University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The academic and professional preparation of teachers of English in secondary schools in California

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The academic and professional preparation of teachers of English in secondary schools in California

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Content THE ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN CALIFORNIA A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy by Daniel F. Graham June 19A1 UMI Number: DP23456 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI DP23456 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 This dissertation, written by ....... under the guidance of A.i.S Faculty Committee on Studies, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research, in partial f u l fillm ent of requirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Secretary D^....-J.une.r...lS.4L Dean Committee on Studies \hairm< ACKNOTODGMENT Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. Frederick J. Weersing for his interest and guidance in the development of this study, and to the other members of the committee, Dr* Albert S. Raubenheimer, Dr. Merritt M. Thompson, Dr. Fmory S. Bogardus, and Dr. John D. Cooke, for their suggestions and criticism. TABLE OB CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE PART I THE PROBLEM I. THE PROBLEM ................................... 2 i Purpose of the study........ . .............. 2 Scope of the study ..••«•••..•..•• 3 Need for further study of the problem............ 4 Teachers of English in California high schools occupy an important place in the state’s edu cational program................. . . . . 4 Teachers of English in California high schools teach Tinder widely varying conditions .... 3 Teachers of English are called upon to engage in numerous and varied activities...... 7 Teachers of English in California high schools represent many and varied types of collegiate preparation............. 9 Teachers of English reflect widely divergent professional attitudes ..... .......... 11 Summary of chapter ...................... 17 XI. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES.................... 22 Opinions of individual experts ■ 24 Reports of committees......................... . 26 iv CHAPTER PAGE General studies of education of secondary school teachers with significance for the education of English teachers............................ 29 Studies relating to the education of teachers of English in states other than California .... 32 Studies relating specifically to the education of teachers of English in California high schools ..... 38 Curriculums recommended by investigators .... 42 Curriculum proposed by Mirrielees........... 43 Curriculum proposed by Coale . ..............45 Currieulum proposed by Addison................49 Summary of chapter............. 54 III. PLAN AND PROCEDURES OF THE PRESENT STUDY ' .......... 56 Discovering the essential elements associated with the teaching of high school English ... 57 Historical background ..................... . 57 Significant teaching conditions . . ......... 5S Teaching activities ...... .............. 58 Facilities for teacher education and credential requirements ..................... 58 Major issues involved in the teaching of English and teacher education .............. 59 Studying significant elements as they exist in California high schools .................... 60 V CHAPTER PAGE The education, experience, and assignments of various groups of teachers of English . . . . 61 The extent to which teachers of English perform characteristic activities ..... ........ 6l The types of knowledge valued as professional equipment by teachers of English ...... 61 The opinions of teachers of English regarding significant issues related to the teaching of English and to teacher education .......... 61 Evaluating significant elements in the light of the best available criteria.................. 62 Reasons for procedures........................ 63 Cooperation of educational agencies ....... 66 Amount and distribution of data................ 66 Treatment of the data ........................ 68 Summary of the chapter ........ 68 PART IX FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS IN THE WORK AND EDUCATION OF ENGLISH TEACHERS IV. HISTORICAL SURVEY OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH AND OF THE EDUCATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH . . 71 The development of high school English........ 72 Development of high school English: 1821-1890 . 72 Development of high school English: 1890-1940 . .’ §2 vi CHAPTER PACE Summary of the development of high school English........................... ' . . 95 Development of program of teacher education ... 96 Prenormal school period ............ 96 Normal school period .................. 97 School of education period .. 100 Summary of development of the program of teacher education . *.... 102 Summary of chapter ......... 103 V. SIGNIFICANT TEACHING CONDITIONS................ 103 Number and distribution of teachers of English . 108 Distribution of teachers of English by sex ... 109 Extent of conventional types of English courses and of fusion courses...................... 113 Distribution of teachers of English according to emphasis of teaching assignments in English . . 113 Distribution of teachers of "English First" ac cording to the number of teaching fields in volved ......... 122 Distribution of subject combinations among the assignments, of teachers of English........ 126 Comparative data relating to the teaching assign ments of high school teachers of English . . . 130 Summary of chapter ................. 136 vii CHAPTER PAGE VI. CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH............................. 138 Characteristic teaching activities associated . with the teaching of high school English as re vealed in courses of study..................... 140 Characteristic activities associated with the teaching of high school English as revealed in periodical literature ........................ 144 Characteristic teaching activities associated with the teaching of high school English as re vealed by review of summaries of research studies . . . . ................................154 Summary of chapter..............................155 VII. FACILITIES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION AND CREDENTIAL REQUIREMENTS................. . 160 State credential requirements .................. 161 Requirements for the general junior high school credential ......... 161 Requirements for the general secondary school credential ...... .................... 164 Requirements for major in English......... 166 English courses in California universities and colleges..................... J ..............168 Courses in education in California universities and colleges............. 175 viii CHAPTER PAGE Summary of chapter 176 -Till * ISSUES IN THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH AND Issues in the teaching of high school English . # 183 Shall the experiences which make up the English program be..based upon the present interests of pupils, or shall adult standards of value- Shall the English program be socialized to en courage pupil self-expression and initiative, or shall it emphasize teacher control? ♦ . . 185 Shall there be required at different levels Ma few decencies in form and written expression that must be acquired by every pupil before he can be passed to a higher grade,” or shall every pupil be allowed to continue his educa tional experiences without regard to minimum essentials?..................................187 Shall the teacher of English take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of his school, or shall he confine his efforts to his own departmental program?....................................189 TEACHER EDUCATION 180 be used? 183 CHAPTER ix PAGE Do devices for homogeneous grouping aid in se curing optimum results from English teaching, or do such grouping devices endanger the most profitable outcomes of such instruction? . # 191 Shall the teacher of English require of all pupils the memorizing of definite passages from literature as an aid to realizing the aims of English instruction, or shall memor- iziiig be left to pupils’ desires?.......... 192 Do objective tests now available offer a feasi ble method by which teachers can measure de sirable outcomes of English instruction, or are such outcomes too intangible to permit measurement by objective standards? ♦ . * ♦ . 193 Shall the "classics" of literature be required, or optional reading for high school pupils? . 195 Shall teachers require intensive study of literature as a basis for appreciation, or discourage intensive analysis as tending to destroy the highest type of literary appreci ation? .....................................* 197 Shall the teacher regard the teaching of liter ature as a primary means for the development of character, or regard such teaching as negligible, in or at best incidental to the development of character traits? 199 CHAPTER x PAGE Shall the teacher encourage, as part of the program of English instruction, reading of books and magazines without limitation as to quality, or demand that pupils1 reading for school credit be kept within prescribed limits?...................................... 201 Shall the special characteristics of various types of literature be studied to enable the pupil to set up standards of literary judg ment, or shall "books be read in miscellan eous clusters that center about pupil inter ests?"....................... .............. 203 Shall literature and composition be regarded as separate subject matter, or shall they be considered as component parts of a unified language arts program? . • • . ..............205 Shall the teacher of English attempt to inter-, pret modern social and economic conditions through realistic literature, or consider controversial issues as outside the scope of English classroom experiences? 207 Shall the teacher of English stress social un- ^ derstanding as the chief outcome of studying literature, or the personal enjoyment of the reader?.............• .............. 209 xi CHAPTER PAGE Shall the teacher use English instruction as a definite means toward a new social order, or regard such attempts as outside the functions of the school?......... ♦ 211 Shall the teacher of English attempt to provide instruction in propaganda analysis, or is such instruction outside the scope of the English program? . ..................... 213 Shall the teacher of English teach literature I and creative writing for their therapeutic value to the pupil, or is the attainment of such an objective impracticable in secondary schools? . ........................ 215 Shall instruction in creative writing (stories, poems, plays, etc*) be provided for all pupils, or shall such instruction be limited to those who show special aptitude for it?.........* 216 Shall teachers encourage pupils to model compo sitions after literary selections of recog nized excellence, or shall they discourage such imitation as destructive of true origi nality? ......................................218 Shall the English program be organized to put. the major emphasis on oral expression by the pu pils, or shall oral expression be given a minor role? * * .................................... 219 CHAPTER xii PAGE Shall the teacher of English attempt to main tain scholarly standards of English expres sion, or shall he attempt to develop instead the use of vigorous idiomatic modes of ex pression based on current usage?......... 221 Shall grammar be organized as a separate part of the English program for all pupils, or shall it be taught as incidental to the other phases of English experiences and ac cording to individual needs? . . ........223 Issues in the teacher education in the field of English . . . ......................... . . . 224 Shall the program for the education of teachers of English be designed to prepare specialists primarily in the field of English, or teach ers so broadly educated that they are able to teach in many fields?....................225 Shall the program for the education of teachers of English be designed to prepare teachers adequately equipped upon completion of their college training, or shall recognition be given to the fact that most of the teacher’s growth in tbe art of teaching must take place on the job? ........... 226 CHAPTER xiii PAGE Shall separate courses in how to teach English be given or shall subject matter courses combine the problems of how and what to teach in one unified presentation?............. . 226 Shall teachers of English be educated primarily for scholarship in the field of English or for professional skill in secondary school methods of teaching?......... 22? Shall the program for the education of teachers of English lay greater emphasis upon spe- cialized courses or upon integrating synthet ic courses which cut across departmental lines?............................. 22? Shall methods courses, if given, be taught by the teachers in the college department of English or by teachers in the college de partment of education? ........... 228 Shall the program for the education of teachers of English include conventional^courses on practice teaching or can supervised observa tion of good teaching develop necessary teaching skills? ................ ..... 228 Summary of chapter............................. 229 xiv CHAPTER PAGE PART III FUIOAMENTAX ELEMENTS IN THE WORK AND EDUCATION OP TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS IX. ELEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH . 232 Distribution of teachers of English by sex . . . 233 The educational equipment of teachers of English. 234 Degrees h e l d ..............................234 Majors and minors........... ................236 Recency of college education *•••.•••• 243 Self-evaluated teaching proficiency ......... 247 The teaching experience of teachers of English . 254 Teaching assignments of teachers of English . . . 256 Extraclassroom duties regularly assigned to teachers of English........................ 253 Summary of chapter..........................260 X. THE TEACHING ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH . . 265 Extent to which teachers of English perform char acteristic teaching activities in junior high schools.................................... 266 Extent to which teachers of English in high and senior high schools perform characteristic teaching activities .......................... 270 Extent to which teachers of English perform char acteristic teaching activities according to the size of the schools .............. 272' XV CHAPTER PAGE Extent to which teachers of English courses pre dominantly and teachers of fusion courses perform characteristic teaching activities . * 278 Extent to which teachers of English rated as superior and teachers not so rated perform characteristic teaching activities .......... 282 Summary of chapter * . ................. . . . . 289 XI. EDUCATIONAL EQUIPMENT JUDGED VALUABLE BY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH......... 292 Extent to which types of knowledge are judged desirable by junior high school teachers of English . . ...................................293 Extent to which types of knowledge are judged desirable by high and senior high school teachers of English .............. 298 Extent to which types of knowledge are judged desirable by teachers of. English rated as superior and by others not so rated........... 301 Extent to which teachers of English express need to acquire or develop professional skills and abilities.....................................307 Extent to which teachers of English value sup porting subjects as contributing to their teaching equipment .................... ...311 Summary of chapter ...................... ...315 CHAPTER PAGE XII. JUDGMENTS OF TEACHERS REGARDING EDUCATIONAL ISSUES 319 Opinions of teachers of English in junior high schools and in high and senior high schools regarding issues related to the teaching of English.......................... 321 Opinions of teachers of English courses predomi nantly and teachers of fusion courses upon is sues related to the teaching of English .... 333 Opinions of teachers rated as superior and those not so rated regarding issues related to the teaching of high school English............. 340 Summary of chapter..............................344 XIII. JUDGMENTS OF EXPERTS REGARDING AN UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH.................. 347 Judgments of college professors of English and of education regarding an undergraduate program for teachers of English............. 348 Judgments of college professors of English and of education regarding courses best suited for preparation of teachers of English......... 349 Summary of chapter........... 353 PART IV EVALUATING ELEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH ENGLISH TEACHING XIV. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......... 356 xvii CHAPTER PAGE Teaching conditions related to the teaching of English and the indications for teacher education . 357 Teaching activities of teachers of English and the implications for teacher education .... 361 In the field of written expression * .......... 361 In the field of content reading 362 In the field of oral expression . . ...........363 In the field of literature teaching.............364 Types of knowledge valued by teachers of English and the implications for teacher education . „ 367 In the field of language knowledge............ 368 In“the field of literature 371 In the supporting subjects, other than English and education................................ 373 In the field of education................ 374 The judgments of teachers of English regarding educational issues and the implications for teacher education ............................. 375 In the field of written expression 376 The teaching of literature ............ 379 In oral expression ..............381 In the field of general teaching practice . „ . 382 Recommendations....................... 382 xviii CHAPTER PAGE Fundamental service needs . ................. * 384 Basic training in speech and writing .... 384 English language and literature ........ 384 Sophomore survey of English and American literature ..... 384 Advanced language usage .............. 3 85 Shakespeare ................. 385 Types of literature .............. 385 Senior course in directed reading ...... 386 Senior course in teaching English in the high school ......... 386 Minor field of specialization ......... 387 Supporting subjects .......................... 387 Education ... ........... 388 Elective studies............. .... 388 Graduate work .............................. 389 BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................... . 390 APPENDICES............... 407 APPENDIX A ......... 408 APPENDIX B . ............. 414 APPENDIX C . . . ............ 423 APPENDIX D ........................................... 425 APPENDIX E . ................... 428 APPENDIX F . . . ............... 433 LIST OF TABLES TABLE I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. V I I I . PAGE Distribution of Total Humber of Teachers of English in California Junior High Schools by Size of Schools, 1938-1939 110 Distribution of Total Number of Teachers of English in California High and Senior High Schools by Size of Schools, 1938-1939 Ill Distribution of Total Humber of Teaehers of English in All California High Schools by Size of Schools, 1938-1939 ........................... 112 Distribution of Total Humber of Teachers of English in California Junior High Schools According to the Sex of Teachers, 1938-1939 114 .Distribution of Total Humber of Teachers of English in California High and Senior High Schools Accord ing to the Sex of Teachers, 1938-1939 .......... 115 Distribution of Total Humber of Teachers of English in All California High Schools According to the Sex of Teachers, 1938-1939 116 Distribution of Conventional Types of Courses and Fusion Courses in California Junior High Schools, 1938-1939 ............. 117 Distribution of Conventional Types of Courses and Fusion Courses in California High and Senior High Schools, 1938-1939 118 XX TABLE PAGE IX. Distribution of Conventional Types of Courses and Fusion Courses in All California High Schools, 1938-1939 .................................... 119 X. Distribution of the Total Humber of Teachers of English in California Junior High Schools Accord ing to Major Emphasis of Assignment, 1938-1939* 123 XI* Distribution of the Total Number of Teachers of English in California High and Senior High Schools According to Major Emphasis of Assign ment, 1938-1939 ................... 124 XII. Distribution of the Total Humber of Teachers of English in All California High Schools According to the Major Emphasis of Assignment, 1938-1939. 123 XIII. Distribution of Teaching Assignments for Persons Primarily Teachers of English According to the Humber of Teaching Fields Involved, California Junior High Schools, 1938-1939 ........ ... 127 XIV. Distribution of Teaching Assignments for Persons Primarily Teachers of English According to the Humber of Teaching Fields Involved, California High and Senior High Schools, 1938-1939 .... 128 XV. Distribution of the Teaching Assignments for Per sons Primarily Teachers of English According to the Humber of Teaching Fields Involved, All California High Schools, 1938-1939 ...... 129 TABLE PAGE XVI. Distribution of "English First" Teachers Accord ing to Subject Combinations Taught in California Junior High Schools, 1938-1939 ......... 131 XVTI. Distribution of "English First" Teachers Accord ing to Subject Matter Combinations Taught in High and Senior High Schools, 1938-1939 . ♦ . . 132 XVIII. Distribution of "English First" Teachers Accord ing to Subject Matter Combinations Taught in All California High Schools, 1938-1939 ............ 133 XIX. The Per Cent of English Teachers Found in Twenty- five Analyses of Teaching Positions ...... 134 XX. Courses of Study in High School English..........141 XXI. Characteristic Teaching Activities of Teachers of High School English in Order of Their Frequency of Mention ..............................145 XXII. Distribution of Topics Treated in Ten Volumes of the English Journal (High School Edition), 1929- 1938, Inclusive, in Order of Frequency ..... 149 XXIII. Topics Treated in "Round Table" of the English Journal (High School Edition), 1929-1938, In clusive ........................ . . ..... 151 XXIV. Standard Literary Works Mentioned as Subject Mat ter for Class Activities in "Round Table" of English Journal (High School Edition), 1929-1938, Inclusive, According to Frequency of Mention . . 153 xxii TABLE PAGE XXV. Areas Investigated in Research Studies in the Field of English Teaching in Order of Frequency....................... 156 XXVI. Characteristic Activities of Teachers of English ...... . ....................... 157 XXVII. List of California Institutions Providing Education Leading to Junior High School and General Secondary Credentials with Require ment for Bachelorfs Degree and English Major. 162 XXVIII. Course Requirements for English Major in California Universities and Colleges .... 169 XXIX. Course Requirements for English Major in State Colleges . . ..............................170 XXX. Extent of English Offerings in California Universities and Colleges .................. 172 XXXI. Types of English Courses Given in California Universities and Colleges, Listed According to the Number of Institutions in Which Each is Offered .................... ...... 173 XXXII. Extent of Education Offerings in California" Universities and Colleges .................. 177 XXXIII. Types of Education Courses Given in California Universities and Colleges, Listed According to the Number of Institutions Offering Each . 178 xxiii TABUS PAGE XXXIV, Teachers of English by Sex, Number and Per Gent of Teachers Reporting ................ 235 XXXV, Highest Degree-S'-Held by Teachers of English. . 237 XXXVI. Majors and Minors of Teachers of English in Junior High School.......................... 24,0 XXXVII. Majors and Minors of Superior Teachers of English in Junior High School . .......... 241 XXXVIII. Majors and Minors of Teachers of English in High and Senior High Schools................ 243 XXXIX. Majors and Minors of Superior Teachers of English in High and Senior High Schools . . 244 XL. Major Fields of College Preparation of High School Teachers of English College Majors— Graduate and Undergraduate............... 246 XLI. Periods in Which Teachers of English Have Had Their Most Recent College Education in English and Education................ 248 XLII. Subjects Which Teachers of English in Junior High Schools Feel Qualified to Teach .... 250 XLIII. Subjects Which Superior Teachers of English in Junior High Schools Feel Qualified to Teach......................................251 XLIV. Subjects Which Teachers of English in High and Senior High Schools Feel Qualified to Teach. 252 xxiv TABLE PAGE XLV. Subjects Which Superior Teachers of English in High and Senior High Schools Feel Qualified to Teach ................... 253 XLVI. Humber of Subjects Which Teachers of English Feel Qualified to Teach ................ 255 XLVII. Length of Experience of Teachers of English . . 257 XLVTII. Subject Combinations of Teachers of English . . 259 XLIX. Extraclassroom Activities Regularly Assigned to Teachers of English...................... 261 L. Extent to Which Teachers of English Perform Characteristic Teaching Activities ........ 273 LI. Extent to Which Teachers of English Perform Characteristic Teaching Activities to an Average Extent or More ........... 274 LII. Extent to Which Junior High School Teachers of English Perform Characteristic Teaching Activities, According to Size of Schools . . 277 LIU. Extent to Which High and Senior High School Teachers of English Perform Characteristic Teaching Activities, According to Size of i Schools................. 279 LIV. Extent to'Which Junior High School Teachers of English Courses Predominantly and Teachers of Fusion Courses Perform Characteristic Teach ing Activities..............................283 XXV TABLE PAGE LV. Extent to Which High and Senior High School Teachers of English Courses Predominantly and Teachers of Fusion Courses Perform Character istic Teaching Activities ......... ..... 2BU LVI, Extent to Which Junior High School Teachers Rated as Superior Teachers of English, and Junior High School Teachers Not so Rated, Perform Characteristic Teaching ............. 287 LVII. Extent to Which High and Senior High School Teachers Rated as Superior Teachers of English, and Other High and Senior High School Teachers Not so Rated, Perform Characteristic Teaching Activities....................................288 LVIII. Types of Knowledge Which English Teachers Judge Desirable According to Percentage of Teachers Rating Them Desirable to an Average Extent or More......... 300 L32C. Extent to Which Types of Knowledge are Judged Desirable by Teachers of English..............302 EX. Extent to Which Types of Knowledge are Judged Desirable by Junior High School Teachers Rated as Superior Teachers of English, and Other Junior High School Teachers of English Not sq Rated..................................303 xxvi TABLE PAGE IXI. Extent to Which Types of Knowledge are Judged Desirable by High and Senior High School Teachers Rated as Superior Teachers of English, and Other High and Senior High School Teachers of English Not so Rated . . . 306 L2CII. Needs Expressed by Junior High School Teachers of English for Greater Professional Skills and Abilities . ............................... 312 IXEII. Needs Expressed by High and Senior High School Teachers of English for Greater Professional Skills and Abilities..........................313 LXXV. Supporting Subjects Listed by Junior High School Teachers . . . . ........................316 LEV. Supporting Subjects Listed by Senior High School Teachers................... 317 LEVI * Opinions of Teachers of English Regarding Issues Related to the Teaching of High School English .............................. 334 IXVII. Opinions of Junior High School Teachers of English Courses Predominantly and Junior High School Teachers of Fusion Courses regarding Issues Related to the Teaching of Junior High School English................................336 TAJBLE IXVTII. IXIX. EXX. LXXI. xxvii PAGE Opinions of High and Senior High School Teach ers of English Courses Predominantly and High and Senior High School Teachers of Fusion Courses Regarding Issues Related to the Teaching of High School English.......... 339 Opinions of Junior High School Teachers of English Rated as Superior and Junior High School Teachers of English Not so Rated Regarding Issues Related to the Teaching of High School English................... 342 Opinions of High and Senior High School Teach ers of English Rated as Superior and High and Senior High School Teachers of English Not so Rated Regarding Issues Related to. the Teaching of High School English.......... 343 Judgments of Forty-four College and University Teachers of English and Education Regarding the Proportion of Time to be Given in a Four- Year Undergraduate Course to Six Curricular Divisions 350 MsnaoHa am i i L CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM I. PURPOSE OP THE STUDY The chief purpose of this investigation was to study the fundamental elements involved in the teaching of English in California high schools and by analyzing and evaluating these elements to discover principles and practices that should determine the program of collegiate education for high school teachers of English, Underlying this chief purpose were the related beliefs that "the teacher is the ultimate agent in education,"^" and that "no other subject can compare with it [English] in the amount of-attention afforded throughout the secondary school 2 course." Accepting such beliefs, the inference seemed plain that a critical analysis and interpretation of elements as sociated with the teaching of English should prove useful, especially if such analysis and interpretation were directed toward discovering the principles and practices that should 1 Daniel A. Prescott, TJle^Training of Teachers (Studies in Education No. 5; Bulletin Series 9, No. S. New Brunswick: School of Education, Rutgers University, 1933), P* 5. 2 Alexander Inglis, in preface of Charles S. Thomas’ The Teaching of English in the Secondary School (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927), p. x. 3 determine the educational preparation of teachers of English. It was recognized throughout this study that under ideal circumstances all teachers should be equipped to direct all the learning activities of their pupils— that "English teachers" in the narrow sense of the term should be replaced by versatile directors of the whole process of pupil develop ment, and that the problems involved in preparing "teachers of English" should be those of preparing teachers in general. But it was further recognized that under present conditions over three thousand high sehool teachers in California are directing courses of study specifically designated as "English," and that under such existing conditions there is need to study the specific problems associated with such a situation. II. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study was limited to junior high schools, senior high schools, four-year high schools, and combined junior and senior high schools. It thus covered all of the types of California secondary schools except junior colleges, in which latter institutions instruction in English tends to be differentiated from that in the high schools. The study was further limited to the educational preparation generally available for teachers in college and university courses of study. III. HEED FOR FURTHER STUDY OF THE PROBLEM 4 Tliere are several conditions that reveal the need for further study of this problem. The review of related in vestigations in Chapter II shows that no research similar to the present in scope or in organization has previously been made. In addition to this fact several reasons suggest the necessity for this investigation. Teachers of English in California high schools occupy an important place in the stated educational program. In spite of recent trends toward fused courses, ♦ ’ English” as a specific subject remains the most universally distributed course of study in California high schools. Of the 17,889 high sehool teauhers of all subjects listed in the California School Directory for 1938-1939 for junior high schools, senior high schools, four-year high schools and junior-senior combined high schools, 3,216, or 17.8 per cent, taught courses 3 designated as "English.]" Fourteen hundred and eighty-four of these teachers taught courses in the field of English exclusively. C. C. Trillingham, Assistant Superintendent of Los Angeles County Schools, reports a generally existing Exclusive of teachers in schools for the handicapped, continuation.schools, schools predominately vocational, branch high schools, Civilian Conservation Corps camp schools, and high school courses in elementary schools. condition when he states the practice in his county: "Although many schools have organized unified courses . . . the preva lent practice is still the single-period English course."^ But in addition to the teachers assigned specifically to English courses, there are large numbers of instructors teaching fusion courses such as "Social Living" or combined courses such as "English-Social Science" in which English skills are stressed. There are also teachers of closely re lated subjects such as journalism, public speaking and dra matics. Thus the number of teachers definitely assigned to the teaching of English skills and knowledge is large, and the proportion among the total number of high school teachers is significant. Teachers of English in California high schools teach under widely varying conditions. California high schools show great diversity in size. Of the 414 high and senior high schools in the state in 1935-1936, 131 had from one to ten teachers inclusive; 207 had from eleven to fifty; fifty- eight had from fifty-one to one hundred; while eighteen had more than one hundred teachers. Of the junior high schools, ten had less than eleven teachers; eighty-six had from eleven 4 C. C. Trillingham, "What Shall Be the Next Steps in Curriculum Planning in Los Angeles County High Schools?" (Mimeographed Bulletin C-24, Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools, 1939)* 5 to fifty inclusive; and thirty-five had more than fifty. The communities in which these high schools are found repre sent as great a diversity as does the faculty size, ranging from metropolitan centers to isolated ranching and mining districts. Teaching combinations among teachers of English in California high schools are varied. In a study of new teachers of English assigned to California high schools in 1935-1936, Clement found that thirty-one of the new teachers were assigned to teach English courses alone; thirty-eight taught English with one other course; twelve taught English with two other courses; three taught English with three other 6 courses; and one with four other courses. In addition to subject combinations, such factors as size of classes, number of periods taught, and extracurricular duties differ greatly and thus complicate the teaching situation. Varying applica tions of the California tenure law encourage length of ser vice in some districts, necessitate excessive turnover in others. All such varying conditions create problems in the field of English teaching and consequently in the education 5 Jesse Bond, The Activities and Training of High School Teachers in California (Los Angeles: Sutton House, Ltd., 1937), p. 3. 6 Evelyn Clement, "Teaching Assignments of 300 New Teachers," California Journal of Secondary Education, 12:165, March, 1937. 7 of teachers of English. Teachers of English are called upon to engage in- numerous and varied activities* Ip no other teaching field are instructors called upon to direct so many high school activities as in the field of English. , f A curriculum in 7 English is necessarily multifarious in content,” reports the Curriculum Commission of the National Council of Teachers of English. According to the report of the Commission, this is so because the place of English in the school program is ... to provide the communication (speaking, writing, listening, reading), necessary to the conduct of social activities, and to provide indirect (vicarious) experi ence where direct experiences are impossible or unde sirable .8 A study of English courses of study issued by California high schools reveals scores of duties associated with the term "English teaching.” John De Boer, assistant editor of The English Journal, points out the rapidly expanding duties of teachers of English. Supervision of high school drama, public speaking, journalism and the sponsorship of literary recitals, literary clubs, creative writing clubs, and radio and photoplay appreciation clubs, tasks which call for extraordinary knowledge and skill, will absorb the English teacher’s attention. . . .9 W. Wilbur Hatfield, Chairman, An Experience Curriculum in English (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935), p. 9* lb id., p. A • 9 John De Boer, editorial, English Journal (High School Edition), 23:508, June, 1934. 8 Bat even though the teaching duties involved in even the narrowest interpretation of the term "English teaching" are enough to tax the skill of any individual, teachers of English have been burdened with numerous additional duties. In smaller schools especially, but to some degree in all schools, teachers of English are expected to be capable of administering library service, supervising school publica tions and directing dramatic and public speaking events. Moreover, these closely related activities are not the only ones expected of teachers of English. There has been, in addition, a tendency to make the English department a proving ground for all sorts of innovations and additions to the traditional school activities. Thus "Character Education" when introduced into the high school curriculum has frequently taken the form of readings and discussion under the direction of the English teachers. In like manner the observance of the numerous "weeks" throughout the year has often been dele gated to the English department. As a result English teachers may find themselves definitely assigned to such widely di vergent duties as the promotion of patriotism, the inculcation of courtesy, or the encouragement of thrift. Such a situation may not be so unfortunate as it ap pears. It may, indeed, have its advantages. Organized under skillful teacher guidance it may lead to Dewey*s concept; "The best type of teaching puts the student in the habitual 9 attitude of finding points of contact and mutual bearings.”1^ On the other hand it may lead to a situation in which the English department becomes the catchall for odds and ends ranging from formal grammar for the benefit of the foreign language departments to thinly disguised propaganda for self ish interests. At all events, the tendency to pile extra duties on the teachers of English, whether it be a laudable attempt to make the subject ",as broad as life" or the result of questionable administrative assignments, has been prevalent enough to necessitate a careful study of the relation between the activities of English teachers and their collegiate edu cation. Teachers of English in California high schools repre sent many and varied types of collegiate preparation. In a state of such large recent growth as California, teachers of English trace their collegiate preparation to many sections of the country and to various types of institutions. Even the graduates of California colleges and universities show no great degree of uniformity in collegiate education, be cause the requirements for English majors are not standard among the institutions of the state and credential require ments are purposely flexible. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1915), PP* 191-192. 10 These credential requirements are broad enough to per mit the assignment of teachers to subject fields in which they have had but little preparation. In the study by Clement referred to previously it was foui*d that only: . . . 51*3 per cent of the new teachers holding general secondary credentials are fully trained for their work. Eighty teachers, or 26.6 per cent, have been assigned to one field in which they have had no college train ing. Twenty, or 6.7 per cent, have been assigned-to two fields in which they are unprepared, seven to three fields, and one to four fields.H While such figures do not apply to English teachers exclu sively, they nevertheless show that great variations in col legiate preparation may exist in the field of English teach ing. Moreover, the education of teachers of English has been influenced by various and sometimes contradictory philos ophies concerning teacher preparation. The attitudes of the members of college English departments concerning the prepara tion of teachers of English are generally regarded as more conservative than those of teachers of education courses. Some authorities stress the need for. unity in all language experiences and emphasize a great variety of pupil activities. Thus one leader in the field believes that the preparation of teachers of English should "consist increasingly in the spe cial skills required in an adequate program of leisure-time Clement, ojd. cit., p. 165. 11 12 activities." Other leaders take a different view of teacher preparation. They emphasize the necessity for dif ferentiation in instruction: • . . there is as mucip. difference between the methods and the content of courses in composition and litera ture as between methods and content of courses in mathematics and history . . . demanding two radically different types of techniques. . . .13 Without implying that uniformity of preparation or narrow specialization in teaching should be the accepted goal, one may believe that the present situation challenges study in order to improve the collegiate preparation of teachers of English. Teachers of English reflect widely divergent profes sional attitudes. Ho more striking challenge is presented in the existing situation than the challenge of interpreting the professional attitudes of teachers of English. Apart from the truism that "as a man thinketh in his heart so is he," there is a peculiar significance attached to the attitudes of teachers of English. Rosenblatt, in Literature as Exploration, a volume issued for the Commission on Human Relations of the Progressive Education Association, discusses this significance at length, developing the idea that the teacher of literature 12 Be Boer, op>. pit., p. 508. 13 ^ Lou La Brant, The Teaching of Literature in the Secondary School (Hew Yorkt Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1931), p. 11. 12 must inevitably take some sort of attitude toward the human relations and human problems presented in the study of litera ture* Consciously or unconsciously, explicitly or implicitly, the teacher of literature is helping to inculcate particular views of human nature, particular ethical or social philoso- piiies.”14 Admitting .the importance of these teacher attitudes, it is necessary to examine the many factors which contribute to their wide divergence. To begin with, English as now ac cepted as a secondary school subject is historically much less ancient and hence less well defined than is generally recognized. In her review of the effects of college entrance requirements on high school courses in English, Hays states: After a careful examination of the annual reports of boards of education of various cities, one is forced to conclude that English as we know it today was a non existent subject in high schools before 1870, and for many years to come. As a subject of instruction it was nebulous and hazy in the minds of those who were di recting the schools. Educators were in no common agree ment concerning the subjects that would prove valuable in training young people in the use of the native lan guage. Grammar, rhetoric, elocution, composition, English literature, English synonyms, Shakespeare, orthography, declamation, etymology, reading and analy- sis, belles lettres— all are terms that appear in dif ferent combinations and for different periods of time in the course of study.±5 Louise M. Rosenblatt, Literature as Exploration (Mew York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 193^7, p. 9* 13 Edna Hays, College Entrance Requirements in English: Their Effects on the High School (Contributions to Education No. 676; New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936), pp. 10-11. 13 That these conditions existed in California at that time is evidenced by a passage from the monograph issued by the California State Department of Education for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904, which states that the development of secondary education in California was sub stantially along the same lines as those pursued in older states. As a secondary school subject, therefore, English is hardly older than many of the teachers of English in service today. As a high school subject it has been defined and de bated, organized and reorganized continuously during the past fifty years. As shown in Chapter IV, dealing with the his torical background of English teaching, the chief agencies in defining and prescribing English courses were such bodies as the New England Commission of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, founded in 1886; the Committee of Ten, which rendered its re port in 1894; the National Conference on College Entrance Requirements in English, which met in 1905; and the Committee on the Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools, which reported in 1917. In 1935, the National Council of Teachers of English issued the report of its Curriculum Commission— An Experience Curriculum in English. The teachers of English are thus engaged in teaching a subject whose aims, content, and methods have been the subject of continuous discussion and reorganization only during the past generation. Quite 14 naturally these teachers reflect the many and varying policies and practices which have dominated teacher education during this period. Because English as a secondary school subject developed in its particular historical period, teachers of English have been called upon to make a number of fundamental adjustments in their professional attitudes. It will be seen from the dates mentioned just previously that the introduction of English as a high school subject coincided with the beginning of the newer developments in educational philosophy and psy chology. Both had their inception about the beginning of the present century. As a result, teachers of English have been faced with more than one dilemma. On the one hand, instructional efficiency and the prestige of the English department have suggested a systematic and compact organization of subject matter within elearly de fined departmental limits* On the other hand, the newer ed ucational philosophy has deplored emphasis on fixed subject matter and narrow departmentalism. The older psychology justified formal grammar drill and reading confined within narrow limits; the newer psychology has encouraged learning situations in which young people share broad and comprehensive experiences based upon felt needs rather than upon arbitrary standards. This conflict is especially apparent in reviewing the 15 work of important agencies in developing the English curricu lum* Commissions on college entrance requirements, in a justifiable attempt to encourage and give needed direction to the study of English literature in high schools, were pre scribing lists of required classics in the same decade that saw the beginning of Dewey’s work to discourage subject mat ter except as "tentative and provisional." The Committee of Ten issued its report in the same decade that saw the begin ning of Thorndike’s experiments* The members of this com mittee, in an earnest attempt to improve instruction in American high schools, but convinced of "disciplinary values" and "transfer of training," listed five groups of subjects to be studied in the same way and to the same extent by all 16 high school pupils* Thorndike’s contemporary work, on the other hand, led eventually to his classic experiment disprov ing the disciplinary and transfer values of these conventional high sehool studies. While the same general divergence be tween old and new ideas is apparent in other high school studies, the broad scope of its subject matter and its pecul iar historical background have intensified this conflict in the field of English teaching. Finally, as if growing up under such conditions of 16 National Education Association, Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies (New York: American Book Company, 1394), p. 52. 16 educational conflict were not enough to complicate the teach ing situation, English has had to develop as a high school subject during a time of great economic and social change. It has developed during a period of economic prosperity when America for a period of forty years built a high school a day, and during a period of world economic depression, with its attendant social readjustments. With ,such a background, it is hardly strange that English as a high sehool subject shows signs of these conflicts, and English teachers give evidence of widely varying professional attitudes. There are numerous other factors that present problems in the teaching of English and the preparation of teachers of English. Undoubtedly the fact that English is our national tongue has prompted some of the poorest as well as some of the most brilliant college students to select English teach ing as their vocation. The less capable ones have been at tracted by the apparent ease of mastering essential subject matter; the brilliant ones by a sincere love of our racial literary heritage. There are undoubtedly some principals who have made teaching assignments on the assumption that anybody ©an teach the basic English skills, while others seem to expect of the teacher of literature almost superhuman re sults in the development of high ideals and noble character. Recent trends in English teaching and in research in the field have created new problems for the teaching of 17 English. The introduction of correlated curriculums and of free reading programs requires adjustments not only in school practice but in professional thinking. The most recent re- 17 port of the National Council of Teachers of English shows the wide disparity between conventional rules of grammar and reputable English usage; it is only one of a number of re search studies that challenge standards long accepted by many teachers in the field of English. IF. SUMMARY From the foregoing discussion it becomes apparent that while the organization of any program for the education of teachers is a difficult task, that of planning a college pro gram for the education of teachers of English is especially difficult and demands a thorough study of the numerous prob lems involved. At the present time, few studies in this field are available as guides to the curriculum maker. There has been but little change in the situation described by Roller in 1930. The subject of the training of teachers of English at that time, he states, was "almost unexplored ... a few articles, a smaller number of surveys, and some chapters in 17 A. H. Marckwardt and F. G. Walcott, Facts about Current English Usage (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1933). 18 18 pedagogical books. Nothing more was to be discovered." In the absence of adequate research studies in the field the programs for the education of teachers of English have continued to be built upon traditional college courses. Such innovations as have occurred have usually been the re sult of the opinions of the individual leaders or the findings of committees. Individual leaders have usually merely presented a set of ideals. Thus Abbott, in listing what the English teacher should know, includes: . . .a literary background not only of facts but of established and continuing literary contacts. An understanding of literature, as a way of experiencing and interpreting life. A background of life experi ences and as broad a knowledge as possible of all sorts of intellectual interests.19 20 Fitzpatrick in his admirable essay takes the position that his concept of general cultural training for teachers cannot be translated into terms of definite college courses. The reports of committees have been scarcely more definite than such views as quoted above. The report of a recent committee 18 Bert Roller, "Some Problems in the Training of Teachers of English," English Journal (College Edition), 19t307, April, 1930. 19 Allan Abbott, "¥/hat the English Teacher Should Know," English Journal (College Edition), 17:317, April, 1928. * 20 Edward A. Fitzpatrick and P. W. Hutson, The Scholarship of Secondary School Teachers (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1927), p. 101. 19 on the credential requirements for teachers of English in California secondary schools consists of only one page of general recommendations. From the foregoing discussion it becomes apparent that there is need for a study of the problems involved in educat ing teachers of English. The present investigation was organ ized under three main steps, each with a specific purpose: Step I. To discover through an analysis of historical sources, principals1 reports:, courses of study, college cata logs, research studies, textbooks, and periodicals in the ' field, essential elements associated with the teaching of high school English. Step II. To study such elements as they exist in the field by securing the reactions of teachers of English in California high schools, and of college teachers of English and education. Step III. To evaluate and show the implications of the data reported as they affect the education of teachers of English in secondary schools. More specifically, some purposes of the investigation were: 1. To trace briefly the development of English as a high school subject and the history of the preparation of teachers of English in order to provide an historical back ground for the study. 20 2. To discover significant conditions under which teachers of English in California high schools work, 3* To discover the extent and kind of education that teachers of English in California high schools have. 4. To discover the characteristic classroom activities of high school teachers of English. 3* To discover the chief issues involved in the teach ing of high school English and the attitudes of teachers towards such issues. 6. To evaluate, by the best criteria available, the data thus discovered. 7. To propose principles and practices for the prepara tion of high school teachers of English based upon the find ings of this investigation. A review of the related literature setting forth the history and present status of the problem is presented in Chapter II, while Chapter III is devoted to the detailed plan and procedure of the present study, including the sources of the data employed and the mode of treatment. Part II in cludes Chapters IV, V, VI, VTI, and VIII, dealing respectively with the historical development of high school English, sig nificant teaching conditions, characteristic teaching activi ties, teacher education facilities, and,important educational issues as these five subjects affect high school teaching of English in California. Part III includes Chapters IX, X, XI, 21 XII, and XIII in which are successively reported data con cerning the professional status of California teachers of English, their teaching activities, their educational equip ment, their judgments regarding educational issues, and the judgments of a jury of experts composed of college professors of English and education. Part IV consists of Chapter XIV, containing summary, conclusions, and recommendations based upon the findings of the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES Research studies made to determine the best education for teachers of English are comparatively few. Perhaps this is so because the scope of high school instruction in English is so broad and the teaching objectives so many and varied that investigators have been discouraged from attacking the problems in the field. Whatever the cause may be, the fact remains that most of the pronouncements concerning the edu cation of high school teachers of English are either those of individual educators or of small committees of experts. Roller, writing in 1930, reported that the subject of the training of English teachers was almost unexplored. In preparation for his study of conditions in Minnesota, he found only "a few articles, a smaller number of surveys, and some chapters in pedagogical books. Nothing more was to be discovered."*** Edman, who made a study in Minnesota in 1932, reported: Although a number of educators have expressed their opinions as to what constitutes the best curriculum for the training of prospective English teachers, the present writer was unable to find any considerable 1 Bert Roller, "Some Problems in the Training of Teachers of English," English Journal (College Edition), 19:307-312, April, 1930. 23 number of reports of actual scientific studies made of their curricular needs in print.2 In the "Selected Bibliography on the Education of Teachers" compiled for the National Survey of the Education of Teachers in 1935, only ten of the 1 ,2 9 7 titles refer specifically to the education of teachers in the field of English. Of these ten, two are related to the teaching of speech courses, and one to the teaching of spelling; three of the references are committee reports dated respectively 1914, 1915, and 191&; two are catalogue studies of state teacher training institu tions; only two are research studies with general value for the training of English teachers. In this chapter a review is made of significant ex amples of five types of material related to the present in vestigation: (1) opinions of individual experts; (2) reports of committees; (3) general studies of the education of secondary school teachers of significance in the education of English teachers; (4) studies relating to the education of teachers of English in states other than California; (5) studies relating specifically to the education of teachers of English in California high schools; and (6) currieulums Marion L. Edman, "An Analysis of the High School and College Training of 121 Prospective Teachers Majoring in English Graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1930 and 1931” (unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, 1932), Chap. II, p. 1. 24 recommended by investigators. I. OPINIONS OF INDIVIDUAL EXPERTS Caw, writing in 1916, pointed out that the problem of the English teacher' is the problem of training "not one teacher but several teachers in one*" He listed the follow ing six lines of ability which: * . ♦ appear to be fundamental and requisite: (a) an alytical and appreciative critic, (b) social and political historian, (c) artistic creator, (d) abstract logician, (e) oral expressionist, (f) schoolroom ex ecutive. 3 In order to prepare teachers for such comprehensive activities he suggested four types of courses: (a) standard development courses largely outside English— languages, science, etc., (b) courses on various phases of English— composition, Anglo- Saxon, etc., (c) courses in general educational theory, and (d) additional courses--extra languages, etc. L Writing in 1927, Thomas stressed such personal quali fications as an early love of good reading and power of ex pression. He recommended three years of general college education, with fewer survey courses and more careful study of great authors in relation to their social background. Allison Caw, "Collegiate Training of the Teacher of High School English," English Journal, 5:320-331, May, 1916. 4 Charles S. Thomas, The Teaching of English in the Secondary Schools, pp. 469 ff* 25 5 Abbott, writing in 1928, emphasized the following factors: (a) continuing literary contacts rather than the possession of a body of facts, (b) a background of life ex perience, (c) power to discriminate and appreciate, and (d) power through the well-trained voice to communicate litera ture directly. In decrying the poor quality of training generally given to prospective English teachers, Blaisdell, in 1930, urged that methods courses be combined with literature and composition college courses* He stressed the need of ability (a) to speak well, (b) to read great literature beautifully, and (c) to write with at least moderate literary art. He stated that "no one should be given an advanced degree in English who has not had Anglo-Saxon," but adds that ... a thorough literary mastery of an additional modern language or two will have vastly more value to the literary teacher than will Gothic, Sanskrit, etc. A knowledge of literature will help most English teachers far more than will a knowledge of philologi cal sources.6 "Preparation for teaching the mother tongue, moreover," wrote Hosic, in 1932, "is two-fold,— it includes individual culture and scholarship combined with professional ideals and - Allan Abbott, "What an English Teacher Should Know," English Journal (College Edition), 17:315-320, April, 1928. . z - Thomas Blaisdell, Ways to Teach English (New York: Doubleday, Doran and Company, 19J0) 9 p. 515. 26 technical skill."*^ Speaking before the National Society of College Teach- 8 ers of Education in 1938, Smith stressed the need of oral interpretation of literature of teachers of English; hence, courses in voice training during their educational prepara- ation. She stressed also the need for some knowledge of other subjects besides English, preferably social studies or languages. Instead of centering attention upon familiarity with periods of English literature, college courses, she stated, should deal with types of literature and areas of human experience* II. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES The sources listed just previously have all contained the opinions of individual writers in the field of English. Since 1915, the influence of committee findings has been especially important in determining the program of education for teachers of English. 9 Baker, writing in 1915, reported the findings of a James F. Hosic, "The National Council after Twenty Years," English Journal (High School Edition), 21:109, February, 1932. 8 Dora ¥. Smith, "Academic Training of High School Teachers of English," Harvard Educational Review, 8:191-197, March, 1938. 9 Franklin T. Baker, Chairman, "Preparation of High School Teachers of English," English Journal, 4:323-332, May, 1915. 27 committee of the National Council of Teachers of English re garding the preparation of high school teachers of English. The teachers surveyed reported that composition, periods of literature, methods, Shakespeare, and poetry had been the most helpful English courses they had taken in college; while Anglo-Saxon, detailed analysis, and formal rhetoric were listed as the least helpful. They reported that they had received most help in teaching from school experience; that reading ranked next; and— after this— other college courses* They further reported that they felt more need for methods of teaching than for further content information. In reporting for the National Joint Committee in 1917, Hosic^*0 stated that eollege courses for the training of * teachers of English should include (a) studies in the needs and elements of various literary types, (b) training in oral and written composition, including public speaking, (c) courses in methods, and (d) active practice in the direction of student activities. Moore, reporting in 1938 for the Committee on English Language Courses in Colleges and Universities, for the National ^ James E. Hosic, Re or gan i zat i on of English in Secondary Schools (Report by the NationalTomt Committee on English, representing the commission on the reorganization of secondary education of the National Education Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. Bulletin No. 2, United States Bureau of Education; Washington, B.C.: United States G-overnment Printing Office, 1917)* 28 Council of Teachers of English, made the following statement regarding preparation of English teachers: It is agreed that adequate training in the English language must include the following specific subjects: the elements of phonetics and practice in the use of phonetic notation; the elements of old English; the ele ments of late middle English. ... The course of study outlined above cannot be completed in anything less than a year’s course of three hours a week.H Reporting for the Curriculum Commission of the National Council of Teachers of English in 1935, Hatfield- devoted Appendix C to the findings of the Commission on Teacher Edu cation in English. The Commission advocated that the amounts of time to be devoted to each of six phases of training, while in college, be proportioned as follows: service needs (including such fundamental courses as freshman composition and essentials of speaking), 8 per cent; major teaching field, 25-30 per cent; other teaching field, 20-25 per cent; sup porting subjects (social sciences, arts, etc.), 15 per cent; professional subjects, 15 per cent; and free electives, 12 12 per cent. This report is of too recent a date to have had great effect upon present courses of teacher education in English, but is the official recommendation of the professional Samuel Moore, Chairman, "Training in English Language for English Teachers,” English Journal (College Edition), 17:827-828, 1928. 1 - 2 W. Wilbur Hatfield, Chairman, An Experience Cur riculum in English, p. 3IS. 29 organization of teachers of English in the United States, and is recognized as an authoritative statement. III. GENERAL STUDIES OF EDUCATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS WITH SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE EDUCATION OF ENGLISH TEACHERS Various national studies on teacher training, even though not primarily in the field of English, have general significance for the education of English teachers. In 1904, the National Society for the Study of Educa tion devoted its Third Yearbook to a discussion of problems connected with the preparation of teachers. The Eighteenth 13 Yearbook of this same society, published in 1919> was a more thorough development of the needs of teachers in public schools. The publication was intended to present a plan for preparing high school teachers for practicing their profes sion in a democratic society. The underlying theme of the plan was "that a real and genuine democracy originates in self-activity." The philosophy expressed in this report has had a great influence on the training of American high school teachers, with consequent effect upon the training of teachers of English. 13 "The Professional Preparation of High School Teachers," Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education [Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1919)» Part I. 30 The Commonwealth Teacher Training Study^ of 1929 was originally organized to develop materials for the curriculums of teacher-training institutions. But the authors of the re port found that in three years’ duration of the study they had to he content with the preparation of a master list of the activities of teachers in public schools. The ratings by high school English teachers of 1,010 teaching activities were included in the report, but the activities rated are too involved to be of much practical benefit in organizing courses specifically for the education of teachers of English. The most comprehensive survey of the education of American teachers was that reported in 1933 by the United 15 States Office of Education. While most of the findings discussed apply to teachers generally rather than to teachers of English specifically, there are some items of especial interest to English teachers. The courses in English most frequently taken by one hundred teachers, who had majored in English in representative universities and colleges, were found to be, in orders (a) composition and grammar, (b) Shakespeare, (c) English literature survey, (d) English ^ W. W. Charters and Douglas Waples, The 0ommonweaIth Teacher Training Study (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1929). 15 Edward S. Evenden and Others, "Teacher Personnel in the United States," National Survey of the Education of Teachers (Bulletin No. 10, United States Office of Education; Washington, B.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1933)* 31 literary periods, (e) .American literature survey, (f) drama, and (g) general literature. The report included the state ment that: . . . conferences with college and university instruc tors revealed in many cases, perhaps in too many cases, an apparent satisfaction with present offerings . . . the criticism of the English offering most frequently heard point to alleged lack of emphasis on creative writing, to the failure to check up in any systematic thorough-going way on the English of those who plan to teach ... and a weakness of content in the offer ing hy people unoriented in education who attempt.the professional courses in the teaching of English.^ It was also pointed out that English teachers showed too little knowledge of the reading interests of adolescents. Douglass in 1935, as a result of a review of sixty- odd investigations in the field of teacher education, re ported: A very small proportion, most probably less than 20 per cent of those studied, except in the fields of physical education, industrial arts, and fine arts, taught only in fields in which they had a college major. 17 ... there was a very considerable number, centering around 20 per cent, who taught one or more classes in which they had neither a major nor a minor.18 He found, further, that teachers of English were well 16 Ibia.. Ill, 290. 17 Harl R. Douglass, "Subject Matter Preparation of High School Teachers," Educational Administration and Super vision. 21:456, September, 1935* 18 Ibid., p. 459. 32 above the average in the amount of college preparation for their teaching field. His recommendations included the sug gestions that teachers should be trained in broader fields rather than narrower fields, and that the fields of speciali zation should be those of the high school type of instruction rather than the administrative types of the college or uni versity. I¥. STUDIES RELATING- TO THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN STATES OTHER THAN CALIFORNIA The fourth group of studies related to the education of teachers of English includes surveys of college offerings and studies of the needs of teachers in service. Jewett, in 1927, after her catalog study of 105 four- year courses of state teachers* colleges, reported: The English offerings of the teacher colleges have been shown to be a type of traditional scholarly material with extreme variation in emphasis upon each division of the field. This type of subject matter has been gradually modified by the slow dropping out of old material and the addition of new, chiefly in the form of the elaboration of some division of the old matter. These changes have rarely been the re sult of a carefully thought-out plan. . . .^9 She listed eight principles for the selection of English subject matter for the curriculums of state teachers* colleges, 19 Ida A. Jewett, English in State Teachers Colleges (Contributions to Education No. 2£6; New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927), p. 164* 33 emphasizing the need for (a) historical background, (b) a knowledge of the development of language and (c) instruction in guiding children*s growth and development through English activities. Her study showed that little attempt was made to train teachers for their specific problems in the field. 20 In 1927, Inglis, in reporting upon a study of English teachers in Minnesota, found that the average teacher had read less than one fourth of the books on the state reading list for high schools. Her study showed English teachers to be overtrained in their knowledge of (a) early -American writers and (b) Chaucer and Milton; undertrained in (a) adolescent literature and (b) public speaking. She found that the group studied felt the need of more instruction in grammar during the college course. After reviewing the records of teachers of English who had graduated from four Minnesota colleges, Hutson, re porting in 1927, stated that their training, • . . reveals many serious deficiencies. In particular, a systematic course in literary types is seldom found in the records; appallingly large percentages have had no courses in public speaking, American literature, or the teaching pf English. . . . The root of the trouble seems to lie largely in a faulty distribution of credits. 23. 20 Rewey B. Inglis, f , The Minnesota Study of Teachers* Preparation,1 1 English Journal, 16:60-61, January, 1927. 21 Edward A. Fitzpatrick and P. W. Hutson, The Scholarship of Teachers in Secondary Schools, p. 10&Y Hutson*s essay constitutes the second part of the book. 34 22 Coale in 1928 made what is probably the most signifi cant scientific study of the professional needs of teachers of English, After securing the judgments of teachers con cerning their educational equipment, he evaluated objectives in the teaching of English through .reference to the published opinions of experts. The provisional teacher training pro gram based upon his study is given at the end of this chapter, along with two other tentative programs. 23 In 1929, Vaughan conducted a study much the same as that of Jewett in surveying state teacher college curricula for the development of teachers of English. He found that the typical curriculum used for the preparation of English teachers varied greatly from the standards generally main tained for other professional curricula. But he offered no definite program for improvement. Instead, he listed the curricular problems discovered with a few ' ’revision hypotheses” and recommendations for further research. 24 Smith in 1930 made a survey of teacher preparation in junior high school literature; tests of seventy-eight 22 W. B. Coale, Professional Needs of Teachers of English (Gontributions to Education No. 334; New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928). 23 Arthur Winn Vaughan, State Teachers College Curricula for the Development of Teachers of English (Gontributions to Education No. o9; Nashville, Tennessee: George Peabody College for Teachers, 1929). ^ Dora V. Smith, ”Extensive Beading in Junior High School; a Survey of Teacher Preparation,” English YTournal (High School Edition), 19?449-4o2, June, 1930. 35 junior high school teachers of literature disclosed great variations in the teachers’ knowledge of hooks recommended for the extensive reading of junior high school pupils. As a result of these findings a course in juvenile literature was instituted at the University of Minnesota. 25 Tower made a study in 1934 for the in-service educa tion of teachers of English in New York high schools, but -gave special consideration to the oral phases of the subject. Thus he did not present significant material for the educational program of teachers of general English. The most significant studies in the field of education for high school teachers of English have been carried on at the University of Minnesota. This is due largely to the in terest aroused in this field by Bora V. Smith, past president of the National Council of Teachers of English and the direc tor in charge of the National Survey of Teachers of English in 1932. Possibly the most thorough study of the education of teachers of English made at Minnesota was the one carried 26 1 out by Julia A. Maus under the direction of Doctor Smith. After a very thorough study of the activities of English 25 -Donald M. Tower, "In Service Education of Teachers of English in the Public Secondary Schools of New York State, with Special Consideration of the Oral Phases of the Subject" (unpublished Doctor’s dissertation, New York University, 1934)* 26 Julia A. Maus, "Teacher Training in English," (unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, 1934). 36 teachers graduated from the University of Minnesota and their reactions to their college training, Maus found that the teachers felt their training was inadequate in the following phases: (a) methods of teaching mechanics of English, (b} methods of handling extracurricular activities, (c) teaching skills and methods, (d) remedial instruction and proper study technique, (e) those courses necessary for teaching of library tools, and (f) those courses relating to correlation of English with other subjects* On the basis of her study, Maus listed the following recommendations for teacher education: (a) more training in recent American and English literature, (b) more training in courses in adolescent literature, (c) actual training in extracurricular activities, (d) more work in mechanics and remedial instruction, and (e) more adequate training for beginning teachers to prepare them to teach more than one course. 27 Alvey in 1931 outlined a training procedure for teachers of English, based upon an analysis of objectives and outcomes. He listed the objectives of English teaching by a study of six types of printed matter: state and city courses of study in English for the secondary school; texts on 27 Edward Alvey, Jr., T , A Training Procedure for Teachers of English Based upon Analyses of Objectives, Outcomes and Activities,” in University of Virginia Record Extension Series, Secondary Education in Virginia, No. 13, 16:3-17, October, 1931. 37 principles of education; texts on special methods of teaching English; texts for the study of literature; collections of literature for the secondary school; and histories of English and American literature# From the results of such analysis twenty-three objectives of English teaching were ranked, their values discussed and their implications for teacher education pointed out. He recommended a training procedure ba.sed on the type-study technique in which prospective teachers are trained through observation and participation in the typical units of the public school course. In 1935 9 Stockard made a survey of the English and professional preparation of teachers of English in Missouri. The chief comparisons made in this study were between the education of city teachers and rural teachers. The most significant conclusion reported is that: • . . in every case, the typical teacher is unable to measure up to the standards of training established by the University of Missouri as a desirable preparation for a 3.S. degree with a major in English. and • . . in every case, the typical teacher is unable to measure up to the standard of training established by the University of Missouri as a desirable preparation 2f* for a B.S. degree in education with a minor in English. ° 28 Orpha L. Stockard, An Analytical Study of the English and Professional Preparation of Teachers, of English ■in the Public High Schools of Missouri (Jefferson City, Missouri: Graduate School, University of Missouri, 1935), pp. 113-114* 3S V. STUDIES RELATING- SPECIFICALLY TO THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS Just as in other parts of the country, so too in California most of the sources relating to the education of teachers of English are found to he based upon individual opinion or on committee reports. There are, however, some objective studies which are significant to the present prob lem. 29 Mirrielees in 1924 made a study of courses in English taken by prospective teachers in twenty-two American universi ties. She then evaluated their training by analyzing high school courses of study to determine the demands made upon teachers of English. She listed the following essentials for an English teacher: (a) personal qualities, including a cultivated imagination and sympathy, and a general enjoyment of literature; (b) a knowledge of the general objectives of English teaching, of the main periods and authors in American and English literature, contemporary as well as past, of language development, and of the mechanics of composition; and (c) the ability to mingle the emotional as well as the intellectual qualities of literature, to write and speak 29 Lucia B. Mirrielees, f f American University Training in English by Prospective High School Teachers** (unpublished Doctor’s dissertation, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, 1925)- 39 correctly, and to read aloud well. 30 Writing in 1926, Kemp reported that of 178 requests from high school principals for teachers of English, eighty- six requests were for teachers of English alone. The most frequent subject requested with English was dramatics; the next most frequent, Latin; and the next, history. He found such a scattering of combinations that it appeared difficult to provide college courses adequate to meet the demands. 31 Hutson, whose Minnesota study has been previously reported in this chapter, in 1927 made a study of the daily programs of teachers in California and their special training for the subjects they teaeh. Among other findings he stated . . . that many teachers in these high schools are teaching more subjects than they could possibly be well prepared for • • • Analyses of the subject com binations reveal practically no standardization but such a chaotic situation as to render too difficult the adequate preparation of teachers. In concluding his study Hutson suggested further analysis of teaching practice in order to prepare the proper course of study for the education of English teachers. He recommended that, as the work of the English teacher requires a high de gree of skill and knowledge, curriculum makers should determine 30 W. 'W. Kemp, "Training of High School Teachers in Relation to the Subjects They Teach," California Quarterly of Secondary Education, 1:409-412, June, 1926. 31 Eitzpatrick and Hutson, op. cit., p. 54* uo what particular skills and knowledges are necessary and from them derive a curriculum for the training of English teachers. The report issued in 193# by Gertrude Addison*^2 of the Los Angeles City Schools after conferences with leaders in the field of English teaching in southern California included specific recommendations concerning the preparation of teachers of English in the state of California. These recom mendations are listed at the end of this chapter. 33 Hale,. writing in 1933, submitted four types of cur- riculums for the advanced training of teachers of English to principals of high schools, heads of departments of English in high schools, and college professors in education and English. From her study she concluded: (a) that definite currieulums must be formulated by teaching training institu tions instead of allowing students to elect a certain number of hours to fulfill the major requirements; (b) that certifi cation of teachers by subject instead of by school is impera tive; (c) that general education courses are not so highly regarded as specific education courses which deal with the teaching of a particular subject; and (d) that the educators 32 Gertrude Addison, "Recommendations Concerning the Preparation of Teachers of English in the State of California” (Mimeographed Bulletin, Los Angeles City Schools, December 12, 1933). ^ Genevieve Hale, "Advanced Training for Teachers of English in the Secondary Schools” (unpublished Master’s thesis, The University of Southern California, 1933)* u whose opinions were gathered recommended a Master*s degree in English content for the senior high school teacher, and a Master’s degree stressing education courses for the junior high school teacher. The most comprehensive study of the activities and education of high school teachers in California high schools 34 was made by Bond in 1935. In this study he listed the re action of teachers of English te-the value of their college training in various college,courses. However, the group of English teachers whose opinions he secured was only a small part of the total number of teachers questioned, and the recommendations based upon the findings of the study were designed for high school teachers in general. Bond found (a) that the range of activities for the average"teacher should not extend beyond two subject fields within any one given year; (b) that the college academic training of the high school teacher should include as intensive preparation as time permits in two or more fields of study rather than ad vanced specialization in a single department;, and (c) that education courses in addition to their present objectives should as far as possible be designed to give specific train ing or assistance to the student in solving the instructional Jesse Bond, The Activities and Education of High School Teachers in California. 42 • and educational problems he will actually face as a teacher. 35 Glement, writing in 1937 of a survey of three hundred new high school teachers who were placed in the California high schools during the school year 1935-1 9 3 6, showed that, of eighty,rfive English teachers assigned, only thirty-one taught English with one other subject, twelve taught English with two other subjects, three taught it with three others, and one with four others. ¥1. CURRICUXUMS RECOMMENDED BY INVESTIGATORS It might appear that the ultimate aim of studies of the education of teachers of English should be to prepare definite courses of study. Actually there are many objections to such an attempt. Not only do-different colleges have facil ities of varying degrees^of adequacy for their educational programs, but the whole theory of modern education runs counter to the idea of defining education too specifically in terms of course requirements, - however, some investigators in the field have presented definite courses of study as preparation for high school teachers of English. Only three of thp investi gators whose studies have been reviewed made definite recom mendations in terms of specific course and unit requirements. 35 Evelyn Clement, "Teaching Assignments of 300 New Teachers." California Journal of Secondary Education, 12:164- 166, March,” ~W5T. 43 Since these represent the most definite outcomes of all the investigations reported, they are here reproduced. CURRICULUM PROPOSED BY MIRRIELEES3 Courses Required for All Prospective Teachers Freshman composition Public speaking Composition for prospective teachers Courses Required of Prospective Teachers of English A survey of American literature (approximately three semester hours) No prerequisites Attainment: 1. A general knowledge of the social and political conditions of each period 2. Familiarity with the chief writers of each period, and a first-hand knowledge of their principal writings A survey of the periods in English literature from Chaucer to Tennyson (1340-1616) (1620-1800) (1800-1892) (approximately ten semester hours) Prerequisites: At least sophomore standing. One course in English history Attainment: 1. A general knowledge of the social and political conditions of each period 2. An accurate knowledge of the personalities, social backgrounds and typical work of the chief authors of each period 3* A wide reading acquaintance with the works of the chief writers (exclusive of Shakespeare) with spe cial knowledge of the old ballads, Mallory and 19th century poets and novelists 4. A general knowledge of the development of drama, and a more definite and exact knowledge of the de velopment of the novel and of 19th century novelists 36 Mirrielees, op. cit., pp. 193-197A. 44 Oral interpretation of Shakespeare *s plays (approximately three semester hours) Prerequisites: A course in public speaking Attainments: 1. Ability to interpret a scene intelligently and simply with brief explanation as to its purpose and setting 2. Some experience in producing scenes and in direct ing casts 3. Knowledge of three or four Shakespeare plays A survey course in contemporary literature (approximately three semester hours) Prerequisites: A junior standing Attainments: 1. Knowledge of the chief writers in drama, essay, novel, verse; and a wide reading acquaintance with them 2* Familiarity with the better American periodicals 3. Acquaintance with reputable reviews and some dis crimination in the matter of literary values A study of modern English grammar and usage in the light of the history of the language (approximately three semester hours) Trerequisites: Junior standing Attainments: 1. A general knowledge of the origins, changes, and contributing factors in the development of the English language 2. A usable knowledge of English grammar 3* An intelligent knowledge of the uses of reference works and of the dictionary Literature teaching in high school (approximately three semester hours) Prerequisites: j Senior or graduate standing Completion of the oral course in Shakespeare, and of the survey of American and English literature Attainments: 1. Readjusted attitude toward English so that it is not regarded as material to be accepted by the learner, but as material to be fashioned into human, thought-provoking problems that will interest and help to develop pupils of high school age 45 2. Familiarity with the general purposes of high school literature teaching and ability to develop literature lessons in the light of those general purposes 3. Realization of the specific objectives to be at tained in the different types of reading done, and also, in the different types of literature studied 4« Knowledge of the types of literature suitable for high school age, and a wide acquaintance with such books Knowledge of the various sources from which in formation and illustrative material may be drawn CURRICULUM PROPOSED BY CQALE37 First Tear Semester hours credit First Semester General Composition 4 A course in the use of various types of practical expression; with special emphasis upon the follow ing features: letter-writing public speaking debating (J)* principles of rhetoric teaching of high school composition and rhetoric (Note: The extent and method of professional treatment in this and other subject-matter courses are dependent partly upon whether or not the class is composed only of students preparing to teach high-school English*) *;(Note: The inclusion of certain elements on ac count of special demand by junior or by senior high school teachers is indicated by the letter 1 9 or "Sw respectively.) Coale, o£. cit*» pp. 60-61. 46 Semester hours credit Second Semester General Composition (continued) 2 ■ Principles of Language 2 grammar teaching of grammar history of language Second Year First Semester Oral Expression and Reading 2 oral narrative and story-telling dramatic expression informal discussion oral reading teaching of oral expression teaching of oral reading (J) use of remedial measures in speech supervision of dramatics Survey of Literature 2 A broad reading course in literary materials; with supplementary emphasis upon the following features: types of literature principles of literary criticism literary movements and periods (S) literary biography (J) teaching of literature (Note: The organisation of this course may be based either on types of literature or on periods of literature. If the foamier plan is used, the course may incorporate the materials and time pro posed for the work in contemporary and world liter ature during the fourth year. If the latter plan is followed, at least one semester should be de voted to nineteenth century British literature and one semester to American literature.) 47 Semester hours credit Second Semester Oral Heading and Expression (continued) Survey of Literature (continued) 2 2 Third Year First Semester Advanced Composition 2 Continuation of general work in composition; also journalistic writing essay writing (S) teaching of composition . supervision of school publications Survey of Literature (continued) 3 Second Semester Advanced Composition (continued) 2 The Drama 3 A reading course in Shakespeare and recent drama;* with attention to teaching of Shakespeare and of the drama* Teaching of High School English** 3 Synthesis of principles and methods treated in pre ceding subject-matter courses; and special attention to the following topics: objectives in English teaching conditioning factors of pupil-learning in English (1) current problems and progress in English teaching 'nature and function of language and literature (J) selecting and organizing of teaching materials teaching of silent reading supervision of study guidance of socialized class activity (J) investigation and meeting of individual pupil needs ( < use of "objective" measures (J) 43 (Note: An asterisk * marks items which, although not directly so derived, are added to aid in interpreting certain eourses in a manner believed consistent with the findings as a whole*) **(Note: This course, as well as others, calls for much treading of professional literature, both books and periodicals, on English teaching*} Fourth Year Semester hours eredit First Semester Contemporary Literature 3 A reading course in important types chiefly of the twentieth century period; with attention also to current periodical literature (J), and teaching of materials from contemporary literature* Practice Teaching in English 5 A course in responsible teaching conducted under expert supervision, and covering a minimum of ninety clock hours of actual teaching (Note: This work is preceded by systematic obser vation and participative teaching in connection with earlier courses*) Second Semester World Literature 3 A reading course in suitable materials, with em phasis upon the following subjects: the Bible classical epic literature and mythology* medieval and modern masterpieces* teaching of materials from world -literature* CURRICULUM PROPOSED BY ADDISON3 49 Outline of Foundation Training Unit j reeommenda* A. General Preparation tions I* Basic training in speech and writing 8-10 f *. . . should cover the fundamentals of writing and speaking, using freely such communication experiences as teachers will themselves most use . . * explaining, instructing, directing, as signing, announcing . „ . . . and such writing and' speaking experiences as they are to teach pupils to meet more effectively: conversation, telephoning, formal and informal discussion-,, story telling, dramatizing, making reports, participating in assembly activities, letter-writing, book reviewing, out lining, note-taking, and keeping mem oranda . m* *(p. 316, An Experience Curriculum in English, Monograph No.4, National Council of Teachers of English, pub lished by Appleton-Century, 1935.) II. Basic work in literature 12 III. Humanities (largely social science) 12 (upper or lower division) preferably in terms of a basic study in the evolution of human culture, em bodying a unifying treatment of his tory, philosophy, science, and the arts IV. General Science 8-10 aim: to establish, on the college level, an appreciation and an operating command of the scientific method; to provide, for the teacher, a cultural overview of the relationship between man and nature 38 Addison, op. cit., pp. 5-10. 50 Unit recommenda tions V. Introductory Psychology 4 a study of human behavior (individual and group) with emphasis upon mental hygiene VI. Sociology (upper or lower division) 4 an important study in preparation of ^11 teachers, especially important for teachers of high school literature VII. Government (upper division) 4 practical politics VIII. Music and Art 4 B. Professional Preparation I. Psychology of Education 2 the learning process; mental hygiene II. Philosophy of Education 2 III. Secondary Education 2 (replaced by Elementary Education in the preparation of Elementary teachers) Background in the Subject Field A* literature (upper division) I. Comprehensive study of world literature stressing only the most important masterpieces before 1 9 0 0; treating more fully the modern and contemporary 4 (Note: This study as well as those in dicated under II below, should be in terpretive, not factual and descriptive.) II. Advanced study of literature Shakespeare, English prose, English poetry, American literature 14-1S 51 Unit recommenda- B. Language (upper division) I. The development of the English aim: to provide perspective and under standing of our developing language of today (Note: This study not only should include Old English and Middle English, but should continue the study of lan guage development through to the pres ent. ) C. Books Designed for Adolescents (upper division) *1. "What makes a book readable"— techniques of gauging the reading difficulty of various texts; wide and rapid reading of the books which adolescents actually read (Note: This course should be presented in the Department of Education as a portion of the required units— distinctly not in addition to present unit require ments in Education.) Methods and Practice in the Subject Field A. Directed Observation and Practice Preferably an internship rather than the iso- 4 lated one-period-a-day teaching assignment; closely eorrelated with the methods courses described under B, below (in the Department of Education) Courses in Method To be closely correlated and during part of the time merged with Directed Observation and Practice I. The teaching of reading 2 or more a. Heading skill (materials and techniques) tions 6 4 or more 52 b. Recreational reading (materials and techniques for improving reading taste) c. Books for adolescents (in the Department! of Education) II. Methods in Speech Education - see page 4, A-l (in the Department of Speech) III. Methods in Teaching of English: Literature, Language, and Composi tion a. Usage and grammar b. Spelling and punctuation c. Organization and composition (rhetoric) d. Appreciation of literature (in the Department of English) (Note: Courses indicated under A and B-I above should be presented in the Department of Education as a portion of the required units, distinctly not in addition to the present unit re quirements in Education. ) Unit recommenda tions 2 or more 2 or more Desirable Supporting Subjects Journalism Advanced Speech: Drama, Debate, Choral Reading Creative Writing Foreign Cultures: A study of the social, political, and cultural life of the most important foreign peoples, preferably including the languages of at least two Social Sciences: Anthropology, Political Economy, Modern and Contemporary European History, English History Fine Arts: Music, Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Cinematography and Radio Education 53 Reoommendations for Minimum, Adequate, and Superior Preparation in the Field of English (Including Speech) A* Minimum Preparation I. Foundation Training as indicated II* Background in Subject Field as indicated — at least 12 units upper division — at least 6 units graduate year III* Methods and Practice in Subject Field as indicated --at least 6 units graduate year B. Adequate Preparation I. As for minimum II* Background in Subject Field — at least 18 units upper division — at least 6 units graduate year III* As for minimum — at least 6 units graduate year C. Superior Preparation I. As for adequate II* Master’s Degree in the Subject Field. (Note: Minimum certification in English must be accompanied by minimum certification in at least one of the following fields: foreign language and literature, art. music, social science, physical education*) VII. WMMRY 54 The purpose of this chapter was to review and sum marize briefly studies in the general field of this investi gation, It was found that: 1, The studies in the field could be analyzed under six main heads: opinions of experts, reports of committees, i general studies of secondary school teachers, studies related to the education of teachers of English in states other than California, studies related specifically to the education of teachers of English in California. 2. In general, the individual experts recommended certain broad principles rather than specific curriculums. 3* The reports of committees followed the same line of broad recommendations, the only specific recommendations occurring in the report of the Curriculum Commission of the national Council of Teachers of English, in which report cer tain percentages of emphasis to be given to various phases of teaeher education were suggested. 4. The surveys of the education of teachers in second ary schools revealed general conditions existing and led to conclusions applicable only-in part to the problem of the education of teachers of English. 5. The studies relating to the education of teachers of English in states other.than California were not productive of curriculums generally accepted as adequate* 6. None of the studies related to the education of teachers of English in California was found adequate to pro vide conclusions or to suggest satisfactory principles and practices applicable to the education of high school teachers of English. 7* From the review of related investigations it ap peared that further study of the problems involved in the education of teachers of English in California high schools was needed. CHAPTER III PLAN AND PROCEDURES OF THE PRESENT STUDY In Chapter I some of the elements that affect the teaching of English in California high schools were discussed, and their-, relation to the education of teachers was suggested. Such elements include (a) teaching conditions under which English teachers work, (b) teaching activities associated with the teaching of English, (c) types of college education for teachers of English, and (d) professional attitudes and beliefs of teachers of English. In Chapter II, previous studies in the field of teacher education were reviewed and the need for-further study in this field indicated. In the present chapter the plan and procedures of this study are discussed, together with the sources of the data employed and the method of their treatment. The chief problem involved in this study was to dis cover the principles and practices that should determine the college education of high school teachers of English in California. To solve this problem it was necessary (1) to discover essential elements associated with the teaching of high school English; (2) to study such elements as they ex ist in California high schools; and (3) to evaluate such elements as potential factors in a program of teacher educa tion in the light of the best available criteria. The general 57 procedures by which these three main steps were achieved to gether with (4) the reasons for such procedures, (5) details concerning the cooperation of educational agencies, (6J a description of the amount and distribution of data, and (7) an explanation of statistical treatment are discussed in this chapter* I. DISCOVERING THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TEACHING OE HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH The essential elements referred to above were first studied under five main categories and through an analysis of five distinct types of data: (a) historical sources, to establish adequate background for the study; (b) principals* reports, to determine significant facts related to teaching assignments; (c) representative courses of study, the find ings of research studies, and periodical literature, to dis cover typical teaching activities; (d) college catalogs and publications of the California State Department of Education, to secure information relative to facilities for teacher education and credential requirements; and (e) textbooks and periodical literature in the field, to discover the issues associated with the teaching of English in California high schools. Historical background* A review of such sources as 5S periodicals and textbooks on the history of education, re search studies, and unpublished materials was made for the purpose of establishing the background necessary for an ade quate understanding of the problems involved* This review is presented in Chapter IV. Significant teaching assignments. A study was made of the California School Directory for the school year of 1938- 1939 to discover such significant conditions as the distribu tion of teachers of English among different types of high schools, their teaching assignments, and the extent of spe cialization in the teaching of English. These data are pre sented in Chapter V. 9 Teaching activities. The teaching activities most closely associated with the teaching of high school English were discovered by an analysis of representative courses of study secured from California high schools, a review of the findings of research investigations, and a study of the con tents of ten volumes of the r , Round Table" section of the English Journal (High School Edition). The results of such analyses are presented in Chapter VI. Facilities for teacher education and credential re quirements. The general programs designed for teacher edu cation and the specific courses of study available in 59 California for teachers of English were secured by a study of the catalogs of eighteen institutions accredited by the California State Department of Education for the training of teachers and the issuing of credentials. The statements re lating to credential requirements were secured from bulletins issued by the California State Department of Education. The findings of this part of the investigation are reported in Chapter VII. Major issues involved in the teaching of English and teacher education. The chief issues involved in the teach ing of high school English were discovered by an analysis of twenty-three textbooks dealing with the teaching of English, and by a study of periodical literature published during the past ten years. From this study of the writings of recognized leaders of teachers of English, 616 excerpts representing the positions taken by the various authorities concerning the most significant issues were collected. The textbooks analyzed are reported in Appendix D. The results of this study of is sues are discussed in Chapter VIII. From this study of the five types of sources, and through an analysis of the five types of data revealed, ele ments characteristically associated with the teaching of high school English were secured. These were then used in design ing a questionnaire submitted to teachers of high school English throughout California. A copy of this questionnaire is included in Appendix A. Before submitting the questionnaire to teachers through the state, mimeographed copies of the original form were dis tributed to thirty-one we 11-qualified teachers of English, chiefly officers of or otherwise active in the work of the Southern California Association of Teachers of English. In addition, the mimeographed form was presented to a class of forty student teachers of English enrolled at the University of Southern California. 'The responses from these tryouts showed the general worth of the instrument and suggested some changes for the final form. II. STUDYING SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS AS THEY HIST IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCH002S The essential elements discussed in the preceding part of this chapter were next studied -by submitting them to teachers of English in California high schools for the purpose of finding: (a) the education, experience, and assignments of various groups of teachers of English; (b) the extent to which various groups of teachers of English perform charac teristic activities; (c) the types of knowledge prized by teachers of English; and (d) the opinions teachers of English express regarding significant issues involved in the teaching of English and in the education of teachers of English. 61 The education, experience, and assignments of various groups of teachers of English. These elements were studied by means of a questionnaire designed to discover the types of degrees held, the extent of specialized study in college, the recency of college courses, the extent of experience, the types of teaching assignments and other school activities, and the self-evaluated proficiency of teachers for the sub jects they teach. This questionnaire was submitted to teachers of English throughout the state. The extent to which teachers of English perform char acteristic activities. These elements were studied by means of a master list evolved from the investigation of teacher activities as reported in Chapter VI* This list was submitted to teachers of English throughout the state. The types of knowledge valued as professional equip ment by teachers of English. These elements were studied by means of a master list evolved from the investigation of college facilities and credential requirements as reported in Chapter VII. This master list was submitted to teachers of English throughout the state. The opinions of teachers of English regarding signifi cant issues related to the teaching of English and to teacher education. These elements were studied by means of a master 62 list evolved from the study of sources as reported in Chapter VIII. This master list was submitted to teachers of English throughout the state. In addition to the judgments of teachers of English in California high schools, a jury of forty-four teachers of English and of education in colleges and universities answered a questionnaire designed to determine the best amount and type i of undergraduate education for teachers of English. This jury included recognized leaders in the field of English and was representative of the various types of institutions engaged in the education of teachers. III. EVALUATING SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS IN THE LIGHT OF THE BEST AVAILABLE CRITERIA The third and last step in this study was to evaluate the data secured in the first two parts of this investigation, and relate them to the practical problem of educating teachers of English. For this purpose the best available criteria were used— the opinions of experts engaged in the education of teachers, the results of objective studies, and the facili ties available for the education of teachers of English. By comparing the specific duties and needs of teachers of English with the type of education available and recommended by ex perts definite procedures for the education of teachers of English have been recommended. IV. REASONS FOR PROCEDURES 63 The plan of this study and the procedures followed were based upon principles that have been found valid in this type of research. To begin with, as objective an analysis as possible was made of the skills and abilities, and knowledge and information most closely associated with the teaching of high school English. Such authorities as Jewett, Chairman of the Committee on Teacher Training of the National Council of Teachers of English, and Evenden, Associate Director of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, recommend such an analysis. Needed research listed by Jewett includes: r , A detailed and complete analysis of the teacherfs needs of English at each level of the teaching service. Evenden states:"Before institutions which prepare teachers can know or determine how teachers are to be prepared they must know what professional equipment the teacher is ex- o pected to have." In the second place, the plan and the procedures of this study were designed to discover the issues involved in the teaching of English and the attitudes of teachers of Ida A. Jewett, English in State Teachers Colleges. p. 168. 2 E. S. Evenden, "Criteria for Construction of Teachers College Curricula," Proceedings of the Sixty-fourth Annual Meeting (Ytfashington, B.C.: The National Education Association, 1926}, p. 285. 64 English toward such issues. Such issues and such attitudes are recognized as among the less tangible hut highly impor tant elements affecting the teaching of English and determin ing much of the strategy of teacher education. In such sources as the Ninth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction, National Education Association, and the Report of the American Educational Research Associa tion, the need for a study of teacher attitudes is emphasized. Methods of teaching depend upon the point of view which is taken with respect to the whole function of instruction in English,3 All plans for the preparation of teachers must rest upon a clearly conceived philosophy of educa tion. • . .4- In the third place, elements associated with the teach ing of English in California high schools were evaluated by the best available criteria. The results of objective studies were used when pertinent; expert opinion was also used. The use of expert opinion is recognition of the fact that experi mental research has not yet been utilized to explore all the areas of the field of English teaching. Its use is also 3 Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc tion, The Development of a Modern Program in English, Ninth Yearbook of the National Education Association (Washington, D.C.: The National Education Association, 1936), p. 154. 4 A. W. Hurd, ”A Synthesis of Survey Concepts in the Field of Teacher Preparation,” Practical Values of Educational Research; Official Report (Washington, D.C.: American Educa tional Research Association, May, 1938), p..22. 65 recognition of the fact that English teaching is a dynamic activity with no rigidly fixed hody of subject matter. In stead, its methods and materials are peculiarly dependent upon its changing social environment. It is truly one of the "humanities”— in a very real sense dependent upon human judg ment. "Whenever important changes affecting English occur outside the school, the program of the school should be modi- fied."5 6 The investigations of Peik show the feasibility of research of this type. In his study of the professional edu cation of high school teachers, he discussed possible evalu ation agencies to determine if the training which is planned and given is adequately done or meets the needs of teachers on the job. He states: There is no other way of deciding whether the train ing provided is meeting these criteria than the individual or composite judgments of four sorts of people whom we must call our expert groups. Each of these groups (col lege teachers of education, students of professional training, employers and supervisors of teachers, and teachers) has special qualificatidns, but also peculiar limitations as a jury. All individuals in them are probably subject to certain limitations of experience, training, or contacts. . . . The composite group judg ments cannot be directly, or very easily, validated. Their reliability, however, as we shall see in the case of teachers, is easily demonstrable, nevertheless, Department of Supervisors and Directors of' Instruc tion, op. cit., p. 4. £ W. E. Peik, Professional Education of High School Teachers (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1930). 66 these groups are the most competent judges available when practical decisions regarding training programs have to be made.7 ^ V. COOPERATION OF EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES This study was sponsored by the California State De partment of Education. Doctor Evelyn Clement, Chief of the Division of Teacher Training and Certification at the time this investigation was begun, and Doctor Aubrey A. Douglass, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, and Chief, Division of Secondary Education, cooperated wholeheartedly in carrying out the study. Preliminary letters explaining the scope of the investigation were sent from the State Department to high school principals, and questionnaires to teachers were distributed and collected through the State Department. De tails of this cooperation are shown in Appendix A. Because of the large number of tabulations required, machine scoring was necessary. Through the cooperation of Doctor Herbert Popence, of the Division of Research and I Guidance of the Los Angeles Board of Education, the equipment of his office was made available for the machine calculations required. VI. AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF DATA Through the cooperation of the State Department of 7 Ibid., p. UO. 67 Education specimen copies of the questionnaire, together with a brief description of the investigation were distributed to high school principals, with an invitation to participate. Upon receipt of requests for questionnaires these were for warded to each school and upon completion by the participating teachers were returned to the State Department. As a result of this procedure, 1,$54 questionnaires were received in time for inclusion in the study. Of these, sixty-nine were discarded because the answers were incomplete. The remaining 1,785 questionnaires available for study came from 301 schools, or 57*6 per cent of the total number of high schools in the state, and represented 47*6 per cent of the teachers in the state assigned to courses in English or to fusion courses in which English skills are taught. The returns represented in adequate proportions the different types and sizes of schools throughout the state. The schools covered in the study and the detailed distribution of the returns together with copies of forms used, are shown in Appendix B. In an attempt to study special features associated with superior teaching of English, participating principals were asked to designate superior teachers of English. To prevent as much as possible the influence of personal preju dice and to make the rating as objective and uniform as pos sible descriptions of three teachers— A, B, and C— were pre sented to the participating principals and supervisors. These 68 descriptions, based upon research, studies, chiefly that of 8 Bryan, are listed in Appendix A. In response to this re quest for ratings, 156 junior high school, and 305 high and senior high school teachers were designated as superior. VII. TREATMENT OF THE DATA The statistical data were treated according to formula given by Yule. Because the data were supplied by approxi mately one half of all the high school teachers of English in California and the various groups were therefore larger than in most studies, the data were found to have a high de gree of reliability. Details are found in Appendix 0. VIII. SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER The purpose of this chapter was to explain the organi zation of this investigation. It was shown that: 1. Historical background, teaching conditions, facili ties for teacher education, and major issues were discovered through an analysis of historical sources, principals* re ports, courses of study, college catalogs, textbooks and periodicals. 2. The judgment of.1,765 teachers of English in 301 Roy C. Bryan, Pupil Rating of Secondary School Teachers (Contributions to Education No~ 7o8; New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1937)* 69 California high schools were secured regarding teaching ac tivities, teaching equipment, and issues. In addition, the judgments of a jury of forty-four college teachers were se cured regarding the education of high school teachers of English. 3. The data secured were evaluated by reference to expert opinion and the results of objective studies. 4* The procedures followed were valid for this type of research. 5* Through the cooperation of officials of the California State Department of Education, the investigation was state-wide and included more teachers than any previous study primarily in the field of high school English. 6. Through the cooperation of staff members of the Division of Research and Guidance of the Los Angeles Board of Education it was possible to analyze in detail the data reported. 7- The data reported were subjected to statistical treatment and found to be highly reliable. PART II PDNDAMEHTAL ElBUMS IN THE WORK AND EDUCATION OF ENGLISH TEACHERS CHAPTER IV HISTORICAL SURVEY OP HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH AND OF THE EDUCATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH In Part II of the present study, the fundamental ele ments in the work and education of teachers of English are presented. Such fundamental elements, discovered through an analysis of the literature in the field of education, throw into relief the peculiar problems of teachers of English and are thus necessary to a further study of teachers in the field and significant in the education of teachers of English. In Chapter IV a review of the chief steps in the development of English as a high school subject is presented. In Chapter V such significant teaching conditions as teaching assignments are reported and analyzed. In Chapter VI the facilities for teacher education and credential requirements as they affect teachers of English in California are presented. In Chapter VII the major issues involved in the teaching of English as discovered through a study of textbooks and periodical litera ture are listed and discussed. All of these fundamental elements presented in Part II were used in constructing the instruments needed for the further study of English teachers in the field, as presented in Part III of this study. Any study of the problems involved in the teaching of high school English should include not only a presentation 72 of the existing conditions underlying such problems but enough of historical development to aid in the understanding of such conditions. In the present chapter a twofold review is pre sented of (1) the chief steps in the development of English as a high school subject, and (2) of the chief influences that have affected educational programs designed to prepare teachers of English. I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH The most plausible date from which to trace the devel opment of English as a high school subject is 1821, the year in which the first American high school was established. Educational historians have divided the century and a quarter which has elapsed since that time into various periods; but for the purpose of the present review it is considered to consist of two parts: from 1821 to 1890, and from 1890 to the present time. Development of high school English: 1821-1890* The original name of the first American high school— "The English Classical School"— is significant of the conflicting forces surrounding its establishment in Boston in 1821. The "Classi cal" reflects the belief prevalent among conservative laymen and educators of the time that Latin and Greek were the proper languages for scholastic endeavor; the "English" part 73 of the title reflects the growing demand among laymen for a secondary school capable of . . . furnishing the young men of the City who are not intended for a collegiate course of study . . • with the means of completing a good English education to fit them for active life or qualify them for emi nence in private or public station.1 To emphasize this break from the' tradition of the Latin Gram mar School and the more conservative academies, the name of the newly established institution was changed in 1824 to "The English High School. " But it must not be supposed because of this name so soon given to the new school, that English as the subject is now recognized in the secondary curriculum became one of the important studies in early ibaerican high schools. The times were not ripe for such a development. For just as Franklin with all his influence had been unable to keep the conventional studies of his day from displacing the practical subjects which he had proposed for his Academy, so the laymen of Boston who led the break from the tradition of the classical secondary schools soon saw the public high school curriculum become conventionalized. The Massachusetts Law of 1827, the law which "formed the basis of all subsequent legislation in Massachusetts and deeply influenced development in other ^ E. P. Oubberley, Public Education in the United- State s (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1934), p. %f>5 74 o states”* * makes scant mention of English. Bookkeeping, alge bra, geometry, surveying, Greek, Latin, history, logic, and rhetoric were the high school subjects required by this law for the larger towns— only the last named subject in this list being associated with the subject of English. It might be inferred, because of the growth of demo cratic principles in the nineteenth century that English quickly assumed a position of outstanding.importance among high school studies or among those of the popular academies. Actually this was not the case. There were many factors which kept the curriculum of the high schools conservative. To begin with, there was the prevailing belief in mental dis cipline as the chief end of education. As a result, Latin and mathematics were the most respected and most emphasized of the subjects in the secondary school curriculum. Only formal grammar drill or the analysis of the principles of rhetoric in the field of English could hope to lay claim to disciplinary values of high order. Then, too, while the people of young communities often show great eagerness to develop new political patterns to meet new social and economic conditions, they may cling with tenacity to established cultural patterns. As Dewey points out, these traditional cultural patterns often become idealized 2 Ibid., p. 257. 75 and more highly valued as pioneers move from the centers of population. Thus the Americans who settled the newer states in the nineteenth century and who influenced so greatly the development of the American high school aspired to have their children given training in the traditional secondary school subjects. It was their way of insisting upon the best for all of the children of a democratic society. A third factor that helped to keep English instruction confined to the formal aspects of language drill was the German influence with its emphasis upon philological study, an influence of great importance in the development of the American high school curriculum in the latter half of the nineteenth century. A fourth and most important influence that shaped the curriculums of American high schools during the nineteenth century was that of college entrance requirements. For the American high school of this period soon became dominated by college demands, and the colleges, because of their prefer ence for traditional subjects, were slow to include English as an entrance requirement. Summed up in tabular form by 3 Cubberley, the trend in college entrance requirements is shown by the follov/ing table taken from his study: 3 Ibid., p. 315 76 Date first College first Subject required requiring it Latin and Greek 1640 Harvard Arithmetic 1802 Harvard Geography 1807 Harvard English grammar 1819 Princeton Algebra 1820 Harvard Geometry 1844 Harvard Ancient history 1847 Michigan and , • Harvard Modern history (U.S.A.} 1869 Michigan Physical geography 1870 Michigan and Harvard English composition 1870 Princeton Physical science 1872 Harvard English literature 1874 Harvard Modern languages 1875 Harvard The foregoing table, however, merely lists the earli est dates when certain high school subjects were accepted as college entrance requirements. A better view of conditions existing in 1887 is given by the following quotation: By examination of the requirements for admission in English of the twelve oldest colleges of the country we find . . . two of these twelve have no requirements in English, but one mentions rhetoric, only six mention English grammar, and five include the correction of bad English, the main requirement being an essay, requiring but the elementary knowledge of spelling, punctuation, and paragraphing. The examination in English causes no student anxiety, few are conditioned. . . .4 Thus influenced in its development by the factors men tioned above, English instruction in American high schools previous to 1890 was either drearily formalized for the pur pose of mental discipline or exalted for its inspirational 4 W. B. Jillson, "English in the Preparatory School,” Education. 7:692, June, 1887» 77 benefits. In either case it did not rank high as a high school subject. There is plentiful evidence in the literature of the times to bear out these assertions. In the whole thirty-one volumes of Barnardfs .American Journal of Education, covering the development of American education from 1855 to 1881, there are only four articles listed on the teaching of English language and literature. These articles all reflect the for mality of the prevailing English instruction. The first of these, published in 1855, advocates the teaching of Anglo- 5 Saxon as a high school subject. Another, published two years later, urges the analytical study of strongly inflected verbs as "sacred relics which have come down to us from ancient times. Still another passage from the early issues of the American Journal of Education shows the objectives considered proper for English instruction during the first period of English development as a high school subject. The progress achieved by the student of the written language, from the date of his first attempt in boyhood to pen a letter or compose a theme to the time when in 5 John S. Hart, "On the Study of English Language and Literature, or Relations of the English Language to the Teutonic and Classical Branches of the Indo-European Family of Languages," American Journal of Education. 1:33-60, August, 1855. 6 "Fhilological Contributions— English Conjugation," American Journal of Education. 3s101, March, 1857* 78 the maturity of his intellectual manhood he rises to address assembled multitudes of his fellowmen and to sway them by the potency of triumphal eloquence; or when he issues from his poetic privacy a work which shall live for ages, as an object of wonder and ad miration. . . .7 A passage in the same exalted tone appeared in a widely used manual for teachers prepared for the literature committee of the National Education Society in 1879s When we study the English language etymologically we are as one who walks in a lovely garden to call its choicest flowers . . . the student of etymology is charmed . . . and satisfied that faithful labor will be./rewarded with a thorough knowledge of the language . . . by the aid of affixes no less than 3,000 words are derived from ten easy roots. . . . A further review of the printed sources bears out the statement of Hays: Upon an examination of superintendentsf reports and of contemporary educational periodicals, the fact is clear that the English in the high schools before 1870 was a subject of little or no importance, irregularly scheduled, spasmodically and incidentally taught. No consensus of opinion existed regarding the content of the course, the length of time the study should be pur sued, nor how or when it should be taught. . . . Gram matical rules were learned and literary selections parsed in order to secure a correct use of the mother tongue. In the larger high schools, a short course in the history of English literature afforded the pupil an opportunity to learn facts about literature and literary men. Literature itself was not studied.9 7 William Russel, "Education--The Cultivation of the Expressive Faculties,” American Journal of Education, 3:58, March, 1857. 8 Literature Committee of National Education Society, Manual for Teachers (187.9) , p. 83. 9 Edna Hays, College Entrance Requirements in English: Their Effect on the High School, pp. 13-14. 79 Grizzell, in his study of the high schools of New England before 1855, lists thirty-two courses of study from 1820 until 1868. In these courses the first appearance of any subject matter in the field of English literature is the inclusion of courses in "English Classics" given in the Manchester, New Hampshire, High School in I846 and the Hartford, Connecticut, High School in I848. "literature, English and American" first appeared in 1862 in the Worcester, Massachusetts, High School. Only four other high school ✓ 10 courses in literature appeared prior to 1867. A review of the printed sources in the last quarter of the nineteenth century reveals both a highly formalized type of English instruction in the high schools, and a grow ing discontent with such conditions. Stark, writing in 1880, stated: Experiences proved beyond all question that pupils of average intellect . . . will work at a play of Shakespeare until they are in such perfect possession of it that they are prepared to answer readily every possible question whether bibliographical, historical, grammatical, philo logical or esthetic.ii Professor F. A. March, speaking before the National E. D. Grizzell, Origin and Development of the High School in New England before 1865 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1923)> PP* 290-295* 1 1 « A. B. Stark', "Teaching English," Education, 1:497, May, 1881. so Education Association in 1872 on "Methods of Teaching English in the High School," outlined the following course of high school English: The grammar course should begin with analysis and grammatical equivalents • . . with the second term the class might take up the history of the cases, and the words derived from the pronouns • . . the next term may be taken up, the history of the verb. For this Bunyan is the author. . . . The next term derivation of words may come up. Milton is good for this. ... Another term may be devoted to the study of synonyms. . . . At the same time take up phonology, the laws of sound and spelling. Learn how Spenser pronounced, and the nature of the changes since. Another term or two or three may be used for the application of the same laws to Chaucer.I2 The first series of articles on the teaching of English in the periodical literature of that time was published in Education during 1888 and 1889* The author of one of these articles stated: Every high school girl and boy cannot only read Chaucer but enjoy his writing. Most of them will find him a delightful writer and well worth the slight trouble of mastering his charming method of spelling and his rhythm. The sturdy boy will at once claim fellowship with the Pilgrims as they journey toward Canterbury.13 Discontent with the conditions existing was voiced by Professor Thomas R. Price speaking before the National Edu cation Association in 1877. 12 F. A. March, "Methods of Teaching English in the High School." Addresses and Journal of Proceedings (Washington, B.C.: National Education Association, 1872), pp. 242-243. 13 Laura S. Hines, "The Teaching of English Language and Literature," Education, 9*230, December, 1888. 81 As an examiner I have found it the rule that young men tolerably familiar with the elements of three or four foreign languages are intolerably ignorant of their own . . . by degrading the mother tongue from its primacy in education . . . we have robbed our schools of the largest part of their efficiency.1^ Jillson, previously quoted, showed his disapproval: • • • the preparatory teacher gives no more attention to instruction in English than is necessary to make a fair showing on exhibition day. There should be further definite instruction in English, and this study should be placed on the same footing with the classics and mathematics. . . . So great and so close has been the attention paid to the mastery of the Latin and Greek, and such has been the demand of the sciences during recent years that the study of the English language has been entirely crowded out or made ineffective by neglect or false methods. Bouton, writing in 1884, stated: How much attention the study of the English language and literature should receive in our schools, and how these subjects can best be taught are unsettled griev ances. . . . It is stated that most classical college graduates can neither read their Latin diploma nor write a credible English essay. . . . Against these encroachments [the newer subjects] the old curriculum, composed exclusively of Greek, Latin and Mathematics is raging a somewhat unequal contest . . . I claim that, from the primary school to the close of the col lege course, the study of the English language and its literature demands, at least as much time and attention as that of any other language whatever.io 14 Thomas R. Price, "The Study of English as Introduc tory to the Study of Greek and Latin,1 9 Addresses and Journal of Proceedings of the National Education Association "[Washington, B.C.: iSTational Education Association, 1877), p. 264* Jillson, op. cit., pp. 692-695. 16 Eugene Bouton, "The Study of English," Education, 5:91-93, September, 1884. 82 The evidence presented thus far in this chapter shows that English did not occupy an important position in the cur riculum of nineteenth century American high schools* It could claim none of the prestige that was attached to the more traditional subjects; it could claim the much prized disciplinary values only through formal drill and dreary an alysis. As a result of such conditions, English instruction remained, almost to the close of the nineteenth century, poorly organized and lacking in academic prestige. Development of high school English: 1890-1940* The foregoing review has shown that secondary school English as the term is now understood gained a place in the curriculums of American high schools only toward the close of the nine teenth century. The year 1890— a date which suggests so many educational and economic transitions— may be regarded as a proper date from which to trace the definite growth of modern high school English. Thus the present courses in the subject date from a time when the modern economic forces which closed America’s last western border, and the newer philosophy of education which opened other frontiers for education both pressed new demands upon our secondary school curriculum. The problems of English as a modern high school subject have been those raised in an attempt to reconcile the educational standards traditionally accepted in 1890 with the. findings S3 of a newer educational psychology and the demands of modern -American life* The development of high school English in the period from 1890 to the present time may be best understood by trac ing the influence of four influential agencies upon the English course of study. The first of these agencies to influence high school English was the Committee on Secondary School Studies ap pointed at a meeting of the National Education Association in 1S92. Under the chairmanship of Charles W. Eliot, a gen eral committee known as the Committee of Ten directed and re ported upon the work of a series of conferences on the various subjects of the high school curriculum. The report of the Committee reflects various influences prevalent at that time, all of which urged more definite or ganization of high school courses of study. In the first place, it was generally agreed that the educational programs of American high schools were too varied and unorganized for best results. The Committee of Ten, therefore, attempted to clarify educational aims and to prescribe curricular offerings. Another influence reflected in the report of the Com mittee was that of the accrediting system then in its early stages. Because colleges and universities had been especially interested in establishing some degree of uniformity in high school courses, there had been an interesting degree of 84 cooperation between state universities and public high, schools since 1870. Led by the University of Michigan, many of the state institutions had begun to accredit high schools whose work met college requirements. Such a system of accrediting encouraged standardization of high school courses, including English. A third influence that encouraged standardization was that of the older, privately controlled colleges of the eastern part of the country. Instead of adopting an accredit ing system, these more conservative institutions were working out uniform entrance requirements and uniform entrance ex aminations, a policy which likewise encouraged stabilization of high school courses. A fourth and most important influ ence toward standardization was the prevailing German peda gogical thought with its emphasis upon mental discipline, philological study, and standardized curricular patterns. Influenced by such factors, the Committee of Ten pre scribed high school courses designed to promote mental dis cipline and college preparation. So great was the belief of the members of the Committee in the disciplinary value of studies that they prescribed the same courses of study for all high school pupils— whether college candidates or not. And so great was the influence of the "Report” that it fas tened upon American high schools for almost a generation the doctrine that ”the best preparation for life is preparation for college.” 85 The following excerpts from the report are typical of its fundamental philosophyr The preparation of a few pupils for .college or sci entific school should in the ordinary secondary school be the incidental, and not the principal object. At the same time it is obviously desirable that the college and scientific school should be accessible to all boys and girls who have completed creditably the secondary school course. . . . Now the recommendations of the nine Conferences, if well carried out, might fairly be held to make all the main subjects taught in the second ary schools of equal rank for the purpose of admission to college or scientific school. They would all be taught consecutively and thoroughly, and would all be carried on in the same spirit; they would all be used for training the powers of observation, memory, ex pression, and reasoning; and they would all be good to that end, although differing among themselves in quality and substance.17 Every youth who entered college would have spent four years in studying a few subjects thoroughly; he would have had four years of strong and effective mental training.1®' All four programmes conform to the general recommenda tions of the Conferences, that is, they treat each sub ject in the same way for all pupils with trifling ex ceptions. . . .19 With such a general philosophy underlying the report, it is not surprising that the specific recommendations re garding English combine a half-hearted defense of the dis ciplinary value of the subject with an outspoken statement that the English course must be considered inferior to the 17 National Education Association, Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, pp. 51-52. IS Ibid., p. 53. 19 Ibid.., p. 44. 86 classical. The Conference claim for English as much time as the Latin Conference claim for Latin in secondary schools; and it is clear that they intend that the study shall he in all respects as serious and informing as the study of Latin. . . But after this gesture, the English Conference goes on to report: . . . that the best results in the teaching of English in high schools cannot be secured without the aid given by the study of some other language; and that Latin and German, by reason of their fuller inflectional system, are especially suited to this end.21 Finally, the Committee of Ten makes this sweeping statement: Although the Committee thought it expedient to in clude among the four programmes, one which included neither Latin nor Greek, and one which included only one foreign language (which might be either ancient or modernT, they desired to affirm explicitly their unanimous opinion that, under existing conditions in the United States as to the training of teachers and the necessary means of instruction, the two programmes called respectively Modern Languages and English must in practice be distinctly inferior to the other two.22 The Committee of Ten did much that was of value for secondary education. It clarified aims in the light of the prevailing educational philosophy; it organized and strength ened the existing courses of study. But it led teachers and public alike to value high school subjects for their supposed 20 Ibid., p. 21. 21 Lo c. c 11 • 22 Ibid., p. 48. disciplinary values, and thus it stultified the teaching of English* For it was only through formal grammar drill and cold-blooded dissection of literary passages that English instruction could claim such values, and with the authority of the Committee to justify them, such practices fastened themselves increasingly upon the English course of study* The second group of agencies affecting the development of high school English comprised organizations determining requirements for college entrance and college entrance exam inations. In 1893 a National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English was organized, composed of the fol lowing associations: New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Middle States and Maryland; Associa tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States College Entrance Examination Board; Conference of New England Colleges on Entrance Requirements in English; College Confer ence on English in the Central Atlantic States; and North 23 Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. This national conference was ”the first body to bring about an entrance requirement in any subject that was ac- 2 L cepted by practically every college in the country.” ^ The 23 Charles Swain Thomas, Chairman, the Commission on English, Examining the Examination in English (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1931), p. 1. 2 1Ibid., p. 219. 88 chief service of the National Conference has been to prepare the list of books for the use of candidates taking the en trance examinations in English. This attempt on the part of agencies interested in English instruction to define uniform college entrance re quirements preceded by six years the report of a committee of the National Education Association on college entrance requirements in all branches. In this report is found again a defense of English instruction as mental discipline, and a strict limitation of reading selections. The committee presents first the proposition that the study of the English.language and its literature is inferior in importance to no study in the curricu lum. It offers all, or nearly all, the opportunities for mental training afforded by the study of any lan guage and introduces the pupil into the study of his own tongue, which must always be the chief source of his own thought, inspirations and ideals, and aesthetic enjoyment.25 Such study . . . should include the reading of many works of literature carefully selected, the study of the principles of composition and literary style, and abundant practice in production in obedience to the principles studied under the inspiration of the pleasurable reading of good books. We desire to express approval of the following principles: (1) That there should be no' difference between the 25 Committee on College Entrance Requirements, Report (Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press for the National Education Association, July, 1S99), pp. 12-13. 26 Ibid., p. 13. 89 regular courses and the college preparatory courses in English in secondary schools. 27 The above expressions of policy repeat the sentiment of the Committee of Ten. But there is some evidence of a more liberal view in the report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements, as is shown by such passages as the following: The study of the principles of composition . . . need not in all cases be taken up formally as grammar and rhetoric. Usually it is better that they be studied in connection with literature and composition; but they should not be neglected. A pupil completing a course in English, or any specific portion of such a course, should be able to appreciate literature that falls within the possibilities of his comprehension, and to express logically and in good style, such thoughts as he is capable of expressing at all. This should be the test.2® The Committee further recommended a suggestive list of books, thirty for each year, from which individual schools could select not less than five, or a total of one thousand pages for both class work and home reading. It was this list of books, liberal enough in purpose but emphasizing time- honored classics, that stamped the pattern of sameness upon literature study in high schools until 1916, when the first Comprehensive Examination in English was offered by the College Entrance Examination Board. The purpose of this type of examination was "to test the ability of the candidate to 27 Ibid., p. 13 2 8 T Eoc. cit. 90 write clearly and correctly, and to show that he has read, understood and appreciated a sufficient amount of English literature. Like the report of the Committee of Ten, that of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements did much to keep English courses from becoming unduly varied or from following the mere whims of individual teachers. But like-the, report of the Committee of Ten, it justified English for its dis ciplinary values and thus encouraged a narrow uniformity of method. With all the subsequent efforts of the college board to liberalize specific requirements and encourage a broad program of reading, the general effect of the college entrance examinations seems to have been to encourage conven tional methods of English instruction. A third agency which profoundly affected English in struction in American high schools was the National Joint Committee on English, representing the Commission on the Re organization of Secondary Education of the National Education Association, and the National Council of Teachers of English. In the report of this committee, a new philosophy was voiced from that expressed in the two reports previously considered. The proponents of English were no longer apologetic or half heartedly defensive but challenging and ■aggressive. 29 Thomas, op. cit.» p. 7. 91 The high school is rapidly becoming a common school. . . . From that point of view the folly of insisting that the high school course in English shall be a col lege preparatory course is evident# Nor will it answer to bring forward the shopworn plea that what best pre pares for college best prepares for life. There is too much skepticism as to the value of much of the present- day college work to warrant this.30 The whole tradition of method in English is set up in the direction of mere matter of fact, the detritus thrown up by the literary stream,and as a result real literary study is driven out and vital composition practice is scarcely attempted.31 English must be regarded as social in content and social in method of acquirement. The chief function of language is communication. Hence the activities of the English classroom must provide for actual communication. The pupil must speak or write to or for somebody, with a consciously conceived purpose to inform, convince, inspire, or entertain. He must read with the confident expectation of being himself informed, persuaded, in spired or entertained. . . .32 No one has more need to be a close student of con temporary social activities, social movements and social needs than., the teacher of English. . . . 33 . . . English as a training for efficiency should be distinguished from English as a training for the whole some enjoyment of leisure.3-4 Judged by such ringing pronouncements, it might seem that by 1917 the forces of narrow formalism in English 30 James F. Hosic, Chairman, Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. p. 5* ^ Ibid., p. 6. 32 Ibid., p. 27* 33 Loc. cit. 34- Loc. cit. 92 instruction were routed and in full flight. Actually the practice of high school English lagged far behind the prin ciples laid down by members of the committee. Even in the body of the report there is evidence that members of the committee themselves could not accept all the implications of their leaders1 statements. The Sub-Committee on Litera ture states: In general, the trend of choice [of books] should favor the ^classics." We hear much today of the need of contemporary literature, as if a substitution of current books for those that have endured or are endur ing the test of time, would Solve the problems of English teaching. The main trouble lies not in our choice of books. Classic literature still has an ap peal for healthy-minded young people, if it is sympa thetically and wisely presented. However, students must be shown how to find the riches that are in great books; their gold does not lie on the surface, but yields only to patient search. Great books still have the power to strengthen and uplift, to furnish solace and good cheer. Who shall say that boys and girls of today will not need their clear note of inspiration and courage as much if not more than their fathers and mothers of yesterday. It is the joyous prerogative of the teacher of literature to lead his pupils to this source of permanent riches. If he fails it is not because the wealth is no longer of value, but because he is unable to point the way.35 The report of the Joint Committee on English was the first clear-cut challenge from an authoritative source to the kind of English instruction designed primarily for disciplinary values and college preparation. As such it deserves recogni tion as one of the important documents of education. But as Ibid., p. 6 5. 93 in the case of so many other pioneer documents the principles enunciated were so far in advance of its time that secondary school practice has not yet fully caught up with them. The fourth group of agencies to affect English instruc tion profoundly included the Curriculum Commission and the Committee on Correlation of the National Council of Teachers of English. These two bodies reported in 1935 and 1936, the former with An Experience Curriculum in English, the latter with A Correlated Curriculum^ These reports represented the current thought of leaders in the national organization of teachers of English, and, especially in the case of the former, have greatly influenced the practice of English teaching in American secondary schools. The philosophy of the writers of the first report was expressed by such passages as the following: Experience is the best of all schools. Certainly no one learns so thoroughly, and few learn.so rapidly, in any other. And experience need not be a dear school, if it is completely organized and is conducted by a capable teacher who illuminates each experience in prospect and in retrospect. . . . The ideal curriculum consists of well-selected ex- perienees. The first step in constructing it is to survey life, noting what experiences most people have and what desirable experiences they miss. From this display the curriculum builder must select typical examples, distributed as well as possible throughout its entire range. . . . Experiences must be adapted to the needs and capaci ties of individual learners. . . .36 36 W. ?/ilbur Hatfield, Chairman, An Experience Curricu lum, pp. 3-8. 94 These are vastly different definitions of general English objectives than those found in the report of the Com mittee of Ten published only a generation before. The special aims of literature study are given as "experiences with and through stories, poems, plays, essays, and books of informa- 37 tion or discussion addressed to the general reader."^ Read ing is regarded as • . . clearly a tool, a skill employed only as a part of and for the sake of some larger activity, and there fore it should be taught and practiced in school not in isolation but as a part of study or of the enjoyment of literature.38 Creative expression is discussed not as a skill of importance only to the gifted child, but as a means of developing the pupil’s capacity to enjoy experience for its own sake. Gram mar is treated as "merely a by-product of work that needs to 39 be done." "Ho time at all has been taken to teach it," and twenty-five principles of usage comprise the whole subject matter of grammatical instruction. Such principles, and others of the same type, strengthened with the authority of the national professional organization of teachers of English, have done much to determine the present practices of English instruction in American high schools. _ _ Ibid., p. 17* 38 Ibid., p. 83* 39 Ibid., p. 229. 95 The work of many other agencies besides those reviewed helped in the development of English as a high school subject since 1890. The work of the Carnegie Foundation in liberal izing unit requirements, the efforts of the Progressive Edu cation Association to free secondary schools from college en trance requirements, the wide publicity given to newer methods of instruction through the National Survey of Secondary Edu cation made in 1932— these and many other influences have helped to determine the aims and methods of English teaching since 1890. II. SUMMARY OF TEE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH The growth of English as a secondary school subject since 1821 approaches a cycle of development. During most of the nineteenth century, English struggled to gain a recog nized and respected place in the high school curriculum. To help it gain such a place its proponents burdened the subject with formal grammar drill, mechanical analysis of sentence structure, and minute dissection of literary excerpts— chiefly in the name of mental discipline. During the early part of the twentieth century the abandonment of old pedagogical theories and the growth of new social ideas finally gave English the place of importance its sponsors had sought so long. To help it fill this place of importance they were prompted to devise new methods of teaching— to socialize 96 instruction and make the subject of English "as broad as life." As a result of this process the subject has become so thoroughly socialized in some schools and so merged with other subjects of instruction, that English is forced to fight once more— this time to keep its hard-won place as a definite subject in the high school curriculum. But whether English retains its place as a definite high school subject, or whether language skills and arts are taught as activities incidental to other studies, there re main important problems in the field of English instruction. III. DEVELOPMENT OF PROGRAM OF TEACHER EDUCATION Just as the present programs of English instruction in American high schools are the result of definite stages of development, so are the programs designed to educate teachers of high school English to meet professional standards and needs. The growth of such teacher education programs may be best understood by tracing three distinct phases since 1&2 1. Prenormal school period. At the time of the estab lishment of the first American high school, secondary school teachers were often college graduates, and in the cities of the eastern part of our country this tradition of the earlier "grammar schools" and academies was continued in the newly established high schools. But in the newer sections of the country, especially under the then prevalent conditions of local control, this standard was soon lowered. Cubberley was speaking of all grades of the newly established American public school system when he wrote, "the great mass of the teachers had little education beyond that of the schools they themselves taught." ^ 0 But it must be remembered, in explanation of the poor preparation of high school teachers— and hence high school teachers of English— that they were a very small group in this early period and that their preparation was not con sidered a vital educational problem. Inglis quotes Commis sioner Harris* estimate that there were only about 160 high 41 schools in operation in the United States in 1870. More over, most of the high schools of that day offered only three- year courses, much of the work was routine drill in subjects since relegated to the grade schools, and there was a pre vailing belief "that anybody could teach English.* * While there were undoubtedly skillful and well-qualified teachers of English during this early period, yet there were no defi nite and adequate programs for their academic and professional preparation. Normal school period. The second phase in the develop ment of special education for high' school teachers may be Cubberley, op. cit., p. 243* ^ Alexander Inglis, Principles of Secondary Education (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 191^), P* 194. 9 8 called the normal school phase* Although the earliest normal schools were designed primarily to prepare elementary school teachers, the prestige attached to the pedagogical methods which they emphasized later made their graduates in demand as high school teachers. Speaking before the National Edu cational Association in 1907, Bolton stated: Normal school graduates everywhere in the eighties and nineties began to teach in the high schools and to occupy the superintendeneies. When I was graduated from a Wisconsin normal school in 1890 graduates did not think of looking for a grade position unless they happened to live in a large city. High school posi tions and good principalships and superintendeneies were readily secured by the men.42 A review of typical programs of the normal schools to which Bolton was referring shows that their programs did not supply adequate training for teachers 6f English. The three- year course of instruction of the California State Normal School at San Jose, California, in 1886-1887 follows: Junior year First semester Second semester Language Mathematics Science Miscellaneous Drawing Reading English grammar Spelling Arithmetic Descriptive geography Zoology Drawing English grammar Spelling Elementary algebra Professional Vocal music Methods in geography teaching weekly Reading Penmanship Vocal music Methods in arithmetic teaching weekly 42 F. E. Bolton, "Requirements and Standards," Journal of Proceedings and Addresses (Winona, Minnesota: National Education Association, 1907), p. 611. 99 Language Mathematics Science Miscellaneous Middle year First semester Composition Spelling Elementary algebra Arithmetic Botany Physics Reading School law Vocal music Second semester Word analysis Literary reading Book-keeping Physiology Chemistry United States his tory and Consti tution Drawing Vocal music Language Mathematics Science Miscellaneous Professional English and American literature Geology Astronomy Vocal music Drawing Practice and train ing department Senior year Rhetoric Geometry Physics Vocal music Review of elemen tary studies Observation in train- Study of profes- ing department sional textbooks Lectures on methods Lectures on methods of teaching of teaching-^ Normal schools undoubtedly performed a service in sup plying teachers with some degree of professional skill during a time of rapid high school growth. But the schools were poorly equipped to educate the best type of secondary school teachers. Fitzpatrick, in his Scholarship of Teachers in Secondary Schools states that: 43 ' United States Bureau of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1886-1887 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1887), pp. 398-399. . 100 . . . the assumption of the training of secondary school teachers by normal schools has been a major contributing factor to the poor scholarship of the secondary school teachers now in service in the United States.44 Just as the education provided by the colleges of an earlier period had proved inadequate to meet the demands of high school teachers, so in turn did the education provided by the normal schools of the later half of the nineteenth century prove inadequate for newer demands. A better type of preparation for secondary school teachers was demanded. School of education period* This new type of educa tion was provided by colleges and universities. Clement states: Professional training offered in high schools and normal schools was intended primarily for elementary teachers, later on, departments of education were organized within those institutions of learning known as colleges or universities. The chief purpose of these, originally, was the professional training of teachers in secondary schools.45 The influence of these new schools of education as well as the demands of a growing professional consciousness among high school teachers finally led to the practice of certification. This newest development has taken place al most entirely since 1 9 0 0. LL Edward A. Fitzpatrick and P. 1$. Hutson, The Scholar ship of Secondary School Teachers, p. 45 John A. Clement, Principles and Practices of Second ary Education (Hew York: The Century Company, 1925), p. 503. 101 Before the year 1900 not more than a half a dozen states possessed a legal standard of certification for high school teachers that was different from that re quired of teachers in the elementary schools.46 Although there is no country-wide agreement about standards of certification for teaching in secondary schools, yet the growing tendency is to regard such teaching as spe cial professional service, and to demand specialized academic and professional training. The state of California has been a leader in develop ing high standards of certification for high school teachers and providing education for them. In the earliest days of the state’s history local boards controlled the examination and certification of teachers. But in 1866 a State Board of Education composed of members having educational experience was created. In 1880 college graduation was made a prereq uisite for high school credentials. In 1901, new requirements were adopted requiring the school boards to issue high school certificates to teach only to the possessors of credentials showing adequate professional training. In 1915, still fur ther requirements for the high school credential were added, including fifteen units of education courses, practice teach ing, and one major and one minor in subjects taught in the high schools. In addition, a probationary period of two years 46 John F. Brown, The Training of Teachers (New York: The Macmillan Company, 19Trr, p . " m . ----------- 102 was required of all teachers with less than two years of sue- 47 cessful high school teaching in California. The present requirements for the California General Secondary Credential and the General Junior High School Credential are listed in Chapter VI of the present study; IV. SUMMARY OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROGRAM OF TEACHER EDUCATION The program of professional preparation for teachers of English has passed through three stages: (a) the prenormal school period, characterized by few high schools and neither definite nor adequate programs of preparation for high school teachers; (b) the normal school period, in which pedagogical methods were stressed at the expense of broad scholarship; and (c) the modern period, with its increasingly high profes sional standards for high school teachers. Although the developments outlined show a trend toward rising standards in the preparation of high school teachers, there is yet no generally recognized standard of education for the profession of high school teacher of English. 47 Zella Palmer Young, "The History of the Legislation and Certification of Teachers in California" (unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1928). V. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 103 The purpose of this chapter was to discover the chief steps in the development of English as a high school subject, and'the chief influences that have affected educational pro grams designed to prepare teachers of English. It was found that: 1. In the period from 1821 to 1890, English instruction in American high schools was poorly organized and lacking in importance. The subject had none of the prestige that was at tached to the more traditional subjects; it could claim the much prized disciplinary values of training only through for mal drill and dreary analysis of literature. 2. In the period from 1890 to 1940,the teaching of high school English was chiefly affected by four influential agencies. These were the Committee of Ten, the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English, the National Joint Commission on English, and the Curriculum Commission and the Committee on Correlation of the National Council of Teachers of English. 3-,In addition to the influence of these four agencies, the program of high school English has been greatly affected by the Carnegie Foundation in its work to liberalize unit re quirements, by the Progressive Education Association in its efforts to free secondary schools from standardized college entrance requirements, and by the National Survey of Secondary 104 Education through the wide publicity it gave to newer methods of instruction in English. 4* The growth of English as a secondary school subject since 1821 approaches a cycle of development. During most of the nineteenth century, English struggled to gain a respected place in the high school curriculum. During the early part of the twentieth century, the abandonment of old pedagogical theories and the growth of new social influences finally gave English the place of importance its sponsors had sought so long. Now, as a result of new processes in education and society, English has become so "socialized” and merged with other subjects that in many schools its sponsors are forced to fight once more for its place as a definite subject in the high school curriculum. 5. In the period from 1821 to about 1870, there was little organized attempt to train teachers professionally and "the great mass of teachers had little education beyond that of the schools they themselves taught.” 6. From about 1870 to 1900, most of the training of teachers was carried on in normal schools where pedagogical methods rather than broad education were stressed. 7. During the present century teachers colleges and university schools of education have been established with consequently higher standards for the education of high school teachers but with increasing debate over the best type of education for teachers of English*.', CHAPTER V SIGNIFICANT TEACHING- CONDITIONS Any investigation of the problems of teacher education in a special subject field should include a study of the num ber and distribution of subject teachers and their teaching assignments. Such a study of teachers of English in California high schools has been made a part of the present investigation. Included in this chapter are data dealing with (1) number and distribution of teachers of English; (2) distribution of teachers of English by sex; (3) extent of conventional types of English courses and of fusion courses; (4) distribution of teachers of English according to emphasis of teaching assign ments in English; (5) distribution of teachers of "English First" according to the number of teaching fields involved; (6) distribution of subject combinations among the assignments of teachers of English; and (7) comparative data relating to the teaching assignments of high school teachers of English, The findings which are reported in this chapter are based upon data reported to the California State Department of Education by the principals of secondary schools for the school year 193&-1 9 39, anc3- compiled and published by the California Society of Secondary Education in the California 1 School Directory, The records of all types of public - California School Directory (Berkeley, California: California Society of Secondary Education, 193B-1939)- 106 secondary* schools in California except junior colleges have been reviewed to secure the data presented in this chapter. Such types of secondary schools include junior high schools, senior high schools, four-year high schools, and joint junior- senior high schools. Specific schools not included in this survey are schools for the handicapped, continuation schools, schools predominately vocational, branch high schools, Civilian Conservation Corps camp schools, and elementary schools in which some high school courses are given. Such schools have been omitted because.the English instruction given in them is not typical of the general situation. With the exception of such atypical schools, the records of all schools listed in the California School Directory under the sections "Junior High Schools” and "High Schools” have been included in this survey. Schools studied included the small as well as the large. Thus the data give as accurate a pic ture as possible of the number of teachers of English and their teaching assignments. The records of 134 junior high schools and 338 high and senior high schools— a total of 522 secondary schools— have been reviewed. The smallest junior high school listed is the Cotati Junior High School with an enrollment of fifty-nine with four teachers; the largest junior high school is the Hollenbeck Junior High School in Los Angeles with an enrollment of 2,616 pupils and a faculty of ninety-four. The smallest of the high and senior high 107 schools listed is the Alleghany High School with an enroll ment of thirteen pupils and two teachers; the largest of the high and senior high schools included is the Kern County Union High School at Bakersfield with an enrollment of 4,042 students and a faculty of 1 5 0. Since the duties of teachers are influenced by the size of the schools in which they teach, the schools whose records were studied are divided into three classes— small, medium and large— using the standards set by Bond in his study of 2 California secondary schools for such a classification. Schools with a faculty of fifteen teachers or less are listed as small schools; those with sixteen to thirty-five teachers inclusive are listed as medium-sized schools; those with thirty-six teachers or over are listed as large schools. Ho attempt has been made to distinguish between city and country schools, since a preliminary review of the course offerings did not show any great variance in the type of English courses offered in these two types of schools. For the purpose of this study, the term i t f teacher of English” is construed to include all those teachers whose teaching assignments show one or more of the following coursest English, composition, literature, grammar, reading, and spell ing. In studying the assignments of individual teaehers it 2 Jesse Bond, The Activities and Training of High School Teachers in California, p. 14* 108 has been assumed that the assignments, as listed by the prin cipal, are in the order of their importance. Thus a teacher with an assignment of English first, followed by a teaching assignment of Latin is regarded as primarily a teacher of English. Conversely, a teacher with teaching assignment of Latin first, followed by an assignment of English is regarded as primarily a teacher of Latin with English as a secondary teaching interest. Although it is recognized that such assignments as dramatics, public speaking, and library practice are related to the general field of English instruction, yet teachers with such assignments, but without definite English assign ments, are not included in this study. This is done because the teachers of these related fields are not faced with the problems especially characteristic of English teaching and their professional attitudes may be different from those of the "teachers of English” as the term is used in this in vestigation. I. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH The records studied include a total of 3,216 teachers of English courses, or 17*8 per cent of the 17,889 high school teachers whose teaching assignments were studied. Of these teachers, 1,082 teach in junior high schools, and. 2,134 teach in high and senior high schools. By far the 109 largest group— 6 6 .7 per cent of the total number— teach in large schools, with 2 2 .2 per cent of the total number in medium-sized schools, and 1 1 .1 per cent in the small schools. This preponderance of English teachers in the large schools is especially apparent in the junior high school field, in which 72.2 per cent of the total number of English teachers are in the large institutions and only 3»4 per cent in the small schools. These figures reflect the tendency to organize junior high schools in urban communities, with resulting large enrollments. In addition to the teachers of specific English courses there are listed 528 teachers of fusion courses. Although not definitely assigned to the teaching of such courses as English or composition, such teachers generally include instruction in English skills in the fused courses. More than half of these teachers of combined courses are found in the large junior high schools, reflecting the trend toward such fusion courses in this area. The number and percentage of teachers of English in small, medium-sized, and large junior and senior high schools are presented in Tables I, II, and III. II. DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH BY SEX Of the total number of 3,216 high school teachers of English, 79^9 per cent are women and 20.1 per cent are men. A somewhat larger proportion of men teach in high and senior 110 TABLE I DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS BY SIZE OF SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 Size of schools according to number of teachers Number of junior high schools Per cent of junior high schools Number of teachers Teachers Per cent of Additional of English teachers teachers of courses* of English fusion courses** Small junior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 15 11.2 36 3.4 11 Medium junior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 42 31.3 264 24.4 50 Large junior high schools (36 teachers and over) 77 57.5 782 72.2 307 Total 134 100.0 1,082 100.0 368 * English courses include: English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, and spelling. ** The term "fusion courses” includes: "Social living,” "English— social studies," and "fusion." Ill TABLE II DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS BY SIZE OF SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 Size of schools according to number of teachers Number of high and senior high schools Per cent of total high and senior high schools Number of teachers Teachers Per cent of Additional of English total of teachers of courses* teachers of fusion English courses** Small high and senior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 161 41.5 324 15.2 10 Medium high and senior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 103 26.5 450 21.1 16 Large high and senior high schools (36 teachers and over) 124 32.0 1,360 63.7 134 Total 388 100.0 2,134 100 .0 160 * English courses include: English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, and spelling. ** The term "fusion courses” includes: "Social living,” "English— social studies," and "fusion.” 112 TABLE III DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN ALL CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS BY SIZE OF SCHOOIS, 1938-1939 Size of schools Number of Per cent Number of teachers according to number of teachers high schools of total of all ,*tigh schools Teachers of English courses* Per cent of total of all English teachers Additional teachers of fusion courses** Small high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 176, n 33*7 360 11.1 21 Medium high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 145 27.8 714 22.2 66 Large high schools (36 teachers and over) 201 38.5 2,142 66.7 441 Total 522 100.0 3,216 100.0 528 * English courses include::English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, and spelling* ** The term "fusion courses" includes: "Social living," "English— social studies," and "fusion*" 113 high, schools than in junior high schools— 21.7 per cent in the former type of schools against 16.1 per cent in the lat ter. There is no appreciable concentration of men or women teachers in small, medium, or large schools, the proportion of men and women teaching in each of these three areas approxi mating very closely the proportion of the total number of teachers found in such schools. The distribution of teachers of English according to sex is shown in Tables IT, T, and VI. III. EXTENT OF CONTENT IONAL TYPES OF ENGLISH COURSES AND OF FUSION COURSES The records studied show that in only 6.7 per cent of all the high schools fusion courses rather than the conven tional separate English courses are predominant. Such fusion courses in which English skills; are taught are found in 17.8 per cent of junior high schools and in only 2.7 per cent of the high and senior high schools. By far the greatest pro portion of these fusion courses is found in large junior high schools, and in the southern part of the state. The distri bution of the conventional types of English courses and of fusion courses is shown in Tables VII, Till, and IX. IT. DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH ACCORDING TO EMPHASIS OF TEACHING ASSIGNMENTS IN ENGLISH The term "teachers of English" is used in this study 114 TABLE IV DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO THE SEX OF TEACHERS, 1938-1939 Types of schools Number of men teachers Per cent of total of men teachers Number of women teachers Per cent of total of Tsiomen teachers Small junior high * schools {up to 15 teachers inclusive) 11 6.3 * 25 2.8 Medium junior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 48 27.7 216 24.0 Large junior high schools {36 teachers and over) 124 67.8 658 73.0 Total 183 100.0 899 100.0 Per cent of total number of teachers of English 16*1 83.9 115 TABLE V DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OOP ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO THE SEX OF TEACHERS, 1938-1939 Types of schools Number of men teachers Per cent of total of men teachers Number of women teachers Per cent of total of women teachers Small high and senior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclu sive ) 77 16.6 247 14.8 Medium high and senior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclu sive) 107 23.1 343 20.5 Large high and senior high schools (36 teachers and over) 280 60.3 1,080 64.7 Total 464 100.0 1,670 100.0 Per cent of total number of teachers of English 21.7 78.3 116 TABLE VI DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN ALL CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO THE SEX OF TEACHERS, 1938-1939 Types of schools Number of men teachers Per cent of total of men teachers Number of women teachers Per cent of total of women teachers Small high schools (op to 15 teachers inclusive) 88 13.6 272 10.6 Medium high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 155 24.0 559 21.7 Large high schools (36 teachers and oyer) 404 62.4 1,738 67.7 Total 647 100.0 2,569 100.0 Per cent of total number of teachers of English 20.1 79.9 117 TABLE VII DISTRIBUTION OF CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF COURSES AND FUSION COURSES IN CALIFORNIA JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 Types of schools Schools in which separate English courses predominate* Per cent of total junior high schools Schools in which fusion courses predominate ** Per cent of total junior high schools Small junior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 13 9.6 2 1.5 Medium junior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 35 25.99 7 5.2 Large junior high schools (36 teachers and over) 62 45.99 15 11.1 Total 110 81.5 24 17.8 * The term "English courses" includes: English, composition, grammar, literature, reading and spelling. ** The term "fusion courses" includes: "Social living," "English— social studie s," and "f us ion." 118 TABLE VIII DISTRIBUTION OF CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF COURSES AND FUSION COURSES IN CALIFORNIA HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOIS, 1938-1939 Types of schools Schools in which separate English courses predominate* Per cent of total of high and senior high schools Schools in which fusion courses pre dominate ** Per cent of total of high and senior high schools Small high and senior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 158 40.7 3 0.7 Medium high and senior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 101 26*0 2 0.5 Large high and senior high schools (36 teachers and over) 118 30*4 6 1.5 Total 377 97.1 11 2.7 * The tern "English courses" includes: English, composition, grammar, literature, reading and spelling* ** The term "fusion courses" includes: "Social living," "English— social studies," and "fusion*" 119 TABLE IX DISTRIBUTION OF CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF COURSES AND FUSION COURSES IN ALL CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 Types of schools Schools in which separate English courses predominate * Per cent of total of all high schools Schools in which fusion courses predominat e ** Per cent of total of all high schools Small high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 171 32.7 5 1.0 Medium high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 136 26.0 9 1.7 Large high schools (36 teachers inclusive) 180 34.5 21 4.0 Total 487 93.2 35 6.7 * The term "English courses” includes: English, composition, grammar, literature, reading and spelling* ** The term "fusion courses” includes: "Social living,” "English— social studies," and "fusion.” 120 to denote those whose teaching assignments include one or more or the following courses: English, composition, litera ture, grammar, reading, and spelling. Such teachers number 3,216 in all California high schools. This total number of teachers of English can be divided into three groups. In the first group are those who are assigned to English courses only or to English courses and such closely related assign ments as dramatics, or speech, or library supervision. Such teachers may be designated as ^teachers of English only.” Other teachers have as their first assignments English, com position, literature, grammar, reading, or spelling, and in addition have assignments in such teaching fields as mathe matics, social sciences, foreign language, etc. These teachers may be regarded as primarily teachers of English with the added subject as of secondary teaching emphasis. A third group of teachers includes those who have their first assignments in such fields as mathematics, social sci ences, foreign languages, etc., and additional assignments to teach subjects in the English field. Such teachers are re garded in this study as being primarily teachers in the field of their first assignment, with English as of secondary emphasis. Teachers of f , English only” number 1,484 in all California high schools, or 4 6.1 per cent of the total number of teachers of English courses. The greatest degree of spe cialisation is found in the high and senior high schools, in 121 which types of schools 5U.3 per cent of high and senior high school teachers of English teach in the field of English alone. In junior high schools, the proportion of junior high school teachers who teach English alone is much less than in high and senior high schools, being 2 9 .9 per cent of all junior high school teachers of English. As might be expected, there is a much greater tendency to teacher specialization in the large high schools than in the small and medium-sized schools. Nine hundred and fourteen, or 28.4 per cent, of all teachers of English courses teach English first with one or more teaching assignments added. In junior high schools, this group of teachers is 8.2 per cent greater than the "English alone" group; in high and senior high schools the "English first" group is less than half as large as the "English only" group. Eight hundred and eighteen, or 25.5 per cent, of all English teachers teach English courses in addition to a first teaching assignment in some other field. In junior high schools, this group represents 31*& per cent of the total num ber of junior high school teachers of English; in high and senior high schools the corresponding group represents 22.3 per cent of the total number of English teachers in all high and senior high schools. This review of teaching assignments 122 suggests a relatively high degree of specialization among teachers of English in California high schools. Almost half, 46.1 per cent, of the total number teach in the field of English only. Almost three quarters, 74*5 per cent, have English courses either as their only or their first teaching assignment. Only one fourth, 25*5 per cent, teach English in addition to a first' assignment in some other teaching field. The distribution of total number of English teachers according to major emphasis of assignments is shown in Tables X, XI, and XII. V. DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS OF "ENGLISH FIRST” ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF TEACHING FIELDS INVOLVED In the preceding section, it was shown that 914 teachers in California high schools have English as a first teaching as signment with other subjects added. A further study of the data compiled shows the number of additional subject fields in which these teachers of English teach. By far the greatest number of teachers— 717, or 7B.3 per cent of the "English first" group— teach in only one additional field. One hundred and fifty, or 16.4 per cent of the "English first" group, teach in two additional fields, while 47, or 5*2 per cent of the "English first” group, teach in three or more fields. The number of teachers of English assigned to teach two or more subjects in addition to their first assignment of English is 123 TABLE X DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO MAJOR EMPHASIS OF ASSIGNMENT, 1938-1939 Types of schools English Per cent assign- of total ments English only* teachers in junior high schools English assignments first with other fields added** Per cent English Per cent of total assignments of total English added to English teachers other teachers in junior fields*** in junio: high high schools schools Small junior high schools {up to 15 teachers inclusive) 6 .6 11 1.0 19 1.7 Medium junior high schools {16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 96 8.8 64 5.9 104 9.6 Large junior high schools (35 teachers and over) 222 20.5 338 31.2 222 20.5 Total 324 29.9 413 38.1 345 31.8 * These teachers have first assignments of English, composition, grammar, literature, reading or spelling. In addition they may have such closely re lated assignments as dramatics, speech, or library. ** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading or spelling. In addition they have assignments in such fields as science, mathematics, etc. *** tpkese teachers have as their first assignments courses in such fields as mathematics, foreign languages, etc. In addition they have assignments such as English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, and spelling. 124 TABLE XI DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO MAJOR EMPHASIS OF ASSIGNMENT, 1958-1939 Per cent English of total English Types of schools assign- English assignments ments teachers first with only* in high other fields and senior added** high schools Per cent of total English English assignments teachers added to in high other and senior fields*** high schools Per cent of total English teachers in high and senio] high schools Small high and senior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 60 2.8 133 6.2 131 6.2 Medium high and senior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 191 8.9 116 5.4 143 6.7 Large high and senior high schools (36 teachers and over) 909 42.6 252 11.8 199 9.4 Total 1,160 54.3 501 23.4 473 22.3 * These teachers have first assignments of English, composition, grammar, literature, reading or spelling. In addition they may have such closely re lated assignments as dramatics, speech, or library. ** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading or spelling. In addition they have assignments in such fields as science, mathematics, etc. *** These teachers have as their first assignments courses in such fields as mathematics, foreign languages, etc. In addition they have assignments such as English, grammar, literature, reading, and spelling. 125 TABLE XII DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN ALL CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO THE MAJOR EMPHASIS OF ASSIGNMENT, 1938-1939 Per cent English of total Types of schools assign- English ments teachers only* in all high schools English assignments first with other fields added** Per cent of total English teachers in all high .schools English assignments added to other fields*** Per cent of total English teachers in all high schools Small high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 66 2.1 144 4.5 150 4.2 Medium high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 287 8.9 180 5.6 247 7.5 Large high schools (36 teachers and over) 1,131 35.1 590 18.3 421 13.8 Total 1,484 46.1 914 28.4 818 25.5 * These teachers have first assignments of English, composition, grammar, literature, reading or spelling. In addition they may have such closely re lated assignments as dramatics, speech, or library. ** These teaehers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading or spelling. In addition they have assignments in such fields as science, mathematics, etc. *** These teachers have as their first assignments courses in such fields as mathematics, foreign languages, etc. In addition they have assignments such as English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, and spelling. 126 comparatively small. Both in junior high schools and in high and senior high schools, teachers of English do not seem un duly burdened with a number of teaching assignments in other fields than English. The distribution of the teachers of the "English first" group according to the number of teaching fields involved is shown in Tables XIII, XIV, and XV. VI. DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECT COMBINATIONS AMONG THE ASSIGNMENTS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH As was mentioned previously in this chapter, 914 teachers of English have English subjects as their first as signment, with additional subjects in other teaching fields. Analysis of the assignments of these "English first" teachers shows the subjects that most frequently follow immediately after the English assignment. The great majority of the "English first" teachers have social science courses as their next teaching assignment— 44 per cent of high and senior high school "English first" teachers, and 80.8 per cent of junior high school "English first" teachers having such a combination. The next most fre quent subject combination is English first with foreign lan guage second but with only 25.5 per cent of the high and senior high school "English first" teachers and only 7.2 per cent of the junior high school "English first" teachers having this combination. The next most frequently appearing subjects, TABLE XIII 127 DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING ASSIGNMENTS FOR PERSONS PRIMARILY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF TEACHING FIELDS INVOLVED, CALIFORNIA JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 English Types of field schools alone Per cent Per cent of total English of total English English first English first teachers one teachers two in junior added* in junior added** high high schools schools Per cent Per cent of total English of total English first English teachers three teachers in junior added*** in junior high high schools schools Small junior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 6 .6 4 .37 5 .6 2 • 2 Medium junior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive 96 8.8 56 5.2 8 .7 0 .0 Large junior high schools (36 teachers and over) 222 20.5 259 23.9 66 6.0 13 .12 Total**** 324 29.9 319 29.5 79 7.3 15 .14 * These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling. In addition they have one other assignment in one other teaching field, such as mathematics, science, etc. ** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling. In addition they have assignments in two other teaching fields. *** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, granmar, literature, reading, or spelling. In addition they have three other assignments in three other teaching fields. **** In addition to the teachers listed above there are 345, or 31.9 per cent, of the total number with English assignments added to a first assignment in some other field. TABLE XIV DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING ASSIGNMENTS FOR PERSONS PRIMARILY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF TEACHING FIELDS INVOLVED, CALIFORNIA HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOIS, 1938-1939 Per cent of total English English T^rpes of field teachers schools alone in high and senior high schools Per cent Per cent Per cent of total of total of total English English English English English English first teachers first teachers first teachers one in high two in high three in high added* and senior added** and senior added*** and senior high high high sehools schools schools Small high and senior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 60 2*8 63 2*9 45 2*1 25 1*2 Medium high and senior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 191 8*9 91 4*3 18 •84 7 •3 Large high and senior high schools (36 teachers and over) 909 42*6 244 11.5 8 •38 0 *0 Total**** 1,160 54*3 398 18.7 71 3.3 32 1.5 * These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling* Ttx addition they have one other assignment in one other teaching field, such as mathematics, science, etc* ** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling* In addition they have assignments in two other teaching fields. *** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling* In addition they have three other assignments in three other teaching fields. **** addition to the number of teachers listed above there are 473, or 22*3 per cent of the total number with Ehglish added to a first assignment in some other field. TABLE XV 129 DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING ASSIGNMENTS FOR PERSONS PRIMARILY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF TEACHING FIELDS INVOLVED, ALL CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 Per cent of total English English Types of field teachers schools alone in all high schools Per cent of total English English first teachers one in all added* high schools Per cent of total English English f irst teache rs two in all added** high schools English first three added*** Per cent of total English teachers in all high schools Small high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 66 2.1 67 2.1 50 1.5 27 •84 Medium high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 287 8*9 147 4*5 26 .83 7 .21 Large high schools (36 teachers and over) 1,131 35*1 503 15.7 74 2.3 13 .41 Total**** 1,484 46.1 717 22*3 150 4.7 47 1.4 * These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling* In addition they have one other assignment in one other teaching field, such as mathematics, science, etc* ** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling* In addition they have assignments in two other teaching fields* *** These teachers have as their first assignments English, composition, grammar, literature, reading, or spelling; In addition they have three other assignments in three other teaching fields* **** In addition to the teachers listed above there are 818, or 25.4 per cent, of the total number with English assignments added to a first assign ment in some other field. 130 all of them relatively infrequent, are physical education (most frequent in the small schools), mathematics, commercial subjects, and science. Tables XVI, XVII, and XVIII reveal the preponderance of social science as a second teaching assignment with English and the relative infrequency of all other subjects as second ary assignments. VII. COMPARATIVE DATA RELATING' TO THE TEACHING ASSIGN MENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Comparative figures for the number and per cent of teachers of English in various states of the Union are diffi cult of interpretation because of the lack of agreement in the definition of the term "teacher of English." Some in vestigators define a teacher of English as one teaching one or more classes in the subject. Others regard the English teacher as one teaching in that field predominantly. As a result, too definite conclusions cannot be drawn from the majority of such studies nor too close comparisons be made. The most complete summary of statistics in.this field of research is reprinted in Table XIX of this chapter. The investigation upon which the figures quoted are based showed that "English is more widely taught than any other subject in high school curriculum1 * with an average of 23 per cent of all high school teachers giving instruction in one or more * tabu: xfi DISTRIBUTION OF "ENGLISH FIRST" TEACHERS ACCORDING TO SUBJECT COMBINATIONS TAUGHT IN CALIFORNIA JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 Types of schools First teaching assignment in field of English, with the next teaching assignment in the following fields Social science Mathe- _ , i matics Science Foreign languages IduoatSn Oommeree Others Total Small junior high schools {up to 15 teachers inclusive) 7 1 0 0 0 2 1 11 Medium junior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 45 2 1 5 2 3 6 64 Large junior high schools (36 teachers and over) 282 8 1 19 2 6 20 338 Total 334 11 2 24 4 11 27 413 131 TABLE XVTI DISTRIBUTION OF "'ENGLISH FIRST” TEACHERS ACCORDING TO SUBJECT MATTER COMBINATIONS TAUGHT IN HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, 1938-1939 Types of schools First teaching assignment in field of English, with the next teaching assignment in the following fields Social science Mathe- _ . .. Science matics Foreign languages Scat ion Coramerce 0thers Total Small high and senior high schools (up to 15 teachers inclu sive) 33 4 5 40 20 11 20 133 Medium high and senior high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclu sive) 49 10 3 26 8 6 . 14 116 Large high and senior high schools (36 teachers and over) 148 8 6 52 13 3 22 252 Total 230 22 14 118 41 20 56 501 132 TABLE XVIII DISTRIBUTION OF ’ ENGLISH FIRST” TEACHERS ACCORDING TO SUBJECT MATTER COMBINATIONS TAUGHT IN ALL CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOIS, 1938-1939 Types of schools First teaching assignment in field of English, with the next teaching assignment in the following fields Social Mathe- science matics Science Foreign languages education Caramerce 0thers Total Small high schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) 40 5 5 40 20 13 21 144 Medium high schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) 94 12 4 31 10 9 20 180 Large high schools (36 teachers and over) 430 16 7 71 15 9 42 590 Total 564 33 16 142 45 31 83 914 133 134 TABLE X3X THE PER CENT OF ENGLISH TEACHERS FOUND IN TWENTY-FIVE ANALYSES OF TEACHING POSITIONS* State Year Per cent teaching English Indiana 1929-30 26 Maine 1925-26 28 Missouri 1925-26 27 Illinois 1924-25 23 Idaho 1924-25 27 South Dakota 1924-25 37 Ohio 1928-29 30 Oklahoma 1925-26 27 Iowa 1924-25 21 Pennsylvania 1926-27 24 South Carolina 1926-27 20 New York 1927-28 21 Washington 1918-19 24 Michigan 1924-25 20 Minnesota 1921-22 28 Kansas 1924-25 30 North Dakota 1927-28 47 Wisconsin 1929-30 27 Arkansas 1929-30 34 Louisiana 1925-26 30 Colorado 1926-27 27 California 1929-30 17 West Virginia (large high school 1929-30 21 West Virginia (small high school) 1929-30 25 Thirteen cities 1928 18 * Earl W. Anderson and Reuben H. Eliassen, ”High-School Teachers of English,” English Journal (High School Edition), 21:60-61, January, 1932. # 135 classes in English. It also revealed that the per-cent of California high school teachers with assignments in the field of English is the lowest for any state. The same investigation revealed that of other school subjects frequently taught with English, social science ranks highest with 41 per cent; Latin, 28 per cent; history, 10 per cent; home economics, 6 per cent; physical education and mathematics, 3 per cent each; French, biology, commerce, and music, 2 per cent each; library work and physical sciences, 3 1 per cent each. Bata compiled for the national Survey of the Education of Teachers (for the school year 1930-1931) showed that 36.7 per cent of all junior high school teachers and 41*2 per cent of all senior high school teachers in California taught in 4 one field only. The figures upon which such percentages are based included the records of teachers of subjects usually taught alone, such as art, music, manual arts, domestic sci ence. The percentages given are thus higher than would apply for teachers of the more conventional academic subjects. 31 study by Hulten in 1932 revealed that teachers of English in 3 Earl W. Anderson and Reuben H. Eliassen, "High- School Teachers of English/* English Journal (High School Edition), 21:60-61, January, 1932. 4 'Edward S. Evenden and others, "Teacher Personnel in the United States," Rational Survey of the Education of Teachers, 2:66. 136 California high schools have, in general, more specialized 5 teaching assignments than other teachers. VIII. SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER The purpose of this chapter was to discover the number and distribution of teachers of English in California high schools and the type of their teaching assignments. It was found that: 1. Teachers of English number 3,216, or 17.8 per cent of the 17,689 high school teachers whose assignments were studied. Of these teachers of English, 1,082 teach in junior high schools and 2,13-4 in high and senior high schools. 2. Teachers of English are predominantly women— only 20.1 per cent are men*., 3* Eleven per cent of all teachers of English teach in small schools, 22 per cent in medium-sized schools, and 66 per cent in large schools of thirty-six teachers and over. 4* Almost half of the total number of teachers of English teach in the field of English alone. In high and senior high schools this proportion is 54*3 per cent. 5. The great majority of the teachers of English who 5 Ollie B. Hulten, "Subject Combinations in Secondary School Teachers’ Programs in California,” (unpublished Master’s thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1932). 137 teach other subjects have social studies as their first added teaching assignment, with foreign languages next in frequency. The next most frequently appearing subjects, all of them rela tively infrequent, are physical education (most frequent in small schools), mathematics, commercial subjects, and science. 6. The degree of specialization in teaching assign ments advances with the size of the school. CHAPTER VI CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH In the preceding chapter, typical teaching conditions affecting teachers of English in California high schools were analyzed* In the present chapter, a report is made of a study qf the-teaching duties and classroom activities charac teristic of high school teachers of English. These data are presented in the belief that any study of the education of teachers of English and any programs designed for this prepara tion should be based in part upon the activities closely, asso ciated with the subject field. Attempts to analyze teaching duties adequately and significantly are difficult. They may become so inclusive as to be unwieldy or so simplified as to be equally impractical. 1 The Commonwealth Teacher Training Study which revealed 1,010 duties of high school teachers and the -extent to which English teachers perform such duties, is too minute an analysis to be of great value. On the other hand, attempts to represent all the work of teachers of English as a.mere handful of activi ties- in the teaching of language skills and literary apprecia tion do not lend themselves to practical application. W. W. Charters and Douglas ?/aples, The Commonwealth Training Study.* 139, In addition to the dangers of becoming too exhaustive or too simplified, attempts to analyze the activities of teachers are usually open to the criticism inherent in the job-analysis method. They usually list— as Bode had pointed 2 out — what is done rather than what should be done. In the investigation reported in this chapter, the method used to determine the most characteristic duties of teachers of English was to study: (1) the objectives of English instruction as listed in high school courses of study and in surveys of teaching objectives; (2) the aims and prac tices of teachers of English as reported in the English Journal (High School Edition), the official organ of the National Council of Teachers of English; and (3) the reports of experimental research in the field of English. From the study of such data, a list of duties most characteristically associated with the teaching of English was obtained. All three types of data mentioned above were included in an ef fort to secure the advantages of the job-analysis method with out suffering from its admitted deficiencies. The list of teaching duties was thus obtained not only from sources re porting what English teachers do but also from sources indi cating what they should do, according to expert testimony and 2 Boyd H. Bode, Modern Educational Theories (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1927), Chap. Y. 140 objective evidence* The list obtained thus becomes part of a valid instrument for use in investigating the problems con nected with the education of teachers of English in California high schools. I. CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE TEACHING OP HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH AS REVEALED IN COURSES OP STUDY The first step toward discovering the teaching activi ties most characteristically associated with the teaching of high school English^in California was an analysis of repre sentative courses of study in secondary English* The State Department of Education in California publishes no courses of study* These are developed in the local school systems* In order to secure representative courses of study, a request was made under the name of the Southern California Association of Teachers of English to school administrators in twenty-one representative. California cities* Prom such sources eighteen courses of study in English from fifteen different localities on the junior high and senior high school level were obtained* The names and titles of these courses of study are shown in Table XX of this chapter* In order to discover the teaching duties and activi ties suggested by these eighteen courses of study, each one was studied twice* During the first reading, items suggesting TABLE XX COURSES OF STUDY IN HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 141 Alameda Berkeley Beverly Hills Burbank Fresno Glendale Long Beach Los Angeles Los Angeles County Oakland Pasadena Sacramento San Francisco Stockton Taft Outline of Content of High School English Courses, 1939 Printed Courses of Study for Junior High School English, 1931 Mimeographed Courses of Study for Senior High School English, 1938 Mimeographed Bulletin of Minimum Essentials and Pre scriptions of High School Courses in English, 1939 Instructional Guide for Junior High School English Courses, 1939 Course of Study Bulletin Junior High Sehool English, 1938 Report of English Committee, Description of Junior High and Senior High School Courses with Objectives and Techniques, 1936-1937 Printed Course of Study for Senior High School English, 1932 Catalog of Authorized Courses for Junior and Senior Day High Schools, 1938-1939 Literature as Interpretation of Life, MimeographedOutline for 12th Grade Study Recompiled Course of Study for Junior High School English, 1932 Reorganized Course of Study for English in the Senior High School, 1934 English, Junior High School, 1931 Literature, and Composition, Grades 11 to 14, 1933 Course of Study Monograph, Senior High Sehool English, 1930 Printed Junior High School English, 1927 Mimeographed English Courses for Grades 9 to 12, 1938 Mimeographed Descriptive Summary of the English Program for High School and Junior College, 1938-1939 142 classroom effort were listed on separate slips of paper. From these items, a master chart of activities was constructed. The second reading of the courses of study was then made and each teaching duty suggested was listed under its appropriate head. In order to compare the items discovered in this an alysis with those found in previous attempts to analyze courses of study in English curricula, six studies dealing with the objectives of high school English and the activities of English teachers were analyzed and their characteristic items listed on the master sheet. These six studies were the investigation of Smith made as a part of the National Survey O I C of Secondary Education, and studies by Maus, Tower,p and 6 7 8 Coale, Koos, and Douglass and Filk. 3 Dora Y. Smith, Instruction in English (United States Office of Education Bulletin No. 17, Monograph No. 20; Washington, B.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1933). 4 Julia A. Maus, "Teacher Training in English." 5 Donald M. Tower, "In Service Education of Teachers of English in the Public Secondary Schools of New York State, v/ith Special Consideration of the Oral Phases of the Subject.” 6 W. B. Coale, Professional Needs of Teachers of English. 7 Leonard V. Koos, The American Secondary School (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1927), pp. 3 89, 391♦ S Harl B, Douglass and Anna M. Filk, "The Classroom Practices of Minnesota Teachers of High School English," English Journal (High School Edition), 18:254-255, March, 193S 143 The National Survey of Secondary Education in 1932 includes an analysis of courses of study of high school English representing various parts of the United States and lists of aims of oral and written English, composition and literature teaching. In addition to these lists of the aims of English teaching, the National Survey also includes the most frequent activities discovered in the teaching of high sehool oral and written English composition and the teaching topics included in lesson plans. The most detailed analysis of specific teaching aetivi- 9 ties of high school English teachers was made by Maus in 1932 under the direction of Doctor Dora V. Smith of the University of Minnesota. This analysis includes 209 specific activities under the heads of General Methods, Extraclassroom Activities, and Content. Tower10 in 1933 made a study showing 115 specific skills and types of knowledge needed by teachers of oral 11 English. Goale in 1928 listed thirty-nine special abili- ties needed by the teacher of high school English. Koos in his American Secondary School listed sixteen aims of teaching 9 Maus, op. cit. 10 Tower, op. cat. 11 ' , Goale, op. cit. 12 Koos, ££• cit. 144 English in high school* Many other lists of the objectives of teaching English and classroom practices of teachers of English have been published* Among them is the study of 13 Douglass and Filk of the classroom practices of Minnesota teachers of high school English. The results of these studies were used as a basis of comparison in listing the most characteristic duties of California high school teachers of English. For the sake of including a nationally recognized course of study in English the teaching activities suggested 14 fcy An Experience Curriculum in English were included in the master chart. From the analysis just described, 111 teaching activi ties characteristic of English instruction were discovered. A list of such activities is given in Table XKI. II. CHARACTERISTIC ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH AS REVEALED IN PERIODICAL LITERATURE A second method of investigating the characteristic teaching activities of teachers of English was to analyze the contents of ten volumes of the English Journal (High School 13 Douglass and Filk, op. cit. 14 W. Wilbur Hatfield, Chairman, An Experience Curricu lum in English. 145 TABLE XXI CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING- ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH IN ORDER OF THEIR FREQUENCY OF MENTION* Teaching grammar Teaching creative writing Teaching oral interpretation Teaching letter writing Teaching outlining in composition Teaching precis writing in composition Teaching knowledge of types of literature Teaching the English novel Guiding reading for Interest and pleasure Teaching oral composition, informal speaking Teaching parliamentary practice Teaching journalistic form of writing Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension Directing recreational reading Teaching the short story Teaching the essay Teaching paragraph development Teaching book reports and reviews Teaching the art of good conversation Directing group discussion Developing character through literature Teaching social and historical backgrounds of literature Teaching sentence structure Teaching spelling Teaching preparation of manuscripts Teaching drama Teaching the historical development of literature Teaching dramatic expression Teaching expository writing Teaching life problems through literature Teaching discrimination between good and bad literature Teaching use of library and research Teaching knowledge and appreciation of well known literary characters Developing courtesy and manners Teaching worthy leisure time habits Teaching American ideals in literature Teaching biography Teaching pronunciation * Secured from an analysis of courses of study and reports of research studies as explained in the preceding section* 146 TABLE XXI (Continued) CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH IN ORDER OF THEIR FREQUENCY OF MENTION Teaching social cooperation and citizenship Developing vocabulary Teaching remedial writing Teaching aesthetic tastes though literature Teaching literature as a record of world culture Teaching motion picture and radio appreciation Teaching students to develop opinions and express them Teaching classic background of English literature Teaching the organization and development of clear thought Teaching the mechanics of speaking Teaching the art of communication through written composition Teaching debating Teaching use of periodicals and newspapers Teaching poetry Teaching the literature of travel and adventure Teaching the knowledge of authors Teaching capitalization Teaching us© of dictionary Teaching story telling Teaching remedial reading Teaching diction Teaching the principles of rhetoric Teaching methods of criticizing and evaluating composition Teaching how, to prepare notebooks Developing personality through literature Teaching the philosophy of life through literature Teaching American literature Teaching contemporary writers Teaching Shakespeare Teaching how to study Teaching to appreciate the value of speech Teaching different speech types, introductions, etc* Teaching how to evaluate and criticize speech Stimulating the imagination through literature Developing a sense of humor through literature Developing vocabulary Teaching the literary classics Teaching the art of descriptive writing Teaching literary appreciation Teaching how to memorize Teaching literature as an interpretation of life Teaching orations 147 TABES XXI (Continued) CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH IN ORDER OF THEIR FREQUENCY OF MENTION Teaching the organization of speech Teaching extemporaneous speeches Teaching poise Developing religious sense through literature Teaching stagecraft Teaching development of democracy through literature Teaching world understanding and peace Teaching use of figures of speech Teaching how to choose good current literature Guiding vocational choices through literature Teaching leadership Teaching propaganda analysis Teaching history of the language Teaching penmanship Teaching use of outside libraries Teaching current events Teaching radio speech Teaching art of interviewing Teaching how to write radio script In addition to the class duties suggested, the following activities are suggested: General methods of teaching— group method, etc* Meeting individual pupil needs Knowledge of- texts and materials Knowledge of tests and materials Teaching how to study Correlating English with school subjects and local needs Extracurricular duty Supervising school publications Securing community cooperation Supervising dramatic production Coaching debates Supervising library 148 Edition)* This periodical is the official organ of the National Council of Teachers of English and presumably re flects adequately the professional interests of teachers in this subject field* It not only contains the discussion of - outstanding problems by recognized leaders in the field of English teachers, but its editors open its columns to articles by classroom teachers desiring to discuss educational theory, or to report results of classroom experiences. All articles— except those demoted entirely to general literary criticism or to the reporting of educational events— in the ten volumes from 1929 to 1938, inclusive, were analyzed and listed according to the major emphasis upon classroom practice. In Table XXII, the distribution of subjects treated is reported. The department of the English Journal devoted primarily to discussions of classroom practices is the "Round Table," appearing in each issue. This is an open forum representing the views of teachers from all parts of the country. Many subjects of professional interest are discussed, but the great majority of articles are reports of actual teaching practices in the field of English. Table XXIII showB the topics treated in the "Round Table" department of the ten volumes of the English Journal, 1929-1938, inclusive. By far the greatest number of articles appearing in the "Round Table" deal with attempts on the part of teachers 149 TABLE XXII DISTRIBUTION OF TOPICS TREATED IN TEN VOLUMES OF THE ENGLISH JOURNAL (HIGH SCHOOL EDITION) , 1929-1938, INCLUSIVE, IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY Topics Number of articles General methods of class organization 61 Creative writing 31 Composition as communicating 28 Poetry appreciation 27 Free reading program 22 Word usage 18 Grammar 18 Economic and social backgrounds through literature 16 Supervising dramatic production 16 Making classics real 13 Correlating English with other subjects 13 Evaluation, tests, etc* 11 Literature appreciation 11 Remedial reading 10 Materials, texts, etc. 10 Devices to aid interests— motivation 10 Acquaintance with classics 9 World culture and understanding 7 Supervising school publications 7 Remedial writing 6 Drama appreciation 6 Supervising group discussion 5 Oral English— types, introductions, etc. 5 Choice of periodicals 4 Developing character through literature 4 Oral composition 4 Writing for school paper 4 Developing good conversation 3 Book reports 3 Letters 3 Outlining 3 Mechanics of writing 3 Supervising library 2 Dramatic expression 2 Analyzing literary character 2 Getting opinions and expressing them 2 Oral interpretation 2 Knowledge of literary characters 2 150 TABLE XXII (Continued) DISTRIBUTION OF TOPICS TREATED IN TEN VOLUMES OF THE ENGLISH JOURNAL (HIGH SCHOOL EDITION), 1929-1938, INCLUSIVE, IN ORDER OF.FREQUENCY Topics Number of articles Silent reading for speed and comprehension 2 Sentence structure 2 Debate 2 Adapting to pupilC* needs 2 Organizing courses and units 2 Teaching how to study 1 History of language 1 Phonetics 1 Evaluation and criticism of speech 1 Radio speech 1 Social cooperation 1 Myths as literary background 1 151 TABLE XXIII TOPICS TREATED IN "ROUND TABLE" OF THE ENGLISH JOURNAL (HIGH SCHOOL EDITION), 1929-1938, INCLUSIVE Topics Number of articles Motivating interest in standard literature 83 Motivating written composition 28 Motivating extensive reading 25 Class methods— general 24 Poetry appreciation 23 General literature appreciation 21 Motivating oral composition 20 General composition methods 19 Booh reviews and reports 13 Word building 11 Drama 11 School publications 11 Programs for specific days or weeks 10 Motivating creative writing 9 Mechanics of writing > 7 How to teach grammar 7 Use of magazines 7 Motion picture appreciation 7 Evaluating and testing 7 Creative writing— general comment 6 Classics defended 6 Grammar— general comments 6 Special units 5 World friendship 4 Radio techniques 4 Use of library 3 General methods of teaching literature 3 Reading 3 Correlation of English with other subjects 3 Remedial reading 3 Word usage 2 Pleasure in reading 2 Dramatic expression 2 Teaching character through literature 1 Current literature 1 Propaganda analysis 1 152 to motivate classroom instruction; of all the suggestions for increasing classroom interest those concerned with moti vating interest in standard literature, or the so-called classics, are most numerous* Of these, Shakespearean drama is the most frequently discussed, but the poems of Milton, Chaucer, and Tennyson are frequently mentioned, together with such standard novels as Silas»Marner, Treasure Island, and Ivanhoe* A list of standard literary works mentioned as sub ject matter for class activities is presented in Table XXIV. The devices reported by teachers as aids in interest ing pupils in these classics are many and ingenious. Drama tization of the literary works through classroom and school assembly programs is the most frequently reported type of student activity. Other attempts include the organization of boys* clubs to perpetuate the ideals of the Hound Table, the publication of student newspapers reporting the times of Julius Caesar, and the rewriting of scenes from Merchant of Venice in idiomatic English and even in slang. Interest in biography is reported to have been enhanced by appointing each student of the class a "Boswell” to keep close watch upon some student "Johnson” and to report in biographical form the minute details of his daily behavior. The analysis of the classics given in Table XXIV does not attempt to give teaching practices in detail, however; it is inserted to indicate some characteristic activities on the part of English teachers. 153 TABLE XXIV STANDARD LITERARY WORKS MENTIONED AS SUBJECT MATTER FOR CLASS ACTIVITIES IN "ROUND TABLE" OF ENGLISH JOURNAL (HIGH SCHOOL EDITION), 1929-1938, INCLUSIVE, ACCORDING TO FREQUENCY OF MENTION General Shakespearean plays Julius Caesar Canterbury Tales Comus, L* Allegro, II Fenseroso, Lycidas Merchant of Venice Silas Mamer Treasure Island Idylls of the King Ivanhoe Beowolf Samuel Johnson Odyssey Browning Ancient Mariner Sleepy Hollow Maebeth Hamlet As You Like It The Lady of the Lake The House of the Seven Gables Tale of Two Cities Pilgrim* s Progress The Deserted Village Marmion The Talisman DeCoverley Papers Franklin’s Autobiography David Copperfield Intimations of Immortality She Stoops to Conquer To a Skylark The Cloud Sea Fever Story of a Bad Boy White Company The Autocrat at the Breakfast Table The Bible The Crisis Trojan Women MWtowwrotoOJearf*»i*i*oioiaio> 154 HI. CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH AS REVEALED BY REVIEW OF SUMMARIES OF RESEARCH STUDIES The third method used to discover the teaching activi ties of teachers of English consisted of reviewing reports of research in the field of English in an effort to discover the areas of chief emphasis. Three compilations of research studies were reviewed for this purpose: (1) the chapter on research findings.in the Ninth Yearbook of the National Education Association, Department of Supervisors and Directors 15 , of Instruction; (2) Chapter V of Volume VIII of the Review 16 of Educational Research, devoted to research findings in the field of English; and (3) the three reports of the Com mittee on Research of the National Council of Teachers of English reported in Volumes HIV and XXVII of the English * 17 Journal (High School Edition). In addition to these com pilations of research findings, fifty studies gathered from other sources were reviewed. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc tion, The Development of a Modern Program in English, Ninth Yearbook of the National""Education Association, pp. 147-164. 16 Dora V. Smith, "English Language, Reading and Literature," Review of Educational Research, Bt25-33, 193#. 17 "The Contributions of-Research to Teaching and Curriculum-Making in English, January, 1933 through June, 1934," English Journal (High School Edition), 24:363-374, 1935; 24:451-461, 1935; 27:409-420, 1938. 155 While the review of such research findings could hardly be expected to develop a pattern of the typical activi ties of teachers of English, it presumably does indicate the areas in English instruction in which special interest is shown by teachers and research workers. In Table XXV are listed the chief centers of interest as revealed by the re views of research just mentioned. The individual items compiled through the analyses of the three types of data described were very numerous, yet when assembled on master sheets a general pattern became evi dent. Routine activities were seen as subordinate to those more fundamental activities suggesting learning outcomes. The entries on the master chafts finally evolved into forty- five items grouped under six main heads. The activities thus found to be most characteristic of teachers of English were used in the further study of the problem and are discussed at length in Chapter X. They are presented in Table XXVI. IV. SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER The purpose of this chapter was to discover teaching activities most characteristic of teachers of high school English. It was found that: 1. An analysis of eighteen representative courses of study in high school English from fifteen California cities and counties, and of six surveys of high school English in TABLE XXV AREAS INVESTIGATED IN RESEARCH STUDIES IN THE FIELD 03? ENGLISH TEACHING IN ORDER OF FREQUENCY Reading interests of pupils General reading problems Remedial reading Testing Language usage Using newspapers and magazines Grammar The mechanics of writing Directed extensive reading Materials, grade placements, curriculum construction Literary appreciation Teaching literature— general Library influence on reading Plans for individual instruction General methods, groups, etc* Motivating interest in composition Aims of English instruction Measuring literary teaching Vocabulary Correlation of English with other subjects Methods of correcting themes Creative writing Remedial speech Oral composition Written composition Precis writing 157 TABLE XXVT CHARACTERISTIC ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH 1* Activities associated with general teaching problems and procedures: Selecting materials of instruction Organizing units of instruction Organizing class for the best teaching situation— grouping, etc* Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs Administering a testing program— selecting and giving tests, etc* Teaching best methods of study Correlating English instruction with other school experiences 2* Activities associated with teaching of literature: Teaching the general history and development of English literature Teaching literary types Teaching literary appreciation and discrimination Teaching social and economic backgrounds through literature Teaching literature as an interpretation of life and a guide to behavior Teaching the classics of English literature Directing individual programs of extensive reading Teaching social cooperation through literary experiences Teaching international friendship and world peace through literature Teaching students to form opinions and express them Teaching motion picture and radio drama appreciation 3* Activities associated with content reading: Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension Teaching remedial reading Teaching propaganda analysis 4. Activities associated with oral communications Teaching oral interpretation of literature Teaching oral English for social situations— conversation, introductions, etc* Teaching oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary procedure, etc* Teaching formal debate Directing group and panel discussion Teaching dramatic expression Teaching remedial speech 158 T A B L E X X V I (Continued) CHARACTERISTIC ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH 5* Activities associated with written communication: Teaching creative writing Teaching mechanics of writing— punctuation, capitalization, form, etc. Teaching the fundamentals of composition— sentence and paragraph Teaching the organization and development of thought through composition Teaching the art of communicating thought clearly through exposition Teaching letter writing— social and business Teaching the principles of rhetoric Teaching Journalistic fora of writing Teaching how to write book reports and reviews Teaching spelling Teaching remedial practice in composition Teaching formal grammar Teaching proper English usage Teaching how to develop vocabulary 6. Activities associated with extracurriculum interests: Supervising school publications Supervising dramatic productions and school assemblies Directing the use of the library and research practice 159 various parts of the United States reveals 111 activities associated closely with the teaching of high school English. 2..An analysis of ten volumes of the English Journal (High School Edition) shows the extent to which teachers of English discuss activities most characteristic of their classroom work. 3. A review of research studies reveals chief areas in English instruction and typical activities in them. 4. The activities discovered by a study of these three types of published material may be grouped under six main heads: activities associated with general teaching procedure, with the teaching of literature, with content reading, with oral communication, with written communication, and with extraclassroom interests. 5. When so grouped and so analyzed, a list of forty- five items is found to represent teaching activities especi ally characteristic of teachers of English as distinct from teachers of other high school subjects. CHAPTER VII FACILITIES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION AND CREDENTIAL REQUIREMENTS Any study of the problems involved in teacher education in a particular state and in a specific teaching field re quires a survey of the facilities available for teacher edu cation in the given area* A summary of the teacher education facilities available in California universities and colleges is presented in this chapter. Such a presentation includes: (1) state credential requirements; (2) requirements for major in English; (3) English courses in California universities and colleges; and (4) courses in education in California col leges and universities. In 1939 there were eleven institutions of higher learn ing in California fully accredited by the State Board of Education to provide education leading to the general second ary state teaching credential. These eleven institutions included two large state universities, two large universities under private control, five smaller coeducational institutions privately controlled, and two colleges exclusively for women students. One of these women’s colleges— Dominican College— was the only Catholic institution included in the accredited list. In addition to these eleven institutions there were seven state colleges presenting courses of study leading to various special types of teaching credentials and to the 161 junior high school credential required of English teachers in junior high schools. The requirements for a bachelorfs degree in those in stitutions are essentially uniform— the modal requirement being 124 semester units, with twenty-four upper-division semester units in English as the modal requirement for an English major. These requirements are shown in Table XXVII. I. STATE CREDENTIAL REQUIREMENTS The teaching credentials referred to above are issued by the State Department of Education to candidates who have met the necessary educational requirements. These require ments for the junior high school credential and the general secondary school credential follow: REQUIREMENTS EQR THE GENERAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL CREDENTIAL1 An applicant for a junior high school credential must submit: I. A certificate from a physician licensed to practice medicine and surgery that the applicant is physically and mentally fit to engage in teaching service. II. A recommendation from the school or department of education of a university or college approved by the State Board of Education for offering training and recommending for the junior high school credential with verfication of: 1 Regulations Governing Granting of Credentials and Certificates for Public School Service in Cali fornia (St at e of California. Department of Education, Bulletin No* 12, June 15, 1935). TABLE XXVTI LIST OF CALIFORNIA INSTITUTIONS PROVIDING EDUCATION LEADING TO JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AND GENERAL SECONDARY CREDENTIALS WITH REQUIREMENT FOR BACHELOR'S DEGREE AND ENGLISH MAJOR Requirements for Requirements for English Bachelor's degree major— upper division in semester units units in approximate terms Claremont Colleges 126 Zi Claremont College of the Pacific 124 Zi Stockton Dominican College 124 Zi San Rafael / • Mills College Mills College P. 0, 8-10 courses 6 year courses 2 half-year courses Occidental College 31 full courses 4 or more year courses Campus Road, Los Angeles Stanford University 180 quarter units 24 semester units Standard University P. 0* University of California 120 24 Berkeley University of California at Los Angeles 120 24 Los Angeles University of Redlands 124 Not expressed in units Redlands University of Southern California 124 Department major 24 Division major 30 Los Angeles Whittier College 124 Not expressed in units Whittier TABLE XXVII (continued) LIST OF CALIFORNIA INSTITUTIONS PROVIDING EDUCATION LEADING TO JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AND GENERAL SECONDARY CREDENTIALS WITH REQUIREMENT FOR BACHELOR'S DEGREE AND ENGLISH MAJOR Requirements for Bachelor*s degree in semester units Requirements for English major— upper division units in approximate terms State Colleges Chico State College 124 24 Chico Fresno State College 124 24 Fresno Homboldt State College 124 24 Areata San Diego State College 124 19 San Diego San Jose State College 186 quarters 36 quarter units San Jose San Francisco State College 124 19 San Francisco Santa Barbara State College 124 21-27 Santa Barbara A. Completion of a four year college course with a bachelor^ degree. B. Eighteen semester hours of work in education in cluding not less than four semester hours of directed teaching. C. A major and minor in subjects taught in high school, or a major in education and two minors in high school subjects. D. A course in the principles and provisions of the Constitution of the United States of not less than two semester hours completed in a California teacher training institution. (This requirement may be postponed for one year and completed for renewal; or it may be satisfied by passing an examination prescribed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction.) Authorization for Service. This credential authorizes the holder to teach any or all subjects in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades of any elementary or secondary school in the state. If the course of study of the applicant includes twenty-four semester hours in education including adequate preparation for teaching the statutory elemen tary school subjects and eight semester hours in directed teaching, the credential will authorize the holder to teach, in addition to the above grades, all grades of the elementary school. Term. This credential may be issued for a period of two years and may be'renewed thereafter for periods of five years upon verification of at least five months of successful teaching experience in the public schools of California. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOL CREDENTIAL An applicant for a general secondary school credential must submit: A certificate from a physician licensed to practice medicine and surgery that the applicant is physically 2 Ibid 165 and mentally fit to engage in teaching service. II. A recommendation from the school or department of education of a university or college approved by the State Board of Education for offering graduate work with verification of: A. A bachelor's degree. B. One full;3^ar of graduate work of not less than twenty semester hours offered by an institution, or institutions, approved for graduate work by the State Board of Education, one-half of which must have been completed in the recommending institu tion. This graduate work must include at least six semester hours of work in education. C. Eighteen semester hours of work in the department of education given by or approved by the school of education of the recommending institution including: 1. A course dealing with the aims, scope, and desirable outcomes of the secondary school. 2. Directed teaching, four semester hours. (Can didates offering evidence of having had not less than eight months of satisfactory teaching experience may be excused from part or all of this requirement by the school of education of the recommending institution.) 3# Such other courses as may be recommended and approved by the school of education. D. A course in the principles and provisions of the Constitution of the United States of not less than two semester hours completed in a California teacher training institution. (This requirement may be postponed for one year and completed for renewal; or it may be satisfied by passing an examination prescribed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction.) E. One major and one minor in high school subjects or a major in a field not commonly accepted for high school graduation and two minors in high school subjects. Authorization for Service. This credential authorizes the holder to teach any or all subjects (with the ex ception of classes organized under the provisions of the Federal and State Vocational Education Arts} in all grades of any junior college, senior high school, four year high school, junior high school, or ele mentary school. 166 Term, This credential may he issued for a period of two years and may he renewed thereafter for periods of five years upon verification of at least five months of successful teaching experience in the public schools of California. II. REQUIREMENTS FOR MAJOR IN ENGLISH It will be seen from a review of these credential re quirements that secondary school teachers in California do not necessarily need a college major or even a college minor In every subject which they teach. However, it is the general practice of school administrators in seeking teachers to fill specific teaching positions to expect special preparation in the academic subject to be taught. Thus, it is generally expected that the best education for high school teachers of English should include college specialization in English courses— preferably a college major in English. A review of the requirements for the English major shows that all but two of the eighteen institutions whose catalogs were studied require twenty-four upper-division units, or the equivalent, in the field of English for an English major. In addition to these upper-division requirements, cer tain lower-division requirements are set up in each institu tion. The most frequently mentioned courses among these lower-division prerequisites together with the number of times they are mentioned follow: (1) general English composition— required by seventeen institutions; (2) survey of English literature— twelve; (3) general introduction to literature 167 (including literary types and world literature) — eight; (4) speech— eight; (5) Shakespeare and drama— four; (6) advanced composition— two; (7) English history-— one. In ten of the eighteen institutions specific upper- division courses are required for majors in English. The most frequent of these required upper-division courses in English are Shakespeare, courses in literary periods, advanced rhet oric and composition, drama, and Chaucer. In only three of the catalogs of the eighteen institu tions are there recommendations of courses outside the field of English. These recommendations vary, but courses in for eign languages and in philosophy are included in each of the three. It will be seen from the above review that the require ments for a major in English are fairly uniform not only in the number of units required but in the type of courses re quired. The accepted pattern includes courses in English composition, survey of English literature, Shakespeare, Chaucer, and period courses. This pattern is essentially the same in the two state universities studied, the seven state colleges, in the one Catholic institution included in the list, and in four of the private institutions. The four other private institutions, Mills, Claremont Colleges, University of Redlands and Whittier, show some deviation from the generally accepted pattern for the English major, requiring concentration 168 in the field of English, but stressing comprehensive courses rather than strict unit requirements. Course requirements for the English major in California universities and colleges are shown in Tables XXVIII and XXIX. Ill* ENGLISH COURSES IN CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES A survey of the catalogs of the eighteen California institutions listed in this chapter as offering curricula for the preparation of teachers shows a generally uniform pattern of course offerings in the field of English and in such closely related subjects as speech, drama, and journalism. Forty-eight distinctive types of courses in English and such closely related fields as speech, drama, and jour nalism are offered in two or more of the eighteen institu tions. Courses in composition and in drama are offered in all of the eighteen institutions. Seventeen of the colleges and universities offer courses in Shakespeare, the novel, and survey of American literature. Courses in Chaucer are listed in sixteen of the catalogs* The next most frequently appear ing courses are those in world literature, general speech, and oral interpretation of literature; such courses are pre sented in fifteen of the institutions. In fourteen of the institutions courses in poetry, journalism, dramatic produc tion and direction, and surveys of English literature are mBLBxmir COURSE REQUIREMENTS FOR ENGLISH MAJOR IN CALIFORNIA. UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES Lower-division course requirements Upper-division course requirements Claremont Colleges 1939*1940 Introductory course, including: literary criticism, interpretation, reading, writing, speech Concentration is given field after the first two years (the term major is not used) College of the Pacific 1938-1939 English composition; introduction to literature; survey of English literature Advanced grammar or advanced rhetoric; poetry; Shakespeare; American literature; two period courses; one drama course Dominican College 1935 English composition; Shakespeare Mills College 1937-1938 Composition and rhetoric; survey of English literature Four-year courses in literature; two half- year courses in advanced composition Occidental College 1938-1939 English composition; speech; history of English literature of history of English novel Advanced composition— creative writing Stanford University 1939-1940 Composition and speech as recom mended for individuals Historical background for English litera ture University of California, 1937- 1938 English composition; survey of English literature Shakespeare; sufficient *151" courses, including: Chaucer, lyric, tragedy, comedy, Milton, 17th Century literature, literary criticism University of California at Los Angeles, 1936- 1937 English composition; survey of English literature Shakespeare; one course in drama, poetry, or prose; two period courses; short story, critical writing, American litera ture or poetry University of Redlands, 1938-1939 English composition; survey of English literature; English history; advanced composition or journalism Concentration under individual guidance (term major is not used) . University of Southern California, 1938-1939 English composition; introduction to English literature At least five units in period courses Whittier College 1938-1939 Basic courses Junior major course; senior major course; dramatic production; English and American oratory; radio speech TABLE XXIX COURSE REQUIREMENTS TOR ENGLISH MAJOR IN STATE COLLEGES Lower-division course requirements Upper-division course requirements Chico 1939-1940 English composition; introduction to literature (or) survey of English literature Survey of English literature; Shakespeare Fresno 1937-1938 Composition; survey of English literature Upper-division courses elective Humboldt 1935-1936 English composition; survey of English literature Shakespeare; Chaucer San Diego 1939-1940 Composition (or) introduction to literature; advanced English com position; types of literature (or) dramatic production Upper-division courses elective San Francisco 1937-1938 Fundamentals of English; composition; fundamentals of speech; world litera ture; public speaking (or) drama (or) Shakespeare (or) survey American literature; creative writing (or) drama; journalism (or) drama (or) play production; one author-period type course San Jose 1937-1938 English composition; world literature; English literature Shakespeare; creative writing; history of American literature; one English writer; one American writer; one period course; one type course Santa Barbara 1938-1939 English composition; English litera ture; world literature Chaucer (or) Middle English; Shakespeare; history of English novel; comparative literature; introduction to criticism; Milton 170 171 given. Courses in argumentation and debate, dramatics, and the Romantic Movement in English literature are given in thirteen of the institutions. In twelve of these institu tions courses are given in literary criticism, modern and con temporary literature, the Age of Johnson, ¥ictorian Age, Milton, and in acting. Courses in creative writing and in the Elizabethan Age are given in eleven institutions while half of the institutions— or nine— give courses in general literature, remedial speech, and radio presentation. The rest of the forty-eight courses are given in less than half of the eight een institutions. Among English authors, Shakespeare is most frequently studied, with Chaucer, Milton, and Browning coming next in frequency. Specific courses in the literature of the English Romantic Period are most frequently given among the period courses, with eighteenth century literature, Elizabethan lit erature, and Yictorian literature coming next in order of frequency. The most infrequently offered courses are those in periodical literature, oratory, and juvenile or adolescent literature. The extent of offerings in the general field of English i in California universities and colleges is shown in Table XXX. The data shown in Table XXX were reassembled and listed in order of frequency according to the number of in stitutions in which each courses is offered. These reas sembled data are shown in Table XXXI. p . c h n j a V>J C D i - u a > t o c o y & o a C O u C D 3 ( ft) C C - to O ' CQ F ' o D ' - q « < 4f f l » < * P > c+ a 03 c + c * - C D p a B h H i < j H ) H , C D O O C D 8o8* w s o a > o H 1 C D 0>J O C O H * ( R J a H H i oo*j a O C D O . H ' * H C » U) V j o vn>* ■op P w & 0 9 H U J s O . n C o n v O O C j H ' O H V j D v O T O - t - I o C D V jJ C D HvO \n H sO v O v O ' O ' D v f l H nO C » V jj VjO U J nO 09 00-0 - f c - O !? H j C O C* O H * P C+ H H - O O O t ) o C O 0 c + y g o. 0 1 C D 0 p . c+ o M X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X General composition Creative writing (verse, short story, X X X X X X X X X X X drama, etc.) X X X X X English grammar History and development of the English X X X X X X X X language X X X X X X X X Old English— Middle English, Anglo-Saxon General literature (introductory, types, X X X X X X X X X great books) X X X X X English Bible as literature X X X X X X X X XX X X X X X World literature X X X X X X X X X X X X Literary criticism Contemporary literature-modern X X X X X X X X X X X X literature Background for literature (historical, X X X X X X social, economic) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X General survey of English literature X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X General survey of American literature Adolescent literature (children’s X X literature) X X X X Recreational reading (directed reading) X X X X X X X Pre-Elizabethan EngLish literature X X X X X X X X X X X Elizabethan- age X X X X X X X X Age of Milton (Puritan) X X X X X X X Restoration and classical age X X X X X X X X X X X X 18th century— age of Johnson X X X X X X X X X X X X X Romantic movement X X X X X X X X X X X X 19th century— Victorian age X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Chaucer X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Shakespeare X X X X X X X X X X X X Milton X X X X X X Browning X X X X X X X Other authors X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X The novel— prose narrative X X X X X X The short story X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Poetry X X X X X The essay X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Drama X X X X X X X Biography X X Oratory X X Periodical literature Journalism— general principles, news- X X X X X X X X X X X X X X writing, editing X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X General speech (public speaking) X X X X X X X X X Remedial speech X X X X X X X X X X X X X Argumentation and debate X X X X X X X Forum and group discussion X X X X.X X X X , , x • X X X X X X. Oral interpretation of.literature , X X X X X X X X X X X X X General dramatics Production and direction of dramatic X X X X X X X X X X X X X X performances Stagecraft (make up, stage design, . X X X X X X X X costuming, etc.) X X X X X X X ■X X X X X Acting X X X X XX X X X Technique of radio presentations X X X X Motion picture appreciation X X X Teaching of secondary school English B* EXTENT O F ENGLISH OFFERINGS I N CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 173 TABES XXXI TYPES OF ENGLISH COURSES GIVEN IN CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES, LISTED ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS IN WHICH EACH IS OFFERED General composition 18 Other authors 7 Drama 18 Biography 7 Survey of American literature 17 Forum and group discussion 7 Shakespeare 17 English Bible as literature 6 The novel— prose fiction 17 Background for literature 6 Chaucer 16 Browning 6 World literature 15 The short story 6 General speech 15 English grammar 5 Oral interpretation of litera The essay 5 ture 15 Recreational reading 4 Survey of English literature 14 Moving picture appreciation 4 Poetry 14 Teaching of secondary Journalism 14 school English 3 Dramatic production and Adolescent literature— direction 14 children*s literature 2 Romantic movement 13 Oratory 2 Argumentation and debate 13 Periodical literature 2 Dramatics 13 Literary criticism 12 Modem contemporary literature 12 Eighteenth century— Age of Johnson 12 Nineteenth century— ‘ Victorian Age 12 Milton 12 Acting 12 Creative writing 11 Elizabethan Age 11 General literature 9 Remedial speech 9 Radio presentation 9 History and development of English language 8 Old English— Middle English— Anglo-Saxon 8 Puritan Age 8 Stagecraft 8 Pre-Elizabethan literature 7 Restoration— Glassical Age 7 174 A study of the catalogs of the eighteen institutions reyeals a tendency to include courses in public speaking, journalism, and drama within the English department. In nine of the eighteen institutions, courses in one or more of these related subjects are given under the general direction of the English’ department. Only three of the larger universities— University of California, University of Southern California, and Stanford— -have separate departments for English, speech and drama, and journalism courses. Only four of the other institutions have separate departments of English, and in ad dition departments of speech, these four schools being the College of the Pacific, University of Redlands, San Diego State College and San lose State College. Only seven of the eighteen institutions whose catalogs were studied give specific courses in the teaching of English in secondary schools; these seven institutions are: University of California, College of the Pacific, Mills College, Univer sity of Redlands, University of Southern California, Stanford University and San Jose State College. Five of these courses in the teaching of English are offered by the departments of education; only tv/o of them are given by the English depart ment. In general, the courses offered in English and closely related fields by the eighteen California institutions whose catalogs were studied follow the conventional program of 175 American institutions of higher learning. IV. COURSES IN EDUCATION IN CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES In order to secure a junior high school credential or a general secondary credential, candidates are required to complete at least eighteen semester hours of education courses. A survey of the catalogs of the eighteen schools referred to in this chapter reveals the extent to which education courses preparing for such credentials are given in California uni versities and colleges. Twenty-six types of courses in education designed to meet the credential requirements listed above are offered in four or more of the eighteen institutions. In all eighteen of these schools, courses in directed teaching are given. The next most frequently appearing courses used to meet high school credential requirements are courses in the principles of secondary education, and introductory educational courses. Such courses are given in fifteen of the institutions. In fourteen of the schools, courses in tests and measurements, in methods of high school teaching, and in the history of edu^ cation are offered. The next most frequently offered course is educational psychology; in thirteen of the institutions instruction in this subject is given. In twelve colleges and universities, there are courses in the philosophy of educa tion; in eleven,courses in educational administration, in 176 supervision, and in secondary curriculum. Courses in pupil growth and development are given in eleven colleges. The only other course offered in more than half the schools is history of American education, a subject given in ten of the institu tions. The extent of offerings in education in California universities and colleges is shown in Table XXXII. The data shown in Table XXXII were reassembled and listed in order of frequency according to the number of in stitutions in which each course is offered. These reassembled data are shown in Table XXXIII. V. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The purpose of this chapter was to report the creden tial requirements and the facilities for the education of teachers of English in California. It was found that: 1. Credential requirements of the state of California, while including certain minimum essentials in the matter of college units and making certain broad provisions regarding the fields in which such courses may be taken are purposely so broad that they do not fix any definite patterns for the college education of teachers of. English. 2. A study of the catalogs of all eighteen colleges and universities accredited by the State Board of Education to provide education preparing for state teaching credentials g S S § |S R * f f t A rf P u - M H. S i S i H P . - „ _ „ . nO ^ < o OSOc+vo®. ®“ P O H 09 *i P . C O ® I C D C O t o r t r n r t H i— i Lj. p . Ft ' O d ’ t t V O « < « < G c ct- P {Dp d O S f ? ® o P ® h P G H ® O O ffl BM' H O *) ® H a a > • no '§ '* H $ «. H 'O I v D W H H O ' O v O V O - O | V t o W . I . H ' O cn H vO I " D - f e - Hub v£) 09 vO ill ® VI VJ Ca to o ® tr p » 2 . a i n hn o o P C O ' > • s o p-5 K« o t S S 3SP P * H E * •“ * ^ o. B p O 41 S H H H« b a o P- 0 09 o < O • H a h » H 2 ! » H ^ P o t ) ' O a p - a vjD'» <d« -O * | H H H '£> H v O vOV>) O G f t * c*1 O S T - P . vO | I H j H - € > ) vO V*J J-fc-'O H- H O vO > • Vto vO H | vO H UDvO O E ? ® E s o s & o > P . ° g c* a co 3 B O d | 1 d o t> a c + - co co a d o d p O P G C - H d O 9 A* P ooq g a o a 0 ,0 9 P" Pv® a h a Ot) sOOb H BUIBM} v u> I vO H H H I vO vO vO H V j J V jJVH vO o o v o -ja*- H H vO vO V *) v*> vO 09 X X X X X X X X X XX XXXX XXX XX X XX XXXXXX x x xx x x xx x x; - V * \ XXXXXXXXX X XX I H vO V -o X X X XX X X X X X XX XX X X X XX XXXX XXXX X XX X XX XX - XXXX X XX X X XXX XXX X XX X X X X xXXXX X XX X X X X : ■■ X X XX X X X X. X X X X X XX X X X XXXXXXXXX XX XX XXXX XXXX XX X X XXX X X X X X X x X X X X X X X X X XX - X XXXX X XX X XXXXXX X X X X XXXX XX XXXXXXXXX XX XXX XXXX X X X X X £ O . C D P c+ ff-s ss- ot) H o or 3 p p && Principles of education— general introduction History of education History of American education Philosophy of education Social foundations of education Educational sociology Comparative education— (foreign systems) Educational administration Educational supervision Educational psychology Pupil growth and development . Mental hygiene— personality adjustment Psychology of high school subjects Character and moral, education Exceptional children Counselling and guidance Educational statistics Educational tests and measurements Principles of secondary education Secondary curriculum Current educational literature Methods of teaching Conducting extracurricular activity Literature for children and adolescents Directed teaching Teaching of secondary school English H -vj EXTENT O F EDUCATION OFFERINGS I N CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 178 TABLE XXXIII TYPES OF EDUCATION COURSES GIVEN IN CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES, LISTED ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS OFFERING EACH. Directed teaching 18 Principles of education— general introduction 15 Principles of secondary education 15 History of education 14 Educational tests and measurements 14 Methods of teaching 14 Educational psychology 13 Philosophy-of education 12 Educational administration 12 Educational supervision 12 Secondary curriculum 12 Pupil growth and development 11 History of American education 10 Educational sociology 8 Social foundationsof education 7 Mental hygiene 7 Counselling and guidance 7 Educational statistics 7 Current educational literature 7 Literature for children and adolescents 6 Comparative education 5 Psychology of high school subjects 5 Character and moral education 5 Teaching secondary school English 5 Exceptional children 4 Extracurricular activities 4 179 reveals the modal requirement for a bachelor’s degree to be 124 semester hours, although the state university requires 120 semester hours. 3* A study of catalogs shows that all but two of these institutions require twenty-four upper-division units or the equivalent in the field of English for an English major, in addition to certain lower-division requirements in the English field. 4. The English courses offered in California colleges and universities may be grouped under forty-eight heads, with wide variety in the extent to which such courses are offered. 5» The courses in education offered by California col leges and universities may be listed under twenty-six heads with such courses being offered in widely varying extent. 6. Because of the broad provisions for state teaching credentials and because of the variety of offerings in the colleges and universities throughout the state there is no definite pattern determining the college education of teachers of English. CHAPTER VIII ISSUES IN THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH AND TEACHER EDUCATION In previous chapters of this study, historical develop ments have been traced and conditions associated with English teaching have been studied as elements underlying the prob lems of teacher education. There remain, however, other ele ments to be investigated--less tangible, perhaps, but equally basic to the problems of teacher education. They arise out of the clash of underlying beliefs, and result in educational issues. In this chapter are discussed, (1) twenty-three significant issues in the teaching of high school English, and (2) eight major issues in teacher education in the field of English. Briggs has pointed out how unsatisfactory any program of education must be unless issues are defined and their im plications explored. Our schools run smoothly, but whether they run ef fectively or not is determined primarily by the clear ness with which the objectives that they should attain are perceived by administrators and teachers, and by the persistence with which they are sought. No amount of skillfully planned machinery, no amount of loyal industry can compensate for that. But it is precisely in concern with objectives, soundly based, clearly perceived, and steadily pursued, that our profession of educators is least to be praised. Most of us have been so involved in making the machinery run smoothly that we have not bothered to think seriously about the ultimate goals. Others have thought superficially about them, but have been satisfied with large general 181 terms so inadequately defined that they have little or no influence on the details of work. Others still, a small band of Gideonites, have been greatly disturbed by failure to decide what goals should be sought, how they can be determined, and how they can be reached most surely or approximated. This need to define and explore issues is especially apparent in the field of English teaching. This is so be cause of three reasons. In the first place, as shown in Chapter IV, English teaching as now practiced in American high schools is not only of comparatively recent growth, but is a dynamic activity and in a state of continuous reorganization. Under such con ditions it is only natural that professional discussion be- * comes general and conflicts of opinion are numerous. In the second place, as shown in Chapters V and VI, there is a high degree of specialization in the teaching as signments of teachers of English and in their school activi ties. Such conditions result in a feeling of special needs and encourage a general discussion of professional problems. The high standing of the National Council of Teachers of English among educational organizations is evidence of this feeling of professionalism among teachers of English, and the wide circulation of the English Journal gives prominence to Thomas H. Briggs, "The Issues of Secondary Educa tion," Official Report of.the Pepartment of Superintendence (Washington, B.C. : National Education Association, 1936}", p. 39. 182 their discussions of educational issues. In the third place, it is a widely accepted belief that the broad scope of English instruction and the intangi ble nature of many of its desired outcomes make strictly ob jective studies in this field especially difficult. As a result, many standards of value are often determined by dis cussion based upon theory rather than upon purely objective evidence. Because of such conditions as those just mentioned numerous issues arise in the field of English teaching. In this chapter, the most significant of such issues are identi fied and discussed. These issues were discovered through an analysis of the writings of recognized leaders in the field of English teaching. Twenty-three textbooks dealing primarily with the problems of English instruction in secondary schools, as well as periodical articles by leaders in the field of English teaching, were reviewed for this purpose. From such sources, 6l6 expressions of opinion were gathered. An analy sis of these opinions revealed the issues marked by the most pronounced disagreement. The list of such issues, -together with quotations illustrative of conflicting views, is pre sented in the first part of this chapter. The four criteria used to determine the textbooks to be studied for issues were: (1) frequency of mention in bib liographies on the teaching of English; (2) criticism appearing 183 in the book reveiw section of the English Journal; (3) re ports from publishers in response to a request from the Southern California Association of Teachers of English; and, (4) date of publication, as only those books published since the report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Second ary Education were considered representative of current condi tions. The list of textbooks selected on the basis of these criteria appears in Appendix D. Each of the issues presented has implications for the education of high school teachers of English. But in addi tion there are some issues associated with the education of high school teachers of English that are only indirectly im plied in the list. Eight additional statements are, therefore, presented in the second part of this chapter together wdth comment explaining their significance. I. ISSUES IN THE TEACHING OE HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH In this section, twenty-three issues in the teaching of high school English revealed by means of an analysis of the literature of the field are presented, the implications of the conflicting views involved are pointed out, and ex cerpts from the writings of leaders who represent the pro and con of each issue are quoted. Shall the experiences which make up the English program be based upon the present interests of pupils, or shall adult 184 standards of value be used? The authorities who advocate pupil interests as a criterion for the selection of the ex periences which make up the English program contend that studying even the most inspiring piece of literature is a waste of time unless it is within the intellectual and emo tional range of the pupils* They also point out that it is not direct preparation for adult life that guides the modern English program, but the experiences and activities of cur rent pupil life. The proponents of the opposite view— experi ences selected on the basis of adult standards--argue that if pupil interests are the chief criterion, the pupil will miss the experience of reading masterpieces of literary excellence unless he stumbles upon them by chance. They also bring out the fact that school experiences should prepare pupils for future out-of-school life. Hatfield and Fries emphasize the importance of pupil interests: First, the pupil should be given experiences that have intrinsic worth for him, now. No matter how much the story may thrill us sophisticated adults who make and teach the courses, no matter how much the play may inspire us or the poem charm us, if it is beyond the intellectual and emotional range of our pupils, we are worse than wasting time to attempt to impose it upon them.2 More than that, we often fail to recognize that any development of the pupil’s motives and desires for an 2 W. Wilbur Hatfield, Chairman, An Experience Curricu lum. p. 18. 185 effective use of language must begin on his own level. His growing power must function satisfactorily in his present communications with his own companions— those with whom he is now in daily contact.3 Parker and Gehlmann take the opposite view: One danger is that students* likes or dislikes may be taken too seriously. They should be takeu seriously, but students should be able to show cause why they should be so taken.4 'We are told that the best way to acquire a good vo cabulary and a good sentence structure is to read good books. But is the average high school student to be left to stumble by accident upon these masterpieces of literary technique? How many high school boys and girls left to individual browsing will turn to the House of Seven Gables, for instance; how many high school boys and girls are capable of reading that novel alone and appreciating its qualities? And yet what high school boy or girl cannot be brought to an admiration of Hawthorne's marvelous control of the language and the beauty of his almost poetic prose?5 Shall the English program be socialized to encourage pupil self-expression and initiative, or shall it emphasize teacher control? The proponents of the socialized recitation argue that experience in communication in out-of-school life depends for reality upon the situation in the English class, and that pupil self-expression and initiative must be devel oped within the school if the pupil is to be well adapted to 3 Charles C. Fries, The Teaching of the English Lan guage (New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 19^7), p• 156. 4 Roscoe E. Parker, The Principles and Practices of Teaching English (New York: "Frantice-Hall, Inc., 1937)V P* 87* ' John Gehlmann, f *The Values of Required Reading,n English Journal (High School Edition), 19:641-642, October, 1930: 186 his social environment. Opponents, on the other hand, be lieve that young people of today tend to be too self-assertive and that they should be controlled by proper discipline in order that they may be worthy members of a democracy. They believe that the' school must supply the control now lacking in many homes. Other writers point out the many difficulties involved in changing the conventional school program into a socialized situation. Hatfield and Dakin represent the group favoring the socialized recitation: The actual experiences in communication which go in to the curriculum should be representative of the pres ent experiences of most pupils outside the English class--in other school classes, in clubs, on the play ground, at home, at the store. Many of these may de pend for their reality upon the social situation in the English class itself, but they should parallel quite 5 closely the experiences that do and will occur elsewhere. Because of the exigencies of present-day civilization, we cannot assume that attitudes, manners, personal hy giene, and study habits are the responsibility of the home. These burdens and many more have been shifted to the schools. This the public, despite its utterances, no longer satisfied with the three E*s, expects and exacts.• Page is opposed to socialized methods of class organi zation: Hatfield, op. cit. , p. 134. 7 Dorothy Dakin, Talks to Beginning Teachers of English (New York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1937}, P- 4* 187 We must remember that practically every home today is decidedly child centered and while many of the chil dren from these modern homes have a zest and enthusiasm which is desirable, they also need to become less self- assertive, clamorous, and self-centered if they are to be worthy members of a democracy, controlled as it is by a multiplicity of laws and restrictions* It is humanly impossible to care for the large classes they [teachers] have and to adjust themselves to this new type of education* The result is chaos if they try it* 8 Shall there be required at different levels ”a few decencies in form and written expression that must be ac quired by every pupil before he can be passed to a higher grade,w or shall every pupil be allowed to continue his edu cational experiences without regard to minimum essentials? Proponents of minimum essentials believe that there are cer tain basic skills without which a pupil cannot do advanced work in English. They would make proficiency in such skills a requisite for promotion into advanced classes in English. They argue that, since the skills they set up are essential to education, it is only fair to the individual student and to his class to insist upon their mastery at definite stages in the school career. Opposed to the view that certain things must be taught to all pupils at certain class levels is the position taken by some authorities that teachers cannot arbi trarily fail pupils who do not come up to predetermined Miriam Page, "The Other Side,” English Journal (High School Edition),26:441-^42, June, 1937. 188 standards at predetermined levels. Such, authorities believe that the individual^ educational progress will be determined by his innate abilities and that high school teachers must meet the needs of the individual pupils as they find them. Authorities who hold to the first views include Mirrielees and Dakin: In each term there should be a few decencies in form and written expression that must be acquired by every pupil before he can be passed to a higher grade. These decencies in form and written expression have been termedg "the minimum essentials in the mechanics of composition. The plan consists in establishing certain essentials that are considered to be the least that a student needs to know in order to do advanced work. A teacher should determine upon minimum requirements for each year of composition teaching.10 Weersing expresses the "no-failure” concept: In other words, the high school, as a result of the no-failure program, has been made a continuous part of the educational process begun in the elementary school and is being redesigned to meet the educational needs of all pupils of high school age, whatever those needs happen to be. High school teachers can no longer de vote themselves to teaching only certain things on a certain level, in the interest of maintaining standards, and blithely "fail* all who do not come up to those standards.li 9 Lucia B. Mirrielees, Teaching Composition and' Literature (Mew York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 193?), p. 62. 10 Dakin, op. cit., p. 114. f 11 Frederick J. Weersing, "The No-Failure Program,” Sierra Educational News, March, 193&> p. 21. 189 Shall the teacher of English take the lead in develop- ing a unified instructional program among all departments of his school, or shall he confine his efforts to his own de partmental program? On the one hand are those who maintain that all education is an integrating experience, and since all school experience depends upon some form of language arts, the teacher of English is in the most strategic position to so cialize and integrate the whole educational experience. On the other side are those who express the idea that depart mentalism makes for efficiency of instruction. Still others say that the English teacher cannot he expected to have the broad overview necessary to integrate the whole program. Finally, the view is held that if any integration is to be done, all teachers should share the responsibility. Fowler and Lyman take the first position: Literature should be articulated with related arts, and possibly with other content subjects. The English teacher more than any other it seems to me must not only be an actively cooperating teacher but the source and inspiration for such cooperation. No teacher i*s so well qualified at present as*the teacher of English to solve this problem of a unified curriculum.12 This means a letting down of extreme departmental barriers and the deliberate, crossing over into other 12 Burton Fowler, ^The Relationship of English to a Unified Secondary School Curricula English Journal (High School Edition), 22:554, Septemoer, 1933. 190 fields of learning . . . it means that English, which is, with certain obvious reservations, primarily a tool subject, ought to take the lead in the socializing, the integrating of educational experience.!3 Hogrefe, Reynolds, and Hatfield believe that English teachers should not step outside of their special province and that teachers of other subjects should feel equally re sponsible for the development of language arts: When a teacher of literature puts his main stress on the teaching of history, geography, botany, the processes of industry or obvious moral generalizations in a pleasant disguise, he steps outside the province which really belongs to him.14 It is doubtful whether history or any other subject can be satisfcatorily combined "with literature as an art on equal terms as an educational unit. Under such combinations certain consequences must certainly fol low; second or third rate literature will be used; facts and generalizations, neither of much value from the distinctive points of view of literature will be emphasized and classroom procedures will preclude the arousal of the emotions which the literature should excite.15 All the teachers of all the subjects should be, to some extent, teachers of English. Science teachers who require students to keep notebooks, history teachers who expect "outside" reading and oral and written re ports, mathematics teachers who depend upon pupils’ reciting and demonstrating, all teachers who cause 13 R. L. Lyman, "Normalizing English Instruction," English Journal (High School Edition}, 21:96, February, 1932. 14 Pearl Hogrefe, "Positive Aims in English Teaching," English Journal (High School Edition), 23:632, October, 1933* 15 George Reynolds, "The Integration of English and Literature with Related Subjects," English Journal (High School Edition), 24:593-594, September, 1935* 191 pupils to employ reading and language, must assume some responsibility for the quality of.the reading and the language.1° Bo devices for homogeneous grouping aid in securing optimum results from English teaching, or do such grouping devices endanger the most profitable outoomes of such in struction? The tendency revealed among authorities in the field of English is in favor of grouping devices as a partial solution of the problem of adapting English experiences to the ability of the learners* Such a view runs counter to the conclusion drawn by Keliher after a comprehensive study of the assumptions underlying homogeneous grouping. Cook and Hatfield are among the leaders in the field of English who favor homogeneous grouping: Since only a few superior students can appreciate the classics, the way to teach them is to divide the class into sections.17 Experience must be adapted to the needs and capaci ties of individual learners. The classification of pupils according to their abilities or achievement— not necessarily according to intelligence quotients, and certainly without any labeling of sections as "fast" or "slow,” "bright” or "dull”— is highly de sirable as a partial solution of the problem of adaptation. An extract is quoted from Keliher to present the op posite view: 16 Hatfield, op. cit., pp. 4-5* ^ Luella B. Cook, "Reading for Experience,” English Journal (High School Edition), 25:275, April, 1936. ^ Hatfield, op. cit., p. 8. 192 In the light of the evidence from the field and the reasonable analysis of the issues involved grouping has no inherent association with better attitudes. Probably more harmful attitudes are built in a segregated situa tion since the situation is not lifelike and the atti tudes are based on the self-estimates that are them selves based on inadequate and scholastically skewed emphases. 19 Shall the teacher of English require of all pupils the memorizing of definite passages from literature as an aid to realizing the aims of English instruction, or shall memorizing be left to pupils1 desires? Some authorities suggest that there should be frequent memory assignments in order to store pupils1 minds with choice passages from literature. Others mention the benefits to be obtained by training the memory through such assignments. Still others oppose the idea of the practice of required memorizing, contending that, while pupils should be encouraged to commit passages from litera ture to memory, they should not be required to do so, since such requirement destroys the pleasure that should be gained. Those who advocate required memorizing include Thomas arid Hosic: Make frequent memory assignments. . . During the years when our pupils memorize easily we should encour age them to store their minds with many of the choice 19 Alice V. Keliher, A Critical Study of Homogeneous Grouping (Contributions to Education No. 452; New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1931), p» 130. 193 passages from our literature . . . prose as well as poetry.20 Memorizing. This should be definite and regular; a body of selected passages of high worth should be re quired in each year. Passages should not be long, but should be rigidly insisted upon. The habit of memoriz ing can in most cases be trained by practice, so that the task becomes easier; and the result, a body of good verse and prose permanently in the mind, is perhaps the best things pupils can get out of their study in English. 1 Among those who question the value of required memory work are Blaisdell and Sharp: Unquestionably pupils should commit poetry to memory, much of it, far more than one poem a month. But they should be persuaded, be encouraged, be enticed, into committing to memory poems which they have learned to love, poems which they have unconsciously almost memo rized enjoying them.22 Some memorizing is certainly desirable, but it must not be overdone. . . . In order that the passage may be retained by the child, it is necessary to require more than one recitation of it. A week after the memoriza tion, a second recitation should be called for, and again once or twice during the term.23 Do objective tests now available offer a feasible method by which teachers can measure desirable outcomes of English instruction, or are such outcomes too intangible to permit measurement by objective standards? Proponents of 20 Charles -S. Thomas, The Teaching of English in the Secondary School, p. 229. ^ James F. Hosic, Chairman, Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools, p. 74. ^ Thomas C. Blaisdell, Ways to Teach English, p. 271. Russell A. Sharp, Teaching English in High Schools (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924), p. 6l. 194 objective measures point to the fact that composition scales are a great aid in eliminating varying personal judgments* In the field of literature they claim success for the newer type of measurement devised to evaluate the outcomes of the English program. Opponents of objective tests hold that such objective measures run counter to the purpose and spirit of literature study, and that even in the case of the most reli able composition scales inadequate individual diagnosis is made. Hudelson represents the authorities defending the use of composition scales. Wrightstone is an advocate of the type of measures which he devised to evaluate the entire pro gram of English experiences. The value of objective composition scales to teachers themselves is becoming more and more recognized and may profitably become the chief function of such instruments. Without some such stable device it is difficult for a teacher to know what is being accomplished. 24 Controlled experimentation and measurement of instruc tional practices are the best roads to educational prog ress. 25 Barnes, Barker, and Webster and Smith represent those who point out the weaknesses of measurements as tests of 24 National Society for the Study of Education,, English. Composition Its Aims, Methods, and Measurement; Twenty-second Yearbook (Bloomington» Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1923), p. 38. 25 J. W. Wrightstone, "Comparison of Newer with Con ventional Practices in English," English Journal (High School Edition), 24:399, May, 1935. 195 English instruction. The so-called objective tests, the completion, the multiple choice, and the entire spawn of fact ferret ing,* informat ion -hunting schemes— all of these may have at times practical value but in general run square counter to the nature, the purpose, and the spirit of literature. Nor is mastery of literature to be deter mined by skill in paraphrasing nor by the ability to narrate all the ins and outs of a plot.2® Serious efforts have been made to formulate tests for their measurement, but no high degree of success has been achieved. The manifold aspects of comprehen sion and possibilities of reaction render even a defi nition of appreciation difficult; they make adequate measurement practically impossible.2? In the second place, composition scales, for the most part, have not been helpfully diagnostic. Measur ing a child by a yardstick does not tell why he is taller or shorter than the average child of his year. Shall the “classics” of literature be required, or optional reading for high school pupils? Those who favor the required reading of classics believe that there is a body of great literature with which all pupils should be familiar be cause it contains so much of human value; some add the point that familiarity with such a body of literature is a social asset. The writers who take the opposite view argue that values contained in the classics are in many cases applicable 26 Walter Barnes, “Mastery of Literature,” English Journal (High School Edition), 19:718, November, 1930. Parker, op. cit. , p. 216. 28 E. H. Webster and Dora V. Smith, Teaching English in the Junior High School (Yonkers, New York: World Book Company, 1927), P- 284. 196 only to the situations of maturity, and that forcing young people to study these hooks may have the effect of creating intense dislike for all literature. Among leaders who would require reading of the classics are Thomas and Mirrielees: If all of us rigidly insist that Macbeth shall be in each secondary course of study, the high-school pupil of Oregon, meeting the high school pupil of Delaware, will have a right to be aware of a common ground of academic approach. And this common interest among the schools may have important socializing value. Other things being equal, therefore, those framing an English course should usually select for their classes the books that are generally read. That will encourage a common tradi tional culture, and a certain kinship in communal knowl edge. To this end a small group of literary selections should be chosen for reading in practically every high school in our nation-^9 But the classics, carefully selected and wisely taught had in the past and still have permanent value, not for the brilliant only, but for the butcher, the baker, and the maker of mazda lamps— people who need even more than their gifted companions the strength and beauty to be drawn from Homer or Shakespeare, the pathos and humor of Dickens, the courage of Kipling’s verse, and the philosophy of an Emerson, or a Wordsworth or a Thoreau.30 Jones vigorously asserts the views of those opposed to required reading of classics: . . . Do you or I seriously think, in our saner moments that the reading of Lycidas is going to arouse in any but the most exceptional high school pupils f , an admira tion for good language and effective expression in 29 Thomas, op. cit., p. 184. 30 Mirrielees, op. cit., pp. 20-21. 197 ideas,” on the contrary it is calculated to drive the young human animal into slang or profanity. Let us for heaven's sake quit talking the cant of our profession and look at its actualities. We are engaged in one of the most hopeless of human enterprises— communieating the glories of a sophisticated and complex literature to healthy young barbarians in their teens— that age of crude ideas, crude and vague emotions, self-consciousness, awkwardness, and a minimum of intellectual life. . . . I propose to throw overboard the solemn assumption that there are certain classics to which everybody has to be exposed.31 Shall teachers require intensive study of literature as a basis for appreciation, or discourage intensive analysis as tending to destroy the highest type of literary apprecia tion? Supporters of intensive study of literature take the position that to appreciate a piece of good writing a pupil must first understand it in all its details— meaning of words, structure, connotations of figures of speech and such, elements. Some of them go so far as to say that the classics contain factual matter that should be thoroughly mastered by high school pupils. Some of them believe that there are problems in the study of literature which must be solved in much the same manner as mathematical problems are solved. Those who oppose this view say that it is not mastery of literature in this technical sense that makes for true appreciation, but a pleasurable aesthetic reaction that depends upon an emotional ^ Howard M. Jones, "The Fetish of the Classics,” English Journal (High School Edition}, 18:229* 238* March, 1929. 198 rather than an intellectual state* Those who advise intensive study include Greenland, Stratton and Boas: To appreciate a piece of literature, a pupil must first understand it* . . . There are certain keywords in every piece of literature* . . . These keywords should be definitely determined in advance by the teacher, and a part of the minimum requirements in every assignment should be specific knowledge of these w o r d s .32 Before there can be the slightest degree of worthy appreciation there must be a knowledge of literature. The teacher of English uses two methods of producing such knowledge— intensive study and rapid reading. Knowledge of literature is as definite an acquire ment as knowledge of arithmetical processes or knowledge of physics. The pupil who having studied it cannot reproduce the formula for the binomial theorem simply does not know one of the essentials of algebra. The pupil who having studied Macbeth does not know the prophecies of the witches has little knowledge of that tragedy. • • • Pupils who can solve problems dealing with the accelera tion of falling bodies can distinguish the two plots in Silas Marner and group the characters in each. Such knowledge— accurate, clear, essential— may be entirely separate from the appreciative element already considered. It is the basis of the appreciative element.33 The student of literature is not a naive reader; he is a critical reader. He is not satisfied with a pleas urable aesthetic reaction; he wants to know accurately what the reaction is and why it is pleasurable. 32 H. G. Greenland, "Language and Composition Activi ties in the Literature Class," English Journal (High School Edition), 21:32, January, 1932. 33 Clarence Stratton, The Teaching of English in the High School (New York: Harcourt, Brace and*HTorapany, 1923), pp. 5-6. 34 Ralph P. Boas, The Study and Appreciation of Litera ture (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1931), p. 4* 199 Those 'who oppose intensive study are Selly, Barnes, and Chubb: Appreciation is promoted, not by specialized means of material, but by fullness of experience and the de velopment of perspective in living.33 It is certainly quite obvious that this highly emo tional, suggestive, elusive expression which we call literature Is not to be subjected to the usual technique of measurement and mastery. . . . It is not mastery of literature as the term is ordinarily used that we should desire. It is emotional and intellectual pleasure from literature that should constitute our final objective. . . . As the artist sees the gleam and beckons us to follow, are we to turn on the searchlight? If he relies upon understatements and overtones, shall we interrupt with the cold, measured accents of explanation?36 No literary work was ever written for "study,** but to be "read" with understanding pleasure. Our boys and girls have to "study" because these works outdistance youthful knowledge and understanding. In general we should avoid all works requiring much of such special "study." The "study” point of view is deplorably false and ruinous— proved to be so by experience. We are at the narrow-minded scholar’s, not the true humanist’s point of view. 37 Shall the teacher regard the teaching of literature as a primary means for the development of character, or re gard such teaching as negligible, in or at best incidental to the development of character traits? Those who believe 35 H. F, Seely, "Appreciation through Intensive Read ing,” English Journal (High School Edition), 20:20A, March, 1931. 36 Barnes, op. cit., p. 719. 37 Fercival Chubb, The Teaching of English in the Elementary and Secondary School (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929), p. 324. 200 that literature is a direct means for the development of character argue that literature study should arouse an ad miration for the worthy characters of literature, and that human beings pattern their actions after those whom they ad mire ; that the study of the high ideals and the great moral lessons involved in the best literature is a most effective means of inspiring pupils to build their lives upon such standards* Those who oppose this view believe that, while literature may induce thought on conduct and a basic accept ance of high standards, there is no assurance that such thought will be translated into behavior. They point farther to the difficulty of determining true ethical standards that will apply in all situations and to all people. Among those who believe that a primary objective of the teaching of literature is the development of character are Thomas and Hosic: Our most important task in teaching is the building of character, and our most effective agency is the literary selection.3S The study of literature should arouse in the minds of pupils an admiration for great personalities, both of' authors and characters in literature. No man is higher than his ideals. Human beings grow unconsciously in the direction of that which they admire. Teachers of English must, then, consciously work to raise the pupils’ standards of what is true and fine in men and women.39 Thomas, ojd. cit. , p. 195* 39 Hosic, op. cit., p. 63. 201 Among those who oppose this view are Boas and Rosenblatt: If literature has value because it teaches useful lesions, that value is purely temporary and incidental* Moreover, the attempts to pull useful lessons out of literature in the end distort and degrade it* What useful lessons are taught by Hamlet, The Divine Comedy, Faust, and Othello? The attempts to tack a moral upon such works at once shows the futility of making litera ture didactic*4° This latter consideration should allay the typical conservative fear that literary works may incite the young boy or girl to rush into all sorts of new and un tried modes of behavior. This is a decidedly unrealis tic view. It is based on the exaggerated idea of the social, affects of literature that is usually associated with Victorian moralism. The Victorian critic often seemed to believe that the mere reading about particular actions in a book would in itself lead to the performance of the same actions in life.41 Shall the teacher encourage, as part of the program of English instruction, reading of books and magazines without limitation as to quality, or demand that pupilsy reading for sohool credit be kept within prescribed limits? Those who advocate reading without prescription argue that it is better for a pupil to read a poor book and like it than to be com pelled to read a classic and hate it. Some of them go so far as to state that "freedom in choosing what to read should be accompanied by freedom to choose whether to read or not.” Boas, o]D. cit. , p. 19* 41 Louise M. Rosenblatt, Literature as Exploration, p. 232. 202 Those who oppose this view emphasize the fact that pupils cannot be expected to stumble upon worthy books, and that the habit of reading cheap material once established may become permanent* The authors of the Experience Curriculum take the first position, as does Lowe: Freedom to choose. An experience which our pupils should have very frequently is choosing for themselves what they will read. Prescriptions must be lessened or loosened in classroom reading and practically abolished in outside or "home" reading. For the gradu ate never to have read a sentimental, improbable, or ' badly written book is a misfortune. We should let the boys and girls make choices between good and poor books while we are still at hand to help them establish standards. Freedom in choosing what to read should be accompanied by freedom to choose whether to read or not, for the reading habit cannot be economically developed through compulsion. 4-2 Let us allow the student to, have the joy of finding for himself one of those magic books that touch one somehow and charge life with new interests, new dreams, and aspiration.4? Thomas and La .Brant point out the need for some pre scriptions in reading: We are hearing much current talk about the element of interest; and of course we all know that interest is the first essential to successful instruction. But there is a striking difference between the slowly LZ Hatfield, 0£. cit.. p. 21. L 3 Mary E. Lowe, "Required Reading vs. Free Reading," English Journal (High School Edition), 19:5Tl, October, 1930. 203 aroused interest in something of sturdy and permanent worth and the flash of transitory interest in something ephemeral. It is easier to read a modern popular novel than a play of Shakespeare’s, but the value in the latter' instance is likely to be proportionate to the difficulty. Wealth is sometimes obtained through placer mining, but the bulk of the world’s gold is embedded in quartz, • . , Since the student, left to himself, is more likely to select easy current literature, teachers, in the in terests of efficiency, should advise selecting the more difficult and the more permanent kind; for the currently popular kind is likely to be read anyway. And since these classic selections require the most skillful aid and fine attention, they should receive particular stress in school,44 Certain popular and decent magazines are available which might fill the place [reading for the transition age] were it not for the danger involved in the fact that, once read, they tend to become established per manently. That is to say, high school freshmen often read understandingly magazines which are in reality well suited to them, but which are intended primarily for a rather unintelligent group of adults. The teacher who introduces these publications is risking the establish ment of a habit which may be valuable temporarily but stultifying if continued.45 Shall the special characteristics of various types of literature be studied to enable the pupil to set up standards of literary judgment, or shall ’ ’books be read in miscellaneous clusters that center about pupil interests?” On the one hand are those who maintain that the pupil is benefited most by teaching him how to read a novel such as Silas Marner. point ing out such elements as plot, character development, and ^ Thomas, op. cit. , p. 188. 45 Lou LaJBran-t, The Teaching of Literature in the Secondary School, pp. 119-120. 204 social background of the story, and thus giving him a pattern by which he can judge the worth of other novels which he may read. In like manner, he is given standards and taught char acteristic features of short story, drama, and other forms of literature. On the other hand, there are those who believe that this method encourages stereotyped standards based largely on technical structure rather than encouraging inde pendent judgment based on personal reactions to content. Among those who favor teaching by types are La ..Brant and Parker; Such a poem as nSohrab and Rustum” would entice through the narrative alone. The fine rhythms, the well-managed caesuras, and the appropriate figures make this an excellent introduction for high school pupils learning how to read poetry. ... Just as with the novel we teach the pupil to read and let him have a glimpse of the world of fiction, so with the periodical we give him a view of the larger reading he may do later on.^6 By learning to read several types, the reader enlarges his number of specific abilities until eventually he learns to read any type of literature without conscious ness of the particular abilities he has developed, and without expending an extraordinary amount of effort.47 Among those who believe that literary types may be largely ignored in teaching literature in high school are Hatfield and Barnes: ^ Ibid., pp. 104-122. ^ Parker, og. cit.. p. 106. 1 205 For the most part literary types may he ignored-- and date of publication* Fiction, plays, poetry, biog raphy, and informational books of all description may be read in miscellaneous clusters which center about pupil interests, temporary or permanent, individual or common. The teacher who wishes to preserve some balance in the subject matter read picks out certain interests and needs common to practically all pupils and tries to bring these to the surface in all members of the class. Then he supplies literature (including informational matter) which satisfies these interests and needs.4*° Shall literature and composition be regarded as sepa rate subject matter, or shall they be considered as component parts of a unified language arts program? Some authorities content that the teaching of composition and literature in volve radically different pedagogical methods, and should be considered as two distinct forms of teaching activity. Other leaders hold that all language arts should be unified without emphasis upon separate courses in composition and literature. Snedden, La Brant, and Sharp are among the authroities supporting separate courses: One result of the merging of two different subjects is that the means and methods of teaching one tend to deflect and neutralize those appropriate to the other. So evident has this become . . . that, were I responsible for the administration of a high school at the present time, I believe that my first step would be to place US ^ ^ Hatfield and Walter Barnes, "A Modern School Program in English," The Development of' a Modern Program in English, Ninth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc^on (Washington, D. 0 . : National Education Association, j_n.d.j), pp. 23-24. 206 tiie teaching of literature on the one hand, and on the other all that pertains to English expression, under charge of different teachers, who would probably be quite unlike each other in temperament and interests. • • .49 It is the contention of the writer that there is as much difference between the methods and the content of courses in composition and literature as between methods and content of courses in mathematics and history . . . demanding two radically different types of techniques, cq and certainly two different classifications of students. Throughout this book English will be considered as consisting of two subjects, compositions and literature. Hence it is necessary to establish, not one set of ob jectives, but two. For a term we teach the classics, having one set of objectives before us; then for a term we teach composition, with a quite different set of aims. 51 Craig points out the benefits to be derived from teach ing literature and composition concurrently: There are two strong arguments against separate courses. In teaching composition, especially in teach ing written exposition and argument, we need intimate contact with literary models. Even composition texts make illustrative use of literary extracts. The immense value of rhetoric developed inductively is. surely patent enough.52 It may be mentioned also that the theme underlying 53 A Correlated Curriculum is that course barriers may be David Snedden, Problems of Secondary Education (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917), p. 171. ^ la,-Brant, op. cit., p. 11. 51 Sharp, op. cit., p. 14. 52 Virginia Craig, The Teaching of High School English (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1933T, P* 3. 53 Ruth M. Weeks, A Correlated Curriculum (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1936). 1 207 broken down with benefit to pupil experiences. Shall the teacher of English attempt to interpret modern social and economic conditions through realistic litera- ture, or consider controversial issues as outside the scope of English classroom experiences? Some leaders believe that the function of "escape" literature is far inferior to the litera ture which deals with social and economic problems. Such leaders hold that the student must become keenly aware of the social foundations from which literature comes. Some go so far as to maintain that the teacher must not only attempt to interpret present social and economic trends, but that of necessity he must take sides in these issues. On the other hand are those who maintain that it is not the province of •the teacher of English to interpret current social trends. Included in this school of thought are those who believe that the emotional and idealistic qualities which should underlie literature make it a doubtful medium for accurate interpreta tion of social conditions. Among those who take the first position are Bel Boer, Becker, and Rosenblatt: . . . Any literature which is not primarily intended as an escape from life must necessarily be burdened with a considerable element of the painful. Deceiving youngsters concerning the more annoying aspects of pres ent world economy can hardly be construed as a more edifying process than the routine butchery formerly in vogue in the literature classroom. 208 . . . If to the great bulk of our students in our sec ondary schools we are teaching life through literature in the hope of thus bringing them en rapport with the guiding ideas and ideals of the world in which they are to act, are we not guilty of the grossest anachronism in confronting them with the ideas and ideals; of their grandparents. . . . If we are to use literature in the high school as a means of social orientation, we must emphasize the products of our own day. 55 We, more directly than most teachers, are constantly inculcating in the minds of our students general ideas about human nature and conduct, definite moral attitudes, specific psychological and sociological, theories, and habitual responses to people and situations. But the teacher will not so readily admit that, in the process of elucidating book or poem or play, he is, with equal inevitability, taking some sort of attitude toward the human relations and human problems presented. Yet, consciously or unconsciously, explicitly or im plicitly, the teacher of literature is helping to incul cate particular views of human nature, particular ethi cal or social philosophies.5h Included in those who hold the other view are Priestley, Odum, a nd S imon: . . . It is literature we are after and not social his tory . . • Shakespeare is so colossal, precisely because he renews his appeal successfully to every age, our own among them. In the last resort it is what Shakespeare (or any other writer) means to us that is important and not what he meant to people of past a g e s .57 54 John Be,Boer, "Teaching Literature for Enjoyment," English Journal (High School Edition), 20:298, April, 1931* 55 George Becker, "Battle of the Books," English Journal (High School Edition), 23:746, November, 1934* 56 Rosenblatt, op. cit., pp. 5, 9* ^ J. B. Priestley, "Approach to Literature," English . Journal (High School Edition), 18:449-455, May, 1929* 209 • . . tiie teacher of English above all things else should not handicap his work by attempting to become a psuedo-economist or by setting up dogma and emotion or propaganda in place of the legitimate art of study, de scription, and exposition. There is ample richness in the new social realism, both in fiction and in books and literature of social interpretation, for the ex ercise of varied talent.56 . . . It does not seem possible that any outstanding individual work will be representative of its era. . . • To understand history one must study history, and litera ture only plays one part in that. Conversely, to under stand literature one must study literature, and in that study history is but a contributing element.59 Shall the teacher of English stress social understand ing as the chief outcome of studying literature, or the per- 60 sonal enjoyment of the reader? Rosenblatt recognizes the existence of this issue— usually referred to as the issue be tween the proponents of the "social approach" and the defenders of "esthetic values"— and discusses both aspects. On the one hand there are authorities who maintain that literature is primarily a revelation and interpretation of life and that its chief value is the record it gives of human development. These individuals believe that literature as a cross section of life 5^ Howard Odum, "New Setting for English Teaching," English Journal (High School Edition), 22:716-719, November, VfTT. 59 h. W. Simon, "Some Hangers of Teaching Literature as Social History,” English Journal (High School Edition), 20:649-652, October, 1931. 6 0 Rosenblatt, op. cit., p. 31. 210 must necessarily be burdened with much that is painful and distressing. They believe that mueh of the attempt to read for emotional effect tends to idealize life instead of pre senting it in realistic fashion. Those who champion the other view maintain that the chief end of literature is to develop enjoyment in order that the habit of reading becomes a life long source of pleasure. ihnong those who emphasize the social aspects of litera ture study are Hosic and Kewlon: Literature is primarily a revelation and an inter pretation of life; it pictures from century to century the growth of the human spirit. It should be the con stant aim of the English teacher to lead pupils so to read that they find their own lives imaged in this larger life, and attain slowly, from a clearer apprecia tion of human nature, a deeper and truer understanding of themselves.61 It seems to me that boys and girls should be intro duced to the socially critical contemporary literature. One of the aims of the course should be to build stand ards of value by which they may judge this literature. . . . It is extremely important that youth be oriented to that school of writers that are making an honest at tempt to interpret contemporary social conditions and state the problems of this age as they see t h e m . 6 2 The defenders of esthetic values include Barnes and Craig: The course in world literature shares with all courses in literature the basic responsibility of making Hosic, 0£. cit., p. 63. 62 Jesse Newlon, quoted by W. W. Hatfield, "Social Changes and English," English Journal (High School Edition), 22:336, September, 1933* 211 reading so pleasant an experience both intellectually and emotionally that the individual continues to read good books of his own volition when the school no longer directs his activity. Our first task, then, is to sell good books to .American youth. The chief aim of contact with literature is a deep and splendid type of pleasure. We may safely recognize also such indirect, subordinate, and incidental purposes as cultivation of the reading habit and -acquisition of general information, of vocabulary and of skill in rapid and intelligent reading. We shall, however, find our selves on slippery and dangerous ground if we are led into acceptance of such goals as moral training or Americanization.64 Shall the teacher use English instruction as a definite means toward a new social order, or regard such attempts as outside the functions of the school? Thosewho hold to the first view contend that it is the duty of the teacher of English, not merely to set up high ideals, but to show the definite social and economic reorganization needed to bring about a new social order; that the teacher of English should supply the "creative leadership which is even now giving form and shape to the future." Those who oppose this view contend that since there is no generally accepted solution to the social and economic problems of today, the teacher of English cannot supply the plans for a new social order. They further point to the danger of attacking present social and economic 63 John R. Barnes, "World Literature," English Journal (High School Edition), 26:737, November, 1937. ^ Craig, op. cit., p. 5. 212 problems of today, the teacher of English cannot supply the plans for a new social order. They further point to the danger of attacking present social and economic conditions in publicly supported schools. .Among those who stress the responsibility of the teacher of English in providing social planning leadership are Roberts and DeBoer: Increasing numbers among us are acting in the belief that organized teachers of English can have an important part in determining the answers to these imperative questions: (what kind of living we shall have) through cooperative democratic planning and resolute action. It is becoming evident to everyone that we can partici pate, within our classrooms and without, in the creative leadership which is even now giving form and shape to the future. No one can deny that teachers of English are in a strategic position.65 Most important of all an effective program of peace education must carry with it a positive solution for the war evil • . .it must set up the goal of a world federation of cooperative commonwealths in which the masses of the people have been liberated from the com bination of industrialists and bankers who make war and who make the people like it. For in an acquisition society like our own, war is necessary and profitable, and not all the noble and helpful efforts of the paci fists can stop it. 60 Among those who doubt the advisability of such action on the part of the teacher of English are Page and Evans: 65 Holland D. Roberts, f t English Teachers Face the Future,” English Journal (High.School Edition), 275102, V . February, -1938.* John DeJBoer, "A Program for Peace Education,” English Journal (High School Edition), 25:2B9, April, 1936. 213 If leaders and thinkers on economic and social prob lems are not certain of directions, how can we hope to "send from our schools young people who sense the prob lems of a modern world and are equipped to grapple with them?"6' Parents are alarmed and indignant when in the study of literature students begin to examine social institu tions and to see how these institutions affect individual lives— their own lives.&& Shall the teacher of English attempt to provide instruc tion in propaganda analysis» or is such instruction outside the scope of the English program? Those who take the first position believe that it is unworthy to teach pupils the mechanics of reading without teaching them how to evaluate the subject matter they read. They also point out that one of the chief outcomes of English instruction should be the ability to create standards for the evaluation of all types of reading matter. Those who hold the opposite view point to the fact that there may be a tendency to strain every nerve in order to find lessons in literature. Others take the view that interpreta tion of current events should be left to the department of political science. Still others point to the evil effects of arousing mass scepticism in our citizenry. Page, op. cit., p. 442. Bergen Evans, "English and Ethics," English Journal (High School Edition), 24:542, September, 1935* 214 Among those who take the first position are Roberts and Parker: To teach children the mechanics of reading with- . out teaching them how to read and how to evaluate the contents of newspapers, magazines and books, is to aid in their destruction and to place ourselves at the disposal of the forces of reaction which are gathering now as they did in 1775 and 1S60.°9 This ability to apply the test of knowledge and ex perience to what is read enables the reader to select the true and discard the false. By this means he pro tects himself against insidious propaganda, emotionalism, and specious logic. Reading ability of this high type is especially necessary in the present period of chang ing political and social ideals, literary experimenta tion, and critical c o n f u s i o n . 7 0 Among those who take the opposite position are Opdy.cke and La_Braht:: . . . While by no means all literature is propaganda, there is at the same time much propaganda that is never theless excellent literature. . . the teacher is by no means to strain his every nerve in order to ferret out - lessons from literature and attempt to enforce them.71 The problem of teaching how to read the newspaper and the magazine dealing especially with current polit ical events is in reality the province of the social science department, except in those techniques which consider the technique of r e a d i n g . 72 Holland D. Roberts, ^Reading for Social Meaning,t f English Journal (High School Edition), 25:203, March, 193o. 7° Parker, op. cit., p. 53* John B. Opdycke, , f The Residues in Literature English Journal (High School Edition), 22:113, February, 1933* La Brant, op. cit., pp. 129-131* 215 Shall the teacher of English teach literature and cre ative writing for their therapeutic value to the pupil, or is the attainment of such an objective impracticable in secondary schools? Some leaders in the field of English teaching con tend that one of the chief benefits of English instruction lies in giving the pupil an opportunity to secure emotional release through the type of reading and writing which he de sires to do, regardless of its excellence or form of content. These leaders contend also that in the period of adolescence there are certain desires, natural but socially unapproved, which may be sublimated through vicarious literary experiences. Others, who take the opposite view, point out the heed for discipline in acquiring socially desirable attitudes. They also question whether the secondary school teacher can be ex pected even to approach a problem involving psychiatric rela tionships, much less to carry on such a program without danger of real harm to the pupil. Conrad and La .Brant are among the leaders who believe in the.teaching of literature and creative writing for their therapeutic values: For the best reward he will ever receive for his pains in writing is the creation of his own personality, the dawn of his own maturity, the mastery of that riot of con flicts through which he is passing during his adolescent years. Any piece of writing should be regarded as valu able if it— or the effort behind it— serves to improve its author as a human being.73 73 Lawrence H. Conrad, Teaching Creative Writing (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1937), p. 12. 216 Rosenblatt discusses both sides of the question, but stresses the danger of the teacher’s attempts to administer what amounts to psychiatric treatment: Unless the teacher is in an almost psychiatric rela tionship with the student, however, any attempt to use literature in this way would probably often create more conflicts and tensions than it solved. Many teachers would probably be led into officious meddling with the emotional life of their students.74 Free or creative writing has a social and a thera peutic value.75 Shall instruction in creative writing (stories, poems, plays, etc.) be provided for all pupils, or shall such in struction be limited to those who show special aptitude for it? Those who support the first view maintain that many of the great problems of adolescence can be beneficially dealt with through classes in creative writing. Others point out that the real object of instruction in creative writing is to encourage the pupils to value their experiences for their own sahes and not for utilitarian ends. Those who are on the other side of the question believe that it is not only uneconomical to encourage literary aspirations among those who have no real talent, but that it may result in discour-f agements that do real harm. 74 Rosenblatt, op. cit., p. 247. 75 Lou La Brant; , "Psychological Basis for Creative Writing," English Journal (High School Edition), 25:295, April, 1936. 217 Conrad and the authors of the Experience Curriculum believe in creative writing for all pupils: It seems appropriate at this point to assert that creative writing, properly conceived, is a study that can yield its principal benefit to every student in the high school; that everything such a course has a right to aim at can be secured for the whole class (with the same range of achievement that would obtain in a class in mathematics, for instance), and that the great problems of adolescence can be more directly— and more beneficially and wholesomely— dealt with * ’ ' ‘ by any means now in use in The most dangerous fallacy in the teaching of cre ative expression lies in the assumption that it is of importance only to the "gifted” child, and hence is only a frill, a bit of embroidery for the "regular course." Let us say at once that the making pr train ing of professional writers or speakers is not the business of creative composition in the schools. The real object is the development of the pupils1 capacity to value experience for its own sake and not for some utilitarian end or practical consideration.77 Ward and Bakin point out some of the dangers of such teaching policy: ’ We can’t make artists out of our young people. We ought not to try." The statement could be disputed by a quarrelsome person, but the plain meaning is generally accepted by common sense people and is forgotten by ex- horters.7o Remember that your class is not composed of potential litterateurs; no, nor of potential teachers of English. Who sits before you? Why, future shoe clerks and 78 c. H. 'Ward, What is English? (New York: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1925), p. 325. 76 Conrad, op. cit. , p. 43. 77 Hatfield, op. cit., p. 111. 218 salesmen and housewives and ditch diggers and engineers and farmers; the list is lengthy. How many "creative artists" were in your class in high school? • • .Ho, you should put that idea aside as a part of ypur general • aim, being content with the implication in the words "Expression of ideas," and leave such writing to special classes. Our place is to encourage talent in the rare souls in whom we find it, but to discourage literary ambitions impossible of realization.79 Shall teachers encourage pupils to model compositions after literary selections of recognized excellence» or shall they discourage such imitation as destructive of true orig inality? The proponents of the first position believe that models are necessary means of developing the best style, and point to the experiences of Stevenson and Franklin in support of their views. Other leaders believe that such use of models results in stilted style, stifles the creative imagination, and prevents the expression of the pupil’s true personality. Chubb and Stratton advise the use of literary models: Composition at its best must rise to the level, as we find Professor G-enung insisting, of "composing" lit erature; and literature must give us, as models for ad miration, the composition of the greater literary com posers. Just as a certain small boy’s attempts at carpentry and carving in the woodshop gave him joy in the choir stalls of an old English church; so we would wish to have the youngsters’ composition work give them joy in the word craft of the works read in the school, and send them back to the desk with new zest and skill. 79 Dakin, op. cit., pp. 28, 137 ^ Chubb, o£. cit., p. 560. 219 For short compositions rather than for long produc tions the masterpieces of literature will serve as models. Every aspirant for the sale of a short story has studied masterpieces in this m a n n e r . ^ 1 Ward and Uzzell are among those who take the opposite point of view: Two assumptions are made by nearly all teachers and texts when they exhort for better style. The first is that artists in words have begun their careers by "aping the masters.” I suppose that every high-school graduate has heard of how Stevenson trained himself by being a sedulous ape and of how Franklin cultivated his style by trying to reproduce the Spectator gapers. Have you heard of other cases? The general truth about liter ary artists has been the opposite. Most of them have dreaded to be influenced by other authors* peculiarities and would on no account do exercises in imitating. I do not believe that reading should ever be used in any classroom to stimulate the creative imagination. I doubt very much if any of the contributors to the best magazines today learn their art bv absorbing in spiration from any classical writers.#3 Shall the English program be organized to put the ma.1or emphasis on oral expression by the pupils, or shall oral ex pression be given a minor role? Those who take the first posi tion point out the fact that in life situations speaking and listening are much more important than reading or writing, and Stratton, op. cit., p. 12. 82 Ward, ££. cit. . pp. 410-411. S3 T. H. Uzzell, "Creative ifriting— a Professional ¥iew,” English Journal (High School Edition), 24:11-13, January, 1935- 220 that the English program should be designed to parallel life situations. The opponents of this view believe there is in sufficient time in the English program to encourage procedures that are predominantly oral. They point out the fact that a group of pupils can engage simultaneously in reading or lis tening, and that only one pupil should speak at one time. They believe, too, that any program of secondary school English should stress the reading, writing, and listening necessary for subsequent discussion. Those who favor stressing oral activities include Smith and Greene: . . . the best single test of success in the teaching of composition is how much the children in any given classroom have to talk about and how much chance they have to talk about it.&4* For example, research in the evaluation of the social objectives of language instruction indicates that the time given to oral expression in the curriculum should be increased. This is in line with the recognized ex perience of all observers, which is that children as well as adults speak much more than they write, except under the somewhat artificial stimulus of school conditions. Yet most textbooks, courses of study, and teachers have shown an apparent unwillingness to adjust the instruc tional emphasis adequately to meet this n e e d . 8 5 Among those against the emphasis upon oral activities ^ Dora Y. Smith, ’ ’American Youth and English/’ English- Journal (High School Edition), 26:102, February, 1937. 85 Harry A. Greene, ’ ’ Research Contributions to the Modern Frogram in English,” The Development of a Modern Pro gram in English, Ninth Yearbook of the Department of Super visors and Directors of Instruction (Washington, D. C.: N a t i o nalTlSducat ion Association, £n.d.] ), p. IAS. 221 are Ward and Sharp: "Value” in a school subject cannot be measured by the ratio of the commonest of its use. We must take into account what it accomplishes in mental development. Until we know that oral work can be made a force for education, that it can be made to grip and exercise the mind, we shall not prove its value, as compared with the known ef ficacy of written work. ... I have never discovered any evidence that the making of oral sentences was a training in written sentence. The value of good conversation in its double aspect of good talking and good listening is here manifest. Its frequency in everyday life is a kind of barometer of our culture. The most widespread revelations of life, however, come through books.S7 Shall the teacher of English attempt to maintain schol arly standards of English expression, or shall he attempt to develop instead the use of vigorous idiomatic modes of ex pression based on current usage? Some leaders in the field of English teaching believe that it is the function of the teacher of English to maintain literary standards of language. They argue that modern -American language usage as revealed by sur veys does not necessarily represent standards that should be accepted by the school. Instead, they believe that there is value in maintaining the niceties of speech in the interests of national culture. The opponents of this view believe that £6 Ward, op. cit., p. 352 87 Sharp, op. cit., pp. v, 1. 222 language is a dynamic force and that it springs from social usage# They believe also that the school's emphasis upon conformity to literary standards is not only uneconomical, but prevents the development of vigorous idiomatic expression of real value to the pupil. Tressler states the first position (without adhering to it); Thomas advocates the maintaining of language standards: English teachers feel themselves especially set apart to protect the helpless mother tongue# Many are patri otic missionaries who believe that the English language is rapidly becoming corrupt and that something heroic must be done promptly to save it from utter r u i n #88 We must somehow develop in our students an attitude of genuine respect for the English language. . . . Most of our boys and girls are unwilling to express their ideas in the choicer manner. . . . I shall, therefore, wish to keep my language free from the impurities which mar its beauty and to gg strengthen it with the resources that reveal its power. y Barnes and Fries urge that' school instruction in lan guage be based upon current English usage: We need a more natural and idiomatic mode of expres sion. The former style that we have preferred in school should be regarded as a special dialect to be employed in the very few Emily Post situations.90 1. C. Tressler, "What Conventions Shall We Teach? How?" English Journal (High School Edition), 21:200, March,' 1932. 89 Charles S. Thomas, "Yariables and Constants," English Journal (High School Edition), 25:110-111, February, 1935: 90 Walter Barnes, "American Youth, and Their Language," English Journal (High School Edition), 26:289, April, 1937. 223 Too often, I am afraid, our efforts to eliminate all slang and our emphasis upon an external conformity with certain language forms kill the motive which it should be our primary aim to cultivate. We are so much con cerned about correctness of form and are so thoroughly occupied in pruning the pupil*s language in accord'with ' our standards of propriety that we give all our atten tion to the cultivation of the negative virtues without regard to the effect of our labors upon his natural reaching out after vigorous, racy expression.91 Shall grammar be organized as a separate part of the English program for all pupils, or shall it be taught as in cidental to the other phases of English experiences and ac cording to individual needs? Those who favor instruction in grammar defend grammar as observational sedence, as much a part of the curriculum as other sciences. They also insist that a knowledge of all grammatical rules and principles is necessary to correct expression and interpretation. Other leaders state that there is no causal relationship between knowledge of grammatical principles and correct expression. They maintain further that instruction in grammar should be limited to remedial instruction and that such instruction should be purely incidental. Heed Smith and Craig are among the defenders of grammar: As a great observational science, dealing with the facts of language, grammar would seem to deserve a high place in the curriculum ... the study of grammar can be justified on the same grounds as the study of the other great observational sciences, such as geography, geology, botany, biology, and zoology. ^ Fries, ©£. cit., pp. 155-156 224 • . . between two-thirds and. three-fourths of the English teachers believe strongly in grammar and think it should retain its full place in the c u r r i c u l u m .92 The opponents of grammar, however, are constantly fewer. Modern tests have availed either to convince or to silence them. Capitalization and punctuation, which can be tested with absolute accuracy, can have a firm basis only in thorough knowledge of sentence construc tion. 93 Pooley and the authors of the Experience Curriculum oppose the teaching of grammar as a special subject. Grammar has no more right to control the forms of language use than psychology has to dictate the rules of social politeness. Grammar is an objective impartial science; correctness is a matter of social convention, social utility.94 In the Experience Curriculum English is treated as "merely a by-product of work that needs to be done." "Ho time at all has been taken to teach it." There is no scientific evidence of the value of grammar which warrants its appearance as a prominent or even distinct feature of the course of study.95 II. ISSUES IN TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE FIELD OF ENGLISH Each of the preceding issues shows a clear-cut difference 92 Reed Smith, "Grammar the Swing of the Pendulum," English Journal (High School Edition), 27:639, October, 1936. ^ Craig, op. cit., p. 236. 94 Robert C. Fooley, "Grammar and Usage in Composition Textbooks," English Journal (High School Edition), 22:18, January, 1933* oc Hatfield, op. cit., pp. 226-229* 225 of opinion among leaders in the field of English and presents definite implications for the professional preparation of teachers of English* In addition, there are other issues less directly implied, but suggested by the discussion in the first part of the chapter* In order to include still other issues that might be of significance for English teaching, a review was made of 142 problems in general educational theory and teacher training gathered by the National Survey of the 96 Education of Teachers, and those with special significance for the education of teachers of English were included in a list of eight issues here presented with brief comments* Shall the program for the education of teachers of English be designed to prepare specialists primarily in the 1 field of English, or teachers so broadly educated that they are able to teach in many fields? In support of the first alternative, it may be argued that while the ideal situation 1 would be to have a teacher equipped to direct the pupil’s learning activities in any field, the extent of accumulated knowledge is so great that it is impracticable to set up such a standard for secondary school teachers. It is contended that the best practical results are obtained by equipping the National Survey of the Education of Teachers (Bulle tin No. 10, 1933), Vol. Ill, Appendices A, D. 226 teacher for mastery of a specialized field* The other al ternative may be justified by pointing out that pupil activi ties in the secondary school should be directed in integrated experiences, and that the training of teachers should be di rected toward comprehensive rather than specialized knowledge. Shall the program for the education of teachers of English be designed to prepare teachers adequately equipped upon completion of their college training, or shall recogni tion be given to the fact that most of the teacher^ growth in the art of teaching must take place on the job? Despite the fact that teaching is recognized as a highly profession alized service similar in many respects to services rendered in the medical and legal professions, there is a tendency in many institutions for the program of teacher education to complete the professional education of the teacher merely through college courses and a short period of practice teach ing. If the analogy between the teaching profession and the medical profession holds, a longer period of internship or definite training on the job is necessary for secondary school teachers. Shall separate courses in how to teach English be given or shall subject matter courses combine the problems of how and what to teach in one unified presentation? The tendency in institutions to teach different types of knowledge in 227 i different courses has led to the situation in which the teachers of English receive most of their education in the subject matter of the language arts in one department of the college and their education in pedagogical methods in another. Such a divorce of subject matter and method, while it gives the prospective teacher the opportunity to be instructed by experts, is questioned because it violates the essential unity of educative experience. Shall teachers of English be educated primarily for scholarship in the field of English or for professional skill in secondary school methods of teaching? Not infrequently the opinion is voiced that a love of literature and a broad cultural background are the best types of equipment for suc cess as a teacher of English. On the other hand, the "normal school theory" still survives in a belief that pedagogical skill is a more important part of a teacher*s equipment than a high degree of scholarship. These views have not been satisfactorily reconciled and in the field of teacher educa tion in English there are champions of each extreme position.. Shall the program for the education of teachers of English lay greater emphasis upon specialized courses or upon integrating synthetic courses which cut across departmental lines? It is recognized that the teachers of English must have special knowledge in such matters as language development, 228 literary history, and English usage. Recognition of the need for such special knowledge usually results in the prescrip tion of specialized courses for the prospective teacher of English. Recently the question has been raised as to whether or not the integrating courses that give a broad overview of the development of culture may be better means for educating the secondary school teachers of any subject. Shall methods courses, if given, be taught by the teachers in the college department of English or by teachers in the college departments of education? It is held by some authorities that it is fundamentally unsound educational prac tice to divide the education of teachers— content matter in courses in English, methods of teaching in courses in educa tion. Such authorities usually insist that the best way to teach educational methods is in conjunction with neeessary content matter. Other authorities point out that methods courses, based largely on experimental research, can be ade quately presented only in departments of education. Shall the program for the education of teachers of English include conventional courses on practice teaching or can supervised observation of good teaching develop necessary teaching skills? Conventional practice teaching courses are based upon the belief that actual classroom teaching is a necessary part of the education of prospective teachers. It 229 is also pointed out, however, that the conditions found in high schools associated with colleges and universities may be mueh different from the conditions facing the average begin ning teacher, and that observance of good teaching under a variety of conditions may be more beneficial than routine ex periences in one particular situation. III. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The purpose of this chapter was to present educational issues that affect the teaching of high school English and the education of teachers of English. It was found that: 1. Because of the comparatively recent growth of high school English, the continuous reorganization of the course of study, and the intangible nature of many of the desired out comes of English instruction, numerous issues arise in the field of English teaching. 2. A review of twenty-three textbooks dealing primarily with the teaching of English in secondary schools, and a study of ten volumes of the English Journal (High School Edi tion) reveals twenty-three issues discussed at length and upon which two leaders take radically different positions from two other leaders. 3. By listing pertinent excerpts from the writers who represented the pro and con of each issue and by showing some of the implications of the divergent positions, the importance 230 of considering these divergent points of view in planning a program for teachers of English becomes apparent. U* In addition to issues primarily in the field of English teaching, eight additional issues based upon the National Survey of Teachers are significantly related to the education of teachers of English. PART III FUNDAMENTAL EIEMENTS IN THE WORK AND EDUCATION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN CALIFORNIA HIGH SCHOOLS CHAPTER IX ELEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH In Part II of this study fundamental elements in the work and education of teachers of English were reported and discussed. Such elements, discovered through an analysis of state reports, high school courses of study, research studies, textbooks, and periodicals were used in constructing a ques tionnaire through which a detailed study was made of such elements as they affect English teaching in California high schools. The findings of this second main step in this in vestigation are reported and discussed in this section of the study. Chapter IX deals with such elements as the distribu tion of teachers by sex, their educational equipment, their teaching experience and teaching assignments. In Chapter X the extent to which California high school teachers of English perform characteristic teaching activities is dis cussed. In Chapter XI the opinions of teachers of English regarding the educational equipment they believe valuable are analyzed. In Chapter XII the judgments of teachers of English regarding educational issues affecting their work are listed and discussed. One function of Part I of the questionnaire used in this study was to separate participating teachers into dif ferent groups in order that reactions to items in Parts II, 233 III and IV might be studied in detail. In addition, the answers to Part I revealed the representativeness of the group participating in the study and further significant facts. In this chapter data are reported and discussed re ferring to (1) the distribution of teachers by sex, (2) the educational equipment of teachers of English, (3) their teach ing experience, (U) their teaching assignments, and (5) the extra classroom duties regularly assigned to them. I. DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH BY SEX The teachers participating in this study represented accurately the proportions of the sexes found in the total \ number of teachers of English throughout the state. Of the participating junior high school teachers 16.5 per cent were men and S3.5 per cent women. These figures compare with 16.1 per cent and S3.9 per cent respectively for teachers of English in junior high schools throughout California. Of the participating high and senior high school teachers there were 23.9 per cent men and 76.1 per cent women. The corresponding percentages among all teachers of English in the high and senior high schools of the state are 21.7 and 78.3* Of junior high school teachers the group designated as superior showed a relatively larger number of women than men teachers. In junior high schools, 89.6 per cent of the su perior teachers were women while 81.A per cent of the group 234 designated as other than superior were women. In high and senior high schools the difference was not pronounced--76.4 per cent of the superior teachers being women as against an average of 73*3 per cent in the other than superior group. Detailed distribution of the participating teachers by sex is shown in Table X3QCIV. II. THE EDUCATIONAL BQUHMEHT. OP TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Degrees held. A Bachelor’s degree is required for both the Junior High School and the General Secondary Creden tials. Approximately two thirds of the participating teach ers reported this minimum credential requirement as their highest degree, the figures being 67*9 per cent of the junior high school teachers and 63 per cent of the high and senior high school teachers. Of the junior high school teachers 27.6 per cent reported the Master’s degree, while 36.3 per cent of the high and senior high school teachers reported this advanced degree. Three of the junior high school teach ers and two of the high and senior high school teachers re ported the Doctor’s degree. In both the junior high schools and high and senior high schools the number of Master’s degrees reported increased with the size of the schools. For junior high schools only 3.7 per cent of the participating teachers in small schools reported the advanced degree; 20.4 per cent of teachers in 235 TABLE xxrrv TEACHERS OF ENGLISH BY SEX, NUMBER AND PER CENT OF TEACHERS REPORTING Men Women Number Per cent Number Per cent JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS All junior high school teachers of English 101 16*5 510 83.5 Superior junior high school teachers of English 16 10.4 138 89.6 Other than superior junior high school teachers of English 85 18.6 372 81.4 HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS All high and senior high school teachers of English 271 23.9 864 76.1 Superior high and senior high school teachers of English 65 21.6 236 78.4 Other than superior high and senior high school teachers of English 206 24.7 628 75.3 medium schools; 32.7 per cent of teachers in large schools. In high and senior high schools 23 per cent of participating teachers in small schools, 36.1 per cent of teachers in me dium schools, and 40.2 per cent of teachers in large schools reported having the.Master’s degree. These figures seem to reflect in part the fact that large schools are in general nearer to universities, but more especially the larger salaries paid and the larger rewards offered in the way of advancement to holders of the Master’s degree in the larger schools. In the matter of both Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees, the teachers designated as superior reported no significant divergence from the group comprising all other teachers. In the matter of the Doctor’s degree superior teachers in junior high schools hold two of the three reported, while in high and senior high schools superior teachers hold one of the two reported. The detailed distribution of degrees held by partici pating teachers is shown in Table XXX7. Majors and minors. In a further effort to determine the adequacy of the college preparation of teachers of English the participating teachers reported their college majors and minors, both undergraduate and graduate. Of the junior high school teachers, 38.5 per cent of those reporting table x m HIGHEST DEGREES HELD El TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Bachelor’s Master’s Doctor’s Not given Size of school Number ^er Number ^er Number ^er Others Kumber Per Total cent cent cent cent JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Teachers in small schools (1-15 teachers, inclusive) 24 88.9 1 Teachers in medium schools (16-35 teachers, inclusive) 100 70.4 29 Teachers in large schools (36 teachers and over) 295 64.0 151 Total 419 66.5 181 Superior teachers 106 67.9 43 Other than superior teachers 313 66.0 138 HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Teachers in small schools (1-15 teachers, inclusive) 144 77.0 43 Teachers in medium schools (16-35, teachers, inclusive) 184 63.2 105 Teachers in large schools (36 teachers and over) 399 58.9 272 Total 727 63.0 420 Superior teachers 187 61.3 115 Other than superior teachers 540 63.2 305 3.7 0 0 2 7.4 27 20.4 2 1.4 11 7.7 142 32.7 J. .2 14 3.0 461 28,7 3 .5 27 4.3 630 27.6 2 1.3 5 3.2 156 29.1 1 .2 22 4.6 474 23.0 0 0 0 . 0 0 187 36.1 1 .3 0 1 .3 291 40.2 JL . .1 J5 .4 677 36.3 2 .1 2 4 .3 1,155 37.3 1 .3 0 2 .6 305 35.7 1 .1 2 2 .2 855 237 2 38 majors gave English, as their first undergraduate major. The next five subjects reported as undergraduate majors, in the order of their frequency, were social science, 21.1 per cent; education, 13.9 per cent; modern foreign languages, 7.3 per cent; classical languages, 3.7 per cent; and public speaking, 3.0 per cent. In the field of graduate studies, education was listed as the first major by twice as many teachers as listed English as their first major. By percentage, 40.9 per cent of the junior high school teachers reporting graduate majors listed education as a first major, with 20.7 per cent naming English as their first major. In the matter of first college majors both under graduate and graduate, the junior high school group desig nated as superior reported no appreciable difference from the group comprising all other teachers. Of the superior teachers who reported majors, 3 9 per cent listed English as their first undergraduate major, while 37.9 per cent of the group comprising all other teachers listed English as the first major. In the field of graduate majors, education was listed by both the superior group and all others in approximately the same proportions— 41.3 per cent of the superior and 40.8 per cent of the group comprising all other teachers listing education as their first graduate major. 239 The detailed distribution of college majors and minors listed by participating junior high school teachers is shown in Tables XXXVI and XXXVII* Of the high and senior high school teachers who re ported undergraduate majors, 48.1 per cent listed English as the first major; 15*7 per cent listed soeial science; 9.3 per cent modern foreign languages; 5*4 per cent classical languages; 4*4 per cent public speaking. The next five first majors, in order of their fre quency of listing, were: social science, 15*7 per cent; modern foreign languages, 9*3 per cent; classical languages, 5.4 per cent; public speaking, 4.4 per. cent; education, 4.1 per cent. Of the high and senior high school teachers of English who reported graduate majors 38.6 per cent listed English as their first major. The next most frequently listed subject was education, reported as first major by 26.4 per eent of the teachers listing fields of special graduate study. The group designated as superior among high and senior high school teachers reported a greater degree of specialized college training in English than did.the group comprising all other teachers. Of the superior teachers listing majors, 54-8 per cent named English as their first undergraduate major; 45*5 per cent of all the other teachers made a com parable listing. m E XOTI MAJORS AND MINORS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL : Undergraduate Graduate t Majors : Minors Majors : Minors : First Second : First Second First Second : First Second English 226 58 171 21 101 39 106 18 *Social Sciences 124 59 160 90 76 29 98 43 Education 82 46 37 55 200 48 83 29 Modem Foreign Language 43 18 58 49 28 5 23 8 Classical Language 22 9 14 5 12 3 4 2 Public Speaking 18 12 15 10 17 7 9 5 Science 11 8 26 40 9 4 11 9 Mathematics 10 4 15 7 5 1 ,6 1 Economics 10 7 9 20 6 3 10 5 Physical Education 8 1 8 2 2 2 4 2 Psychology 7 9 12 16 5 4 7 7 Art or Music 7 5 20 15 7 0 4 7 Sociology 6 8 10 10 10 3 10 5 Philosophy 5 2 4 8 1 4 5 4 Drama 4 3 1 1 2 2 0 3 Journalism 2 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 Practical Arts 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 0 Commerce 0 4 1 4 1 1 5 1 Others 0 2 0 1 5 0 0 1 Not given 43 372 66 271 142 474 243 477 Totals 630 630 630 630 630 630 630 630 * Under Social Sciences are included majors listed as "Social Science," "History,” and "Political Science." 240 TABLE m n I MAJORS AND MINORS OF SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL : Undergraduate Graduate : Majors : . Minors Majors : Minors : First Second : First Second First Second : First Second English 59 13 51 3 25 10 30 8 Drama 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 Public Speaking 7 5 2 5 8 0 0 4 Journalism 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 Modem Foreign Languages 16 2 10 14 8 2 5 1 . Mathematics 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 Science 1 2 3 6 2 0 2 1 Social Sciences 30 13 40 21 17 6 23 11 Education 32 14 8 14 48 11 16 6 Philosophy 1 1 0 3 0 1 1 0 Psychology 1 2 6 5 0 0 2 5 Arts 3 1 8 4 3 0 1 0 Commercial 0 3 0 1 0 0 2 0 Household Arts 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 Physical Education 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 Economics 1 1 0 6 0 0 3 2 Sociology 1 1 4 3 1 0 2 2 Others 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 Classical Languages 3 3 5 2 2 3 2 0 Not given 8 92 14 65 40 122 . 64 114 Totals 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 156 241 242 Of the superior group, 47.0 per cent listed English as the first major field of graduate study, while only 35.6 per cent of the group comprising all teaehers listed this subject. The group designated as superior showed no appre ciable difference from the group comprising all other teachers in the frequency of education as a field of specialized graduate study. The detailed distribution of college majors and minors for teachers in high and senior high schools is shown in Tables XXXVIII and XXXIX. In addition to showing the specific major fields of college study, the data were treated to show certain signifi cant combinations of majors: English and education; English but no education; education but no English; and neither English nor education. The first of these combinations is conventionally re garded as the one most desirable for teachers of English. Yet approximately only one out of five of the teachers re porting had this type of preparation; almost the same propor tion that had neither English nor education as a college major field of study. The greater degree of specialization in English study is shown by the relatively high percentage — 40.2— high and senior high school teachers with majors in English but not education in comparison with the like per centage— 2 7.7--for junior high school teachers. TABLE XXXVIII MAJORS AND MINORS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS : Undergraduate________ : Graduate : Majors : Minors : Majors ; Minors : First Second : First Second : First Second : First Second English *Social Sciences Modem Foreign Languages Classical Languages Public Speaking Education Art or Music Science Economics Mathematics Physical Education Philosophy Practical Arts Drama Journalism Psychology Commerce 538 88 285 A A XX 176 100 297 186 105 63 168 100 61 25 41 16 49 25 52 43 46 65 54 115 35 3 20 21 27 19 46 61 17 16 26 35 16 12 16 19 15 6 10 13 9 11 28 29 9 0 5 4 4 3 5 4 369 66 171 30 117 34 139 60 56 20 63 25 28 9 11 4 48 14 32 17 253 127 183 71 19 3 9 11 11 6 16 5 9 7 28 11 7 1 12 1 8 2 10 7 7 4 20, 6 3 1 1 0 3 6 9 2 1 0 ’ 6 2 10 4 10 12 1 0 3 5 4 0 5 7 Sociology 1 5 12 15 Others 4 0 2 3 Not given 35 700 68 424 Totals 1,155 1,155 1,155 1,155 3 0 5 4 198 851 422 875 1,155 1,155 1,155 1,155 4 4 3 ♦3 2 6 15 19 2 4 2 1 * tJnder Social Sciences are included majors listed as "Social Science," "History," and "Political Science." £*rz TABU! XXXDC MAJORS AND MINORS OF SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS : Undergraduate_____ : Graduate _____ : Majors : Minors : Majors : Minors : First Second : First Second : : First Second : First Second English 165 28 78 9 116 25 39 8 Dram 2 0 1 1 2 0 4 0 Public Speaking 12 9 16 10 15 2 13 5 Journalism 2 1 2 1 0 0 2 1 Modern Foreign Languages 28 19 39 25 10 6 13 4 Mathematics 3 3 5 6 0 1 2 0 Science 3 3 11 17 1 1 3 0 Social Sciences 43 31 84 55 25 8 35 19 Education 12 19 16 33 62 42 49 18 Philosophy 2 5 8 3 3 1 5 2 Psychology 0 2 4 8 1 3 5 3 Arts. 3 1 5 6 1 0 2 4 Commercial 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 Household Arts 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 Physical Education 2 2 1 4 1 1 2 3 Economics 2 4 6 7 1 2 4 3 Sociology 0 2 2 5 0 0 1 2 Others 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 1 Classical Languages 18 8 12 3 7 1 5 1 Not given 4 165 12 110 58 212 118 231 Totals 305 305 305 305 305 305 305 305 *r*rz 245 The group of junior high school teachers rated as su perior reported no significant tendency in the matter of these major combinations. But among high and senior high school teachers a significantly larger percentage reported their first two major combinations than did teachers not so rated. The quip "Anybody can teach English," often spoken in joking and sometimes in earnest, is evidently not based on good evidence. Detailed distribution of data regarding major combi nations is shown in Table XL. Recency of college education. Slightly more than one half of junior high school teachers and almost two thirds of high and senior high school teachers reported taking college courses in either English or education during the past three years, the exact figures being 56.3 per cent for junior high school teachers and 63.2 per eent for high and senior high school teachers. That high and senior high school teachers have kept up their college work with more consistency than junior high school teachers was also revealed by the fact that while 16.8 per-cent of high and senior high' school teachers reported that their latest college courses in English and education were taken more than five years ago, almost a quarter, or 23.7 per cent of junior high school teachers took no college courses in these subjects within 246 TABLE XL MAJOR FIELDS OF COLLEGE PREPARATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COLLEGE MAJORS— GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE : Junior : High and senior : high schools : high schools : Number ; Per eent ; Number : Per eent ALL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH English and Education 142 22.6 231 20.0 English but no Education 175 27*7 464 40.2 Education but no English 165 26.2 188 16.3 Neither English nor Education 148 23.5 272 23.5 Total 630 100.0 1,155 100.0 SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH English and Education 36* 23.1 80 26.2 English but no Education 46 29.5 133 43.6 Education but no English 41 21.2 35 11.5 Neither English nor Education 33 21.2 57 18.7 Total 156 100.0 305 100.0 OTHER THAN SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH English and Education 106 22.3 151 17.8 English but no Education 129 27.2 331 38.9 Education but no English 124 26.2 153 18.0 Neither English nor Education 115 24.3 215 25.3 Total 474 100.0 850 100.0 247 the past five years. The worth of continued college training is reflected in the figures referring to superior teachers as compared with all other teachers. In junior high schools, 61.5 per cent of the group described as superior reported courses in English or education during the past three years, while of all other teachers only 54.6 per cent so reported. In high and senior high schools the comparable figures show no such difference, because of the fact that the proportion of all teachers who have kept up their college work is higher than in junior high schools. Detailed distribution of the periods during which participating teachers have had their latest college work in English or education are shown in Table XLI. Self-evaluated teaching proficiency. Slightly oyer half of the junior high school teachers and slightly less than two thirds of the high and senior high school teachers reported themselves best qualified to teach English. In both junior high schools and in high and senior high schools over 80.0 per cent of all the participating teachers named English as a first or second teaching choice, and over 90.0 per cent included English in their first, second, or third choices. Of the 46 per cent of the total junior high school teachers who believed themselves better fitted to teach some TABLE XII PERIODS IN WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH HAVE HAD THEIR MOST RECENT COLLEGE EDUCATION IN ENGLISH AND EDUCATION Within the past: From three to three years :five years ago : More than five : years ago ♦ \ Not given Number Per cent of total • # :Number • • Per cent of total : Per cent :Number of x total • * :Number ♦ • Per cent of total Total JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Junior high school teachers 355 56.3 103 16.3 149 23.7 23 3.6 630 Superior teachers 96 61.5 20 12.8 34 21.8 6 3.8 156 Excluding superior teachers 259 54.6 83 17.5 115 24.1 17 3.8 474 HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS High and senior high school teachers 731 65.2 206 17.8 194 16.8 24 2.2 1,155 Superior teachers 197 64.6 51 16.7 50 16.4 7 2.3 305 Excluding superior teachers 534 62.8 155 18.2 144 16.9 r - 17 2. 850 2*rz 249 other subject than English, 26 per cent listed social sciences. The next five "first” teaching choices in the order of their naming were modern foreign languages, mathe matics, drama, public speaking, and art and music. Of the 36.8 per cent of high and senior high school teachers who felt themselves better fitted to teach some other subject than English 12.4 per cent listed social sciences as their first choice. The next five "first” teach ing choices in the order of their naming were modern foreign languages, public speaking, drama, Latin,, arts and music. This’is the same list of subjects as that given by junior high school teachers except that Latin is included instead of mathematics. Teachers rated as superior chose English as their first teaching choice in greater proportion than did other teachers. In junior high schools 67.0 per cent of the supe rior teachers listed English as their first teaching choice while of all other teachers only 4&.9 Per cent named this subject as their first choice. In high and senior high schools 74.4 per cent of the superior group listed English as their first teaching choice in comparison with 58.8 of other teachers who made the same choice. Detailed distribution of first, second and third choices of participating teachers is given in tables XLII, XLIII, XLIV, and LLV. TABLE 30uII SUBJECTS 1HICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH XN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS FEEL QUALIFIED TO TEACH : First choice : Second choice : Third choice • Number • Per cent of total • ‘ Number » Per cent: of total: Number Per cent of total English 332 52*7 195 30.9 55 8;7 Soeial Sciences 164 26.0 224 35.5 106 16.8 Modern Foreign Languages 31 4.9 21 3.3 30 4.8 Mathematics 17 2.7 30 4.8 73 11.6 Drama 15 2*4 20 3.2 27 4.3 Public Speaking 15 2.4 34 5.4 12 1.9 Arts and Music 13 2.0 3 .5 23 3.6 Latin 12 1.8 16 2.5 13 2.1 Science 8 1.3 15 2.4 35 5.6 Physical Education 5 .8 7 1.1 12 1.9 Commercial Subjects 5 .8 10 1.6 12 1.9 Journalism 4 .7 16 2.5 13 2.1 Practical Arts 1 .1 1 .1 5 .8 Others 0 .0 0 .0 2 .3 Not given 8 1.3 38 6.0 211 33.5 Totals 630 630 630 TABLE XLIII SUBJECTS WHICH SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS FEEL QUALIFIED TO TEACH ; First • • • • • Second * Third English 102 37 8 Drama 4 8 6 Public Speaking 3 9 3 Journalism 0 6 4 Foreign Languages 5 9 6 Mathematics 0 5 12 Science 1 2 5 Social Sciences 28 59 31 Physical Education 1 2 2 Arts and Music . 3 2 8 Practical Arts 0 0 1 Commercial 1 1 3 Education 0 0 0 Others 0 0 0 Latin 4 5 3 Not given 4 11 64 Totals 156 156 156 EXTENT TO WHICH SUPERIOR TEACHERS AND ALL OTHER TEACHERS LISTED ENGLISH AS A SUBJECT THEY WERE QUALIFIED TO TEACH i First * • Second Third : Number Per cent ; Number Per cent : Number Per cent Superior teachers 152 102 67.1 37 24.3 8 5.2 All other teachers 470 230 48.9 158 33.6 47 10.0 251 TABLE XLIV SUBJECTS 1HICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS FEEL QUALIFIED TO TEACH : First choice : Second choice : Third choice Number Per eent of total ♦ ! Number ♦ Per cent: of total: Number Per cent of total &igllsh 720 62,3 272 23.6 87 7.5 Social Sciences 143 12.4 315 27.3 169 14.6 Foreign Languages 54 4.7 71 6.1 79 6.8 Public Speaking 46 3.9 101 8.7 95 8.2 Drama 39 3.4 70 6.1 58 5.0 Latin 29 2.5 64 5.5 51 4.4 Arts and Music 24 2.1 23 2.0 20 1.7 Journalism 21 1.8 56 4.8 36 3.1 Science 18 1.5 16 1.4 37 3.1 Mathematics 17 1.5 30 2.6 55 4.7 Physical Education 16 1.4 19 1.6 31 2.7 Practical Arts 9 .8 6 .5 16 1.4 Commercial Subjects 8 .7 17 1.4 24 2.1 Others 0 .0 0 .0 3 .3 Not given 11 .9 95 8.2 394 34.1 Totals 1,155 1,155 1,155 252 TABLE XLV SUBJECTS WHICH SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS FEEL QUALIFIED TO TEACH : First ; Second • Third English 224 52 16 Drama 10 22 24 Public Speaking 11 31 23 Journalism 5 18 14 ♦ Foreign Languages 8 15 22 Mathematics 2 5 17 Science 2 3 2 Social Sciences 30 97 43 Physical Education 1 3 7 Arts and Music 0 3 5 Practical Arts 0 2 4 Commercial 2 2 4 Education 0 0 0 Others 0 0 0 Latin 6 19 12 Not given 4 33 112 Totals 305 305 305 EXTEST TO WHICH SUPERIOR TEACHERS AND ALL OTHER TEACHERS LISTED ENGLISH AS A SUBJECT THEI WERE QUALIFIED TO TEACH : First : Second : Third : Number Per cent : Number Per cent :Number Per cent Superior teachers 301 224 74.4 52 17.3 16 5.3 All other teachers 843 496 58.8 220 26.1 71 8.4 253 Of the junior high school teachers participating in the study a small proportion, 4.6 per cent, felt qualified to teach one subject only. Almost one third, 31.9 per cent, felt qualified to teach two subjects, and almost three fourths, or 74.1 per cent, felt qualified to teach three subjects. Among high and senior high school teachers the ten dency toward specialization was more evident. Of the high and senior high school teachers 7.2 per cent felt qualified to teach only one subject; one third, or 33.1 per cent, felt qualified to teach two subjects, and slightly over two thirds or 69.4 per cent, felt qualified to teach three subjects. Superior teachers showed some tendency toward speciali zation over the group comprising all other teachers. In junior high schools 38.4 per cent of the superior group be lieved themselves qualified to teach two subjects, as against 29.9 per cent of all other teachers. In high and senior high schools the comparable figures are 35-4 and 32.3. The detailed distribution of the number of subjects participating teachers felt qualified to teach is shown on Table XLVI- III. THE TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH The data secured from the answers to Part I of the questionnaire show that almost half of the participating 255 TABLE KLY1 NUMBER OF SUBJECTS WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH FEEL QUALIFIED TO TEACH : Junior : high schools : High and senior : high schools : Number : Per cent : Number j Per cent AIL TEACHERS 1. One subject only 30 4.6 83 7.2 2. Two subjects 172 27.3 300 25.9 3. Three subjects 266 42.2 419 36.3 4. Four subjects 108 17.1 231 20.0 5. Five or more 46 7.3 111 9.6 No subjects given 8 1.3 11 .9 Total 630 1,155 SUPERIOR TEACHERS 1. One subject only 7 4.5 28 9.2 2 . Two subjects 53 33.9 80 26.2 3. Three subjects 54 34.6 116 38.0 4. Four subjects 25 16.0 59 19.3 5. Five or more 13 8.3 18 5.9 No subjects given 4 2.6 4 1.3 Total 156 305 OTHER THAN SUPERIOR TEACHERS 1. One subject only 23 4.8 55 6.5 2. Two subjects 119 25.1 220 25.8 3. Three subjects 212 44.7 303 35.7 4* Four subjects 83 17.5 172 20.2 5. Five or more 33 7.2 93 10.9 No subjects given 4 .8 7 .8 Total 474 850 256 teachers of English, both in junior high schools and high and senior high schools, have more than ten years experience in teaching English— 44-4 per cent of the junior high school teachers and 44.2 per cent of the high and senior high school teachers. Teaehers with less than three years ex perience are proportionately more numerous in high and senior high schools than in junior high schools. In both junior high school and high and senior high school the teach ers designated as superior are generally those of more ex perience than others not so designated. Moreover, the per centage of teachers designated as superior shows a steady increase as the term of teaching experience increases. The detailed distribution of the teaching experience of the teachers participating in the study is shown in Table XEVTI. IV. TEACHING ASSIGNMENTS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH The teaching assignments listed by participating teachers followed closely the comparable figures reported in Chapter V of this study, based upon an analysis of state records. Of junior high school teachers 29.2 per cent taught in the English field alone, and 30.0 per cent addi tional listed English as their first teaching assignment with another subject or subjects added. Of the junior high school teachers 25.7 per cent taught classes in which English TABLE XLVII LENGTH OF EXE31IENCE OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Three to Five to Less than five years ten years More than three years inclusive inclusive ten years Not given Total Number Per Number ^er Number * * er Number Per Number per cent cent cent cent cent JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS All junior high school teachers of English 105 16*7 109 17.3 133 21.1 280 44.4 3 .5 630 Junior high school superior teachers of English 14 8.9 27 17.2 42 26.9 73 46.8 156 Junior high school teachers other than superior 91 19.2 82 17.3 91 19.2 207 43.7 3 .6 474 HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS All high and senior high school teachers of English 271 23.4 168 14.6 200 17.3 510 44.2 6 .5 1,155 Superior high and senior high school teachers of English 41 13.7 38 12.4 49 16.0 172 56.3 5 1.6 305 High and senior high school teachers other than superior 230 27.0 130 15.3 151 17.8 338 39.8 1 .1 850 L$Z 258 was combined with social science in fusion courses. In high and senior high schools 53.1 per cent of the teachers taught in the field of English alone, while 24.6 per cent listed English as their first assignment with another course or courses added. Gf the high and senior high school teachers, 11.1 per cent taught fusion courses. Teacher specialization in one subject field is ap parently a factor in promoting superior teaching of English among participating teachers. Of the junior high school teachers rated as superior 39.3 per cent taught in the field of English alone; the comparable figure among all other teachers is 25. 7 . In high and senior high schools 62.7 per cent of superior teachers taught in the field of English alone; the comparable percentage among all other teachers is 49.6. The detailed distribution of teaching assignments of participating teachers is shown in Table XXVIII. V. EXTRACLA3SRG0M DUTIES REGULARLY ASSIGNED TO TEACHERS OF ENGLISH The extraclassroom duties regularly assigned to teach ers of English fall into six main categories. Of these six, counseling of students was listed by the greatest percentage of participating teachers— a total of 25.7 of junior high school teachers and 27.9 of the high and senior high school 259 TABLE XLVIII SUBJECT COMBINATIONS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Junior : High and senior high schools : high schools Number ;Fer cent: Number : Per cent ALL TEACHERS 1. Teaching in English field only 184 29.2 613 53.1 2. English first, with other subjects added 189 30.0 285 24.6 3* English added to other teaching subjects 93 14.8 125 10.9 4* Teaching fusion courses 162 25.7 128 11.1 Not given 2 .3 4 .3 Total 630 1,155 SUPERIOR TEACHERS. 1. Teaching in English field only 62 39.8 191 62.7 2* English first, with other subjects added 46 29.5 62 20.3 3. English added to other teaching subjects 13 8.3 19 6.2 4. Teaching fusion courses 35 22.4 31 10.2 Not given 2 .6 Total 156 305 OTHER THAN SUPERIOR TEACHERS 1. 2. Teaching in English field only English first, with other 122 25.7 422 49.6 3. subjects added English added to other teaching 143 30.2 223 26.2 subjects 80 16.9 106 12.5 4. Teaching fusion courses 127 26.8 97 11.4 Not given 2 .4 2 .2 Total 474 850 260 teachers. Among junior high school teachers 17.4 per cent listed library supervision as a regular duty. Supervision of dramatic and assembly programs was listed next in fre quency with 14*9 per cent of the teachers reporting this type of activity. Supervision of school publications was listed by 10.4 per cent of the participating teachers. Of the high and senior high school teachers 20.2 per cent listed the supervision of dramatic or assembly programs as a regular duty, 19.0 per cent listed supervision of school publications, and 14.2 per cent named supervision of public speaking or debating events. The detailed distribution of extraclass activities is shown in Table XLIX. YI. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The data reported in this chapter were gathered in order to separate the participating teachers into groups for further study, to test the representativeness of the teach ers participating in the study, and to reveal facts about the educational equipment, teaching experience, and duties of teachers of English in California high schools. These data show that: 1. The teachers participating in this study— approxi mately one half of all teachers of English in California high schools— are representative of the whole group in their 261 TABUS XLIX EXTRACLASSROOM ACTIVITIES REGULARLY ASSIGNED TO TEACHERS OF ENGLISH * Number Per cent A. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Headship of English department 58 9.2 B. Supervision of school library IS 17.4 C. Supervision of school publications 66 10.4 D. Supervision of dramatic or assembly programs 94 14.9 E. Supervision of public speaking or debating events 35 5.5 F. Counselling students 160 25.7 G. Additional duties listed 231 A. HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Headship of English department 151 13.0 B. Supervision of school library 80 6.9 C. Supervision of school publications 220 19.0 D. Supervision of dramatic or assembly programs 234 20.2 E. Supervision of public speaking or debating events 164 14.2 F. Counselling students 323 27.9 G. Additional duties listed 554 262 distribution according to sex, size of schools in which they teach, and type of teaching assignments* 2. Five out of six teachers of English are found to be women; in high and senior high schools the proportion is four out of five. 3* A relatively small proportion of teachers have graduate study, enough to qualify for the Master’s degree— scarcely more than a fourth in all but the large< schools. 4. Teachers of English show a general uniformity in having college majors in English and social studies, with high and senior high school teachers showing a greater degree of specialization in the field of English study, while junior high school teachers have relatively a greater amount of prep aration in education courses. 5. Scarcely more than one fifth of the teachers of English have the most frequently recommended combination of English and education majors; approximately the same propor tion have neither an English nor education major. 6. Two thirds of high and senior high school teachers of English and slightly more than one half of junior high school teachers have taken college courses in education or English during the past three years; only one sixth of the high and senior high school teachers and one fourth of junior high school teachers have had their latest college courses in these subjects more than five years ago. 263 7. Almost half— UU per cent— of teachers of English in all types of high schools have been teaching for more than ten years; only one sixth of the junior high school teachers and one fourth of the high and senior high school teachers have had less than three years experience. 8. Teachers of English are not "one-subject teachers." In junior high school approximately three fourths feel quali fied to teach three subjects; in high and senior high schools the comparable figure is 70 per cent. Teachers in high and senior high schools show a greater tendency toward speciali zation than do teachers in junior high school— over one half teach in the field of English alone as against approximately i one third in the same category in junior high schools. 9. There are no extracurricular duties that appear to be the province of all teachers of English, although the supervision of school publications and direction of dramatic and assembly programs are regularly assigned duties for ap proximately one fifth of all high and senior high school teachers of English. 10. There are relatively as many teachers rated as superior among men as among women; and relatively as many among those having only the Bachelor1s degree as among those having the Master’s degree. 11. The group designated as superior among high and senior high school teachers shows a much higher degree of 264 preparation in college majors in English and education than the group not so designated; among junior high school teach ers this difference is only slightly apparent. 12. Superior teachers report more recent work in English and education than do others; among junior high school teachers this tendency is most apparent. 13. Teachers rated as superior prefer specialized teaching in English slightly more than do the teachers not so rated. The most significant difference between superior teachers and those not so rated is in greater length of ex perience for the former group. CHAPTER X THE TEACHING- ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH One purpose of this investigation was to discover the extent to which certain characteristic teaching activities are performed by English teachers. It was realized that the number of specific activities performed by such teachers is very large; it was also believed possible to determine the extent of certain significant teaching procedures generally recognized by English teachers as within their particular province. A list of such teaching activities, often involv ing different techniques on the part of individual teachers, and often containing suggestion of learning outcomes, was discovered through the study of materials discussed in Chapter VI. This list of teaching activities was then in corporated in the questionnaire answered by teachers of English throughout the state. The teachers were asked to indicate, using a five-point rating scale, the extent to which they perform listed teaching activities, and the extent to which they believe special preparation in college needed for such activities. In an effort to discover factors of value in planning a program of education for teachers of English, data supplied by the following groups are analyzed and discussed in this chapter: (1) teachers of English in junior high schools, (2) in high and senior high schools, 266 (3) in small, medium, and large high schools, (A) teachers of English courses predominantly and teachers of fusion courses, and (5) teachers rated as superior and teachers not so rated, I. EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACT TO HIES IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS The first five activities in order of prominence among junior high school teachers of English reflect the attention paid by teachers of English to developing fundamental skills needed in oral and written composition. Helping pupils cor rect faulty speech habits, teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing, teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression, helping pupils to develop good vocabu laries, and teaching pupils to spell are these first five ac tivities, each one performed to a large or very large extent by more than three quarters of all teachers. The next three activities in order of prominence also show the emphasis placed upon fundamental skills required in the communication of ideas through language. These activities — teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure, teaching pupils good listening habits and teaching pupils the use of oral English for informal occasions— are performed to a large or very large extent by seventy per cent or more of all junior high school teachers reporting. Thus junior high school teachers of English, in 267 analyzing their teaching efforts, reported that of thirty- five teaching activities generally performed, their major ef forts are directed toward the development of basic skills needed to meet the more common life situations. The first activities in the field of teaching litera ture that are given prominence by the teachers of English in junior high schools appear ninth, tenth, and fifteenth on the list— directing individual pupil programs of reading, helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature, and helping pupils develop good character traits through litera ture. The first activities in the field of organized written composition are twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth; such composition activities are encouraging creative expression in written composition, teaching pupils to write business and social letters, and teaching pupils to transfer thought clearly through written exposition. All of these first fif teen activities are performed to a large or very large extent 55 pel* cent or more of all junior high school teachers reporting. In the group of five activities performed to a large or very large extent by slightly less than one half of all teachers appears an activity frequently referred to in the literature dealing with the teaching of English— teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. In this group of five, in addition 2 68 to remedial reading and remedial composition, appear two other activities generally* regarded as conventional in the field of literature teaching— teaching pupils proper stand ards of literary appreciation and discrimination, and teach ing pupils to understand historical backgrounds through literature* Approximately one third of all the junior high school teachers stress three activities frequently referred to in the literature of the field as conservative--teaching pupils to interpret literature orally, teaching pupils formal gram mar, and helping pupils gain broad culture through the study of literary classics. In the case of each of these activities the number of teachers who reported that they stress such ac tivities is greater than the number reporting that they per form them to a small, or very small extent, or not at all* In the ease of ten activities, the number of teachers who perform them to a small or very small extent or not at all is significantly greater than the number performing them to a large or very large extent. Least stressed of all such activities is coaching pupils in formal debate. Also included in this group of ten are such activities in the field of literature as teaching pupils the history and development of English and American literature, and teaching pupils the standard types of literature. In the field of written com position two activities least stressed are teaching pupils 269 artistic forms of writing, and teaching pupils the princi ples of rhetoric. The other activities included in this lowest ten are teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions, helping pupils understand modern social and economic backgrounds through literature, helping pupils develop standards of motion picture appreciation, and direct ing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion. In addition to reporting the extent to which they perform activities especially characteristic of English teaching, junior high school teachers listed activities as sociated with general teaching problems and procedures. Of such general activities only five are performed to a large or very large extent by more than 4.0 per cent of all junior high school teachers. These activities are— recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs, organizing courses and units of instruction, directing socialized class^activities, cor relating English instruction with school work in other courses, and selecting materials of instruction. Other general ac tivities— organizing classes for the best teaching situation, administering a definite testing program, securing the co operation of the whole school in promoting good English, and aiding vocational adjustment through English teaching— are apparently regarded as chiefly within the field of adminis tration and supervision, since more teachers reported that they performed such duties to a small or very small extent 270 or not at all, than reported that they performed them to a large or very large extent# II. EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES As in the ease of the data relating to junior high school teachers, so the responses of the high and senior high school teachers show great emphasis placed upon teaching fundamental skills necessary to oral and written expression. The first eight activities stressed by high and senior high school teachers are the same as the corresponding list men tioned by junior high school teachers except that the high and senior high school teachers include teaching pupils to transfer thought clearly through written exposition, instead of teaching pupils good listening habits. In general the ac tivities performed to a small or very small extent or not at all by high and senior high school teachers are those rated correspondingly by junior high school teachers. Apart from this general similarity of ranking, how ever, there are many differences in the extent to which the two groups of teachers perform thirteen of the thirty-five activities related specifically to the teaching of high school English. The most noticeable of these differences occur In the 271 field of literature. In this field high and senior high school teachers reported much greater emphasis upon teaching literary appreciation, the classics of literature, social and economic backgrounds of literature, standard types of litera ture, and the historical development of English and American literature than did junior high school teachers. * Even the last two of these activities— the least frequently mentioned of this list— are performed to a large or very large extent by more than a quarter of the high and senior high school teachers reporting. According to the ratings, junior high school teachers stress much more strongly than do high school teachers ac tivities related to remedial speech work for pupils, develop ing listening habits, silent reading, spelling, and letter writing. High and senior high school teachers lay more stress i than do junior high school teachers upon using such composi tion devices as outlining as a means of developing and or ganizing thought. In reporting upon the activities associated with general teaching problems and procedures high and senior high school teachers showed appreciably less activity than junior high school teachers in attempting to recognize and meet in dividual pupil needs, in organizing courses and units of in struction, in directing socialized class activities and in correlating English instruction with school work in other 272 courses. The foregoing discussion is based upon the extent to which teachers perform specific activities to a large or very large extent. Another way to study the data is to show the extent to which teachers perform such activities to an aver age extent or more, thus showing such activities to be part of the general teaching activities -of English teaching. Presented in such a manner the data reveal that of the thirty-four activities associated closely with classroom teaching, twenty-four are performed to an average or greater than average extent by two thirds or more of junior high school teachers; twenty-six are performed to a like extent by two thirds or more of the high and senior high school teachers. The same general conditions and trends are shown by such a distribution as v/ere brought out in the discussion in the preceding section of this ehapter. Detailed data showing the extent to which junior high, high and senior high school teachers perform characteristic teaching activities are shown in Table L. Table LI presents the same data in different form, showing the extent to which these teachers perform these activities to an average extent or more. III. EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHEBS OF ENGLISH PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES ACCORDING TO THE SIZE OF THE SCHOOLS It is generally recognized that many teaching TABLE L EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHEBS OF ENGLISH PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES* Activities High and senior Junior high schools high schools Total number of Total number of cases ■ 630 cases = 1,155 4* *= +> a e 1 : 1 a ® ® H © rl < D © H O S’ S ' g f i g ■ 8 « ’A H J 3 & ® 4, a t * « £ S * M ® * g • O M S p f j l p O fc « S O f c g 6< o h o a s ei o h ei o a (Percentages) i —i i —i ■ * * a) S Activities Associated with Teaching of Literature Directing individual pupil programs of reading 63.3 7.4 .9 53.7 14.8 1.2 Helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature 60.4 6.9 1.1 61.8 7.2 1.2 Helping pupils develop good character traits through literature 55.9 10.5 .8 49.6 13.7 1.8 Teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination 45.2 11.0 2.3 58.2 8.9 .8 Teaching pupils to understand historical back grounds through literature 43.1 17.1 3.2 45.2 16.4 2.6 Promoting international understandings through literature 35.1 21.1 6.8 34.7 25.5 5.7 Helping pupils gain broad culture through study of literary classics 30.9 22.9 6.4 . 41.8 19.4 4.8 Helping pupils understand modern social and economic conditions through literature 26.7 26.9 8v9 42.6 20.2 3.7 Helping pupils develop standards of motion picture appreciation 26.7 30.9 5.9 25.1 35.4 7.1 Teaching pupils the forms of standard types of literature— drama, novel, etc. . 16.4 35.7 14.9 32.8 19.3 6.7 Teaching pupils the' history and development of English literature 8.7 39.3 30.8 25.0 29.7 17.5 Teaching pupils the history and development of American literature 7.3 45.2. 21.2 28.5 26.1 14.2 Activities Associated with Oral Communication Helping pupils correct faulty speech habits 81.7 2.9 .5 66.0 8.3 1.5 Teaching pupils good listening habits 74.6 2.1 .0 61.4 6.4 .7 Teaching pupils the use of oral English for Informal occasions— conversations, etc. 70.0 4.5 .3 62.5 7.9 1.6 Teaching pupils to interpret literature orally 34.3 28.7 4.0 38.6 18.6 3.7 Teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary practice, etc. 29.1 24.7 3.8 24.9 32.2 9.3 Directing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion 17.5 35.7 17.9 17.8 33.9 21.4 Coaching pupils in formal debate 1.9 3.1 58.9 5.3 27.6 57.4 Activities Associated with Content Reading Teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression 80.5 1.1 .0 79.8 1.1 .2 Helping pupils to develop good vocabulary 77.4 1.3 .0 76.2 1.6 .1 Teaching silent reading, for speed and comprehension 62.4 7.4 1.4 48.7 15.6 4.9 Helping pupils correct faulty reading habits 48.1 10.7 .8 41.2 20.0 4.3 Helping pupils to recognize and evaluate propaganda 29.8 26.2 8.9 33.1 24.7 8.5 Activities Associated with Written Communication Teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing 80.7 1.3 .0 83.4 1.6 .1 Teaching pupils how to spell 76.0 2.4 .0 61.8 6.4 .5 Teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure 75.1 2.9 .1 74.5 3.3 .2 Encouraging creative expression in written communication 59.3 8.0 .3 56.1 8.6 .8 Teaching pupils to write social and business letters 57.0 8.8 . . . . 1.6 48.5 13.8 4.4 Teaching pupils how to transfer thought clearly through written exposition 56.1 6.7 1.1 62.4 4.7 .5 Teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. 49.2 9.8 1.4 58.4 7.4 1.0 Conducting drill exercises to correct faulty written expression 44.4 1.5 2.2 49.1 15.2 3.3 Teaching pupils formal grammar 33.0 24.8 2.7 37.8 20.0 4.3 Teaching pupils artistic forms of writing— narration, description, etc. 22.6 31.4 6.6 22.4 28.8 4.9 Teaching pupils the principles of rhetoric 14.2 30.7 27.8 20.4 32.9 12.4 Activities Associated with General Teaching Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs 67.3 4.1 .9 58.9 7.1 .6 Organizing courses and units of instruction 58.3 14.3 10.5 48.2 14.4 7.1 Directing socialized elass activities 51.§ 10.3 2.4 37.9 19.3 4.5 Correlating English instruction with school work in other courses 46.9 16.5 4.6 33.7 25.2" 7.6 Selecting materials of instruction— textbooks, etc. 40.5 18.8 3.8 37.6 19.7 4.5 Organizing classes for the best teaching situation— grouping, etc. 31.5 14.2 18.3 30.6 19.7 19.8 Interpreting literature effectively through oral reading 29.1 23.8 4.7 33.1 24.7 3.7 Administering a definite testing program 22.4 21.5 15.9 ' 28.1 20.8 15.4' Securing the cooperation of the whole school in promoting good English 19.7 26.7 19.5 15.8 .32.0 23.0 Aiding vocational adjustment through English teaching 12.4 30.8 27.1 19.6 32.1 15.8 Writing with a high degree of literary skill 10.3 32.4 26.7 8.8 41.8 20.2 * From data supplied by 630 junior high school and 1,155 high and senior high school teachers. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. 274 TABLE LI EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES TO AN AVERAGE EXTENT OR MORE5 * 5 Junior high school Senior high school Respect and use of proper Respect and use of proper English 98.9 English 98.7 Mechanics of composition 98.7 Mechanics- of composition 98.3 Vocabulary 98.7 Vocabulary 98.3 Listening habits 97.9 Paragraph structure’ 96.5 Spelling 97.6 Transfer of thought through Paragraph structure 97.0 exposition 94.8 Remedial speech 96.6 Spelling 93.1 Remedial composition 96.3 Listening habits 92.9 Informal oral communication 95.2 Composition devices— Transfer of thought through outlining, etc. 91.6 exposition 92.2 Life experiences through Silent reading 92.2 literature 91.6 . Life experiences through Encouraging creative literature 92.0 composition 90.6 Directing leisure reading 91.7 Informal oral communication 90.5 Creative composition 91.7 Literature appreciation 90.3 Composition devices— Developing character through outlining, etc. 88.8 literature 84.5 Letter writing 89.6 Remedial speech 90.2 Developing character through Directing leisure reading 84.0 literature 88.7 Letter writing 81.8 Remedial reading 88.5 Remedial composition 81.5 Literature appreciation 86.7 Teaching historical back Teaching historical back grounds through literature 81.0 grounds through literature 79.7 Silent reading 79.5 Formal grammar 72.5 Interpretation- of literature 77.7 Teaching international under Teaching social-economic back standing 72.1 grounds through literature 76.1 Oral English for formal Teaching classics for occasions 71.5 general culture 75.8 Teaching classics for general Formal grammar 75.7 culture 70.7 Remedial reading 75.7 Propaganda analysis 64.9 Types of literature 74.0 Teaching social-economic back Propaganda analysis 66.8 grounds through literature 64.2 History and development Motion picture appreciation 63.2 of American literature 59.7 Artistic forms of writing 62.0 Oral English for formal Types of literature 49.4 occasions 58.5 Panel discussion 47.4 Motion picture apprecia Principles of rhetoric 41.5 tion 57.5 Formal debate 38.0 Principles of rhetoric 54.7 History and development of English literature history 52.8 American literature 33.6 Panel discussion 44.7 History and development of Formal debate 15.0 English literature 29.9 * This table is based upon replies from 630 Junior high, school and 1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English* Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. 275 conditions in small high schools, often located in rural com munities, differ markedly from those in large high schools, usually situated in urban areas. In order to determine whether or not the most characteristic activities of teachers of English differ significantly in schools of different size the data supplied by teachers in three types of schools— small, medium, and large according to the criteria stated in Chapter V were analyzed. A study of such data shows that the most significant difference marking the activities of junior high school teachers in small from those in large schools is the much greater emphasis placed upon all phases of literature and oral communication in the large schools. In five activities in the field of. literature— helping pupils enlarge their life experi ences through literature, helping pupils develop good charac ter traits through literature, teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination, teaching pupils to understand historical backgrounds through literature, help ing pupils understand modern social and economic conditions through literature— this increased emphasis is especially marked. In five of the activities in the field of oral com munication this greater emphasis in the large schools is also especially marked; namely, in helping pupils correct faulty speech habits, teaching pupils good listening habits, teaching pupils the use of English for informal occasions, teaching 276 pupils to interpret literature orally, teaching pupils the use of English for formal occasions. In the fields of content reading and written communi cation there is no such marked difference between small and large schools in the emphasis placed upon specific activities, except in such items as teaching formal grammar— an activity stressed more by teachers in small schools than in large, and encouraging creative expression in written communication, stressed by more teachers in large schools than in small. Thus the work of teachers of English in small junior high schools is marked by a relatively greater emphasis on reading and writing activities than in large schools, in contrast to the greater emphasis upon literature and oral communication in large junior high schools. The same general differences marking the activities of teachers of English in small and in large junior high schools appear in the data reflecting conditions in high and senior high schools. Here again teachers in the small schools reported stressing the more conventional reading and writing activities; teachers in large schools practice to a relatively greater extent the activities related to literature study and oral communication. Detailed data showing the extent to which teachers in small, medium, and large junior high schools perform charac teristic teaching activities are shown in Table LII. Similar TABLE LII EXTENT TO WHICH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF 2JGLISH PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES, ACCORDING TO SIZE OF SCHOOLS* Small junior high achoola Total number of oases ■ 27 Medium junior high schools Total number of cases s 142 Large junior high schools Total number of cases s 460 B * $ &® © © f l f l t > g) O U a &® © r-H E-» O.ri O « J > «S U M © M ®&® i&® 0 0 O f H « > 60 0 O tl 8 O l 4 | (Fercentages) Activities Associated with Teaching of Literature Directing individual pupil programs of reading Helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature Helping pupils develop good character traits through literature Teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination Teaching pupils to understand historical back grounds through literature Promoting international understandings through literature Helping pupils gain broad culture through study of literary classics Helping pupils understand modem, social, and economic conditions through literature Helping pupils develop standards 6f motion picture appreciation Teaching pupils the forms of standard types of literature— drama, novel, etc. Teaching pupils the history and development Of English literature Teaching pupils the history and development of American literature Activities Associated with Oral Communication Helping pupils correct faulty speech habits Teaching pupils good listening habits Teaching pupils the use of oral English for informal occasions— conversation, etc. Teaching pupils to interpret literature orally Teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary practice, etc. Directing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion Coaching pupils in formal debate Activities Associated with Content Reading Teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression Helping pupils to develop good vocabulary Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension Helping pupils correct faulty reading habits Helping pupils to recognize and evaluate propaganda Activities Associated with Written Communication Teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing Teaching pupils how to spell Teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure Encouraging creative expression in written communication Teaching pupils to write social and business letters' " ' ' " ’ ’ ’ Teaching how to transfer thought clearly through written exposition Teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. Conducting drill exercises to correct faulty written expression Teaching pupils formal grammar Teaching pupils artistic forms of writing— narration, description, etc. Teaching pupils the principles of rhetoric Activities Associated with General Teaching Problems and Procedures Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs Organizing courses and units of instruction Directing socialized class activities Correlating English instruction with school work in other courses Selecting materials of instruction— textbooks, etc. Organizing classes for best teaching situation— grouping, etc. Interpreting literature effectively through oral reading Administering a definite testing program Securing the cooperation of the whole school ' in promoting good English Aiding vocational adjustment through English teaching Writing with a high degree of literary skill 64.0 8.0 4.0 54.0 9.5 1.5 66.2 6.6 .6 48.0 4.0 .0 57.5 12.3 1.4 61.9 5.5 1.1 32.0 24.0 .0 44.6 19.4 2.2 60.9 7.0 .4 28.0 8.0 .0 44.9 13.1 .0 46.4 10.6 3.1 36.0 24.0 .0 35.9 21.6 4.3 45.8 15.4 3.1 32.0 36.0 .0 24.4 29.5 12.3 37.8 17.6 5.4 29.1 20.8 8.4 25.3 29.7 9.5 32.8 20.9 5.3 20.0 32.0 8.0 16.8 32.9 10.2 30.0 24.4 8.7 28.0 36.0 4.0 19.4 32.4 7.2 28.9 30.2 5.8 16.0 40.0 12.0 16.1 37.2 16.1 16.6 35.3 14.8 4.2 50.0 20.8 5.2 42.7 34.5 9.9 37.8 30.4 4.2 70.8 8.4 8.1 44.8 22.7 7.7 44.1 21.7 56.8 3.8 .0 84.2 5.3 .0 84.0 2.2 .6 46.0 .0 .0 67.3 4.3 .0 78.6 1.5 .0 63.0 .0 .0 62.6 7.2 .7 72.7 3.9 .2 12.0 40.0 .0 35.0 15.3 3.7 35.4 18.6 4.4 11.5 15.4 .0 22.7 23.6 7.9 32i3 25.5 2.8 7.7 23.0 11.5 10.1 45.0 23.9 20.5 33.3 16.4 .0 53.8 38.5 .7 26.8 62.8 2.5 30.6- 59.0 74.0 .0 .0 80.0 1.5 .0 82.0 1.1 .0 77.8 .0 .0 72.2 2.1 .0 78.0 1.1 .0 56.8 3.8 .0 60.4 10.8 2.9 61.0 6.6 1.1 42.4 3.8 .0 46.0 14.4 2.2 49.2 12.2 .4 37.0 29.6 7.4 18.8 30.4 17.4 32.6 24.9 6.4 81.5 .0 .0 80.7 .0 .0 80.6 1.7 .0 73.1 .0 .0 69.3 2.1 .0 78.2 2.6 .0 73.1 .0 .0 71.5 2.1 .0 76.4 3.3 .2 48.0 19.2 .0 58.6 10.0 .7 60.2 6.7 .2 65.3' 3.8 3.8 46.4 14.4 1.4 60.0 7.4 1.5 42.4 11.5 .0 49.6 10.1 1.4 58.8 5.2 1.1 42.4 3.8 .0 47.9 10.7 .0 50.1 9.8 2.0 42.4 11.5 .0 42.2 16.4 2.1 45.0 14.5 2.5 42.4 26.9 .0 37.1 17.1 5.0 31.3 27.1 2.2 .0 40.0 12.0 16.5 37.1 8.6 25.9 29.2 5.7 15.4 46.0 23.0 10.8 28.8 30.2 15.2 30.4 27.2 46.0 53.8 46.0 11.5 .0 15.4 .0 11.5 .0 56.7 33.1 40.4 6.6 18.4 16.3 .0 10.3 3.6 71.8 43.6 54.9 2.8 13.8 8.2 1.3 10.5 2.2 61.6 19.2 .0 40.6 21.7 6.5 48.2 14.8 4.3 19.2 , 26.9 .0 36.5 21.7 4.4 43.3 17.4 3.8 40.0 8.0 24.0 29.9 13.8 20.5 31.5 14.6 17.7 34.6 30.8 23.0 23.0 .0 3.8 25.0 17.6 31.6 14.7 5.1 19.8 29.9 23.5 21.5 23.7 4.9 15.3 26.1 21.7 .0 19.1 26.5 22.1 19.3 27.1 19.9 16.0 8.4 52.0 54.2 16.0 16.6 9.5 8.1 28.5 34.5 32.1 33.1 13.2 9.3 30.2 32.9 26.0 25.1 * From data supplied by 629 junior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. 278 data referring to teachers in small, medium, and large high and senior high schools are shown in Table LIII. IV. EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COURSES PREDOMINANTLY AND TEACHERS OF FUSION COURSES PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES The practice in some schools of organizing fusion courses rather than conventional courses in English affects the teaching of English in high schools. In an effort to discover significant factors in the situation the data re ported by teachers of each of these types of courses were analyzed. There is considerable difference in the extent to which teachers of these two types of courses perform various teach ing activities. Teachers of fusion courses give relatively much less effort to the activities designed to develop skill in content reading and in written communication than do the teachers of the more conventional courses. Thus while ap proximately half or more of the teachers of fusion courses reported that they stress teaching the mechanics of good writing, sentence and paragraph structure, letter writing, and expository composition, they devote relatively less ef fort to such activities than do the teachers of conventional courses in English. Teachers of fusion courses give less em phasis to remedial exercises in reading, writing, and speech BIBLE LIII EXTENT TO WHICH HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES, ACCORDING TO SIZE OF SCHOOLS* Small senior high schools Total number of cases s 187 Medium, senior high schools Total number of cases = 891 Large senior high schools Total number of cases = 675 o h a oh sort h o t S 5 S $ h K a j M 3 S &* e ® a r r t f f l > o r t » i - H OhO phi g & o u a o u E-t o i-» & o Actlvities (Percentages) Activities Associated with Teaching of Literature Directing individual pupil programs of reading 48.9 20.3 2.7 53.5 16.9 1.4 55.1 12.4 .6 Helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature 48.9 7.7 2.2 59.5 7.6 1.7 66.6 6.8 .8 Helping pupils develop good character traits through literature 38.2 18.8 3.9 44.8 15.0 1.8 55.2 11.8 1.2 • .Teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination 48.3 10.4 1;6 52.0 8.7 1.4 63.7 8.5 .4 Teaching pupils to understand historical backgrounds through literature 43.2 17.5 3.3 43.0 19.6 3.5 46.4 14.7 2.1 Promoting international understandings through literature 28.4 32.8 4.4 32.5 27.2 6.4 37.3 22.5 5.7 Helping pupils gain broad culture through study of literary classics 33.1 23.2 6.6 38.6 21.2 6.1 45.5 17.0 3.8 Helping pupils understand modern social and economic conditions through literature 34.1 25.8 6.0 43.1 19.4 3.9 44.6 19.1 2.9 Helping pupils develop standards of motion picture appreciation 18.8 34.8 9.9 25.8 33.9 7.0 26.6 36.3 6.3 Teaching pupils the forms of standard types of literature— drama, novel, etc. 32.6 19.9 8.3 28.8 22.8 6.0 34.7 20.4 6.6 Teaching pupils the history and development of English literature 29.2 24.7 18.5 21.5 33.6 18.3 25.2 29.4 16.6 Teaching pupils the history and development of American literature 24.9 21.5 18.8 27.9 29.8 13.2 29.7 25.9 13.3 Activities Associated with Oral Communication Helping pupils correct faulty speech habits 58.0 9.7 2.7 58.8 10.0 2.4 70.2 7.1 .8 Teaching pupils good listening habits 53.8 5.4 1.6 58.7 4.9 .3 64.9 7.3 .6 Teaching pupils the use of oral English for informal occasions— conversation, etc. 60.3 9.2 2.2 67.6 7.2 1.4 45.7 7.9 1.5 Teaching pupils to interpret literature orally 40.7 15.2 2.2 36.4 21.8 5.2 39.2 18.1 3.5 Teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary practice, etc. 25.1 30.6 10.9 27,8 32.6 7.4 23.7 32.3 9.7 Directing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion 18.8 32.6 26.5 16.3 37.2 21.6 18.0 32.8 20.1 Coaching pupils in formal debate 9.5 31.1 45.0 6.1 26.4 60.4 3.9 27.2 59.8 Activities Associated with Content Reading Teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression 71.5 1.6 1.1 78.0 .7 .0 82.8 1.2 .0 Helping pupils to develop good vocabulary 71.0 1.6 .5 74.1 2.1 .0 78.6 1.3 .0 Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension 46.0 16.8 6.5 51.5 12.9 7.3 48.4 16.6 3.3 Helping pupils correct faulty reading habits 35.0 24.6 6.6 43.5 17.5 4.5 42.0 19.8 3.5 Helping pupils to recognize and evaluate propaganda 25.6 29.3 9.8 36.3 25.4 9.2 33.6 23.2 7.9 Activities Associated with Written Communication Teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing 75.5 3.7 .0 83.1 .7 .0 85.8 1.4 .1 Teaching pupils how to spell 63.7 6.9 .0 60.9 7.3 .3 61.8 5.9 .6 Teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure 66.7 4.9 •5 74.0 3.1 .0 77.0 2.9 .1 Encouraging creative expression in written communication 57.0 8.6 1.1 52.0 8.1 .3 57.7 8.9 .9 Teaching pupils to write social and business letters 41.9 20.4 2.7 49.5 9.7 4.8 48.1 15.3 4.7 Teaching how to transfer thought clearly through written exposition 53.5 5.9 .5 59.5 4.9 .7 66.3 4.4 .5 Teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. 47.0 11.8 3.2 58.1 7.7 1.0 54.9 6.2 .4 Conducting drill exercises to correct faulty written expression 41.5 22.4 4.9 46.5 15.5 2.1 52.5 12.9 3.4 Teaching pupils formal grammar 43.3 16.8 6.5 37.8 21.0 3.8 36.0 20.5 3.9 Teaching pupils artistic forms of writing— ' narration, description, etc. 14.6 24.8 8.1 18.7 34.6 3.9 26.0 27.4 44.2 Teaching pupils the principles of rhetoric 22.1 34.8 12.7 14.0 37.8 12.2 22.7 30.0 12.4 Activities Associated with General Teaching Problems and Procedures Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs 49.0 10.3 .0 53.7 7.2 .7 64.2 5.9 .8 Organizing courses and units of instruction 59.8 11.9 3.2 51.6 12.8 4.0 43.4 15.8 9.4 Directing socialized class activities 34.4 16.9 5.5 36.2 19.5 4.3 39.5 19.8 4.2 Correlating English instruction with school work in other courses 31.3 31.9 3.8 37.9 25.7 7.1 32.6 22.8 8.9 Selecting materials of instruction— textbooks, etc. 38.2 17.5 2.2 42.3 14.7 2.9 35.5 22.7 5.8 Organizing classes for best teaching situation— grouping, etc. 23.6 26.8 17.4 31.0 19.8 18.3 32.5 18.0 21.1 Interpreting literature effectively through oral reading 35.9 19.0 2.7 29.4 26.5 5.7 34.1 25.3 3.1 Administering a definite testing program 27.5 15.4 14.3 28.4 23.0 11.7 28.1 21.5 17.4 Securing the cooperation of the whole school in promoting good English 16.6 37.6 13.3 16.2 31.3 18.8 15.4 30.7 27.4 Aiding vocation adjustment through English teaching 16.8 32.9 14.5 19.0 30.2 17.2 19.9 32.8 15.6 Writing with a high degree of literary skill 7.7 43.4 18.7 6.7 45.7 20.1 10,2 39.9 20.6 * From data supplied by 1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each Item. ^ vO 280 than do the others; less than one sixth reported that they stress teaching formal grammar, and the artistic forms of writing. In the field of literature the teachers of fusion courses in junior high schools lay much greater stress on the historical, social, and economic backgrounds of literature while giving less relative effort to teaching such elements as literary appreciation, the classics, and types of literature. In high and senior high schools the differences between these two classes of teachers are more pronounced than in junior high schools. Of the forty-six activities rated, there is considerable difference in over half. In the field of oral communication the number of these differences is greatest. Teachers of fusion courses pay much more attention to remedial speech, oral English for use in informal occasions, and good listening habits than do the teachers of English courses. In the field of reading, fusion teachers stress remedial reading and even the conventional silent reading, more than the other group. Almost half of the fusion teachers stress propaganda analysis; less than one third of the other teaehers do so. In the field of written communication the activities of the two groups run more nearly parallel, but with the teachers of English courses paying great attention to exposi tory writing as a means of communication, and relatively much more attention to formal grammar, and the principles of 281 good writing than the teachers of fusion courses. Great differences of emphasis in single items are shown in activities included in the field of literature teach ing. Fusion teachers stress the teaching of historical back grounds, the direction of individual pupil programs of read ing, and development of standards of motion picture apprecia tion; while the other group gives greater relative emphasis to teaching standards of literary appreciation, developing good character through literature, and the standard types of literature. The differences between the two groups are most pro nounced in the case of general teaching activities listed. Here the fusion teachers emphasize those activities generally regarded as marking the progressive rather than the conven tional type of instruction. They stress socialized class activities, organization of courses and units for individual needs, selection of the materials of instruction, and corre lation of English with school work in other courses to a much greater extent than do the teachers of the other group. Analysis of the data submitted by teachers of English skills and knowledge in fusion courses compared with that submitted by teachers of the more conventional type of courses shows that while teachers in both groups recognize the same general activities as within the scope of English teaching yet they vary considerably in the degree to which 282 they perform these activities. On the junior high school level these differences are not great; certainly not great enough to create difficulties in arranging a program of teacher education. On the high and senior high school level the differences are more pronounced but not radically so. Detailed data showing the extent to which teachers of English courses predominantly and teachers of fusion courses in junior high schools perform characteristic teaching ac tivities are shown in Table LIV. Comparable data for the same groups of teachers in high and senior high schools are shown in Table LV. V. EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH RATED AS SUPERIOR AND TEACHERS NOT SO RATED PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES Junior high school teachers rated as superior— as ex plained in Chapter IV— perform more of the listed English activities to a greater extent than teachers not so rated, stressing twenty-six of the thirty-five activities more than do teachers not so rated. Although the difference in per centages of separate items is seldom large certain trends can be distinguished. Thus the nine items which the "other than superior” teachers stress more than the superior are ac tivities generally regarded as lending themselves to routine or conventional teaching procedure. These activities are: TABLE LIV EXTENT TO IfJHICH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COURSES PREDOMINANTLY AND TEACHERS OF FUSION COURSES PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES* Teachers of English courses predominantly Total number of cases = 373 Teachers of fusion ______ courses_____ Total number of eases = 162 f t 15 s ) >» e (Percentages) Activities Associated with Teaching of Literature Directing individual pupil programs of reading Helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature Helping pupils develop good character traits through literature Teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination Teaching pupils to understand historical back grounds through literature Promoting international understandings through literature Helping pupils gain broad culture through study of literary classics Helping pupils understand modem social and economic conditions through literature Helping pupils develop standards of motion picture appreciation Teaching pupils the forms of standard types of literature— drama, novel, etc. Teaching pupils the history and development of English literature Teaching pupils the history and development of American literature Activities Associated with Oral Communication Helping pupils correct faulty speech habits Teaching pupils good listening habits Teaching pupils the use of oral Itaglish for informal occasions— conversation, etc. Teaching pupils to interpret literature orally Teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary practice, etc. Directing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion Coaching pupils in formal debate Activities Associated with Content Reading Teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression Helping pupils to develop good vocabulary Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension Helping pupils correct faulty reading habits Helping pupils to recognize and evaluate propaganda Activities Associated with Written Communication Teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing Teaching pupils how to spell Teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure Encouraging creative expression in written communication Teaching pupils to write social and business letters Teaching how to -transfer thought clearly through written exposition Teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. Conducting drill exercises to eorrect faulty written expression Teaching pupils formal grasmar Teaching pupils artistic forms of writing— narration, description, etc. Teaching pupils the principles of rhetoric Activities Associated with General Teaching Problems and Procedures Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs Organizing courses and units of instruction Directing socialized class activities Correlating English instruction with school work in other courses Selecting materials of Instruction— textbooks, etc. Organizing classes for best teaching situation- grouping, etc. Intrepretlng literature effectively through . oral reading Administering a definite testing program Securing the cooperation of the whole school in promoting good English Aiding vocational adjustment through English teaching Writing with a high degree of literary skill 64.7 7.1 .3 65.7 7.5 .0 63.8 5.2 1.6 56.3 8.8 .6 60.3 9.3 1.1 52.1 9.9 .6 53.8 7.6 1.6 33.4 16.0 2.6 40.5 18.5 1.9 53.1 10.8 2.5 33.3 22.5 6.3 45.5 13.3 5.1 34.6 19.3 5.3 26.3 23.7 5.9 22.3 29.4 8.2 37.8 15.7 8.2 28.5 30.6 4.9 26.4' 29.0 6.9 81.1 32.4 11.5 7.7 45.1 18.1 8.6 41.0 26.6 12.2 36.6 34.0 7.7 44.2 17.4 8.4 50.0 22.8 81.6 3.0 .3 84.9 1.9 .6 75.4 2.4 .0 75.5 .6 .0 68.6 4.3 .3 75.1 2.5 .0 39.9 14.7 2.5 28.4 22.8 6.3 27.5 26.4 3.0 36.6 19.2 1.2 15.0 36.9 21.9 26.2 28.8 7.0 2.2 30.3 59.2 1.3 . 31.4 56.2 84.4 .3 .0 74.5 2.5 .0 81.1 .5 .0 75.0 1.2 .0 62.4 6.5 1.4 64.4 .0 .6 53.7 9.8 .8 42.7 15.1 .0 25.1 28.9 10.4 43.4 23.9 4.4 84.3 .8 .0 73.0 1.9 .0 78.3 2.7 .0 74.7 .0 1.2 79.5 1.4 .3 66.9 5.1 .0 63.4 6.8 .3 51.5 8.7 .6 63.0 7.8 1.4 46.9 8.6 1.8 58.2 5.9 1.4 49.4 6.9 1.2 50.6 7.9 1.6 48.5 10.5 .6 48.9 11.0 1.6 36.6 20.5 1.9 40.2 19.1 2.5 16.8 37.2 4.3 27.1 27.3 5.7 16.5 38.0 7.6 17.3 29.0 24.0 5.4 33.8 35.8 66.7 4.4 .8 72.7 1.9 .6 39.8 14.6 8.9 49.6 11.6 7.7 49.4 12.3 3.3 61.0 2.5 .0 41.1 19.4 5.5 64.0 8.2 1.3 38.5 18.3 3.6 50.0 11.5 3.2 32.2 13.0 19.7 34.0 16.3 9.8 34.9 19.9 3.7 21.4 27.0 4.6 22.2 19.4 17.9 22.4 23.8 10.9 19.9 27.6 16.7 21.2 25.4 21.2 12.3 28.0 25.9 13.1 34.5 26.9 8.7 32.1 24.9 8.1 39.9 26.4 * From data supplied by 535 Junior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. TABLE LT EXTENT TO WHICH HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COURSES PREDOMINANTLY AND TEACHERS OF FUSION COURSES PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES* Teachers of English courses predominantly Total number of cases = 898 Teachers of fusion courses______ Total number of cases = 128 "S H fl) H 4* ~ A 0 0 H § S ^ S & • H © •P 40 -P ft * s ^ I • *”3 «P 0 © > 40 b © H £ s i O . 5 o u © Eh O H o b i b o o Activities Associated with Teaching of Literature Directing individual pupil program of reading Helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature Helping pupils develop good character traits through literature Teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination Teaching pupils to understand historical back grounds through literature Promoting international understandings through literature Helping pupils gain broad culture through study of literary classics Helping pupils understand modem social and economic conditions through literature Helping pupils develop standards of motion picture appreciation Teaching pupils the foxms of standard types of literature— drama, novel, etc. Teaching pupils the history and development of English literature Teaching pupils the history and development of American literature Activities Associated with Oral Communication Helping pupils correct faulty speech habits Teaching pupils good listening habits Teaching pupils the use of oral English for informal occasions— conversation, etc. Teaching pupils to interpret literature orally Teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary practice, etc. Directing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion Coaching pupils in formal debate Activities Associated with Content Reading Teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression Helping pupils to develop good vocabulary Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension Helping pupils correct faulty reading habits Helping pupils to recognize and evaluate propaganda Activities Associated with Written Communication Teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing Teaching pupils how to spell Teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure Encouraging creative expression in .written communication Teaching pupils to write social and business letters Teaching how to transfer thought'clearly through written exposition Teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. Conducting drill exercises to correct faulty written expression Teaching pupils formal grammar Teaching pupils artistic forms of writing— narration, description, etc. Teaching pupils the principles of rhetoric Activities Associated with General Teaching Problems and Procedures Recognizing ana meeting individual pupil needs Organizing courses and units of instruction Directing socialized class activities Correlating English instruction with school work in other courses Selecting materials of instruction— textbooks, etc. Organizing classes for best teaching situation- grouping, etc. Interpreting literature effectively through oral reading Administering a definite testing program Securing the cooperation of the whole school in promoting good English Aiding vocational adjustment through English teaching Writing with a high degree of literary skill 51.5 14.9 .9 70.9 7.9 .0 63.7 7.1 1.1 60.5 6.4 .0 51.9 12.4 1.4 44.8 17.6 .0 61.8 7.9 .5 46.0 17.5 .8 44.9 15.2 1.9 57.9 15.1 2.4 34.8 25.8 4.7 40.1 21.3 7.4 45.3 16.3 3.4 28.4 32.6 8.1 43.5 19.1 2.7 48.8 20.0 3.2 24.2 36.7 5.8 34.7 29.0 4.0 36.4 16.3 4.9 15.1 36.7 11.9 27.5 29.2 13.8 17.1 30.9 30.1 30.6 24.0 11.6 26.0 35.0 18.7 66.5 8.6 1.4 72.5 3.9 .8 60.2 6.6 .6 74.0 4.7 .0 60.8 8.4 1.2 77.0 3.2 .8 42.5 17.6 2.6 23.2 24.8 4.0 24.3 35.4 8.5 33.4 18.3 4.8 15.6 36.2 21.5 37.1 20.2 8.1 5.8 27.1 57.5 2.4 28.4 56.9 80.6 1.1 .0 83.4 .8 .8 76.3 1.2 .0 79.4 1.6 .0 48.2 15.8 4.7 56.8 8.0 2.4 40.7 21.5 3.9 51.6 10.3 3.2 31.8 26.2 8.7 48.8 12.8 1.6 83.7 1.6 .1 85.0 1.6 .0 61.1 6.5 .6 65.3 .0 3.1 74.4 2.6 .2 72.4 6.3 .0 57.5 7.7 .5 50.8 14.3 . .8 48.9 13.8 3.8 50.4 16.5 3.9 65.4 4.1 .3 52.4 7.9 .8 60.9 7.2 .7 59.0 6.3 . -8 49.7 14.4 2.9 49.6 14.4 6.4 38.7 19.5 3.4 24.0 24.0 8.0 25.9 27.6 3.2 12.9 21.0 9.7 21.1 32.0 9.7 11.7 36.7 25.9 57.6 7.9 .8 73.5 .0 1.6 46.5 15.0 7.8 63.4 7.3 1.6 34.6 21.9 4.4 65.0 3.2 .0 30.5 25.9 8.9 56.2 14.1 .0 37.2 20.7 4.1 53.4 5.8 2.5 29.5 21.2 19.9 47.0 6.7 14.3 36.3 23.6 2.6 20.0 32.5 4.2 27.3 23.5 16.5 38.8 4.9 11.7 14.5 32.5 24.2 23.0 24.8 14.7 18.4 33.5 15.4 31.4 26.4 9.9 9.0 41.4 19.2 6.8 50.8 23.7 * From data supplied by 1,026 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on number of teachers replying to each item. 285 teaching the history and development of English and American literature, teaching formal grammar, conducting drill exer cises to correct faulty written expression, teaching princi ples of rhetoric,.teaching spelling, coaching formal debate, and teaching historical backgrounds through literature. The eight activities which superior teachers stress most in comparison with teachers not so rated are: correcting faulty reading habits, teaching pupils to enlarge their life experiences through literature, correcting faulty speech habits, helping pupils develop good vocabulary, teaching how to transfer thought clearly through written exposition, teach ing pupils how to organize and develop their thought through composition devices, and teaching proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination. The ranking of the activities according to their per formance to an average or greater than average extent is in general the same for both groups. Superior teachers, however, gave a higher relative ranking to helping pupils develop good character traits through literature, teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination, and helping pupils understand modern social and economic condi tions through literature. As in the case of the junior high school teachers, the high and senior high school teachers rated as superior per form more of the listed activities to a greater extent than 286 teachers not so rated, stressing twenty-eight of the thirty- five activities to a greater, although not a significantly greater extent. There are eleven activities which approxi mately half or more of the superior teachers stress most in comparison with teachers not so rated. These activities in clude remedial work in speech, reading and written communica tion, organizing and transferring thought through expository composition; the teaching of reading; directing individual programs of leisure reading, helping pupils enlarge life ex periences through literature, teaching standards of literary appreciation and discrimination, helping pupils understand modern social and economic conditions through literature, and helping pupils gain broad culture through a study of the classics. The ranking of activities according to their per formance to an average or greater than average extent was in general the same for both groups. Superior teachers, however, gave a significantly higher value to teaching pupils how to organize and develop thought through such composition devices as outlining; in the field of literature they gave a signif icantly higher value to teaching the classics of English literature. ! Data in detailed form regarding the foregoing discus sion are shown in Tables LVI and LVTI. In addition to the listed activities in Part II of the TABLE LYl EXTENT TO WHICH JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS RATE© AS SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS NOT SO RATED, PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING* Teachers of English rated as superior Total number of cases = 156 Teachers of English not so rated Total number of cases z 474 © - P © © t a O 4 3 © K © r H i ? © © © > 0 0 O © © © E h O H • p - p - p © © © H < J ) H © © H © i — I « H - P r H {j0 r H - p i H © K © © W © K a s w>»© © > » © 0 > > © M © - P H L © © 4 3 © iH © © © _ ^ © « H © ©>••“} © J j Q © > H © 43 © a s 43 O © 0 o o © © O © f j o Eh O W 5 2 5 Eh O H E O © $3 Activities (Percentages) Activities Associated with Teaching of Literature Directing individual pupil-programs of reading 64*5 5.2 .0 62.8 8.2 1.3 Helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature 66*3 6.5 .0 58.5 7.1 1.1 Helping pupils develop good character traits through literature 57.4 7.1 .0 55.4 11.6 1.1 Teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination 49.0 7.7 .0 44.0 12.1 3.0 Teaching pupils to understand historical back grounds through literature 40.7 14.2 1.3 44.0 18.2 3.9 Promoting international understandings through literature 35.7 16.9 4.5 34.9 22.7 7.6 Helping pupils gain broad culture through study of literary classics 36*0 20.6 4.7 29.2 23.7 6.9 Helping pupils understand modem social and ecohomic conditions through literature 29*2 23.4 4.5 25.7 27.9 10.4 Helping pupils develop standards of motion picture appreciation 27*1 31.6 3.9 26.6 30.7 6.7 Teaching pupils the forms of standard types of literature— drama, novel, etc* 17.9 31.1 12.6 16.0 37.5 15.8 Teaching-pupils the history and development of English literature 7.9 38.1 28.9 9.0 39.6 31.5 Teaching pupils the history and development of American literature 4*6 ' 43.7 17.9 8.2 45.9 22.6 Activities Associated with Oral Communication Helping pupils correct faulty speech habits 87.2 2.6 .6 80.0 3.0 .4 Teaching pupils good listening habits 76.3 2.6 •0 74.2 1.9 .0 Teaching pupils the use of oral English for Informal occasions— conversation, etc. 71.0 3.9 .0 69.7 4.7 •4 Teaching pupils to interpret literature orally 36.3 17.6 2.6 33.7 19.1 4.5 Teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary practice, etc* 29.5 19.2 1.3 28.8 26.5 4.7 Directing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion 18*8 31.2 16.2 17.2 37.2 18.5 Coaching pupils in formal debate 1.3 33.1 60.2 2.2 30.0 58.7 Activities Associated with Content Reading Teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression 80.7 .0 .0 80.5 1.5 .0 Helping pupils to develop good vocabulary 82.8 .0 .6 75.6 1.5 .0 Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension 66.1 6.4 1.3 61.2 7.7 1.5 Helping pupils correct faulty reading habits 54.5 9.7 1.9 46.0 13.1 .4 Helping pupils to recognize and evaluate propaganda 27.7 22.6 10.3 30.6 25.4 8.5 Activities Associated with Written Communication Teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing 80.7 2.6 .0 80.6 .9 .0 Teaching pupils how to spell 73.0 3.2 .0 77.0 2.1 .0 Teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure 78.2 3.9 .6 74.2 2.6 .0 Encouraging creative expression in written communication 60.8 7.1 .6 58.8 8.3 • 2 Teaching pupils to write social and business letters 57.7 11.5 • 6 56.8 7.9 1.9 Teaching how to transfer thought clearly through written exposition 60.7 4.5 1.9 54.6 7.5 .9 Teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. 53.8 9.0 .0 47.7 10.0 1.9 Conducting drill exercises to correct faulty written expression 44.2 17.2 1.9 44.4 14.0 2.4 Teaching pupils formal grammar 29.0 28.4 1.9 34.4 23.7 3.0 Teaching pupils artistic forms of writing— narration, description, etc* 23.1 32.0 3.8 22.6 31.2 7.6 Teaching pupils the principles of rhetoric 13.3 28.7 23.3 14.5 31.4 29.3 Activities Associated with General Teaching Problems and Procedures Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs 74.0 4.6 .0 65.3 3.9 1.3 Organizing courses and units of instruction 50.4 11.6 5.4 38.6 • 15.1 12.2 Directing socialized class activities 50.7 11.2 1.3 51.4 10.0 2.8 Correlating English instruction with school work in other courses 46.1 17.8 3.3 47.3 16.1 5.0 Selecting materials of instruction— textbooks, etc. 47.7 13.9 1.3 38.2 20.4 4.6 Organizing classes for best teaching situation- grouping, etc* 33.3 17.4 12.5 30.9 13.2 20.2 Interpreting literature effectively through oral reading 32.0 17.7 4.1 28.1 25.9 4.9 Administering a definite testing program 16.4 19.8 13.7 24.3 22.1 16.6 Securing the cooperation of the whole school in promoting good English 22.4 32.2 13.3 18.8 24.9 21.6 Aiding vocational adjustment through English teaching 8.5 29.8 27.7 13.7 31.2 27.0 Writing with a high degree of literary skill 9.1 30.8 26.6 8.9 35.3 26.8 * From data supplied by 630 junior high school teachers of English* Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. # TABLE LVII EXTENT TO WHICH HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS RATED AS SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, AND OTHER HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS NOT SO RATED, PERFORM CHARACTERISTIC TEACHING ACTIVITIES* Teachers of English Teachers of English rated as superior not so rated Total number of Total number of cases = 305 cases = 850 •p - p Ft S3 © © r-t 0 fj £ 0 0 ^ © s ® H H OOfH +3 h ^ 0 * —I a j ®0 ®H ® 0 > t i Q a s > r -j 0 > W) c d > r - j u o d p U 0 p ohfld o U n o .P £ • « * r° £ I £ OH Eh O <0 & ^ OH BOW ^ Activities (Percentages) a 42 d d 0 0 rH ® 5*0 -P rH ■p U K 0 X 0 i >» ® rH u W u 0 ® © H 0 > 60 0 t > r-j U © O u 0 O u i o rH o w c d Activities Associated with Teaching of Literature Directing individual pupil programs of reading Helping pupils enlarge their life experiences through literature Helping pupils develop good character traits through literature Teaching pupils proper standards of literary appreciation and discrimination Teaching pupils to understand historical back grounds through literature Promoting international understandings through literature Helping pupils gain broad culture through study of literary classics Helping pupils understand modern social and economic conditions through literature Helping pupils develop standards of motion picture appreciation Teaching pupils the forms of standard types of literature— drama, novel, etc* Teaching pupils the history end development of English literature Teaching pupils the history and development of American literature Activities Associated with Oral Communication Helping pupils correct faulty speech habits Teaching pupils good listening habits Teaching pupils the use of oral English for informal occasions— conversation, etc. Teaching pupils to interpret literature orally Teaching pupils the use of oral English for formal occasions— parliamentary practice, etc. Directing pupils in proper methods of panel discussion Coaching pupils in formal debate Activities Associated with Content Reading Teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression Helping pupils to develop good vocabulary Teaching silent reading for speed and comprehension Helping pupils correct faulty reading habits Helping pupils to recognize and evaluate propaganda Activities Associated with Written Communication Teaching pupils the mechanics of good writing Teaching pupils how to spell Teaching pupils sentence and paragraph structure Encouraging creative expression in written communication Teaching pupils to write social and business letters Teaching how to transfer thought clearly through written exposition Teaching pupils to organize and develop thought through composition devices— outlining, etc. Conducting drill exercises to correct faulty written expression Teaching pupils formal grammar Teaching pupils artistic forms of writing— narration, description, etc. Teaching pupils the principles of rhetoric Activities Associated with General Teaching Problems and Procedures Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs Organizing courses and units of instruction Directing socialized class activities Correlating English instruction with school work in other courses Selecting materials of instruction— textbooks, etc. Organizing classes for best teaching situation- grouping, etc. Interpreting literature effectively through oral reading Administering a definite testing program Securing the cooperation of the whole school in promoting good English Aiding vocational adjustment through English teaching Writing with a high degree of literary skill 59.2 11.6 .0 51.7 16.0 1.6 66.6 5.7 1.4 60.3 7.7 1.2 52.9 12.1 1.0 48.5 14.3 2.1 63.8 7.7 .7 56.2 9.3 .8 47.5 12.9 1.7 44.2 17.6 3.0 38.5 21.3 5.1 33.3 26.9 5.9 46.7 ,1V .8 ‘ 2.3 40.0 20.0 5.8 47.7 16.9 3.4 40.8 21.5 3.8 25.0 36.3 5.3 25.2 35.1 7.7 32.7 15.3 5.4 32.9 20.7 7.2 34.2 24.9 13.5 21.7 31.3 18.9 35.7 21.9 9.0 25.9 27.7 16.1 73.8 6.6 .3 63.4 8.9 1.9 63.9 4.7 .0 60.7 7.0 1.0 61.2 8.0 1.0 62.9 7.9 1.8 37.7 19.0 4.0 39.0 18.5 3.6 26.5 29.9 7.1 24.3 33.0 10.1 21.8 30.6 19.6 16.4 35.1 24.0 6.5 31.0 53.1 4.9 26.5 59.2 82.3 .0 .0 79.0 1.5 .2 77.2 .7 .0 76.0 1.9 .1 53.2 16.4 4.0 47.3 15.4 5.2 46.2 17.4 5.0 39.4 20.9 4.0 38.4 22.7 6.3 31.1 . 25.5 9.3 85.3 .7 .3 82.8 1.9 .0 61.0 4.0 .7 62.2 7.2 .4 75.3 2.0 .3 74.2 3.7 .1 54.8 8.5 .3 55.3 8.6 1.0 48.8 14.2 3.6 48.3 13.7 4.7 66.9 2.7 .7 60.8 5.5 .5 65,4 4.0 .0 57.2 8.7 1.4 54.0 10.3 3.0 47.4 . 16.9 3.4 35.5 18.3 3.3 38.5 20.7 4.7 22.7 26.7 4.3 22.3 29.6 5.1 22.3 30.3 12.0 19.7 33.8 12.5 62.4 53.7 41.6 5.0 9.4 16.1 .0 3.4 2.7 57.8 46.2 36.5 7.8 15.1 20.3 .9 8.5 5.1 35.8 26.3 4.7 32.8 24.7 8.7 46.5 14.5 1.7 34.3 21.7 5.6 34.9 17.4 12.8 29.1 20.5 22.3 35.7 29.9 26.8 19.3 4.5 13.4 32.2 26.9 23.9 21.3 3.5 16.1 16.4 27.6 22.3 15.6 33.4 23.2 19.2 10.7 26.8 41.2 14.8 17.8 19.7 8.1 34.1 42.2 16.2 21.1 * From data supplied by 1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. 288 289 questionnaire, blank spaces were provided in which teachers were given the opportunity to list additional items. Eighty- five additional activities were listed, but none a sufficient number of times to make it significant for this study. De tails of these additional activities are shown in Appendix E. The data referring to the degree to which special col lege preparation is needed shows the participating teachers* belief in the general value of college preparation; the de tailed analysis of this data revealed no further facts of significance to this study. VI. SUMMARY OP CHAPTER It is recognized that teacher-learner situations in any field involve almost countless specific acts on the part of individual teachers. The data reported in this chapter show, however, that there are certain activities character istic of teachers of English, and that these activities are performed in varying degrees. It was found that: 1. Teachers of English in California high schools direct their chief efforts toward teaching pupils the funda mental skills involved in oral and written communication of thought. Activities designed to develop adequate and accurate expression of thought receive most emphasis; those associated with formal or artistic methods of expression receive least. 2. Activities associated with the teaching of 290 literature, although performed to a large extent, are less stressed than those activities associated with oral and writ ten communication. Activities designed to give pleasure and enlarged life experience from literature receive most em phasis; those designed to teach pupils the factual contents or characteristics of literature receive least emphasis. 3. There is not sufficient difference in the activi ties of teachers in small, medium, or large schools to justify a proposal for different educational preparation for teachers in these three types of schools. In general the teachers in smaller schools stress the more conventional reading and writ ing activities; teachers in larger schools practice to a greater extent the activities related to literature study and oral communication. 4. The data reviewed do not reveal the superior teacher of English as one who performs any distinctive set of teaching activities. They indicate, however, that superior teachers as a group give special emphasis to remedial work in spoken and written communication, stress language activities designed to transfer thought clearly and effectively, and pay particular attention to presenting literature as a means of stimulating life experiences and developing worthy standards of apprecia tion and discrimination. 5. On the senior high school level, teachers rated as superior stress, in addition, activities designed to help 291 pupils understand modern social and economic conditions through literature, enjoy individual programs of pupil read ing, and understand the outstanding works of English litera ture that have become accepted as classics. 6. The importance of oral activities on both junior and senior high school level is indicated, with considerably greater stress laid on this type of activity in the junior rather than in the senior high school. CHAPTER XI EDUCATIONAL EQUIPMENT JUDGED VALUABLE BT TEACHERS OE ENGLISH Part III of the questionnaire sent to participating teachers listed fifty-five items gathered through the analysis of college programs for the education of teachers, as described in Chapter VII. The teachers were asked to express their judg ment, using a five-point rating scale, concerning the extent to which such types of knowledge contributed to their equip ment as teachers of English. In an effort to discover fac tors of value in.planning a program of education for teachers of English, data supplied by the following types of teachers are analyzed and compared in this chapter: (1) teachers of English in junior high schools, (2) in high and senior high schools, (3) teachers rated as superior teachers of English and teachers not so rated. In addition to including the listed items for rating, the questionnaire used in this study was designed to permit teachers to list and comment upon professional skills which they felt the need of acquiring and to name the "supporting subjects,” or college courses in other fields than English and education, which they considered most valuable as a part of their teaching equipment. The latter part of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of the data reported by partici pating teachers under these two heads. 293 Preliminary study revealed that when teachers are asked to rate specific college courses which they have taken many factors, such as the personality of instructor or grade received in the course, tend to affect their judgment of!the value of the subject as equipment for teaching. In this study, therefore, teachers were asked to give their judgment, not of specific courses they had taken, but of types of knowledge generally discussed and recognized by teachers of English as elements of professional equipment. I. EXTENT TO WHICH TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE ARE JUDGED DESIRABLE BY JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Of the fifty-five items listed, reflecting the offer ings of colleges and universities in their programs for teacher education, thirty-two were rated by two thirds or more of the junior high school teachers as having average or greater than average value as equipment for teachers of English. These thirty-two items were almost equally divided between those representing courses generally taught in the English departments and those given in departments of educa tion— fifteen belonging in the first category, seventeen in the second. But items related to the field of education were generally given a higher rating than those usually as sociated with college departments of English; and eight of the highest ten items may be classified as in the field of education. Noteworthy in the rating is the high value placed upon knowledge of psychology* Of the highest ten items, four— psychology of adolescence, principles of learning, mental hygiene, and human growth and development are specifically in this field. Another item— Character education— is closely linked to psychology through emphasis upon development of attitudes. Of the conventional types of subject matter usually considered to be part of the educational equipment of teach ers of English, only one— grammar— -appears among the highest ten items. But this knowledge of grammar was rated second only to a knowledge of adolescent psychology in usefulness. Only one item among the highest ten— a knowledge of books especially suitable for adolescent boys and girls— is related to the field of literature, and this item can hardly be said to refer to conventional literary knowledge, since it deals with types of books usually treated in courses on the teach ing of English rather than in the typical college courses in literature. The remaining items among the leading ten indicate the high value that junior high school teachers as a whole place upon types of knowledge which will permit them to meet the routine duties of the classroom— principles of classroom management and discipline, specific methods of teaching 295 English, and general principles of education. In the group containing the second ten items ranked as of average or greater than average six titles refer to subjects generally taught in English departments, four to those usually given in departments of education. A knowledge of poetry, of the historical development of American and English literature, of special forms of composition such as exposition, narration, and description, and of current peri odical literature were given high rating of value by more than three fourths of junior high school teachers. A knowl edge of the principles of counseling and guidance, of the philosophy of education, of general methods of teaching, of current educational literature, and of principles of second ary education were likewise ranked high by more than three fourths of the teachers. Additional types of English subject matter courses rated as valuable by more than two thirds of the junior high school teachers include biography, world literature, the short story, Shakespeare, types of literature, drama, current literature, and the social and economic backgrounds of litera ture. Knowledge generally gained in education courses and listed as valuable by more than two thirds of the teachers also includes educational testing and measuring, the social foundations of education, .and the principles of extracurricu lar activities. 296 The ten items ranking lowest in the list were judged to be of average or greater than average value by less than half of the junior high school teachers. Of these ten items seven are related to conventional types of college courses in English. lowest two on the list are a knowledge of Ohaucer and Anglo-Saxon language and literature; rated only slightly higher are a knowledge of Milton and Browning as literary figures, and of argument and oratory as literary forms. A knowledge of the English Bible as literature ranks slightly higher than these. Knowledge of motion picture production, of the tech niques of radio presentation, and of journalism, along with a knowledge of the history of education, and of the princi ples of educational administration and supervision are types of knowledge which junior high school teachers ranked among the lowest ten items. The foregoing summary of teacher judgments of the value of various types of knowledge has been based upon the extent to which teachers judged items to be of average or greater than average value as equipment for teachers of English. Another way to judge the ratings is to consider the extent to which teachers rated specific items as of more than aver age or less than average value. When the items are studied in this latter manner the same general ranking is found as in the former method. Half 297 or more of the junior high school teachers rated ten types of knowledge as contributing to a large or very large extent to their professional equipment. These ten items show the same preference as did the former analysis for a knowledge of psychology and of the specific techniques of classroom teach ing; the same relative stress was placed upon the value of two types of subject matter equipment— a knowledge of grammar and of books suitable for adolescent readers. Half or more of the junior high school teachers re ported that eleven items cqntributed to a small, or very small, or to no extent to their professional equipment. These items include six subjects related to the field of literature: Anglo-Saxon language and literature, Chaucer, Milton, Browning, the Bible as literature, and the essay. They also include oratory, argumentation, educational admin istration and supervision, journalism, and techniques of radio presentation. In addition to this list of eleven items ranked low by more than half of the teachers, there are ten items rated as of low value by a significantly greater number of teachers than rank them of high value. Such items include the general history of education, the history of American education, the principles of curriculum construction, and the principles of extracurricular activities; in the field of language and literature they include courses in literary periods, the 298 English novel, literary criticism, the development of the English language, and a knowledge of the principles of rhetoric• II. EXTENT TO WHICH TY?ES OF KNOWLEDGE ARE JUDGED DESIRABLE BT HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Teachers of English in high and senior high schools showed differences from teachers in junior high schools in their choice of items which contribute to an average or greater than average extent to their professional equipment. Two thirds of them rated thirty-three items (the correspond ing number for junior hi^ischool teachers is thirty-two) as having significant value. These thirty-three items include four subjects in the field of language and literature— the essay, the novel, principles of rhetoric, and literary periods— not in the comparable junior high school list; they exclude the following items found in the junior high school group: social foundations of education, principles of extra curricular activities, and educational testing and measuring. In the case of the highest two items the rating is strikingly similar for both groups, since over 90 per cent of both junior high school and high and senior high school teachers placed a knowledge of adolescent psychology first on the list, with a knowledge of grammar a close second. 299 High and senior high school teachers, however, included five types of literary knowledge among the first ten items— Shakespeare, poetry, the short story, types of literature, and the historical development of English literature. Only one of these subjects— poetry— is ranked higher than twenti eth by junior high school teachers. The items related more definitely to the routine of classroom instruction were rated generally lower by high and senior high school teachers than by junior high school teachers; items such as specific methods of teaching English, class management and discipline, knowl edge of books for adolescents, and general principles of edu cation being among the second ten,of the senior high school teachers rather than in the first ten as in the case of the junior high school group. Thirteen types of knowledge were considered of average or greater than average value by less than half of the high and senior high school teachers. In general this list- cor responds with the comparable items in the junior high school list, with the difference that the items relating to literary knowledge, such as works of Milton, Chaucer, Browning, and the English Bible are relatively higher, although still in the lowest group. Data in tabular form showing the extent to which teach ers of English in high and senior high schools value types of knowledge are shown in Table LVIII. 300 ' TABLE L7TII TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE WHICH ENGLISH TEACHERS JUDGE DESIRABLE ACCORDING TO PER CENTAGE OF TEACHERS RATING THEM DESIRABLE TO AN AVERAGE EXTENT OR MORE * JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Psychology of adolescence 94.2 Psychology of adolescence 91.3 Principles of English grammar 90.8 Principles of English grammar 90.7 Principles of learning 89.9 Mental hygiene 86.4 Mental Hygiene 89.6 Life and works of Shakespeare 85.3 of character educa Principles of learning 85.2 tion 86.0 Poetry-types, characteristics, Adolescent literature— books etc. 85.0 primarily for young people 85.3 The short story 84.9 Human growth and development 84.3 Types of literature— drama, Methods of class management novel 83.9 and discipline 83.8 Human growth and development 83.2 General principles of education 83.4 History and development of Specific methods of teaching English literature 83.0 English 82.4 History and development of Poetry-types, characteristics, American literature 81,9 etc. 81.9 Specific methods of teaching History and development of English 81.7 American literature 80.8 Techniques of special forms Principles of counselling and of composition 80.7 guidance 79.8 General methods of teaching Techniques of special forms of high school subjects 79.9 composition 79.6 Drama:— development, character Philosophy of education 79.5 istics 79.5 Current periodical literature 78.9 Social and economic back General methods of teaching grounds of literature 78.7 high school subjects 78.7 Current periodical literature 78.6 Current educational literature 77.7 Methods of class management History and development of and discipline 78.6 English literature 77.6 Adolescent literature— books Principles of secondary educa primarily for young people 78.3 tion 77.4 Principles of character Biography— development, education 78.0 characteristics 77.2 Biography 77.9 Principles of public speaking 76.7 Principles of public speaking 77.0 World literature 75.8 General principles of educa The short story 75.7 tion 76.0 Life and works of Shakespeare 72.8 The essay 74.6 Types of literature— drama, World literature 73.5 novel, ete. 72.5 Current literature 72.4 Social foundations of education 71.8 Principles of counselling and Social and economic backgrounds guidance 72.0 of literature 71.3 Philosophy of education 70.6 Drama— development, character The English novel 69.8 istics, etc. 70.6 Current educational literature 68.9 Educational testing and Principles of rhetoric 68.6 measuring 68.9 Literary periods 66.4 Current literature 66.3 Principles of secondary Principles of conducting extra education 66.0 curricular activities 64.6 Principles of literary Principles of forum and group criticism 64.5 discussion 64.3 Social foundation of education 64.1 Principles of phonetics 61.8 Principles of conducting extra Principles of rhetoric 61.5 curricular activities 63.5 Principles of dramatic pro Educational testing and duction 61.6 measuring 63.4 The English novel 60.3 Principles of forum and group The essay 58.2 discussion 60.8 Principles of literary criticism56.5 Historical development of Historical development of English language 59.3 English language 54.7 Principles of dramatic pro Principles of secondary cur duction and direction 53.6 riculum construction 54.7 Principles of secondary Literary periods 54.6 curriculum construction 52.0 History of American education 53.0 The Bible as literature 48.5 History of education— general 51.0 Life and works of Browning 46.6 English Bible as literature 46.3 Principles of phonetics 46.2 Principles of journalism 45.9 Principles of argumentation 42.2 Principles of administration History of American education 40.7 and supervision 45.1 History of education— general 39.5 Techniques of radio 43.3 Life and works of Chaucer 38.2 Life and works of Browning 39.4 Life and works of Milton 38.2 Principles of Argumentation 35.1 Principles of administration Motion picture production 35.0 and supervision 37.5 Oratory— types, etc. 33.9 Techniques of radio 33.2 Life and works of Milton 33.0 Oratory 32.4 Anglo-Saxon language and Anglo-Saxon language and literature 29.0 literature 32.3 Life and works of Chaucer 28.1 Motion picture production 27.9 * From data supplied by 630 junior high school and 1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. 301 As in the case of the data contributed by junior high school teachers, the items reported by high and senior high school teachers were studied as of more than average and less than average value. Half or more of the senior high school teachers ranked eleven types of knowledge as contributing to a large or very large extent to their professional equipment. The value of a knowledge of grammar was most stressed, with adolescent psychology second in importance. A further study of these first eleven items shows them to reveal the same preference for a knowledge of subject matter in the field of literature and in the field of psychology as discovered in the previous analysis. Half or more of the senior high school teachers re ported that nine subjects contributed to a small or very small or to no extent to their professional equipment. Included in this list are Anglo-Saxon language and literature, the works of Chaucer, Browning, Milton, and Bible literature; oratory; and argumentation; phonetics and the technique of radio pre sentation. Detailed data showing the extent to which teachers of English in junior and senior high schools value types of knowl edge are shown in Table LIX. III. EXTENT TO WHICH TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE ARE JUDGED DESIRABLE BY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH RATED AS SUPERIOR AND BY OTHERS NOT SO RATED In an effort to determine whether certain factors can TABLE LIX EXTENT TO WHICH TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE ARE JUDGED DESIRABLE BY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH* Activities High and senior Junior high schools high schools Total number of Total number of cases s 630 cases s 1,155 ® ■ P 4 » 5 0 + » © © h a ® q > r H < D r H ©CD » H © ©© ©H © ^ B 5 , -PH © ! * ) C0>r4 © ► © © ► H l j s i 4 ^ Q Ob© O b H O O b M Ob§| £ O r H &5o© J 5 b O - O £ ■ * O © (Percentages) N o t a t a l l ■ Language-form and Development Principles of rhetoric 27.3 28.2 10.1 36.7 25.3 6.1 Principles of English grammar 62.9 7.8 1.4 71.8 6.2 3.1 Techniques of special forms of composition— exposition, description, narration 39.7 18.6 1.8 40.7 17.8 1.5 Historical development of the English language 21.6 35.6 9.7 26.5 33.9 6.8 Anglo-Saxon language and literature 10.9 46.2 24.8 10.9 46.9 20.8 Principles of phonetics 32.7 25.5 12.7 20.9 39.2 14.6 Literary Background History and development of American literature 43.5 15.8 3.4 51.5 14.6 3.5 History and development of English literature 45.0 17.7 4.7 56.3 14.1 2.9 Characteristics of the principal types of literature— drama, novel, etc. 34.8 23.1 4.4 51.6 13.9 2.2 Literary periods— Elizabethan, Romantic Age, etc. 20.5 33.2 12.2 34.1 25.4 8.2 The English Bible as literature 18.6 36.9 16.8 20.3 35.1 16.4 World literature— great books of many lands 42.3 19.3 4.9 42.2 21.0 5.5 Principles of literary criticism 21.5 32.0 11.5 31.4 28.9 6.6 Social and economic backgrounds of literature . 37.6 23.8 4.9 47.2 18.5 2.8 Adolescent literature— books primarily for young persons 64.8 8.5 6.2 41.6 20.6 1.1 Current literature--best sellers, etc. 31.7 25.8 7,9 37.8 21.8 5.8 Outstanding Authors The life and works of Chaucer 7.3 39.2 32.7 10.5 '40.0 21.8 The life and works of Shakespeare 43.1 20.7 6.5 57.9 11.1 3.6 The life and works of Milton 9.1 39.3 27.7 14.9 42.2 19.6 The life and works of Browning 15.0 38.8 21.8 17.8 37.4. 16.0 Significant Types of Literature The English novel— development, characteristics, etc. 21.9 25.2 14.5 34.7 22.8 7.4 The short story— development, characteristics, etc. 37.3 19.6 4.7 53.9 12.1 3.0 Poetry— types, characteristics, etc. 44.6 15.3 2.8 52.6 12.6 2.4 The essay~development, characteristics, etc. 21.1 33.2 8.6 35.5 20.9 4.5 Drama— development, characteristics, etc. 29.8 24.2 5.2 48.1 16.6 3.9 Biography— development, characteristics, etc. 37.5 18.7 - 4.1 39.3 17.8 4.3 Oratory— types, etc. 9.0 38.6 27.5 12.9 45.8 21.8 Current periodical literature 39.6 15.8 5.3 45.5 16.3 5.1 Fields Related to English Teaching Principles of forum and group discussion 30.8 26.1 9.6 30.5 27.9 11.3 Principles of journalism 19.4 29.9 24.2 20.3 22.3 24.7 Principles of public speaking 43.0 18.9 4.4 44.9 17.6 . 5.4 Principles of argumentation and debate 11.7 . 45.5 19.4 17.3 40.5 17.3 Principles of dramatic production and direction 29.2 27.1 11.3 29.7 27.6 18.8 Techniques of radio presentation 16.9 28.7 28.0 14.2 29.9 36.9 Motion picture production 12.4 27.1 37.9 10.4 32.7 39.4 Educational Principles and Practices General principles of education 47.6 12.6 .4.0 37.5 19.2 4.8 History of educat ion— general 16.0 35.5 13.5 10.8 45.0 16.5 History of American education 18.4 36.7 10.3 10.4 45.4 13.9 Philosophy of education 42.5 16.1 4.4 34.0 22.8 6.6 Social foundations of education 35.8 20.5 7.7 28.1 26.7 9.2 Principles of administration and supervision 15.7 30.1 24.8 14.3 33.5 29.0 Human growth and development 56.7 12.3 3.4 48.1 13.5 3.3 Mental hygiene— personality adjustment, etc. 68.6 8.6 1.8 57.4 10.5 3.1 Psychology of adolescence 78.8 4.7 1.1 66.4 6.9 1.8 Principles of learning 61.6 8.8 1.3 50.7 11.9 2.9 Principles of counselling and guidance 49.6 12.5 7.7 43.0 19.5 8.5 Principles of character education 60.5 10.7 3.3 47.0 15.5 6.5 Educational testing and measuring 28.3 24.7 6.4 24.6 27.4 9.2 Principles of secondary education— general 28.2 15.6 7.0 25.4 27.8 6.2 Principles of secondary curriculum construction 22.3 26.1 19.2 19.8 32.0 16.0 Current educational literature 36.1 18.2 4.1 27.1 25.2 5.9 Methods of class management and discipline 55.7 12.1 4.1 46.1 16.3 5.1 General methods of teaching high school subjects 41.0 14.5 6.8 40.7 15.0 5.1 Specific methods of teaching English 54.9 11.9 5.7 56.1 12.7 5.6 Principles of conducting extracurricular activities 28.7 20.0 15.4 29.9 20.9 15.6 * From data supplied by 630 junior high school and 1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English# Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item# . 302 303 be identified as characteristic of superior teachers of English, the data supplied by a group of teachers rated as possessing desirable teaching traits— as explained in Chapter IV— were compared with data reported by teachers not so rated. Superior teachers in junior high schools generally at tached greater importance to the type of knowledge gained in college courses than did teachers not so rated, stressing the value of thirty-four of the fifty-five types of knowledge listed more than did the other group. In general, the su perior teachers rated the more conventional subjects as of less relative value than did the teachers not rated as su perior. Although the percentages for both groups are small the superior teachers gave generally lower ratings to knowl edge of such standard authors as Chaucer, Milton, and Browning; to Anglo-Saxon language and literature; to such types of literature as the essay, biography, and oratory; to the principles of argumentation and debate; and to the his tory of American education. Superior teachers gave higher ratings to knowledge of phonetics and the principles of pub lic speaking; to a knowledge of grammar; to the history and development of English and American literature, to current literature, the short story and poetry; to mental hygiene, counseling and guidance, character education, testing, the principles of secondary curriculum construction, current edu cational literature, specific methods of teaching English, 304 and the principles of directing the extracurricular ac tivities of pupils. High and senior high school teachers rated as superior also attached generally greater value to the types of knowl edge gained in college courses than did the teachers not so rated, giving fifty of the fifty-five items listed a higher rating than the other group. In the field of literature a large proportion gave higher ranking to a knowledge of Shakespeare, the history and development of English and .American literature, the social and economic backgrounds of literature, and a knowledge of current literature, than did the other group. .Among types of literature they valued a knowledge of the short story and poetry to a much greater relative extent than did the teachers of the other group. In the field of education they laid greater relative stress upon the principles of character education, and of counseling and guidance; over a third of them gave greater emphasis to the philosophy of education, the social foundations of educa tion, and current educational literature. The detailed distribution of the extent to which teachers of English rated as superior value certain types of knowledge gained in college courses is shown in Tables IX and IXI. TORT.V IX EXTENT TO WHICH types of knowledge are judged cesiraele by junior high school teachers rated as SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, AND OTHER JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH NOT SO RATED* Activities Teachers of English Teachers of English rated as superior not so rated Total number of Total number of cases = 156 cases s 474 *3 43 43 43 ri a „ ta g ® ® M < d P „ e r - t e r-t i & ® * 3 fc® § £ ® <04) <0 rH Od © © • ® i-H Cd © ► © > r H © > 60 © > H h Cd 4 * £4 © 4 » 0 h « 0 h 1 0 P k « P i j i 0 E-iOH E-iow S3 tiOrH 6.00 a (Percentages) Language-form and Development Principles of rhetoric 30.3 29.7 4.1 26.3 29.2 12.0 Principles of English grammar 73.8 3.2 .6 67.7 9.3 1.7 Techniques of special forms of composition— exposition, description, narration 41.0 16.0 .6 39.2 19.3 2.1 Historical development of the English language 20.8 40.9 7.8 a.8 33.9 10.3 Anglo-Saxon language and literature 6.7 51.3 25.3 12.3 44.4 24.5 Principles of phonetics 38.0 24.0 6.0 30.9 26.1 14.9 Literary Background History and development of American literature 49.0 14.2 .6 41.7 16.5 4.3 History and development of English literature 48.7 16.6 1.9 45.9 18.0 5.6 Characteristics of the principal types of literature— drama, novel, etc. 34.7 21.6 2.0 34.8 23.7 5.2 Literary periods— Elizabethan, Romantic Age, etc. 19.7 35.5 9.2 20.7 32.3 13.3 The English Bible as literature 18.5 41.7 9.9 18.6 35.3 18.4 World literature— great books of many lands 43.8 22.9 2.0 41.8 18.1 5.9 Principles of literary criticism 22.0 31.3 8.0 21.3 32.2 12.6 Social and economic backgrounds of literature 40.3 25.5 1.3 36.7 23.2 6.1 Adolescent literature— books primarily for young persons 70.5 5.9 3.3 83.1 9.3 7.2 Current literature— best sellers, etc. 38.8 26.3 3.3 29.3 25.6 9.4 Outstanding Authors The life and works of Chaucer 4.1 41.3 27.7 8.4 38.5 34.3 The life and works of Shakespeare 42.8 21.1 4.6 43.2 20.6 7.1 The life and works of Milton 8.9 39.7 26.1 9.2 39.2 28.2 The life and works of Browning 12.8 41.3 18.9 15.8 38.1 22.8 Sipnifleant types of Literature The English novel— development, characteristics, etc. 22.3 28.7 10.7 a.7 24.1 15.8 The short story— development, characteristics, etc. 43.1 15.2 3.3 37.6 21.1 5.2 Poetry— types, characteristics, etc. 48.4 10.4 1.3 43.3 16.9 11.8 The essay— development, characteristics, etc. 16.8 34.9 4.7 22.5 32.7 9.8 Drama— development, characteristics, etc. 32.2 21.1 3.9 29.0 25.3 5.7 Biography— development, characteristics, etc. 31.8 19.9 2.6 39.5 18.3 4.6 Oratory— types, etc. 6.1 45.6 25.9 9.9 36.3 27.9 Current periodical literature 40.8 14.3 3.4 39.2 16.3 5.9 Fields Related to English Teaching Principles of forum and group discussion 32.5 25.8 5.3 30.3 26.1 11.1 Principles of journalism 19.6 29.1 18.9 19.3 30.3 26.0 Principles of public speaking 46.1 15.1 4.6 42.1 20.1 4.3 Principles of argumentation and debate 9.4 47.0 18.1 12.4 42.8 19.8 _ Principles of dramatic production and direction 30.7 26.0 8.7 28.6 .27.5 12.2 Techniques of radio presentation 22.1 29.7 22.7 15.3 28.3 29.7 Motion picture production 14.5 28.2 31.0 11.8 26.7 40.1 Educational Principles and Practices General principles of education 47.1 16.8 1.3 47.8 11.2 4.9 History of education— general 14.7 35.4 12.7 16.6 36.5 13.7 History'of American education 14.8 39.6 10.1 19.6 34.5 10.3 Philosophy of education 45.2 17.0 2.6 41.7 15.8 5.0 Social foundations of education 34.0 27.2 5.4 36.3 18.3 8.4 Principles of administration and supervision 16.1 30.8 23.1 15.6 29.8 25.3 Human growth' and development 54.9 12.4 2.6 57.3 12.3 3.7 Mental hygiene— personality adjustment, etc. 73.7 6.6 .6 67.2 9.3 2.2 Psychology of adolescence 81.1 3.9 .0 78.2 5.0 1.5 Principles of learning 60.6 6.6 1.3 61.9 9.6 1.3 Principles of counselling and guidance 54.7 9.3 4.0 47.8 13.6 8.9 Principles of character education 65.8 9.2 .6 60.8 11.2 4.2 Educational testing and measuring 35.3 22.7 3.3 25.9 25.3 7.4 Principles of secondary education— general 30.3 14.2 4.5 27.5 22.7 7.8 Principles of secondary curriculum construction 27.1 26.4 14.6 20.7 26.1 20.7 Current educational literature 40.1 17.3 1.3 34.9 18.5 5.0 Methods of class management and discipline 53.6 12.4 4.6 56.3 12.0 3.9 General methods of teaching high school subjects 42.2 18.4 4.1 40.5 13.2 7.7 Specific methods of teaching English 62.3 13.9 2.0 52.5 11.2 6.9 Principles of conducting extracurricular activities 33.7 17.9 9.7 27.0 18.4 17.3 * From data supplied by 630 junior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. TABLE IXI EXTENT TO WHICH TTFES OF KNOWLEDGE ARE JUDGED DESIRABLE B? HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS SATED AS SUPERIOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH, AND OTHER HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH NOT SO RATED* Teachers of English rated as superior Total number of cases r 305 Teachers of English not so rated Total number of cases = 850 M in h « . i Att* 4 . * ® © © rH © © © > W ) © > r - j • © > o U a i o k a o P?i HOr-l fin O « E3 E-< O » Activities (Percentages) Language-form and Development Principles of rhetoric Principles of English grammar Techniques of special forms of composition— exposition, description, narration Historical development of the English language Anglo-Saxon language and literature Principles of phonetics Literary Background History and development of American literature History and development of English literature Characteristics of the principal types of literature— drama, novel, etc. Literary periods— Elizabethan, Romantic Age, etc. The English Bible as literature World literature— great books of many lands Principles of literary criticism Social and economic backgrounds of literature Adolescent literature— books primarily for young persons Current literature— best sellers, etc. Outstanding Authors The life and works of Chaucer The life and works of Shakespeare The life and works of Hilton The life and works of Browning Significant Types of Literature The English novel— development, characteristics, etc. The short story— development, characteristics, etc. Poetry-types, characteristics, etc. The essay— development, characteristics, eto. Drama— development, characteristics, etc. Biography— development, characteristics, etc. Oratory— types, etc. Current periodical literature Fields Related to English Teaching Principles of forum and group discussion Principles of journalism Principles of public speaking Principles of argumentation and debate Principles of dramatic production and direction Techniques'of radio presentation Motion picture production Educational Principles and Practices General principles of education History of Education— general History of American education Philosophy of education Social foundations of education Principles of administration and supervision Human growth and development Mental Hygiene— personality adjustment, etc. Psychology of adolescence Principles of learning Principles of counselling and guidance Principles of character education Educational testing and measuring Principles of secondary education— general Principles of secondary curriculum construction Current educational literature Methods of class management and discipline General methods of teaching high school subjects Specific methods of teaching English Principles of conducting extracurricular activities 40.3 24.3 6.1 35.4 26.1 6.1 71.2 5.0 4.6 72.3 7.4 2.5 44.6 14.0 1.7 39.5 19.2 1.4 32.1 29.7 6.1 24.6 35.5 7.1 12.2 46.3 18.3 10.4 47.2 21.7 24.1 38.7 10.8 19.8 39.3 16.0 57.4 10.1 4.0 49.4 16.3 3.3 63.2 9.7 2.7 54.0 15.7 3.0 52.2 14.1 1.7 51.5 13.8 2.4 37.1 23.1 6.7 32.9 26.2 8.8 21.8 32.7 15.3 19.8 36.2 16.8 46.6 16.1 7.1 40.8 22.8 4.9 35.7 26.5 6.1 29.9 29.8 6.8 52.5 13.0 3.0 44.0 20.5 2.7 45.3 17.4 10.6 40.4 21.7 10.8 46.2 17.2 . 5.8 . 34.8 23.4 5.8 20.4 39.4 15.9 13.7 40.1 23.9 66.7 8.9 1.7 54.6 11.9 4.4 16.3 41.5 13.6 14.3 42.4 21.8 22.6 37.4 9.7 16.1 37.5 18.3 38.9 16.6 6.3 33.2 24.9 7.8 61.9 10.0 3.7 51.1 12.9 2.7 59.3 8.0 2.7 50.4 14.3 2.3 41.3 16.1 5.4 33.4 22.6 4.2 50.6 14.2 2.3 47.3 17.5 4.5 43.7 14.1 5.4 37.8 19.1 4.0 12.3 43.3 21.8 13.1 46.8 21.8 48.5 12.4 6.7 44.7 17.7 4.5 34.5 22.5 8.2 29.2 29.9 12.5 23.6 32*2 20*5 19.2 31.1 26.2 48.5 15.1 4.4 43.5 18.5 5.7 16.5 39.0 15.5 17.6 41.0 17.9 30.2 26.7 14.0 29.5 27.9 20.5 17.8 32.9 29.1 12.9 28.8 _ 39.7 10.9 35.4 33.0 10.3 31.7 41.8 39.8 19.1 4.0 36.7 19.3 5.0 10.7 44.7 14.1 10.9 45.1 17.4 11.9 43.5 11.2 9.9 46.2 14.7 39.5 21.2 4.7 31.9 23.3 7.3 33.8 22.4 7.6 26.1 28.2 9.7 16.0 32.7 26.3 13.7 33.7 29.9 51.6 13.5 2.7 46.8 13.5 3.6 59.8 11.9 3.1 56.7 10.4 3.1 68.9 6.5 1.7 65.7 7.1 1.8 50.9 12.2 2.7 50.8 11.9 3.1 48.3 18 . ' 9 6.9 41.2 19.7 9.1 50.0 13.5 4.9 44.8 16.3 7.0 28*5 26.5 6.5 23.2 27.7 10.3 26.2 27.2 5.7 25.1 28.0 6.4 21.7 28.0 11.7 19.1 33.5 17.6 33.9 16.6 4.8 24.7 28.2 6.3 45.0 17.5 6.4 46.6 15.8 4.6 40.3 17.0 5.8 40.7 14.3 4.9 58.7 12.5 4.8 55.2 12.9 5.9 32.1 19.2 14.2 29.3 21.5 16.0 * From data supplied by 1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. 307 IV. EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH EXPRESS NEED TO ACQUIRE OR DEVELOP PROFESSIONAL SKILLS AND ABILITIES In Part II of the questionnaire an opportunity was given participants in the study to express, in the light of their experience as teachers of English, the professional shills and abilities they felt the most need to acquire or develop. Three hundred and seventy-seven of the junior high school teachers and 731 of the high and senior high school teachers availed themselves of this opportunity. The items listed by these teachers were in some cases more nearly types of knowledge than skills, but the items reported were ade quately grouped under three main heads: personal equipment needs, needs for definite classroom teaching skills, and needs in the field of general class organization and direction. Of the 160 items supplied by junior high school teach ers under the head of. , # personal equipment needs" the five ranking highest in order are: skill in oral expression, skill in written expression, knowledge of child psychology, and of childrens literature, broader cultural background, and ability in the dramatic field— writing, directing, and inter preting. The emphasis upon effective oral expression is quite pronounced, with the need for skill in expressing thought through written language only second in importance. In addi tion to these fundamental skills, junior high school teachers 308 expressed a need for more knowledge of the children they in struct and of the recreational reading most suitable for these pupils. From the data supplied it appears that junior high school teachers of English are well adjusted mentally and socially, and with more need to develop cultural back ground than need for greater skill in handling the subject matter of their department. Junior high school teachers of English listed 354 needs for definite classroom teaching skills— more than twice the number of needs they listed under "personal equipment." Of the sixteen categories into which these teaching skills fall the five most frequently mentioned are: teaching remedial reading, teaching reading, teaching fundamentals of written composition, teaching creative composition, and teaching oral composition. The emphasis placed upon the need for more ability in reading instruction is pronounced, with the need for more skill in teaching written and oral composition only second in importance. Thus junior high school teachers of English, although listing such needs as those associated with teaching literary appreciation and character development, stressed especially the needs they felt for definite tech niques which would allow them to teach their pupils how to get the meaning from the written page and how to transfer their own thoughts adequately through written and oral lan guage. Junior high school teachers listed 157 items reflecting 309 needs for more professional skill in class organization and management. The five items most frequently mentioned were:, recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs, directing socialized class activities, organizing courses and'units and selecting materials of instruction, correlating English with other school subjects, and administering a testing program. Teachers of English in high and senior high schools listed 297 items embracing needs for personal equipment as teachers. Of the twelve groups into which these fall the most frequently listed by the participating teachers in this study were: skill in oral expression, cultural background, ability in dramatic field, knowledge of psychology, knowledge of youth literature, and ability to write with a high degree of skill. Thus the same general needs are mentioned most frequently by both junior high and senior high school teachers, but with different emphasis placed upon the different groups. Both groups agreed in mentioning skill in oral expression most frequently, but high and senior high school teachers rated cultural background second in importance and a knowledge of psychology third. The other three of the leading six needs were given much less relative importance by the senior high school group than by the junior high school teachers. High and senior high school teachers listed 594 needs for definite classroom teaching skills— just twice as many as they listed under "personal equipment needs." Of the ten 310 groups into which these needs fell the first five are: teach ing remedial reading, teaching written composition, teaching oral composition, teaching reading, and teaching literature. This list of the five highest groups corresponds with that reported by junior high school teachers except that high and senior high school teachers substituted a group of needs as sociated with teaching literature instead of with creative writing among the highest five. On this senior high school plane as on the junior high school level the fact is.apparent that many teachers feel the need for definite techniques which will enable them to teach pupils to read the printed page with understanding and to express their own thoughts with clarity. High and senior high school teachers of English listed 333 needs associated with general class organization and direc tion. The five groups most frequently listed are: organizing courses and classes for instruction, directing class activi ties, . correlating English with other subjects, administering a testing program, and aiding vocational adjustment through English instruction. High and senior high school teachers expressed more felt need for definite methods of instruction and for means of aiding vocational adjustment among pupils than did junior high school teachers, otherwise the expressed needs of the two groups are largely for greater skill in or ganizing courses and classes for best teaching results. 311 The detailed distribution of the needs expressed by the.participating teachers for professional skills and abilities is given in Tables IXIX and IXTII. V. EXTENT TO WHICH TEACHERS OF ENGLISH VALUE SUPPORTING SUBJECTS AS CONTRIBUTING TO THEIR TEACHING EQUIPMENT Under Part III of the questionnaire participating teachers were given an opportunity to list the "supporting subjects" or those college courses outside the fields of English and education which they felt contributed most to their professional equipment as teachers of English* Two hundred and fifty-nine of the junior high school teachers and 553 of the high and senior high school teachers listed such subjects. Many of the teachers listed and commented upon courses generally regarded as in the fields of English or edu cation but with content or methods which the teachers believed made them of especial value to teachers of English. Such courses are therefore reported along with the "supporting sub jects" in the stricter sense of the term. Although the supporting subjects were listed under a great variety of titles and descriptions they were conveniently grouped under eleven main heads. Of most significance in the general grouping is the fact that both junior high school and high and senior high school teachers listed history, psychol ogy* and arts and art appreciation as the most valuable of 312 TABLE L3CII HEEDS EXPRESSED BY JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH FOR GREATER PROFESSIONAL SKILLS AND ABILITIES* Needs Expressed for Personal Equipment Skill in oral expression ................ 39 Skill in written expression ...... .................. 28 Knowledge of child psychology........... 18 Knowledge of children's literature ........................ 18 Cultural background.............................. . . . . 17 Ability in dramatic field, writing, directing, interpreting • 16 Subject matter background— "fundamentals"................. 9 Mental and social adjustment . . ......... 5 Skills in arts and crafts............................... 4 Others ............ . . . . . .......................... 6 Needs Expressed for Definite Teaching Skills Teaching remedial reading . . . . ..................... . . 65 Teaching reading skills ............................... 47 Teaching propaganda analysis . 10 Directing pupils' leisure reading .... .. 15 Teaching fundamentals of written composition ......... 45 Teaching grammar .......... .................... 13 Teaching creative composition ............... 35 Teaching oral composition..............••••• ........ 33 Teaching remedial speech ............................... 15 Directing verse choir ................................... 2 Directing panel discussion ........ 12 Directing formal debate ................................. 2 Teaching literary appreciation .......................... 25 Helping pupils develop character through literature ....... 11 Teaching social and economic backgrounds through literature. • 11 Motion picture and radio appreciation • • • • ............ 13 Needs Expressed for Skill in Glass Organization and Direction Recognizing and meeting individual pupil needs . ........... 36 Organizing courses and units--selecting materials......... 28 Directing socialized class activities .................... 29 Correlating English with other subjects ............... 17 Securing cooperation of whole school ...••••.•••. 6 Grouping, organizing classes......... 10 Administering a testing program....................... . . 14 Definite methods "Motivating" ............................ 8 Aiding vocational adjustment through English . ............ 3 Others ............. ......... ................. 6 * Based upon the replies of 377 junior high school teachers of English. 313 TEACHERS OF ENGLISH FOR GREATER PROFESSIONAL SKILLS AND ABILITIES* TABLE LKIII NEEDS EXPRESSED BY HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Needs Expressed for Personal Equipment Skill in oral expression................................. 93 Cultural background . . . . . ......... 66 Ability in dramatic field................ 14 Knowledge of psychology...................... 50 Knowledge of English language . .................. 13 Arts Appreciation.................. . .......... 8 Skill in crafts ..•••.••...« ............. .... 3 Knowledge of Foreign language......... 3 Ability to write with high degree of skill • ••••••••.. 14 Budgeting time.................................... 10 Knowledge of mechanics of writing............ 4 Knowledge of youth literature ............................. 19 Needs Expressed for Definite Teaching Skills Teaching oral composition........... 107 Teaching reading ............ . . . . . . 85 Teaching remedial reading . . . ......... 116 Teaching dramatics . . . 39 Teaching literature ...................... 55 Directing leisure reading........... 21 Teaching written composition................................. 109 Teaching creative writing................................. 42 Teaching vocabulary use ................................. 15 Teaching use of library................................... 5 Needs Expressed for Skill in Class Organization and Direction Organizing courses and classes............................... 117 Selecting materials . . . 17 Directing class activities ......... ..... * . . 76 Correlation with other school activities.............. 51 Administering a testing program......... 41 Directing vocation adjustment . . . 24 Promoting class discipline ................................. 2 Teaching pupils good listening habits ..•••••• ....... 5 * Based upon the replies of 731 high euad senior high school teachers of English. 314 supporting subjects for the English teacher. .These three groups of subjects contain two thirds of all the courses listed by senior high school teachers and include slightly over half of all courses listed by junior high school teachers. The next five groups among supporting subjects, in or der of frequency of mention by junior high school teachers, * were science, foreign languages, sociology, economics, philos ophy, and religion. The same five groups were also listed next according to frequency of mention by high and senior high school teachers but ih different order— high and senior high school teachers showing a greater preference for knowledge of foreign languages than did junior high school teachers. The remaining subjects listed by teachers but without great fre quency were grouped under the heads of commercial education, crafts, ethics, and logic. Subjects in the field of history were mentioned most frequently and to the same relative extent by teachers in junior high schools and in high and senior high schools. Courses in general history were most frequently listed— usually under such titles as "world history,” "history of civilization,” "survey of man’s history and culture.” In the field of psychology there was a relatively high listing of courses in adolescent psychology and in personality develop ment. In the field of foreign languages, classical languages were mentioned only twice by members of the junior high school 315 group; they were stressed to a greater relative extent, but not to a large degree, by teachers in high and senior high schools. The detailed distribution of data regarding the list ing of supporting subjects as aids to professional equipment for teachers of English is shown in Tables IXCV and IXV. VI. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER The purpose of this chapter was to interpret data showing the value teachers of English place upon types of knowledge as professional equipment. It was found that: 1. Teachers of English make a decided distinction between the worth of various subjects generally included in college programs for the education of teachers, rating some of the courses very high and some extremely low. 2. Junior high school teachers place the highest value upon those courses which give the teachers a knowledge of the physical and mental nature of the pupils they in struct, and those courses designed to develop specific ability to teach oral and written communication. 3. They rated very low many of the more conventional courses, including literary periods and foimal types of com position. U* High and senior high school teachers follow the same general pattern as do junior high school teachers in 316 TABLE 1X17 SUPPORTING SUBJECTS LISTED BY JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS5 * ' la Fields Other Than English. History 65 General social studies 29 Modern history 14 English history 10 American history 8 Ancient history 4 Psychology 49 General 14 Adolescent 16 Personality development 15 Sex and family education 5 Abnormal psychology 1 Arts and Art Appreciation 46 Science 18 Foreign Languages 17 Modern foreign language 15 Classical languages 2 Sociology 13 Economics 11 Philosophy and Religion 12 Crafts 7 Commercial Training 5 Ethics 5 In Fields of English and Literature Dramatics 17 Production and stagecraft 7 Movie and radio appreciation 10 Courses in Children*s Literature 23 Courses in English Grammar and Philology 14 Courses in English Composition 14 Courses in Literature 16 Library Science 9 English as Vehicle for Living 5 In Field of Education General Methods Courses 26 Instruction in Remedial Reading 14 Instruction in Reading 10 Class Management 9 Method of Composition 11 Propaganda Analysis 4 Literary Appreciation 2 * Nineteen others listed only once. Based on data supplied by 259 junior high school teachers of English. 317 TABLE L X V SUPPORTING SUBJECTS LISTED BY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS * In Fields Other Than English History 200 General 10 4 American history 12 English history 8 Modern history 21 Ancient history 4 World history 29 Political science 14 Psychology 117 General 58 Adolescent 28 Abnormal psychology 7 Personality development 21 Character education 3 Arts and Art Appreciation 107 Science 47 Foreign Languages 78 Modern foreign language 55 Classical foreign language 23 Sociology and Anthropology 58 Economics 61 Philosophy and Religion 57 Ethics 11 Logic 8 Commercial Training 9 In Fields of English and Literature Dramatics 27 Play directing and stage crew 13 Appreciation and interpretation 14 English Grammar and Philology 21 Propaganda Analysis 7 Literature— Gene ral 56 Juvenile Literature 18 In Field of Education Vocational Guidance 8 Physical Education 9 Practice Teaching 17 Journalism 10 Library Science 6 Teaching English 38. Teaching Remedial Reading 24 Methods of Oral English 11 Composition Methods 17 Courses in Subject Matter for Teachers 16 Teaching Reading 15 Others 38 * Based on data supplied by 553 senior high school -teachers of English. 313 thei^ ratings but place a higher degree of value upon literary knowledge and a relatively lower value on the courses related more definitely to the routine duties of classroom instruction. 5. Teachers rated as superior are not distinguished by any outstanding characteristics in rating types of knowl edge; they do, however, attach a somewhat greater value to the types of knowledge gained in college than do teachers not so rated. 6. Teachers in both junior high schools and in high and senior high schools have as their greatest felt need for personal equipment greater skill in oral and written expression. 7. They agree that history, psychology, and art appre ciation are three supplementary fields in which teachers need education, in addition to their courses in the fields of English and education. 3. Junior high school teachers feel need, of definite teaching skills in the following field in order: content reading, written composition, oral communication, and litera ture. High and senior high school teachers feel need of teaching skills in the following fields in order: content reading, written expression, literature, and oral expression. CHAPTER XII JUDGMENTS OF TEACHERS REGARDING EDUCATIONAL ISSUES One purpose of this investigation was to discover the opinions of teachers regarding issues in the field of English teaching. Such teacher opinions reflect attitudes that pro foundly affect classroom instruction, and that thus should influence the program of both graduate and undergraduate edu cation of teachers of English. This is so because of three main reasons. In the first place, a definite set or pattern of ideas is very apt to become fixed, often without adequate authority, in any professional group; in the case of teachers such ideas once discovered, should be examined under the scholarly direction found in college and university. Some issues may be resolved by reference to scientific experiment; others may be judged only in the light of a philosophy of education. In the second place, it is generally agreed that beginning teachers adopt, often almost unconsciously, the at titudes and beliefs of the teachers with whom they work; the education of prospective teachers of English, therefore, should take cognizance of the attitudes and opinions of English teachers as a whole. In the third place, it has been shown in this study that English teaching as now prac ticed in American high schools is not only of comparatively recent growth but is in a state of continuous appraisal and ■ ' 320 reorganization, and that while issues occur in any educational field they abound in the field of English teaching. Any dis cussion of the education of teachers of English should be based upon a knowledge of such issues and teacher opinion on them. The issues included in this chapter have been gathered through a compilation of topics discussed at professional meetings of teachers of English and through a study of the literature in the field of English teaching. As explained in Chapter Till, the contents of twenty-three textbooks on teaching English in secondary schools, and of ten volumes of English Journal (High School Edition), were analyzed; when decided disagreement of opinion was discovered among educational leaders, such points pf disagreement were listed as issues. The difficulty of presenting such ideas briefly and clearly was recognized; however, through numerous prelimi nary trials and revisions, statements were constructed which the participating teachers accepted and rated. In addition to twenty-four issues related directly to classroom instruction in English, eight issues adapted from the National Survey of Teachers, and related to the education of teachers of English, were included in the list to be rated, and are discussed in this ehapter. In an effort to discover factors of significance, the data supplied by different groups of teachers were analyzed . 321 and are reported in this chapter under the following heads: (1) opinions of all participating teachers in junior high schools and in high and senior high schools; (2) opinions of teachers of English courses predominantly and of fusion courses; and (3) opinions of teachers rated as superior and of those not so rated. I. OPINIONS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND IN HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS REGARDING ISSUES ’ RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH Eight of the issues deal with the teaching Of litera ture. The highest percentage of agreement— 86.7 per cent for junior high school and 88.6 per cent of high and senior high school teachers— was expressed with the statement that teach ers of English should stress understanding of social back grounds as one of the important outcomes of the study of literature. But the extent of agreement dropped sharply— to 49*3 per cent for junior high school teachers and 60 per cent for high and senior high school teachers— upon the issue that teachers should attempt to interpret modern social and economic conditions through classroom teaching of realistic literature. Teachers of English thus take a position that finds value in the study of such books as Ivanhoe and Silas Marner for the pictures they give of social conditions of their times, but are apparently much less ready to give 322 approval to the inclusion of such modern books as Grapes of Wrath in the course of study. The reaction of teachers to this matter of teaching literature for social background is of interest since it gives only negligible approval to the position taken by some leaders who insist that a pupil’s read ing of any kind should be valued only for the aesthetic en joyment it affords* It is also to be noted that teachers in high and senior high school show a much greater desire to teach modern social and economic conditions through realistic literature than do junior high school teachers. Another statement to which more than two thirds of teachers in both junior high schools and senior high schools subscribed was that the s.tudy of the standard types of litera ture— novel, drama, etc.— is one of the best ways of enabling pupils to set up standards of literary judgment. This rating reflects apparent agreement with a conservative view, rather than with the opinion of some leaders who hold that aesthetic enjoyment and true appreciation of literature is hindered by an attempt to point out techniques characteristic of particu lar types of writing. Another statement which approximately two thirds of the teachers approved is that the teaching of literature should be used as a primary means of developing good charac ter traits In pupils. This again reflects agreement with a conservative position rather than with the view taken by some 323 leaders, and confirmed in part at least by objective studies, that it is a survival of nYictorianismM to believe that read ing about actions in books leads to the performance of those actions in life. Still another statement approved by approximately two thirds of the teachers was that the desirable outcomes of i literature teaching are too intangible to be measured by ob jective tests now available. In the matter of objective tests for measuring outcomes of literature teaching the teachers were much more decided than in the matter of such tests as measures of work in composition. In each case the teachers did not approve of objective measures for work in English, but disapproved to a much greater extent objective tests for literature rather than for composition. Three moot questions concerning methods to be used in teaching literature were reflected in three statements dis approved by the teachers. Forty^nine per cent of junior high school teachers and 62.7 per cent of high and senior high school teachers disapproved the statement that the "classics1 1 of English literature should be required study for all high school pupils. Among junior high school teachers, however, opinion was sharply divided— 3S.3 Per cent approving such required study by all pupils. In high and senior high school the proportion of approval was not so large— 27.6 per cent— yet sufficiently great to show the importance placed upon 32 U these standard literary works in the high school course of study. The teachers also disapproved the statement that teach ers should require intensive class study of literature as a means of developing literary appreciation among pupils.' This view is contrary to that taken by many leaders who hold that before there can be the slightest degree of worthy apprecia tion there must be a knowledge of literature and that inten sive study is the best means of producing such necessary knowledge. In the case of this issue a much greater propor tion of junior high school teachers than senior high school teachers approved intensive study. Just over half of the teachers in both junior and senior high schools approved the statement that teachers should require all pupils to memorize passages from stapdard literature. But almost a third of the teachers on each of these two levels disagreed with this statement, making it one of the controversial points of English methods. Six of the statements reflect issues in the field of composition. The statement that definite instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and re quired part of the English course received the greatest pro portion of approval, 71*7 per cent of the junior high school and 76.9 per cent of the high and senior high school teachers concurring in this view. While such decisive approval of 325 i this statement does not necessarily mean the championing of a narrow and formal type of grammar instruction it does, how ever, show an unwillingness to accept the other extreme posi tion that grammar can he acquired as incidental to other features of the English program. Fifty-five and eight-tenths per cent of junior high school teachers and 62 per cent of high and senior high school teachers disapproved the statement that literature and compo sition should he regarded as separate subjects to be taught at separate times. This result is in contrast with that found in a survey mady by the North Central Association in 1931, when a great majority of teachers of English approved a practically similar statement. But almost a third of the junior high school teachers participating in the present study and a quarter of the high and senior high school teachers approved separate courses in literature and compo sition, showing this issue to be of real significance in the teaching of English. Fifty and nine-tenths per cent of junior high school teachers and 64 per cent of high and senior high school teachers approved the statement that there should be required at different school levels minimum essentials in written form * of expression that each pupil must acquire before he can be promoted to a higher grade. The margin of approval for such action is especially decisive among high and senior high 326 school teachers, with only one fifth expressing disapproval of such a statement. The high degree of approval for this statement shows the unwillingness of a majority of teachers to put into practice the "no failure" program of English, no matter how much they may subscribe to a philosophy of educa tion that should lead to such a conclusion. Three of the statements in the composition group were related to the highly controversial subject of creative and artistic writing. Approximately one half of the teachers in both junior and senior high schools disapproved statements reflecting the conservative view that pupils should model their compositions after selections of recognized literary merit much as Stevenson did in playing the "sedulous ape" to the masters of style, and that instruction in creative writ ing should be limited to pupils who show special aptitude for artistic expression— a statement which implies that cre ative writing is something "arty," rather than the expression of personality. In each case, however, the number of teachers approving such statements is sufficiently great to make these questions of real importance in English teaching. Less than half of both groups of teachers approved the statement that teachers should teach literature and creative writing for their therapeutic value to pupils--i.e., their value in creating proper mental and emotional states. A statement which more teachers disapproved than approved was that • 327 objective tests now available are a good means of measuring pupil achievement in written composition. In the case of this statement the proportion of teachers undecided on the matter is significantly large and points to the need of greater familiarity among teachers with the results qf care fully controlled experiments at Purdue and elsewhere showing the value of objective tests of composition ability. Two of the statements referred to programs of pupils* reading. Although at present a very small proportion of teachers of English teach propaganda analysis, almost two thirds believe that such instruction should be offered. The English department has often suffered by becoming the proving ground for new types of instruction, but the demand for propa ganda analysis is apparently a demand which teachers of English must meet and for which they should be educated. Approximately 80 per cent of teachers in junior high school and high and senior high school disapproved the state ment that teachers of English should encourage as part of the program of English instruction the reading of books and magazines without any restrictions as to the quality of the material read. Yet this statement reflects the views of the writers of An Experience Curriculum in which it is stated that "prescriptions must be lessened or loosened in classroom reading and practically abolished in outside reading or *home* reading"; and, further, that it is probable "that choice of 328 what to read should he accompanied on the part of the pupil by choice whether to read or not. Two of the statements refer to oral composition. Ap proximately one half of junior high school and senior high school teachers stated that the English classroom program should be organized to put the major emphasis upon oral ex pression by the pupils, but a third of the teachers in high and senior high school and almost as large a proportion in junior high school disapproved such a position. Undoubtedly problems of class size and discipline make oral expression on the part of all pupils difficult to achieve, yet a lack of such oral participation in English activities suggests a routine type of instruction. An issue upon which there was lack of decision on the part of junior high school teachers but a greater degree of approval on the part of high and senior high school teachers is suggested in the statement that teachers of English should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based on current American usage rather than forms based upon conventional scholarly standards. This is sin issue on which teachers of English have split violently in recent years. Studies such as the one by Marckwardt have shown the lack of authority for many of the niceties of speech prescribed in textbooks on language and have shown the acceptance of vigor ous colloquial expression by the best literary writers. Many 329 teachers, however, believe it to be the duty of the teacher of English to preserve the niceties of conventional speech through definite instruction of pupils in their use. Three fourths of the teachers in junior high schools and in high and senior high schools approved the statement that homogeneous grouping is a good device for realizing de sirable outcomes of English instruction. Such an agreement suggests the widespread use of sectioning devices for fast and slow groups. In the light of the emphasis laid by English teachers upon the development of proper attitudes through English experiences, especially in the study of literature, it is of interest to note what Keliher states as the result of her thorough study of grouping: In the light"of the evidence from the field and the reasonable analysis of the issues involved grouping has no inherent association with better attitudes. Probably more harmful attitudes are built up in segre gated situations since the situation is not life like. . . .1 Pour of the statements referred to issues which may be termed philosophical in nature. As might be expected, fewer teachers were definite regarding these matters than about those more closely associated with the practice of English teaching. To one of these statements— that the pres ent interests of pupils should be the criteria for selecting 1 Alice V. Keliher, A Critical Study of Homogeneous Grouping, p. 130. 330 the experiences which make up the English program— junior high school teachers gave clear-cut; approval, slightly less than half of the high and senior high school teachers sub scribed to the position, and more than a third disapproved. On the extremely controversial issue that teachers should direct English instruction toward the building of a new social order the teaching group in both junior and senior high schools was very evenly divided: approximately one third being in agreement, one third in disagreement, and one third reporting that they were undecided. The third of the group that subscribed to the statement were following the lead of such influential leaders in the field as Be Boer, who in dis cussing an effective program of peace education states: ... it must set up the goal of a world federation of cooperative commonwealths in which the masses of the people have been liberated from the combination of the industrialists who make war and make the people like it. For in an acquisitive society like our own, war is necessary and profitable, and not all the noble and helpful efforts of the pacifists can stop it.2 On the statement that it is the duty of teachers of English to take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school, junior and senior high school teachers were almost equally divided into three groups. This almost equal division is reflected in many ^ John Be Boer, ”A Program for Peace Education,” English Journal (High School Edition), 25:289, April, 1936. 331 discussions that take place in meetings of teachers of English, some teachers believing that because the use of English pervades the whole instructional program, English teachers have special responsibility to lead in efforts to break down all departmental lines. On the statement that teacher leadership should be stressed in classroom experi ences in English in order to secure the discipline and con trol needed for democratic social cooperation, fewer teachers took a neutral position, but no clear-cut group opinion was shown. Thirty-five per cent of the junior high school teach ers approved the statement while 45 per cent disapproved; high and senior high school teachers were almost evenly divided, 42 per cent expressing approval and 40 per cent disapproval of the statement. Of the eight statements listed that referred to teacher education policies, approximately two thirds of the teachers in both junior high schools and high and senior high schools gave approval to three. Such statements reflected the view that the undergraduate program for prospective teachers of English should be devoted very largely to a broad cultural education; with the more highly professional training taking place through in-service education on the graduate level. The statements approved also reflected the opinions that separate courses in methods of teaching English should be eliminated and subject matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation, and that college teachers in the field of English rather than in the field of education should direct such courses. More than half of the teachers give approval to the statement that prospective teachers of English need fewer specialized courses in English and education and more inte grating, synthetic courses of study which cut across depart mental lines, as in courses called "Contemporary Civilization. The highly controversial nature of four of the issues is shown by a further analysis of the returns. To the state ment that teachers should be educated with but slight atten tion to specific positions or levels the teachers gave not clear-cut approval or disapproval. Just half of the high and senior high school teachers and 44.8 per cent of the junior high school teachers approved the statement that the scope of activities in high school English is so great that it is not practical to attempt to educate teachers to teach in more than one other field. Although throughout this study parti cipating teachers expressed themselves strongly in.favor of broad cultural education for teachers of English yet on the proposition that broad scholarship in the field of English is more important than professional skill in methods of teach ing, there was no majority for or against the statement. This lack of majority opinion may reflect some ambiguity of 333 statement, despite the care taken in preliminary trials of the questionnaire. It seems more probable that it reflects the conflicting points of view often expressed in teachers* gatherings— between those teachers fearful of the effect of routine procedures and those teachers impressed chiefly by the need for methodological aids in meeting the demands of modern education. Approximately one half of both groups of teachers be lieve that skill in teaching will be secured more effectively during the college program by constant supervised observation of good teaching than by the conventional courses in practice teaching. The detailed distribution of the data discussed in the foregoing section will be found in Table LXVI. II. OPINIONS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COURSES PREDOMINANTLY AND TEACHERS OF FUSION COURSES UPON ISSUES RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH It was shown in Chapter V of this study that most teachers of English in California high schools are assigned to courses designated specifically as "English.” However, in many schools English skills and knowledge are taught in fusion courses, usually designated as "English-Social Science," "Social Living," or "Fusion." It was one purpose of this investigation to determine whether teachers in TABLE EXVI OPINIONS OF TEACHERS OF ESGLISH REGARDING ISSDES RELAXED TO THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH* Issues Junior high. High and senior schools high schools Total number of Total number of cases a 630 eases : 1,155 Tj TJ ri g E g g g gifg ESB egg ► PiS p, > w > P.-PP. o p o P, ® P f a o o o pa P p o fa a « s s p, p , Pt . (D ^ a PH A P44»Pfa -H S -H f f a 4* Pi H pH < n d QW<o <4 <oal Q a (Percentages) Literature and composition should be regarded as separate subjects to be taught at separate times 32.0 55.8 25.2 62.0 It is the duty of teachers of English to take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school 34.8 36.5 32.7 33.7 "Classics" of English literature should be required study for all high school pupils- 38.3 49.0 27.6 62.7 Homogeneous grouping is a good device for realizing desirable outcomes of English instruction 74.8 10.0 75.8 10.9 The present interests of pupils should be the criteria for selecting the experiences which make up the English program 53.3 31.1 47.0 36.3 Teachers should require intensive class study of literature as a means of developing literary appreciation among pupils 23.4 61.8 33.4 49.3 Teachers should direct English instruction toward the building of a new social order 32.5 38.9 30.8 39.9 The teaching of literature should be used as a primary means of developing good character traits in pupils 64.4 20.6 63.7 21.6 Teacher leadership should be stressed in classroom experiences in English in order,to secure the discipline and control needed for democratic social cooperation 35.5 45.9 42.7 40.2 Objective tests now available are a good means of measuring pupil achievement in written composition 22.8 34.0 20.6 42.7 There should be required at different school levels minimum essentials in written foxm of expression that each pupil must acquire before he can be promoted to a higher grade 50.9 32.9 64.0 20.8 Teachers of English should provide instruction in propaganda analysis 61.5 18.0 63.5 17.1 Teachers of English should require all pupils to memorize passages from standard literature 31.5 52.1 29.6 53.8 The English classroom program should be organized to put the major emphasis upon oral expression by pupils 57.3 28.0 49.3 33.2 Teachers of English should encourage, as part of the program of English instruction, reading of books and magazines without any restrictions as to quality of the material read 11.3 81.9 15.9 76.2 Teachers of English should teach literature and creative writing for their therapeutic value to pupils— i.e., their value in creating proper mental and emotional states 45.5 27.4 *44.6 26.8 Definite class instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and required part of*the English program 71.7 17.1 76.9 14.9 Teachers of English should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based on current American usage rather than forms based upon conventional scholarly standards 40.3 38.4 51.6 30.9 Instruction in creative writing should be limited to pupils who show special aptitude for artistic expression 39.0 49.3 40.8 47.1 Teachers should enoourage pupils to model their compositions after selections of recognized literary excellence 31.7 49.7 27.4 55.0 Teachers of English should stress understanding of social backgrounds as one of the important outcomes of the study of literature 86.7 43.8 88.6 4.9 The study of standard types of literature— novel, drama, etc.— is one of the best ways of enabling pupils to set up standards of literary judgment 68.8 11.6 71.0 10.3 Teachers should attempt to interpret modem social and economic conditions through classroom teaching of realistic literature 49.3 22.0 60.0 15.0 The desirable outcomes of literature teaching are too in tangible to be measured by objective tests now available 67.0 6.3 64.6 10.3 We should assume that most of the growth in the art of teaching must take place on the job. Institutions which prescribe much in educational psychology and professionalized subject-matter are aiming at an early perfection which cannot be attained then, and they thereby deprive prospective teachers of English of other college work essential to their education 62.3 17.5 65.8 16.5 Separate courses in methods of teaching English should be eliminated and subject-matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation 63.7 22.1 60.0 21.8 If separate courses in methods of teaching English are given, they should be taught by the teachers in the college departments of English rather than by teachers in the departments of education 64.6 13.6 65.5 14.8 Broad scholarship in the field of English is more important for a successful teacher of English than professional skill in methods of teaching • 34.7 44.6 35.5 45.4 Skill in teaching will be secured more effectively during the college program by constant supervised observation of good teaching than by the conventional courses in practice teaching 49.0 29.6 46.6 30.4 Prospective teachers of English need fewer specialized courses in English and education and more integrating, synthetic courses of study which cut across departmental lines, as in courses called "Contemporary Civilization" 55.5 20.1 54.8 21.9 The program of teacher education should be general rather than specialized; teachers should be educated with but slight attention to specific position or levels; in other words, we should educate teachers, not specialists such as mathematics teachers or teachers of English 44.5 34.0 38.2 40.8 The scope of activities in high school English is so great that it is not practical to attempt to educate teachers to teach in more than one other field 44.8 31.2 50.1 32.7 * From data supplied by 630 junior high school and 1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based upon the number of teachers replying to each item. 334 335 either of these two main classifications performed activities or expressed views so different from teachers in the other group that the differences would constitute problems in the education of teachers of English. Accordingly, the data dis cussed in the first part of this chapter were reassembled to show the opinion of teachers of English courses predominantly and teachers of fusion courses concerning the issues listed. A greater proportion of teachers of "English” courses than of fusion courses approved statements which reflect a conservative view and suggest conventional methods of instruc tion. Thus more than half of the teachers of English courses and a significantly greater proportion than of fusion teach ers approved of minimum essentials as requirements for pro motion, grammar as a distinct and definite part of the English program, and homogeneous grouping. More than one half of the teachers of fusion courses and a significantly greater proportion than teachers of English courses believed that class experiences should be based primarily upon the present interests of pupils, that instruction in propaganda analysis should be taught in English classes, that teachers should teach literature and creative writing for their therapeutic value, and that teachers should attempt to in terpret modern social and economic conditions through class room teaching of realistic literature. Almost half of the fusion group and a significantly 336 greater proportion than the teachers of English courses took the stand that teachers of English should direct their in struction toward the building of a new social order, that English teachers should take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments, and should en courage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based upon current American usage rather than upon conven tional scholarly standards. In rating the statements bearing directly upon the matter of teachers* education three fourths of the fusion teachers— compared to less than half of the other group— believed that prospective teachers of English need fewer specialized courses in English and education, and more inte grating courses which cut across department lines; a sig nificantly greater number of fusion teachers than of the other group believe teachers should be educated with but slight attention to specific positions or levels. In the case of the two groups of teachers in high and senior high schools the differences are not pronounced in as many specific items as in the case of junior high school teachers, but the same general trends are apparent. Teachers of English courses predominantly believe more strongly in homogeneous grouping, in teaching literature for the develop ment of character, in minimum essentials as requirements for promotion, and in the study of standard types of literature. 337 On the other hand, teachers of fusion courses indicated in significantly large numbers and to a significantly larger degree than do members of the other group that teachers of English should take the lead in developing a unified instruc tional program and should provide instruction in propaganda analysis. Teachers of fusion courses in high and senior high schools gave much greater approval than did teachers of English courses to the statement that separate courses in methods should be eliminated and that subject matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation. More than half of them indicated, in disagreement with teachers of English courses, that the program of teacher education should be general rather than specialized and that teachers should be educated with but slight attention to specific positions or levels. More than half of the teachers of English courses, on the other hand, believed that the scope of activities in high school English is so great that it is not practical to at tempt to educate teachers to teach in more than one other field. Detailed data showing the opinions of these two groups of teachers in junior high schools and in high and senior high schools are presented in Tables IXVTI and LXVTII. TABLE IXVTI OPINIONS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COURSES PREDOMINANTLY AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF FUSION COURSES REGARDING ISSUES HELATED TO THE TEACHING OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH* Issues English courses predominantly Fusion courses Total number of Total number of cases = 373 cases = 162 ■a S’ -a % d © f e h © d ©40© 3 3 > a > © 'rl ® 2 2 2 ©j^© B B S ► 40 ► AP A > I© k ft . * » f t 2 o B ■ f* 9 8 8 8 PihPi « "d t o ft ^ ft m d f f l ft g r| ft +» ft «Hd*H <j t o © a < d © t i q a <d (Percentages) Literature and composition should be regarded as separate subjects, to be taught at separate times 38.6 57.7 31.2 53.1 It is the duty of teachers of English to take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school 33.2 37.9 40.2 34.6 "Classics'' of English literature should be required study for all high school pupils 37.7 49.3 37.2 51.5 Homogeneous grouping is a good device for realizing desirable outcomes of English Instruction 78.5 8.4 65.2 13.1 The present interests of pupils should be the criteria for selecting the experiences which make up the English program 49.4 34.5 62.0 23.6 Teachers should require intensive class study of literature as a means of developing literary appreciation among pupils 25.6 60.5 18.2 62.2 Teachers should direct English instruction toward the building of a new social order 28.1 42.7 42.6 32.0 The teaching of literature should be used as a primary means of developing good character traits in pupils 67.1 19.5 62.6 22.2 Teacher leadership should be stressed' in classroom experiences in English in order to secure the discipline and control needed for democratic social cooperation 37.8 45.2 26.3 53.3 Objective tests now available are a good means of measuring pupil achievement in written composition 20.7 34.7 24.8 36.6 There should be required at different school levels minimum essentials in written form of expression that each pupil must acquire before he can be promoted to a higher grade 54.7 30.8 45.8 37.6 Teachers of English should provide instruction in propaganda analysis 54.4 22.9 74.3 7.5 Teachers of English should require all pupils to memorize passages from standard literature 29.9 53.6 34.6 47.8 The English classroom program should be organized to put the major emphasis upon oral expression by pupils 55.6 30.1 61.3 25.0 Teachers of English should encourage, as part of the program of English instruction, reading of books and magazines without any restrictions as to quality of the material read 9.9 83.0 14.3 78.2 Teachers of English should teach literature and creative writing for their therapeutic value to pupils— i.e., their value in creating proper mental and emotional states 42.6 28.6 55.0 24.0 Definite class instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and required part of the English program 72.0 18.2 64.5 17.7 Teachers of English should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based on current American usage rather than forms based upon conventional scholarly standards 37.9 41.2 47.1 31.2 Instruction in creative writing should be limited to pupils who show special aptitude for artistic expression 39.1 49.8 30.9 55.5 Teachers should encourage pupils to model their compositions after selections of recognized literary excellence 33.6 46.4 26.3 57.0 Teachers of English should stress understanding of social back grounds as one of' the Important outcomes of the study of literature 85.0 4.6 92.0 1.2 The study of standard types of literature-novel, drama, etc.,— is one of the best ways of enabling pupils to set up standards of literary judgment 70.5 11.6 66.0 13.2 Teaehers should attempt to interpret modem social and economic conditions through classroom teaching of realistic literature 45.3 24.5 54.6 15.1 The desirable outcomes of literature teaching are too Intangible to be measured by objective tests now available 65.1 6.3 69.2 7.7 We should assume that most of the growth in the art of teaching must take place on the job. Institutions which prescribe much in educational psychology and professionalized subject-matter are aiming at an early perfection which cannot be attained then, and they thereby deprive prospective teachers of English of other college work essential to their education 63.6 17.1 59.5 18.3 Separate courses in methods of teaching English should be .eliminated and subject-matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation 63.7 21.9 64.7 20.1 If separate courses in methods of teaching English are given they should be taught by the teaehers in the college departments of English rather than by teaehers in the departments of education 66.6 14.8 63.0 8.3 Broad scholarship in the field of English is more important for a successful teacher of English than professional skill in methods of teaching 35.4 44.4 32.2 40.6 Skill in teaching will be secured more effectively during the college program by constant supervised observation of good teaching than by the conventional courses in practice teaching 48.4 29.5 49.0 32.6 Prospective teachers of English need fewer specialized courses in English and education and more Integrating, synthetic courses of study which cut across departmental lines, as in courses called "Contemporary Civilization” 47.0 25.0 77.0 10.9 The program of teacher education should be.general rather than specialized; teachers should be educated with but slight attention to specific position or levels; in other words, we should educate teachers, not specialists such as mathematics teachers or teachers of English 41.4 36.2 49.6 26.2 The scope of activities in high school English' is so great that it is not practical to attempt to educate teachers to teach in. more than one other field. 45.9 28.7 43.5 33.8 * From data supplied by 630 junior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. w vo 00 TABLE LXVTII OPINIONS OF HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COURSES PREDOMINANTLY AND HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF FUSION COURSES REGARDING ISSUES RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF HI® SCHOOL ENGLISH* Issues English courses predominantly Fusion courses Total number of Total number of cases s 898 cases = 128 ■O rH* T3 ^ g © 60 ® E l D M © o > a i > a > a > >» p o p >» O O O ® H ® h h h <DH‘a h h h ft+s ft t > M ^ ft .p f t o a o ft t o ft o a p ft o s ft Mote ® v s C o S a t v S ft f t ft » TJ C O ft f c ft C Q t r t < Q ft ■£ ft ft 4* ft - h S-h << « Q c d p «J Tj < c o a J p 3 (Percentages) Literature and composition should be regarded as separate subjects to be taught at separate times 26.7 61.4 21.4 60.0 It is the duty of teaehers of English to take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school 30.7 34.9 43.3 27,6 "Classics'* of English literature should be required study for all high school pupils 27.5 62.8 £3.6 66.1 Homogeneous grouping is a good device for realizing desirable outcomes of English instruction 76.7 10.6 68.5 13.7 The present interests of pupils should be the criteria for selecting the experiences which make up the English program 46.6 37.2 50.4 30.7 Teachers should require Intensive class study of literature as a means of developing literary appreciation among pupils 35.5 48.9 26.2 51.6 Teachers should direct English Instruction toward the building of a new social order 30.9 39,7 36.3 34.7 The teaching of literature should be used as a primary means of developing good character traits in pupils 66.5 19.8 53.9 28.9 Teacher leadership should be stressed in classrooms experiences in English in order to secure the discipline and control needed for democratic social cooperation 44.6 38.2 32.5 52.2 Objective tests now available are a good means of measuring pupil achievement in written composition 20.5 43.3 22.7 38.2 There should be required at different school levels minimum essentials in written form of expression that each pupil must acquire before he can be promoted to a higher grade 66.3 18.5 49.2 37.3 Teachers of English should provide instruction in propaganda analysis 62.0 17.8 72.8 12.0 Teachers of English should require all pupils to memorize passages from standard literature 30.6 54.5 23.6 55.2 The English classroom program should be organized to put the major emphasis upon oral expression by pupils 48.4 35.1 55.2 25.2 Teachers of English should encourage, as part of the program of English instruction, reading of books and magazines without any restrictions as to quality of the material read 15.9 75.9 10.2 81.1 Teachers of English should teach literature and creative writing for their therapeutic value to pupils— i.e., their value in creating proper mental and emotional states 45.7 27.3 38.5 25.4 Definite class instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and required part of the English program 76.8 15.6 75.4 12.7 Teachers of English should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based on current American usage rather than forms based upon conventional scholarly standards 52.3 30.9 49.6 28.3 Instruction in creative writing should be limited to pupils who show special aptitude for artistic expression 41.7 47.2 37.5 44.6 Teachers should encourage pupils to model their compositions after selections of recognized literary excellence 29.3 53.4 12.8 68.0 Teachers of English should stress understanding of social backgrounds as one of the important outcomes of the study of literature 89.0 4.9 91.2 3.2 The study of standard types of literature— novel, drama, etc.— is one of the best ways of enabling pupils to set up standards of literary judgment 71.6 9.6 62.4 13.6 Teaehers should attempt to interpret modern social and economic conditions through classroom teaching of realistic literature 60.9 14.8 57.8 15.4 The desirable outcomes of literature teaching are too intangible to be measured by objective tests now available 66.2 11.1 60.5 5.6 We should assume that most of the growth in the art of teaching must take place on the job. Institutions which prescribe much in educational psychology and professionalized subject-matter are aiming at an early perfection which cannot be attained then, and they thereby deprive prospective teachers of English of other college work essential to their education 67.3 15.7 64.7 14.4 Separate courses in methods of teaching English should be elimi nated and subject-matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation 58.7 21.9 70.4 16.8 If separate courses in methods of teaching English are given they should be taught by the teachers in the college departments of English rather than by teachers in the departments of education 65.0 15.6 65.9 11.4 Broad scholarship in the field of English is more important for a successful teacher of English than professional skill in methods of teaching 37.1 44.3 35.9 43.7 Skill in teaching will be secured more effectively during the college program by constant supervised observation of good teaching than by the conventional courses in practice teaching 47.3 29.0 43.2 36.0 Prospective teachers of English need fewer specialized courses in English and education and more integrating, synthetic courses of study which cut across departmental lines, as in courses railed "Contemporary Civilization" 53.0 23.5 73.0 11.9 The program of teacher education should be general rather than specialized; teachers should be educated with but slight attention to specific position or levels; in other words, we should educate teachers, not specialists such as mathematics teachers or teachers of English 37.1 42.7 55.2 21.6 The scope of activities in high sehool English is so great that it is not practical to attempt to educate teachers to teach in more than one other field 52.7 31.0 38.9 41.3 * From data supplied by 1,Q26 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based on the number of teachers replying to each item. 340 III. OPINIONS OF TEACHERS RATED AS SUPERIOR AND THOSE NOT SO RATED REGARDING ISSUES RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH Junior high school teachers rated as superior showed, in comparison with teachers not so rated, a greater prefer ence for the position that teachers of English should take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school, that teachers of English should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English ex pression based on current American usage rather than forms based upon conventional scholarly standards, and that teach ers of English should attempt to interpret modern social and economic conditions through classroom teaching of realistic literature. They disagreed more strongly with the positions that literature and composition should be regarded as separate subjects to be taught at separate times and that the classics of English literature should be required study for all high school pupils; they approved less strongly the view that definite class instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and required part of the English program. Senior high school teachers rated as superior, in comparison with teachers not so rated, disagreed more strongly with the position that teachers should require intensive class 341 study of literature as a means of developing literary appre ciation, and approved less strongly the view that definite instruction in grammar should be made a distinct and re quired part of the English program. Another method of analysis of data was attempted to determine differences between these two groups. Although the issues discussed in this chapter were not gathered with the view of constructing a scale which would measure atti tudes, yet most of them reflect positions generally classed as conservative or progressive. An informal ranking of these items by teachers of English suggests that eleven of the statements reflect what is generally accepted as a con servative attitude, nine reflect a more progressive position, and four may be regarded as neutral. On the basis of such an analysis the junior high school teachers rated as superior take a progressive posi tion in comparison with teachers not so rated in eighteen of the twenty items, although as stated previously, the dif ferences in percentages are seldom great enough to be statis tically significant. In the case of high and senior high school teachers the data reveal no such definite trend. The detailed distribution of data discussed in this section of the chapter is shown in Tables IXtX and IXX. TABLE E m OPINIONS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH RATED AS SUPERIOR AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH NOT SO RATED REGARDING ISSUES RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH* Issues Teachers rated Teachers not so as superior rated Total number of Total number of eases r 156 eases : 474 l» rj 1 1 OHO) 2 8 2 OHO 8 8 p ► p,S p, p- s e,+s& o c o no Pi p ° P » o p< hot) CO CO HOP 0 CO PifiPi OHM PiPgt PiP Pi -H 3 H n« Pi H B H a q d p do <3<os) p o (Percentages) Literature and composition should be regarded as separate subjects to be taught at separate times 26.5 60.0 33.8 54.4 It is the duty of teachers of English to take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school 39.5 32.9 33.1 37.7 "Classics” of English literature should be required study for all high school pupils 34.7 52.3 39.4 48.0 Homogeneous grouping is a good device for realizing desirable outcomes of English Instruction 76.3 10.2 74.0 9.9 . The present Interests of pupils should be the criteria for selecting the experiences which make up the English program 56.6 31.6 54.4 31.0 Teaehers should require intensive class study of literature as a means of developing literary appreciation among pupils 21.9 62.0 23.7 61.7 Teachers should direct English instruction toward the building of a new social order 34.5 42.8 31.9 37.8 The teaching of literature should be used as a primary means of developing good character traits in pupils 66.9 18.8 64.3 21.3- Teacher leadership should be stressed in classroom experiences - in English in order to secure the discipline and control needed for democratic social Cooperation 36.4 49.0 35.2 44.8 Objective tests now available are a good means of measuring pupil achievement in written composition 20.1 40.9 23.7 31.6 There should be required at different school levels minimum essentials in written fom of expression that each pupil must acquire before he can be promoted to a higher grade 51.6 30.9 50.7 33.5 Teachers of English should provide instruction in propaganda analysis 64.0 11.8 60.7 20.0 Teaehers of English should require all pupils to memorize passages from standard literature 34.6 50.6 30.4 52.7 The English classroom program should be organized to put the major emphasis upon oral expression by pupils 60.2 23.5 56.4 29.4 Teachers of English should encourage, as part of the program of English instruction, reading of books and magazines without any restrictions as to quality of the material read 12.8 82.0 10.8 81.9 Teachers of literature should teach literature end creative writing for their therapeutic value to pupils— i.e., their value in creating proper mental and emotional states 47.1 29.4 44.9 26.7 Definite class instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and required part of the English program 66.6 21.8 73.3 15.5 Teachers of English should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based on current American usage rather than forms based upon conventional scholarly standards 49.0 33.3 37.3 40.2 Instruction in creative writing should be limited to pupils who show special aptitude for artistic expression 35.2 52.6 40.3 48.1 Teachers should encourage pupils to model their compositions after selections of recognized literary excellence 29.0 53.3 32.7 48.6 Teachers of English should stress understanding of social backgrounds as one of the Important outcomes of the study of literature 86.2 3.3 87.0 4.7 The study of standard types of literature— novel, drama, etc.— is one of the best ways of enabling pupils to set up standards of literary judgment 68.2 12.6 69.0 • 11.3 Teachers should attempt to interpret modern social and economic conditions through classroom teaching of realistic literature 52.0 25.3 48.3 20.9 The desirable outcomes of literature teaching are too intangible to be measured by objective tests now available 71.8 6.6 65.4 6.3 We should assume that most of the growth in the art of teaching must take place on the Job. Institutions which prescribe much in educational psychology and professionalized subject-matter are aiming at an early perfection which cannot be attained then, and they thereby deprive prospective teachers of English of other college work essential to their education 65.4 18.3 61.3 17.3 Separate courses in methods of teaching English should be eliminated and subject-matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation 68.0 20.9 62.5 22.4 If separate courses in methods of teaching English are given, they should be taught by the teachers in the college departments of English rather than by teachers in the departments of education 66.6 11.8 63.8 14.3 Broad scholarship in the field of English is more Important for a successful teacher of English than professional Skill in methods of teaching 33.6 46.1 35.1 44.0 Skill in teaching will be secured more effectively during the oollege program by constant supervised observation of good teaching than by the conventional oourses in practice teaching 50.3 30.3 48.5 29.3 Prospective teachers of English need fewer specialized courses in English and education and more Integrating, synthetic courses called "Contemporary Civilization." 53.2 21.8 56,3 19.6 The program of teacher education should be general rather than specialized; teachers should be educated with but slight attention to specific position or levels; in other words, we should educate teachers, not specialists such as mathematics teachers or teachers of English 47.7 30.9 43.5 35.0 The scope of activities in high school English is so great that it is not practical to attempt to educate teachers to teach more than one other field 43.4 34.9 45.3 30.0 7 From data supplied by 630 junior high school teachers of English. Percentages based upon the number of teachers replying to each item. 342 TABLE EXX OPINIONS 07 HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 07 ENGLISH RATED AS SUPERIOR AND HIGH AND SENIOR HICK SCHOOL TEACHERS OF ENGLISH NOT SO RATED REGARDING ISSUES RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH* Teachers rated as superior Total number of oases = 305 Teachers not so rated____ Total number of cases = 805 * 0 0 o >» © *51)0 ► a > 8 8 8 1 o fit o t» o o > a > e g I A +> A f t O f t 5 J § f t p f t f t o f t a e a at at o tt m a s a S .g m f t p f t « aj Q d •H g p 3 *d t H S' s i s (Percentages) Literature and composition should be regarded as separate subjects to be taught at separate times 26.4 57.2 24.8 63.9 It is the duty of teaehers of English to take the lead In developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school 34.7 35.3 32.1 33.1 "Classics" of English literature should be required study for all high school pupils 23.9 65.3 28.9 61.8 Homogeneous grouping is a good device for realizing desirable outcomes of English instruction 75.5 10.9 76.1 10.9 The present interests of pupils should be the criteria for selecting the experiences which make up the English program 48.2 34.8 46.3 36.6 Teachers should require intensive class study of literature as a means of developing literary appreciation among pupilsj 28.8 54.2 35.1 47.5 Teachers should direct English instruction toward the building of a new social order 32.1 39.0 30.2 40.2 The teaching of literature should be used as a primary, means of developing good character traits in pupils 65.4 21.4 63.2 21.8 Teacher leadership should be stressed in classroom experiences in English in order to secure the discipline and control needed for democratic social cooperation 44.7 38.8 41.9 40.8 Objective tests now available are a good means of measuring pupil achievement in written composition 20.9 39.9 20.5 43.7 There should be required at different school levels minimum essentials in written form of expression that each pupil must acquire before he can be promoted to a higher grade 66.5 19.1 63.3 21.5 Teachers of English should provide instruction in propaganda analysis 63.0 14.7 63.7 17.9 Teaehers of English should require all pupils to memorize passages from standard literature 29.9 55.2 29.4 53.3 The English classroom program should be organized to put the major emphasis upon oral expression by pupils 45.6 33.9 50.7 33.0 Teachers of English should encourage, as part of the program of English instruction, reading of books and magazines without any restrictions as to quality of the material read 16.6 76.4 15.6 76.1 Teaehers of English should teaCh literature and creative writing for their therapeutic value to pupils— i.e., their value in creating proper mental and emotional states 44.2 26.4 44.7 26.9 Definite, class instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and required part of the English program j 70.9 18.3 79.2 13.8 Teachers of English should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based on current American usage rather than forms based upon conventional scholarly standards 53.4 30.3 51.0 31.0 Instruction in creative writing should be limited to pupils who show special aptitude for artistic expression 43.4 43,4 39.9 48.4 Teachers Should encourage pupils to model their compositions after selections of recognized literary excellence 23.7 59.8 28.6 53.3 Teaehers of English should stress understanding of social backgrounds as one of the important outcomes of the study of literature 87.7 5.3 88.7 4.8 The study of standard types of literature— novel, drama, etc.— is one of the best ways of enabling pupils to set up standards of literary judgment 70.0 10.3 71.4 10.2 Teachers should attempt to interpret modem social and economic conditions through classroom teaching of realistic literature 61.9 15.3 59.6 15.0 The desirable outcomes of literature teaching are too intangible to be measured by objective tests now available 68.2 9.7 63.3 10.5 We should assume that most of the growth in the art of teaching must take place on the job. Institutions which prescribe much in educational psychology and professionalized subject-matter are aiming at an early perfection which cannot be attained then, and they thereby deprive prospective teachers of English of other college work essential to their education 70.7 14.7 64.0 17.1 Separate courses in methods of teaching English should be elimi nated and subject-matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation 61.7 20.3 59.5 22.3 If separate courses in methods of teaching English are given, they should be taught by the teachers in the college departments of English rather than by teachers in the departments of education 66.7 13.2 64.9 15.4 Broad scholarship in the field of English is more important for a successful teacher of English than professional skill in methods of teaching 38.5 42.3 34.3 46.5 Skill in teaching will be secured more effectively during the college program by constant supervised observation of good teaching than by the conventional courses in practice teaching 48.2 29.0 45.9 30.9 Prospective teachers of English need fewer specialized courses in English and education and more integrating, synthetic courses of study which cut across departmental lines, as in courses called "Contemporary Civilization" 53.3 22.7 55.2 21.6 The program of teacher education should be general rather than specialized; teachers should be educated with but slight attention to specific position or levels; in other words, we should educate teachers, not specialists such as mathematics teachers or teachers of English 38.6 36.6 38.0 30.5 The scope of activities in high school English is so great that it is not practical to attempt to educate teachers to teach in more than one other field 52.6 33.5 49.2 .32.3 *From data supplied by-1,155 high and senior high school teachers of English. Percentages based upon the number of teachers replying to each item. IV. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER Data have been presented in this chapter showing the extent to which teachers of English in California high schools approved or disapproved statements referring to im portant issues in the teaching of English. Because the is-. sues presented were compiled through a thorough analysis of pertinent material and because half of the teachers of English in the state have reported their opinions on such issues the data presented reflect many significant features of the educational philosophy of this group of teachers. The material included in this chapter has been presented and dis cussed in the belief that a knowledge of such opinions and attitudes held by teachers of English is necessary before any program for prospective or in-service teachers of English can be well constructed. Although it is impossible to sum marize too briefly the material discussed in this chapter, the data reveal that: 1. Teachers of English recognize and express varying degrees of agreement regarding the issues most frequently treated in the field of English teaching. 2. . These issues are shown to be of two main types: those referring to teaching practices susceptible of objective study and those that refer to more intangible and philosoph ical elements associated with teaching. 345 3. The majority opinions of the teachers are in general agreement with the findings of research in the cases of those issues capable of being judged by scientific studies. 4* In the field of literature teaching, teachers show a marked lack of agreement regarding the place of the t t clas- sicsT * as required study for all pupils, the value of inten sive class study of literature, and the value of realistic modern literature in interpreting social and economic con ditions. 5. In the field of oral communication there are marked differences regarding the extent of emphasis to be placed upon oral expression by pupils, and the relative value of vigorous modes of expression based upon current American usage as contrasted with more conventional schol arly forms. 6. In the field of written communication there is the most marked disagreement about the value of separate courses in composition, and the function of artistic forms of writing. 7. Among the issues related to the more philosoph ical aspects of English teaching, significant disagreement is shown regarding the duty of teachersof English to take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school, the value of homogeneous grouping, the proper organization of classes for socialized 346 activities, and.the necessity for minimum essentials as requisites for promotion from one grade to another. S. There is not enough significant difference be tween the attitudes of teaehers in junior and in senior high schools, or between teachers of fusion courses and teachers of separate English courses to suggest distinctly different programs of education for these different groups. 9. Teaehers rated as superior show a general but slight tendency to express opinions generally regarded as associated with progressive rather than conservative teach- * / ing practice. 10. Teachers of English give general approval to the view that the undergraduate program for prospective teach ers of English should be largely one of broad cultural edu cation with the more highly professional preparation post poned to the graduate level, and that subject-matter courses in English should combine the problems of what and how to teach in one unified presentation. CHAPTER XIII JUDGMENTS OP EXPERTS REGARDING AN UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS OF EDUCATION It was stated in Chapter I that it was the purpose of this investigation to. determine: (1) significant factors af fecting teachers of English— their teaching conditions and activities, the facilities for their education, and the is sues in the field; (2) to secure the judgment of teachers re garding these factors; and (3} to translate the resulting data into principles and practices that will help in the edu cation of teachers of English. The results of some scientific experiments are avail able as aids in interpreting the data secured in Part II of this study, but the findings should also be judged by philo sophical considerations and in the light of expert opinion. The practical problem involved is how the teacher of English can get the most good from a college education as prepara tion for service in the teaching field. And both college programs and conditions in the field are of necessity so af fected by the changes in our democratic society and by the demands of large-scale education that the judgment of educa tional leaders is needed to solve this practical problem. Forty-four men and v/onen engaged in the education of teachers of English contributed judgments summarized in this 348 chapter. These forty-four persons represented in adequate proportions teachers of English courses and education, teach ers in teachers colleges and liberal arts colleges, and teachers in state universities and those privately endowed. Thirty-two of the jury were teachers in California; twelve, representing nine different states outside California, were leaders who have appeared on programs of the National Council of Teachers of English or contributed significantly to the English Journal. I. JUDGMENTS OF COLIEGE PROFESSORS OF ENGLISH AMD OF EDUCATION REGARDING AN UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH These men and women were asked to indicate the propor tion of time which teachers of English should devote, during a four-year undergraduate course, to each of six curricular divisions under which the chief college courses now prevalent in the education of secondary school teachers may be listed. These six divisions are: fundamental service needs for teach ers of English--such as courses designed to teach adequate and accurate written expression; major subject or field of special ization— presumably English for teachers of the subject; minor subject or field of specialization— in accordance with the usual pattern of college major and minor supporting subjects --courses not included in major or minor fields of specializa tion but usually recommended as valuable; education courses— 349 courses supplying professional skill and knowledge; courses freely elected by the student. The proportions recommended by the jury of experts based upon the average of the returns, is here given, along with the semester hours which the percentage implies in an undergraduate course of 124 units. The only distinction be tween judgment of professors of education and professors of English is that the professors of education recommended a slightly lower proportion of time for the major and minor subjects than did the members of the other group, with a eon- i sequently higher percentage for elective studies. The pattern of college education suggested by these proportions is very similar to that recommended in An Ex perience Curriculum in the section dealing with the programs for the education of teachers of English. The detailed distribution of data discussed in this i section is shown in Table LXXI. II. JUDGMENTS OF COLLEGE PROFESSORS OF ENGLISH AND OF EDUCATION REGARDING COURSES BEST SUITED FOR PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH In addition to reporting their judgments regarding the general pattern of undergraduate education for teachers of English the cooperating college teachers commented upon specific courses of study under each of the six curricular TABLE LXXI JUDGMENTS OF FORTY-FOUR COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH AND EDUCATION REGARDING THE PROPORTION OF TIME TO BE GIVEN IN A FOUR-YEAR UNDERGRADUATE COURSE TO SIX CURRICULAR DIVISIONS 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 50- Average Approximate semester hours Fundamental service needs 1 9 20 9 2 1 10.7 12 Major subject or field of specialization 2 ■ • ■ 6 15 7 2 6 2 2 1 29.9 36 Minor subject or field of specialization 12 13 15 2 15.8 20 Supporting subjects 1 11 12 12 1 2 15.9 20 Courses in education 2 8 15 12 3 2 10.3 12 Free election 2 6 7 10 5 2 6 2 1 17.0 20 divisions. Under fundamental service needs for the English teacher, courses in written composition were most frequently listed, with courses in oral. English second. Courses in grammar, spelling, and handwriting were specifically named and to a less extent courses in debating, drama, library usage, jour nalism, and history of the English language. Frequent com ment was made of the weakness of high school graduates in the fundamentals of English expression; the concensus was that a college program for teachers of English should include courses in fundamentals of oral and written expression to make "the literacy of the prospective teacher unimpeachable." The only significant difference in the recommendations of teachers of college English courses and teachers of education was the much greater degree of emphasis upon the need of training in oral expression made by the college teachers of education. Ihe most frequently recommended courses in the field of major specialization were survey courses in English and American literature. Next in order of frequency came "period" courses in literature and courses in advanced, composition. College professors of English recommended period courses to a much greater extent than did college professors of educa tion, while the latter group advocated courses in advanced composition to a much greater extent than did the other 352 group. Courses in Shakespeare, in world literature, and in the development of the English language were next in frequency of mention. The courses in the major field of specialization were predominantly in literature with only infrequent mention of such courses as oral expression, journalism, and library usage. Two teachers of college English listed special courses in "literature for teachers" and in "children’s literature." The minors most frequently mentioned were in the field of the social studj.es: history, sociology, and philosophy. Next in frequency were foreign language and, after them, special phases of English literature. Speech was listed five times, art appreciation twice, and natural sciences only once. The only difference noticeable in the recommendations of - the two groups of respondents was that teachers of college English were the only ones to recommend minors in the field of English literature and in philosophy, and recommended modern foreign languages to a greater extent than the other group. Under the head of supporting subjects, history and sociology courses were again listed most frequently, but with courses in foreign languages, in art appreciation, and in natural sciences listed with almost as great frequency. Other supporting subjects named frequently included psychology and philosophy. 353 The most frequently mentioned course in the field of education was educational psychology, with methods of teach ing almost as frequently mentioned* Courses in the history of education, and in practice teaching, principles of second ary education and the philosophy of education were also men tioned to a significant degree. Three of the college teach ers of English recommended no courses at all in education during undergraduate years. III. SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER The purpose of this chapter was to secure the judg ments of experts regarding the best type of undergraduate college education for teachers of English in high schools. It was found that: 1.' Professors of education and of English show gen eral agreement in recommending various proportions of time for six curricular divisions of college education for teach ers of English in high schools. 2. Professors of education believe a slightly lower proportion of time necessary for organized major and minor subjects than do college professors of English, with a con sequently higher proportion for elective studies. 3. In listing specific college work for teachers of English in high schools, college educators stress the need for courses in written composition and in oral expression. 354 4. College educators recommend history, sociology, and philosophy most frequently as college minors for teachers of English in high schools* Next in order, but with much less frequency, they recommend foreign languages and special phases of English literature as minor fields of study. 5. College professors of English recommend minors in the field of English much more frequently than do professors of education, who believe minors in the field of social studies to be of greater value for teachers of English in high schools. PART IV EVALUATING- ELEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH ENGLISH TEACHING CHAPTER XIV SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this investigation was to study the fundamental elements associated with the teaching of English in California high schools and by analyzing and evaluating these elements to discover principles and practices that should determine the education of high school teachers of English. In order to discover such principles and practices the study was designed to discover the characteristic activi ties of high school teachers of English, the types of knowl edge they value as professional equipment, and the attitudes they reflect regarding educational issues in their field. Seventeen hundred and eighty-five teachers of English in California high schools supplied the data studied. In order to relate these data to the practical problem of recommending a college program for teachers of English, teaching condi tions were studied, the facilities for teacher education in California were analyzed, and the opinions of forty-four col lege teachers of English and of education were secured. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the findings of -the investigation and point out their implications for the educa tion of teachers of English. This will be done under five main sections relating to: (1) teaching conditions related to English; (2) the 357 activities of teachers of English; (3) the types of knowledge valued by teachers of English; (4) the attitudes of teachers of English, and (3) recommendations for a program of educa tion for teachers of English. In addition, the chief charac teristics of the superior teacher of English as revealed by this study, are listed. I. TEACHING CONDITIONS RELATED TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION 1. Teachers of English, comprising approximately one fifth of all high school teachers in California, are a teach ing group recognizing special duties and problems as within their province. In 93 per cent of all high schools in the stated English courses rather than fusion courses predominate; even in the large junior high schools, where fusion courses are most frequent, conventional English courses are found in over 80 per cent of the schools. Almost half of the teachers of English— 4 6.1 per cent— teach in the field of English alone. Over two thirds of them have English either as their only teaching assignment or as their first assignment with only one other subject added.^ These figures reflect conditions that have grown out 1 Table IX, p. 119. 2 Table XII, p. 125 3 58 of California’s attempt to'give secondary education to all its youth and the resultant large-scale schooling* They are conditions that exist not only now but that will most prob ably exist even after the predicted leveling off of America’s population. No matter how much we may desire to see each high school teacher equipped to direct all the learning ac tivities of pupils, a versatile ’ ’ Mark Hopkins on one end of the log and a student on the other” is not a practical solu tion for California high schools faced with the administra tive problems of mass education and the increasing complexity of modern knowledge. But this fact need be cause for no great regret. The English teacher with the specialized skill to use scientific devices for remedial reading and with the specialized knowl edge demanded by a language that has grown from the twenty- five thousand words of Shakespeare’s day to the six hundred thousand of our time can make a definite and at the same time a comprehensive contribution to modern education. 2. Instead of encouraging narrow specialization for teachers, the data reported in this study suggest prepara tion for special, teaching duties within broad but definite areas of education— in the case of English teachers within the area of the humanities. It has been found administra tively feasible to combine English and the social studies 359 where subject combinations are needed.^ Even in small high schools of the state, most teachers of English are in this favorable position of doing their work within limits broad enough to encourage true scholarship yet definite enough to prevent their teaching efforts from becoming "thin. "4- The supporting subjects most highly valued by teach ers of English are the social studies, psychology, art and art appreciation, and languages.5 The need for special teach ing techniques is indicated by English teachers but not for routinized techniques; for such skills as^developing topic sentences but developing each one in a style determined by individual knowledge and personal interests. Thus the well prepared teacher of English should approach the ideal teacher, with plentiful professional skill supported by as wide a i knowledge and as broad interests as are practically possible. 3. The data reported in this study^ reveal that al though the practices of English teaching vary throughout the state according to the size of schools they are not so diver gent as to suggest providing distinct types of preparation 3 Table XVIII, p. 133. 4 Table KPT, p. 253. * Chapter V. Chapter V. 360 for teachers in large and small schools. There are differ ences in practice between teachers in junior high schools and senior high schools,7 but not so distinct as to demand different types of education for teachers in these two types of schools. Teachers of fusion courses lay different stress on some activities than do teachers of separate courses in English, but not to such a great extent that distinctly dif ferent types of education are demanded for the two groups. 4. Teachers rated as superior show a greater degree of preparation in college majors in English and education, as well as more recent college work in English and education, a greater preference for specialized teaching in English, and greater length of experience than teachers not so rated. As a group they place special emphasis upon remedial work in spoken and written communication, stress language activities designed to transfer thought clearly and accurately, and pay particular attention to presenting literature as a means of stimulating life experiences and developing worthy standards of appreciation and discrimination. On the senior high school level, teachers rated as superior stress, in addition, activities designed to help pupils understand modern social conditions, to enjoy their leisure reading, as well as to understand the outstanding works of English literature. Thus ^ Chapter X. 361 the data supplied by this group, although showing no one set of features so definite as to mark them as the only tests for English teaching, reveal that successful teachers of high school English are characterized by an interest in scholar ship and a belief in the social outcomes of language activities. II. TEACHING-ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION 2R the field of written expression. Teachers of English in California high schools devote their chief efforts to teaching pupils the fundamental skills involved in oral and written communication of thought rather than to the de velopment of ability to write artistically.^ Teachers of other subjects assume the pupil’s ability to transfer thought accurately; the English teacher makes no such assumption, but faces the problem of how to transfer thought. This fact should determine very largely the program of education for -English teachers, since such teaching activities are not only educationally sound, but require definite educational preparation. Such teaching activities are usually sound because the transfer of thought is basic to all social and individual 8 Table 1,1, p. 274 362 culture. As long as primitive man knew that the planets moved hut could not explain his discovery there was no sci entific advance. As long as primitive man watched the sun set but could tell no one his thoughts there was no litera ture. Effective transfer of thought always has been and always will be basic to personality and to culture; it can and should be taught. But such teaching demands special educational prepara tion. "Anybody** cannot teach English. Developing pupil ability to transfer thought does not mean the easy task of teaching mere facts of grammar or a set formula for paragraph development. Instead, it means developing individual abili ties to take advantage of general psychological laws. Unity, coherence, and emphasis are inherent principles in clear thinking. Such composition devices as outlining are only the means of making language travel along lines that are psy chologically sound. The teaching of English thus demands special educational preparation in the use of accurate and effective language and in the psychological laws that are fundamental to clear thinking. t*16 field of content reading. There is a sig nificant discrepancy between the extent to which high school teachers of English teach reading skills and the extent to which they feel the need for greater skill to do such teaching. 363 In the list of junior high school activities the teaching of reading is eleventh, in the senior high school list it is nineteenth.9 Yet the needs most frequently expressed by teachers of English are for skill in teaching content read ing— chiefly remedial reading.10 The communication of thought is a two-way process. We speak and write to transfer our thoughts to others. We listen and read to interpret the thoughts of others. Teach ing reading is a continuous process of adjusting changing physical and mental equipment to different types of printed materials. It is too closely associated with human develop ment to be completed in the elementary grades. What high school teachers refer to as remedial reading may sometimes be the result of faulty Instruction in lower grades; more often it is necessitated by such factors as changing eye muscles or changing interests. The teaching of reading should thus be considered one of the main activities of high school teachers of English. 3* l£ the field of oral expression. Teaching pupils the use of oral English for informal occasions is among the activities performed by more than 90 per cent of both junior 9 Table LI, p. 27L. 10 Tables LXII and LKIII, pp. 312, 313 364 and senior high school teachers. The activity stressed most by these teachers is teaching pupils to respect and use proper English expression.H needs for personal equip ment most frequently expressed by teachers of English are for skill in oral expression. These three findings point to the importance of speech in language experiences. This is not merely because of the advent of the radio during this genera tion, but to the growing realization of the importance of speech as social behavior. It determines social adjustments, it shapes personality, it may even be a requisite to all thinking. Oral language is a most important element of social behavior and must be so regarded and so taught. Like the skills involved in written communication, those basic to good speech can and should be taught. Al though mere techniques can never be a substitute for the capacity to think, they can give good thinking a chance to become effective. But like the skills involved in written composition, their proper teaching depends upon wide knowl edge and special training on the part of the teacher. 4* In the field of literature teaching. Literature teaching receives relatively less emphasis in both the junior and senior high schools of California than the teaching of 11 Table LI, p. 27U 365 composition. Moreover, the data show that the teaching of literature is no longer designed chiefly to perpetuate a knowledge of our literary heritage as represented by a rela tively few great books. Such activities as teaching the historical development of English and American literature and the classics as means to broad general culture receive comparatively little emphasis.I2 There are some teachers who decry this situation. They believe it to be the duty of American secondary schools to perpetuate our literary culture through the required study of works generally accepted as classics. But the great majority of English teachers have adjusted their teaching to the more pressing demands of modern society, and are justi fied in doing so. The classics of our language should be preserved, and will be, by the well-endowed student. But it is better not to force upon all of our secondary school pupils a duty they cannot perform. The implications of this situation for teacher educa tion are many. The teacher of English should have a love for our literary heritage and a sound knowledge of its de velopment. He should know the best of our literature and recognize in it the chance for the vicarious experience that 1 2 Table LI, p. 274 366 we all crave. He sliould realize the worth of great books in creating healthy attitudes toward life. But he should have the tolerance to examine all types of student reading, recog nize their elements of appeal, and direct his students through them to something better. In so doing he will be following one of the most distinctive and beneficial trends in American education. For just as our schools have shown that student activities in shop and kitchen may be directed toward cultural outcomes, so the teacher of English may, without harm to accepted classics, "culturize" much of his pupils* leisure-time reading. Thus the fact that less than one third of the English teachers believe that there should be intensive class study of literature^-3 does not mean that English teachers are los ing sight of the cultural benefit of good books. Eighty per cent or more of both junior and senior high school teachers report that they exert their efforts to enlarge life experi ences, develop character, raise standards of appreciation, and give understanding of historic backgrounds through literature.^ The implications of these findings for teacher educa tion are that teachers must be taught the possibilities and 13 Table XLVX, p. 255. Table LI. P. 274. 367 the limitations of* literature in achieving such outcomes. The futility of expecting the mere reading of good literature to assure good behavior has been shown; it has also been shown that good books can be an incentive to high ideals and healthy attitudes. There is undoubtedly little need to idealize for all pupils social conditions that are now out dated; on the other hand, the past, with all its meaning for the present, can be made to live best for high school pupils through good books. III. TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE VALUED BY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH AND 'THE IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION 1. Among the first ten items ranked as desirable professional equipment by teachers of English three referred directly to psychology; the psychology of adolescence (ranked highest of all types of knowledge by both junior and senior high school teachers), the principles of learning, and the principles of human growth and development. Among the sup porting subjects listed as desirable professional equipment by teachers of English psychology is ranked second— just below history— by both junior and senior high school teach- 15 ers. This emphasis upon psychological knowledge by teachers Tables EXIV and IdCV, pp. 316 and 317. 3 68 of English is significant for teacher preparation. For al though there is need for knowledge of much definite subject matter by teachers of English, and need for knowledge of psychology by all teachers, yet the materials and activities of English are so much more varied than those in other sub ject fields' that teachers of English as a group feel a spe cial need to judge the worth of each pupil experience by fundamental psychological laws. Each of the diverse pupil experiences in the English class is an effort on the part of an organism to make an intellectual or emotional adjustment to his environment; all of them put together contribute to the unity of experience that is personality. It is only by keeping clearly in mind the fundamental purposes and psy chological laws that affect these pupil activities— the read ing and listening activities to gain knowledge and develop attitudes, the writing and speaking activities to transmit, knowledge and express personality— that the teacher of English can direct a good program of high school English. 2. In the field of language knowledge. A knowledge of the principles of English grammar was ranked by both junior and senior high school teachers as the second most valuable of a list of fifty-five types of professional knowl edge; a knowledge of the historical development of the English language was ranked fortieth.^ This difference in 16 Table LVIII, p. 300 369 ranking is significant for teacher education. It indicates that teachers of English value language study as scholarly i knowledge organized chiefly for perpetuation much less than ' they value grammar as an aid to accurate expression. Teachers of English should regard English grammar as an adjustment of language to psychological laws rather than to scholarly convention. When regarded as the adjustment of language to thinking, the place of grammar in secondary in struction becomes clear. Such a grammatical error as the use of a singular word form for subject and a plural word form for predicate is a serious one, for it presents a distorted mental image and thus hinders the clear transfer of thought from one mind to another. But the failure to use an outmoded subjunctive that no longer reflects a distinguishing state of mind is at most an offense against pedantry, and should be so regarded. Teachers of English, therefore, need college courses in grammar and in current English usage. Such instruction should include .the main historical developments of English, but should stress the relationship of language forms to hhe processes of thought. Eighty per cent of both junior and senior high school teachers listed as valuable professional equipment a knowl- 17 edge of the techniques of special forms of composition. ‘ 17 Table LVIII, p. 300 370 Among the needs for definite teaching skills expressed by- junior and senior high school teachers those in the field of reading come first, then needs for skill in teaching written composition. These findings are significant for teacher education. Teachers^of English assume the responsibility of teaching composition as the expression of different types of person ality and different kinds of thought; apparently many of them have assumed that teaching pupils to write is a simple matter. Instead, it involves highly professional skills based on a high degree of professional knowledge. For the great majority of high school pupils the chief purpose of writing will be expository, and the duty of the teacher will be to develop the ability to explain thought clearly through such devices as topic sentences. But many students will wish to express their personalities in other forms of com position— in narration with its emphasis on action and sus pense, or in description with its emphasis on emotional appeal. The psychological purpose of each of these forms of xcriting cannot be adequately covered in methods courses, nor can adequate practice be given in the actual techniques in volved. Teachers of English need college courses in compo sition that not only explain the underlying function of different types of writing but that give practice in the legitimate tricks of the trade that help to achieve such 371 outcomes. 3* ,l£ the field of literature. Teachers of English in junior high schools show significant differences from teachers in senior high schools in their estimates of the value of specific types of literary knowledge, senior high school teachers attaching a generally higher value to the conventional types of literary knowledge# The differences in estimates in this field suggest some difference in the preparation of the two groups. Yet both groups agree in at taching a greater value to the general types of literature— especially the short./story, poetry, and drama— than to a knowledge of the works of individual authors, such as Browning, Milton, and Chaucer, ° although senior high school teachers attach high value to a knowledge of the works of Shakespeare. Both groups value the study of the general history of English and American literature much more than the detailed study of specific literary periods. Both groups judge college courses in adolescent literature, current periodical literature, world literature, and the social and economic backgrounds of literature as of more professional value than courses in literary criticism*and in the'develop ment of the English novel. 18 Table LVIII, p. 300 372 These findings point to the conclusion that the types of literary knowledge teachers of English find most valuable are those that can be readily related to pupil experiences. They also indicate the difficulty of preparing the ideal teacher of English. On the one hand he should have suffi cient depth of scholarship to interpret the best of litera ture to the superior pupil; on the other, he should have the breadth of interests and the catholicity of taste to be genuinely interested in the reading activities of pupils less well- endowed. He should be neither a literary pedant nor a mere dilettante. The implications for teacher education in literature are inescapable. The secondary school teacher of English should have a knowledge of the historical and social back grounds of English and American literature. He should know and appreciate the characteristics of the different types of writing. He should take some courses that organize literary knowledge chiefly for research and perpetuation. But above all, he needs courses in directed reading, designed to de velop and.test his genuine interest in all sorts of books. His education should not be directed toward making his chief duty, like that of the secondary school teacher of Europe, the perpetuation of orthodox literature. As an individual he may be a member of the literary elite, but as a high school teacher he must keep the common touch. 373 Citizenship is a larger and more substantial category than scholarship; and the furtherance of civilized life is a larger and more serious interest than the pursuit of knowledge for its own idle sake.39 4* In supporting subjects, other than English and . education. Teachers of English in both junior and senior high schools listed history, arts and art appreciation, and modern foreign languages as the three most valuable support ing subjects for professional equipment.20 Science, soci ology, economics, philosophy, and religion were named next in order. Courses in dramatics— chiefly in play production and direction— were deemed highly valuable. These findings should give direction to the course of study for prospective teachers of English. Instead of try ing to achieve the impossible in taking the whole field of learning for his province, the teacher of English will find the most valuable supporting subjects to be in the field of the humanities. For the practical purposes of meeting em ployment conditions in California high schools he will find a minor in history most helpful. He will also find that study in the field of the social sciences will give him much of the background he needs in his definite work as a t Thorstein Yeblen, Higher Learning in America (New York: The Yiking Press, 191$), p. B. 20 Tables EKIY and LXY* pp. 316, 317. 374 teacher of English. He will find an art minor of less prac tical benefit because of the general practice of giving art teachers a full program in that one department, but will i find that training in art appreciation gives broad interests valuable in English teaching. For a useful minor he may choose a foreign language, for there is much truth in the saying that "he who knows but one language knows none." 5* ZB “ k*16 field of education. Teachers of English believe that academic scholarship is not enough to insure success in teaching. They value many types of professional knowledge in the field of education. Although the ranking of individual items by junior and senior high school teach ers is not identical the highest general value is given by both groups to a knowledge of specific methods, the lowest value to knowledge of the history of education and of the principles of curriculum construction and educational ad ministration. Junior high school teachers value most highly methods of class management and discipline; senior high school teach ers ranked this item third in importance. Senior high school teachers value specific methods of teaching English most highly; junior high school teachers rank this item third. These findings indicate the need that teachers of 375 English feel for aid in meeting routine class procedures; the findings likewise indicate the responsibility of the college to provide such preparation based on the best ex perience, rather than to force the teacher to pick up class room techniques on the job. Ranked fourth and fifth as valuable professional knowledge by junior high school teachers, and fifth and sixth by senior high school teachers, were principles of counseling and guidance and the philosophy of education. This ranking is significant. Faced with the practical prob lems of directing the activities of thirty or forty active pupils, the English teacher in service gives highest value to preparation in the techniques of class administration but ranks a knowledge of the general purposes of education only slightly lower. This is an indication that English teachers on the job feel the need for basic criteria by which to value the worth of the multifarious activities of the English class. IT. THE JUDGMENTS OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH REGARDING EDUCATIONAL ISSUES AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION One purpose of this study was to identify the issues in the field of English teaching, discuss the pro and con of each, and by discovering the chief areas of disagreement point the way to needed instruction for teachers of English. 376 Some points of disagreement may reflect survivals of prac tices whose weaknesses have been demonstrated by scientific research. Others, less responsive to scientific analysis, may be judged by more general criteria and should furnish materials for instruction in the philosophy of education. An identification of these moot points should give definite di rection to the work of those who organize the professional discussions of in-service teachers of English or who direct the education of prospective teachejrs. In general the opin ions of teachers of English on these issues are supported by the results of scientific research. The most significant points of disagreement are here presented. ^ke field of written expression. The chief points of disagreement concerning the teaching of written expression refer to the scope and organization of instruction, the methods used, and the measurement of outcomes. Approximately one third of the teachers in junior high school and one fourth in senior high school take the position that literature and composition should be regarded as separate subjects to be taught at separate times.21 The results of scientific studies do not confirm the judgment of this group of teachers. The work of Wrightstone shows that 21 Table LXVI, p. 334. 377 pupils in selected schools where English instruction was uni fied made better scores in the recall of literary facts, in working skills and in the organizing skills of composition than pupils in conventional separate courses in literature and composition.^^ The recent report of Broening shows the extent to which the unified program in composition and litera ture is being carried on successfully in many high s c h o o l s .23 Evidently the unified program can achieve desirable outcomes when carried out under favorable conditions. Seventy-one and seven tenths per cent of junior high school teachers and 76.9 per cent of senior high school teachers believe that definite class instruction in grammar should be given to all students as a distinct and required part of the English program. Studies such as those by Boraas show that a mere ’ knov/ledge of formal grammar influ ences the ability to judge the grammatical correctness of a sentence and ability in composition only to a negligible t degree."24 In the light of such findings and the insistence 22 J. Wayne Wrightstone, Appraisal of Experimental High School Practices (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936), Chap. X. 23 Angelica Broening, Conducting Experiences in English (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1939TT 24 Julian Boraas, "Formal English Grammar and the Practical Master of English" (unpublished Doctor’s thesis, Department of Education, University of Minnesota, 1917)* 37 8 of English teachers upon grammar, it is evident that added attention must be paid to the simplified and functional teaching'of grammar such as that presented in An. Experience 25 Curriculum in English, Thirty-nine per cent of junior high school teachers and 40.8 per cent of senior high school teachers believe that instruction in creative writing should be limited to pupils who show special aptitude for artistic expression. This view probably reflects such experiments as those of Mearns at Lincoln S c h o o l .26 A view more applicable to con ditions in public schools is presented by the Creative Writ ing Committee of the Commission on the Secondary School Cur riculum of the Progressive Education Association, in which creative writing is presented, not as something ^arty,” but as something that develops the pupil’s own interpretation of the world and its values rather than the promotion of Mwhat are conventionally regarded as literary skills. f,27 The largest proportion of teachers in both junior and senior high schools to take a neutral position on any issue W. ?/ilbur Hatfield, An Experience Curriculum in 'English, Chap. .XVII. 26 Hughes Mearns, Creative Youth (Hew York: Loubleday, Page and Company, 1925)• Lawrence H.. Conrad, Teaching Creative Writing (New York: L. Appleton-Century, 1937). 379 do so on the statement that objective tests now available are a good means of measuring pupil achievement in written composition. This uncertainty could be dispelled if more attention were given, during teacher preparation to distin guishing between those scales designed primarily to measure accuracy of expression and endorsed by Hudelson,2^ and those designed to measure the working and organizing skills as de fined by Wrightstone.2^ 2. The teaching of literature. Three chief points of disagreement are revealed in the field of literature teaching. Thirty-eight and three-tenths per cent of junior high school teachers and 27*6 per cent of senior high school teachers believe in the required study of classics of English literature. Granting the worth of those works gen erally accepted as classics, the difficulty of adjusting them to individuals must be recognized. Gray, in his study of the difficulty of reading materials, shows that Silas Marner, a book sometimes included in junior high school courses of study, ranks with The Epic of .America, by Adams, 2$ ’ ’ English Composition, Its Aims, Methods, and Meas urement,” Twenty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education ( Bloomington,. . . Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1923). 29 Wrightstone, 0£. cit. 3 SO as a very difficult book even for adult readers.30 ne©d for more knowledge of the studies on reading difficulties is indicated. Twenty-three and four-tenths per cent of junior high school teachers and 33.4 per cent of senior high school teachers take the position that teachers should require in tensive study of literature as a means of developing liter ary appreciation among pupils. The results of research in this field are not so definite as in the field of composi tion, but Wrightstone in his carefully controlled experi ments found that the experimental practices for integrating and enriching the course in English "have not detracted from the usually measured outcomes." Instead, the pupils in classes stressing intensive class study showed appreciably less ability both in the recall of literary facts and in in terpreting facts than pupils under a freer type of instruc tion. Studies of extensive versus intensive reading give generally favorable results for extensive reading. In a study designed to measure pupil reactions toward reading, * Gibbs found attitudes greatly improved as well as proficiency in reading skills among high school sophomores taught by personal conference methods with individual guidance in free 30 William 8. Gray and Bernice E. Leary, ?#iat Makes a Book Readable (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 193577 361 reading.31 Approximately two thirds of the teachers in both junior and senior high schools believe that developing good character traits in pupils should be one of the outcomes of English teaching. This is a laudable outcome, but one about which English teachers need definite instruction. As a re sult of their careful studies of character education, Hartsliorne and May report: Prevailing ways of teaching ideals and standards prob ably do little good and may do harm when the ideals set before the pupils contradict the practical demands of the very situations in which ideals are taught.32. This finding does not preclude the value of literature as a means of inspiring high ideals, but emphasizes the need for the development of school situations and group codes of conduct that will fix these attitudes in definite conduct patterns. 3* oral expression. Forty and three-tenths per cent of junior high school teachers and 51.6 per cent senior high school teachers believe that teachers should encourage pupils to use vigorous modes of English expression based on 31 Elsie F. Gibbs, "Remedial Work Through Free Read ing,” English Journal (High School Edition), 23:£27-631, December, 1934* 32 Hugh Hartshorne, Mark A. May, and Frank Shuttleworth, Studies in the Nature of Character (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1930), p. 377. 362 current American usage. The Clapp report, showing the pre eminence of oral over written expression in life situations, presents too clearly to be disregarded the duty of teachers to encourage oral expression.33 epochal Leonard report 031 Current English Usage with the follow-up study by Marckwardt, have shown how surprisingly little authority there is for many of the conventional niceties of language and how much literary and scholarly authority for the vigor ous forms that mark modern American usage. 4-* In field of general teaching practice. Among the issues related to the more intangible elements of teach ing English, teachers show significant disagreement upon the duty of teachers of English' to take the lead in developing a unified instructional program among all departments of the school, the value of homogeneous grouping, the proper or ganization of classes for socialized activities, and the ne cessity for minimum essentials as requisites for promotion from one grade to another. These are problems that might well supply the materials for discussions in the philosophy of education for teachers of English. V, RECOMMENDATIONS A college program for teachers of English must take 33 John M. Clapp, The Place of English In American Life (Chicago: The National Council of Teachers of English, 1926) . into consideration the proportionate amount of time to be de voted to various curricular fields and the type of courses to be taken in each field. This study has shown that there are definite'elements of equipment found in practice and approved by theory that all secondary school teachers of English should possess. The following recommendations are therefore made regarding the six main curricular fields into which the edu cation of teachers may be conveniently divided. The propor tions given can apply either to a four or five-year program of education; the semester hours mentioned are on the basis of a four-year program of 120 semester hours. Such propor tions must of necessity be suggestive rather than absolute, but can be a guide to those faced with the responsibility of adjusting college facilities to the needs of those who have elected teaching as their profession and the teaching of English as their preferred field. The generally rising standards of the teaching pro fession make it probable that the General Secondary Creden tial will eventually be required of junior high school teach ers in California. It seems advisable, therefore, that undergraduate students planning to qualify for the General Secondary Credential should take a major in English and ar range nonminor requirements for a second teaching field. The following recommendations have this in mind, as well as the education requirements of each type of teaching 384 credential. 1. Fundamental service needs: 10 per cent, 12 hours. Basic training in speech and writing. This prepa ration should give training in oral and written expression suitable for all teacher candidates. It can be most useful to teacher candidates and nonteachers alike if it includes less of the conventional material found in freshman courses ♦ in composition and public speaking, and more communication experiences such as explaining, announcing, conversing, telephoning, dramatizing, book reviewing, outlining, and note taking. A unified course in Communication Arts would be preferable to separate courses in composition and public speaking, but the recommendation of twelve semester hours of lower-division work can be met by the six hours of freshman composition usually required and six hours of elective pub lic speaking. 2. English language and literature: 30 per cent; 12 hours lower division, 24 hours upper division. Sophomore survey of English and American litera ture ; 12 hours. Such a course should include a general treatment of the social and political conditions, the per sonalities of the chief authors, something of the evolution of literary types, and a reading acquaintance with the works of each of the main periods of our literary development. A 385 unified presentation designed to show the relation of the ma terial to high school teaching would he preferable to separate courses, but the recommendation of twelve lov/er-division semester hours can be met by the more conventional survey courses in English, American, or world literature. Advanced language usage; 3 hours.upper division. This course should include a study of the origins and chief forms of oral and written expression, with emphasis upon the use of each type as social communication and expression of personality. It should emphasize the psychological basis of grammar as adjustment of language forms to thinking. The conventional courses in Advanced Composition are usually de voted too much to the artistic forms of writing to meet the full purpose of this recommendation, but are preferable to none, since prospective teachers of English need more def inite practice in writing than that afforded in Freshman com position courses. Shakespeare; 3 . semester hours, upper division. This course should include not only the study of four or more of Shakespeare’s plays, but the evolution of the English drama should be presented and emphasis placed upon ability to interpret a scene orally. Some experience in dramatic direction and production would be beneficial to teacher candidates and nonteachers alike. Types of literature; 6 semester hours, upper 386 division. Courses in poetry, the short story, the novel, the drama, or the essay, should give the prospective teacher some standards of comparison necessary to true appreciation of literary form and content. 'Two semester courses in types, therefore, should provide some basis for literary analysis. These courses would not have to be designed to relate them to high school teaching situations; instead they should en courage the prospective teacher* s interest in a scholarly approach to literary study. Senior course in directed reading; 6 semester hours. This directed reading should be organized under three main heads: (a) recreational reading in all fields to improve tastes, develop powers of appreciation, and prove genuine interest in books; (b) world literature, the clas sics of the past and outstanding works of today, including further reading of works introduced in survey courses; (c) youth literature, the books that appeal especially to stu dents. ‘ Such youth literature should be included in the program to demonstrate the prospective teacher’s genuine interest in such reading, and ability to estimate its quali ties. The lists prepared by the National Council of Teachers of English furnish good material for this purpose. Senior course in teaching English in the high school; 6:LhoursV ' This course should be taken concurrently with practice teaching. This course should include a study 337 of the objectives of English teaching, the best methods of directing pupil experiences in oral and written language as social communication, and the techniques of teaching reading. Literature should be presented as material to be developed into problems and experiences of interest and help to pupils and personal needs for reading, the profitable outcomes to be expected from reading, and the difficulties attending various types of reading. The reading of the prospective teachers should be enlarged through selections of the specific type he will meet in directing his pupils' program. This type of course should preferably be under the joint direction of rep resentatives of English and education departments. 3. Minor field of specialization: 15 per cent, 18 hours. This recommendation allows the generally existing college requirement of twelve upper semester hours of study in a minor field to be met. Both from the standpoint of em ployment conditions and from teaching needs a minor in the field of the social sciences seems most valuable for teachers of English, with a minor in a modern foreign language as second most valuable. Credential requirements in California of eighteen semester hours in education for both junior and senior high school teachers may permit a teacher to secure a second minor in education. 4. Supporting subjects; 15 per cent; 18 hours. 388 Graduation requirements in colleges of liberal arts usually compel a prospective teacher to take courses in science, foreign languages, mathematics, or philosophy to meet this recommendation. The expressed need of teachers for psychol ogy and art appreciation will have to be met by most teacher candidates in the elective subjects recommended. 5. Education: 15 per cent; 18 semester hours. California credential requirements for both junior high school and the General Secondary Credential prescribe eight een semester hours of education courses, not less than four of them in directed teaching. Based on the findings of this study these should include courses in educational psychology, in the philosophy or social function of education, and in the development and general principles of American education. Courses in character education, in current periodical litera ture, and in extracurricular activities are also recommended. The three principal types of courses, together with practice teaching and the methods course listed under English offer ings, should meet the immediate professional needs of pros pective teachers as well as the credential and graduation requirement. 6* Elective studies: 15 per cent; 18 hours. The prospective teacher of English should be encouraged to elect courses that will develop personality and cultural interests. 3&9 He should wish to elect additional courses in English lan guage and literature to those recommended as a minimum re quirement. Courses in the arts and art appreciation, in education, psychology, sociology, and economics are indi cated as of special value. 7- Graduate work. The evidence of this study points to the value of professional courses taken in graduate years, preferably after experience in high school teaching. The General Secondary Credential requirement of a year of gradu ate study of at least twenty semester hours, with at least six in the field of education, permits courses to be taken under such conditions. Courses indicated as of special value in this graduate study are those in the social aspects of education, in adolescent psychology, in secondary educa tion, and in counseling and guidance. Courses in the major teaching field should develop the teacher’s fuller scholar ship; elective courses should further develop the wide life interests that mark the successful teacher of English. These recommendations are based on the belief that credential and college graduation requirements are liberal enough to allow the needs of teachers of English to be met by electing courses within the required patterns of education. They are based on the further belief that there are types of knowledge required by teachers of English that are not ade quately presented in some of the conventional college courses. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Blaisdeir, Thomas, Ways to Teach English, New York: Doubleday Doran and Company, 1930. Three objectives of English instruction are discuessed: ; power of pupil self-expression, accuracy in both oral and written work, literary appreciation. Boas, Ralph P., The Study and Appreciation of Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1931. A discussion of general principles; emphasizes the need for critical analysis of literature to get real benefit from it. ' Bolenius, Emma Miller, Teaching Literature in the Grammar Grades and High School. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913* A very conservative approach, advocating the study of rhyme schemes, obsolete words, and the moral values of mature classics. Bond, Jesse, The Activities and Training? of High School Teachers in California. Los Angeles: SuttonhUuse,. . Ltd., 1937. An analysis of the worth of various types of college preparation for the activities of teachers of English is presented. Charters, W. W., and Douglas Waples, The Commonwealth Teacher Training Study. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1929. In addition to voluminous data concerning all,teaching fields, the ratings of 1,010 teaching activities of very general nature by high school English teachers are given. Chubb, Percival, The Teaching of English in the Elementary and Secondary School. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929. Presents many challenging ideas: , f Heaven forbid that I should attempt to ’adjust1 any child of mine— or yours— to a world so flawed by injustice, inhumanity, and un loveliness as this old-young world of ours ist”— No literary work was ever written for study, but to be read with understanding and pleasure.” 392 Gonrad, Lawrence H., Teaching Creative Writing. New York: I). Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1937• Creative writing is discussed, not as something "arty” but as a means of creating personality through pleasurable self-expression. Craig, Virginia, The Teaching of High School English. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1933. The teaching of English is discussed in a conservative manner, with little attempt to stress the value of indi vidual instruction. Cross, E. A., and 1. Carney, Teaching English in High Schools. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1939* Dr. Cross, past president of the National Council of Teach ers of English, gives a well-rounded discussion of princi ples, together with specific devices for class instruction. Cubberley, E. P., Public Education in the United States. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1934* A valuable reference because it shows the historical evolution of the teaching of various subjects, in cluding high school English. Dakin, Dorothy, Talks to Beginning Teachers of English. New York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1937. Written in the form of advice to new teachers; advocates the establishment of minimum essentials for promotion, and literature instruction designed primarily to teach reading. Fairchild, A. H. R., Teaching of Poetry in the High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company, 1914* Instruction in poetry through uniform assignments is dis cussed but the general thesis is that poetry is "not sub ject matter for lessons but something to be enjoyed.” Fitzpatrick, Edward A., and P. W. Hutson, The Scholarship of Teachers in Secondary Schools. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1927* In the first part of this book the idea of need for schol arship in terms of breadth of interest rather than in terms of credits is developed; in the second part findings of a survey of teachers of English in Minnesota are re ported, revealing serious deficiencies in preparation chiefly due to faulty system of credit distribution in colleges. 393 Fries, Charles C., The Teaching of the English Language. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1927• Language usage is discussed as a social function; "Any development of the pupils*motives and desires for an ef fective use of language must begin on his own level." Glaser, Emma, On the Teaching of Junior High School English. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935* The discussion presumes conventional type of class or ganization and subject matter. Hatfield, Wilbur, Chairman, An Experience Curriculum in English. New York: E. Appleton-Century Company, 1935. Sponsored by the National Council of Teachers of English. The philosophy underlying a modern program of secondary school English as well as specific lesson aids are presented. V Hitchcock, Alfred M., Breadloaf Talks on Teaching Literature. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1927* Emphasizes the social responsibilities of the teacher; "Our mission is not merely to drill boys and girls in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, important though such drill may be, but to bring out the best that is in them. We are moulders of character." LaBrant, Lou, The Teaching of Literature in the Secondary Schools. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1931. The need for distinct methods and materials in the teach ing of literature and of composition is brought out. Leonard, Sterling A., English Composition as a Social Problem. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917. This is largely devoted to a discussion of problems in the lower grades although it does include a discussion of high school instruction. . , Essential Principles of Teaching Reading and Litera ture. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1922. Based on the thesis that English teaching must be predi cated on the present needs of the child and demands a teacher broadly educated in all phases of English and social studies. Marckwardt, A. H., and F. G. Walcott, Facts about Current English Usage. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1938. This is a continuation of the Leonard report; showing that many "purist grammatical constructions lack the sanction of reputable literary usage. 394 Mirrielees, Lucia B., Teaching Composition and Literature, ~ New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1937. A well-rounded presentation; "As long as the groups of children change and social conditions change English teaching must be experimental," but with decencies in form adhered to and the benefits of standard literature realized, O’Rourke, L. J., Rebuilding the English Usage Curriculum to Insure Greater Mastery of Essentials: a Report of a Nation- Wide Study of English. Washington, B.C.: Psychological Institute, 1934. The facts of a nation-wide survey which established the need for recognition of colloquial usage in English in struction are presented. Parker, Roscoe ~ — • • - - • Teaching Based upon the philosophy that "it is the business of teachers to guide adolescents through vital experiences analogous to those encountered by intelligent citizens;" a "progressive" approach to English teaching. Peik, W. E., Professional Education of High School Teachers. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1930. An investigation of the educational program of the Univer sity of Minnesota; many of the principles and techniques later used in the National Survey of the Education of Teachers are presented. Rosenblatt, Louise M., Literature as Exploration. New York: B. Appleton-Century Company, 1938. This book was issued for the Commission on Human Relations of the Progressive Education Association; the need for the teacher to take some sort of attitude toward the human re lations and human problems presented in the study of litera ture is stressed. Seely, Howard F., On Teaching English. New York: American Book Company, 1933. Limited to composition and covers all grades; including elementary and secondary. Sharp, Russell A., Teaching English in High Schools. New York; Houghton Mifflin Compeny, 1924. "Throughout this book English will be considered as con sisting of two subjects, composition and literature. . . . For a term we teach the classics, having one set of objec tives before us; then for a term we teach composition, with a quite different set of aims." 395 S&ith, Reed, The Teaching of Literature in the High School. New York: The American Book Company, 1935. Based largely upon the syllogism, "(1) Literature is hard to understand, (2) Understanding is necessary to adequate appreciation, (3) Removing mental obstacles is necessary to adequate understanding." Stockard, Orpha L., An Analytical Study of the English and Pro fessional Preparation of Teachers of English in the Public High Schools of Missouri. Jefferson Cityj Graduate School, University of Missouri, 1935* Devoted chiefly to a comparison of the education of city teachers and rural teachers; shows that the typical teacher is unable to measure up to the standards of training estab lished by state authorities. Stratton, Clarence, The Teaching of English in the High School. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1923. The need for mastery of the content of literary selections before true appreciation can take place is emphasized: "every word, every phrase, every line, every stanza should be made absolutely clear, preferably by the recitations of the pupil." Thomas, Charles S., The Teaching of English in the Secondary School. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927. A conservative presentation, recommending uniform courses of study in literature, emphasis upon the classics of English literature, and thorough study of the types of literature. Ward, Cf H., What is English? New York: Scott Foresman and Company, 1925. The teaching of grammar as a separate subject, the study of types of rhetorical writing, and a large prescription of literary classics are upheld in this book. Webster, E. H., and Dora V. Smith, Teaching English in the Junior High School. Yonkers: World Book Company, 1927. English teaching through social and critical work within "groups of students gathered in small circles about the room" is discussed. ?/eeks, Ruth M., A Correlated Curriculum. New York: D. Appleton- Century, 193*>. A discussion of the principles involved in correlation, fusion, and complete integration; the weakest point is giving definite unit patterns. 396 B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Abbot, Allan, "What the English Teacher Should Know,” English Journal (College Edition), 17:315-320, April, 1928. Preliminary findings of study by Committee on Teacher Preparation, emphasizing the need of comprehensive literary background, are discussed. Allen, Harold B., "Teacher Training in the English Language," English Journal.(College Edition), 27:422-430, May, 1933. Based upon a survey of the offerings of 185 colleges with teacher training work in language; a majority of both col leges and universities do not meet in any respect the mini mum recommendations of the National Council of Teachers of English. Anderson, Earl W., and Reuben H. Eliassen, "High School Teach ers of English," English Journal (High School Edition), 21:60-61, January, 1932. A summary of studies designed to show the distribution of teachers of English in various states. Baker, Eranklin,T., "^reparation of High School Teachers of English," English Journal, 4:323-332, May, 1915. The findings of the earliest of the committees of the National Council' of Teachers of English on Teacher Educa tion, based on a survey of teachers, are here reported. Barnes, Walter, "American Youth and Their Language," English Journal.(High School Edition), 26:283-290, April, 1937. Devoted to the thesis that "learning and using language as social behavior demand social intelligence and social think ing rather than linguistic ability and verbal and logical power •" Bouton, Eugene, "The Study of English," Education. 5:91-93, September, 1884. Of interest in showing the lack of a comprehensive program of English in the high schools of a half century ago. Clement, Evelyn, "Teaching Assignments of 300 New Teachers," California Journal of Secondary Education, 12:164-166, March, 1937* An analysis of teaching combinations, showing great diver sity among new teachers of English in California high schools is here presented.. 397 Cook, Luella B., "Reading, for Experience," English Journal (High School Edition), 25:275, April, 1936. The need for separate class sections as a necessary device for a valuable reading program is discussed. De Boer,John, "A Program for Peace Education," English Journal (High School Edition), 25:289, April, 1936. The author develops the idea that "most of all an effec tive program of peace education must carry with it a posi tive solution for the war evil. ... it must set up the goal of a world federation of cooperative commonwealths." ________, "Teaching Literature for Enjoyment," English Journal (High School Edition), 20:298-304, April, 1931* The author decries the practice of "sheltering the growing mind from unpleasant truth" in attempts to make the read ing program pleasurable; insists upon some study of the ugly things of life. Douglass, Harl R., and Anna M. Filk, "The Classroom Practices of Minnesota Teachers of High School English," English J ournal (High School Edition), 27:252-257, March, 1938. Based upon a check list returned by 163 high school teach ers of English in Minnesota; results show most favoured activities are performed in large schools with experienced teachers. Douglass, Harl R., "Subject Matter Preparation of High School Teachers," Educational Administration and Supervision, 21:458, September 1935* The results of over sixty investigations in the field of teacher education are analyzed; a very small proportion of teachers are shown to be teaching only in fields in which they have a college major. Evenden, E. S., "Issues in teacher-training programs,” Educa tional Administration and Supervision, 17:530-534. October, 1931* Ten issues are listed and discussed; but with :no. program of action to meet them. Fowler, Burton, "The Relationship of English to a Unified Secondary School Curricula," English J ournal (High School Edition), 22:552-555, September, 1933. "No teacher is so well qualified at present as the teacher of English to solve this problem of a unified curriculum." 39 a Gaw, Allison, "Collegiate Training of the Teacher of High School English," English Journal. 5:320-331, May, 1916. The comprehensive duties of teachers of English are dis cussed; four types of comprehensive college courses as preparation are suggested. Gehlmann, John, "The Values of Required Reading," English J ournal (High School Edition), 19:633-642, October, 1930. The author believes it to be more important for English teachers to require thorough study of recognized litera ture than to "come down to the level of the pupil and browse in pastures of his choosing." Greenland, H. C., "Language and Composition Activities in the Literature Class," English J ournal (High School Edition), 21:28-34, January, 1932. The practice of separating language-composition and literature-reading activities in the English course is criticized, and means of relating the two activities are discussed. Hogrefe, Pearl, "Positive Aims in English Teaching," English J ournal (High School Edition), 23:631-635, October, 1935. Tendencies to minimize definite standards of achievement in a search for pupil activity projects are deplored, and means of vitalizing English instruction discussed. Kemp, W. W., "Training of High School Teachers in Relation to the Subjects They Teach," California Quarterly of Second ary Education. 1:409-412, June, 1926. The preference of school administrators for teachers to teach English alone; but also the very great scattering of teaching combinations existing in California high schools. La Brant, Lou, "Psychological Basis for Creative Writing," •English Journal'(High School Edition), 25:295, April, 1936. The social and therapeutic values of free or creative writ ing are emphasized in this article. Lyman, R. L., "Normalizing English Instruction," English Journal (High School Edition), 21:89-96, Eebruary, 1932. The letting down of departmental barriers and coordination of English instruction with other subjects is the chief thesis of this article. _______, "Tradition and Innovation in the Senior High School English Curriculum," English Journal (High School Edition), 24:189-195, February, 1935. /Areview of four innovations in teaching English: 1. Recreational reading. 399 2. Functional composition 3. Limited grammar program 4. Correlation of literature with, other subjects. Moore, Samuel, Chairman, "Training in English Language for English Teachers," English J ournal (College Edition), 17:£27-828, 1928* The findings of a committee of the National Council of Teachers of English, stressing need for knowledge of pho netics, Old English and Middle English are reported. Newlon, Jesse, "Social Changes and English," English Journal (High School Edition), 22:536-541, September, 1933* Fifteen specific social changes are listed and their bear ing on English instruction discussed. Odum, Howard, "New Setting for English Teaching," English Journal (High School Edition), 22:711-719, November, 1933* A discussion of recent social developments and their im plications for English teaching, especially for the teach ing of the literature of social realism. Pollack, Rebecca L., "Disappearance of Departmental Lines in the New Type High School," English J ournal (High School Edition), 22:648-653, October, 1933. Five studies directed by the University of West Virginia, and designed to break down departmental lines in high schools are discussed. Roberts, Holland D., "English Teachers Face the Future," English J ournal (High School Edition), 27:101-113, February, 1938. Presidential address delivered before the National Council of Teachers of English; thirteen antiquated beliefs which must make way for a worthwhile English program are summar ized. ________, "Reading for Social Meaning," English Journal (High School Edition), 25:203, March, 1936. The need of teaching pupils to evaluate the contents of newspapers, magazines, and books rather than the mere mechanics of reading is emphasized. Roller, Bert, "Some Problems in the Training of Teachers of English," English Journal {College Edition), 19:307-312, April, 1930. Professional and academic courses required of prospective teachers of English at University of Minnesota are com pared with those at other institutions. 400 Royster, James, "Preparation of English Composition Teachers," English Journal, 12:397-406, June, 1923. The necessity for correctness in language as one of the needs of composition teaching is emphasized. Seely, H. F., "Appreciation through Intensive Reading," English Journal (High School Edition), 20:203-210, March, 1931. The idea that the appreciation cannot come through mere factual knowledge, but is achieved by the pupil through aesthetic experience is developed. Simon, H. W;, "Some Dangers of Teaching Literature as Social History," English Journal (High School Edition), 20:645- 6 5 2, October, 1931. "To understand history, one must study history, and litera ture plays only one part in that." Smith, Dora V., "Academic Training of High School Teachers of English," Harvard Educational Review, 8:191-197, March, 193S. The value of oral interpretation of literature and, hence, courses in voice training for teachers of English, is emphasized. __________"American Youth and English," English Journal (High School Edition), 26:99-113, February, 1937. A presidential address delivered before the National Coun cil of Teachers of English; the Philosophy underlying a progressive program of English instruction is developed. __________"English Language, Reading and Literature," Review of Educational Research, 8:25-33, 1938. The author summarizes outstanding research studies with estimates of their value and educational implications. ________, "Extensive Reading in Junior High School; a Survey of Teacher Preparation," English Journal (High School Edition), 19:449-462, June, 1930. A survey of teacher preparation in junior high school lit erature; a general lack of knowledge of books recommended for the extensive reading of junior high school pupils was disclosed by this study. ________, "The Contributions of Research to Teaching and Cur riculum Making in English, January, 1933, through June, 1934," English Journal (High School Editioh), 24:363-374, 1935; 24:451-461, 1935; 27:409-420, 1938. Research studies of value are summarized under convenient heads. 401 Smith, Heed, "Grammar, the Swing of the Pendulum," English Journal (High School Edition), 27:637-643* October7 1938. A vigorous attack on attempts to teach grammar as inci dental to other school activities* Thomas, Charles S., "Variables and Constants,” English Journal (High School Edition), 25:101-112, February, 1936, Eight "constants,” in general conservative and cultural, discussed as the permanent bases of an English course. Wrightstone, J. W., "Comparison of Newer with Conventional Practices in English," English Journal (High School Edition), 24:399-403, May, 1935. A summary of experiments which show that the newer func tional, creative practices in language arts can produce "equal or superior knowledges and skills" in comparison with more conventional teaching practices. C. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS Alvey, Edward, Jr., "A Training Procedure for Teachers of English Bases upon Analyses of Objectives, Outcomes, and Activities," Secondary Education in Virginia, University of Virginia Record Extension Series, No. 13, 16:3-17, October, 1931. The objectives of English teaching are compiled through six types of printed matter; from a ranking of such ob jectives, principles for teacher education are developed. Briggs, Thomas, "The Issues of Secondary Education," Official Report of the Department of Superintendence. Washington, £>.6.: National Education Association, 1936, p. 39. Contains the educational issues basic to the consideration of the more specific issues in the field of English teach ing. Coale, W. B., Professional Needs of Teachers of English. Con tributions to Education, No. 334; New York: Teachers Col lege, Columbia University, 1928. Based on judgments of teachers concerning their educational equipment; such judgments are evaluated through reference to published opinions of experts. Committee on College Entrance Requirements, Report. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press for the National Education Association, July, 1899, PP. 12-13. A report which confirmed the policy of the Committee of Ten, and which fixed the college preparatory function on high school English course for years. 402 Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction, The Development of a Modern Program in English, Ninth Year book of the National Sducatlon As so c iation. Washington; DTcT: National Education Association, 1936, p. 154.. Includes discussions of all phases of the English program; a program based on pupil activity is advocated. Evenden, E. S., Summary and Interpretation. United States Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin No, 10 (1933); National Survey of the Education of Teachers, Vol. VI; Washington, B.C.: United States Govern ment Printing Office, 1935. Data secured in the National Survey is analyzed; a report is ineluded of college courses most frequently taken by 100 teachers who had majored in English; also a summary of criticisms of college courses for the preparation of English teachers. . "Criteria for Construction of Teachers College Cur ricula," Proceedings of the Sixty-fourth Annual Meeting. Washington, D.C.: The National Education Association, 1926. A thorough analysis of the professional equipment the teacher must have in the light of teaching duties is recommended. Evenden, Edward S., and others, "Teacher Personnel in the United States," National Survey of the Education of Teachers. Bulletin No. 10 (1933); Washington, B.C.: United States Office of Education, 1935. 2:66 The most recent comprehensive statistics on the number and distribution of English teachers in the United States are here presented. Hays, Edna, College Entrance Requirements in English: Their Ef fects on the High School. Contributions to Education, No. 6 7 6; New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936, pp. 10-1 1. This historical review is based upon a correlative study of college entrance requirements and high school courses of study. Hosic, James F., Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. Report by the National Joint Committee on English represent- ing the commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa tion of the National Teachers of English* Bulletin No. 2, United States Bureau of Education; Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1917. This report was a most vital factor in breaking down the influence of the report of the Committee of Ten, and in re leasing the English courses from the domination of college entrance requirements. 403 Jewett, Ida A., English in State Teachers Colleges, Contribu tions to Education No, 286; New "York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927, P* 164. A catalogue study of 103 four-year courses of state teachers* colleges; the continued dominance of traditional scholarly material in teacher-training courses is shown, March, F. A,, "Methods of Teaching English in the High School," Addresses and J ournal of Proceedings, Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, '1*5/5, pp• 242-243♦ Of interest in showing the extreme emphasis placed upon grammatical drill and word derivation in the courses of high school English in this period. National Education Association, Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, New York: American Book Company, 1894, p. 52, This report dominated programs of high school English for a generation and set many of the standards still prevalent. National Society for the Study of Education, English Composi tion, Its Aims, Methods, and Measurement; Twenty-Second Yearbook. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1923, p. 38. The value of treating composition as an exact process capable of being measured by objective scales is emphasized by Hudelson, "The Professional Preparation of High School Teachers," Eight eenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study or Education. Bloomington, Illinois: PublicSchool Publishing Company, 1919. Part I. Plans are presented for preparing high school teachers to practice their profession in a democratic society through self-activity. Regulations Governing Granting of Credentials and Certificates for Public School Service in California. State of California, Department of Education, ^Bulletin No. 12, June 13, 1933* Contains the present regulations governing the educational requirements for high school teachers of English in California. Smith, Dora V., Instruction in English. United States Office of Education Bull©tin So. 17 v1932), Monograph No. 20; Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1933. One of the outstanding studies of the National Survey of Secondary Education; the extent of the program in English together with an analysis of aims is present. 404 Thomas, Charles Swain, Chairman of the Commission on English, Examining the Examination in English. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1931, p. 1. The development of examinations in English given by the College Entrance Examination Board from 1901 to 1930, is traced; the growing emphasis on the comprehensive type of question rather than the type designed to test limited factual matter is revealed, Vaughan, Arthur Winn, State Teachers College Curricula for the Development of Teachers of Engli sh. Contributions to Edu cation, Wo* T>9; Nashville, Tennessee: George Peabody Col lege for Teachers, 1929• A survey of state teachers* colleges curricula for the edu cation of teachers of English; problems discovered are listed, together with **revision hypotheses,* * D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Addison, Gertrude, "Recommendations Concerning the Preparation of Teachers of English in the State of California." Mimeo graphed bulletin, Los Angeles City Schools, December 12, 1938. A suggested program of teacher education based upon recom mendations received at committee meeting of English teach ers in Southern California. Bursch, Charles W., "The Techniques and Results of an Analysis of the Teaching Process in High School English and Social Science Classes." Unpublished Doctor’s Dissertation, Stanford University, Palo Alto, 1930. A technique is developed based upon using symbols to de note types of class activities: discussion, formal reports, supervised study, etc. Edman, Marion L., "An Analysis of the High School and College Training of 121 Prospective Teachers Majoring in English Graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1930 and 1931.” Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, 1935. Chap. II, p. 1. This study is based upon a study of college transcripts; teachers were found to be more adequately prepared in literature than in methods of teaching. Hale. Genevieve, "Advanced Training for Teachers of English in the Secondary Schools." Unpublished Master’s thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1933. Based upon a survey of administrators’ opinions regarding 405 best type of graduate education; Master’s degree in English, for high school teachers, Master’s degree in edu cation for junior high school teachers most frequently recommended, Johnson, J, Cornell, ’ ’ Preparation of English Teachers in Se lected Institutions.” Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, 1936. Based on National Survey of Teachers; the responses of college instructors regarding aims, content, and methods of college courses are analyzed. Maus, Julia A., ”Teacher Training in English.” Unpublished Master’s, thesis, University of Minnesota, 1934. A thorough study of the activities of English teachers graduated from the University of Minnesota; the education of teachers was found to be inadequate chiefly in specific methods of teaching English* Mirrielees, Lucia B., ’ ’ American University Training in English by Prospective High School Teachers,” Unpublished Doc tor’s dissertation, Stanford University, Palo Alto, 1925* A study of courses in English taken by prospective teachers in twenty-two American universities, together with an evalu ation in terms of teaching activities. Tower, Donald M., ’ ’In-Service Education of Teachers of English in the Public Secondary Schools of New York State with Special Consideration of the Oral Phases of the Subject.” Unpublished Doctor’s dissertation, New York University, New York, 1934. Special emphasis is given to the oral phases of the teach ing of high school English. Young, Zella Palmer, ’ ’The History of the Legislation and Cer tification of Teachers in California.” Unpublished Master’s thesis, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1928. The steps by which California has become a leader in de veloping high standards of certification for high school teachers are traced. E. COURSES OP STUDY IN HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH Alameda City Schools, Outline of Content of High School English Courses. 1939- 406 Berkeley City Schools, Printed Courses of Study for Junior High School English'! 1931 . Mimeographed Courses of Study for Senior High School English, 1938. Beverly Hills City Schools, Mimeographed Bulletin of Minimum Essentials and Prescriptions of High School "Courses in English! 1939. Burbank City Schools, Instructional Guide for Junior High School English Courses. 1939. Fresno City Schools, Course of Study Bulletin. Junior High School English. 1 9 38. Glendale City Schools, Report of English Committee. Descrip tion of Junior High and Senior High School Courses with ObjectTves and Techniques. 1936-1937. Long Beach City Schools, Printed Course of Study for Senior High School English. 1932. Los Angeles City Schools, Catalog of Authorized Courses for Junior and Senior Day High SchoolF! 1938-1959. Los Angeles County City Schools, Literature as Interpretation of Life. Mimeographed Outline for Itoelfth Grade Study. Oakland City Schools, Recompiled Course of Study for Junior High School Englisli! 1932. ” Pasadena City Schools, English. Junior High School. 1931. Literature, and Composition, Grades Eleven to Fourteen, 1933. Sacramento City Schools, Course of Study Monograph. Senior High School English, 1930. San Francisco City Schools. Printed Junior High School English. 1927. Stockton City Schools, Mimeographed English Courses for Grades Nine to Twelve. 1 9 3 8. Taft City Schools, Mimeographed Descriptive Summary of the English Program for High School and Junior College. 1938-1939. APPENDICES APPENDIX A CORRESPONDENCE AND FORMS 409 WALTER F. DEXTER MRS. EVELYN CLEMENT Superintendent of Public Instruction Chief of Division and Director of Education State of California DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Division of Teacher Training and Certification Sacramento Date Mr. ______________, Principal ______________ High School _________________ California Dear Mr._______________ : The State Department of Education is engaged in a state-* wide study of secondary teaching credentials. A preliminary investigation in the field of English has already been made. As a second step we need representative opinion concerning ele ments affecting the education of teachers. Such a study, spon sored by the State Department of Education, is being undertaken by Daniel F. Graham, of the Santa Monica Junior College. Teachers of English in your school are asked to par ticipate in this statewide study by replying to a questionnaire. This questionnaire— a copy of which is enclosed— is based upon a thorough analysis of the field of English; in recent trials it has proved valuable to our study and interesting to teachers. A return postcard is enclosed, on which you are afeked to indicate whether you, or some qualified person you appoint for the purpose, will cooperate in having these questionnaires filled out. Will you please refer to the following page, which gives a brief explanation of the study and of the contribution we need from your school. We shall appreciate your prompt reply and your further cooperation in this project, which is designed to aid the cause of education in our state. Sincerely yours, (Signed) AUBREY A. DOUGLASS_________ Chief, Division of Secondary Education -COPY- 410 {Second sheet to be sent with first letter) £he State Department of Education is engaged in a statewide study by teachers and administrators of teaching credentials. General problems of teacher education affecting all secondary school teachers are being studied as well as the specific problems of teachers in various subject fields. The present investigation has been designed to secure data con cerning teachers in the field of English— a field replete with problems because of the many and varied outcomes of English instruction. A preliminary study has revealed elements associated primarily with the teaching of high school English,— such factors as teaching assign ments, characteristic teaching activities, teacher education facilities, and professional issues affecting teachers of English. The elements thus discovered have been included in an inquiry form, a copy of which is en closed. This inquiry form has been designed to permit rapid scoring. It is based on elements of direct and personal interest to teachers of English; in preliminary trials it has proved to be of interest to teachers and has revealed significant data. We are asking you as a principal, or some other qualified person you may appoint, to distribute copies of this inquiry form to as many as possible of the teachers of English in your sehool. The term "teachers of English1 1 as used in this connection includes all those who teach courses designated as English, composition, grammar, literature, reading and spelling. If your facility includes those who teach English skills and knowledge in fused courses please include such teachers as participants in this study. As a basis of comparison we need to study the opinions of a group of superior teachers of English. We shall ask you, therefore, to indicate on the inquiry forms when they are returned to us the teachers who possess certain qualifications which we shall list. Such rating, however, will be used only for the purpose of determining significant elements associated with superior teaching. We are asking you to help us specifically as follows: 1. Please indicate your response to this letter at once on the en closed postal card. We shall then send you, or the person you appoint, the number of inquiry forms you .request for your school. 2. Upon receiving the forms, please distribute them to the teachers participating in the study. 3. Call the attention of the teachers to the date stamped for the return of the forms. Please have them all returned through your office and at that time indicate the inquiry forms filled out by teachers possessing the listed qualifications. 4. Return all forms to the State Department of Education in the postage paid envelope studied for that purpose. - C O P Y - 411 RETURN POSTCARD Date ......... ............ Dear Sir: We shall cooperate in the study concerning the education of teachers of English. i You may send......questionnaires to the under signed who will see that they are filled out and returned to the State Department. Sincerely yours, Signed. .............. (Posit ion) (Name of School) COPY- WALTER F. DEXTER Superintendent of Public Instruction and Director of Education State of California DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Division of Teacher Training and Certification Sacramento We are glad your school is represented in the statewide study of English teaching. Enclosed are questionnaires for the participating teachers. Please see that these forms are returned to the State Department of Education promptly. Among other things it is desired to study significant elements associated with superior teachers of English— a group which we believe represents approxi mately ten per cent of the total number of high school teachers. To make your judgment as objective as possible we list.below composite descriptions of three types of teachers of English. Please indicate in the upper right hand margin of the cover page of the questionnaire the teachers who fit most nearly the description of Teaeher Number 3. Teacher Number 1 Has insufficient knowledge in the field of English language and literature. Shows little initiative in organizing and directing class activities; depends too much on course outlines and textbooks. Frequently interrupts class work to correct disorderly pupils. Keeps class work narrow and departmentalized. Does not insist on high standards of English usage in spoken or written com munication. Shows little interest in the social values of English instruction or in maintaining high standards of professional conduct. Teacher Number 2 Has satisfactory knowledge in the field of English language and literature. Does satisfactory work in organizing and directing class activities in order to develop in pupils desirable English skills and social attitudes. Maintains satisfactory professional standards. Teacher Number 5 Has superior knowledge of English language and literature* Shows superior initiative in organizing and directing class room activities. Keeps pupils so interested in work that cases of discipline hardly ever arise. Takes definite steps to link English class experience with other school and community activi ties. Definitely improves standards of English usage in own pupils and defi nitely tries to improve English usage throughout entire school. Develops genuine appreciation of good reading and socially desirable attitudes among pupils through English class experiences. Is recognized by school and com- * munity as maintaining high standards of professional conduct. Thank you again for your cooperation in this study. Sincerely yours, (Signed) AUBREY A. DOUGLASS Aubrey A. Douglass Chief, Division of Secondary Education 412 MRS. EVELYN CLEMENT Chief of Division -COPY- * „ California Study of TeacHers of English. To the cooperating teachers: TP H E S ta te D e p a rtm e n t o f E ducation is en g ag ed in a s ta te -w id e co o p e ra tiv e stu d y o f te a c h in g cred en tials. G en eral problem s o f te a c h e r e d u ca tio n a re being stu d ied , as w ell as th e specific problem s o f teach ers in various s u b ject field s. T h is q u e stio n n aire fo r English teach ers is th e resu lt o f a p re lim in a ry study o f im p o rta n t ele m e n ts a ffe c tin g th e e d u ca tio n o f teach ers o f English. A p re lim in a ry fo rm o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire has been answ ered by o ver seventy teach ers a n d has revealed v a lu a b le d a ta . T h e p rin c ip a l o f ' your school has ag reed to c o o p erate in an exten sio n o f th is in v es tig a tio n th ro u g h o u t th e s ta te ; you have been selected as one o f th e teach ers whose c o o p eratio n is desired. T h e q u e stio n n aire is being d is trib u te d to teach ers o f English in C a l ifo rn ia hig h schools. For th e purpose o f this in q u iry th e te rm “ te a c h in g o f E n g lish " is used as th e m ost g e n e ra lly useful expression to d en o te th e class room a n d o th e r a c tiv itie s th ro u g h w hich th e te a c h e r d irects a n d guides pupil experien ces in English. M o re s p e c ific a lly , it covers th e w o rk done by teach ers w ho h ave been assigned to courses d e sig n a te d as English, lite ra tu re , co m p o sitio n , re ad in g , w ritin g , a n d spelling. T each ers o f English skills, kn o w led g e, a n d ap p rec ia tio n s in o th e r courses th a n th e above— such as fusion courses, jo u rn a lis m , p u b lic sp eakin g , a n d d ra m a tic s — a re included in this study, b u t a re asked to id e n tify them selves as teach ers o f such re la te d courses in Q u estio n 8 o f P a rt I o f th e q u e stio n n aire . T e ac h e rs in th e fie ld o f English exclusively, as w ell as those w ho te a c h English in a d d i tio n to o th e r subjects, are in clu d ed in th is survey. A u n ifo rm ra tin g scale is to be used th ro u g h o u t th is in q u iry fo rm — ascending values fro m 0 to 5 (as e x p la in e d m ore fu lly in P arts I I , I I I a n d I V ) . It is suggested th a t b efo re b e g in n in g th e ra tin g teach ers becom e f a m ilia r w ith th e g e n era l fo rm o f th e q u e stio n n aire . It is also suggested th a t th e y read over th e in d iv id u a l item s in P arts H , I I I , a n d IV , b efo re scoring th e m , as such a procedure w ill a id in m a k in g th e ratin g s re lia b le. T h e d a ta secured w ill be used only in group ta b u la tio n s . N o a tte m p t w ill be m a d e to id e n tify in d ivid u als or in s titu tio n s , a lth o u g h w e do ask you to give y o u r n a m e to assist us in th e num erous ta b u la tio n s required. PART I N a m e o f school.............................................................................................. ......................................... N a m e o f T e a c h e r................................................................................................................................... H ig h e s t degree h e ld : (please ch eck) a ..................B achelor's c D octor's b ..................M a s te r's d ...................................................(lis t a n y o th ers) T y p e o f te a c h in g c re d e n tia l h e ld : ( p le as e 'ch e c k) a ..................J u n io r H ig h School b .............................. G en eral Secondary .............................................................. ( List o th ers) C o lleg e or u n iv ers ity m ajo rs a n d m in o rs : (please list) M a jo rs M in o rs U n d e rg ra d u a te a ................................ U n d e rg ra d u a te a ................................................. b ................................ b ................................................ G ra d u a te c............ G ra d u a te c . . . . .................... d ................................ d ................................................. M o s t recen t college or u n iversity courses ta k e n in English or e d u c a tio n : a ................W ith in th e p ast th re e years b .......................From th re e to fiv e years ago c .....................M o re th a n fiv e years ago. L en g th o f exp erien ce as a te a c h e r o f English: (p lease ch ec k ) a Less th a n th re e years b .................T h re e to fiv e years inclusive c.... ............Five to te n years inclusive d M o re th a n ten years 7. T y p e o f school in w hich you te a c h : (please ch eck) a J u n io r high school c..................Four y e a r h ig h school b ..................Senior high school d..................C o m b in ed ju n io r - senior high school 8. Present te a c h in g assig n m en ts: O n th e lines below please list all subjects th a t you are now te a c h in g and th e n u m b e r o f periods you te a ch each per w eek. Use one line fo r each su bject. N o te : C onsider th e te rm "E n g lis h " on line (a ) to include a ll courses d e sig n a te d English, com position, lite ra tu re , g ra m m a r, sp ellin g , an d read in g . List courses in d ra m a tic s , p ublic sp eakin g , and jo u rn a lis m on o th e r lines th a n (a ) L is t fused courses o f English a n d social studies on o th e r lines th a n (a ) . Subjects you a re now te a c h in g Periods per w eek a. (E n g lish ) ....................................... • % b ......................... ................. c ........................................................................ ....................................... d. - ................................................................. ....................................... 9 . T e a c h in g q u a lific a tio n s : O n th e lines below list th e subjects you fe e l w ell q u a lifie d to teach . List th e su b ject you feel best q u a lifie d to teach on Line 1; list th e s u b ject you feel n e x t best q u a lifie d to teach on L in e 2 , and so on. Y o u need no t use all th e lines; list only th e subjects you feel w ell q u a lifie d to teach . 1 ........................................................................ 4 ................................................ 2 5................ 3 ........................................................................ 6............................................... 10. E xtra classroom d u ties re g u la rly assigned to you: (please ch eck) a ................ H ea d sh ip o f English d e p a rtm e n t b .................S upervision o f school lib rary c ..................Supervision o f school pu b licatio n s d ..................Supervision o f d ra m a tic or assem bly program s e ..................Supervision o f p u b lic sp eakin g or d e b a tin g events f .................C o u nselling students g .................(o th e rs ) .................................................................................................. PART II Below are listed a c tiv itie s associated w ith th e te a ch in g o f high school English. W e wish to know (1 ) to w h a t e x te n t teachers o f English p e rfo rm such a c tiv itie s , an d (2 ) how im p o rta n t it is fo r colleges and u n iversities to o ffe r courses designed to p rep are teach ers to p e rfo rm such a c tiv itie s . In C o lu m n I please ra te th e e x te n t to w hich you p e rfo rm each o f these a ctiv itie s in your m ost e ffe c tiv e English te a c h in g . Please be c a re fu l to base your ratin g s on yo u r own p e rfo rm a n c e in good te a ch in g . Please ra te each ite m . A f t e r you have co m p leted your ra tin g s in C o lu m n I please in d ic a te in C o lu m n II th e e x te n t to w hich you believe teachers and te a c h e r c an d id a te s need special p re p a ra tio n in college or u n iversity fo r such a c tiv itie s . Please use th e fo llo w in g ra tin g scale: 5 4 3 2 1 0 to a very large extent to a large extent to an average extent to a small extent to a very small extent not at all A c tiv itie s associated w ith te a c h in g o f lite ra tu re T e a c h in g pupils th e histo ry a n d d e ve lo p m e n t o f A m e ric a n lit e ra tu re T e a c h in g pupils th e h isto ry an d d evelo p m en t o f English lit e ra tu re T e a c h in g pupils proper stan d ard s o f lite ra ry a p p re c ia tio n an d d is c rim in a tio n T e a c h in g pupils th e form s o f stan d ard types o f lite ra tu re — d ra m a , novel, etc. D ire c tin g in d ivid u al pupil program s o f leisure read in g H e lp in g pupils e n larg e th e ir life experiences th ro u g h lite ra tu re H e lp in g pupils develop good c h ara c te r tra its th ro u g h lite ra tu re P ro m o tin g in te rn a tio n a l u n d erstan d in g s th ro u g h lite ra tu re H e lp in g pupils u n d erstan d m odern social an d econom ic c o n d i tions th ro u g h lite ra tu re H e lp in g pupils develop stan d ard s o f m o tio n p ic tu re a p p re c ia tio n T e a c h in g pupils to u n d erstan d h isto rical backgrounds th ro u g h lite ra tu re H e lp in g pupils gain broad c u ltu re th ro u g h study o f lite ra ry classics es associated w ith o ral c o m m u n ica tio n T e a c h in g pupils th e use o f oral English fo r in fo rm a l o cca sions— conversations, etc. T e a c h in g pupils th e use o f oral English fo r fo rm a l o cca sions— p a rlia m e n ta ry p ra ctic e , etc. D ire c tin g pupils in proper m ethods o f panel discussion C o ach in g pupils in fo rm a l d e b ate H e lp in g pupils co rrect fa u lty speech h ab its T e a c h in g pupils good listen in g h ab its T e a c h in g pupils to in te rp re t lite ra tu re o ra lly A c tiv itie s associated w ith c o n te n t read in g I II T e a c h in g s ile n t read in g fo r speed an d com prehension H e lp in g pupils co rrect fa u lty reading h a b its H e lp in g pupils to recognize and e v a lu a te p ro p a g a n d a T e a c h in g pupils to respect and use p ro p er English expression H e lp in g pupils to d evelop good v o ca b u la ry A c tiv itie s associated w ith w ritte n c o m m u n ic a tio n T e a c h in g pupils th e m echanics o f good w ritin g — p u n c tu a tio n , etc. Encouraging c re a tiv e e x p ression in w ritte n com position T e a c h in g pupils sentence a n d p a ra g ra p h s tru c tu re T e a c h in g pupils to o rg a n ize a n d develop th o u g h t th ro u g h com position devices— o u tlin in g , etc. T e a c h in g pupils how to tra n s fe r th o u g h t c le a rly th ro u g h w ritte n exp o sitio n T e a c h in g pupils th e a rtis tic form s o f w ritin g n a rra tio n , d escrip tio n , etc._________________________ T e a c h in g pupils to w rite social a n d business lette rs T e a c h in g pupils th e p rinciples o f rh eto ric T e a c h in g pupils fo rm a l g ra m m a r T e a c h in g pupils how to spell C o n d u c tin g d rill exercises to co rrect fa u lty w ritte n expres sion A c tiv itie s associated w ith g e n era l te a ch in g problem s and procedures Selecting m a te ria ls o f in s tru ctio n — textb o o ks, visual aids, etc. O rg a n iz in g courses an d u n its o f in stru ctio n O rg a n iz in g classes fo r th e best te a c h in g s itu a tio n — g ro u p in g , etc._________________________________________________________ ________ R eco g n izin g an d m e etin g in d ivid u a l pupil needs D ire c tin g so cialized class a c tiv itie s A d m in is te rin g a d e fin ite te s tin g p ro g ram C o rre la tin g English in s tru ctio n w 'th school w o rk in o th e r courses S ecuring th e co o p eratio n o f th e w hole school in p ro m o tin g good English_______________________________________________________ A id in g v o catio n al a d ju s tm e n t th ro u g h English te a ch in g W r itin g w ith a high degree o f lite ra ry skill______________________ In te rp re tin g lite ra tu re e ffe c tiv e ly th ro u g h oral read in g ________ (A d d o th e r a c tiv itie s you wish to ra te ) In th e fig h t o f your exp erien ce as a te a c h e r o f English please in d ic a te on th e lines below professional skills or a b ilitie s you feel th e m ost need o f acq u irin g or fu rth e r developing. Use item s suggested by th e list above if you w ish, or use others n o t included. PART III Below a re listed specific types o f kno w led g e associated w ith the te a c h ing o f English. These item s a re suggested by th e o ffe rin g o f colleges a n d u n iversi ties in th e ir program s fo r te a c h e r ed u ca tio n . W e wish to know how im p o rta n t such types o f kn ow ledge a re as p a rt o f th e e q u ip m e n t o f teachers o f English. In th e C o lu m n m a rk e d I please ra te th e e x te n t to w hich each o f th e lis t ed types o f kn ow ledge co n trib u te s to yo u r e q u ip m e n t as a te a c h e r o f English. Plase be c a re fu l to base your ra tin g s on yo u r own p e rfo rm a n c e in te a ch in g ra th e r th a n on your e s tim a te o f th e g en eral w orth o f th e item s listed. Please ra te each item . Please use th e fo llo w in g ra tin g scale: 5 4 3 2 1 0 to a very large to a large to an average to a small to a very to no extent extent extent extent extent small extent K now ledge o f th e fo llo w in g ,as g a in ed in college courses: L a n g u a g e -fo rm an d d e ve lo p m e n t_______________________________________________ I______ P rin ciples o f rh e to ric P rinciples o f English g ra m m a r T ech n iq u es o f special form s o f com position — exposition, d escrip tio n , n a rra tio n H is to ric a l d e ve lo p m e n t o f th e English lan g u ag e A n g lo -S a x o n lan g u ag e an d lite ra tu re P rinciples o f phonetics L ite ra ry B ackground H is to ry an d d e ve lo p m e n t o f A m e ric a n lite ra tu re H is to ry a n d d evelo p m en t o f English lite ra tu re C h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e p rin c ip a l types o f lite ra tu re — d ra m a novel, etc. L ite ra ry periods— E liz a b e th a n , R o m an tic A g e , etc. T h e English B ible as lite ra tu re W o rld lite ra tu re — g re a t books o f m a n y lands P rinciples o f lite ra ry c riticism Social an d econom ic backgrounds o f lite ra tu re A d o le sc e n t lite ra tu re books p rim a rily fo r young people C u rre n t lite ra tu re — best sellers, etc. O u ts ta nding a u t h o r s ____________ _____________________________________ T h e life a n d w orks of. C h a u c er T h e life a n d w orks o f Shakespeare T h e life a n d w orks o f M ilto n T h e life a n d w orks o f Brow ning S ig n ific a n t types o f lite ra tu re T h e English novel— d evelo p m en t, c h ara c te ris tic s, etc. T h e short story— d evelo p m en t, ch ara c te ris tic s, etc. P oetry— types, ch ara c te ris tic s, etc. T h e essay— d evelo p m en t, c h ara c te ris tic s, etc. D ra m a — d evelo p m en t, c h ara c te ris tic s, etc. B iography— d evelo p m en t, ch ara c te ris tic s, etc. O ra to ry — types, etc. C u rre n t p erio d ical lite ra tu re Fields re lo te d to English te a c h in g P rin ciples o f fo ru m a n d group discussion P rinciples o f jo u rn a lis m P rinciples o f p u b lic sp eakin g P rinciples o f a rg u m e n ta tio n a n d d e b a te P rin ciples o f d ra m a tic p ro d u ctio n and d irec tio n T e c h n iq u e o f rad io p re s e n ta tio n . M o tio n p ic tu re p ro d u ctio n o n al p rin cip les a n d p ractices - G en era l p rin cip les o f ed u ca tio n H is to ry o f e d u c a tio n — g en eral H is to ry o f A m e ric a n ed u ca tio n Philosophy o f e d u ca tio n Social fo u n d a tio n s o f ed u ca tio n P rinciples o f a d m in is tra tio n an d supervision H u m a n g ro w th a n d d e ve lo p m e n t M e n ta l h yg ien e— p e rso n a lity a d ju s tm e n t, etc. Psychology o f adolescence P rin ciples o f lea rn in g P rin ciples o f counselling a n d g u id an ce P rinciples o f c h a ra c te r ed u ca tio n E d u catio n al te s tin g an d m easu rin g P rinciples o f secondary e d u c a tio n — g en eral P rinciples o f secondary c u rric u lu m co n stru ctio n C u rre n t e d u c a tio n a l lite ra tu re M e th o d s o f class m a n a g e m e n t a n d d iscipline G en eral m ethods o f te a c h in g h ig h school subjects S pecific m ethods o f te a c h in g E m lis h P rinciples o f co n d u ctin g e x tra c u rric u la r a c tiv itie s (A d d o th ers) T h e item s listed above a re suggested by college o ffe rin g s in th e field s o f English an d e d u ca tio n a n d hence do n o t include m a n y o th e r types o f kn o w led g e tre a te d in college courses. O n th e lines below please list th e m ost im p o rta n t " s u p p o rtin g s u b jec ts "— or types o f kn ow ledge n o t g e n e ra lly tre a te d in college courses in English a n d e d u c a tio n — th a t you believe should be included in th e college p re p a ra tio n o f teach ers o f English. PART IV Below a re listed s ta te m e n ts re fle c tin g issues in th e te a c h in g o f high school English an d in th e e d u ca tio n o f teach ers o f English. A stu d y o f p rin te d sources in th e fie ld o f English te a c h in g has shown such issues to be h ig h ly c o n tro versial. W e wish to kn o w th e e x te n t to w hich you ap p ro ve or disapprove each s ta te m e n t in th e lig h t o f your exp erien ce as a te a c h e r o f English. Please record yo u r ju d g m e n t in th e co lu m n a t th e rig h t o f th e p ag e, using th e fo llo w in g ra tin g scale: I I am I strongly strongly approve I approve undecided I disapprove disapprove 5 4 3 2 1 L ite ra tu re a n d com position should be regarded as s ep a ra te subjects to be ta u g h t a t s ep a ra te tim es. It is th e d u ty o f teach ers o f English to ta k e th e lead in develo p in g a u n ifie d in s tru ctio n al p ro g ram am o n g all d e p a rtm e n ts o f th e school. "C la ss ic s" o f English lite ra tu re should be req u ired stu d y fo r a il high school pupils. H om ogeneous g ro u p in g is a good device fo r re a liz in g d esirab le o u t com es o f English in stru ctio n . T h e p resen t interests o f pupils should be th e c rite ria fo r selectin g th e experien ces w hich m a k e up th e English p ro g ram . T e ac h e rs should req u ire in ten sive class stu d y o f lite ra tu re as a m eans o f develo p in g lite ra ry a p p re c ia tio n am o n g pupils. T e ac h e rs should d ire c t English in s tru ctio n to w ard th e b u ild in g o f a new social order. T h e te a c h in g o f lite ra tu re should be used as a p rim a ry m eans o f d e veloping good c h a ra c te r tra its in pupils. T e a c h e r lead ersh ip should be stressed in classroom s experien ces in English in o rd er to secure th e discipline and control needed fo r d e m o c ra tic social co o p eratio n . O b je c tiv e tests now a v a ila b le a re a good m eans o f m easu rin g pupil a c h ie v e m e n t in w ritte n com position. T h e re should be req u ired a t d iffe re n t school levels m in im u m essen tia ls in w ritte n fo rm o f expression th a t each pupil m ust acq u ire b e fo re he can be p ro m o ted to a h ig h e r g rad e. T eac h e rs o f English should provide in s tru ctio n in p ro p ag an d a analysis. T e ach e rs o f English should req u ire a ll pupils to m e m o rize passages fro m s ta n d a rd lite ra tu re . T h e English classroom p ro g ram should be o rg a n ize d to p u t th e m a jo r em phasis upon oral expression by pupils. T e ac h ers o f English should en co u rag e, as p a rt o f th e p ro g ram o f English in s tru ctio n , reading o f books an d m a g a zin e s w ith o u t an y restrictio n s as to q u a lity o f th e m a te ria l read. T e ach ers o f English should tea ch lite ra tu re a n d c re a tiv e w ritin g fo r th e ir th e ra p e u tic v a lu e to pupils— i. e. th e ir v a lu e in c re a tin g proper m e n ta l an d e m o tio n a l states. D e fin ite class in s tru ctio n in g ra m m a r should be given to a ll s tu d ents as a d is tin c t a n d req u ired p a rt o f th e English p ro g ram . T e ac h e rs o f English should en co u rag e pupils to use vigorous m odes o f English expression based on c u rre n t A m e ric a n usage ra th e r th a n form s based upon c o n ven tio n al sch o larly standards. In s tru c tio n in c re a tiv e w ritin g should be lim ite d to pupils w ho show special a p titu d e fo r a rtis tic expression. T e ac h e rs should en co u rag e pupils to m odel th e ir com positions a fte r selections o f reco g n ized lite ra ry excellen ce. T e a c h e rs o f English should stress u n d e rstan d in g o f social b a c k grounds as one o f th e im p o rta n t outcom es o f th e stu d y o f lite ra tu re . T h e stu d y o f s ta n d a rd types o f lite ra tu re — novel, d ra m a , e tc ., — is one o f th e best w ays o f en ab lin g pupils to set up stan d ard s o f lite ra ry ju d g m e n t. T e a c h e rs should a tte m p t to in te rp re t m odern social an d econom ic co n d itio n s th ro u g h classroom te a c h in g o f re a lis tic lite ra tu re . T h e d esira b le outcom es o f lite ra tu re te a c h in g a re too in ta n g ib le to be m easu red by o b je c tiv e tests now a v a ila b le . W e should assum e th a t m ost o f th e g ro w th in th e a r t o f te a c h in g m u s t ta k e p la ce on th e job. In s titu tio n s w h ich prescribe m uch in e d u c a tio n a l psychology a n d p ro fe s sio n a lize d s u b je c t-m a tte r are a im in g a t an e a rly p e rfe ctio n w h ich c a n n o t be a tta in e d th e n , a n d th e y th e re b y d ep rive prospective te a ch e rs o f English o f o th e r co lleg e w o rk essential to th e ir e d u ca tio n . S e p a ra te courses in m ethods o f te a c h in g English should be e lim i n a te d a n d s u b je c t-m a tte r courses in English should co m b in e th e problem s o f w h a t a n d how to te a c h in one u n ifie d p rese n ta tio n . If s e p a ra te courses in m ethods o f te a c h in g English a re given th e y should be ta u g h t by th e teach ers in th e college d e p a rtm e n ts o f English ra th e r th a n by teach ers in th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f ed u ca tio n . Broad scholarship in th e fie ld o f English is m ore im p o rta n t fo r a suc cessful te a c h e r o f English th a n professional skill in m ethods o f te a ch in g . S kill in te a c h in g w ill be secured m ore e ffe c tiv e ly d u rin g th e college p ro g ra m by c o n s ta n t supervised o b servatio n o f good te a c h in g th a n by th e c o n ve n tio n a l courses in p ra c tic e te a ch in g . P rospective teach ers o f English need fe w e r s p ec ia lize d courses in English a n d e d u c a tio n a n d m ore in te g ra tin g , s yn th etic courses o f s tu d y w hich c u t across d e p a rtm e n ta l lines, as in courses calle d "C o n te m p o ra ry C iv iliz a tio n .// T h e p ro g ra m o f te a c h e r e d u c a tio n should be g en eral ra th e r th a n s p e c ia lize d ; teach ers should be e d u c a te d w ith b u t s lig h t a tte n tio n to s p ecific position o r levels; in o th e r words, we should e d u c a te te a ch e rs , n o t specialists such as m a th e m a tic s teach ers or teach ers o f English. T h e scope o f a c tiv itie s in hig h school English is so g re a t th a t it is n o t p ra c tic a l to a tte m p t to e d u c a te teach ers to te a ch in m ore th a n one o th e r fie ld . 413 COPY,OF QUESTIONNAIRE m % - . 'A f* . . . APPENDIX B SCHOOLS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY 415 II. III. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY Small schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) Carmel Junior High School Fort Bragg Junior High School Hemet Junior High School Bell Gardens Junior High School Southwest Junior High School Lockwood Junior High School Pacific Beach Junior High School Carmel Fort Bragg Hemet Montebello Nestor Oakland San Diego. Medium schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) John Burroughs Junior High School Chula Vista Junior High School Enterprise Junior High School Roosevelt Junior High School Willowbrook Junior High School Eureka Junior High School Hamilton Junior High School Longfellow Junior High School Washington Junior High Sehool Roosevelt Junior High School Clark Junior High School Lowell Junior High School Kern Avenue Junior High School Claremont Junior High School Garfield Junior High School Golden Gate Junior High Lincoln Junior High School Westlake Junior High School Petaluma Junior High School Pittsburg Junior High School Fremont Junior High School Chewawa Junior High School John Swett Junior High School Lick Junior High School Burnette Junior High School Hoover Junior High School San Luis Obispo Junior High School Lathrop Junior High School Mission Hill Junior High South Pasadena Junior High School Burbank Chula Vista Compton Compton Compton Eureka Fresno Fresno Fresno Glendale La Creseenta Long Beach Los Angeles Oakland Oakland Oakland Oakland Oakland Petaluma Pittsburg Pomona Riverside San Francisco San Francisco San Jose San Jose San Luis Obispo Santa Ana Santa Cruz South Pasadena Large schools (36 teachers and over) Garfield Junior High School Eleanor J. Toll Junior High School Berkeley Glendale Wilson Junior High School Franklin Junior High School Jefferson Junior High School Washington Junior High School Luther Burbank Junior High School Burroughs Junior High School Central Junior High School Emerson Junior High School Edison Junior High School Foshay Junior High School Gompers Junior High School Bret Harte Junior High School Hollenbeck Junior High School Horace Mann Junior High School Le Conte Junior High School Mount Vernon Junior High School Nightingale Junior High School Pasteur Junior High School Stevenson Junior High School Virgil Junior High School Lynwood Junior High School North Hollywood Junior High School Frick Junior High School Hamilton Junior High School Jordan Junior High School John Marshall Junior High School McKinley Junior High School Washington Junior High School Wilson Junior High School Redlands Junior High School Central Junior High School Sutter Junior High School Horace Mann Junior High School Memorial Junior High School Roosevelt Junior High School Wilson Junior High School Aptos Junior High School Francisco Junior High School Marina Junior High School Presidio Junior High School Roosevelt Junior High School Wilson Junior High School Dana Junior High School La Cumbre Junior High School Santa Barbara Junior High School Ventura Junior High School 416 Glendale Long Beach Long Beach Long Beach Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los AngeLes Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Lynwood North Hollywood Oakland Oakland Palo Alto Pasadena Pasadena Pasadena Pasadena Redlands Riverside Sacramento San Diego San Diego San Diego San Diego San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco San Jose San Jose San Pedro Santa Barbara Santa Barbara Ventura . 417 HIGH AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY I. Small schools (up to 15 teachers inclusive) Pierce Joint Union High School Arbuckle Atascadero Union High School Atascadero Avalon Junior and Senior High Avalon Banning Union High School Banning Barstow Union High School Barstow Benicia High School Benicia Bishop Union High School Bishop Palo Yerde Yalley Union High Blythe Liberty Union High School Brentwood Calipatria Union High School Calipatria Calistoga Joint Union High School Calistoga Coast Union High School Cambria Carpinteria Union High School Carpinteria Clarksburg Union High School Clarksburg Colusa Union High School Colusa Corcoran Union High School Corcoran Corning Union High School Corning Courtland Union High School Courtland Del Norte High School Crescent City San Ramon Yalley Union High School Danville Denair High School Denair Butte Yalley High School Dorris Dunsmuir Joint Union High School Dunsmuir Durham Union High School Durham Emery Junior-Senior High School Emeryville Esparto Union High School Esparto Etna Union High School Etna Fallbroolc Union High School Fallbrook Eerndale Union High School Ferndale Folsom Union High School Folsom Fontana Branch High School Fontana Galt Union High School Galt Gonzales Union High School Gonzales Gustine Union High School Gustine Holtville Union High School Holtville Hoopa Yalley Unified High School Hoopa Yalley Hughson Union High School Hughson Jackson High School Jackson Julian Union High School Julian Clear Lake Union High School Lakeport Laton Joint Union High School Laton Live Oak High School Live Dak Fall River Joint Union High School McArthur McCloud High School McCloud II. U1B Mendocino Union High School Middletown Union High School South Fork Union High School Moorpark Memorial Union High School Mount Shasta High School Saint Helena High School Nevada City High School last Nicolaus High School Nordhoff Union High School Palm Spring High School Ferris Union High School Mountain Empire Union High School Portola Junior and Senior High Potter Yalley High School Princeton Joint Union High School Puente High School Quincy High School Rio Yista Union High School Calaveras Union High School Simi Valley High School Strathmore Union High School Sutter Creek Union High School Tomales Joint Union High School Tranquility Union High School Tule Lake High School Vacaville Union High School Yista High School Weed High School Wheatland Union High School Glen County High School Woodlake Union High School Siskiyou High School Medium schools (16 to 35 teachers inclusive) Albany Analy Antioch Arroya Grande Azusa Fast Bakersfield Brawl ey Brea Campbell Centerville Chino Claremont Corona Albany High School Analy Union High School Antioch High School Arroya Grande High School Citrus Union High School and Junior College East Bakersfield High School Brawley Union High School Brea-Olinda Union High School Campbell Union High School Washington Union High School Chino High School Claremont Junior and Senior High Corona Senior High School Mendoc ino Middletown Miranda Moorpark Mount Shasta Napa Nevada City last Nicolaus Ojai Palm Spring Ferris Pine Yalley Portola Potter Yalley Princeton Puente Quincy Rio Yista San Andreas Simi Strathmore Sutter Creek Tomales Tranquility Tule Lake Vacaville Yista Weed Wheatland Willows Woodlake Yreka 419 John Swett Union High School Delano Joint Union High School Dinuba High School Dos Palos Junior and Senior High Downey Junior and Senior High HI Segundo High School San Dieguito Union High School Escondido Union High School Eureka Senior High School San Juan Union High School Fillmore Union High School Fort Jones High School Fortuna Union High School Fowler Union High School Central Union High School Washington Union High School Garden Grove Union High School Gilroy High School Gridley Union High School Hemet Union High School San Benito County High School Herman Union High School Kingsburg Union High School Laguna Beach Junior and Senior High La Jolla High School Madera Union High School Manteca Union High School Alhambra Union High School Monterey High School Mountainview Union High School Needles High School Oceanside Carlsbad Union High Oroville Union High School m Oxnard Union High School Petaluma High School Valencia High School El Dorado County High School Red Bluff High School Redlands High School Rio Vista Joint Union High Roseville Union High School South San Francisco Junior, Senior High School Sanger Union High School Santa Ynez Valley Union High Selma Union High School Shasta Union High School Fremont Union High School Torrance High School Tracy Union High School Crockett Delano Dinuba Dos Palos Downey El Segundo Ensinitas Escondido Eureka Fair Oaks Fillmore Fort Jones Fortuna Fowler Fresno Fre sno Garden Grove Gilroy Gridley Hemet Hollister Kerman Kingsburg Laguna Beach La Jolla Madera Manteca Martinez Monterey Mountainview Needles Oceanside Oroville Oxnard, Petaluma Placentia Placerville Red Bluff Redlands Rio Vista Roseville South San Francisco Sanger Santa Ynez Selma Shasta Sunnyvale Torrance Tracy Ukiah Union High. School Westwood Junior and Senior High Tuba City High School III. Large schools (36 teachers and over) Anaheim Union High School Placer Union High School Kern County Union High School Berkeley High School Canoga Park High School Chico High School Covina Union High School Central Union High School Edison Technical High School Fresno High School Fullerton Union High School Gardena High School Grossmont Union High School Hanford Union High School Hayward Union High School Herbert Hoover High School Huntington Park High School Inglewood High School Leutzinger High School Lodi Union High School Polytechnic High School Woodrow Ifilson High School Franklin High School Garfield High School Thomas Jefferson High School David Starr Jordan High School Lincoln High School Los Angeles High School Narbonne High School South Gate High School University High School Woodrow Wilson High School Marysville Union High School Tamalpais Union High School Modesto High School Montebello Senior High School Oakland High School Roosevelt High School Technical High School University High School Palo Alto Senior High School Senior High School Pomona High School Porterville Union High School 420 Ukiah Westwood Yuba City Anaheim Auburn Bakersfield Berkeley Canoga Park Chico Covina El Centro Fresno Fre sno Fullerton Gardena Grossmont Hanford Hayward Glendale Huntington Park Inglewood Inglewood Lodi Long Beach Long Beach Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles (West) Los Angeles Marysville Mill Valley Modesto Montebello Oakland Oakland Oakland Oakland Palo Alto South Pasadena Pomona Porterville 421 Reedley Joint Union High School Reedley Richmond Union High School Richmond Riverside Polytechnic High School Riverside Grant Union High School Sacramento Salinas High School Salinas San Bernardino Senior High School San Bernardino Hoover Senior High School San Diego Point Lomas High School San Diego San Diego High School San Diego San Fernando High School San Fernando Balboa High School San Francisco Galileo High School San Francisco Girls High School San Francisco LoweHHigh School San Francisco Polytechnic High School San Francisco San Luis Obispo High School San Luis Obispo San Mateo High School San Mateo San Pedro High School San. Pedro San Rafael High School San Rafael Santa Ana Senior High School Santa Ana Santa Cruz Senior High School Santa Cruz Santa Rosa High School Santa Rosa Stockton High School Stockton Taft Union High School Taft Tulare Union High School Tulare Turlock Union High School Turlock Yallejo Senior High School Yallejo Yan Nuys High School Yan Nuys Yisalia Union High and Junior College Yisalia Watsonville High School Watsonville Whittier Union High School Whittier DISTRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRES STUDIED Junior High Schools High & Sr. High Schools All High Schools ------Size’----- " of school No. in state ■ ' No.' in this study Per cent in this study ' No; - in state ..No;. in this study Per cent in this study No. in state No. in this study Per cent in this study Small (1-15 teachers) 15 7 46.6 161 76 47.2 176 83 47.2 Medium (16-35 teachers) 42 30 71.4 103 65 63.1 145 95 65.5 Large (36 teachers and over) 77 48 62.3 124 75 60.5 201 123 61.2 Total 134 85 63.4 388 216 55.7 522 301 57,6 Teachers in Junior High Schools Teachers in High & Sr. High Schools Teachers in All High Schools Size of school No. in state No. in this study Per cent in this study No. in state No. in this study Per cent in this study No. in state No. in this study Per cent in this study Small (1-15 teachers) 47 27 57.4 334 187 56. 381 214 56.2 Medium (16-35 teachers) 314 142 45.2 466 291 62.4 780 • 433 55.5 Large (36 teachers and over) 1,089 461 42.3 1,494 677 45.3 2,583 1,138 44.1 Total 1,450 630 43.4 2,294 1,155 50.3 3,744 1,785 47.6 422 APPENDIX C TREATMENT OF STATISTICS In order to determine whether differences in per cent were reliable differences, or had arisen because of sampling, the following formulae used by Bond and taken from Yule were applied. Formula 1 was used to establish the reliability of the difference between two percentages and two items for the same group of teachers. Formula 2 was used to determine the reliability between percentages of two groups of teachers for any item. Of the numerous examples investigated, the .standard error of difference was generally clustered around the figure 2.5.1 (1) Epsilon difference = / ?1^1 + ?2§2 . v N 2 Px and Q , ± are the proportions from the first sample; P2 and Q2 are proportions from the second sample; and H2 are the size of each sample. (2) Epsilon difference = PoQ,o ( . 1.. . » -A— ) ®1 ^2 where Po = — % + and Qo = 1-Po and N2 are the size of each sample. Jessie Albert Bond, Activities and Education of High School Teachers in California (Los Angeles: Suttonhouse, 1937), p. 22, citing G. Udny Yule, An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics.(Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1924), p. 269. appendix d TEXTBOOKS ANALYZED FOR ISSUES Blaisdell, Thomas C., Ways to Teach English- New York: Doubleday Doran, 1930. Boas, Halph R., The Study and Appreciation of Literature. New York: Earcourt Brace and Company, 1931^ P. 356. Conrad, Lawrence H., Teaching Creative Writing. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1937. P. 12. Chubb, Perceval, The Teaching of English in the Elementary and Secondary School. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929. P. 594. Craig, Virginia, The Teaching of High School English. New York: Longmans, G-reen and Company, 1933. Dakin, Dorothy, Talks to Beginning Teachers of English. New York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1937. Pries, Charles C., The Teaching of the English Language. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1927. P. 187* Glaser, Emma, On the Teaching of Junior High School English. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935. Hatfield, W. W., Chairman, An Experience Curriculum in English. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1935. Hitchcock, Alfred M., Breadloaf Talks on Teaching Composition. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1927* P. 120. Hosic, J. E., Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin; Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1917* Hudelson, Earl, "English Composition, Its Aims, Methods and Measurements,” Twenty-Second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Bloomington, Illinois Public School Publishing Company, 1923. Part I, pp. 1-161 LaBrant, Lou, The Teaching of Literature in the Secondary Schools. New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1931. Mirrielees, Lucia B., Teaching Composition and Literature. New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1937. National Education Association, "The Development of a Modern Program in English," Ninth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1936. 42? Parker, Roscoe E., The Principles and Practice of Teaching; English. New York: Prentice Hall, 1937. Rosenblatt, Louise M., - Literature as Exploration/ Hew York: D. Appleton-Gentury Company, 1938. Sharp, Russell A., Teaching English in High Schools. New York: Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1924* lo2 pp. Smith, Reed, The Teaching of Literature in the High School. New York: The American Book Company, 1933. 3?. 4$5. Stratton, Clarence, The Teaching of English in the High School. New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1923. Thomas, Charles Swain, The Teaching of English in the Second ary School. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927. Ward, C. H., What is English? New York: Scott Foresman and Company, 1925* 4^3 pp. Webster, S. H., and Lora V. Smith, Teaching English in the Junior High School. Yonkers: World Book Company, 1927. 404 PP• APPENDIX 1 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES AND COLLEGE COURSES LISTED BY TEACHERS 429 ACTIVITIES LISTED BY JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS IN ADDITION TO THOSE INCLUDED IN PART II OF QUESTIONNAIRE * Activities related to dramatics 6 Activities related to group organization 3 • i • • * Activities related to instruction and reading 6 Activities related to oral expression 5 Activities related to promoting attitudes U Activities related to written composition 2 430 ACTIVITIES LISTED BY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS IN ADDITION TO THOSE INCLUDED IN PART II OF QUESTIONNAIRE Activities related to dramatics 15 Activities related to oral expression S Activities related to instruction in reading 4 Activities related to group organization 6 Correlation with other departments 5 Interpreting school to community 2 Developing pupil personality 6 Teaching methods of study 4 Evaluating "books 2 Penmanship 3 Teaching use of library 2 Organizing courses 2 Demonstration teaching 1 Committee work 1 Discipline 1 Testing 1 Adolescent psychology 1 Keeping mentally fit 1 Broad appreciation of life by teaching 1 Journalism 1 Consumer education 1 English as aid to vocation 1 Understanding economic conditions 1 Teaching objective criticism 1 Teaching creative expression 1 431 COURSES LISTED BY JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS UNDER PART III (ADDITIONAL TO THOSE PRINTED) Practice Teaching Psychology courses Oral English Guidance and Occupational Orientation Professional Ethics Organizing Community Resources Character Education Class Management Methods of Using Yisual Aids Logic Radio Education Formal Grammar Children’s Literature Remedial Reading Music and Arts Elementary Education Filing Literary Appreciation Extracurricular Activities Physical Education Statistics Languages Developing Units World Culture Sex Education Stage Makeup Creative Writing Broad Education Course 4 32 COURSES LISTED BY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS UNDER PART III (ADDITIONAL TO THOSE PRINTED) History courses 9 Speech courses 6 Art appreciation 7 Foreign languages 7 Vocational guidance 8 Literature courses 6 Psychology 4 Wide scholarship 2 Language development 2 Drama 2 Experience 5 Science 3 Sex education 1 Physical education 3 Religion 2 Logic 2 Ethics 2 Leadership 1 Economics 1 Nutrition 1 Ethnology 1 Business management for student activities 1 Methods of teaching English 12 Teaching remedial reading 5 Practice teaching 4 Evaluation 3 Others 3 APPENDIX P LETTERS TO COLLEGE PROFESSORS 434 THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH January 15, 1940 Dr. John Doe. Claremont Colleges Claremont, Cal i f o mi a Dear Dr* Doe: A committee of the Southern California Association of Teachers of English is engaged in a study of problems related to the teaching of secondary school English* As a part of this study we wish to se cure the opinions of representative teachers and administrators who direct the education and teaching activities of high school teachers of English* We are therefore writing to you, believing that you will cooperate in our efforts by filling in and returning the enclosed inquiry form. The inquiry form enclosed obviously does not include all the factors affecting the teaching of high school English*. Instead it includes only some of the elements which are preliminary study has shown to need further clarification. In addition to your answers to the specific items listed, we shall appreciate further comments from you dn the space provided in the latter part of the inquiry form. The inquiry form has been designed to peimit rapid scoring. No names will be used in connection with this study. There is en closed a return envelope for your convenience. Please be assured of our thanks for your cooperation. Sincerely yours, Daniel F. Graham COPY When completed, please return to* D. F. Graham Santa Monica Junior College Santa Monica, California Below are listed.six curricular divisions under which the chief college courses now prevalent in the education of secon dary school teachers of English may be listed* Please indicate your judgment of the proportion of time which teachers of Eng lish should devote to college courses in each of these six divi sions during a four-year undergraduate course* Circle the appropriate per cent for each division; see that the total amounts to 100 per cent. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 50 t Fundamental service needs for teachers of English, such as freshman'Com'po sit ion, etc. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 50-+ Major subject of specialization-- (presumably English) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50- 50+ Minor subject of specialization— 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 50+ Supporting subjects— college courses not included in major and minor fields of specialization. 0 5 10 15 20 2 5 30 35 40 45 50 50-4- Courses in education 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 50+- Free election Below are listed the same six curricular divisions as appear in the item above. Please list under the appropriate divisions the names or brief descriptions of college courses which you be lieve especially valuable in the education of teachers of English. Fundamental service needs for teacher of -------- ---------------- English, such as freshman composition, ----------------------- etc. " Major subject of specialization— (presumably English) Minor subject of specialization Supporting subjects— college courses not included in major and minor fields of specialization Courses in education Free election In addition to your judgments as recorded in the foregoing parts of this inquiry form we shall appreciate any comment regard ing a college program for the education of secondary school teachers of English that you may wish to make, whether in the space below or in more detail on a separate sheet. 807 5 fEB 4- 1941

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Asset Metadata

Creator Graham, Daniel Frick (author)

Core Title The academic and professional preparation of teachers of English in secondary schools in California

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Secondary,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format done (imt)

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-400906

Unique identifier UC11243509

Identifier usctheses-c26-400906 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP23456.pdf

Dmrecord 400906

Document Type Dissertation

Format done (imt)

Rights Graham, Daniel Frick

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA