o r r e v e r e n c e f o r t r a d i t i o n . I n many c a s e s , th e y
c la im e d , s m a lle r s c h o o ls h av e added such c o u r s e s in o r d e r to
"keep up w ith th e J o n e s * s e s " y e t th e y a r e w h o lly u n a b le to
j u s t i f y such a c t i o n . A cco rd in g to F ix le y , p r o f e s s o r o f
E d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f New M exico:
A r u t h l e s s p r u n in g o f c u r r i c u l a r deadwood t h a t can
n o t b e j u s t i f i e d upon sound e d u c a ti o n a l g ro u n d s would
i n many c a s e s make p o s s i b l e th e c a r r y i n g on o f a d e c e n t
o f f e r i n g w ith th e a v a i l a b l e s t a f f m em bers.8
Q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n d e n ts w ere n o t im p re sse d w ith
v a lu e o f e l i m i n a t i n g " n o n - e s s e n t i a l s . ” R e fe re n c e to T ab le
XXX would i n d i c a t e t h a t q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts c o n s id e re d
r e d u c t i o n o f v a r i e t y i n th e c u r r i c u l a r o f f e r i n g a s o f d o u b t
f u l v a lu e i n r e d u c in g th e need f o r t e a c h e r s . S t a t e t e a c h e r
a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s gave th e s u g g e s te d p ro c e d u re a com
p a r a t i v e l y h ig h r a t i n g , b u t th e o th e r f i v e g ro u p s w ere much
l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c . Only 2 5 .8 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n s e s w ere
i n th e "A" column w h ich i n d i c a t e d u n q u a l i f i e d in d o rs e m e n t.
2 E verett H. F ix le y , "Meeting th e Teacher S h o rta g e,"
American School Board Jou rn al. 106:16, March, 1943.
TABU X X X
ELIMINATE SMALL CLASSES IN MARGINAL, f f NQN-ESSENTIAL* COURSES
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 30 11 10 6 3 11 12 36*7 36.7
State Teachers*
Associations 28 15 7 4 2 9 3 53*6 32.1
Colleges in
California 17 1 6 4 6 1 1 5.9 5.9
Colleges outside
California 42
6
15 13 8 9 5 14*3 21.4
Guidance Directors
in California 67 16 26 11 14 7 7 23.9 10.4
Guidance Directors
outside California 85 15 30 20 20 9 17 17.6 10.6
Total 269 64 94 58 53 46 45 23.8 17.1
A lm ost a s num erous w ere th e ,fDM r e t u r n s , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f
i n i n h e r e n t d a n g e rs i n su ch a p r o c e d u r e . C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e
o f f i c i a l s w ere m ost p ronounced i n t h e i r r e j e c t i o n o f th e
s u g g e s tio n .
A ccep tan ce o f th e p ro c e d u re as a p erm an en t m easu re
was even l e s s w e ll r e c e iv e d . B ut 1 7 .1 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l
group would r e q u e s t su c h r e t e n t i o n . C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e
o f f i c i a l s and t h e two g u id a n c e g ro u p s w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y
opposed to perm anency. I t m ust h e remembered t h a t t h i s
d e c i s i v e r e j e c t i o n p r e v a i l s u n d e r an a rra n g e m e n t w hereby
each re s p o n d e n t i s , i n a s e n s e , m aking h i s own c u r r i c u l a r
s e l e c t i o n f o r e l i m i n a t i o n . I t would seem p r o b a b le t h a t nam
in g s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c ite m s f o r e l i m i n a t i o n would b r in g even
g r e a t e r o p p o s it io n .
I I I . INCREASING CLASS SIZES 20 TO 30 PER CENT
Some r e s e a r c h s u p p o rte d th e s u g g e s tio n . Many who
w ere u t t e r l y opposed t o lo w e rin g o f s ta n d a r d s th ro u g h th e
h i r i n g o f em ergency t e a c h e r s f e l t such p ro c e d u r e c o u ld
f e a s i b l y become l e s s n e c e s s a r y by m a t e r i a l l y i n c r e a s i n g
c l a s s s i z e s . " R a ise th e te a c h in g lo a d o f e x p e rie n c e d p e r
so n n e l to f o r t y p u p i l s and r a i s e pay s u f f i c i e n t l y to keep
3
t e a c h e r s i n th e p r o f e s s i o n , ” was th e s u g g e s tio n o f
3
J ew ell R. D avis, "Meeting the Teacher Shortage,"
School E xecu tive. 62:47, March, 1943.
P r e s i d e n t Lamkin o f N o rth w e st M is so u ri S t a t e T e a c h e rs C ol
le g e • H is r e a s o n in g was t h a t q u a l i f i e d i n s t r u c t o r s would he
a t t r a c t e d by th e in c r e a s e d pay so t h a t th e p r e s e n t s t a f f
would n o t be d e p le te d ; and a t th e same tim e , p u p i l s would be
m ore a d e q u a te ly o ared f o r th a n i f s u b - s ta n d a r d p e r s o n n e l was
s e c u r e d .
R e se a rc h te n d s to s u p p o r t th e p r a c t i c a b i l i t y ©f l a r g e
c l a s s e s . A su m m a riz a tio n o f tw e n ty - f o u r c o n t r o l l e d e x p e r i
m en ts r e p o r te d i n th e E n c y c lo p e d ia o f E d u c a tio n a l R e sea rc h
le d t o th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t "On th e w hole th e s t a t i s t i c a l
f i n d i n g s d e f i n i t e l y f a v o r th e l a r g e c l a s s e s a t e v e ry l e v e l
4 ts
o f i n s t r u c t i o n e x c e p t th e k i n d e r g a r t e n ." F i x l e y , i n
a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e above d o c t r i n e , m a in ta in e d t h a t a l l c l a s s
e s w ith o u t q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s sh o u ld be d i s t r i b u t e d among
th e re m a in in g a b le t e a c h e r s . He s u g g e s te d t h a t rooms could
b e rem o d e led , i f n e c e s s a r y , i n o r d e r t o e x p e d ite such an
a rra n g e m e n t. He, to o , recommended a d d i t i o n a l p a y to com
p e n s a te t e a c h e r s f o r th e l a r g e r te a c h in g lo a d .
Thus, r e s e a r c h would seem to i n d i c a t e t h a t p u p i l s
make a s much p r o g r e s s i n c l a s s e s o f t h i r t y - f i v e a s th e y do
4
F re d Von B o rg e rs ro d e , " C la s s S i z e , " E n c y c lo p e d ia
o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h , p p . 19 7 -2 0 0 .
5
2 1 1
i n tw e n t y - f i v e . W hether th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l c l a s s o f
f o r t y - f i v e , how ever, would s t i l l he a s a d v a n ta g e o u s to th e
w hole e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s h a s n o t b e e n th o ro u g h ly i n v e s t i g a t e d .
O b v io u sly t h e r e i s a p o i n t , n o t y e t d e f i n i t e l y l o c a te d by
r e s e a r c h , beyond w hich c l a s s s i z e sh o u ld n o t b e expanded.
I n c r e a s e o f c l a s s s i z e was th o ro u g h ly r e j e c t e d by
q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts . The r e a c t i o n o f th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e group a s shown i n T a b le XXXI, was one o f a lm o st com
p l e t e r e j e c t i o n to th e s u g g e s tio n o f i n c r e a s i n g c l a s s s i z e
from 20 to 30 p e r c e n t . I n view o f num erous r e s e a r c h d a ta
r e p o r te d above, th e th o ro u g h n e s s o f t h e i r r e j e c t i o n may be
c o n s id e r e d s u r p r i s i n g . B ut 2 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l group
saw m a t e r i a l v a l u e i n th e s u g g e s tio n . On th e o t h e r h and,
m ore th a n tw o - t h i r d s o f a l l r e s p o n s e s w ere i n th e "D"
colum n i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n r e s u l t i n g e v i l s . I t seems
c l e a r t h a t a v a s t m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n ts f e l t t h a t a m a t e r i
a l i n c r e a s e i n c l a s s s i z e would g r e a t l y re d u c e th e v a lu e o f
th e e d u c a tio n a l o f f e r i n g .
R e je c tio n o f in c r e a s e d c l a s s s i z e a s a p o s s i b l e p e r
m anent m easu re was even m ore c o m p le te . But 1 .9 p e r c e n t o f
a l l th e g ro u p s asked f o r su ch perm anency. I t would a p p e a r,
th e n , t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f th e f i n d i n g s o f r e s e a r c h , e d u c a to r s a
w i l l n o t a c c e p t m a t e r i a l i n c r e a s e i n c l a s s s i z e a s a d e s i r a
b l e p ro c e d u re i n r e d u c in g th e t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e .
TABLE m i
I N C R E A S E N O R M A L C L A S S S IZ E S 20 P E R C E N T T O 30 P E R C E N T
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
petain
State
Departments 29 1 7 4 17 1 5 3*4 3.4
State Teachers'
Associations 31 0 4 5 22 1 4 0.0 3.2
Colleges in
California 17 0 2 3 12 1 1 0.0 5.9
Colleges outside
California 42 1 9 12 20 0 6 2.4 0.0
Guidance Directors
in California 68 1 9 4 54 1 4 1.5 1.5
Guidance Directors
outside California 81 4 15 7 55 1 10 4*9 1.2
Total- 268 7 46 35 180 5 30 2.6 1.9
213
IV . EXPEDITING, THRCUGH LEGISLATIVE ENACTMENT,
CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS SO AS TO REDUCE
NUM BER OF TEACHERS NEEDED
Movement i s o o m p a ra tiv e ly r e c e n t . The A m erican p u b l i c
s c h o o l sy ste m h a s d e v e lo p e d th ro u g h th e y e a r s a s a h ig h ly
d e c e n t r a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n . T r a d i t i o n a l l y th e a tte n d a n c e
u n i t h a s a l s o b e e n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t so t h a t many
s t a t e s ev en to d a y h a v e a b o u t a s many b o a rd m em bers a s th e y
h a v e t e a c h e r s . The S t a t e o f I l l i n o i s , f o r ex a m p le , in c l u d e s
some tw e lv e th o u s a n d l o c a l u n i t s , a v e r a g in g 1 2 4 p u p i l s and
s
em p lo y in g f o u r t e a c h e r s . The s m a ll o n e-ro o m s c h o o l h a s
b e e n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i g h t f o r many y e a r s and i s s t i l l
much i n u s e . Many su c h s c h o o ls c a l l f o r one te a c h e r h an d
l i n g s e v e r a l g r a d e s . F r e q u e n tly t h e s e s c h o o ls h a v e l e s s
th a n t e n p u p i l s e a c h . T h is s i t u a t i o n h a s le d many to f e e l
t h a t c o n s o l i d a t i o n w ould re d u c e th e num ber o f t e a c h e r s
n e e d e d .
I n th e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y , when
c o n s o l i d a t i o n a g i t a t i o n w as r e l a t i v e l y new , th e c h i e f em
p h a s is was upon th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f o n e - and tw o-room s c h o o ls
and th e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f r u r a l p u p i l s to l a r g e r c e n t r a l
6
P a u l R. M ort and W a lte r C. R e u s s e r , P u b lic S c h o o l
F in a n c e (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 1 ),
p . 3 .
214
b u i l d i n g s . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , h o w ev er, much s t r e s s h a s b e e n
g iv e n t o th e d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s o f l a r g e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
u n i t s , w h ich i n c l u d e m ore e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i n a n
c i a l s u p p o r t and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r b e t t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l
s u p e r v is io n . Many e d u c a ti o n a l l e a d e r s h av e come t o f e e l ,
to o , t h a t r u t h l e s s e l i m i n a t i o n o f s m a ll a tte n d a n c e u n i t s i s
many tim e s u n d e s ir a b le b e c a u s e i t e n t a i l s m oving p u p i l s o f
p rim a ry s c h o o l a g e to d i s t a n t b u i l d i n g s o u ts i d e t h e i r im
m e d ia te n e ig h b o rh o o d . T hus, t h e m odern e m p h asis i s upon
c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t r a t h e r th a n th e
7
a tte n d a n c e u n i t .
W h ile t h e r e h a s b e e n c o n s id e r a b le l a y r e s i s t a n c e
th ro u g h th e y e a r s t o c o n s o l i d a t i o n e i t h e r o f th e a d m in is t r a
t i v e o r th e a tte n d a n c e u n i t , e d u c a ti o n a l l e a d e r s a r e a lm o s t
u n an im o u s i n t h e i r a p p r o v a l. W hile som e w ould r e t a i n th e
one*room s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e u n i t f o r th e lo w e r g r a d e s , p r a c t i
c a l l y a l l w ould u n i f y f o r u p p e r g r a d e s and h ig h s c h o o l.
The p l a n d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y re d u c e n e e d . B u t i f
c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and b e t t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i t d o e s n o t n e c e s
s a r i l y f o llo w t h a t i t w i l l r e d u c e th e num ber o f t e a c h e r s
A rth u r B. M oehlm an, S c h o o l A d m in is tr a tio n (B o sto n :
H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1 9 4 0 ), p . 1 7 7 .
215
s
n e e d e d . A few w r i t e r s i n e d u c a ti o n a l j o u r n a l s h a v e ad
v o c a te d c o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r t h a t r e a s o n ; h u t th e tr e n d o f
o p in io n , w h ile f a v o r in g c o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r o th e r r e a s o n s , i s
t h a t i t w i l l n o t re d u c e th e n eed f o r t e a c h e r s .
A num ber o f r e s p o n d e n ts to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , p a r t i
c u l a r l y s t a t e s u p e r in t e n d e n t s o f s c h o o ls and e x e c u tiv e
s e c r e t a r i e s o f s t a t e e d u c a tio n a s s o c i a t i o n s , a s s e r t e d t h a t
c o n s o l i d a t i o n d o e s n o t le a d t o a re d u c e d n e e d . A l l , how
e v e r , a g re e d t h a t su c h a p r o c e s s w ould e n r ic h th e e d u c a tio n
a l o f f e r i n g and im p ro v e f a c i l i t i e s . A few p o in te d o u t t h a t
c o n s o l i d a t i o n w ould h av e an i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s in c e te a c h i n g
i n s c h o o ls th u s r e o r g a n iz e d w ould h e m ore a t t r a c t i v e th a n
i n t h e o ld - f a s h io n e d c o u n try s c h o o l.
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s showed s t r o n g s u p p o r t . I t
w ould seem q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e v e r a l r e c o g n iz e d v a lu e s
i n h e r e n t i n a p ro g ra m o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n c o lo r e d t h e q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e s p o n s e s . Many r e s p o n d e n ts may h a v e r a t e d th e p r a c
t i c e h ig h ly b e c a u s e o f i t s g e n e r a l v a lu e e v e n i f i t s c o n t r i
b u tio n i n r e d u c in g th e num ber o f t e a c h e r s n e e d ed i s q u e s tio n
a b l e . T a b le XXXII show s a c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h a c c e p ta n c e o f
th e p r a c t i c e . More th a n 60 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l g ro u p gave
th e s u g g e s tio n an "A” r a t i n g . S t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts an d s t a t e
8
F ix le y , op. o f t .
table xxxii
expedite, t h r o u g h leg islative m a c t m e r t, c o n s o l i d a t i c s t o f r u r a l s c h o o l s
S O .A S .T O R E D U C E O T B E R O F T E A C H E R S R E E D E D
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 30 21 4 2 3 14 13 70.0 46.7
State Teachers*
Associations 31 22 6 1 2 17 7 71.0 54.8
Colleges in
California 17 9 6 0 2 9 4 52*9 52.9
Colleges outside
California 42 20 15 5 2 21 9 47.6 50.0
Guidance Directors
in California 69 39 20 4 6 35 7 56.5 50.7
Guidance Directors
outside California 82 53 21 3 5 42 19 64.6 51.2
Total 271 164 72 15 20 138 59 60.5 50.9
216
te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s , who h a v e f r e q u e n t l y le d t h e
m ovem ent f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n , gave th e h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f
"A" r e s p o n s e s .
M ore th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f a l l th e g ro u p s w ould r e t a i n
c o n s o l i d a t i o n on a p e rm a n e n t b a s i s . H ere a g a in i t w ould
a p p e a r c o n c e iv a b le t h a t some r e s p o n d e n ts w ere in f lu e n c e d
m ore by commonly r e c o g n iz e d v a l u e s o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n th a n by
a r e s u l t i n g r e d u c t i o n i n t h e num bers o f t e a c h e r s n e e d e d . On
some b a s i s , a t l e a s t , t h i s s u g g e s te d p r o c e d u r e was one o f
th o s e m o st f a v o r a b ly r e c e i v e d . I t w ould seem t h a t , a t l e a s t
a s an em ergency m e a s u re , i t s h o u ld r e c e i v e p o s s i b l e c o n s id e r
a t i o n i n th e p la n n in g o f a s t a t e o r n a tio n - w id e p ro g ram f o r
a l l e v i a t i n g th e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e .
V. PERMITTING COLLEGE STUDENTS IN LAST YEAR OF TRAINING
TO ACT AS PAID TEACHERS, UNDER SPECIAL SUPERVISION,
IN LIEU OF REGULAR PRACTICE TEACHING
P la n w ould n o t i n c r e a s e e v e n tu a l n u m b er. T h ere h a s
b e e n some e x p r e s s io n o f o p in io n t o th e e f f e c t t h a t s t u d e n ts
n e a r in g th e end o f t h e i r p e r io d o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g c o u ld
b e g in a c t u a l e la s s ro o m a s s ig n m e n ts . U nder su c h an a r r a n g e
m ent th e s e young p e o p le c o u ld be a s s ig n e d a c o m p a r a tiv e ly
l i g h t lo a d and b e c a r e f u l l y s u p e r v is e d by p r i n c i p a l s , s u p e r
v i s o r s , o r e x p e rie n c e d t e a c h e r s . I f su c h a p r a c t i c e w as
i n i t i a t e d , t h e s e c a d e ts w ould m is s th e n o rm a l p r a c t i c e
218
te a c h i n g a rra n g e m e n t an d q u i t e p o s s i b l y some o f t h e c o u r s e
/
w ork w h ich i s n o rm a lly r e q u i r e d f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n . G ra n t
in g o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n c o u ld be d e f e r r e d u n t i l a y e a r o f su c h
t e a c h in g i s c o m p le te d .
S in c e d u r in g th e w ar te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s
w ere v i r t u a l l y d e p l e te d o f s t u d e n t s , su c h a n a rra n g e m e n t
w ould n o t h av e s u p p lie d a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r o f p o s s i b l e p e r
s o n n e l. By th e o p e n in g o f th e 1 9 4 6 -4 7 s c h o o l y e a r , h ow ever,
e n r o llm e n ts i n te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s had se e n
h e a l t h y g a i n s and s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s m ig h t w e ll be te m p te d by
th e c ro p n o t y e t h a r v e s te d .
T h o se i n o p p o s it i o n to su c h a s u g g e s tio n w ere q u ic k
t o p o i n t o u t t h a t e d u c a tio n th u s w ould n o t b e g iv e n a g r e a t e r
t o t a l num ber o f w o rk e rs s in c e a d v a n c in g one c l a s s w ould le a v e
a h o le b e h in d and o n ly by p e rm a n e n tly a d o p tin g a re d u c e d
t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m w ould th e o n e - y e a r n u m e r ic a l g a in s b e
m a in ta in e d . F u r t h e r o p p o s it io n came fro m th o s e who w ere
Q
o p p o sed to any p e rm a n e n t lo w e rin g o f s ta n d a r d s a s w e ll a s
th o s e who f e l t t h a t an o r d e r l y m a tu rin g p r o c e d u r e p ro d u c ed
th e b e s t t e a c h e r s .* ^ W hile i t w as co n ced ed t h a t an a c c e l e r
a te d o p p o r tu n ity f o r e a r n in g a l i v e l i h o o d m ig h t te m p t some
9 C f. a n t e , p p . 6 7 -7 0 .
C f. a n t e , p . 1 1 3 .
t o e n t e r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g , i t w as a s s e r t e d t h a t su c h p e o p le ,
w i l l i n g t o tr a d e q u ic k e r f i n a n c i a l g a in f o r p e rm a n e n t p r o
f e s s i o n a l co m p eten ce, w ould n o t make a p e rm a n e n t c o n t r i
b u tio n .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts w ere u n im p re s s e d . T a b le
XXXIII p r e s e n t s t h e r e a c t i o n o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts
t o th e s u g g e s tio n o f u s e o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n ts a s f u l l - t i m e
t e a c h e r s . C o m p a ra tiv e ly few o f them saw any m a t e r i a l v a lu e
i n su c h a p r o c e d u r e . O nly 17 p e r c e n t aw arded i t w ith an
"A" r a t i n g . C o lle g e and u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s , w hose
s t u d e n t s w ould b e th u s a c c e l e r a t e d , w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y
o p p o se d . Many o f t h e i r r e t u r n s w ere i n th e "D,T colum n, i n
d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n i n h e r e n t d a n g e r s .
A s i m i l a r r e a c t i o n i s a p p a r e n t when th e s u g g e s te d
m ethod i s c o n s id e re d a s a p e rm a n e n t p r o c e d u r e . L e s s th a n
25 p e r c e n t o f e a c h g ro u p o f r e s p o n d e n ts a sk e d f o r p erm a
n e n c y . B u t 1 6 .7 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l g ro u p w an ted i t
r e t a i n e d . I t w ould a p p e a r, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e d u c a to r s do
n o t s e e i n th e u s e o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a s p a id t e a c h e r s a
m ethod o f t e a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t w h ich w i l l b e m a t e r i a l l y and
p e rm a n e n tly o f v a l u e .
V I. CONTROLLING TEACHER SUPPLY THROUGH FLEXIBLE
REGULATION OF CERTIFICATION STANDARDS
BY STATE DEPARTMENTS
tabir m m
PERMIT COLLEGE STUDENTS IN THEIR LAST YEAR OF TRAINING TO AGT AS PAH)
TEACHERS, .UNDER SPECIAL SUPERVISION, IN LIEU OF REGULAR PRACTICE TEACHING
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
departments 31 7 15 3 6 7 14 22.6 22.6
State Teachers*
Associations 32 8 14 7 3 6 5 25.0 18.8
Colleges in
California 17 1 7 0 9 3 7 5.9 17.6
Colleges outside
California 44 3 18 8 15 4 13 6.8 9.1
Guidance Directors
in California 70 12 36 9 13 9 10 17.1 12.9
Guidance Directors
outside California 88 17 35 18 18 18 17 19.3 20.5
Total 282 48 125 45 64 47 66 17.0 16.7
as
£0
o
2 2 1
The p la n r e p r e s e n t s an a tte m p t t o e q u a liz e s u p p ly and
dem and* I t i s g e n e r a l l y a g re e d t h a t a r e a s o n a b ly e v e n
b a la n c e b etw e en t e a c h e r demand and c o m p e te n t s u p p ly i s a
h e a l t h y s i t u a t i o n f o r e d u c a tio n . I n th e p a s t th e econom ic
p r e s s u r e f u r n is h e d by th e c o m p e titio n o f o th e r v o c a tio n s h a s
b e e n th e c h i e f f a c t o r i n a d j u s t i n g t h e b a la n c e b e tw e e n
s u p p ly and dem and. T h e re a r e some who f e e l t h a t s o c i e t y
s h o u ld a tte m p t t o r e g u l a t e econom ic f o r c e s b y p la c i n g a r t i
f i c i a l l i m i t a t i o n s on s u p p ly .
T hus, i t i s a rg u e d , c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s c o u ld b e
made d e l i b e r a t e l y f l e x i b l e and s e n s i t i v e to th e n eed f o r
p e r s o n n e l. I n a p e r io d o f an o v e r - s u p p ly o f t e a c h e r s , su c h
a s w as e x p e rie n c e d i n th e 1 9 3 0 ’ s , s ta n d a r d s c o u ld b e g ra d u
a l l y r a i s e d b o th q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a s to y e a r s o f t r a i n i n g and
q u a l i t a t i v e l y a s to s ta n d a r d s o f a c h ie v e m e n t. The l a b o r
m a rk e t w ould n o t th e n be f lo o d e d , w ages c o u ld b e m a in ta in e d ,
and t e a c h e r s w ould b e o f h ig h q u a l i t y .
On th e o t h e r h an d , i t i s b e lie v e d by p r o p o n e n ts o f
t h i s t h e o r y , tim e s o f te a c h e r s c a r c i t y s h o u ld a u t o m a t ic a lly
l e a d to lo w e r c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s . S t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts
c o u ld b e em powered by s t a t u t e t o s e t r e q u ir e m e n ts a t a l e v e l
n e c e s s a r y to m a in ta in an a d e q u a te te a e h e r s u p p ly . T hus,
em ergency c e r t i f i c a t e s w ould n e v e r b e n e c e s s a r y s in c e s ta n d
a r d s w ould b e s u f f i c i e n t l y f l e x i b l e to m a in ta in th e s u p p ly .
T hose who w ould a e c e p t su c h a t h e s i s a rg u e t h a t some su ch
222
p ro c e d u re t a k e s p la c e anyway th ro u g h em ergency l e g i s l a t i o n .
H ence th e s t a t e may a s w e ll h av e th e m a c h in e ry r e a d y f o r i t
and a t th e same tim e keep s u p p ly and demand i n b a la n c e .
O p p o n en ts t o su c h a p ro g ra m a t t a c k i t on s e v e r a l
f r o n t s . The p e rm a n e n t c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l w ith
t r a i n i n g i n f e r i o r t o th e a v e ra g e o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n m e ets
w ith much d is a p p r o v a l. Such p e o p le w ould s ta y on i n t h e p r o
f e s s i o n to th e d e tr im e n t o f th e w hole e d u c a tiv e p r o c e s s , and
h ig h ly t r a i n e d p e o p le c e r t i f i e d i n tim e s o f te a c h e r s u r p lu s
w ould h a v e to co m p ete w ith them . O b je c tio n i s r a i s e d , a l s o ,
t o le a v in g c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s so f l e x i b l e t h a t th e y c a n
b e changed o v e r - n i g h t by th e a c t o f a s m a ll g ro u p o f
o f f i c i a l s . S ta n d a r d s h a v e b e e n r a i s e d s lo w ly and p a i n f u l l y
th ro u g h th e y e a r s , and th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r b e in g lo w e re d
i s n o t a c c e p ta b le to a v a s t m a j o r i ty o f e d u c a to r s .
F l e x i b l e c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s w ere n o t ap p ro v ed by
many q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts . As i n d i c a t e d by T a b le XXXIV
o n ly 1 6 .9 p e r c e n t o f a l l q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s w ere i n
th e "A" colum n. S in c e th e s u g g e s te d p r o c e d u r e w ould p la c e
r e g u l a t i o n i n t h e i r h a n d s , i t i s p e rh a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g to
f i n d 40 p e r c e n t o f s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts i n th e "A" c a te g o r y .
The m o st f r e q u e n t r e s p o n s e o f a l l g ro u p s w as i n th e "D"
colum n. M ore th a n 40 p e r c e n t u se d th e "D" r a t i n g i n d i c a t
in g a b e l i e f t h a t i n h e r e n t d a n g e rs e x i s t e d i n th e p r o c e d u r e .
TABLE XXXIV
CONTROL TEACHER SUPPLY THROUGH FLEXIBLE HSGULATIQN OF CERTIFICATION
STANDARDS BY STATE DEPARTMENTS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 30 12 6 2 10 8 9 40* 0 26.7
State Teachers’
Associations 31 7 4 6 14 7 3 22.6 22.6 '
Colleges in
California 16 3 6 0 7 4 4 18.8 25.0
Colleges outside
California 45 5 15 8 17 4 8 11.1 8.9
Guidance Directors
in California 66 12 18 9 27 11 9 18.2 16.7
Guidance Directors
outside California 82 8 22 12 40 14 6 9.8 17.1
Total 267 45 72 37 * 113 48 39 16.9 18.0
233
224
C o n s id e r a tio n o f f l e x i b l e c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s a s
a p e rm a n e n t m eans o f r e g u l a t i n g th e t e a c h e r s u p p ly r e c e iv e d
a s l i g h t l y l a r g e r p e r c e n ta g e o f a c c e p ta n c e th a n w as fo u n d
f o r "A" r e s p o n s e s . B u t 1 8 .0 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts
s u g g e s te d a d e s i r e f o r p erm a n en cy . A lth o u g h s t a t e d e p a r t
m e n ts s t i l l r e t a i n th e h i g h e s t d e g re e o f a c c e p ta n c e , i t w as
m a t e r i a l l y re d u c e d fro m t h e sh o w in g i n th e "A" colum n.
I f r e c o g n i t i o n c a n h e g iv e n to th e e x p r e s s e d o p in io n s
o f t h e e d u c a to r s r e s p o n d in g t o th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , i t w ould
h a r d ly seem d e s i r a b l e t o c o n s id e r f l e x i b i l i t y o f c e r t i f i c a
t i o n s ta n d a r d s a s a m eans o f r e g u l a t i n g th e s u p p ly o f te a c h
e r s . E v id e n tly a v a s t m a jo r i ty o f th o s e e d u c a to r s b e l i e v e
th e r e d u c t i o n o f s ta n d a r d s i n tim e o f s c a r c i t y to b e to o
b ig a p r i c e to p a y .
Y II . EMPOWERING STATE DEPARTMENTS TO SET YEARLY QUOTAS,
BASED ON NEED, REGULATING NUM BER OP STUDENTS PERMITTED
ENTERING TEAGHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
The p la n w ould b e d i f f i c u l t to a d m i n i s t e r . F o r th o s e
who w ould a r t i f i c i a l l y r e g u l a t e te a c h e r s u p p ly b u t who
o b j e c t to f l e x i b i l i t y i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n s t a n d a r d s , a q u o ta
sy ste m f o r c o l l e g e e n r o llm e n t i s a p o s s i b l e a n sw e r. Such a
p la n w ould f u n c t i o n a s a p h a s e o f a c o n tin u o u s , s t a t e su b
s i d i z e d , s u p p ly and demand s tu d y . On th e b a s i s o f su c h a
s tu d y t h e s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t w ould e s tim a te o b j e c t i v e l y th e
n eed f o r t e a c h e r s f o r f o u r o r f i v e y e a r s i n advance*
N um erous f a c t o r s w ould e n t e r i n t o su c h a r e g u l a t o r y
p ro g ra m . A ssum ing t h a t su c h a s tu d y c o u ld h e made r e a s o n
a b ly a c c u r a te , t h e r e w ould a r i s e th e p ro b le m o f u t i l i z i n g o r
d e n y in g th e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s t r a i n e d i n o t h e r s t a t e s .
S uch a p ro g ram w ould l o g i c a l l y h a v e t o s u b d iv id e n e e d s on
th e b a s i s o f s c h o o l l e v e l s and s c h o o l s u b j e c t s . The e x tre m e -
l y d i f f i c u l t p ro b le m o f a p p r a i s i n g th e f a c i l i t i e s o f p u b lic
and p r i v a t e te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s w ould h av e to be
m et a s a b a s i s f o r a s s i g n i n g q u o ta s .
P la n c o u p le s e f f i c i e n c y w ith r e g i m e n t a t i o n . A d v o ca tes
f o r su c h a q u o ta sy ste m m a in ta in t h a t t h e r e w o u ld b e no need
f o r j u g g li n g c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s . I n a p e r io d su c h a s
th e l a t e d e p r e s s io n , when m ore s o u g h t te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s
th a n w ere n e e d e d , th e e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s p la n w ould h av e p r e
v e n te d t r a i n i n g o f an o v e r s u p p ly and e x c e s s iv e c o m p e titio n
w ould n o t h a v e r e s u l t e d . S ta n d a r d s f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n c o u ld
b e p e r i o d i c a l l y r a i s e d , m o re o v e r, w ith o u t d i s t u r b i n g th e
e s s e n t i a l s o f th e p l a n .
S uch a p la n ca n l a y a s tr o n g c la im on th e b a s i s o f
e f f i c i e n c y . C e r t a i n l y e n tr a n c e i n t o th e p r o f e s s i o n to d a y i s
h a p h a z a rd and i s made o n ly w ith s l i g h t r e f e r e n c e to v o c a tio n
a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s and t h e n e e d s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n . As e a r l y
a s 1 9 3 5 , th e U n ite d S t a t e s O f f ic e o f E d u c a tio n gave s u p p o r t
to some p la n o f c l o s e r c o n t r o l o f t e a c h e r s u p p ly when i t
s t a t e d :
S t a t e s s h o u ld e v e n tu a l l y f i n d i t p o s s i b l e t o p la c e
a l l t h e i r p ro b le m s o f te a c h e r p r e p a r a t i o n u n d e r a r e s
' - — • — a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
O p p o s itio n to su ch a sy ste m c o u ld be e x p e c te d fro m
th e te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich w ould p r o b a b ly ob
j e c t to o u t s i d e r e g u l a t i o n a s to num ber o f e n t e r i n g s t u d e n t s .
S e r io u s o b j e c t i o n c o u ld b e e x p e c te d on th e g ro u n d s t h a t su c h
a q u o ta p la n am ounts t o s e v e re r e g im e n ta tio n o f s o c i e t y .
A m erican s h a v e n o rm a lly o b je c te d to any sy ste m w hich h am per
ed f r e e e n t e r p r i s e , and any p la n l i m i t i n g v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e
w ould b e a t t a c k e d b y many p e o p le i n and o u t o f th e p r o f e s
s io n .
O u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts f e a r e d th e p l a n . T a b le XXX?
p r e s e n t s th e r e a c t i o n o f th e v a r i o u s g ro u p s o f e d u c a to r s t o
th e s u g g e s tio n o f q u o ta s f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g . The v a s t
m a j o r i t y i n e a c h g ro u p w as s k e p t i c a l o f any su ch p r o c e d u r e .
B u t 2 0 .3 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts g av e an "A" r a t i n g to
th e s u g g e s tio n . S t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s g av e
th e h i g h e s t a c c e p ta n c e o f any g ro u p w ith 4 1 .4 p e r c e n t o f
t h e i r num ber s e e in g m a t e r i a l v a lu e i n su c h a p r o c e d u r e . The
^ C. E . H a g ie , S e l e c t i v e A d m issio n To T e a c h e r P r e
p a r a t i o n (W ash in g to n , B .C .: U n ite d S t a t e s O f f ic e o f E d u ca
t i o n L e a f l e t , No. 3 9 , 1 9 3 3 ), p . 4 .
TABLE XXXT
EMPOWER STATE DEPARTMENTS TO SET NEARLY QUOTAS WHICH WILL REGULATE,
ON BASIS Of NEED, THE NUMBER Of STUDENTS PERMITTED
TO ENTER TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS
Respondent
Total
Responses
A
B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 30 9 5 7 9 8 7 30.0 26.7
State Teachers’
Associations 29 12 2 4 11 10 5 41.4 34.5
Colleges in
California 17 0 2 4 U 1 4 0.0 5.9
Colleges outside
California 44 10 11 12 11 11 10 22.7 25.0
Guidance Directors
in California 62 7 10 14 31 4 1 11.3 6.5
Guidance Directors
outside California 80 14 16 22 28 14 5 17.5 17.5
Total 258. 52 47 57 102 48 32 20.2 18.6
227
228
two C a l i f o r n i a g ro u p s w ere p ro n o u n ced i n t h e i r o p p o s it io n .
N ot a s i n g l e C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e o f f i c i a l re s p o n d e d w ith an
nAfl r a t i n g , and o n ly 1 1 .5 p e r c e n t o f C a l i f o r n i a g u id a n c e
d i r e c t o r s g av e t h e s u g g e s tio n su ch an u n q u a l i f i e d i n d o r s e
m e n t.
P e rh a p s th e m o st s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g r e p o r t e d i n
T a h le XXXV, p a g e 227, i s th e a p p ro x im a te ly 40 p e r c e n t o f
r e s p o n s e s fo u n d i n th e tfD,T colum n. E v id e n tly many f e a r e d
th e e x i s te n c e o f i n h e r e n t d a n g e rs i n su ch a p ro g ram o f r e g i -
'N
m e n ta tio n . The two C a l i f o r n i a g ro u p s , a g a in , to o k th e l e a d -
e r s h i p i n e x p r e s s in g a b e l i e f i n in h e r e n t d a n g e rs .
I t i s assum ed t h a t any su c h q u o ta s y s te m w ould n o t h e
a d o p te d j u s t a s a te m p o ra ry m e asu re h u t w ould h e p r a c t i c e d
i n d e f i n i t e l y . R e fe re n c e to t h e " r e t a i n ” colum n o f T a h le
XXXV, p a g e 227, th e n , w ould p r e s e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t p i c t u r e o f
r e a c t i o n to t h e p l a n . The 1 8 .2 p e r c e n t o f p o s i t i v e r e s
p o n s e s w ould i n d i c a t e r a t h e r d e f i n i t e o p p o s it i o n to p erm a n e n t
u s e o f q u o ta s f o r t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g . I t w ould a p p e a r , th e n ,
t h a t m ost A m erican e d u c a to r s a r e n o t r e a d y a t t h i s tim e t o
a c c e p t a s y ste m w h ich w ould so s e v e r e ly r e g u l a t e th e c h o ic e
o f a v o c a tio n .
V I I I . REQUIRING TEACHER CANDIDATE REGISTRATION AND DISTRICT
VACANCY LISTING WITH STATE DEPARTMENTS WHICH THEN BECOME
EXCLUSIVE CLEARING HOUSE FOR ALL PLACEMENT
No u n i fo rm p la c e m e n t sy ste m e x i s t s . A m a j o r i t y o f
t e a c h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e i n s m a lle r c o m m u n itie s, te n d to
e x h i b i t p ro n o u n ce d nom adic te n d e n c i e s . The l a c k o f t e n u r e
g u a r a n te e , w hich i s s t i l l t y p i c a l o f th e v a s t m a jo r i t y o f
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , q u i t e l i k e l y a c c e n tu a te s th e s p i r i t o f
u n c e r t a i n t y and u n r e s t w h ich c a u s e s t e a c h e r s t o s e e k a
ch an g e o f em ploym ent l o c a t i o n so f r e q u e n t l y .
The m ost f r e q u e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s nom adic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s th e fre q u e n c y w ith w hich t e a c h e r s make
a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r new p o s i t i o n s . The s p r in g o f th e y e a r f i n d s
v a s t nu m b ers o f t e a c h e r s a p p ly in g n o t t o one b u t to s e v e r a l
new d i s t r i c t s i n t h e h o p e o f im p ro v in g t h e i r econom ic o r p r o
f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s . F r e q u e n tly t h i s m u l t i p l e a p p l i c a t i o n
p r a c t i c e g iv e s an e n t i r e l y e rro n e o u s im p r e s s io n a s t o th e
num ber o f te a c h e r c a n d id a te s a v a i l a b l e , th e im p r e s s io n b e in g
l e f t t h a t t h e to t e d num ber o f a p p l i c a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t s th e
t o t a l num ber o f a v a i l a b l e c a n d id a t e s .
S in c e no u n ifo rm s ta n d a r d s a r e p r a c t i c e d a s to m eth o d s
o f a p p l i c a t i o n , g r e a t d i v e r s i t y p r e v a i l s a s t o te c h n iq u e s
em p lo y ed . Some t e a c h e r s becom e p a r t i c u l a r l y s k i l l e d a t
s e l l i n g t h e i r s e r v i c e s to a new d i s t r i c t b u t q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y
t h e r e i s l i t t l e p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b etw e en su ch s a le s m a n
s h ip and t h e i r w o rth a s t e a c h e r s . On th e o t h e r h a n d , many
s u p e r i o r t e a c h e r s n e v e r a t t a i n th e p o s i t i o n s i n w h ich th e y
can r e n d e r th e g r e a t e s t s e r v i c e , due to t h e i r u n w illi n g n e s s V
230
o r i n a b i l i t y to com pete v ig o r o u s ly f o r new p o s i t i o n s .
S t a t e r e g u l a t i o n w ould r e d u c e c o n f u s io n b u t w ould
l i m i t f r e e e n t e r p r i s e . To p u t an end to th e h a p h a z a rd
s h i f t i n g o f p e r s o n n e l, i t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t th e s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n t c o u ld a c t a s a c l e a r i n g h o u se b o th f o r te a c h e r
c a n d id a te r e g i s t r a t i o n and d i s t r i c t v a c a n c y l i s t i n g . T hus,
a g r e a t d e g re e o f u n if o r m ity c o u ld p r e v a i l i n th e h i r i n g o f
t e a c h e r s . P r e lim in a r y s i f t i n g , on th e b a s i s o f a p p a r e n t
d e s i r a b i l i t y , c o u ld b e made by th e s t a t e o f f i c e w ith f i n a l
s e l e c t i o n made b y t h e d i s t r i c t . U n d o u b ted ly much tim e c o u ld
b e sa v e d b o th by c a n d id a te s and by d i s t r i c t s th ro u g h su c h an
a rra n g e m e n t. S e v e r a l r a t h e r d e t a i l e d s u g g e s te d s t a t e p la n s
12
h a v e b ee n p r e s e n te d i n r e c e n t y e a r s .
O p p o n en ts o f su c h a p la n h av e many p o i n t s o f a t t a c k .
Many p o t e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f e q u i t a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e
a p p a r e n t. D i s t r i c t p r i o r i t i e s a s to o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
em p lo y in g th e c h o ic e c a n d id a t e s w ould be d i f f i c u l t to a r r a n g e .
The p o s s i b i l i t y o f p o l i t i c a l m a n eu v erin g w ould a lw a y s b e a
d a n g e r. P e rh a p s th e g r e a t e s t o p p o s it io n w ould r e s o lv e i t
s e l f a ro u n d th e q u e s tio n o f f r e e e n t e r p r i s e . B o th d i s t r i c t s
12
Le G rande N o b le , 1 1 A P ro g ram o f S t a t e R e g u la tio n o f
S u p p ly and*Demand f o r U ta h ," (u n p u b lis h e d D o c to r ’ s d i s s e r t a
t i o n . The U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s,
1 9 4 4 ), 187 p p .
231
and c a n d id a te s m ig h t te n d to r e s e n t c u r b s on t h e i r a b i l i t y
to s e e k f o r th e m s e lv e s new c o n t r a c t s o f em ploym ent. M iy
su ch sy ste m w i l l h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t e a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t
o n ly i f t e a c h e r s th e m s e lv e s c a n a p p r e c i a t e i t s v a lu e and
th e r e b y te n d to c h o o se o r re m a in i n th e p r o f e s s i o n i n p a r t
b e c a u s e i t a p p e a ls t o them a s a d e s i r a b l e p r o c e d u r e .
Some r e s p o n d e n ts to th e q u e s ti o n n a i r e by s u p p le m e n t
a ry comment in d o r s e d th e id e a a s an e f f i c i e n t way o f h an d
l i n g c a n d id a te s and v a c a n c ie s . The m a jo r i ty o f them
e x p re s s e d d o u b t, h o w ev er, a b o u t th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f g iv in g
th e s t a t e e x c l u s i v e a u t h o r i t y i n t h i s a c t i v i t y . Many w ould
make su ch a p ro g ra m s u p p le m e n ta ry to th e s e r v i c e p e rfo rm e d
by c o l le g e p la c e m e n t b u re a u s and th e a c t i v i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l
d i s t r i c t s and a p p l i c a n t s . One e x e c u tiv e s e c r e t a r y o f a s t a t e
t e a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n commented on th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e :
L eav e o u t " e x c l u s i v e . ,f A c e n t r a l c l e a r i n g o f v a c a n
c i e s w ould le a d t o a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e o f te a c h e r s u p p ly
and dem and. The c e n t r a l c l e a r i n g ag e n c y sh o u ld b e so
e f f i c i e n t t h a t a l l e d u c a to r s and b o a r d s o f e d u c a tio n -
w ould u s e i t , b u t th e y sh o u ld n o t b e f o r c e d to u s e i t . 3
S ta te - w id e p la c e m e n t on a n o n - e x c lu s iv e b a s i s h a s had co n
s i d e r a b l e t r i a l . F i f t e e n s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts , o r t h e i r
e q u i v a l e n t, w ere r e p o r te d a s c o n d u c tin g s t a t e - w i d e p la c e m e n t
Comment by respondent to q u estio n n a ire, an exe
c u tiv e sec reta r y o f a s t a t e tea ch ers a s s o c ia tio n in a mid
w estern s ta t e .
1 4
i n 1 9 4 2 . I n a l l c a s e s , h o w ev er, th e y w ere h u t one o f many
a g e n c ie s c o n d u c tin g su ch a c t i v i t y .
S t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f p la c e m e n t w as n o t f a v o re d hy
q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts . R e j e c t i o n o f th e p r o p o s a l hy th e
e d u c a to r s a n s w e rin g th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p ro n o u n c e d . T a h le
X30CVI show s h u t 1 3 .2 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l g ro u p r a t i n g th e
p r o c e d u r e i n th e u n q u a l i f i e d "A" c a te g o r y .
E ven s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s , who w ould a d m in is t e r
su ch a s u g g e s te d m eth o d , w ere p ro n o u n c ed i n t h e i r o p p o s it io n
t o i t . M ost c o m p le te r e j e c t i o n came fro m C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e
o f f i c i a l s , n o t one o f w h ich re sp o n d e d w ith an "A" r a t i n g .
R e sp o n se s i n th e "D" c a te g o r y , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n
in h e r e n t d a n g e rs , w ere m o st p r e v a l e n t . More th a n 43 p e r
c e n t o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts so r a t e d th e p r o c e d u r e .
I f th e y saw any v a l u e s i n th e s u g g e s tio n , th e s e w ere e v i d e n t
l y o u tw e ig h e d i n t h e i r m in d s hy a b e l i e f t h a t a t t e n d a n t
e v i l s w ere i n h e r e n t .
Any su c h p la n to c o n t r o l p la c e m e n t th ro u g h th e s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n t w ould h e c o n s id e r e d n o t a s an em ergency m e a su re
h u t a s one to h e em ployed i n d e f i n i t e l y . R e fe re n c e to T a b le
XXXVI show s v i r t u a l l y th e same p ro n o u n c e d r e j e c t i o n i n th e
" r e t a i n ” colum n a s w as fo u n d i n th e "A” c a te g o r y . I t w ould
14
E d i t o r i a l comment, E d u c a tio n F o r V i c t o r y . O c to b e r 1 ,
1 9 4 8 , p . 9.
TABLE XXXVI
REQUIRE TEACHER CANDIDATE REGISTRATION' AND DISTRICT VACANCY LISTING WITH SPATE
DEPARTMENT WHICH WILL THEN ACT AS. EXCLUSIVE CLEARING HOUSE FOR ALL TEACHER PLACEMENT
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 29 5 7 6 U 2 4 17.2 6.9
State Teachers*
Associations 30 3 6 6 15 4 3 10.0 13.3
Colleges in
California 16 0 1 3 12 1 3 0.0 6.3
Colleges outside
California 44 5 13 11 15 6 10 11*4 13.6
Guidance Directors
in California 62 7 7 14 34 5 3 11.3 8.6
Guidance Directors
outside California 76 14 23 15 24 16 8 18.4 22.4
Total 257 34 57 55 111 35 31 13.2 13.6
223
254
seem , th e n , t h a t e d u c a to r s a r e n o t a t t h i s tim e w i l l i n g to
c ir c u m s c r ib e t e a c h e r p la c e m e n t h y s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t c o n t r o l .
IX . REQUIRING TEACHER CANDIDATE REGISTRATION A N D
DISTRICT VACANCY LISTING WITH STATE OR FEDERAL
EMPLOYMENT SERVICE WHICH W O U LD THEN BECOME
EXCLUSIVE CLEARING HOUSE FOR ALL
TEACHER PLACEMENT
Such c o n t r o l w ould c o m p le te ly rem ove p la c e m e n t fro m
h a n d s o f p r o f e s s i o n . The s u g g e s te d p ro c e d u re f o r t e a c h e r
r e c r u itm e n t made h e r e i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o th e one made j u s t
im m e d ia te ly ab o v e. I n t h i s se c o n d s u g g e s tio n ; h o w ev er, t h e
s t a t e o r f e d e r a l em ploym ent s e r v i c e i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e
s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t a s th e c l e a r i n g a g e n c y . Q u ite p o s s i b l y
th e e le m e n t o f e f f i c i e n c y , w hich was t h e c h i e f arg u m en t
p r e s e n te d f o r a c e n t r a l em ploym ent a g e n c y , c o u ld b e m a in ta in
ed t o th e same d e g re e w hich w ould b e p o s s i b l e u n d e r s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n t m anagem ent.
I m p o rta n t d i f f e r e n c e s a r e a p p a r e n t i n th e two p l a n s ,
h o w ev er. The f i r s t w ould s t i l l r e t a i n th e a c t i v i t y a s a
f u n c t i o n o f th e p r o f e s s i o n . S t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts a r e n o rm a lly
s t a f f e d by e x p e rie n c e d mem bers o f th e p r o f e s s i o n , th o r o u g h ly
im bued w ith th e e d u c a ti o n a l p h ilo s o p h y w h ich i s t y p i c a l o f
t h a t s t a t e . By and l a r g e , e d u c a to r s w ould e x p e c t fro m th e
s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t a th o ro u g h know ledge o f th e p r o f e s s i o n ’ s
n e e d s a s t o s t a f f and a s y m p a th e tic a p p ro a c h a s t o i t s
s o l u t i o n .
I f t h e c l e a r i n g o f t e a c h e r c a n d id a te s s h o u ld becom e
t h e e x c lu s iv e f u n c t i o n o f a g o v e rn m e n ta l em ploym ent ag e n cy ,
o p p o n e n ts o f th e p la n ca n s e e many a lle g e d d a n g e rs . They
b e l i e v e t h a t th e s h i f t i n g o f e d u c a ti o n a l w o rk e rs by th e same
te c h n iq u e s and b y th e same a g e n c y t h a t p l a c e s b r i c k l a y e r s o r
d i t c h - d i g g e r s lo w e rs th e s t a t u s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n . E d u ca
t i o n , th e y c la im , w ould v i r t u a l l y l o s e c o n t r o l o f i t s
p e r s o n n e l; and th e good o f th e p r o f e s s i o n w ould be s a c r i f i c e d
to th e d e s i r e f o r e x p e d iti o u s p la c e m e n t. T h ere i s n o th in g i n
th e p la n , th e y f e e l , t h a t m akes e d u c a tio n m ore a t t r a c t i v e to
i t s p e r s o n n e l; h e n c e i t h a s l i t t l e i m p l i c a t i o n f o r r e c r u i t
m e n t.
The U n ite d S t a t e s Em ploym ent S e r v ic e h a s f u n c tio n e d
i n many a r e a s a s a c l e a r i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r t e a c h e r s . I t s
15
a c t i v i t y was r e p o r t e d i n f i f t e e n s t a t e s i n 194E. I n no
s t a t e , h o w ev er, w as i t an e x c lu s iv e a g e n c y . At t h e same
tim e , m ore th a n e i g h t y p r i v a t e te a c h e rs * a g e n c ie s w ere i n
o p e r a t i o n , and o v e r a th o u s a n d c o l le g e and u n i v e r s i t y
16
b u re a u s w ere f u n c t i o n i n g . I n n e a r l y a l l o a s e s , th e s e d i
v e r s e g ro u p s, t o g e t h e r w ith th e s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t b u r e a u s
r e p o r t e d ab o v e, w ere c o m p le te ly in d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o th e r
w ith c o m p a ra tiv e ly l i t t l e c o o r d in a tio n a tte m p te d .
Q .u e s tio n n a ire r e t u r n s showed p ro n o u n ced o p p o s it io n to
em ploym ent- s e r v i c e p la c e m e n t. T a b le XXXVII i n d i c a t e s t h a t
e a c h o f th e r e p o r t i n g g ro u p s w as th o ro u g h ly o p p o sed t o mak
in g te a c h e r p la c e m e n t t h e e x c lu s iv e p r e r o g a t i v e o f s t a t e o r
f e d e r a l em ploym ent a g e n c ie s . O nly 5 .9 p e r c e n t o f a l l th e
r e s p o n s e s w ere i n t h e "A" c a te g o r y . I n no c a s e d id a s many
a s I© p e r c e n t o f a g ro u p so re s p o n d . A g ain , th e tw o
C a l i f o r n i a g ro u p s w ere m ost p ro n o u n ced i n t h e i r o p p o s it io n .
r a t i n g s , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n in h e r e n t d a n g e rs ,
w ere th e m ost p r e v a l e n t r e s p o n s e s . M ore th a n 57 p e r c e n t o f
a l l re s p o n d e n ts c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e s u g g e s te d p r o c e d u re i n
t h i s w ay. O p p o s itio n was s i m i l a r l y p ro n o u n ce d when th e r e s
p o n d e n ts w ere a sk e d to i n d i c a t e th e v a lu e o f th e s u g g e s tio n
a s a p e rm a n e n t m e a s u re . The d e c is iv e n e s s o f th e r e t u r n s
seem to c o m p le te ly e l i m i n a t e p la c e m e n t by em ploym ent b u r e a u s
a s a d e s i r a b l e m eans o f r e g u l a t i n g te a c h e r s u p p ly .
X. SU M M A RY m OPINION REGARDING MISCELLANEOUS PROCEDURES
TO ALLEVIATE TEACHER SHORTAGES
C o n s o lid a tio n o f r u r a l s c h o o ls a s a m eans o f r e d u c in g
th e n eed f o r t e a c h e r s was th e o n ly o n e o f th e e i g h t p r o
c e d u re s d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p te r w h ich r e c e iv e d a m a j o r i ty
TABLE a m i
REQUIRE TEACHER CANDIDATE REGISTRATION AHD DISTRICT VACANCY LISTING WITH STATE
OR EEDERA1 EMPLOYMENT SERVICE . WHICH WILL THEN ACT AS EXCLUSIVE CLEARING HOUSE
....... . EOR ALL TEACHER. HACEMEHT
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 29 2 5 9 13 1 3 6.9 3.4
State Teachersf
Associations 29 1 3 6 19 2 1 3*4 6.9
Colleges in
California 15 0
I
0 2 13 1 2 0.0 6.7
Colleges outside
California 44 4 10 8 22 3 2 9.1 6.8
Guidance Directors
in California 62 1 6 16 39 2 2 1.6 3.2
Guidance Directors
outside California 76 7 16 13 40 11 6 9.2 14.5
Total 255 15 40 54 146 20 16 5.9 7.8
o f f a v o r a b le comment b y q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts ; 6 0 .5 p e r
c e n t gave i t an u n q u a l i f i e d in d o rs e m e n t, and 5 0 .9 p e r c e n t
s u g g e s te d t h a t i t s h o u ld be r e t a i n e d p e rm a n e n tly . W hile th e
g e n e r a l v a l u e o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s u n q u e s tio n e d , w h e th e r su ch
c o n s o l i d a t i o n w ould m a t e r i a l l y re d u c e t h e num ber o f t e a c h e r s
em ployed i s d o u b te d by many e d u c a ti o n a l l e a d e r s .
I l l o th e r s u g g e s te d p r o c e d u r e s w ere d e c i s i v e l y r e
j e c t e d . O nly 2 3 .8 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts gave u n q u a l i
f i e d in d o rs e m e n t t o e l i m i n a t i o n o f s m a ll c l a s s e s i n m a rg in a l,
" n o n - e s s e n ti a l * c o u r s e s . B u t 1 7 .1 p e r c e n t w ould r e t a i n
su c h a p r o c e d u re p e rm a n e n tly . Y e a rly s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t q u o ta s
f o r e a c h c o l le g e w h ich w ould th u s r e g u l a t e num ber e n t e r i n g
t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g w as f u l l y a c c e p te d by o n ly 20*2 p e r c e n t o f
q u e s ti o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts . B ut 1 8 .6 p e r c e n t w ould r e t a i n
i t on a p e rm a n e n t b a s i s . P e r m i tt i n g c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s i n
t h e i r l a s t y e a r o f t r a i n i n g t o a c t a s f u l l - t i m e t e a c h e r s
r e c e iv e d b u t 17 p e r c e n t o f u n q u a l i f i e d a c c e p ta n c e . O nly
1 6 .7 p e r c e n t w an ted su c h an a rra n g e m e n t r e t a i n e d i n d e f i n i t e
l y . C o n tro l o f t e a c h e r s u p p ly th ro u g h f l e x i b l e c e r t i f i c a t i o n
s ta n d a r d s w as c o n s id e r e d o f m a t e r i a l v a lu e by 1 6 .9 p e r c e n t
o f r e s p o n d e n ts o n ly , w ith 1 8 .0 p e r c e n t a s k in g f o r p e rm a n e n t
r e t e n t i o n .
T e a c h e r c a n d id a te r e g i s t r a t i o n and d i s t r i c t v a c a n c y
l i s t i n g w ith s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts , w hich w ould th e n a c t a s an
e x c lu s iv e c l e a r i n g h o u se f o r p la c e m e n t, r e c e iv e d th e
239
u n q u a l if i e d a p p r o v a l o f b u t 1 3 .2 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts ,
1 3 .6 p e r c e n t d e s i r i n g perm anency f o r su c h a p ro g ra m . The
s i m i l a r p la c e m e n t s u g g e s tio n w ith s t a t e o r f e d e r a l em ploy
m ent s e r v i c e s a c t i n g a s t h e e x c lu s i v e c l e a r i n g h o u se was
a lm o s t c o m p le te ly r e j e c t e d , w ith b u t 5 .9 p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d
e n t s s e e in g m a t e r i a l v a lu e i n i t and 7 .8 p e r c e n t a s k in g f o r
r e t e n t i o n . The m o st th o ro u g h d e n i a l o f a l l w as g iv e n t o th e
s u g g e s tio n o f i n c r e a s i n g c l a s s s i z e 20 t o 30 p e r c e n t. O nly
2 .6 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts c o n s id e r e d i t o f p aram o u n t
im p o rta n c e w ith 1 .9 p e r c e n t s u g g e s tin g t h a t i t b e r e t a i n e d .
T hus, th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s show l i t t l e j u s t i f i c a
t i o n f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e e i g h t p r o c e d u r e s f o r a l l e v i
a t i n g te a c h e r s h o r ta g e s w h ich w ere d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p te r .
B u r a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n a lo n e r e c e iv e d m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t by
r e s p o n d e n ts , and much o f t h a t s u p p o r t may h av e r e s u l t e d fro m
c o n s o lid a tio n * s w o rth i n g e n e r a l r a t h e r th a n to any c o n t r i
b u tio n i t can make t o r e d u c in g th e t e a c h e r s h o r ta g e .
MATERIAL im provem ent o f t e a c h in g c o n d it io n s
I . ORGANIZATION OF THE CHAPTER
V a s t num bers o f p e o p le , b o th i n s i d e and o u t s i d e th e
te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n , m a in ta in t h a t u n f a v o r a b le econom ic
f a c t o r s a r e t h e o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s e s o f te a c h e r s h o r t a g e s .
C e r t a i n l y no one w ould d eny t h a t th e y a r e e x tre m e ly im p o r t
a n t . M ost o f th e im pro v ed te a c h in g c o n d i t i o n s w h ich te a c h
e r s s e e k a r e b a s i c a l l y econom ic i n n a t u r e . F o r th e m o st
p a r t t h e s e c o n d i ti o n s a r e n o t m e re ly c o n c o m ita n ts o f t h e w ar
em ergency b u t a r e o f lo n g d u r a t i o n and h av e b e e n t h e s u b j e c t
o f much e d u c a ti o n a l s tu d y and r e s e a r c h . S in c e m o st o f th e
p r o c e d u r e s d is c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p te r a r e g r e a t l y d e s ir e d by
e d u c a to r s p e r s o n a l l y , th e c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h r a t i n g s aw arded
to them may b e i n p a r t a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h a t d e s i r e r a t h e r
th a n a c o m p le te ly o b j e c t i v e a p p r a i s a l o f t h e i r v a lu e to
te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t .
I t w i l l b e th e p u rp o s e o f t h i s c h a p te r to a p p r a i s e
th e s e w e ll known f a c t o r s a s th e y a f f e c t r e c r u i tm e n t f o r
te a c h in g . S in c e th e s u g g e s te d p r o c e d u r e s , a s l i s t e d i n
S e c tio n V II o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a r e v e r y f a m i l i a r t o a l l
s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a tio n , l i t t l e s p a c e w i l l b e g iv e n to
h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g ro u n d . I n s t e a d , t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i l l b e
2 4 1
l i m i t e d t o an a n a l y s i s o f th e e f f o r t o f th e f a c t o r s i n
r e l a t i o n to te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t • The ite m s t o h e d is c u s s e d
a r e th e f o llo w in g :
1 . Minimum s a l a r y la w s e t a t a p p ro x im a te l e v e l o f
s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s o f s t a t e .
2 . S u c c e s s iv e y e a r l y s a l a r y in c re m e n ts b r i n g i n g
maximum t o a t l e a s t 25 p e r c e n t above s t a r t i n g
s a l a r y .
5 . S t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n o f f in a n c e p r o v id in g a id f o r
a l l b u t th e w e a l t h i e s t d i s t r i c t s .
4 . N a tio n a l e q u a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a ti o n a l o p p o r tu n ity
in v o lv in g s u b s t a n t i a l a id f o r a l l b u t th e
w e a l t h i e s t s t a t e s .
5 . R e tire m e n t la w p r o v id in g a t l e a s t h a l f a n n u a l
s a l a r y a f t e r s e r v i c e o f a p p ro x im a te ly t h i r t y
y e a r s .
6 . T en u re law i n s u r i n g p erm an en cy o f em ploym ent
a f t e r p r o b a t i o n a r y p e r i o d .
7 . S a b b a t i c a l le a v e s o f a b s e n c e .
8 . U n io n iz a tio n o f t e a c h e r s i n c l u d i n g a f f i l i a t i o n
w ith n a t i o n a l l a b o r g ro u p s .
9 . More r i g i d s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s iv e
1 0 . I n c r e a s e d te a c h e r v o ic e i n s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
and s u p e r v is i o n .
2 4 2
IX. SETTING MINIMUM SALARY LAW AT APPROXIMATE LEVEL
OF SKILLED ARTISANS OF STATE
Many f e e l s a la r y ad ju stm en t to be o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t
s o l u t i o n . A ll would agree t h a t m a t e r i a l in c r e a s e o f te a c h e r
income would go a lo n g way to s o lv in g th e te a c h e r s h o rta g e .
Some b e lie v e , as one w r i t e r s t a t e d , t h a t " a l l o th e r approach
es to th e s o lu t io n o f th e te a c h e r s h o rta g e d e a l w ith f a c t o r s
1 2
on th e p e rip h e ry o f th e r e a l p ro b lem ." One r e s e a r c h stu d y ,
com pleted d u rin g th e w ar, concluded t h a t of th e men who had
l e f t te a c h in g to e n t e r some o th e r o c c u p a tio n , t h r e e - f o u r t h s
l e f t b ecau se o f th e low s a l a r i e s th e y re c e iv e d a s te a c h e r s .
U ndoubtedly, as th e s e w r i t e r s i n f e r , i f t e a c h e r s ’ s a l a r i e s
were in c re a s e d to th e average p aid i n th e l e g a l and m e d ic a l
p r o f e s s io n s , th e te a c h e r s h o rta g e would be m a t e r i a l l y a l l e v i
ated .
To s u g g e s t such in c r e a s e i s easy ; b u t u n le s s such a
p ro p o s a l i s s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c e p ta b le to th e v o tin g p u b lic to
be co n v erted i n t o l e g i s l a t i o n , i t h as l i t t l e v a lu e . Hence
such f a c t o r s a s e q u a liz in g th e ta x s t r u c t u r e , w ise p u b l i c i t y ,
and in c r e a s in g te a c h e r p r e s t i g e may w e ll be e s s e n t i a l
-
L e s lie L. Chisholm , "The R eal Problem i n Teacher
S h o rta g e .? School Management. No. 9, 8 :3 , Septem ber, 1944.
2
Donald W ittm er Robinson, A n a ly s is of M otives F or
th e Choice o f a T eaching C areer ( P h ila d e lp h ia : U n iv e rs ity
o f P e n n sy lv a n ia P re s s , 1944), p. 83.
2 4 3
e o n e o m ita n ts , an d , a s some q u e s t i o n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts have
a s s e r t e d , may he even more h a s ic th a n a t t a c k i n g th e p ro b lem
from th e s ta n d p o in t o f a minimum s a l a r y law a lo n e .
S p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l minimum i s n o t p r a c t i c a l . A pproxi
m a te ly h a l f th e s t a t e s have ta k e n t h e s te p o f s e t t i n g up
s t a t e m inim a below w hich d i s t r i c t s a l a r y s c h e d u le s c o u ld n o t
s t a r t . Many o f th e s e m inim a w ere so low a s to g iv e l i t t l e
encou rag em en t to anyone c o n s id e r in g e n tr a n c e to th e p r o f e s
s io n . Such s c h e d u le s h ave been opposed by some p e o p le
b e c a u se o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e minimum m ight a l s o b e
come th e maximum o r b e c a u se such l e g a l p r o v is io n s te n d to
e q u a liz e pay o f a l l t e a c h e r s r e g a r d l e s s o f t r a i n i n g o r
3
e x p e r ie n c e . S t a t e l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h i s n a t u r e h a s p ro b a b ly
been m ost v a lu a b le to t e a c h e r s i n v e r y sm a ll communi t i e s and
4
to N egro t e a c h e r s i n th e S o u th . The h ig h e s t minimum s e t
by s t a t e s up to th e c l o s e o f World War I I was e ig h te e n
h u ndred d o l l a r s , w hich was t h e f i g u r e i n C a l i f o r n i a and one
o r two o th e r s t a t e s .
S in c e econom ic c o n d i tio n s and c o s t o f l i v i n g v a ry so
g r e a t l y among th e d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n try , i t was
3
H aul R. M ort and W a lte r G. R e u s s e r, P u b lic s c h o o l
F in a n c e (New York: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 1 ),
p . 398.
4
N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n Com m ittee on T e n u re ,
Minimum S a la r y Laws f o r T e a c h e rs (W ashington, D .C .: N a tio n
a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , J a n u a ry , 1 9 3 7 ), p . 23.
2 4 4
n o t deemed a d v i s a b le to s e t a n a r b i t r a r y f i g u r e f o r q u e s tio n
n a i r e r a t i n g . W hile many q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts p r e f e r r e d
to t a l k o n ly i n te rm s o f s a l a r y e q u a l to r e t u r n s f o r members
o f th e l e g a l and m e d ic a l p r o f e s s i o n , i t was f e l t t h a t such a
s a l a r y would r e p r e s e n t such a m a t e r i a l in c r e a s e a s t o be
c l e a r l y u n o b ta in a b le i n th e im m ediate f u t u r e . Q u e s tio n n a ir e
r a t i n g s , t h e r e f o r e , w ere r e q u e s te d upon a minimum s a l a r y
e q u a l to s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s o f th e s t a t e in w hich th e re s p o n d
e n t l i v e d . Such a f i g u r e i s i n d e f i n i t e , v a r i e s from s t a t e
t o s t a t e , and f l u c t u a t e s w ith econom ic c o n d i tio n s . I t would
r e p r e s e n t , how ever, a m a t e r i a l in c r e a s e i n m ost s t a t e s and
w ould n o t g p p ear w ith o u t j u s t i f i c a t i o n i f p r e s e n te d t o la y
law m aking b o d ie s .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s i n d i c a t e d s a l a r y i s o f param ount
im p o rta n c e to r e c r u i t m e n t . R e fe re n c e to T a b le XXXVIII shows
c l e a r l y t h a t e d u c a to r s i n a l l s e c t i o n s o f th e n a t i o n and i n
v a r io u s ty p e s o f e d u c a ti o n a l p o s i t i o n s a l l f e e l a more
a t t r a c t i v e s a l a r y s t r u c t u r e to be v i t a l to t e a c h e r r e c r u i t
m en t. A p p ro x im ately 90 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts gave an
"A" r a t i n g t o th e s u g g e s tio n t h a t a s a l a r y minimum b e a d o p te d
e q u a l t o a t l e a s t th e a v e ra g e o f s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s . Thus,
th e y have i n d i c a t e d a b e l i e f t h a t su ch a p r a c t i c e would a id
m a t e r i a l l y i n i n c r e a s i n g th e number o f a c c e p ta b le t e a c h e r
c a n d id a te s .
TABU) x x x n n
U X N I H D M SALARY LAW SSI AT APPROXIMATE LEVEE OF SKILLED ARTISANS OF STATE
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 36 35 1 0 0 27 19 97.2 75.0
State Teachers’
Associations 34 31 3 0 0 24 15 91.2 70.6
Colleges in
California 17 15 1 0 1 12 6 88.2 70.6
Colleges outside
California 46 37 6 2 1 33 21 80.4 71.7
Guidance Directors
in California 69 62 5 1 1 43 22 89.9 62.3
Guidance Directors
outside California 86 79 7 0 0 64 35 91.9 74.4
Total 288 259 23 3
3
203 118 89.9 70*5
w
0 1
When th e p l a n was r a t e d as a p o s s i b l e perm an en t p r o
c e d u re th e s u p p o rt was s t i l l v ig o ro u s w ith 7 0 .5 p e r c e n t o f
a l l re s p o n d e n ts a s k in g f o r r e t e n t i o n . H ere a g a in th e
r e t u r n s from th e v a r io u s groups w ere u n u s u a lly c o n s i s t e n t ,
show ing t h a t e d u c a to r s ev ery w h ere, i n a l l ty p e s o f p o s i t i o n s ,
c o n s id e r th e s a l a r y q u e s tio n o f param ount im p o rta n c e . ffD!!
r e s p o n s e s w ere n e g l i g i b l e i n d i c a t i n g t h a t e d u c a to r s g e n e r a l
l y do n o t see i n h e r e n t d a n g e rs i n minimum s a l a r y la w s.
C e r t a i n l y i t would a p p e a r , th e n , t h a t s a l a r y a d j u s t
m ent m ust p l a y a m ajo r p a r t i n any co m p reh en siv e program o f
te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . Q u ite p o s s i b l y th e i n i t i a l ap p ro ach
may need to be an im provem ent and e q u a l i z a t i o n o f th e ta x
s t r u c t u r e p r e v io u s t o o r a t th e same tim e t h a t d e s i r a b l e wage
m inim a a r e s o u g h t, b u t r e g a r d l e s s o f th e o r d e r o f a t t a c k
s a l a r y a d ju s tm e n t m ust be a n im p o r ta n t p h a se o f th e p ro g ram .
I I I . PROVIDING SUCCESSIVE YEARLY SALARY INCREMENTS
BRINGING MINIMUM TO AT LEAST 25 PER CENT
ABOVE STARTING SALARY
P r e s e n t ty p e s c h e d u le s a re o f r e c e n t o r i g i n . I n th e
e a r l i e r y e a r s o f A m erican e d u c a tio n , a s p e c i f i c s c h e d u le a s
a b a s i s f o r th e paym ent o f te a c h e r s was v i r t u a l l y n e v e r u s e d .
As a m a tte r o f f a c t i t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r W orld War I t h a t
s a l a r y s c h e d u le s came i n t o g e n e r a l u s e . The p o s i t i o n ty p e
o f s c h e d u le was th e f i r s t to d e v e lo p . Such a p la n te n d s to
247
b a s e re w a rd s on p o s i t i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f p r e p a r a t i o n . T h is
a t t r a c t e d p e r s o n n e l t o se c o n d a ry and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p o s i t i o n s w hich have b een t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e t t e r p a id th a n
e le m e n ta ry w ork.
The d ev elo p m en t o f th e p r e p a r a t i o n - e x p e r i e n c e ty p e
s c h e d u le , now m ost w id e ly u se d , made i t p o s s i b l e to r e t a i n
p e r s o n n e l w ith in th e d i v i s i o n s w here th e y may r e n d e r th e
b e s t s e r v i c e . Under such a p la n in c re m e n ts a r e f r e q u e n t l y
g iv e n o v e r a p e r io d o f y e a r s r a n g in g fro m f i v e to t h i r t e e n ,
and a d d i t i o n a l in c re m e n ts a r e aw arded f o r a d d i t i o n a l y e a r s
o f t r a i n i n g . Such a p la n i s e a s y t o a d m in is te r and te n d s to
be fa v o re d b o th by a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s b e c a u se o f
i t s o b j e c t i v i t y .
The m e r i t sc h e d u le , much l e s s u se d , presum es t h a t
i n d i v i d u a l s sh o u ld advance beyond t h e b a s e r a t e o n ly a s th e y
a c t u a l l y p ro v e t h e i r v a lu e to e d u c a tio n . The s u b j e c t i v i t y
o f su ch a p la n , w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p o o r judgm ent or
f a v o r i t i s m alw ay s p r e s e n t , h a s te n d e d to keep i t from b e in g
w id e ly a c c e p te d . Some s a l a r y s c h e d u le s have r a t h e r e f f e c t
i v e l y com bined b o th p la n s by su p e rim p o sin g m e r it r a t i n g s
f o r th o s e t e a c h e r s o f s u p e r i o r v a lu e who have re a c h e d th e
l i m i t o f p o s s i b l e in c re m e n ts on th e p r e p a r a t i o n - e x p e r i e n c e
p la n . Many o f th e e a r l i e r s a l a r y s c h e d u le s p ro v id e d h ig h e r
co m p en sa tio n f o r men th a n f o r women. I n r e c e n t y e a r s , how
e v e r, th e tr e n d h a s b een to w ard th e s i n g l e sc h e d u le f o r b o th
men and women
A maximum d o u b le th e minimum i s d e s i r a b l e . Many
p r e s e n t day s c h e d u le s p ro v id e f o r th e maximum s a l a r y to be
a s much a s d o u b le t h e minimum. T here i s l i t t l e q u e s tio n ,
assum ing t h a t th e econom ic s t r u c t u r e w i l l p e r m it, t h a t such
a m a t e r i a l sp re a d i n incom e i s d e s i r a b l e a s a r e c r u itm e n t
d e v ic e f o r th e p r o f e s s i o n . The t y p i c a l s t a r t i n g s a l a r y i n
e d u c a tio n i s much l e s s c r i t i c i z e d by y o u th c o n s id e r in g th e
v o c a tio n th a n i s th e t y p i c a l maximum. The la c k o f o p p o r- X
t u n i t y f o r advancem ent, m easured i n a m a t e r i a l way, h a s
alw ays ham pered te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t, so a w ide s p re a d i n th e
s c h e d u le sh o u ld b e a t t a i n e d i f p o s s i b l e .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e ite m , c a l l i n g f o r n o t l e s s th a n 35
p e r c e n t above th e minimum, was c r i t i c i z e d by s e v e r a l r e s
p o n d e n ts b e c a u se i t d id n o t demand a g r e a t e r ra n g e betw een
maximum and minimum. I t was f e l t , how ever, t h a t th e words
" a t l e a s t 35 p e r c e n t" would e s t a b l i s h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f
in c re m e n ts a t a s a f e minimum and w ould p e r m it th e re s p o n d e n t
to r a t e th e p r i n c i p l e in v o lv e d r a t h e r th a n a s p e c i f i c f i g u r e .
Q u e st!© n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts v a lu e d s a l a r y in c re m e n t
p la n h i g h l y . As i n d i c a t e d by T a b le XXXIX a d e f i n i t e pro g ram
o f s a l a r y in c re m e n ts had a lm o st a s h ig h a p e r c e n ta g e o f
s u p p o rt a s d id th e s u g g e s tio n f o r a minimum s a l a r y law . Of
a l l q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts , 8 4 .7 p e r c e n t r a t e d th e s a l a r y
TABLE XXXIX
PROVISION FOR SUCCESSIVE YEARLY SALARY INCREMENT BRINGING MAXIMUM TO AT
LEAST 25 PER CENT ABOVE. STARTING SALARY
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 33 29 3 0 1 19 17 87.9 57.6
State Teachers1
Associations 33 29 3 0 1 25 15 87.9 75.8
Colleges in
California 17 15 2 0 0 13 7 88.2 76.5
Colleges outside
California 46 36 8 2 0 31 18 78.3 67.4 .
Guidance Directors
in California 70 59 10 0 1 40 19 84.3 57.1
Guidance Directors
outside California 88 75 12 1
. o
57 36 85.2 64.8
Total 287 243 38 3 3 185 112 84.7 64.5
in c re m e n t p la n as "A* o r o f param ount im p o rta n c e . R esp o n ses
w ere c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h from a l l g ro u p s . E v id e n tly th e
d e g re e o f c o n c e rn ab o u t s a la r y in c re m e n ts was n o t a f f e c t e d
by ty p e o f p o s i t i o n h e ld o r by g e o g r a p h ic a l l o c a t i o n .
S u p p o rt f o r th e in c re m e n t p la n a s a perm anent r e c r u i t
m ent p ro c e d u re was a ls o w e ll s u p p o rte d . Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts ,
6 4 .5 p e r c e n t saw i n th e s u g g e s tio n a p ro c e d u re w hich th e y
would l i k e t o r e t a i n i n d e f i n i t e l y . T h is f i g u r e , w h ile con
s i d e r a b l y l e s s th a n t h a t found f o r "A" r a t i n g s , was s u f f i
c i e n t l y s i z e a b l e t o g iv e a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f a u n ifo rm
b e l i e f i n th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f r e t e n t i o n .
Among th o s e f a c t o r s w hich b r in g d e s i r a b i l i t y o f edu
c a t i o n a l em ploym ent, th e n , e v i d e n t l y s ta n d s an a rra n g e m e n t
f o r d e f i n i t e and s i z e a b l e in c re m e n t to o r i g i n a l incom e. I n
th e f a s h io n in g o f any co m prehensive p la n o f t e a c h e r r e c r u i t
m ent, i t would a p p e a r w ise to p r o v id e f o r a maximum s a l a r y
w e ll i n advance o f th e s t a r t i n g incom e.
IV. EQUALIZING OF STATE FINANCE TO PROVIDE AID FOR ALL
BUT THE WEALTHIEST DISTRICTS
Numerous p la n s h av e b ee n s u g g e s te d . A c u r s o r y exam in
a t i o n o f th e ta x a b le w e a lth p e r p u p i l o f th e sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s
i n any s t a t e shows an a s to u n d in g v a r i a t i o n among them . I n
many s t a t e s , th e w e a l t h i e s t d i s t r i c t s have more th a n te n
tim e s as much money a v a i l a b l e p e r c h i l d a s do th e p o o r e r .
251
O b v io u sly , th e n , i f each d i s t r i c t i s c a l l e d upon to c o m p le te
l y f in a n c e i t s own e d u c a ti o n a l program , th e p o o r e r d i s t r i c t s
w i l l e i t h e r g iv e a v e ry m eager o f f e r i n g o r w i l l c a r r y a
c r u s h in g ta x lo a d .
D u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y v i r t u a l l y c o m p lete
f in a n c in g by th e l o c a l d i s t r i c t was th e t y p i c a l p ro c e d u r e .
What l i t t l e s t a t e a id was a v a i l a b l e was n o t s c i e n t i f i c a l l y
d i s t r i b u t e d . I n th e e a r l y y e a r s o f th e tw e n t ie t h c e n tu r y ,
C u b b e rley , o f S ta n f o r d U n iv e r s it y , co m pleted a c a r e f u l s tu d y
o f i n e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n ity i n w hich he ad
vanced th e p r i n c i p l e o f s t a t e - w i d e s u b s i d i z a t i o n o f econom i
c a l l y backw ard d i s t r i c t s by s t a t e fu n d s .
G ra d u a lly t h e r e ev o lv ed c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s o f s t a t e
s u p p o r t. .Among them w ere th e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t l o c a l e f f o r t ,
a s r e p r e s e n te d by a common ta x r a t e , sh o u ld be e q u a liz e d
th ro u g h o u t th e s t a t e , t h a t s t a t e s u b s i d i e s sh o u ld be g r a n te d
to p o o r d i s t r i c t s u n t i l a d e f e n s ib le minimum f i n a n c i a l
s t r u c t u r e was r e a c h e d , and t h a t w e a l t h i e r d i s t r i c t s sh o u ld
be p e r m itte d , a t t h e i r own ex p en se, t o exceed th e s t a t e
minimum. Under su c h a common, s t a t e - w i d e t a x r a t e , th e
w e a l t h i e r d i s t r i c t s would n o t o n ly r e a c h t h e minimum s ta n d
ard w ith o u t o u t s i d e a id b u t would r a i s e much a d d i t i o n a l
fu n d s w hich would be u se d to b r in g th e p o o r e r d i s t r i c t s to
th e minimum.
The C a lifo r n ia p lan , which came in to b ein g w hile
World War I I was i n p r o g r e s s , in a u g u r a te d an e q u a l i z a t i o n
program w hich would com pute th e amount w hich a t a x o f tw en ty
c e n ts , l e v i e d on each one hundred d o l l a r s o f a s s e s s e d v a lu -
5
a t i o n , would p ro d u c e . I f such a sum w ould n o t p r o v id e a
f o u n d a tio n p r o g r e s s o f n i n e t y - f i v e d o l l a r s p e r each u n i t o f
a v e ra g e d a i l y a t te n d a n c e , s u f f i c i e n t e q u a l i z a t i o n fu n d s w ere
to he a s s ig n e d t o th e d i s t r i c t t o r e a c h t h a t am ount.
Such a p la n o f s t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n a l
o p p o r tu n ity h a s im p o r ta n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t e a c h e r r e c r u i t
m en t. I t i s i n th e p o o r e r d i s t r i c t s t h a t a d e q u a te ly t r a i n e d
te a c h e r s a r e h a r d e s t t o f i n d , t h a t t e a c h e r tu r n o v e r i s
g r e a t e s t , and t h a t t h e p r e s t i g e o f th e p r o f e s s i o n i s a t i t s
lo w e s t e h b . I f a l l t h e p e o p le o f a s t a t e a r e made aware o f
t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e e d u c a tio n o f th e y o u th o f th e
e n t i r e s t a t e , e d u c a tio n i s h e ld i n h ig h e r e s te e m , and th e
te a c h in g v o c a tio n more c o m p le te ly a t t a i n s p r o f e s s i o n a l
s t a t u s .
I t i s o b v io u s t h a t a d e s i r a b l e l e v e l f o r s ta te - w id e
minimum s a l a r y law s c a n n o t be a t t a i n e d w ith o u t a sound
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e s t a t e ta x s t r u c t u r e . T h ere i s much to
be s a i d , th e n , f o r th o s e who would r a t e s t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n
p la n s h ig h e r th a n minimum s a l a r y law s i n so f a r a s th e y a re
fu n d a m e n ta l to te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t .
5
S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , E d u c a tio n Code. 1945, p . 168,
S e c tio n 6941.
253
q u e s tio n n a i r e r a t i n g s showed s tr o n g s u p p o r t . T ab le
XL i n d i c a t e s th e e x i s te n c e o f a c o n s i s t e n t b e l i e f i n fa v o r
o f s t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n o f s c h o o l fu n d s as a means o f te a c h e r
r e c r u i t m e n t . "A" r a t i n g s w ere made by 7 4 .0 p e r c e n t o f a l l
r e s p o n d e n ts . The two g ro u p s o f C a l i f o r n i a s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s
w ere s l i g h t l y l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c th a n w ere th e o t h e r s , b u t
t h e i r s u p p o rt was s t i l l p ro n o u n ced . "Dn r a t i n g s , w hich
would i n d i c a t e a b e l i e f i n a t t e n d a n t d a n g e rs , w ere few i n
number.
S t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n , when c o n s id e r e d as a r e c r u itm e n t
p ro c e d u re to be r e t a i n e d p e rm a n e n tly , r e c e iv e d a lm o st e q u a l
l y s tr o n g s u p p o r t. Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts , 6 9 .5 p e r c e n t asked
t h a t i t b e r e t a i n e d i n d e f i n i t e l y . I n no group d id l e s s th a n
60 p e r c e n t ask t h a t t h e p ro c e d u re be r e t a i n e d .
V alu e s o th e r th a n r e c r u i t m e n t r e s u l t s a r e in h e r e n t i n
a sound program o f s t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n . The e x i s t e n c e o f
th o s e v a lu e s may have c o lo r e d th e r e s p o n s e s o f th o s e r a t i n g
th e q u e s tio n n a i r e ite m . N e v e r th e le s s , w ith such c o n s i s t e n t
and such v ig o ro u s s u p p o r t, i t would seem e n t i r e l y f e a s i b l e
to g iv e much a t t e n t i o n to s t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n i n any t o t a l
r e c r u itm e n t program .
V. EQUALIZING EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY* NATIONALLY BY
SUBSTANTIAL AID FOB ALL BUT THE WEALTHIEST STATES
S ta te ed u cation al system le a d s to g reat in e q u a lity o f
TABLE XL
C O M P L E T E S T A T E E Q U A L I Z A T I O N H A N I N V O L V I N G S U B S T A N T I A L A I D F O H A IL
B U T T H E H E A L T H I E S T .D I S T R I C T S .
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Fer cent of
A to Total
Fer cent
Retain
State
Departments 31 27 3 1 0 20 18 87.1 64.5
State Teachers*
Associations 34 26 6 0 2 27 13 76.5 79.4
Colleges in
California 17 11 3 3 0 12 7 64.7 70.6
Colleges outside
California 45 37 6 0 2 34 15 82.2 75.6
Guidance Directors
in California 64 39 22 2 1 39 14 60.9 60.9
Guidance Directors
outside California 78 59 17 2 0 55 28 75.6 70.5
Total 269 199 57 8
5
187 95 74.0 69.5
tss
e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r t u n i t y . The fo u n d in g f a t h e r s o f th e U n ited
S t a t e s l e f t e d u c a tio n a s a f u n c t i o n o f th e s e v e r a l s t a t e s .
Through th e y e a r s , num erous a tte m p ts have b ee n made t o de
v e lo p a n a t i o n a l sy stem o f e d u c a tio n d i r e c t l y c o n t r o l l e d by
a f e d e r a l d e p a rtm e n t. Such a tte m p ts have b e e n opposed, how
e v e r, by th o s e who b e lie v e d e d u c a tio n sh o u ld be a community
and s t a t e f u n c t i o n and who i n s i s t e d t h a t f e d e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
and f e d e r a l f in a n c e would mean f e d e r a l c o n t r o l .
Thus, t h e r e have d e v e lo p e d f o r t y - e i g h t in d e p e n d e n t
s c h o o l sy stem s r e l a t i v e l y f r e e from c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l . The
n a tio n -w id e commonness o f i n t e r e s t s and t h e freed o m i n th e
exchange o f id e a s b etw een s t a t e s have r e s u l t e d i n a v o lu n ta r y
s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n t h a t h as p ro d u ced u n u s u a l e d u c a tio n a l u n i
f o rm ity .
Those who have a d v o c ate d f e d e r a l f i n a n c i n g o f ed u c a
t i o n have done so on th e b a s i s o f th e re m a rk a b le d i f f e r e n c e
i n th e f i n a n c i a l a b i l i t y o f th e s e v e r a l s t a t e s to s u p p o rt
6 7
e d u c a tio n . S tu d ie s made by such men a s C hisholm and Ashby
show t h a t t o e x p e c t th e p o o r e s t s t a t e s to p ro v id e an a d e q u a te
^ L e s l i e L. C hisholm , The Economic A b i l i t y o f th e
S t a t e s to F in a n c e P u b lic S c h o o ls ( C o n tr ib u tio n s to E d u c a tio n ,
No. 669. New Y ork: B ureau o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e rs C o lle g e ,
Colum bia U n iv e r s it y , 1 9 3 6 ).
7
L y le W. Ashby, The E f f o r t s o f th e S t a t e s to S u p p o rt
E d u c a tio n , a s R e la te d to th e Adequacy o f F i n a n c i a l S u p p o rt
P ro v id e d and th e A b i l i t y o f th e S t a t e s to S u p p o rt E d u c a tio n
(W ashington, D .G .: N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 3 6 ).
Minimum o f e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n ity w ould r e q u i r e t h a t th e y
c a r r y n e a r l y f o u r tim e s a s heavy a b u rd e n a s th e a v e ra g e
s t a t e . One r e s u l t o f t h i s i n e q u a l i t y w hich i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
s i g n i f i c a n t f o r te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t i s t h e g r e a t d iv e rg e n c y
i n t e a c h e r s 1 s a l a r i e s . I n 1943-44, 90 p e r c e n t o f
M i s s i s s i p p i t e a c h e r s and 75 p e r c e n t o f th o s e i n s i x o th e r
s t a t e s r e c e iv e d l e s s th a n tw elv e h u n d red d o l l a r s annual
s a l a r y . I n tw e n ty s t a t e s , on th e o t h e r hand, l e s s th a n 20
p e r c e n t o f th e t e a c h e r s r e c e iv e d l e s s th a n tw elv e hundred
Q
d o l l a r s and i n t h r e e s t a t e s no te a c h e r was so p o o r ly p a id .
A dvocates f o r n a t i o n a l e q u a l i t y p o i n t o u t, to o , t h a t
t h e r e i s a h ig h ly m o b ile p o p u la tio n i n t h i s c o u n try and
t h a t a s t a t e such as C a l i f o r n i a , f o r i n s t a n c e , w hich a n n u a l
l y r e c e i v e s a heav y im m ig ra tio n from o th e r s t a t e s , sh o u ld be
g r e a t l y co n c ern ed as to th e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a tio n i n th e
o th e r f o r ty - s e v e n s t a t e s .
Some f e a r f e d e r a l c o n t r o l w i l l r e s u l t . Some f e d e r a l
s u p p o rt f o r e d u c a tio n h a s been p r a c t i c e d th ro u g h th e y e a r s .
T h is h a s b ee n p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n i n
w hich f i e l d th e f e d e r a l governm ent b eg an s u p p o rt w ith th e
f i r s t M o r r i l l A ct i n 1862. W ith th e a d o p tio n o f th e Sm ith -
Hughes A ct i n 1917 p e r s o n n e l, program , and f in a n c e were
8 N atio n a l Education A sso cia tio n , Research D iv isio n ,
"Teachers* S a la r ie s and the P u blic W elfare," Research
B u lle t in , No. 4, 21:96, December, 1943.
l a r g e l y u n d e r f e d e r a l c o n tro l* T here a r e th o s e who g r e a t l y
f e a r su c h d e v e lo p m e n ts, Moehlman s t a t e s , f o r exam ple:
The grow th o f f e d e r a l c o n t r o l o v e r p u b l i c e d u c a tio n
h a s s t e a d i l y in c r e a s e d s in c e 1868 and, i f i t sh o u ld
c o n tin u e a t th e same r a t e th ro u g h th e e x t e n s io n o f
s p e c i f i c s u b v e n tio n s t o o th e r f i e l d s , w i l l r e s u l t i n a
com plete f e d e r a l i z e d sy ste m o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n w i t h i n
a n o th e r g e n e r a t i o n . 9
Many p e o p le b e l i e v e , how ever, t h a t a sy ste m o f
f e d e r a l a i d c a n be p r a c t i c e d t h a t w i l l n o t c a u se t h e s t a t e s
to l o s e c o n t r o l o f e d u c a tio n . The m aking o f fu n d s a v a i l a b l e
f o r s c h o o l p l a n t s i s an exam ple. Much was done i n t h i s
d i r e c t i o n d u rin g th e d e p r e s s io n and i n war crowded a r e a s
d u r in g W orld War I I . A n o th er ty p e o f f e d e r a l a id i s t h a t
s u p p lie d t o n eed y s tu d e n t s as e x e m p lifie d by th e N a tio n a l
Y outh A d m in is tr a tio n . S in c e th e g r e a t e s t need i s f o r su p
p o r t o f th e g e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l program , how ever, t h e r e i s
much demand f o r e i t h e r a p e r c a p i t a d i s t r i b u t i o n o r s u p p le
m e n ta tio n g r a n t s , th e amount o f w hich i s d ependent upon th e
s t a t e s ’ c a p a c ity t o c a r r y t h e i r own l o a d s . I f s u f f i c i e n t
s a fe g u a r d s can be d ev e lo p ed a g a i n s t f e d e r a l c o n t r o l , some
such sy stem w i l l p ro b a b ly c o n tin u e t o g a in f a v o r .
Q u ite o b v io u s ly th e r e a r e im p l i c a t i o n s f o r te a c h e r
r e c r u itm e n t i n f e d e r a l a i d f o r e d u c a tio n . Those f i n a n c i a l l y
d e p re s s e d a r e a s o f th e n a t i o n have o f n e c e s s i t y done l i t t l e
9 /
A rth u r B. Moehlman, S ch o o l Admini s t r a t i on (B oston;
H o u g h to n -M ifflin Company, 1 9 4 0 ), p . 876.
858
t o m a t e r i a l l y rew ard t e a c h e r s , and th e r e s u l t h a s been low
p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s , p o o r ly tr a i n e d t e a c h e r s , and a r a p i d
te a c h e r tu r n o v e r . I f an a c c e p ta b le sy stem o f f e d e r a l a id
ca n be d e v is e d , i t sh o u ld do much i n th o s e a r e a s to le a d
young p e o p le to choose e d u c a tio n a s a p r o f e s s i o n and to make
i t a l i f e - t i m e v o c a tio n .
R e sp o n d en ts u rg ed f e d e r a l e q u a l i z a t i o n . F e d e r a l e q u a l
i z a t i o n was a lm o st a s f u l l y su p p o rte d a s was s t a t e e q u a l i
z a t i o n . T ab le XLI shows 7 3 .2 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n s e s i n
th e u n q u a l i f i e d "A" colum n. S u p p o rt was c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h
b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y so fro m s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t o f f i c i a l s . W hile
much h as b e e n s a id and w r i t t e n i n r e c e n t y e a rs c o n c e rn in g th e
a l le g e d d a n g e rs o f f e d e r a l e q u a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n a l s u p p o rt,
l i t t l e more th a n 7 .0 p e r c e n t so i n d i c a t e d by r a t i n g th e sug
g e s te d p ro c e d u re i n th e "D" c a te g o ry .
When n a t i o n a l e q u a l i z a t i o n i s c o n s id e re d a s a m ethod to
be r e t a i n e d p e rm a n e n tly , i t s t i l l r e t a i n s s tr o n g a p p r o v a l.
Of a l l r e s p o n d e n ts , 6 4 .7 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d th e d e s i r a b i l i t y
o f r e t e n t i o n . A gain t h e r e was l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n among t h e
s e v e r a l g ro u p s.
I n so f a r a s t h e q u e s tio n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts r e p r e s e n t a
t y p i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f e d u c a to r s n a t i o n a l l y , i t would seem
t h a t f e a r o f f e d e r a l c o n t r o l i n c o n n e c tio n w ith f e d e r a l su p
p o r t i s n o t p ro n o u n ced . E d u c a to rs se e c o n s id e r a b le v a lu e f o r
TABES XLI
NATIONAL EQUALIZATION OS EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY- INVOLVING SUBSTANTIAL AID FOR ALL
BUT THE WEALTHIEST STATES
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Fer cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 30 26 1 2 1 20 17 86.7 66.7
State Teachers*
Associations 34 27 5 0 2 26 12 79.4 76.5
Colleges in
California 17 11 4 1 1 12 6 64.7 70.6
Colleges outside
California 45 32 5 1 7 29 15 71.1 64.4
Guidance Directors
in California 66 47 15 1 3 34 6 71.2 51.5
Guidance Directors
outside California 77 54 14 4 5 53 22 70.1 68.8
Total 269 197 44 9 19 174 78 73.2 64.7
259
te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t i n th e s u g g e s tio n . I t would a p p e a r
w o rth y , t h e r e f o r e , o f much a t t e n t i o n i n any co m prehensive
r e c r u itm e n t p la n .
VI. PROVIDING RETIREMENT LAW EQUALING- AT LEAST HALF
ANNUAL SALARY AFTER SERVICE OF APPROXIMATELY THIRTY YEARS
T ea ch er r e t i r e m e n t p la n s a r e w id e ly u s e d . T each er
r e t i r e m e n t p la n s , l i k e s o c i a l s e c u r i t y p r o v i s i o n s i n g e n e r a l,
have l a r g e l y b een a developm ent o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y .
The m ost f r e q u e n t l y used p ro c e d u re o f to d a y i s th e j o i n t -
con t r i h u t o r y p la n i n w hich th e p e n s io n r e s e r v e i s h u i l t up
from h o th te a c h e r paym ents and p u b l i c fu n d s . N o rm ally , th e
t e a c h e r Ts c o n t r i b u t i o n i s m atched, d o l l a r f o r d o l l a r , by th e
s t a t e . R e tire m e n t i s g e n e r a l l y r e q u ir e d a t t h e age o f s i x t y -
f i v e o r s e v e n ty and p e r m itte d a t an e a r l i e r ag e .
I n 1939 i t was r e p o r te d t h a t tw e n t y - e ig h t s t a t e s had
s t a t e - w i d e te a c h e r r e t i r e m e n t sy stem s i n o p e r a t i o n . 10 Many
c i t i e s and c o u n tie s have ad o p te d such p la n s , as w e ll . The
g e n e r a l tr e n d seems to i n d i c a t e an in c r e a s e d number o f te a c h
e r s coming u n d er th e p la n and an i n c r e a s e i n th e c o n t r i b u t i o n
from p u b l i c fu n d s . By 1945 th e R e se a rc h D iv is io n o f th e
N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n r e p o r te d a s tu d y show ing t h a t
10
N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , R e s e a rc h D iv is io n ,
and N a tio n a l C o u n c il on T eacher R e tire m e n t, A n a ly s is o f th e
S t a t u t o r y P r o v is io n s f o r S t a t e T e a c h e rs R e tir e m e n t System s
(W ashington, D .G .: N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 3 9 ),
p . 5.
9 8 .5 p e r c e n t ©f th e te a c h e r s from t h e a r e a s r e p o r t i n g had
e i t h e r s t a t e o r l o c a l o ld -a g e p r o t e c t i o n on a j o i n t - c o n t r i
b u to r y b a s i s . 11
W hile t h e r e i s l i t t l e argum ent a s to th e v a lu e o f
r e t i r e m e n t sy stem s many now in e x i s te n c e can h a r d ly be r a te d
a s a d e q u a te . Some o f them a r e a c t u a l l y unsound and a l a r g e
m a j o r i t y o f them do n o t p r o v id e a r e t i r e m e n t fund a d e q u a te
f o r f i n a n c i a l in d e p e n d e n c e a f t e r r e t i r e m e n t . There i s n ee d ,
to o , f o r g r e a t e r c o o r d in a tio n among th e s t a t e s w hich would
f a c i l i t a t e t r a n s f e r o f a te a c h e r from one s t a t e to a n o th e r .
T here i s some demand, i n f a c t , f o r a n a t i o n a l r e t i r e m e n t
p la n w hich would make r e c i p r o c a t i o n b etw een s t a t e s a u to m a tic .
A sound, a d e q u a te r e t i r e m e n t p la n o b v io u s ly makes th e
te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n more a t t r a c t i v e and i s , t h e r e f o r e , s i g n i
f i c a n t i n any p la n o f te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . I n c r e a s e d fu n d s
m ust be made a v a i l a b l e i n m ost a r e a s , how ever, b e f o r e th e
t y p i c a l te a c h e r r e t i r e m e n t p la n can become a s tr o n g p o in t
f o r c o n v in c in g a young man o r woman t o e n t e r th e p r o f e s s i o n .
I t was f e l t t h a t a p l a n c a l l i n g f o r a t l e a s t o n e - h a lf th e
a v e ra g e a n n u a l s a l a r y i s a minimum below w hich th e p r o f e s s i o n
sh o u ld n o t aim . T h e re fo re , q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts were
asked to r a t e r e t i r e m e n t on t h a t b a s i s .
1 1
N ation al Education A sso cia tio n , Research D iv isio n ,
" S t a t is t ic s o f S ta te and Local Teacher R etirem ent System s,
1945-1944," Research B u lle t in , No. 2, 1 5 :3 , A p ril, 1945.
262
Q .u e stio n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts s tr o n g ly su p p o rte d a d e q u a te
r e t i r e m e n t sy s te m . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e r a t i n g s , a s p r e s e n te d
i n T able XLIX, i n d i c a t e an a lm o st u n i v e r s a l b e l i e f i n th e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a d e q u a te r e t i r e m e n t a s an a id to te a c h e r r e
c r u itm e n t, U n q u a lifie d in d o rse m e n t, as r e v e a le d by w An
r a t i n g s , w ere made by 8 6 .5 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts . Such
r a t i n g s w ere c o n s i s t e n t l y f r e q u e n t among a l l g ro u p s and from
a l l s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n try . I t i s n o te w o rth y t h a t n o t a
s i n g l e 1 1 Bn , o r " d a n g e r ," r a t i n g was fo u n d f o r t h i s s u g g e s te d
p ro c e d u r e .
When a d e q u a te r e tir e m e n t fu n d s w ere p r e s e n te d a s a
p o s s i b l e perm anent i n c e n t i v e to r e c r u itm e n t, th e s u p p o r t was
a g a in v e r y s tr o n g . The 7 5 .1 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n s e s i n f a v o r
o f r e t e n t i o n was h ig h e r even th a n t h a t g iv e n to minimum
s a l a r y la w s . I t would a p p e a r, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e re s p o n d
e n t s c o n s id e r a d e q u a te o ld age s e c u r i t y a s a s i g n i f i c a n t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n i n f l u e n c i n g c h o ic e o f a p r o f e s s i o n . I f
t h e i r b e l i e f may be c o n s id e re d t y p i c a l o f e d u c a tio n a l t h i n k
in g g e n e r a l l y , a tta in m e n t o f a d e q u a te r e t i r e m e n t f in a n c in g
sh o u ld s u r e l y be so u g h t a s one o f th e m ost im p o rta n t means
o f b r in g in g r e c r u i t s i n t o th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n .
V II. ENACTING TENURE LA W INSURING PERMANENCY OF
EMPLOYMENT AFTER PROBATIONARY PERIOD
T enure l e g i s l a t i o n a tte m p ts to p r o t e c t t e a c h e r from
TABLE a n
RETIRMENT LMff FROVTDING AT LEAST HALF ANNUAL SALARY AFTER SERVICE OF
APPROXIMATELY THIRTY YEARS . .
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Fer cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 33 29 3 1 0 23 17 87.9 69.7
State Teachers*
Associations 34 32 2 0 0 27 13 94.1 79.4
Colleges in
California 17 16 1 0 0 13 8 94.1 76.5
Colleges outside
California 45 36 9 0 0 37 24 80.0 82.2
Guidance Directors
in California 70 55 13 2 0 45 22 78.6 64.3
Guidance Directors
outside California 90 82 7 1 0 72 37 91.1 80.0
Total 289 250 35 4 0 217 121 86.5 75.1
264
u n j u s t d i s m i s s a l * I n th e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n i n th e
U n ite d S t a t e s te a c h e r s w ere sim p ly em ployed f o r a s in g l e
s h o r t term and f r e q u e n t l y were n o t ac co rd ed th e p r o t e c t i o n
o f a c o n t r a c t f o r t h a t p erio d * When c o n t r a c t s w ere i n t r o
duced, th e y o f te n in c lu d e d a c la u s e p r o v id in g f o r t h e i r
c a n c e l l a t i o n a t any tim e a t th e w i l l o f t h e em ploying hody.
To a f f o r d somewhat g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n , num erous s t a t e s have
e n a c te d l e g i s l a t i o n r e q u i r i n g t h a t te a c h in g c o n t r a c t s ex ten d
o v e r th e sc h o o l y e a r .
I n some s t a t e s t e a c h e r s have heen g iv e n somewhat more
p r o t e c t i o n by means o f a d e v ic e known a s th e c o n tin u in g
c o n t r a c t . Under t h i s p r o v is io n , a f t e r a few p r o b a tio n a r y
y e a r s , th e c o n t r a c t i s assumed to c o n tin u e i n o p e r a tio n from
y e a r to y e a r u n l e s s e i t h e r p a r t y g iv e s n o t i c e b e f o r e a
c e r t a i n d a te t h a t i t i s to be c a n c e le d . Thus, a sc h o o l
b o ard i s r e q u ir e d to ta k e a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n i n o r d e r to
d is m is s a t e a c h e r . The te a c h e r , t h e r e f o r e , i s n o t u n d er th e
n e c e s s i t y o f m aking a n n u a l a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a p p o in tm e n t.
The f i n a l s ta g e i n l e g a l job s e c u r i t y i s p ro v id e d by
a p la n w hich a c c o rd s te a c h e r s p erm anent te n u r e e i t h e r by
b o a rd r u l i n g o r by s t a t e s t a t u t e . Under su ch a p la n , a f t e r
a p r o b a tio n a r y p e r io d o f from t h r e e to f i v e y e a r s , a te a c h e r
can b e d is m is s e d o n ly by b o a rd co m p lian ce w ith c e r t a i n s t a t u
to r y p r o v i s i o n s . T hese in c lu d e n o t i c e , o p p o r tu n ity f o r
t e a c h e r h e a r in g on some ch a rg e in c lu d e d i n t h e l i s t o f th o s e
265
l e g a l l y p e r m itte d f o r d i s m i s s a l , and t e a c h e r o p p o r tu n ity f o r
a p p e a l to some h ig h e r e d u c a ti o n a l a u t h o r i t y .
Some doubt v a lu e o f te n u r e p l a n . , F o r many y e a r s a rg u
m en ts f o r i n d e f i n i t e - t e n u r e l e g i s l a t i o n w ere b ased on a
p r i o r i r e a s o n in g . Those who f a v o re d su ch p r o v i s i o n s m ain
ta in e d t h a t a b e t t e r s t a f f would r e s u l t b ec au se o f th e p r o
t e c t i o n from l o c a l p o l i t i c s , r e l i e f fro m a n x ie ty o v e r jo b
s e c u r i t y , d e c re a s e d tu r n o v e r , and g r e a t e r c a re i n s e l e c t i o n .
Those who opposed su c h l e g i s l a t i o n co n ten d ed t h a t
u n d e s ir a b le te a c h e r s would be r e t a i n e d b e c a u se o f th e d i f f i
c u l t y o f d i s m i s s a l . I t was c laim ed a ls o t h a t t e a c h e r s ,
f r e e d from any com pulsion, would do a minimum o f work and
c e a s e t o grow p r o f e s s i o n a l l y . Many t e a c h e r s opposed su c h
l e g i s l a t i o n due t o a p r a c t i c e , fr e q u e n te d by some d i s t r i c t s ,
o f d is m is s in g a l l t e a c h e r s a t th e end o f th e p r o b a tio n a r y
p e r io d t o av o id th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f perm an en t r e t e n t i o n o f
u n d e s ir a b le p e r s o n n e l.
R e se a rc h co m p leted by B e t t s i n d i c a t e s v a lu e s a c c r u in g
12
t o th e p r o f e s s i o n th ro u g h i n d e f i n i t e - t e n u r e la w s . I n
com paring s e v e r a l s t a t e s w ith and w ith o u t such l e g i s l a t i o n
he fo u n d t h a t te n u r e s t a t e s have s i g n i f i c a n t l y few er new ly
12
G. L. B e t t s , "The I n f lu e n c e o f T ea ch er T enure Laws
on S upply and Demand," J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h .
2 8 :1 1 8 -1 5 1 , O c to b e r, 1934.
266
employed t e a c h e r s . A p a r a l l e l f in d in g was th e e x is te n c e o f
much l e s s tu r n o v e r i n te n u re s t a t e s .
I f te a c h e r s te n d to choose e d u c a tio n as a p r o f e s s i o n
b e c a u se o f i n d e f i n i t e - t e n u r e law s o r i f th e y rem a in i n th e
p r o f e s s i o n b e c a u se o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e , c e r t a i n l y th e s e
f a c t o r s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a s a p ro c e d u re i n te a c h e r r e c r u i t
m ent. I f e i t h e r th e p u b lic o r t e a c h e r s , on th e o th e r hand,
f e e l t h e i r d is a d v a n ta g e s o u tw eigh t h e i r a d v a n ta g e s , th e n
th e y a re o f no v a lu e t o r e c r u itm e n t o r e d u c a tio n i n g e n e r a l
and sh o u ld be c u r t a i l e d .
M a jo r ity o f r e s p o n d e n ts th o u g h t t e n u r e law s co n d u civ e
to r e c r u i t m e n t . W hile th e te n u r e law as a means o f r e c r u i t
in g te a c h e r s was n o t a s th o ro u g h ly su p p o rte d as was minimum
s a l a r y and r e t i r e m e n t l e g i s l a t i o n , i t was s t i l l w e ll
in d o r s e d . R e fe re n c e to T ab le X L III shows t h a t 6 2 .4 p e r c e n t
o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts r a t e d i t as s i g n i f i c a n t l y im p o r ta n t.
R e tu rn s from s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t and s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n
o f f i c i a l s , w hich on m ost r a t e d ite m s w ere v e r y s i m i l a r , h e re
showed a m a t e r i a l v a r i a t i o n .
R e q u e s ts f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n a v e ra g ed 5 9 .6 p e r
c e n t o f th e t o t a l , b e in g o n ly s l i g h t l y l e s s f r e q u e n t th a n
w ere th e ?,A” r e s p o n s e s . S l i g h t l y more th a n 8 .0 p e r c e n t o f
r e s p o n d e n ts su b m itte d a "D" r a t i n g , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f i n
a t t e n d a n t e v i l s .
TABLE 2 L I I I
TENURE LAW 1HICH INSURES PERMANENCY OF EMPLOYMENT AFTER PROBATIONARY PERIOD UNLESS
BOARD CAN mQlE JUST CAUSE FOR DISMISSAL .
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
Per cent
Retain
State
Departments 32 15 12 2 3 16 11 46.9 50.0
State Teachers'
Associations 33 25 5
0
3 26 12 75.8 78.8
Colleges in
California 17 11 5 1 0 11 8 64.7 64.7
Colleges outside
California 44 29 10 2 3 25 14 65.9 56.8
Guidance Directors
in California 69 35 17 11 6 32 13 50*7 46.4
Guidance Directors
outside California 87 61 15 3 8 58 24 70.1 ' 66.7
Total 282 176 64 19 23 168 82 62.4 59.6
2 6 7
W hile p r o f e s s i o n a l and l a y l e a d e r s have n o t a l l ag ree d
a s to th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f te n u r e l e g i s l a t i o n s e n tim e n t f o r
i t s en actm en t a p p e a rs to be grow ing. T ab le X L III shows much
s u p p o rt f o r such a p ro c e d u re a s a m eans o f in d u c in g young
p e o p le t o e n t e r o r re m a in i n th e p r o f e s s i o n . I t w ould n o t,
th e n , seem w ise t o ig n o r e i t i n th e f o rm a tio n o f a r e c r u i t
m ent pro g ram .
V I I I . PROVIDING SABBATICAL LEAVES OF ABSENCE
R e se a rc h on s a b b a t i c a l le a v e s i s l i m i t e d . The t y p i c a l
sc h o o l system h a s d e v e lo p e d r a t h e r l i b e r a l p o l i c i e s as to
s ic k le a v e s and o th e r s p e c i a l le a v e s o f a b se n c e . B a ta f o r
1937-38 on c i t i e s o f more th a n t h i r t y th o u sa n d p o p u la tio n
i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l a r g e m a jo r i ty o f th e s e sy stem s allo w f u l l
13
s a l a r y f o r some a b s e n c e s . Ten days w ith f u l l pay ap p e ared
to be th e m ost f r e q u e n t p r a c t i c e . Many c i t i e s p r o v id e f o r
c u m u la tiv e s i c k l e a v e , a s w e ll.
The s a b b a t i c a l le a v e , a p r o v i s i o n f o r ex ten d ed ab sen ce
f o r a h a l f y e a r , a y e a r , o r m ore, p r o v id e s le a v e f o r th e
p u rp o se o f t r a v e l , stu d y , o r r e s t . The p r a c t i c e i s m ost
f r e q u e n t among c o l le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w ith such le a v e
13
A m erican A s s o c ia tio n o f S ch o o l A d m in is tra to r s ,
E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h S e r v ic e , Employment S t a t u s and L eaves
o f Absence o f T e a c h e r s . 1957-1938 (W ashington. D .G .;
Am erican A s s o c ia tio n o f S chool A d m in is tr a to r s , 1 938), p . 8 .
b e in g g ra n te d a f t e r sev en y e a rs* s e r v i c e a f r e q u e n t p la n .
I n 1937-38, o f 216 c i t i e s o f more th a n t h i r t y th o u san d
p o p u la tio n , 7 8 .0 p e r c e n t g ra n te d e x te n d e d l e a v e s ; " ^ 71*0
p e r c e n t o f them g ra n te d no s a l a r y w h ile 1 9 .0 p e r c e n t g r a n t
ed f u l l s a l a r y , l e s s pay f o r s u b s t i t u t e ; and 1 0 .0 p e r c e n t
g ra n te d f r a c t i o n a l p ay , g e n e r a l l y o n e - h a l f o f t o t a l s a l a r y .
The te rm , " s a b b a t i c a l l e a v e , 1 * n o rm a lly assum es some
pay d u r in g th e p e r io d o f le a v e . There d o es n o t a p p e a r to
be a d e q u a te r e s e a r c h a s to th e e f f e c t o f su ch le a v e s upon
th e e f f i c i e n c y o f p e r s o n n e l. P o l i c i e s r e g a r d in g paym ent f o r
ex ten d ed a b s e n c e s would be b e s t j u s t i f i e d on th e a ssu m p tio n
t h a t th e o p e r a t io n o f su ch p o l i c i e s make f o r more e f f e c t i v e
e d u c a tio n a l s e r v i e e .
L i t t l e p r e v io u s d a ta a r e a v a i l a b l e on s a b b a t i c a l
le a v e s . I f e d u c a tio n a l w o rk e rs would p r i z e h ig h ly a p e r i o d i c
ex ten d ed p e r io d f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y and t r a v e l c a r r y in g w ith i t
a p r o v is io n f o r some re m u n e ra tio n , th e n t h e r e would be much
j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a d v o c a tin g i t as a te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t
d e v ic e .
P la n was v a lu e d by q u e s tio n n a i r e g r o u p s . T ab le XLIY
i n d i c a t e s th e d e g re e o f a c c e p ta n c e o f th e s a b b a t i c a l le a v e
i n r e c r u i t i n g t e a c h e r s . A pproval was r a t h e r s tr o n g and
TABU ILVT
SABBATICAL ' LEAVES OF ABSENCE
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Fer cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 28 14 10 4 0 17 10 50.0 60.7
State Teachers*
Associations 34 21 12 1 0
*
18 13 61.8 52.9
Colleges in
California 17 10 6 1 0 13 7 58.8 76.5
Colleges outside
California 46 28 15 3 0 30 15 60.9 65.2
Guidance Directors
in California 69 27 30 8 4 33 14 39.1 47.8
Guidance Directors
outside California 88 55 27 4 2 62 31 62.5 70.5
Total 282 155 100 21 6 173 90 55.0 61.3
OdZ
271
c o n s i s t e n t among a l l g ro u p s, Among C a l i f o r n i a g u id a n c e
d i r e c t o r s a lo n e d id th e number o f "A" r e s p o n s e s f a l l below
50 p e r c e n t . Among a l l r e s p o n d e n ts 55*0 p e r c e n t r a t e d th e
p ro c e d u re i n th e u n q u a l if i e d "A” c a te g o r y .
When th e s a b b a t i c a l le a v e i s c o n s id e r e d i n r e l a t i o n
to i t s perm an en t e f f e c t a s a r e c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u re , th e
a c c e p ta n c e i s a g a in v ig o r o u s . Of a l l re s p o n d e n ts , 6 1 .3 p e r
c e n t i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n . ftD" r e s
p o n se s, i n d i c a t i n g p o s s i b l e d a n g e rs , w ere to o few to be
s i g n i f i c a n t .
A gain, t h e r e f o r e , i t would a p p e a r t h a t su c h a d e g re e
o f a c c e p ta n c e c o u ld n o t b e Ig n o re d i n p la n n in g f o r te a c h e r
r e c r u itm e n t. B o th as a te m p o ra ry and a s a p erm an en t p r o
c e d u re i t i s d e s e r v in g o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n i f th e h i g h e s t ty p e
p e r s o n n e l i s to b e b ro u g h t i n t o th e p r o f e s s i o n and r e t a i n e d
t h e r e .
IX. UNIONIZING TEACHERS INCLUDING AFFILIATION WITH
NATIONAL LABOR GROUPS
A m in o r it y have jo in e d la b o r g r o u p s . E d u c a to rs , l i k e
o th e r A m erican v o c a t i o n a l g ro u p s, have num erous l o c a l , s t a t e ,
and n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . They e x i s t i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l
c i t i e s . Each s t a t e h a s a t l e a s t one s t a t e - w i d e a s s o c i a t i o n
and s e v e r a l r e g i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s a r e a c t i v e . The N a tio n a l
E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n i s th e l a r g e s t p r o f e s s i o n a l
o r g a n iz a tio n i n th e w o rld , h a v in g more th a n two hundred
th o u san d members. I t s program s t r e s s e s p r o f e s s i o n a l im prove
m ent, and i t c o n d u c ts v ig o ro u s cam paigns f o r in c re a s e d
s a l a r i e s , t e n u r e , r e t i r e m e n t p ay m en ts, im proved w o rk in g con
d i t i o n s , in c r e a s e d s o c i a l s t a t u s , and g e n e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n
f o r th e f u r th e r a n c e o f e d u c a tio n .
I n 1916 th e .American F e d e r a tio n o f T e a c h e rs was o rgan
iz e d as an a f f i l i a t e w ith th e A m erican F e d e r a tio n o f L ab o r.
I t s m em bership h a s v a r i e d , d ep en d in g somewhat on g e n e r a l
econom ic c o n d i tio n s . By th e o u tb re a k o f World War I I , i t s
m em bership had re a c h e d t h i r t y - f i v e th o u sa n d , w ith more th a n
250 l o c a l s . Membership i s n o t e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d th ro u g h o u t
th e c o u n tr y . I n C h icag o , f o r in stsp a c e , a p p ro x im a te ly tw o-
t h i r d s o f a l l th e t e a c h e r s , a b o u t e i g h t th o u sa n d , a r e mem-
15
b a r s .
The program o f th e .American F e d e r a tio n o f T each ers
16
em p h asizes th e s o c i a l and econom ic w e lf a r e o f t e a c h e r s .
I t a d v o c a te s ad e q u ate s a l a r i e s and p e n s io n s , s m a lle r te a c h
in g lo a d s , e f f e c t i v e te n u re r e g u l a t i o n s , s a b b a t i c a l le a v e ,
and academ ic freedom . I t h a s b een an a d v o c a te o f f e d e r a l
a id to e d u c a tio n .
15
I rw in R. K u e n z li, "The S e c r e t a r y ’ s Annual R e p o r t,"
The A m erican T e a c h e r. 3 0 :5 , O c to b e r, 1945.
16
T. D. M a rtin , " T e a c h e rs ’ A s s o c i a t i o n s ," E n c y c lo
p e d ia o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h . 1940, p . 1 ,2 7 5 .
S73
Lai)or a f f i l i a t i o n i s a c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e * The
a d v i s a b i l i t y o f te a c h e r s a f f i l i a t i n g w ith l a b o r h a s been
w id e ly d is c u s s e d b o th i n s i d e and o u ts id e th e p r o f e s s i o n .
Those who f a v o r a f f i l i a t i o n arg u e t h a t i n u n io n t h e r e i s
s t r e n g t h , and th e y p o i n t to th e g r e a t m a t e r i a l g a i n s made by
o rg a n iz e d l a b o r . They m a in ta in t h a t 100 p e r c e n t n a t i o n a l
mem bership would b r in g re m a rk a b le g a in s i n re m u n e ra tio n and
g e n e ra l te a c h in g c o n d itio n s *
Those who oppose such a f f i l i a t i o n a rg u e t h a t e d u c a tio n
i s a p u b lic s e r v i c e and t h a t i t s m em bership, t h e r e f o r e , h a s
17
no r i g h t to a l l y i t s e l f w ith any p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l g roup.
They c la im t h a t such a f f i l i a t i o n d e s tr o y s e d u c a ti o n ’ s s t a t u s
as a p r o f e s s i o n , d ev o ted to s e r v i c e , and r e d u c e s i t s s t a t u s
to t h a t o f a c r a f t , d e v o te d to p e r s o n a l gain* They c la im
t h a t by su ch a f f i l i a t i o n e d u c a tio n l o s e s i t s i n d i v i d u a l i t y
o f a c t i o n and t h a t th e p r o f e s s i o n can g a i n i t s aim s b e t t e r
by d e v e lo p in g s tr o n g l o c a l , s t a t e , and n a t i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n s
o f i t s own.
From th e s ta n d p o in t o f t e a e h e r r e c r u itm e n t th e i s s u e
i s h e re c l e a r l y drawn. I f th e c h i e f i n t e r e s t i n j o i n i n g th e
te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n i s i t s m a t e r i a l re w a rd s to i t s w o rk e rs
and i f i t i s f e l t t h a t su ch re w a rd s are b e s t g a in e d by
17
W ellington G -. Fordyce, "Teachers’ Unions and
Labor’ s Weapons,” The American School Board Jou rn al. 113:31,
September, 1946.
274
n a t i o n a l la b o r o r g a n iz a tio n s , th e n such a f f i l i a t i o n w i l l be
fa v o re d . Thus, p ro m o tio n o f th e Am erican F e d e r a tio n o f
T e a c h e rs would b e an e f f e c t i v e r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re . B ut
i f o th e r f a c t o r s loom l a r g e i n th e p h ilo s o p h y o f th e e n t r a n t
to th e p r o f e s s i o n , th e s u g g e s tio n o f a f f i l i a t i o n w ith l a b o r
may w e ll a c t a s a d e t e r r e n t to r e c r u itm e n t.
Q u e s tio n n a ir e g ro u p s opposed a f f i l i a t i o n . T each er
o r g a n i z a t i o n w hich in v o lv e d a f f i l i a t i o n w ith n a t i o n a l la b o r
o r g a n iz a tio n s was d e c i s i v e l y opposed by q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s
p o n d e n ts . T ab le XLV p r e s e n t s t h e i r r e a c t i o n s to t h i s sug
g e s te d p ro c e d u re f o r te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . Only 8 .4 p e r c e n t
o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts gave i t th e u n q u a l if i e d "A" r a t i n g .
O p p o s itio n was s tr o n g from a l l g ro u p s b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y so
from s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n o f f i c i a l s , n o t one o f w hich
g ra n te d th e "A" r a t i n g .
P a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t w ere th e "D" r e s p o n s e s . As
shown by T a b le XLV, 6 7 .9 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts used
t h e "D" r a t i n g i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f t h a t a t te n d a n t e v i l s
would be p r e s e n t i n th e a d o p tio n o f such a p ro c e d u re .
P erm anent employment of l a b o r a f f i l i a t i o n a s a means
to r e c r u itm e n t r e c e iv e d a s i m i l a r d e n i a l . A gain n o t a s i n g l e
s t a t e t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n r a t i n g was i n th e " r e t a i n " colum n.
B ut 8 .0 p e r c e n t o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts I n d ic a te d a d e s i r e f o r
i n d e f i n i t e r e t e n t i o n .
T A B L E X L V
UNIONIZATION OF TEACHERS INGIBDING AFFILIATION WITH NATIONAL LABOR GROUPS
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 27 2 2 7 16 2 3 7.4 7.4
State Teachers1
Associations 32 0 4 4 24 0 3 0.0 0.0
Colleges in
California 16 1 1 4 10 1 2 6.3 6.3
Colleges outside
California 44 4 3 10 27 4 2 9.1 9.1
Guidance Directors
in California 66 5 4 6 51 4 2 7.6 6.1
Guidance Directors
outside California 77 10 8 9 50 10 8 13.0 13.0
Total 262 22 22 40 178 21 20 8.4 8.0
Q O
-a
c ji
276
I t would seem, th e n , t h a t .American e d u c a to r s as a
group a r e n o t w i l l i n g a t t h i s tim e to become a p a r t o f
o rg a n iz e d la b o r# S tro n g e r p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s would
r e p r e s e n t t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e , q u i t e p o s s i b l y . On th e b a s i s o f
th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s , e d u c a to rs c o u ld w e ll e lim in a te
la b o r a f f i l i a t i o n as a means o f g a in in g and k e e p in g o f te a c h
e r s .
X. ADOPTING RIGID STATE REGULATION TO PREVENT
EXCESSIVE TEACHING LCAD
Numerous f a c t o r s in f lu e n c e l o a d . The te a c h in g lo a d
i s u s u a l l y u n d e rsto o d t o in c lu d e a l l a c t i v i t i e s w hich con
sume th e tim e o r en e rg y o f th e te a c h e r and which a re r e l a t e d
i n any way to h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l d u t i e s . Among t h e f a c t o r s
in v o lv e d a r e c l a s s s i z e , number o f c l a s s e s , number o f p r e
p a r a t i o n s , ty p e o f s u b j e c t ta u g h t, and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s * S e v e r a l fo rm u la s f o r m e asu rin g
t e a c h e r lo a d have been d e v is e d , among th e b e s t known b e in g
th e D o u g lass fo rm u la f o r se c o n d a ry s c h o o l s .18
A u t h o r i t i e s a re n o t agreed r e g a r d in g th e e f f e c t o f th e
number o f p u p i l s ta u g h t on t o t a l te a c h in g load* Many te a c h
e r s f e e l t h a t medium s i z e c l a s s e s a re l e s s f a t i g u i n g th a n
18
H a rl R. D o u g lass, " S u b je c t M a tte r P r e p a r a t i o n o f
H igh S ch o o l T e a c h e r s ,” N o rth C e n tr a l A s s o c ia tio n Q u a r t e r l y .
12:466-71, 1938.
277
19
e i t h e r l a r g e o r s m a l l G l a s s e s . The b e l i e f i s g e n e r a l t h a t
a m u l t i p l i c i t y of p r e p a r a t io n s in c r e a s e th e lo a d and t h a t
E n g lis h , s o c i a l s t u d i e s , and s c ie n c e c l a s s e s consume more
tim e and en e rg y th a n v o c a tio n a l c o u rs e s and p h y s ic a l ed u ca-
20
t i o n . E v id en c e seems to i n d i c a t e t h a t te a c h in g lo a d i s
h e a v i e s t i n s m a ll s c h o o ls and h e a v ie r f o r b e g in n in g t e a c h e r s
P i
th a n e x p e rie n c e d o n e s.
T e a c h e rs a r e p ro b a b ly m ost co n cern ed about t h a t p a r t
o f t h e i r lo a d n o t r e p r e s e n te d by a c t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n and
i n s t r u c t i o n . The s o - c a l l e d e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s such
a s c lu b s p o n s o rs h ip , a t h l e t i e d i r e c t o r s h i p , co a c h in g o f
d ra m a tic s , d i r e c t i n g m usic o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and so f o r t h , a r e
f r e q u e n t l y heavy and a r e som etim es n o t e q u i ta b l y a s s ig n e d
among th e t o t a l s t a f f . I t i s f r e q u e n tly t r u e t h a t t h e r e i s
l i t t l e o r no pay a d ju stm e n t to com pensate f o r u n u su a l e x t r a
c u r r i c u l a r lo ad s*
Load i s o f v i t a l co n cern to t e a c h e r s * I n a r e s e a r c h
s tu d y made by th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n a p p ro x i
m a te ly 40 p e r c e n t o f th e e le m e n ta ry t e a c h e r s and 47 p e r
T9
H a rl R. D ouglass and W illia m T. Gruhn, nT each in g
L o a d ,” E n c y c lo p e d ia o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a rc h , 1940, p . 1 ,2 5 9 .
20 T
L oc. c i t .
Loc. c i t .
27©
c e n t o f th e se c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s q u e s tio n e d r e p o r te d
22
t h a t th e y c o n s id e re d t h e i r t o t a l lo a d u n d u ly h e a v y . These
p r o p o r ti o n s r e p r e s e n t s u b j e c t i v e judgm ents h u t t h e a t t i t u d e s
o f te a c h e r s tow ard t h e i r te a c h i n g lo a d s e x e r t an im p o rta n t
i n f lu e n c e on t h e i r m o rale and c o n s e q u e n tly upon t h e i r
e f f i c i e n c y .
T here would he l i t t l e argum ent a s to t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y
o f r e a s o n a b le and e q u i t a b l e te a c h in g lo a d s i n so f a r a s th e y
e f f e c t r e c r u itm e n t and r e t e n t i o n o f te a c h e r s . How to a t t a i n
an optimum s i t u a t i o n i s a d i f f i c u l t q u estio n * Some o b j e c t i
v i t y co u ld be a t t a i n e d th ro u g h l e g i s l a t i v e s t a t u t e o r s t a t e
d e p a rtm e n t r e g u l a t i o n . T here a r e some who o b je c t to such
an a tte m p t, n e v e r t h e l e s s , s in c e te a c h in g lo a d i s h a rd to
m easure o b j e c t i v e l y and s in c e s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n te n d s to
ham per th e community i n m e e tin g i t s own p e c u l i a r l o c a l n e e d s .
However, s in c e th e p u rp o se o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e was t o r a t e
p o s s i b l e o b j e c t i v e m ethods o r d e v ic e s , re s p o n d e n ts w ere
r e q u e s te d to r a t e s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n f o r th e p r e v e n tio n o f
e x c e s s iv e lo a d .
O n e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts d id n o t s t r o n g l y in d o r s e
s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f l o a d . The q u e s tio n n a i r e g ro u p s w ere n o t
22
N ational Education A sso cia tio n , Research D iv isio n ,
”G ity Teachers: Their P reparation, Salary, and E x p erien ce,”
Research B u lle t in . No. 1, 18:65, January, 1940.
279
o v e r ly im p ressed w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a tte m p ts a t s t a t e
r e g u l a t i o n o f te a c h e r lo a d . T ab le XLVI shows t h a t 3 4 .3 p e r
c e n t gave th e p ro c e d u re th e u n q u a l if i e d "A" r a t i n g . A some
w hat s m a lle r number made th e "B” r a t i n g , i n d i c a t i n g a b e l i e f
i n m odest v a lu e . More th a n 1 2 .0 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r
«DM r a t i n g a b e l i e f t h a t d a n g e rs w ere in h e r e n t i n th e p ro
c e d u re .
When s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f lo a d as an inducem ent to
r e c r u itm e n t was c o n s id e re d as a perm anent p ro c e d u re th e
f a v o r a b le r a t i n g s w ere s t i l l d i s t i n c t l y i n th e m in o r ity . Of
a l l r e s p o n d e n ts , 3 8 .8 p e r c e n t i n d ic a t e d a d e s i r e f o r r e t e n
t i o n . C o n s id e ra b le v a r i a t i o n among th e g ro u p s was found
h e r e , r a n g in g from 2 1 .4 p e r c e n t among s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t
o f f i c i a l s to 5 6 .3 p e r c e n t among C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e re sp o n d
e n t s .
S in c e t h e r e a p p e a rs to be common agreem ent a s to th e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f th e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u i ta b l e te a c h in g lo a d s ,
th e v ig o r o u s o p p o s itio n p r e s e n te d h e re m ust be d i r e c t e d a t
th e su g g e ste d means o f s e c u r in g i t . The o b v io u s d i f f i c u l t i e s
p lu s th e l i m i t a t i o n on l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in v o lv e d i n an
a tte m p t a t s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f lo a d may w e ll have been im p o rt
a n t f a c t o r s . Q u ite p o s s i b l y a m a jo r ity o f e d u c a to r s would
a g re e t h a t e q u a l i t y o f te a c h in g lo a d would b e m a t e r i a l l y
v a l u a b le i n th e r e t e n t i o n o f th e te a c h in g c o r p s . Many o f
them , how ever, would se e k o th e r means o f a t t a i n i n g i t . The
TABLE XLVT
MORE RIGID STATE REGULATION TO HOTENT EXCESSES IN TEACHING LOAD, CLASS SIZE OR
EXTRA CCRRICDLAR ACTIVITIES
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 28 9 8 8 3 6 7 32.1 21.4
State Teachers’
Associations 31 13 13 2 3 13 8 41.9 41.9
Colleges in
California 16 6 4 3 3 9 6 37.5 56.3
Colleges outside
California 44 17 12 13 2 17 8 38.6 38.6
Guidance Directors
in California 65 18 17 18 12 19 10 27.7 29.2
Guidance Directors
outside California 84 29 30 15 10 40 17 34.5 47.6
Total 268 92 84 59 33 104 56 34.3 38.8
281
q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s would n o t seem to i n d i c a t e t h a t
s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n o f lo a d should be in c lu d e d i n a te a c h e r
r e c r u itm e n t program*
XI. PROVIDING INCREASED TEACHER VOICE IN SCHOOL
ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION THROUGH
STATE AND DISTRICT REGULATION
D em ocratic m ethods a r e g e n e r a lly a d v o c a te d . The
i d e a l o f d e m o c ra tic s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s u p e r v is io n
r e c e iv e d l i t t l e em phasis p r i o r to World War ! • B e fo re t h a t
tim e l i n e s o f a u t h o r i t y te n d e d to fo llo w m i l i t a r y t r a d i t i o n ,
and th e te a c h e r r e c e iv e d h i s o r d e r s from th e p r i n c i p a l who
i n tu r n c a r r i e d o u t th e d i c t a t e s o f th e s u p e r in te n d e n t.
A lthough l e a d e r s l i k e John Dewey p le a d e d f o r te a c h e r v o ic e
i n sc h o o l o r g a n iz a tio n , th e r e a l a t t a c k a g a i n s t a u t o c r a t i c
sc h o o l p ro c e d u re s began w ith th e f lo w e r in g o f th e P r o g r e s s iv e
E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n i n th e 1 920?s.
Those who o b je c te d to a u t o c r a t i c p r a c t i c e s claim ed
t h a t t h e r e ten d ed to be a com plete s e p a r a t i o n b etw een p la n
n in g and p e rfo rm a n c e , t h a t s u p e r v is o r s a r e d i c t a t o r i a l , and
t h a t th e te a c h e r i s made t o occupy a s u b o r d in a te p o s i t i o n i n
A m erican e d u c a tio n . T here a r e th o s e who c la im t h a t d i c t a
t o r i a l a d m in is t r a tio n and s u p e r v is io n a r e th e c h i e f c a u se s
f o r te a c h e r s le a v in g th e p r o f e s s i o n . I n t h e w ords o f a
C a l i f o r n i a c la ssro o m te a e h e r :
• . . D is a s tr o u s i s th e a t t i t u d e o f many a d m in is
t r a t o r s and s u p e r v is o r s i n c a u s in g young women t o le a v e
th e p r o f e s s i o n * . . Much s u p e r v is io n i s ab su rd . * .
S u p e r v is o r s sh o u ld r e a l i z e t h a t f o r t h e - v a s t m a jo r ity
o f t e a c h e r s , t r a i n i n g i s a p o s i t i o n , n o t a way o f l i f e
. • • S u p e r v is o r s sh o u ld be c o g n iz a n t o f th e f a c t t h a t
te a c h e r s a r e d o u b tle s s a s w e ll e d u c a te d and i n t e l l i g e n t
a s th e y and t h e i r comments sh o u ld be d i r e c t e d to a w e ll
e d u c a te d , i n t e l l i g e n t a d u lt whose id e a s may d i f f e r from
t h e i r s , r a t h e r th a n to a r e c a l c i t r a n t c h i l d . 23
T here a r e few who would arg u e a g a in s t th e d e s i r a b i l i t y
o f a l a r g e m easure o f p r o f e s s i o n a l freedom f o r th e t e a c h e r s
i n th e d i r e c t i n g o f th e e d u c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s o f h i s p u p i l s .
The v a s t m a jo r i ty o f e d u c a to r s w i l l l a y c la im t o a p h i l o
sophy s u p p o r tin g c r e a t i v e s u p e r v is io n a d m in is te re d to a c h ie v e
i n t e l l i g e n t s e l f - d i r e c t i o n . Some w i l l go as f a r a s
K i l p a t r i c k who i n s i s t s t h a t a l l who a r e co n cern ed i n th e
r e s u l t s o f a p o lic y sh o u ld s h a re , a c c o rd in g to c a p a c ity , i n
24
m aking th e p o lic y .
Such m ethods a r e d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in o b j e c t i v e l y . I t
p ro b a b ly can be a g re e d , th e n , t h a t such a d e m o c ra tic o rg a n
i z a t i o n i s h e a l t h y f o r e d u c a tio n and te n d s t o b r in g te a c h e r s
i n t o th e p r o f e s s i o n and keep them t h e r e . Thus, i t i s s i g n i
f i c a n t f o r r e c r u itm e n t. B ut how i s d e m o c ra tic a d m in is t r a tio n
23
D. M. Cobb, ,fT eacher S h o r t a g e ,” S i e r r a E d u c a tio n a l
News, 41:41-5, November, 1945.
24
W illia m H. K i l p a t r i c k , The E d u c a tio n a l F r o n t i e r
(New York: D. A p p le to n -C e n tu ry Company, I n c . , 1933T,
pp. 235-36.
283
and s u p e r v is io n t o be ac h iev e d ? I d e a l l y i t may b e s t r e s u l t
v o l u n t a r i l y a s th e r e s u l t o f an e n lig h te n e d p h ilo s o p h y p e r
m e a tin g th e e n t i r e p r o f e s s i o n . However, s in c e th e q u e s tio n
n a i r e r e p r e s e n t s an a tte m p t to s e c u r e a p p r a i s a l s o f t a n g i b l e ,
o b j e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e s , r a t i n g s w ere r e q u e s te d on s t a t e and
d i s t r i c t p r o v is io n s f o r such p o l i c i e s . T his w ould e n t a i l
s t a t u t e o r s t a t e d e p a rtm e n t d i c t a t e s and d i s t r i c t b o ard
r e g u l a t i o n s . O b v io u sly a p h ilo s o p h y i s d i f f i c u l t o f a t t a i n
ment by means o f l e g i s l a t i o n . S e v e r a l re s p o n d e n ts to th e
q u e s tio n n a i r e , w h ile s u b s c r ib in g t o th e t h e s i s o f d e m o c ra tic
p ro c e d u re s i n e d u c a tio n , e x p re s se d doubt a s to th e d e s i r a
b i l i t y o f a tte m p tin g t o im plem ent i t th ro u g h p r e s s u r e from
w ith o u t.
L e g i s l a t i o n f o r d e m o c ra tic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was n o t
g e n e r a lly a c c e p ta b le to r e s p o n d e n ts . As in d i c a t e d by T ab le
XLVTI o n ly 3 2 .1 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts a c c e p te d d i s t r i c t
and s t a t e l e g i s l a t i o n as a d i s t i n c t l y e f f e c t i v e means o f
s e c u r in g in c r e a s e d te a c h e r v o ic e i n sc h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
and s u p e r v is io n . A s l i g h t l y l a r g e r number i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r
ffB,f r a t i n g s t h a t th e y f e l t t h a t such l e g i s l a t i o n m ig h t b e o f
m odest v a lu e i n te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t. ”Dn r a t i n g s i n d i c a t e d
t h a t more th a n 1 0 .0 p e r c e n t saw a c t u a l dgingers i n such an
a tte m p t. S t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n and C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e
o f f i c i a l s found th e s u g g e s tio n c o n s id e r a b ly more a c c e p ta b le
TABLE 2BTCI
STATE A3® DISTRICT PROVISIONS FOR INCREASED TEACHER VOICE IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
AND SUPERVISION
Respondent
Total
Responses A B C D Retain
Signi
ficant
Per cent of
A to Total
per cent
Retain
State
Departments 28 8 13 5 2 9 8 28.6 32.1
State Teachers1
Associations 33 17 9 3 4 15 8 51.5 45.5
Colleges in
California 15 8 4 1 2 10 6 53.3 66.7
Colleges outside
California 45 14 13 16 2 14 6 31.1 31.1
Guidance Directors
in California 65 13 16 23 13 11 5 20.0 16.9
Guidance Directors
outside California 85 27 39 13 3 37 15 31.8 43.5
Total 271 87 94 61 29 96 48 32.1 35.4
885
th a n d id th e o th e r g ro u p s.
P erm anent r e t e n t i o n o f such a l e g i s l a t i v e program
r e c e iv e d q u e s tio n n a ir e s u p p o rt o f 3 5 .4 p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s
p o n d e n ts. C a l i f o r n i a c o l le g e o f f i c i a l s le d i n a c c e p ta n c e
r a t i n g s w ith 6 6 .7 p e r c e n t. I t would seem, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t
a m a jo r i ty o f e d u c a to r s hope to s e c u r e in c r e a s e d te a c h e r
v o ic e i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s u p e r v is io n th ro u g h o th e r m eans.
The d a ta r e v e a le d by th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s would n o t
le n d m a t e r i a l su p p o rt to any r e c r u itm e n t p la n in v o lv in g
s t a t e and d i s t r i c t l e g i s l a t i o n as a means tow ard dem ocracy
i n e d u c a tio n .
X II. SUM M ARY OF OPINION REGARDING MATERIAL IMPROVEMENT
OF TEACHING CONDITIONS
M a te r ia l im provem ent o f te a c h in g c o n d itio n s a s a
means o f te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t r e c e iv e d s tr o n g s u p p o r t b o th
i n e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e and i n th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s .
Those su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s aimed a t im p ro v in g th e economic
w e lf a r e o f te a c h e r s w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y w e ll s u p p o rte d .
S tro n g p e r s o n a l d e s i r e f o r th e s e p ro c e d u re s may have c o lo re d
th e re s p o n s e s som ewhat.
A minimum s a la r y law b r in g in g pay e q u a l to s k i l l e d
a r t i s a n s was c o n s id e re d o f param ount im p o rta n c e . H AM r a t i n g s
hy 8 9 .9 p e r c e n t o f q u e s tio n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts was awarded to
th e s u g g e s tio n ; 7 0 .5 p e r c e n t would r e t a i n i t p e rm a n e n tly .
286
W hile a l l c o n s id e re d su c h l e g i s l a t i o n v e ry im p o r ta n t, some
f e l t t h a t i t m ight b e s t come th ro u g h a w idened t a x b a s e and
w ise p u b l i c i t y . Many demanded a h ig h e r minimum th a n t h a t
p ro v id e d by th e s k i l l e d a r t i s a n l e v e l .
A r e t i r e m e n t law p r o v id in g h a l f of a n n u a l s a l a r y
r e c e iv e d e q u a lly s tr o n g s u p p o r t. nAff r e s p o n s e s re a c h e d 8 6 .5
p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l , w h ile r e q u e s t s f o r r e t e n t i o n t o t a l e d
7 5 .1 p e r c e n t . R e tire m e n t l e g i s l a t i o n i s a lr e a d y v e r y com
mon b u t a m a jo r i ty o f s t a t e s p ro v id e much l e s s th a n o n e - h a lf
a v e ra g e s a l a r y .
Annual in c re m e n ts le a d in g to a maximum s a l a r y a t
l e a s t 2 5 .0 p e r c e n t above s t a r t i n g s a l a r y w ere a ls o s tr o n g ly
ad v o c a te d ; 8 4 .7 p e r c e n t o f q u e s tio n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts r a te d
them i n th e to p H A,f colum n and 6 4 .5 p e r c e n t w anted them
p e rm a n e n tly r e t a i n e d . Most e d u c a to rs ad v o c ate d a much
h ig h e r maximum th a n su g g e ste d by th e q u e s tio n n a ire * One
h undred p e r c e n t above s t a r t i n g s a l a r y was g e n e r a lly s u p p o rt
e d .
S ta te -w id e e q u a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a ti o n a l o p p o r tu n ity
in v o lv in g g r a n ts o f s t a t e fu n d s to p o o re r d i s t r i c t s was
c o n s id e re d a v a lu a b le r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re by 7 4 .0 p e r c e n t
o f q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts ; 6 9 .5 p e r c e n t th o u g h t i t
sh o u ld be r e t a i n e d p e rm a n e n tly . V i r t u a l l y co m p lete e q u a l i
z a t i o n in v o lv in g e q u a l s ta te - w id e ta x e f f o r t i n o r d e r to
r e c e iv e an a c c e p ta b le f o u n d a tio n program r e c e iv e d much
287
support*
N a tio n a l e q u a l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n ity p r o
v id in g n a t i o n a l s u b v e n tio n s to p o o re r s t a t e s was w e ll sup
p o r te d by th e q u e s tio n n a i r e r e t u r n s . "A" r e s p o n s e s e q u a lle d
7 3 .2 p e r c e n t w h ile r e q u e s ts f o r r e t e n t i o n o f n a t i o n a l a id
re a c h e d 6 4 .7 p e r c e n t. The f r e q u e n tly e a p re s s e d f e a r o f
f e d e r a l c o n t r o l i n th e e v e n t o f f e d e r a l a id was n o t r e f l e c t
ed i n th e s tr o n g q u e s tio n n a ir e s u p p o r t.
Tenure law s i n s u r i n g perm anency o f employment a f t e r a
p r o b a tio n a r y p e r io d was c o n s id e re d a v a l u a b le r e c r u itm e n t
p ro c e d u re by 6 2 .4 p e r c e n t o f q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts ;
59.6 p e r c e n t f e l t i t would be v a lu a b le p e rm a n e n tly . A
s iz e a b le m in o r ity o f e d u c a to rs and laym en see d a n g e rs i n
te n u re law s and hence oppose them .
S a b b a t ic a l le a v e s o f ab sen ce a s an inducem ent t o r e
c r u itm e n t w ere c o n s id e re d m a t e r i a l l y v a lu a b le by 5 5 .0 p e r
c e n t o f e d u c a to r s an sw erin g th e q u e s tio n n a i r e ; 5 9 .6 p e r c e n t
would keep t h e method i n d e f i n i t e l y . W hile l i t t l e d a t a a re
a v a i l a b l e w ith w hich to a p p r a is e th e v a lu e o f s a b b a t i c a l
le a v e s , th e y a r e p r iz e d by t e a c h e r s .
S t a t e r e g u l a t i o n to p r e v e n t e x c e s s iv e te a c h in g lo a d
was r a te d h ig h ly by 3 4 .3 p e r c e n t o f q u e s tio n n a i r e re sp o n d
e n ts w h ile 3 8 .8 p e r c e n t would r e t a i n such l e g i s l a t i o n
p e rm a n e n tly . Much o f th e s iz e a b le o p p o s itio n to t h i s sug
g e s t i o n came from th e e x t e n t o f s t a t e c o n t r o l i n h e r e n t i n
288
such a program.
S t a t e and d i s t r i c t l e g i s l a t i o n to p ro v id e in c r e a s e d
te a c h e r v o ic e i n s c h o o l a d m in is t r a tio n and s u p e r v is io n was
c o n s id e re d a m a t e r i a l l y v a lu a b le a id to r e c r u itm e n t by 3 2 .1
p e r e e n t o f th o s e an sw erin g th e q u e s tio n n a i r e ; 3 5 .4 p e r c e n t
approved such l e g i s l a t i o n a s a perm anent program . The d i f f i
c u l t y o f s e c u r in g a d e m o c ra tic p h ilo s o p h y by means o f l e g i s
l a t i o n was an im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n th e la c k o f s u p p o rt f o r
t h i s s u g g e s t i o n .
U n io n iz a tio n o f te a c h e r s in c lu d in g a f f i l i a t i o n w ith
n a t i o n a l la b o r g roups was s tr o n g ly opposed by q u e s tio n n a ir e
r e s p o n d e n ts . Only ©.4 p e r c e n t gave i t th e u n q u a l if i e d "A"
r a t i n g , and o n ly 8 .0 p e r e e n t w anted perm anent r e t e n t i o n o f
such o r g a n i z a t i o n . On th e o t h e r hand, 67*9 p e r c e n t saw
danger i n such a s t e p . Much o p p o s itio n came from th o s e who
f e l t n a t i o n a l la b o r a f f i l i a t i o n d e s tro y e d e d u c a tio n ’ s p r o
f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s and re d u c e d i t to a c r a f t d ev o ted o n ly to
p e r s o n a l g a in .
C H A PT E R X
SUM M ARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t o sam ple o p in io n o f
e d u c a to r s i n v a r io u s s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n try a s to v a lu e s o f
and d a n g e rs i n f o r t y - s e v e n su g g e ste d te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t p r o
cedures* Through u se o f a q u e s tio n n a ir e , a p p r a i s a l s w ere
s e c u re d from 301 e d u c a to r s . In c lu d e d i n th e re s p o n d e n ts
w ere s t a t e s u p e r in te n d e n ts o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n , e x e c u tiv e
s e c r e t a r i e s o f s t a t e t e a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s , d i r e c t o r s o f
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o f C a l i f o r n i a ,
d i r e c t o r s o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n c o l le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s
o f seven o th e r s e le c te d s t a t e s , d i r e c t o r s o f g u id a n c e i n
h ig h s c h o o ls and ju n i o r c o l l e g e s o f C a l i f o r n i a , and d i r e c t o r s
o f g u id a n c e i n h ig h s c h o o ls and ju n io r c o l le g e s o f th e seven
s e le c te d s t a t e s . These f i n d i n g s w ere supplem ented by ex
p r e s s e d o p in io n s i n c u r r e n t e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e .
Q u e s tio n n a ire re s p o n d e n ts r a te d a l l s u g g e s te d p r o
c e d u re s on a f o u r p o i n t s c a le a s fo llo w s :
A. Of param ount im p o rta n ce to te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
B. P ro b a b ly h a s some v a lu e to r e c r u itm e n t.
C. Of no v a lu e to r e c r u itm e n t.
D. Would in tr o d u c e a tte n d a n t e v i l s .
R espondents a l s o in d ic a t e d w hich p ro c e d u re s th e y would
r e t a i n a s p a r t of a p erm anent r e c r u itm e n t program .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e d a ta were se g re g a te d u n d e r s i x c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
c o rre s p o n d in g to th e s i x g ro u p s q u e s tio n e d . P e rc e n ta g e s o f
W A" r e s p o n s e s to th e t o t a l and o f r e q u e s t s f o r r e t e n t i o n
w ere p r e s e n te d i n t a b l e form .
X. TEN MOST m m M m T & L RECRUITMENT PROCEDURES
F in d in g s from l a s t s e c t i o n o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e . In th e
f i n a l s e c t i o n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n d e n ts w ere asked to
l i s t th e f o u r p ro c e d u re s w hich th e y c o n s id e re d m ost fu n d a
m e n tal to s u c c e s s f u l te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t. T h e ir re s p o n s e s
w ere n o t l im ite d t o th o s e l i s t e d f o r r a t i n g . T h is p a r t o f
th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was com pleted by 264 r e s p o n d e n ts . W hile
t h e r e was some m o d if ic a tio n i n w o rd in g , th e v a s t number o f
answ ers co u ld be i d e n t i f i e d w ith one o f th e f o r ty - s e v e n
p ro c e d u re s p r e s e n te d f o r r a t i n g . More th a n h a l f th e s u g g e s t
ed r e c r u itm e n t m ethods w ere l i s t e d a s m ost fu n d a m e n ta l by
one o r more o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts . N e a rly t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f a l l
an sw ers, how ever, w ere l im ite d to te n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e
ite m s . S in c e t h i s s e c t i o n o f th e r e t u r n s r e p r e s e n t s one
ap p ro ach a t su m m ariza tio n , th e f in d in g s a r e p r e s e n te d i n
t h i s c h a p te r and p o r tr a y e d i n T able XLVIII.
Im provem ent o f te a c h in g c o n d itio n s r e c e iv e d m ajor
e m p h a sis. As can be se en from a stu d y o f T able X LV III, th e
q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts la y g r e a t em phasis on th o s e f a c t o r s
TABLE X L V III
FACTORS MOST FUNDAMENTAL TO TEACHER RECRUITMENT
Name of Factor
State
Dept.
State
Teachers
Associ
ation
California
Colleges
Other
Colleges
California
Guidance
Directors
Other
Guidance
Directors
Total
Number of Respondents 29 31 16 44 63 81 264
Greatly Increased Minimum
Salary 20 26 11 31 48 66 202
Adequate Retirement Legis
lation 10 13 4 14 18 37 96
Guidance Program Stressing
Education as Career 11 10 11 15 18 21 86
Adequate Tenure Legis
lation 6 13 3 10 13 28 73
Increment System with
Attractive Minimum Salary 6 10 3 9 9 22 59
National Equalization of
Tax Support 6 6 1 8 9 22 52
State Equalization of Tax
Support 6 7 1 9 14 14 51
Newspaper, Magazine, and
Radio Publicity 7 5 1 7 13 15 48
Stress in Social Studies
on Teaching Profession 7 7 6 7 12 8 47
Scholarships for Training
Teachers 3 6 1 8 13
-13
44
291
in v o lv in g m a t e r i a l im provem ent o f te a c h in g c o n d i tio n s . A
" g r e a t l y in c re a s e d minimum s a la r y " e a s i l y le d a l l o th e r
s u g g e s tio n s i n fre q u e n c y o f m e n tio n . Only among C a l i f o r n i a
c o l le g e r e s p o n d e n ts d id th e s a la r y ite m f a i l to dom inate
r e tu r n s * Among C a l i f o r n i a g u id an ce d i r e c t o r s , on t h e o th e r
hand, i t exceeded a l l o th e r re s p o n s e s by a w id er m arg in
th a n among any o th e r g ro u p .
F iv e o th e r ite m s concerned p r i m a r i l y w ith m a t e r i a l
im provem ent o f te a c h in g c o n d itio n s w ere found i n t h i s g roup
o f ten* The f i v e a r e : "A dequate R e tire m e n t L e g i s l a t i o n , "
"A dequate T enure L e g i s l a t i o n , " "In crem e n t System w ith
A t t r a c t i v e Maximum S a l a r y , ” " N a tio n a l E q u a li z a t io n o f Tax
S u p p o r t," and " S ta t e E q u a li z a t io n o f Tax S u p p o r t." I n th e s e
r e t u r n s v a r i a t i o n s among e d u c a tio n a l groups were n o t g r e a t .
The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ca n be se en betw een
C a l i f o r n i a and o u t s i d e - C a l i f o r n i a g u id an ce d i r e c t o r s i n
r e f e r e n c e to s t a t e and n a t i o n a l e q u a l i z a t i o n o f s u p p o r t.
C a l i f o r n i a t e a c h e r s , w o rk in g in a s t a t e o f c o n s id e r a b le
w e a lth , would n o t p r o f i t so d i r e c t l y by f e d e r a l e q u a l i z a t i o n .
The r e t u r n s would i n d i c a t e t h a t th e y were more concerned w ith
e q u a l i z a t i o n w ith in th e s t a t e . R e tu rn s from o th e r s t a t e s
showed an o p p o s ite em p h asis.
The o th e r f o u r ite m s among th e f i r s t te n o f th e r e
t u r n s w ere concern ed p r im a r il y w ith th e w in n in g of y outh to
a c h o ic e o f te a c h in g a s a c a r e e r . A "G uidance Program
293
S t r e s s i n g E d u c a tio n a s a C a re e r" r e c e iv e d much s t r e s s .
C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e re s p o n d e n ts l i s t e d t h i s ite m as f r e q u e n tly
a s s a l a r y i n c r e a s e s . "Newspaper, M agazine, and R adio P u b l i
c i t y , " w hich i n p a r t would be aimed a t r e c r u itm e n t f o r te a c h
e r t r a i n i n g , was e ig h th on th e l i s t . I t was fo llo w ed by
" S t r e s s i n S o c ia l S tu d ie s on T eaching P rofession** and
" S c h o la r s h ip s f o r T ra in in g T e a c h e rs, " b o th o f w hich a re
s p e c i f i c a l l y co n cern ed w ith r e c r u itm e n t f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g .
I I . MAJOR FINDINGS OF STUDY
F in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y w i l l be summarized u s in g th e
o r g a n iz a tio n in d ic a t e d by th e t e n s ta te m e n ts o f s p e c i f i c aim s
a p p e a rin g on p a g e s one and two o f C h a p te r I .
Most d e s i r a b l e p ro c e d u re s f o r r e c r u i t i n g s u b - s ta n d a r d
em ergency t e a c h e r s . I n S e c tio n I o f th e q u e s tio n n a i r e ,
seven b a s e s f o r i s s u i n g em ergency p e r m its w ere p r e s e n te d f o r
r a t i n g . None o f them r e c e iv e d g e n e r a l s u p p o rt from th e r e s
p o n d e n ts . O p p o sitio n to th e em ergency c r e d e n t i a l was th e
r u l e , a l s o , i n d is c u s s io n found i n e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e *
V i r t u a l l y no one was w i l l i n g to go on r e c o rd a s f a v o r in g th e
p ro c e d u re . Most a c c e p ta b le of th e q u e s tio n n a i r e s u g g e s tio n s
f o r em ergency c r e d e n t i a l is s u a n c e was g iv e n to "Minimum of
two y e a r s c o lle g e p lu s i n t e n s i v e i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g , " w hich
was g iv e n th e u n q u a lif ie d "A” r a t i n g by 3 3 .7 p e r e e n t o f
r e s p o n d e n ts .
O th er s u g g e s tio n s f o r em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s re c e iv e d
even l e s s s u p p o rt, "Two y e a rs c o lle g e p lu s one y e a r o f
t r a i n i n g " r e c e iv e d £ 6 .4 p e r e e n t o f "A" r a t i n g s ; "Two y e a rs
c o lle g e in c lu d in g tw e lv e s e m e ste r u n i t s i n e d u c a tio n ," r e
c e iv e d £ 6 .£ p e r c e n t" ; "Two y e a rs o f c o lle g e , o n ly ,"
r e c e iv e d 1 1 .0 p e r c e n t. A ll o th e r su g g e ste d t r a i n i n g b a s e s
f o r i s s u i n g em ergency p e r m its , in v o lv in g l e s s th a n a c o l le g e
d e g re e , were alm o st c o m p le te ly d e n ie d , a l l r e c e iv in g l e s s
th a n 4 p e r c e n t o f "A" r a tin g s *
The p e r s i s t e n t o p p o s itio n to em ergency p e r m its i s n o t
c o n s i s t e n t w ith n a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e . A ll s t a t e s have p a sse d
some ty p e o f l e g i s l a t i o n p e r m it tin g such c e r t i f i c a t i o n ; and
more th a n 10 p e r c e n t o f th e n a t i o n ’ s te a c h e r s p o s s e s s e d
o n ly s u b - s ta n d a r d , em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s d u rin g th e l a t e r
y e a r s o f World War I I .
P erm anent changes i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s which
w i l l a id t e a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . N e ith e r q u e s tio n n a i r e resp o n d
e n ts n o r w r i t e r s i n p e r i o d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e saw i n perm anent
a l t e r a t i o n o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s a m a jo r s te p i n th e
r e c r u itm e n t o f te a c h e r s . Most a c c e p ta b le o f th e r a t e d ite m s
was " S tr e a m lin in g c o u rse re q u ire m e n t i n p r o f e s s i o n a l educa
t i o n , em p h asiz in g e l i m i n a t i o n o f d u p l i c a t i o n " ; 3 5 .9 p e r ee n t
o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts fa v o re d t h i s s u g g e s tio n a s a perm anent
p ro c e d u re .
" A b o lis h in g re q u ire m e n t a s t o s p e c i f i e d number o f
u n i t s o f c o lle g e c r e d i t earn ed w ith in th e s t a t e g r a n tin g
c e r t i f i c a t i o n " w as-approved on a perm anent b a s i s by 3 5 .7 p e r
c e n t. "Making m inor a d ju s tm e n ts i n c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s
n o t in v o lv in g a p p r e c ia b le lo w e rin g o f s ta n d a r d s " was g iv e n
an a c c e p ta b le r a t i n g by 2 2 .5 p e r c e n t o f th o s e re s p o n d in g .
A pproval o f t h i s ite m w ould q u i t e p o s s i b ly be l e s s s tr o n g
i f s p e c i f i c a l t e r a t i o n s had been s u g g e s te d . " C o n tro l o f
te a c h e r su p p ly th ro u g h f l e x i b l e c e r t i f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s "
was c o n s id e re d a d e s i r a b l e perm anent method by b u t 1 8 .0 p e r
c e n t o f th o s e r a t i n g th e ite m .
A ll o th e r s u g g e s tio n s f o r perm anent a l t e r a t i o n o f
c e r t i f i c a t i o n re q u ire m e n ts f a i l e d to r e c e iv e a p p ro v a l from
a s many a s 10 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts . I t would a p p e a r,
t h e r e f o r e , t h a t some approach to r e c r u itm e n t o th e r th a n c e r
t i f i c a t i o n a l t e r a t i o n m ust be ad o p ted i f th e s i t u a t i o n i s to
be m a t e r i a l l y im proved.
D e s ira b le p ro c e d u re s f o r a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t r a i n i n g .
Two s u g g e s tio n s f o r e x p e d itin g t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s r e
c e iv e d c o n s id e r a b le s u p p o rt from q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts .
" R e fre s h e r, su p p le m e n ta ry , o r i n t e n s i v e c o u rs e s in te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s " was g iv e n th e u n q u a l if i e d "A" r a t i n g
by 5 3 .8 p e r c e n t o f th o s e an sw erin g ; 3 6 .0 p e r c e n t d e s ir e d
t h a t th e p ro c e d u re be r e t a i n e d p e rm a n e n tly . "C o lle g e ex
te n s io n c o u rs e s " was g iv e n 4 5 .9 p e r c e n t o f "A" r a t i n g s w ith
296
3 8 .4 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n s e s r e q u e s tin g perm anency.
'The two o th e r s u g g e s tio n s f o r a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t r a i n
in g r e c e iv e d d i s t i n c t l y l e s s s u p p o r t. "R unning c o lle g e s on
a th r e e - s e m e s te r - a - y e a r b a s i s " was a s u b je c t o f c o n s id e r a b le
c o n tro v e rs y i n p e r i o d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . "A" r a t i n g s w ere
g iv e n by 3 2 .3 p e r c e n t o f q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts , w h ile
21#7 p e r c e n t d e s ir e d t h a t i t be made a perm anent p ro c e d u re .
" B i s t r i c t s u b s i d iz in g o f t r a i n i n g f o r em ergency te a c h e r s to
en co u rag e a tta in m e n t o f s ta n d a r d c e r t i f i c a t i o n " was c o n s id e r
ed o f param ount im p o rta n c e by 28.9 p e r e e n t w ith 1 8 .3 p e r
c e n t s u g g e s tin g perm anency a s d e s i r a b l e . I t would a p p e a r,
th e n , t h a t q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts , as a group, c o n s id e r
two o f th e s u g g e s tio n s as c o m p a ra tiv e ly v a lu a b le to r e c r u i t
ment b u t c o n s id e r th e o th e r two p ro c e d u re s as d i s t i n c t l y
lim ite d i n v a lu e .
P u b l i c i t y p ro c e d u re s w hich w i l l a id i n th e r e c r u i t
ment o f t e a c h e r s . P u b l i c i t y as to th e d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s
o f e d u c a tio n and d i r e c t e d i n a manner to r a i s e th e p r e s t i g e
o f th e p r o f e s s io n r e c e iv e d c o n s id e r a b le s u p p o r t. " I n te n s iv e
n ew spaper, m agazine, and r a d io p u b l i c i t y c o n c e rn in g need f o r
te a c h e r s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment" was s tr o n g ly
s u p p o rte d w ith 5 9 .2 p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts r a t i n g i t a s o f
param ount im p o rta n c e ; 3 8 .0 p e r c e n t w anted i t r e t a i n e d p e r
m a n e n tly . P u b l i c i t y th ro u g h " n a t i o n a l and s t a t e p o s t e r
297
cam paigns" was f a r l e s s w e ll r e c e iv e d w ith 3 5 .5 p e r c e n t
g iv in g i t th e to p r a t i n g and 2 6 ,1 p e r c e n t w a n tin g th e p r o
c e d u re m a in ta in e d on a perm anent b a s i s . B oth o f th e s e
ap p ro ac h es to p u b l i c i t y r e c e iv e d c o n s id e r a b le o p p o s itio n i n
p e r i o d i c a l l i t e r a t t a r e b ec au se o f t h e i r n o n - s e l e c t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Many f e l t to o t h a t c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n to
n ee d s was ta n tam o u n t to a d v e r t i s i n g an u n p o p u la r th in g
w hich would te n d to r e p e l r a t h e r th a n a t t r a c t r e c r u i t s .
A ty p e o f p u b l i c i t y which would r a i s e th e p r e s t i g e o r
s o c i a l s t a t u s of te a c h e r s was much i n demand by com m entators
i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . Among s u g g e s tio n s f o r im p ro v in g p r e s t i g e
w ere m in im iz a tio n o f th e fem ale em phasis i n e d u c a tio n , r e
d u c tio n o f c u rb s on te a c h e rs * p r i v a t e l i v e s , p r o v is io n o f
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r community le a d e r s h i p , and aw akening i n
te a c h e r s th e d e te r m in a tio n to se ek community le a d e r s h ip f o r
th e m se lv e s.
E f f e c t i v e p ro c e d u re s f o r in f lu e n c in g c h o ic e o f edu ca
t i o n a s a c a r e e r . S e v e r a l o f th e su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s f o r
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g r e c r u itm e n t were among th e m ost s tr o n g ly
su p p o rte d o f a l l q u e s tio n n a i r e ite m s . "Em phasis in h ig h
sc h o o l and ju n io r c o lle g e g u id an ce program s on e d u c a tio n as
a c a r e e r " was g iv e n t h e "A" r a t i n g , s i g n i f y i n g param ount
v a lu e to r e c r u itm e n t, by 8 0 .4 p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts , w ith
7 4 .2 p e r c e n t w a n tin g perm anent r e t e n t i o n . " V o c a tio n a l
g u id a n ce u n i t s i n s o c i a l s t u d i e s c o u rs e s w ith em phasis on
e d u c a tio n ” was awarded an "A” r a t i n g by 73.9 p e r c e n t o f
th e e d u c a to r s re s p o n d in g ; 7 1 .8 p e r c e n t would r e t a i n th e
p ro c e d u re i n d e f i n i t e l y . "C o n fe re n ces i n h ig h s c h o o ls and
j u n i o r c o l le g e s w ith r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from te a c h e r t r a i n i n g
i n s t i t u t i o n s ” was g iv e n th e top r a t i n g by 6 3 .7 p e r c e n t w ith
6 2 .7 p e r c e n t w an tin g r e t e n t i o n . " S c h o la rs h ip s f o r t r a i n i n g
o f p r o s p e c tiv e t e a c h e r s " gain ed 5 5 .7 p e r c e n t o f "A" r e s
p o n se s; 5 0 .7 p e r c e n t w anted perm anent r e t e n t i o n .
F o u r o th e r s u g g e s tio n s , w h ile v a lu e d by many re s p o n d
e n t s , r e c e iv e d a c o n s id e r a b ly s m a lle r p e r c e n ta g e o f "A”
re s p o n s e s o r r e q u e s t s f o r r e t e n t i o n . "A" p e r c e n ta g e s f o r
th o s e w ere a s fo llo w s : "R ecru itm en t b u l l e t i n s p la c e d i n
hands o f g r a d u a tin g h ig h sc h o o l and j u n i o r c o lle g e s t u d e n t s , ”
4 5 .9 p e r c e n t; " D e f in ite r e c r u itm e n t program among c o l le g e
l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s , " 4 1 .0 p e r c e n t; "Em phasis on F u tu r e
T ea ch ers o f I m e ric a C lu b s ," 3 4 .3 p e r c e n t; and " E lim in a tio n
o f a l l t u i t i o n f e e s i n p u b lic te a c h e r t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s ,"
26 .2 p e r c e n t.
D e fe n s ib le changes i n e d u c a tio n a l o r g a n iz a tio n w hich
w i l l re d u c e number o f te a c h e r s n e e d e d . S u g g e stio n s i n t h i s
a r e a ap p ro ach te a c h e r s h o r ta g e s from a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n .
H ere t h e aim i s n o t p r i m a r i l y one o f i n c r e a s in g th e number
o f t e a c h e r s . R a th e r i t aims t o make few er te a c h e rs
S 9 9
n e c e s s a r y . Only one o f th e s e s u g g e s tio n s , " C o n s o lid a tio n o f
r u r a l s c h o o ls " r e c e iv e d s tr o n g s u p p o rt from q u e s tio n n a ir e
r e s p o n d e n ts . C o n s o lid a tio n was g iv en an "A" r a t i n g by 60.5
p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts w ith 5 0 .9 s u g g e s tin g t h a t i t had
perm anent r e c r u itm e n t v a lu e . Many com m entators i n th e
l i t e r a t u r e and on q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s , how ever, m a in ta in e d
t h a t a lth o u g h c o n s o lid a t io n was v ery d e s i r a b l e f o r o th e r
re a s o n s , i t would n o t m a t e r i a l l y re d u c e th e need f o r te a c h
e r s .
O th er s u g g e s tio n s f o r r e d u c in g th e number o f te a c h e r s
needed r e c e iv e d c o m p a ra tiv e ly l i t t l e s u p p o rt by q u e s tio n n a ir e
re s p o n d e n ts . W ith th e s tr o n g p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t c o n s o lid a tio n
was su p p o rte d more f o r i t s g e n e ra l v a lu e r a t h e r th a n i t s
w o rth i n re d u c in g th e te a c h e r s h o r ta g e , i t would a p p e a r t h a t
l i t t l e v a lu e e x i s t s i n an ap p ro ach th ro u g h r e d u c t io n o f need
f o r te a c h e r s .
Changes a f f e c t i n g m a t e r i a l w e lf a r e of te a c h e r s w hich
w i l l a id i n te a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t . Q u e s tio n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts
f e l t t h a t im proving th e m a t e r i a l w e lfa r e o f te a c h e r s was th e
m ost im p o rta n t o f a l l p a th s tow ard a id in g o f te a c h e r r e c r u i t
m ent. "Minimum s a l a r y law s e t a t approxim ate, l e v e l o f
s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s of s t a t e " was g iv e n "A” r a t i n g , i n d i c a t i n g
param ount v a lu e , by 8 9 .9 p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts w ith 7 0 .5
p e r c e n t a s k in g f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n . " R e tire m e n t law
p r o v id in g a t l e a s t h a l f a n n u a l s a l a r y ” r e c e iv e d "A" r a t i n g
by 8 6 .5 p e r c e n t w ith 75.1 p e r c e n t ask in g f o r perm anency.
" S a la ry sc h e d u le w ith in c re m e n ts le a d in g t o maximum sub
s t a n t i a l l y above minimum” was r a t e d a t ”A” by 8 4 .7 p e r c e n t;
6 4 .5 p e r c e n t saw perm anent v a lu e i n th e p ro c e d u re .
Im proving th e f in a n c in g o f e d u c a tio n by e q u a liz in g
th e ta x lo a d was c o n s id e re d an im p o rta n t ap p ro ac h to r e c r u i t
m ent. "C om plete s t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n o f ta x s u p p o r t” was r a t e d
”A” by 74.0 p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts and 6 9 .5 p e r c e n t w anted
such a p la n p e rm a n e n tly m a in ta in e d . " N a tio n a l e q u a l i z a t i o n
o f ta x s u p p o r t” was s i m i l a r l y s u p p o rte d w ith 73.2 p e r c e n t
r a t i n g th e p ro c e d u re ”A” and 6 4 .7 p e r c e n t a s k in g f o r r e t e n
t i o n .
"T enure law in s u r in g perm anency o f em ploym ent” was
g iv e n th e to p "A" r a t i n g by 6 2 .4 p e r c e n t o f re s p o n d e n ts
w h ile 59.6 p e r c e n t saw th e p ro c e d u re as p e rm a n e n tly v a l u
a b le . ”S a b b a t ic a l le a v e s o f a b s e n c e ” was g iv e n u n q u a lif ie d
s u p p o rt by 5 5 .0 p e r c e n t, and 6 1 .5 p e r c e n t wanted th e p r o
ce d u re p e rm a n e n tly r e t a i n e d . " S ta t e r e g u l a t i o n to p r e v e n t
e x c e s s iv e te a c h in g l o a d ” and " S ta t e and d i s t r i c t p r o v is io n
f o r in c r e a s e d te a c h e r v o ic e i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ” were g iv e n
"A" r a t i n g s by a p p ro x im a te ly o n e - t h i r d o f re s p o n d e n ts .
P ro c e d u re s d e f e n s ib le i n tim e o f te a c h e r s h o rta g e
w hich a re m a t e r i a l l y l e s s d e s i r a b l e as a perm anent p r o c e d u r e .
301
Q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n d e n ts , as a g ro u p , d id n o t r a t e a s i n g l e
p ro c e d u re a s o f o u ts ta n d in g p erfo rm an ce a t th e p r e s e n t tim e
w hich th e y c o n s id e re d o f l i t t l e v a lu e a s a perm anent means
o f te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t. .411 p ro c e d u re s su g g e ste d s o l e l y as
a means of m e etin g th e em ergency te a c h e r s h o r ta g e were con
demned by th e re s p o n d e n ts f o r e i t h e r tem p o rary o r perm anent
a d o p tio n . T h is was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f th e v a r io u s sug
g e s te d b a s e s f o r i s s u i n g em ergency p e r m its , none o f w hich
r e c e iv e d e n t h u s i a s t i c in d o rse m e n t.
I n com paring "A*1 r a t i n g s (o f param ount v a lu e to r e
c ru itm e n t) w ith r e q u e s t s f o r perm anent r e t e n t i o n th e t a b l e s
r e v e a l two su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s , o n ly , i n w hich th e r e e x i s t s
a s much a s o n e - th ir d g r e a t e r p e r c e n ta g e o f "A" r a t i n g s over
r e q u e s t s f o r r e t e n t i o n . These two a re " I n te n s iv e new spaper,
m agazine, and r a d io p u b l i c i t y , " w hich was g iv e n 59 .2 p e r
c e n t o f "A" r a t i n g s w ith 3 8 .0 p e r c e n t r e q u e s tin g perm anency;
and " R e fre s h e r c o u rs e s i n te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s "
w hich was r a t e d "A" by 5 3 .8 p e r c e n t w ith 3 6 .0 p e r c e n t
w a n tin g perm anent r e t e n t i o n . W ith each o f th e o th e r f o r t y -
f i v e su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s , re s p o n d e n ts did n o t d i s t i n g u i s h
to a marked d e g re e betw een m ethods d e s i r a b l e now and m ethods
d e s i r a b l e p e rm a n e n tly .
S u g g ested r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s in v o lv in g in h e r e n t
d a n g e rs to e d u c a tio n . Q u e s tio n n a ire r e s p o n d e n ts were asked
302
to r a t e as "D" a l l su g g e ste d r e c r u itm e n t p ro c e d u re s w hich,
w h ile p ro b a b ly ad d in g somewhat t o th e p r e s e n t su p p ly o f
t e a c h e r s , would in tr o d u c e an e le m e n t i n t o th e p r o f e s s io n
which would m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t i t s p r o g r e s s . F o r e ig h t o f th e
p ro c e d u re s more th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n s e s were i n
th e "D" colum n. C o n sid ered m ost d an g ero u s o f a l l were th r e e
o f th e su g g e ste d b a s e s f o r is s u a n c e o f em ergency c r e d e n t i a l s .
"Emergency p e r m its g ra n te d w ith o u t s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e
m ent" was g iv e n a "D" r a t i n g by 9 2 .9 p e r c e n t o f a l l re s p o n d
e n t s . "Emergency p e r m its g ra n te d a f t e r h ig h sc h o o l g rad u
a t i o n p lu s i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g " was condemned by 8 3 .7 p e r
c e n t. "Emergency p e r m its g ra n te d a f t e r h ig h sc h o o l g ra d u
a t i o n p lu s summer s c h o o l work" was c o n s id e re d d angerous by
8 1 .4 p e r c e n t.
" A f f i l i a t i o n w ith la b o r u n io n s" had 6 7 .9 p e r c e n t "D"
r a t i n g s . "Perm anent c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f em ergency te a c h e r s
a f t e r two y e a r s of s u c c e s s f u l te a c h in g " had 6 7 .3 p e r c e n t.
" I n c r e a s in g c l a s s s i z e 20 to 30 p e r c e n t" r e c e iv e d 6 7 .2 p e r
c e n t. " E x c lu s iv e te a c h e r p la cem en t by f e d e r a l employment
s e r v ic e " had 5 7 .2 p e r c e n t. "Low ering academ ic r e q u ir e m e n ts
f o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n " r e c e iv e d 51.9 p e r c e n t o f "D" r a t i n g s .
F or sev en a d d i t i o n a l su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s "D" r a t i n g s
were g iv e n by a t l e a s t o n e - th ir d o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts . Those
seven, fo llo w e d i n each ca se by t h e i r p e r c e n ta g e of "D"
r a t i n g s , were a s f o llo w s : "Benew a l l c r e d e n t i a l s v a l id
303
d u rin g p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s ," 4 4 .5 p e r c e n t; " E x c lu s iv e te a c h
e r p la cem en t by s t a t e d e p a r tm e n ts ," 4 3 .2 p e r c e n t; " C e r t i
f i c a t i o n p e r m itte d th ro u g h e x a m in a tio n ," 4 2 .4 p e r c e n t;
" C o n tro l o f te a c h e r su p p ly th ro u g h f l e x i b l e c e r t i f i c a t i o n
s t a n d a r d s ," 4 2 .3 p e r c e n t; " S ta te d e p a rtm e n t q u o ta s r e g u l a
t i n g , on b a s i s o f need, an n u al number e n t e r in g te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g , " 3 9 .5 p e r c e n t; "Emergency p e r m its g ra n te d w ith no
t r a i n i n g re q u ire m e n t beyond two y e a r s c o l l e g e ," 3 8 .2 p e r
c e n t; and "S uspending t r a i n i n g re q u ire m e n ts f o r renew ing
c r e d e n t i a l s , " 3 4 .9 p e r c e n t. Thus, i t would a p p e a r t h a t edu
c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s a re e x tre m e ly d e s ir o u s o f a v o id in g many o f
th e p o s s i b l e a p p ro ac h es t o te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
E x te n t o f agreem ent as t o b e s t r e c r u itm e n t m ethods
among e d u c a to r s w ith v a ry in g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and i n v a r y in g
g e o g r a p h ic a l a r e a s . To d is c o v e r w h eth er th e r e i s g e n e r a l
agreem ent among such v a r y in g groups as s t a t e s u p e r in te n d e n ts ,
o f f i c i a l s o f s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n s , c o lle g e p r o f e s s o r s ,
c
and h ig h sc h o o l g u id an ce d i r e c t o r s a s to b e s t means o f r e
c ru itm e n t would ap p ear s i g n i f i c a n t to a s o l u t i o n o f th e p ro b
lem . D e s ira b le , to o , would be in f o r m a tio n a s to u n if o r m ity
o f o p in io n betw een C a l i f o r n i a e d u c a to r s and th o se from th e
r e s t o f th e c o u n try .
The m ost s t r i k i n g f a c t o r re v e a le d by th e q u e s tio n n a ir e
r e t u r n s a t t h i s p o in t i s th e u n ifo rm ity o f o p in io n e x p re s s e d .
304
R esp o n d en ts from e a s t and w est and from a l l ty p e s o f educa
t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s a r e i n g e n e ra l agreem ent a s to w hat c o n s t i
t u t e s d e s i r a b l e and u n d e s i r a b l e r e c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u r e s .
W hile some v a r i a t i o n e x i s t s on i n d iv i d u a l Ite m s , i t i s
l i m i t e d to v a r i a t i o n r a t h e r th a n to d e f i n i t e d is a g re e m e n t.
I n n o t a s in g le in s t a n c e i s a su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s tr o n g ly
su p p o rte d by one o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e g ro u p s and condemned
by a n o th e r .
A ll groups opposed emergency c r e d e n t i a l s su g g e stio n s*
C a l i f o r n i a c o lle g e s w ere m ost pronounced i n o p p o s itio n
fo llo w ed by c o l le g e s o u ts id e C a l i f o r n i a . The g r e a t e s t
d eg ree o f s u p p o rt, a s i n d i c a t e d by "An r a t i n g s , was f u rn is h e d
by s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts and s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s .
O p p o s itio n was r a t h e r g e n e r a l, to o , tow ard s u g g e s tio n s
f o r perm anent a l t e r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r c e r t i f i c a t i o n . V a r ia tio n s
from th e mean were s l i g h t . Again th e two c o lle g e g ro u p s le d
th e o p p o s itio n w ith s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts and te a c h e r s a s s o c i
a t i o n s o f f e r i n g th e m ost s u p p o r t.
S u g g e s tio n s f o r e x p e d itin g t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s w ere
g iv e n a s t r i k i n g l y u n ifo rm re s p o n s e . A ll group p e r c e n ta g e s
o f "A" r a t i n g s a re c l o s e to th e mean. R a tin g s on th e two
su g g e ste d p u b l i c i t y p ro c e d u re s show l i t t l e v a r ia n c e a l s o .
The e i g h t su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s c o n c e rn in g r e c r u i t i n g
f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g were g iv e n s tr o n g s u p p o rt by a l l g ro u p s.
R esp o n ses from s t a t e d e p a rtm e n ts , s t a t e te a c h e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s ,
305
and th e two c o lle g e g ro u p s w ere v e ry s i m i l a r . The two g ro u p s
o f g u id an ce d i r e c t o r s w ere c o n s id e r a b ly l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c ,
p r e s e n tin g th e g r e a t e s t d eg ree o f d iv e rg e n c e seen i n th e
s tu d y .
C o n s id e r a tio n o f th e s e v e r a l m is c e lla n e o u s s u g g e s tio n s
f o r re d u c in g th e need f o r t e a c h e r s a g a in r e s u l t e d i n a g e n e r
a l p i c t u r e o f agreem ent w ith o p p o s itio n g e n e ra l to m ost
s u g g e s tio n s . C o n s id e ra b le s t a t e s u p p o rt f o r f l e x i b l e c e r t i
f i c a t i o n s ta n d a r d s and a q u o ta system f o r te a c h e r t r a i n i n g
r e p r e s e n te d th e o n ly s iz e a b le v a r i a t i o n from th e mean.
The l a s t q u e s tio n n a ir e group, in v o lv in g s u g g e s tio n s
f o r th e m a t e r i a l im provem ent o f te a c h in g c o n d itio n s p r e s e n te d
v e ry l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n . C a l i f o r n i a g u id a n ce o f f i c i a l s were
m ost opposed, b e in g s l i g h t l y below th e mean f o r n in e o f th e
te n ite m s .
I t would a p p e a r, th e n , t h a t w h ile v a r i a t i o n was o f a
m inor n a t u r e , s t a t e d ep a rtm en t and s t a t e te a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n
o f f i c i a l s te n d e d to be s l i g h t l y more o p t i m i s t i c a s to th e
p ro b a b le s u c c e s s o f th e v a r io u s su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s th a n
w ere th e two c o lle g e g ro u p s. R esponses from C a l i f o r n i a
c o l le g e s p r e s e n te d a p i c t u r e s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r to t h a t o f
c o l le g e s from th e r e s t o f th e c o u n try . High sc h o o l and
j u n i o r c o lle g e g u id an ce o f f i c i a l s o f C a l i f o r n i a te n d ed to
a g re e w ith th o s e o u ts id e th e s t a t e . They w ere, however,
s l i g h t l y l e s s re a d y to in d o r s e th e su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s
than were th ose from o u tsid e C a lifo rn ia .
I I I . RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES FOR TEACHER RECRUITMENT
WITH EMPHASIS ON NEEDS FOR CALIFORNIA
No a tte m p t w i l l be made h e re to p r e s e n t a d e t a i l e d
program o f te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t. R a th e r c e r t a i n s u g g e s tio n s
and g u id in g p r i n c i p l e s w i l l be o u tli n e d w hich have evolved
from a n a ly s is o f q u e s tio n n a ir e r e t u r n s and c u r r e n t e d u c a tio n
a l l i t e r a t u r e . T h is s tu d y h as aimed to f u r n is h g u id a n ce f o r
te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t i n C a l i f o r n i a . The r e s e a r c h co n d u cted ,
how ever, h a s i n d i c a t e d c o n s id e r a b le s i m i l a r i t y a s to r e c r u i t
ment d e s i r e s and n e e d s among th e s e v e r a l s t a t e s . A m a jo r ity
o f th e s u g g e s tio n s , t h e r e f o r e , a re a p p l ic a b le to r e c r u itm e n t
p la n n in g th ro u g h o u t th e n a tio n .
Recommended perm anent r e c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u r e s . The
su g g e ste d p ro c e d u re s i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e c o n s id e re d im p o rta n t
i n a l l e v i a t i n g an em ergency te a c h e r s h o r ta g e . I t i s b e lie v e d ,
how ever, t h a t t h e i r v a lu e s a r e perm anent i n n a t u r e and t h a t
th e y sh o u ld be m a in ta in e d even when te a c h e r su p p ly and demand
ap p ro x im ate e q u a l i t y .
1. P ro v id e a c o n tin u o u s , c o o rd in a te d te a c h e r r e c r u i t
ment program a d m in is te re d by th e s t a t e d ep artm en t
which in v o lv e s such p ro c e d u re s a s :
a. Em ploying e x p e r t , p erm an en t, p r o f e s s i o n a l
le a d e r s h i p .
b . C r e a tin g a s iz e a b le b u d g e t f o r r e s e a r c h ,
p u b l i c i t y , and c l e r i c a l a s s i s t a n c e .
307
o. M a in ta in in g a c o n tin u o u s su p p ly and demand
stu d y .
d. R e q u irin g c o o r d in a tio n w ith p u b lic s c h o o ls
and te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s so t h a t
a c c u r a te in f o rm a tio n a s to demand and s u p p ly
i s a v a i l a b l e .
2. I n a u g u ra te a c o n tin u o u s, c o n c e rte d campaign to
r a i s e th e p r e s t i g e o f th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s io n
in v o lv in g such p ro c e d u re s a s:
a. I n c lu d in g i n th e sc h o o l c u rric u lu m a t a l l
l e v e l s i n t e r e s t i n g , d ra m a tic m a t e r i a l s con
c e rn in g th e p r o f e s s io n .
b. E s t a b l i s h i n g a c a r e f u l s c re e n in g program by
te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s so as to e l i
m in a te te a c h e r c a n d id a te s la c k in g s u p e r io r
p e r s o n a l i t y and q u a l i t i e s o f le a d e r s h ip .
o. M a in ta in in g o r i e n t a t i o n c o u rs e s by te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s to p r e p a re te a c h e r s f o r
o p p o r t u n i t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n com
m unity l i f e .
d. M inim izing u n fa v o ra b le p o r t r a y a l s o f th e p r o
f e s s i o n by th e p r e s s and s c re e n th ro u g h
c o n c e rte d p r e s s u r e by s tr o n g l o c a l , s t a t e ,
and n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n a s s o c i a t i o n s .
e. M a in ta in in g a p la n n e d , c o n tin u o u s p u b l i c i t y
cam paign, th ro u g h th e le a d e r s h ip o f s t a t e and
n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n a s s o c i a t i o n s , s t r e s s i n g th e
o p p o r t u n i t i e s and rew ard s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n .
3. Reduce l i m i t a t i o n s a s t o i n t e r s t a t e movement o f
te a c h e r s by:
a . A tte m p tin g f i r s t to re a c h r e g i o n a l e q u a l i t y
o f s ta n d a r d s .
b . A b o lis h in g re q u ire m e n ts as to c o u rs e s ta k e n
w ith in s t a t e where em ployed.
c. E s t a b l i s h i n g c r e d e n t i a l s a u t h o r iz in g te a c h in g
s e r v ic e i n n a t i o n a l r e g io n s w ith th e e v e n tu a l
g o a l o f n a tio n -w id e c e r t i f i c a t i o n .
308
4. M a in ta in a c o o rd in a te d g u id a n c e program aimed a t
p ro m o tin g , among a b le y o u th , th e c h o ic e o f te a c h
in g a s a c a r e e r by:
a. Making such g u id a n c e th e p a r t i c u l a r r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y o f h ig h sc h o o l and ju n io r c o lle g e
g u id an ce d ir e c to r s *
b . E x p e d itin g and c o o r d in a tin g v i s i t s and l i t e r a
t u r e to h ig h s c h o o ls and j u n i o r c o l l e g e s by
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u
t i o n s .
c. I n a u g u r a tin g a d e f i n i t e r e c r u itm e n t program
among l i b e r a l a r t s s tu d e n ts i n c o l le g e s who
o th e rw is e do n o t have w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d p ro
f e s s i o n a l aim s.
d. P ro m o tin g p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l c lu b s i n c o l le g e s
and u n i v e r s i t i e s among th o s e c o n s id e r in g edu
c a t i o n a s a c a r e e r .
e . S t r e s s i n g to te a c h e r s a t a l l e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l s
t h e i r param ount im p o rta n c e i n th e in f lu e n c in g
o f c h o ic e s f o r te a c h in g as a c a r e e r .
5. C re a te s tr o n g e r and l a r g e r s t a t e and n a t i o n a l edu
c a t i o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n by such p ro c e d u re s a s:
a. E m phasizing, d u r in g y e a rs o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g ,
th e p r a c t i c a l v a lu e s i n m a t e r i a l l y in c re a s e d
dues and u n iv e r s a l m em bership.
b . U sing te a c h e r o r g a n iz a tio n s c o u ra g e o u sly to
in f lu e n c e community a t t i t u d e s and l e g i s l a t i o n .
c. M a in ta in in g such o r g a n iz a tio n s as p r o f e s s i o n a l
i n c h a r a c te r and in d e p e n d e n t o f o th e r v o c a tio n
a l g ro u p s.
6. I n c r e a s e and e q u a liz e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o rt f o r edu
c a tio n th ro u g h :
a . M a in ta in in g a s t a t e e q u a l i z a t i o n p la n in v o lv
in g s t a t e s u p p o rt o f a l i b e r a l f o u n d a tio n
program a f t e r common d i s t r i c t e f f o r t .
b. E s t a b l i s h i n g a n a t i o n a l e q u a l i z a t i o n program
in v o lv in g f e d e r a l s u p p o rt, w ith s a fe g u a rd s a s
309
to f e d e r a l c o n t r o l , p r o v id in g a fo u n d a tio n
program a f t e r common s t a t e e f f o r t .
c . M a in ta in in g s tro n g , c o n tin u o u s , c o o rd in a te d
e f f o r t to e d u c a te th e p u b lic as t o need f o r
g r e a t e r f i n a n c i a l s u p p o rt f o r e d u c a tio n ,
7. I n c r e a s e m a t e r i a l l y th e f i n a n c i a l r e t u r n s f o r
e d u c a to r s by:
a. A dopting minimum s a l a r y law s e t a t a p p ro x i
m ate l e v e l o f a v e ra g e f o r s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s o f
s t a t e .
b . P ro v id in g an n u al s a la r y in c re m e n ts b r in g in g
maximum to a t l e a s t 50 p e r c e n t above s t a r t
in g s a l a r y .
c . M a in ta in in g r e tir e m e n t p r o v is io n s p r o v id in g
a t l e a s t h a l f an n u al s a l a r y a f t e r s e r v ic e o f
a p p ro x im a te ly t h i r t y y e a r s .
d. M a in ta in in g a te n u re law in s u r i n g perm anency
o f employment a f t e r p r o b a tio n a r y p erio d #
Recommended em ergency r e c r u itm e n t p r o c e d u r e s . The
fo llo w in g p ro c e d u re s a r e su g g e ste d f o r im m ediate a d o p tio n
w ith th e e x p e c ta tio n t h a t th e y w i l l be m inim ized i f n o t en
t i r e l y abandoned as soon as te a c h e r su p p ly and demand
approach e q u a l i t y . The recommended perm anent r e c r u itm e n t
p ro c e d u re s , which w ere o u tlin e d i n th e p r e c e d in g s e c t i o n a re
c o n s id e re d p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s i r a b l e , to o , as a means o f r e
d u cin g th e p r e s e n t em ergency. They were l i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y
b ec au se th e y were c o n s id e re d d e s i r a b l e , a s w e ll, a f t e r th e
em ergency h as p a s s e d .
1. P ro v id e an em ergency te a c h in g p e rm it p la n w hieh
in v o lv e s :
a. Requiring two years c o lle g e p lus in te n siv e
310
i n - s e r v i e e t r a i n i n g f o r e lem e n tary em ergency
c e r t i f i c a t i o n i n s t a t e s w ith s ta n d a rd r e q u i r e
ment o f fo u r y e a r s c o l l e g e .
"b. R e q u irin g fo u r y e a r s c o lle g e p lu s i n t e n s i v e
i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g f o r se co n d ary em ergency
c e r t i f i c a t i o n in s t a t e s w ith s ta n d a rd r e q u i r e
m ents o f f i v e y e a rs c o l le g e .
c . P e r m ittin g is s u a n c e o n ly a f t e r sig n e d s t a t e
ment o f need from d i s t r i c t .
d. I s s u in g p e r m its f o r one y e a r s e r v ic e o n ly .
e . R e q u irin g lo w er minimum s a l a r y f o r emergency
te a c h e r s th a n f o r s ta n d a rd c e r t i f i c a t i o n
te a c h e r s .
f . R e q u irin g , a s soon a s need becomes s l i g h t l y
l e s s c r i t i c a l , th e c o m p le tio n o f from s ix to
n in e se m e ste r u n i t s o f work i n o r d e r to se c u re
a r e - i s s u a n c e o f an emergency p e rm it.
g. A dopting l e g i s l a t i o n which makes im p o s s ib le
c o n tin u a n c e o f em ergency te a c h e r s a f t e r s t a t e
d ep a rtm en t c e r t i f i e s th e need to be a t an end.
2. E x p e d ite t r a i n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r b o th em ergency
and s ta n d a rd c e r t i f i c a t i o n te a c h e r s by:
a . P ro v id in g r e f r e s h e r c o u rs e s i n te a c h e r t r a i n
in g i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r p e rs o n s r e t u r n i n g to
te a c h in g o r t r a n s f e r r i n g to s h o rta g e f i e l d s .
b . M a in ta in in g on-campus and e x te n s io n te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s f o r em ergency te a c h e r s in
s e r v i c e .
c . O rg a n iz in g , under co u n ty , s t a t e , and te a c h e r
t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n le a d e r s h ip , i n t e n s i v e i n -
s e r v ic e t r a i n i n g program s in v o lv in g workshop
and o th e r s u p e rv is o ry d e v ic e s .
d. F in a n c in g , th ro u g h s t a t e g r a n t s , a n n u a l s c h o la r
s h ip s to th e number o f one f o r each tw en ty
te a c h e r s employed i n th e s t a t e and o f s u f f i
c i e n t amount to co v er f e e s and b o ard and room
c o s t s .
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512
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F le s h e r , M arie A ., "Did They G rad u ate Too Young?" E d u c a tio n
a l R e sea rc h B u l l e t i n , 2 4 :2 2 1 , November 14, 1945.
F o rd y ce, W e llin g to n G ., " T e a c h e rs ’ Unions and L a b o r’ s
W eapons," The Am erican S chool B oard .J o u rn a l, 115 :5 1 ,
S eptem ber, 1946.
F u l l e r , H elen, "T eacher S h o r ta g e s ," P r o g r e s s iv e E d u c a tio n ,
2 2 :9 , November, 1944.
H aggard, W . W., "R e c ru itm e n t o f th e P r o f e s s i o n ," Peabody
J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n , 2 3 :8 6 -7 , Septem ber, 1945.
H e r lin g e r , H a rry V*, "And G la d ly T ea ch ," O c c u p a tio n s . 23:
147-51, December, 1944.
H u ll, Osman R . , " R e c r u it Young P eo p le f o r T e a c h in g !" The
P h i D e lta Kappan. 2 8 :1 0 , S eptem ber, 1946.
J o h n sto n , E ric A ., "More Oomph i n E d u c a tio n ," The N a tio n ’ s
S c h o o ls , 3 7 :5 2 , A p r il, 1946.
K le in , A rth u r J . , " A c c e le r a tio n and th e D em obilized S tu d e n t
in E d u c a tio n ." E d u c a tio n a l R e search B u l l e t i n , 2 4 :8 5 -8 7 ,
A p r il, 1945.
K u e n z li, Irw in R . * "The S e c r e t a r y ’ s Annual R e p o r t," The
Am erican T e a c h e r, 3 0 :5 , O cto b er, 1945.
L a f f e r t y , H. M ., "The S o c ia l S ta tu s of th e T e a c h e r," Educa
t i o n a l A d m in is tra tio n and S u p e r v is io n . 27:649, December,
1941.
L i c h l i t e r , Mary, " S o c ia l O b lig a tio n s and R e s t r i c t i o n s P la c e d
on Women T e a c h e rs ," The S chool Review , 5 4 :1 4 -2 3 , Ja n u a ry
1946.
Ludeman, W. W., "Bach to a Meat and P o ta to e s C u rric u lu m ,"
American S chool Board J o u r n a l , 1 0 4 :2 5 , F e b ru a ry , 1942.
McCreay, W illiam H ., "The R e g i s t r a t i o n o f N o n -R esid en t S tu
d e n ts in S t a t e U n i v e r s i t i e s , " American A s s o c ia tio n o f
C o lle g i a te Regi s t r a r s J o u r n a l , 1 7 :1 6 1 -6 8 , F e b ru a r y ,“T 9 4 2
M orphet, E dgar L . , " S ta t e S c h o la rs h ip s f o r T e a c h e r s ,"
N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n J o u r n a l . 3 5 :2 7 -8 , Ja n u a ry ,
1946.
P o r t e r f i e l d , A lle n W., "A C o lle g e D egree i n One Y e a r,"
S chool and S o c i e t y . 59:163, March 4, 1944.
S a n d e r lin , O w enita, "Ouch! T hat W hite C o lla r P in c h e s ,"
S a tu rd a y E vening P o s t . No. 4, 2 1 6 :3 6 -9 , J u ly 22, 1944.
S t i n n e t t , T. M ., " C u rre n t S t a t u s o f R e c ip r o c ity i n T eacher
E d u c a tio n ," N o rth C e n tra l A s s o c ia tio n Q u a r te r ly .
19:3 5 6 , A p r il, 1945.
W aite, W. E . , "The T eacher lo o k s I n to th e F u t u r e ," Peabody
J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n . 22:356, May, 1945.
W e lle r, W illa rd , "R ev o lt i n th e C la ssro o m ," High P o i n t s .
2 5 :5 -1 2 , O c to b e r, 1943.
i
W hitney, Qpie B la c k w e ll, "A Double L if e f o r th e T e a c h e r ,"
S chool E x e c u tiv e . 5 9 :1 7 , Ju n e, 1940.
W illia m s, 1 . W., "S h o rta g e o f T each ers P r e d ic te d F or th e
N ext F iv e to Ten Y e a rs ," S chool and S o c ie ty . 6 3 :6 0 ,
Ja n u a ry 26, 1946.
F. UNPOBLISHED MATERIALS
Bowers, H aro ld J . , P e rs o n a l l e t t e r , F eb ru ary 27, 1946.
B iden, M a rg aret G ., " F a c to rs I n f lu e n c in g C hoice o r Non-
C hoice o f T eaching a s a P r o f e s s i o n ." U npublished
M a s te r’ s t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a ,
Los A ngeles, 1945. 129 pp .
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n , " C r e d e n tia ls Is s u e d
f o r E d u c a tio n .S e r v i c e . " Mimeographed b u l l e t i n , A p ril 1,
1946.
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e R e c o n s tr u c tio n and Reemployment Commission,
" E s tim a te of P o p u la tio n Growth i n C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 4 0 -1 9 5 0 ."
Ju n e, 1944. 76 pp.
C a lifo rn ia S ta te R econstruction and Reemployment Commission,
"Manpower fo r C a lifo rn ia S ch ools." January, 1945. 47 pp.
319
Hubbard, F ran k W., P e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru a ry 28, 1946.
N oble, Le G rande, "A Program o f S t a t e R e g u la tio n o f T eacher
S upply and Demand f o r U ta h ." U npublished D o c to r’ s
d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a ,
Los A ngeles, 1944. 187 pp.
W o e lln e r, R o b e rt C a r lto n , and M. A u r i l l a Wood, "R eq u irem en ts
f o r C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T ea ch ers and A d m in is tr a to r s ."
The U n iv e r s ity of Chicago P r e s s , 1944. 108 pp .
.SPFENDIX
CALIFORNIA TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION 612 S. FIGUEROA STREET
SOUTHERN SECTION LOS ANGELES 14,*CALIFORNIA
M ethods in Teacher Recruitm ent
3;
By October 1945 the teaching profession had lost approxim ately one-third of its personnel an d
teacher training had shrunk to a small fraction of prew ar levels. Authorities agree that a serious teacher-
shortage will prevail for a num ber of years. A recent exhaustive research concludes that California
schools, for instance, will have a dearth of elem entary teachers until at least 1957.
The purpose of this study, then, is to sample expert opinion concerning teacher recruitm ent proced
ures in the hope of evolving a w orkable recruitment program. The present study is concerned both with
the alleviation of the present teacher shortage and with the developm ent of a perm anent program of
teacher recruitment. Below is a list of possible procedures furthering teacher recruitment in the United
States. • ‘
Undoubtedly other procedures, omitted from this list, will occur to you. Please ad d them to the list.
Please rate this list (revised an d enlarged, if necessary) by labeling each item as an "A,'? "B,”
"C,” or "D” item on the basis of the following understanding:
A. Of param ount importance. If vigorously an d successfully prom oted it will aid m aterially in
increasing the num ber of acceptable candidates for teaching positions an d /o r enrollments in
teacher training institutions w ithout. material, perm anent injury to the educative process.
B. Probably has some value. Might lead to modest success in teacher recruitment.
C. Of no value. W ould probably have little or no effect on teacher recruitment.
D. W ould introduce attendant evils. W hile probably adding som ew hat to the present supply
of teachers, it would introduce an element into the profession which would mitigate against
its progress ’ a n d /o r reduce the ultimate value of the educational offering.
Please note that you are not asked to arrange an "order of im portance” am ong the items. It is quite
possible that you might assign a n "A" or "C” rating to all items under any main heading.
Please place a check before each procedure which you would definitely retain as part of a perm a
nent recruitment program after the present w ar em ergency is at an end.
^ Finally check those items which, in your individual educational position, you would find particularly
valuable in recruiting people for the profession. (E.g.: If you are a county superintendent which of these
recruitment procedures can you use effectively.)
I, Issuance of Em ergency Permits (for elem entary school teachers) with the following limitations:
Retain
jrmanently
Significant
For You Rating
( ) ( ') ( )
a. Minmium of two years college training and one y ear teaching
experience.
( ) ( )* ( )
b. Minimum of two years college plus intensive in-service training
program.
( ) ( ) ( )
c. Minimum of two years college training including twelve semester
units in education.
( ) ( ) ( )
d. Minimum of two years college training.
( ) ( ) ( )
e. High school graduation plus intensive summer school course work.
( ) ( ) ( )
f. High school graduation plus intensive in-service training program.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
g-
h.
No specific requirements; determ ined by needs.
Comment:
322
IL Permanent Alteration of Regular Certification Requirements by:
Retain . Significant
Permanently For You Rating
a-. Renewing all credentials valid at any time during past fifteen years.
b. Making minor adjustments in certification requirem ents not involv
ing appreciable lowering of standards.
c. Suspending additional training requirem ents for renew al of creden
tials in the states w here it is required.
d. Permitting certification through exam ination to ‘ supplem ent certifi
cation through course work.
e. Lowering present academ ic or special subject requirements for cer
tification (e.g.: less units in major field).
f. Streamlining present requirem ents in professional education for cer
tification with em phasis on elimination of duplications.
g. Abolishing requirem ent of some states that teacher must have speci
fied num ber of units of college credit earned within those states.
h. Perm anent certification of substandard em ergency teachers after two
full years of teaching if rated as successful by school district officials.
Commen
m . Expediting Training Opportunities for Both Emergency and Standard Certification Teachers Through:
Retain Significant
Permanently For You Rating
( ) ( ) ( ) a. Running colleges and universities on a three-sem ester-a-year basis.
( ) ( ) ( ) b. Providing refresher, supplem entary, or intensive courses in teacher
training institutions for persons returning to teaching or transferring
to shortage fields. ^
( ) ( ) ( ) c. Establishing, with college supervision and credit, extension teacher
training classes for teachers who cannot attend the regular teacher
v training institutions.
( ) ( ) ( ) d. Subsidizing salary schedule increments by districts for those em er
gency teachers who are on lower salary schedule than other begin
ning teachers to induce them to continue training so as to attain
standard certification.
( ) ( ) ( ) e.
Comment:
IV. Increased Publicity Concerning N eed for Teachers by:
Retain Significant
Permanently For You Rating
( ) ( ) ( ) a. Intensive new spaper, m agazine, and radio publicity concerning the
need for teachers an d the opportunities for employment in the pro
fession.
( ) ( ) ( ) b. National and state poster cam paign com parable to that used for
military services, nurses aids, etc.
( ) ( ) ( ) c.
Comment:
V. Recruitment for Teacher Training Through:
Retain Significant 3 2 3
Permanently For You Rating
( ) ( ) ( ) a. Provision of vocational guidance units in high school and junior col
lege social studies courses in which education receives a t least equal
em phasis with other professions.
( ) ( ) ( ) b. Emphasis in high school and junior college guidance program on
education as a career am ong those fitted for successful teaching.
( ) ( ) ( ) c. Conferences in high school and junior colleges with representatives
from teacher training institutions concerning the desirability of enter
ing teacher training.
( ) ( ) ( ) d. State departm ent and teacher training institution recruitment bulle
tins placed in hands of graduating high school and junior college
students.
( ) ( . ) ( ) e. Elimination of all tuition fees in state supported institutions for teach
er training courses.
( ) ( ) ( ) f. Scholarships, financed by public or private funds, for training of
prospective teachers.
( ) ( ) ( ) g. • Definite recruitment program am ong liberal arts students in colleges
who otherwise do not have well established professional aims.
( ) ( ) ( ) h. O rganization or increased emphasis of Future Teacher of America
Clubs in high schools and colleges.
Comment:
Retain Significant
Permanently For You
VI. Misce
Rating
aneous Procedures to Alleviate Teacher Shortages:
a. Eliminate m any of the small classes in marginal, "non-essential"
courses.
b. Increase normal class sizes 20% to 30%.
c. Expedite, through legislative enactment, consolidation of rural
schools so as to reduce num ber of teachers needed.
d. Permit college students who are in their last year of training to act
as paid teachers, under special supervision, in lieu of regular prac
tice teaching.
e. Control teacher supply through flexible regulation of certification
standards by state departments.
f. Empower state departm ents to set yearly quotas which will regulate,
on basis of need, the num ber of students perm itted to enter teacher
training institutions.
g. Require teacher candidate registration and district vacancy listing
with state departm ent which will then act as exclusive clearing
house for all teacher placement.
h. Require teacher candidate registration and district vacancy listing
with state or federal employment service which will then act as ex
clusive clearing house for all teacher placement.
Comment:
324
VII. M aterial Improvement of Teaching Conditions Which Are Not Primarily Concomitants
of the Present Em ergency
Retain Significant
Permanently For You Rating
Commen
a. Minimum salary law set at approxim ate level of skilled artisans of
state.
b. Provision for successive yearly salary increment bringing maximum
to at least 25 % above starting salary.
c. Complete state equalization plan involving substantial aid for all
but the wealthiest districts.
d. National equalization of educational opportunity involving sub
stantial aid for all but the wealthiest states.
e. Retirement law providing at least half annual salary after service of
approxim ately thirty years.
f. Tenure law which insures perm anency of employment after pro
bationary period unless board can prove just cause for dismissal.
g. Sabbatical leaves of absence.
h. Unionization of teachers including affiliation with national labor
groups.
i. More rigid state regulation to prevent excessive teaching load, class
size, extra curricular activities, etc.
j. State and district provisions for increased teacher voice in school
adm inistration an d supervision.
k.
From the forty or more recruitment methods listed in this questionnaire (including any you m ay have
added) list in order the four which you consider most fundam ental to successful teacher recruitment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Did you rem em ber to place a check before those items which you would retain perm anently and a
check before those significant in your field of service? Thank you.
N? 740
CALI FORM IA TEACHERS ASSOCIATION
SOUTHERN SECTION
4 0 8 S o u t h S p r i n g s t r e e t
T R IN IT Y 1 5 5 8
LOS AftGELES 13, CALIFORNIA
O F F IC E R S
: R A H A W K I N S P R E S I D E N T
S A N D IE G O H IG H S C H O O L
D . L A T O U R R E T T E V I C E - P R E S I D E N T
M A N U A L A R T S H IG H S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
A Y N E F . B O W E N T R E A S U R E R
V E R N O N C IT Y S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
T T H U R F . C O R E Y
E X E C U T I V E S E C R E T A R Y A N D D IR E C T O R
D E P A R T M E N T O F P U B L IC R E L A T I O N S
\R L A . BOW MAN
A S S I S T A N T S E C R E T A R Y A N D D IR E C T O R
D E P A R T M E N T O F T E A C H E R P L A C E M E N T
C R E D I T U N IO N
February 1 2 , 1946
Dear Friend:
M EM BERS O F BOARD O F
D IR E C T O R S
R. J O H N S . C A R R O L L
S A N D IE G O C O U N T Y S C H O O L S
R A C E M . H U L T M A N
B R E T H A R T E J U N I O R H IG H S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
L E L I L L E L A N D
W I L S O N J U N I O R H IG H S C H O O L
P A S A D E N A
A R Y V I R G I N I A M O R R I S
S O T O S T R E E T S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
. F . S E A L
L O N G B E A C H C IT Y C O L L E G E
. C . G I L L I N G H A M
C O M P T O N J U N I O R C O L L E G E
Our A s s o c ia tio n i s in t e r e s t e d in knowing and ap p lyin g
the v ery b e s t methods o f te a c h e r rec ru itm en t not o n ly
. to meet th e p r e s e n t c r i s i s but t o provid e a co n tin u in g
supply o f high grade tea ch er rep la cem en ts.
We would s i n c e r e l y a p p r e c ia te your com pleting th e en
c lo se d q u e stio n n a ir e and retu rn in g i t to us as soon
as p o s s i b l e .
This stud y is b e in g d ir e c te d by Mr. W. Norman Wampler.
W e hope t h a t th e r e s u lt s w i l l n ot o n ly be u s e fu l to
us but in p u b lish ed form w i l l make a rea l c o n t r i
b u tio n to th e developm ent o f an e f f e c t i v e , permanent
program fo r te a c h e r r e c r u itm e n t.
C A L IF O R N IA
T E A C H E R S A SSO C IA T IO N
D H N F . B R A D Y P R E S I D E N T
S A N F R A N C IS C O C IT Y S C H O O L S
DY W . C L O U D
S T A T E E X E C U T I V E S E C R E T A R Y
6 6 0 M A R K E T S T R E E T
S A N F R A N C I S C O 4 , C A L I F O R N I A
C o r d ia lly ,
ARTHUR F. COREY
E x ecu tiv e S e c r e ta r y
325
SOUTHERN
SECTION
OFFICE R S
f ERA HAW KINS P R E S I D E N T
S A N D IE G O H IG H S C H O O L
.. D. LATOURRETTE V I C E - P R E S I D E N T
M A N U A L A R T S H IG H S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
W A Y N E F . B O W E N T R E A S U R E R
V E R N O N C IT Y S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
ARTHUR F . COREY
E X E C U T I V E S E C R E T A R Y A N D D IR E C T O R
D E P A R T M E N T O F P U B L I C R E L A T I O N S
: a r l a . b o w m a n
A S S I S T A N T S E C R E T A R Y A N D D IR E C T O R
D E P A R T M E N T O F T E A C H E R P L A C E M E N T
C R E D IT U N IO N
M EM BERS O F B O A R D OF
D IR E C T O R S
3R. JO H N S . CARROLL
S A N D IE G O C O U N T Y S C H O O L S
SRACE M. HULTMAN
B R E T H A R T E J U N I O R H IG H S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
3LE LILLELAND
W I L S O N J U N I O R H IG H S C H O O L
P A S A D E N A
ilARY VIRGINIA M ORRIS
S O T O S T R E E T S C H O O L
L O S A N G E L E S
i. F. SEAL
L O N G B E A C H C IT Y C O L L E G E
I. C. GILLINGHAM
C O M P T O N J U N I O R C O L L E G E
C A L IF O R N IA
T E A C H E R S A S S O C IA T IO N
I O H N F . B R A D Y P R E S I D E N T
S A N F R A N C IS C O C IT Y S C H O O L S
IOY W . CLOUD
S T A T E E X E C U T IV E S E C R E T A R Y
6 6 0 M A R K E T S T R E E T
S A N F R A N C IS C O 4 , C A L IF O R N IA
CALI FORM 1A TEACHERS ASSOCIATIOM
SOUTHERN SECTION
6 1 2 S o u t h F i g u e r o a S t r e e t
TRINITY 1 5 5 8
LOS AMGELES 14, CALI FORM IA
March 20, 1946
Dear Friend:
About a month ago our o f f i c e se n t t o ed u c a tio n a l
le a d e r s th roughout the country a q u e s tio n n a ir e con
cern in g methods in TEACHER RECRUITMENT. Our retu rn s
have been g r a t if y in g and we f e e l th a t we can make a
rep o rt which w i l l have some s ig n if ic a n c e fo r the pro
f e s s i o n .
W e d e s ir e t o make t h i s rep o rt as com plete and rep re
s e n t a t iv e as p o s s ib le and have been d isa p p o in te d ,
th e r e fo r e , in n ot r e c e iv in g an answer from you. W e
are e n c lo sin g an a d d itio n a l copy and s in c e r e ly hope
th a t you w i l l fin d time to com plete i t f o r us in
the near fu tu r e .
C o r d ia lly ,
ARTHUR F. CORE?
E x ecu tiv e S e c r e ta r y
326

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wampler, William Norman (author)

Core Title Methods in teacher recruitment, November 1946

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-406183

Unique identifier UC11243516

Identifier usctheses-c26-406183 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP23975.pdf

Dmrecord 406183

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Wampler, William Norman

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA