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Educational implications of Baha'i philosophy with a special consideration of the concept of unity

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Educational implications of Baha'i philosophy with a special consideration of the concept of unity

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Content EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF BAHA'I PHILOSOPHY WITH A SPECIAL CONSIDERATION OF THE CONCEPT OF UNITY by Mahyad Zaerpoor A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the ‘ Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) August 19 81 UMI Number: DP24811 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dic»seyUt on Publishing UMI DP24811 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 U N IVE R SITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA £ i T H E G RA DU ATE SC H O O L U C* U. C _ f U N IV E R S IT Y PARK ^ t LOS A NG ELES. C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 » r> • , Irof , '? I z I % . . ■ . . J}%!3 E> This dissertation, w ritte n by Mahyad Zaerpoor under the direction of he.r. .. . Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean D ate Chairman .. ii i TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ................................ 1 Statement of the Problem................... 11 Hypotheses.......... 12 Methodology . 13 Delimitations 13 j Capitalization ....................... 14 Organization 15 | II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . 16 Primary Literature . 17 t The Literature of the B a b............. . 17 The Literature of Baha'u'llah ...... 19 The Literature of Abdu'l-Baha ....... 21 The Literature of Shoghi Effendi .... 24 Compilations ..................... 25 Secondary Literature ....................... 30 Literature Dealing with the Baha'i Faith in General.......... 30 Literature Dealing With Baha'i Philosophy . . 35 Literature Dealing With Baha'i Education 41 Literature Related to Education and World Unity .............. 45 III. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE BAHA'I FAITH 52 Metaphysics . 53 Unity in the World of G o d ............... * 53. Unity of Essence and Attributes of G o d........................... 56 Unity of God and His Manifestations 58 The World of Creation as the Reflection of the Unity of God . . ; 6 0 - Unity of the Manifestations ....... r62; Twofold Station of the Manifestations 6 3 Manifestations as the Primary Mirrors 64 The Mission of the Manifestations . . 65 Chapter iii Page III. Unity of Religions and Progressive Revelation........................... 67 Absolute vs. Relative Truths from Religious Perspectives . 69 The World of Creation................. -75 The Essential Unity in the Existence of M a n ............... .7 8 Spirit of Man From Baha1i j Perspective 80 I Unity of Material and Spiritual j Sides.......... . 8 5 ; , Oneness of Mankind . . ................... .8 6 j Unity in Diversity ............ . . . . 88. Baha'i Metaphysics and Other Schools of Thought: A Comparison ........ 89 . Epistemology .............................. 95 j Understanding the Modes But Not the ' Substance ..................... 96 Unknowability of God ................. 97 Subjectivity of Knowledge 9 8 Unity in Different Modes of Knowing . . 101 Complementary Nature of Epistem- ological Approaches ............. 101 j Scientific Approaches . . . 104 The Path of Reason . 105 Scientific Investigations ........ 106 Non-Scientific Approaches ............. 108 Meditation and Prayers 10 8 Intuition........ .......... .. L .109. ■ Knowing One's Self ............. Ill Purity of Heart.............. 112 Metaphor and Symbolic Language . . 113 Baha'i Epistemology and Other Schools of Thought.......... 117 Ethics 12 0 The General Format of Absolute Values . 121 Justice ................... 122 Love of Humanity . 12 5 General Format of the Relativity of Values..................... 127 Freedom of Man and Relativity of Values......................... 127 The Universal House of Justice . . 131 Baha'i Ethics and Other Schools of Thought.............................. 132 iv Chapter Page IV. EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE BAHA'I FAITH 132 Mission of Education ................. 1139'- Importance of Education in the Baha'i Faith.............. .139; Necessity of Education............. ‘ 53IJ; Three Kinds of Education........... ;14_4> The Universal Educators............. ‘ -14 5 • Goals of Education..................... ' 1473 Spiritual Goals ............. 148 A United World: The Social Goal . . \151 Foundations of World Unity . . . . . ‘ 154. Education for Women................. 159; Perfectionism............................ 162, Education Toward Actualization of Man's Potentials................. 165, Unity of Material and Spiritual Progress -166 Psychological Foundations of Education . . . ll>87 Heredity and Environment ............... 168- Intrinsic Differences and the Role of - Education ..... '172’ Environmental Factors and the Role of Education ............ ?1747 Developmental Stages and Educative. ' Processes..................... .. . . 17 6/ Education from Infancy ................. :17J' Instructional Methodologies ................ :181 Classroom Management............ 181 : • Tracking..................... .. ’ 181 Individualized Instruction. l-82> From Simple to Complex ............ .18.3; Outward Forms and Symbols to Convey Intellectual Abstractions ...... "184' The Implications of Metaphor for Teaching Methodologies ....................... 18 6 Independent Search for T r u t h.......... ^18 8, Active Involvement of the Students in the Learning Process........ -.189 Question-Answer Method...... 189/ Decision-Making Activities.. i?J) Learning by Doing ........... 192; Teachers.................................... 19 5 The Station of the Teachers ....... ^19.6 Endowment and Spiritual Rewards for the Teachers :■............ 198 Chapter IV. V. v Page Teachers as Heirs.................. . 200 The Desired Qualities of a Teacher . . . 201 Teachers as Spiritual, Intellectual, and Physical Guides . . . . . . . 201 Teachers as Perfect Examples . . . 2 J)3 Relation to the Students........ 20 4 - Individual Differences and the Teacher's Role ........ 206 Teachers and Discipline .......... 20 7 Basic Tenets of Universal Curriculum . . . 209 Necessity of the University Curriculum 210 Same Curriculum for Both Sexes .... 211 Basic Components of the Universal Curriculum........................... ,212 Character Building and Ethical Orientation ................. "213 • Emotional Expressions................. ;214’ Mental and Intellectual Development . . "215" Overt Behavior........ ................ 220 A Possible Paradigm of Subject Matter . . . 223 General Administrational Policies . . . . . 228- Who Is Responsible for Educating the Children?........................... ,229 Responsibilities of the Parents . . 229" Responsibilities of the Local v " Spiritual Assembly ■Iv.......... 2 31- Responsibilities of the National Spiritual Assembly ............. 232 Responsibilities of the Universal House of Justice ............... 235 FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 238 Findings .................................. Conclusions................................ 24 6 Recommendations ............................ 253 REFERENCES 257 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Baha'i Faith is a new,* independent, universal religion. The word Baha'i comes from the name of the founder of the Faith— Baha'ullah (the Glory of God)— and signifies a follower of Baha'ullah. Encyclopaedia Britan- nica gives the following information about the origin of the Faith. The religion stemmed from the Babi faith— founded in 1844 by Mirza Ali Muhammed of Shiraz, Known as the Bab— which emphasized the forthcoming appearance of "Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest," a new prophet or messenger of God." (1979, p. 587) After the Bab's proclamation, his teachings rapidly spread all over Iran. According to the Encyclopaedia, the wide spread acceptance of the Bab's teachings by the people provoked . . . strong opposition on the part of the clergy and the government. The Bab was arrested and, after several years of incarceration, condemned to death . . . . There followed large-scale persecution of the Babis in which ultimately more than 20,000 people lost their lives." (p. 588) After the execution of the Bab in 1850, and also because of an unsuccessful attempt of two Babis on the life of the Shah of Iran in 1852, large-scale persecutions of the Babis were attempted by both the government and the 2 clergy. Baha'u'llah Himself, an early disciple of the Bab, was thrown into the Black Pit (a notorious jail in Tehran); that was followed by a lifelong exile to the Ottoman Empire. It was during His first year of exile in Baghdad in 1853 that Baha'u.'llah announced to the few remaining followers of the Bab that He was the chosen Manifestation of God for His age (Encyclopedia Britanica, p. 588). This announcement, which was followed by a public proclamation made by letters ("tablets") addressed to the rulers of Iran, Turkey, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain, caused even more problems for Him. The Ottoman government decided to exile Baha'u'llah to Akka, Palestine. It was during His lifetime that Baha'u'llah saw His Faith spread not only in Iran and the Ottoman Empire, but in Caucasus, Turkistan, India, Burma, Egypt, and Sudan as well. Before His life ended in 1892, Baha'u'llah appointed His eldest son, Abdu'1-Baha (Servant of the Glory, 1844-1921), as the Interpreter of His Teachings and the Exemplar of the Faith. It was through Abdu'1-Baha's active engagement in missionary journeys to Africa, Europe, and America from 1910 to 1913 that the Faith spread almost all over the world. In 19 21, after Abdu'1-Baha's death and according to His will, His eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi Rabbani (1896-1957), was appointed as the Guardian of the Faith and the Interpreter of the Teachings. t 3 Since then the Faith has spread to every country of the world. Under 36 years of Shoghi Effendi's leadership there has been evolved an Administrative Order that is a direct application of Baha'u'llah's Teachings for a world order. The foundations of the Baha'i administrative organizations were established by Baha'u'llah. However, it was by the lifeplong endeavors of Abdu'1-Baha and Shoghi Effendi that the worldwide elaboration, expansion, and implementation of the Baha'i administrative institutions were actually accomplished. The whole administrative body, from local to the universal, is based upon a free electoral process. These principles and institutions constitute the Baha'i administrative order, which the followers of the Faith believe to be a blueprint of a future world order. The governance of the Baha'i community begins on the local level with the election of a local spiritual assembly. . . . The local spiritual assembly has jurisdiction over all local affairs of the Baha'i community. On the national scale, each year Baha'is elect delegates to a national convention that elects a national spiritual assembly with jurisdiction over the entire country. All national spiritual assemblies of the world periodically constitute themselves an international convention and elect the supreme govern ing body known as the Universal House of Justice. In accordance with Baha'u'llah's writings, the Universal House of Justice functions as the supreme administra tive, legislative, and judicial body of the Baha'i commonwealth. (Encyclopaedia Britannica,1979, p. 589) Baha'is now live in some 317 countries and terri tories with different religious, racial, and national back grounds. Based on their deep belief in the "unity of man kind," Baha'is have tried to build up new societal orders 4 according to their spiritual principles. These new social orders in miniature serve as examples to attract the attention of a chaotic world that seeks desperately for a way out of the present situation. Bahafis believe that there will come a time when the whole world will be gradu ally aware of this new world order, founded on a synthesis of advanced secular and spiritual concepts, to achieve "One Planet . . . One People." Although the Baha'i Faith is fundamentally a reli gion with its certain body of rules and obligations, the principles underlying the basic belief system can be sum marized into 12 distinctive convictions. Among these principles one can mention: the unity of the foundations of all religions, independent investigation of truth, eradication of all prejudices and superstitions, spiritual solution of the economic problems and abolition of the extremes of poverty and wealth, essential reconciliation of religion and science, equality of the rights of men and women, universal education, religion as the basis of unity and love, the oneness of the world of humanity, a universal or auxilliary language, and lasting peace and world govern ment. Moreover, the sacred teachings cover a vast variety of problematic issues. Not only do they deal with conven tional religious subjects such as "God-man relation," "man-cosmos relation," or religious ordinances, these 5 teachings touch other secular branches of knowledge (e.g., education, economics, psychology, and politics) as well. These recent issues, however, are discussed in a general and unspecified manner and are not dealt with in a specific, down-to-detail way. From a philosophical point of view, what makes the Baha'i Faith a rather distinctive system of beliefs among other religions is its different and new approaches to metaphysical questions. While in all other Middle Eastern religions— -Judaism, Christianity, and Islam— there have always been two separate worlds (the World of Creator and the world of creature), according to the Baha'i Faith, there are three different worlds--The Realm of Holiness, The Realm of Divine Revelation, and The Realm of Creation. In brief, all the controversy on Truth versus truth and Real versus real are addressed to the second and third realms, for these are the only accessible worlds that man can become aware of. The first world, the Realm of Holi ness, is completely "beyond every human attribute, such as corporal existence, ascent and descent, egress and regress" (Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 589) . It is just enough to have certitude that "He is," because "No tie of direct intercourse can possibly bind him to His creatures. . . . No sign can indicate His presence or his absence" (Encyclo paedia Britannica, p. 589). Therefore, the prophets, through all time, are not the messengers of the God, but the 6 Manifestations that "are one and all the Exponents on earth of Him Who is the central Orb of the universe" (Encyclo paedia Britannica, p. 589). This assertion, by its nature, sheds a whole new light on the issue of metaphysics from a religious perspective. Moreover, the Baha'i approach to epistemological and axiological questions differs from that of other reli gions. It neither confines itself to pure revelation in searching for truth,-nor does it throw itself into the realm of absolute human experiment. On the contrary, it tries to come up with a kind of reconciliation among different methods of truth finding. When the reconcilia tion does not seem to be feasible, it tries to categorize the subjects and offers appropriate epistemological methods for each different category. For example, while mystical and non-scientific ^alternatives are highly recommended in searching for the truth of the God, other epistemological methods— e.g., organized speculating, scientific and logical— might work well for finding secular truths. In the realm of axiology, the Baha'i approach is rather unique. The Faith requires a high level of moral standards. The general format as well as some specific details are covered in the Sacred Teachings. Still, there remains a lot of freedom and responsibility on the part of the individual. There is neither a heaven, as a reward, nor a hell for punishment. The human soul will continue 7 its continuous evolution not only in this world but after death. The believers must do "the Good" because of "love of Baha'u'llah" and for its own sake. It is a very per sonal matter, no judicial body would intervene (unless in very special cases or where a harm to others is done). Here, education takes a very important role. It has been believed that unless people internalize the ethical values, it is almost impossible for them to act upon them. It has been assumed that it is only through proper education (prophets are also assumed to be educators) that the spiritual and intellectual dimensions of human beings will reach a balanced development. This is the heart of the Baha'i philosophy of education. Although the basic principles are available in the sacred teachings, there is no complete Baha'i system of education. However, the importance of education and its vital role in evolving a "new world order" is repeatedly emphasized on many occasions in Baha'u'llah's Abdu'l- Baha's and Shoghi Effendi's numerous writings. In Glean ings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah/ the seriousness of the matter is stated. "The Great Being saith: Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Educa tion can, alone, cause it to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom" (1976, p. 260). Or, in another place, in Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, Baha'u'llah says, 8 Man is even as steel, the essence of which is hidden: through admonition and explanation, good counsel and education, that essence will be brought to light. If, however, he be allowed to remain in his original condition, the corrosion of lusts and appetites will effectively destroy him. (p. 27) In brief, innately man is neither good nor evil, it is only through education, in a very broad term, that he makes himself, both spiritually and intellectually. Although both secular and moral education are in the state of mutual necessity, the priority always tends to go to j i spiritual education, if only one is available. In fact, | in a very mystical way, the ultimate aim of education (but j \ not necessarily schooling) seems to be the "Knowledge of God." "We have decreed, 0 people, that the highest and last end of all learning be the recognition of Him Who is the Object of all knowledge ..." (Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah, 1976, p. 199). One concept that seems to be of great significance in both the Baha'i philosophy as well as its system of 1 education is unity. The Baha'i literature shows that by unity there are generally two meanings involved. On one hand, unity tends to mean something equivalent to the state of being one; oneness. On the other hand, it may j imply a whole or totality as combining all its parts into ! one, or the state of being united or combined into one. In either case, unity is the single most basic concept 9 upon which the philosophical and educational foundations of the Baha'i Faith rest. By examining the three most fundamental elements of the Baha1i philosophy--metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics— it may become evident how unity, in its dual mean ing, plays a crucial role. Baha'i metaphysics maintains some basic principles and every one of them signifies unity in its deepest structure. For example, Baha'i meta physics stands for the unity in the World of God where, on one hand, it means the state of oneness of God, and, on the other, itjconnotes the unity of the essence and the attributes of God which is closer to the second meaning of the unity; a state of being united or combined into one. Another metaphysical principle of the Faith holds the unity of God's Manifestation (prophets) which, again, may refer to both the meanings of unity. These Manifestations are one for they manifest the names and the attributes of one God. This is unity in its first meaning. They, com bined together, signify a whole or a totality which is what the Faith calls the Realm of Divine Revelation. And finally, Baha'i metaphysics introduces the idea of the essential unity of mankind. On one hand, the human race reflects God's attributes. Therefore, it is in the state of being one. On the other hand, each individual acts as a part or element of a totality which is mankind in general. ______________________________________________ 10 In like manner, unity underlies the very founda tion of Baha*i epistemology. Unlike other schools of thought, Baha'i epistemology does not limit itself to one or a few modes of knowing. It believes in the complemen tary nature of all epistemological approaches. Therefore, all modes of knowing must be united and harmonized to bring about a whole or a totality which is an encompassing system of espitemology combining all its parts into one. The Baha'i ethical system is not an exception either. It neither confines itself to an unchanging, or universally adopted system of absolute values, nor does it embrace the acceptance of a completely eclectic or rela tive ethical system. On the contrary, the Baha'i Faith believes in both absolute and relative systems of values as two complementary components of its ethical system. Since Baha'i educational principles are. by and large based upon Baha'i philosophical foundations, the concept of unity seems to be as important in the educative processes as in philosophy. Unity has a twofold function in Baha'i education; it serves both as an end and as a means as well. The Baha'i commitment to bringing about a more united world leads to the significance that the Faith assigns to the role of education in approaching such a goal. Therefore, unity of the human race is the ultimate social goal for the Baha'i conception of education. To fulfill such an ambitious goal, basic tenets of a variety 11 of the educative processes are set forth wherein unity serves as a means. For instance, unity in developing all dimensions of the human entity, (spiritual, intellectual, material), unity of teaching methodologies, unity of sub ject matters, and unity in the school and in classroom discipline are only a few examples to show how unity may serve as a means in a Baha'i scheme of education. In brief, unity, in both its meanings, plays a very fundamental role in Baha'i philosophy, and, conse quently, in the Baha'i conception of education. A thorough examination of the Baha'i Sacred Writings reveals the fact that the Baha'i philosophical and educational systems are basically founded upon unity both as oneness and as a whole or totality combining all parts into one. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to derive educa tional implications from Baha'i philosophy with a special consideration of the concept of unity as an underlying structure of both Baha'i philosophy and education. Such a purpose requires a consideration of the following ques tions . A. What is the philosophical stance of the Baha'i Faith? 1. What are the metaphysical foundations? 2. What are the epistemological alternatives? 12 3. What are the axiological <yiewp6intsJ of the Faith? B. What are the educational implications of the Baha'i system of belief? 1. What are the ultimate goals of education? 2. What are the psychological foundations of Baha'i education? 3. What could be the nature of the curriculum? 4. What are the feasible instructional metho dologies? 5. What should be the qualifications of the teacher? 6. What could be the administrational policies? Hypotheses The following hypotheses were postulated for this study: 1. Although the Baha'i Faith is essentially a reli gion, it is possible to approach it from a non religious, philosophical perspective. That is, it has the potentiality to be philosophically analyzed like secular schools of thought. 2. The Faith offers a coherent philosophical view, including a metaphysics, an epistemology, and an ethics. This philosophical stance is susceptible to both definition and analysis. 13 3. Although the Baha'i Faith has a lot in common with other religions, it yields varieties of ideas from a philosophical standpoint. These ideas, though not compiled systematically, are basically scattered through the writings of the Bab, Baha'u'llah, Abdu'1-Baha, and Shoghi Effendi. 4. The Baha'i philosophical viewpoints, as well as other direct educational principles written in the Baha'i literature, are the sources of certain implications for the realm of education. Methodology This study was essentially a philosophical study with an emphasis on logical analysis and deduction. Therefore, the methodology included: (a) the assimila tion of data relevant to the stated problem, (b) the analysis and evaluation of such data, and (c) the applica tion of relevant aspects of these data to the solution of the problem. Delimitations The following restrictions were imposed on this study: 1. Baha'i teachings cover a vast range of sub jects. They not only deal with the matters traditionally emphasized by religions (e.g., God, the history of the 14 human race, man and the cosmos, rules and obligations, etc.), but other areas of human knowledge (economic, poli tics, sciences, etc.) are touched as well. This study, however, was confined to the teachings that have direct implications either for determining Baha'i philosophy or education. Therefore, almost none of the writings on other subjects was emphasized. 2. Among the varities of philosophical issues that can be examined at different levels, this study was limited to those issues that are of direct significance for education. Therefore, purely philosophical matters that did not seem to have immediate educational implica tions were overlooked. 3. Among the elements involved in the Baha'i conception of education, this study was limited to the examination of the goals of education, psychological foundations of education, nature of the curriculum, instructional methodologies, qualifications of the teacher, and general administrational policies. Therefore, other related matters such as educational evaluation or teacher training alternatives were not covered. Capitalization Since the original writings of the Bab, Baha'u'llah, and Abdu'1-Baha are either in Persian or Arabic, the problem of capitalization must be mentioned 15 here. There is absolutely no capitalization of letters in Persian or in Arabic. Therefore, there seem to be inconsistencies in the translated literature. Except for the quoted materials, this study tried to follow the most recent and common capitalization forms. The quoted pas sages, however, remain intact. Organization This study included two major subjects: (a) an analysis of the philosophical stance of the Baha'i Faith, and (b) the implications of the philosophical gleanings for education. Accordingly, an independent chapter was devoted to each subject. The overall organization of the remainder of the study includes a chapter on the review of the related literature. Chapter III of this study comprises the philosophical analysis of the Faith. This chapter deals with metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical founda tions of the Faith. Chapter IV deals with educational implications and covers subjects such as the ultimate goals for education, the curriculum, instructional meth odologies, qualifications of the teacher, and the administrational policies. Chapter V includes a brief review, conclusions of the study, and a number of recom mendations . 16 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE There are various kinds of literature that might be relevant to the present study. A considerable amount has been written concerning Baha'i philosophy and education. However, there has been little attempt to trace the educa tional implications of the principle of "oneness of the human world" in detail. Of course in literature dealing with Baha'i philosophy or Baha'i education there are sections with the direct reference to this issue, but not as an independent investigation. The body of literature that is examined in this chapter may be delineated as follows, in descending order of their presumed importance: I. Primary Literature The sacred writings of the Bab, Baha'u'llah, and Abdu'1-Baha The writings of Shoghi Effendi The compilations II. Secondary Literature Literature dealing with the Baha'i Faith in General Literature dealing with Baha'i philosophy Literature dealing with Baha'i education 17 Literature related to education and world unity in general (though not with specific reference to the Baha'i Faith) Primary Literature The Literature of the Bab Among the numerous writings of the Bab only one volume has been translated in English, Selections From the Writings of the Bab. This book is actually a compilation by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, written originally in Persian and Arabic, and translated by Habib Taherzadeh with the assistance of a committee at Baha'i World Center in Haifa (1976). The volume consists of seven parts; Tablets and Addresses, Excerpts from the Qayyumu'1-Asma', Excerpts from the Persian Bayan, Excerpts from the Dalil-i-Sab'ih (the Seven Proofs), Excerpts from various writings, and prayers and meditations. The compilation mostly revolves around the Bab's declaration of His new cause, preparing people for the acceptance of "Him Whom God shall make Manifest", the station of the prophets of God and the purpose of their revelations, and the nature and destiny of mankind. This compilation, also makes more understandable some unclear points regarding the unity of the prophets of all ages, based on the new interpretation of the past Holy Books by the Bab. 18 Perhaps the most important book of the Bab's dispensation is the Bayan, originally written in 1848 both in Persian and Arabic. Unfortunately, its English translation was not available, therefore, the Persian edition is reviewed for this study. The content of this Holy Book covers the Bab's mission, teachings, laws and exhortation, and the fundamental elements of his philos ophy regarding God, His prophets, man, and the whole universe. In fact, basically, Baha'i philosophy has main tained, though elaborated, the Bab's philosophical system. It is the Bab who first differentiated the world of God from the realm of the Divine Revelation or what He called the "Primal Purpose", and the realm of creation. In truth I [God] have created Thee [the Bab] through Thyself, then at My Own behest I have fashioned all things through the creative power of Thy World. . . . No one hath been or will ever be invested with prophethood other than Thee, nor hath any sacred Book been or will be revealed unto any one except Thee. Such is ordained by Him Who is the All- Encompassing, the Best Beloved. (the Bab, 1976, p. 159 Two important points are made clear here. First, the world of creation is brought into existence by the creative power of the "Primal Purpose", which was itself a creature of the world of God. Second, the concept of the unity of the "Primal Purpose" implies the unity of its Manifestations XProphets of different eras). There has never been or will be other than "Thee, the only Manifestation." 19 It is also in the Bayan that, for the first time, a new interpretation of the symbolic language of the past Holy Books is introduced. Based on this interpretation, the Bab rejects the apparent contradictory elements among different Holy Books, and considers all religions as consecutive, progressive revelations to educate all mankind and advance the spiritual and intellectual aspects of human life. The purpose of every prophetic dispensation is to make humanity ready for the adequate reception of the subsequent one, as constituting an ever higher and fuller revelation of God's creative project for man (Persian Bayan, 2:7). The Literature of Baha'u'llah The first book by Baha'u'llah that was reviewed is The Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah, translated by Shoghi Effendi (19 36). The content of the writings mostly revolves around subjects such as the divine nature of man, the purpose of creation, and the essential unity of the human race. The volume, also, provides a valid source for a wide range of information about the philosophical basis underlying the Baha'i Faith. One important point must be mentioned here. Unfortunately, the book, without providing a strong background and a consideration of the general context of the Baha'i writings, may not provide a broad and conclusive 20 example of Baha'i teachings. Some of the extractions are brief and without the provision of the broader background Therefore, one must be very cautious to look at the selections in a more general context. For example, the selections on detachment from this physical world and the unreality of it, unless viewed as a part in the whole body of literature, might easily imply a suggestion of seclusion from daily activities and material achievement, which is against other principles of the Faith. The world is but a show, vain and empty, a mere nothing, bearing the semblance of reality. Set not affections upon it. . . . Verily I say, the world is like a vapor in a desert, which the thirsty dreameth to be water and striveth after it with all his might, until when he cometh unto it, he findeth it to be mere illusion. (Baha'u'llah, 1976, p. 322) However, because of the variety of subjects that are touched in this volume, it provides a rich source of information about the philosophical and spiritual teachings of the Faith. Among the writings of Baha'u'llah, The Kitab-i- ' Iguan (The Book of Certitude) is the most important, with the exception of The Kitab-i-Aqdas (The Most Holy Book). The Kitab-i-Igan was revealed in Baghdad about two years before His Declaration (186 2). The major theme of this book revolves around a new and fresh interpretation of the symbolic language of the past Holy Books, the very language that caused the followers of every religion to 21 oppose the next prophets of God. Through elaborated explanations, reasoning, and examples, Baha'u'llah clarifies the true meaning of the symbols used that untails the conclusion that the foundation of all religions is one. Not only does this symbolic language provide a very flexible source of information for peoples of each time period to delve into the ultimate meaning of scriptures according to their capacities, it also functions as an instrument to test the purity of heart and the degree of faith of each believer. Know verily that the purpose underlying all these symbolic terms and abstruse allusions, which emanate from the revealers of God's holy Causes, hath been to test and prove the peoples of the world; that thereby the earth of the pure and illuminated hearts may be known from the perishable and barren soil. From time immemorial such hath been the way of God amidst His creatures, and to this testify the records of the sacred books. (Baha'u'llah, 1931/1956, p. 49) The Literature of Abdu'l-Baha One of the most significant writings of Abdu'l-Baha is a compilation of His responses to the questions asked by one of His early American visitors in Akka in 1906, Laura Clifford Barney. In her own words: These answers were written down in Persian while Abdu'l-Baha spoke, not with a view to publication, but simply that I might have them for future study . . . . . But I believe that what has been so valuable to me may be of use to others, since all men, notwithstanding their differences, are united in their search for reality' and I have therefore asked Abdu'1-Baha's permission to publish those talks. (cited in H. M. Balyuzi, 1971, p. 82) 22 The permission to publish was granted in 1906, and both the English and the Persian editions were published in 1908. Because of the vast range of questions, Some Answered Questions covers almost all of the philosophical, spiritual, social, psychological, and educational prin-:.' . . . . ciples of the Faith. Although the answers are based on the original teachings of Baha'u'llah, the amazingly simple and clear examples of Abdu'l-Baha, which mostly originated from the simple facts of life, help to elucidate the complex and abstruse points. This book, especially, is of extreme importance for developing bases for the Baha'i educational system, and almost all of its basic principles are dealt with. A very brief chapter of the book is particularly devoted to the strong conviction of Abdu'-Baha that "outward forms and symbols must be used to convey intellectual conceptions." As a matter of fact, the way the responses are given follows exactly the same conviction and is potentially of great significance to cultivating a Baha'i instructional methodology. Another volume that is directly related to the theme of this study is Abdu'1-Baha's Foundations of World Unity. This brief book is a compilation of some of the Abdu'1-Baha's lectures concerned with the concepts of the "world unity" and the "unity of mankind" delivered during his visit to Europe and North America immediately before 23 the First World War and taken from the letters written to the Baha'is in the West answering questions of similar themes. Through his public addresses, Abdu'l-Baha has tried to give a fresh interpretation of what had been supposed to be the cause of enmity and hatred in the human race (e,.e., religions., human nature and egoism) and to divert attention toward the essential unifying elements underlying these notions. For instance, regarding the enmity caused by religion, Abdu'l-Baha said: Most regretable of all is the state of difference and divergence we have created between each other in the name of religion imagining that a paramount duty in our religious belief is that of alienation and estrangement, that we should shun each other and consider each other contaminated with error and infidelity. In reality the foundations of the devine religions are one and the same. The differences which have arisen between us are due to blind imitations of dogmatic beliefs and adherence to ancestral forms of worship. . . . This is not simply an assertation; it will be approved. (Abdu'l-Baha, 1971, p. 92) Taking into the consideration the teachings of the past prophets, Abdu'l-Baha came to the conclusion that unless human beings put aside dogmatism and blind imitation and start an endless struggle for the search of truth in the spirit of love and unity, "the conditions of the past will continue, praising ourselves and condemning others; religious wars will have no end and religious prejudice, the prime cause of this havoc and tribulation, will increase" (1971, p. 99). 24 The Literature of Shoghi Effendi Among the various writings of Shoghi Effendi, the most encompassing one is The World Order of Baha'u'llah. This volume is actually a collection of letters written by the Guardian of the Faith, giving a clear vision of the relation between the Baha'i Faith and the process of social evolution towards the ultimate goal of the unity of mankind After a rather thorough discussion about the purpose and the station of Baha'u'llah, the Bab, Abdu'l-Baha, and the Baha'i administrative order, the whole emphasis of the content is focused on the essentiality and inevitability of the notion of the ultimate unity of the human race as the gradual consequence of the World Order of Baha'u'llah. Based on the Baha'i sacred writings, the Guardain foresaw the unfolding of a world civilization where National rivalries, hatred and intrigues will cease, and racial animosity and prejudice will be replaced by racial amity, understanding and cooperation. The causes of religious strife will permanently removed, economic barriers and restrictions will be completely abolished, and the inordinate distinction between classes will be obliterated. Destitution on the one hand, and gross accumulation of ownership on the other, will disappear. The enormous energy dissipated and wasted on war, whether economic or political, will be consecrated to such ends as will extend the range of human inventions and technical development, to the increase of the productivity of mankind, to the extermination of disease, to the extension of scien tific research, to the sharpening and refinement of the human brain, to the exploitation of the unused and unsuspected resources of the planet, to the 25 prolongation of human life, and to the furtherance of any other agency that can stimulate the intellectual, the moral, and spiritual life of the entire human race. (1938, p. 294) As it will be seen in the chapters to come, the conception of world unity is not only a far reaching goal based on a humanitarian or philosophical argument, but its essential details have been contemplated throughout Baha'i literature Not only the philosophical foundation of the Faith is based upon the idea of unity, a great portion of the teachings, be they moral, social, spiritual, or personal, is devoted to developing the appropriate means to reach this most fundamental end. Compilations Among different types of compilations of the sacred writings of the Baha'i Faith, based on specific themes, three that directly related to this study are reviewed. First is a rather broad range compilation of the writings of Baha'u'llah and Abdu'l-Baha, Baha'i World Faith, covering a vast varieties of subjects. However, it can be safely claimed that the point of emphasis of this volume is focused on the idea of "unity"; from the unity of the Essesce of God and His Manifestations, down to the essential unity of mankind. The first section of the book, the writings of Baha'u'llah, is mostly drawn from the Gleanings from the 26 Writings of Baha'u'llah, Prayers and Mediataions by Baha *u1 llah, and Tablets of Baha'u'llah, dealing, by and large, with philosophical and spiritual subjects.’ Seeing this earth as a tree and the human race its fruit, Baha'u'llah said, "The most splendid fruit of the tree of knowledge is this exalted Work: Ye are all fruits of one tree -and leaves of one branch. Glory is not his who loves his own country, but glory is his who loves his kind" (1956,.p. 199).: The second part, the writings of Abdu'l-Baha, is mostly excerpts from Some Answered Questions, Tablets of Abdu'1-Baha, and the unpublished Tablets of Abdu'l-Baha collected in the National Baha'i Archives, dealing mostly with the applications of the teachings of Baha'u'llah as well as giving clarification to some perplexing issues utilizing concrete examples and analogies. The progress of the human spirit through the instrumentality of the bodily experience is seen as analogous to the perfection one gets by travelling and experiencing. The human spirit is Divine Trust, and it must traverse all conditions for its passage and movement through the conditions of existence will be the means of its acquiring perfections. So, when a man travels and passes through different regions and numerous countries with system and method, it is certainly a means of his acquiring perfection; for he will discover the conditions and states of other nations. . . . He will see the civilization and progress of the epoch; he will become aware of the policy of governments, and the power and capacity of each country. It is the same when the human spirit passes through the 27 conditions of existence; it will become the possessor of each degree and station. Even in the condition of the body it will surely acquire perfections. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 313) The second compilation is The Reality of Man; Excerpts from the Writings of Baha'u'llah and Abdu'l-Baha, a brief collection of Baha'u'llah's and Abdu'l-Baha, writings on the subjects of man, his nature, and his relation to the physical world and the spiritual world. Only a few pages are devoted to Baha'u'llah's writings and the main emphasis of the compilation is focused on deriving related materials from Wisdom of Abdu'l-Baha, Promulgation of Universal Peace, and Abdu'1-Baha's Paris Talk. As is the Abdu'1-Baha's style, He has tried to make the subjects perceivable by giving varieties of simple explanations and examples. Therefore, though the volume is almost devoid of any apparent philosophical jargon, the simplicity and appropriateness of the analogies help to make sensible some vague themes such as degrees of reality, natural and spiritual man, evolution of the soul, immortal ity, and the world of God: For example, the following passage by Abdu'l-Baha illustrates the relationship between the spiritual reality of man and the bestowal of the Divine Power ("quickening spirit") on one hand, and God on the other. 28 This quickening spirit has spontaneous emanation from the Sun of Truth, from the reality of divinity and is not a revelation or manifestation. It is like the rays of the sun. The rays are emanations from the sun. This does not mean that the sun has become divisible; that a part of the sun has come out into space. This plant beside me has risen from the seed? therefore it is a manifestation and unfoldment of the seed. The seed, as you can see, has unfolded in manifestation and the result is this plant. Every leaf of the plant is a part of the seed. But the reality of divinity is indivisible and each individual of human kind cannot be a part of it as is often claimed. Nay, rather, the individual realities of mankind when spiritually born are emanation from the reality of divinity, just as the flame, heat and light of the sun are the effulgence of the sun and not a part of the sun itself. Therefore a spirit has emanated from the reality of divinity, and its effulgences have become visible in the human entities. (The Reality of Man, 1969, pp. 36-37) The last compilation reviewed for this study is actually a collection of the basic principles of the Baha'i education derived from the writings of Baha'u'llah, Abdu'l-Baha, and Shoghi Effendi. Baha'i Education: A Compilation was prepared by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice because the field of education is of profound interest not only to individuals but to the administrative body as well. The first part of the volume is excerpts from the writings of Baha'u'llah, concerned mostly with general principles underlying Baha'i education, the importance and essentiality of education, the imperative harmony between material and spiritual education, the importance of knowledge and its profitability, and rules and 29 obligation for believers to carry out regarding this absolutely crucial issue. Regarding the significance of education in actualizing the potentials hidden in man, Baha'u'llah declared: Man is the supreme Talisman. Lack of proper education hath, however, deprived him of that which he doth inherently possess. Through a word proceed ing out of the mouth of God he was called into being; by one word he was guided to recognize the Source of his education; by yet another word his station and destiny were safeguarded. The Great Being Saith: Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Education can, alone, cause to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 4) The second part of the volume, from the writings of Abdu'l-Baha, includes issues dealing with the practical side of educational theories, as well as related general topics such as duality in the nature of man (perfection vs. imperfection), education as a change agent in society, inheritance vs. environment, teacher's characteristics, instructional methodology and school discipline. The importance of education is emphasized on numerous occasions. The process of development of nations depends on achieving the goal of educating the masses. The primary, the most urgent requirement is the - promotion of education. It is inconceivable that any nation should achieve prosperity and success unless this paramount, this fundamental concern is carried forward. The principal reason for the decline and fall of people is ignorance. Today the mass of the people are uninformed even as to ordinary affairs, how much less do they grasp the core of the important problems and complex needs of the time. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 15) 30 The last part of the volume, from the writings of Shoghi Effendi, consists mostly of the letters written by him, or on his behalf, regarding mostly the personal questions of Baha'is about the education of their children or the Baha'i community. Therefore, one must be careful not to generalize some of the points unless it is done cautiously, for some of the responses are directed to the specific context of a question. However, this part by no means is devoid of suggestions general enough to be used in a broader scope. In a letter to one of the individual Baha'is, the Guardian explains that one should never leave the child to himself and proper education is a necessity. Abdu'l-Baha could have never meant that a child should be left to himself, entirely free. In fact Baha'i education, just like any other system of education is based on the assumption that there are certain natural deficiencies in every child, no matter how gifted, which his educators, whether his parents, schoolmasters, or his spiritual guides and preceptors should endeavor to remedy. Discipline to some sort, whether physical, moral or intellectual, is indeed indispensable, and no training can be said to be complete and fruitful if it desregards this element. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 65) Secondary Literature Literature Dealing with the Baha'i Faith in General Among numerous writings on the Baha'i Faith in general, four books and two doctoral dissertations were reviewed for the present study. The first and the most 31 important book, The Revelation of Baha'u'llah, is the first series of four volumes, describing the scriptures of the Baha'i Faith with emphasis on the Baha'u'llah's writings which were revealed during forty years (1853- 1892) of His life. The author has used both the English translations as well as the original sources in Persian and Arabic. The author has been quite successful not only in describing the content of the scriptures dealing with vast varieties of subjects, but in providing the necessary background of the writings for the Western readers as well. The book is a thorough research of events in the life of Baha'u'llah and some of His companions, which goes beyond a mere description to deep analysis. The first volume is devoted to the first ten years (1853-1863) of Baha'u'llah's ministry. Through the effort of the author, Adib Taherzadeh, a number of the most important Tablets of Baha'u'llah are thoroughly described. The second volume of the same series deals with the next five years in Adrianopole (1863-1868) and main tains the same theme of the first volume. The author's explanations and commentaries are backed with rare sources extracted from the memoirs and other autheticated writings of Baha'u'llah and His companions,. Although the two volumes are historical in nature, they provide rich 32 sources for investigations in areas other than the history of the Baha'i Faith. These two volumes contributed a great deal and are invaluable sources of information for the present study. The classic book written on the Baha'i Faith, John Ferraby's All Things Made New: A Comprehensive Outline of the Baha'i Faith, was the third book reviewed for this study. As claimed by the author, this volume is an attempt to touch a vast range of different subjects in the Baha'i Faith, though by no means a thoroughly deep investigation. "This book is an attempt to confine within one volume all the most important teachings of the Baha'u'llah and the chief facts of the Baha'i history" (Farraby, 1957, p. 9). Because of the vastness of the covered issues, some perplexing parts seem to be over simplified. However, the author himself is well aware of this fact for he stated, Since the task in an impossible one, no apology for the failure is needed. Much that is important has been omitted; the arrangement of what has been included will not suit all tastes; abstruse matters have been over-simplified and simple matters made abstruse; in fact, the book has all the faults that any book of this kind is bound to have. (1957, p. 9) Despite all the difficulties that might arise as the result of writing on so wide a range of topics, the author has been quite effective in categorizing dispersed Baha'i literature -under suitable titles and subtitles. 33 Among these categories, Chapter V on world unity, Chapter VIII on science and the knowledge of God, and Chapter IX on man and the universe are of special value to the present study. The last and very brief volume by Charles Mason Remey, Constructive Principles of the Baha'i Movement, must be mentioned here for its short section on the Baha'i perspective of world unity and related subjects such as "education for world citizenship," "universal language," and "universal peace". The Baha'i Movement advocates a liberal education for children of both sexes, of all countries, races and religions, under a universal standard in instruc tion and a common curriculum, thus abolishing the limitations and prejucices of local environment providing that each child be educated toward sympathy with a universal humanity, in this way laying the foundations and instilling ideals of a universal world citizenship, achieving the downfall of the confining and binding prejudices of past generations. (Remey, 1917, p. 42) Among the doctoral dissertations done on the Baha'i Faith, two were reviewed. The first one is A Sociological Analysis of the Baha'i Movement by Jalil Mahmoudi, an analytical study of the Faith from a socio logical perspective using the theoretical apparatus of the "value-oriented movement". Although not directly related to the present study, because of its sociological as well as historical value, it was reviewed. After a thorough analysis, Mahmoudi came to the conclusion that 34 thus we may conclude that the Baha'i Faith, a value- oriented movement, represents a response to a challenge, an adaptation to an anomic condition, and an anti-thesis to a thesis. The synthesis, however, is in embryonic stage (1966, p. 154). The other dissertation is Historical Analysis of Critical Transformation in the Evolution of the Baha'i Faith, by Vernon Elvin Johnson. This very lengthy and objectively written dissertation by a non-Baha'i is a noteworthy attempt to reveal some historical aspects of the Baha'i Faith during those intervals of time that the investigator calls ''the critical transformation." The purpose of the present study will be to trace and analyze the basic transformations which have occured in the Baha'i World Faith in its short 130-year history with a view toward ascertaining the character of the religion and its present state of development and clarifying and explaining various matters which remain confusing and contradictory without a clear understanding of the Baha'i evolutionary transformations. (Johnson, 1974, p. 36) The study is of great historical, though not necessarily philosophical, importance. Through an extensive study of different, and sometimes contradictory, interpretations of the Faith, the author determined that the Baha'i World Faith has undergone an extensive evolution in its short history from 1844 to the present. . . . The extent of this evolution in its various stages is subject to some difference of interpretation, but this study has attempted to show that the religion has endured and pregressed through a series of cirtical transformations. (Johnson, 1974, p. 391) What has been of great value in this dissertation is the effort of the investigator to expose the reader to a 35 very broad scope of literature about the Faith. Though not directly related to the study at hand, Johnson's dissertation has helped by offering different points of view regarding the history of the Faith. Johnson maintained objectivity all through the study. Literature Dealing with Baha'i Philosophy Although there is a huge bulk of literature available that deals with the Baha'i Faith in general, only few works are exclusively concerned with the philosophy of the Baha'i Faith, and among them two books and six articles were reviewed for this study. The first was Afnan's Baha'u'llah and the Bab confront Modern Thinkers, Book II, Spinoza; Concerning God. This solely philosophical volume is the second of the series on the Revelation of Baha'u'llah and the Bab written by Ruhi Mohsen Afnan. Through a comparison of the metaphysical standpoints of the Baha'i Faith and that of Spinoza, the author reveals the main differences between the conception of God in the revealed religions as distinct from that of pagan philosophy. In doing so, the author makes a very sharp distinction between what he calls pagan philos ophy and the revealed religions. [In pagan philosophy] the difference between God, as "the one," and the individual human souls as "the many," was only in number and magnitude, not in form and substance........ As a consequence, human reason was . . . qualititavely identical with revelation of the Word and the Source of Wisdom and___ 36 Understanding [the prophets]. On the contrary, when the human soul is regarded as it is by revealed religions, a creation of God, made and formed by Him, then there can be no qualitative resemblance between the two. The created human soul becomes a mere product, or artifact, of the Creator as source of its being. (Afnan, 1977, p. 4) Based on this conviction, the author attempted to draw sharp distinctions between the two schools of thought, and sometimes it seems that the apparent contra diction and polarity go the extreme. However, because of the comparative nature of the content of the book, a number of important metaphysical points in the two systems become more understandable. Furthermore, the effort of the writer to present the subject in a western framework and categorization of philosophical issues is successful enough not to destroy the essence of non western schools of thought, namely the Babi and the Baha'i Faith. The second book, Mabani-i-Aqayed: Oluhi-iat va Tawhid, was published in two volumes by the Baha'i National Publishing Institute. This purely philosophical book, dealing with the foundations of the Baha'i belief in God and His Manifestations, has not been translated into English. Therefore, the original edition in Persian was reviewed for this study. The content of the Book, which is by and large a classification of the primary literature of the Bab, Baha'u'llah, and Abdu'l-Baha, tries to 37 differentiate God as the Hidden, Exalted, and Unknowable Essence, from what is accessible to man; God's Manifes tations as the pure reflection of His attributes. In doing so, first the exaltation and unknowability of God are discussed. Then, the stations of the Manifestations in relation to God and man, their unity, the unity of all religions, and the position of man as the supreme being and as reflector of the names and attributes of God are examined. Each section is well-supported by the primary writings, and because of the enormous number of quotations, the volume was of extreme value for analyzing the philosophical bases of the Baha'i Faith. Of all the - articles written on Baha'i philosophy only a few were of special value to the present study. Among them, Daniel Jordan's article, "The Dilemma of the Modern Intellectual", discusses two problems with modern thinkers; being only concerned with the rational means to struggle with crucial questions, and remaining only in the stage of "preparation" and never "fulfilling" the task. The article comes to the conclusion that since the Baha'i Faith upholds the principle of absolute balance among science, intellect, and religion, it can offer a sound base to attract the modern intellectual. Two other articles, "Harmony of Science and Religion" by M. K. Yntema, and "Science and Religion" 38 by William Hatcher, basically have the same theme; that it is not only possible, but quite appropriate to use scientific method of investigation in searching for religious truth. We now turn to a more substantive task of elaborating just how the basic unity of science, and religion, is viewed in the light of the Baha'i teachings. Our theses are, quite simply: (1) that the basic unity of science lies in its method of inquiry or epistemology, and (2) that the Baha'i Faith consciously accepts this epistemology as its own, accepting in its wake whatever redifinition of the terms "religion" and "faith" are consequent to it. (W. Hatcher, 1970, p. 9) Among the articles related to Baha'i epistemology, "Knowledge of God: An Essay on Baha'i Epistemology" by Jack McLean and "Irfan, Gnosis, or Mystical Knowledge" by Jalil Mahmoudi must be mentioned here. The main point of the first, a rather long and thoroughly investigated article, is that the Baha'i Faith does not confine itself to one, and only one, epistemological approach. The knowledge of God (Manifestations of God) is accessible through various means, and as long as we are aware that we see things in the whole context and we are limited in our intrepretations of what we see, we are fairly safe to utilize all and every available epistemological approach to reach the truth. There seems to be no contradiction among all of these apparently polar approaches. Scientific reasoning can act as a complement to intuitive or 39 phenomenological approaches; logic, mysticism, and faith are just different, but not contradictory, modes of knowing. The second article, "Irfan, Gnosis, or Mystical Knowledge", is concerned with only one conventional way of searching for the religious truth: mysticism. After a lengthy discussion, the author comes to the conclusion that to attain every type of knowledge one must have a proper education. Attaining the spiritual knowledge, which we referred to as 'Irfan', 'Gnosis', or'mystical knowledge', of the Manifestation of God and His words, one must have 'purity of heart, chastity of soul, and freedom of spirit' (Mahmoudi, 1973, p. 15). The last and most important article was "Metaphor ical Nature of Physical Reality" by John Hatcher. This Unique, creative, and radical interpretation of some of the Baha'i teachings opens a whole new door to the concept of the physical reality of this world, its function, and importance. The author, an expert in literature himself, chooses to see the nature of this physical world and its function in advancing the human soul, from a poetic, though accurate and well supported, perspective that leaves little, if any, room for any kind of argument. The core of the article deals with why and how we can utilize this world with all its marvelous opportunities to progress on the path toward perfection. In his own words: 40 Physical reality, then, functions metaphysically on this plane as an integral and inextricable part of man's effort to fulfill his primary goal, spiritual development. It provides the means by which he perceives spiritual qualities in the first place, and it is the means by which he may express and acquire attributes once they are understood. Even as man grows spiritually and is able to respond to increasingly higher levels of understanding, he never relinquishes on this plane the need to relate that understanding to metaphorical application; the reciprocal relationship between spiritual concept and physical act remains. (J. Hatcher, 1977, p. 42) The article, particularly, is of very special value in developing any kind of educational system based on Baha'i philosophy. The comments of the author on utilizing metaphor in teaching abstract subjects are inspiring. Moreover, the notion of seeing the whole world as a very broad classroom may shed a new light on setting up principles for a Baha'i solution to educational problems. Literature Dealing with Baha'i Education Aside from Baha'i Education : A Compilation that has already been mentioned, another book on Baha'i education that was reviewed is The Brilliant Stars by H. T. Rost. To the best of this investigator's knowledge, this volume is the single best work focused on Bah'i education in general, based on the teachings of the Faith. After a brief introduction to the history of the Baha'i Faith in general and the history of development of Baha'i formal education in particular, the author, himself an 41 educator, presents selections from the Baha'i teachings that are related to the field of education. Although the author began with the philosophical viewpoints of the Faith and tried to build up the educational principles based on them, it seems that most of the ideas come from the Baha'i teachings either directly associated with education, or from other (ethical, social, and psycho logical) teachings. Therefore, it is fairly safe to claim that the educational tenets are not solely and deductively derived from the Baha'i system of philosophy. Based upon the vast range of related subjects available through the Baha'i literature, the author has been quite successful in covering a very broad scope of subjects in education. Not only was the author concerned with Baha'i philosophy of education, other educational issues such as the instructional methodology, desired characteristics of teachers, the role of family, community, and the school, and school curriculum have been dealt with. Unfortunately, because of the range of coverance, some of these problems are touched only very briefly, and in general format, without being specific enough to cope with the praticality of the discussed issues. However, it must be mentioned that the main objective of the writer has never been to :publish any kind of practical manual or handbook. The author himself gave the notice 42 that "the book centers upon the writings of the Baha'i Faith and the reader should focus his most intense atten tion on these writings and not on the views of the present writer" (Rost, 1979, p. vii). Aside from the overall inspirations taken from the content of the book, the eighth chapter of the book, Education for a Unified World, was of great value to the present study. A unified world is the purpose of the Baha'u'llah's coming and also the ultimate goal of education. The purpose of the coming of Baha'u'llah was to establish the unity and oneness of humanity. An integral part of the foundations of the future unified world civilization and of the World Order of Baha'u'llah are the numerous Baha'i teachings about the education of children and education as a whole. . . . The unity of mankind is being achieved today by several different means, among which is education. (Rost, 1979, pp. 113-114) Of all the articles reviewed, two were directly related to Baha'i education: "In Search of the Supreme Talisman", by Daniel Jordan, and "Education for World mindedness" by Gayle Morrison. The first deals with the incapability of secularism and materialism in value- making, and also with the perfectionistc perspective that the Baha'i Faith maintains with regard to education. In the author's own word: Man's only hope of becoming the supreme talisman, of developing his potentialities, is to have a "proper education". The meaning of "talisman" points to the spiritual nature of those "gems of 43 inestimable value"--the potentialities of man— and confirms the thesis that a proper education must therefore be based upon his spiritual realities. A talisman is an object which is cut or engraved with a sign "that attract power from heavens" and is thought to act as a charm which averts evil and brings good future. (Jordan, 1970, p. 13) The second article, by Morrison, after cataloging a vast variety of citations by famous educators and sociologists such as McLauhan, Taylor, Brameld, Allport, and Goodman, comes to the conclusion that the concept of world-mindedness might be beyond the intellectual and emotional capacitiy of today's man. However, the results of different studies show that education (formal and informal), especially from very early ages can contribute to easing the precess of internalyzing such a concept. World-mindedness is an emotional set; .therefore an important approach to its development is through the emotions. . . . We have no excuse to wring our hands and give up without trying every means at hand. Nevertheless the greatest hope for establishing a world citizeneary rests in the raising up of a generation in whom world-mindedness has been fostered since early childhood. For a Baha'i anything less would fall short of the goal envisioned by Shoghi Effendi, the creation of "an organic change in the structure of present-days society" and "the reconstruction and demilitarization of the whole civilized world". (Morrison, 1971, p. 40) The single most relevant doctoral dissertation done in the area of Baha'i education is The Possible Nature and Establishment of Baha'i Universities and Colleges Based Upon a Study of Baha'i Literature by Harry Rost, the author of The Brilliant Stars, which was 44 reviewed before. Although the main objective of the study was to give "some clarification of the possible nature and establishment of Baha'i colleges and universities," it: goes far beyond this concern. In doing so, the author provides an invaluable source of information about the history of the Faith and its educational institutions, the fundamental teachings of the Faith on educational, and various philosophical, social, psychological, and ethical issues. The available materials in the Faith related to the problem are utilized thoroughly and the outcome is a study that not only covers fundamental and theoretical aspects of the problem, but gives specific guidelines for "how-to-do” it as well. Of all the covered materials, the section on "education and a unified world civilization" must be mentioned here. The author concluded that "the Baha'i concept of education eventuates in the development and training of world citizens" (Rost, 1969, p. 202). Literature Related to Education and World Unity This section is devoted to the literature that deals in one way or another with education as an agent toward a more unified human race, though not with a specific reference to the Baha'i Faith. From this literature, two books, four doctoral dissertations, and a series of articles on the "Anisa Model" are reviewed. 45 One relevant book is World Education; An Emerging Concept by Morris Mitchell and Spencer Grin. Strongly influenced by the school of reconstructionism and based on the ideas of Theodore Brameld, the major concepts underlying the present volume have been developed. The fundamental message of the book is a simple warning to the human race; that mankind, under the present hostile and egocentric atmoshpere, is in danger, unless some profound changes in the educational, and as its conse- quence, in the emotional and rational outlook of mankind occur. Schools must take a leading role in order to develop the concept of world-mindedness and global perspec tives in the human mind. Through acquiring the necessary skills, students should not only anticipate what the emerging problems will be, but be prepared to come up with sound resolutions for them as well. And this will not be possible, unless the conventional system of education goes under a thorough reconstruction from a passive, merely reflective, institution to a highly active and involved one. Although the basic underlying principle might seem far from the Baha'i outlook, some of the ideas developed in this book are amazingly similar to those of the Baha'i perspective. For example, ideas such as "evolution toward unifying human race", "education as a purposeful 46 activity for the betterment of man", or "the necessity of change in other social systems such as economy and politics' are exactly what have been suggested more than a hundred years ago by Baha'u'llah and Abdu'l-Baha. Another book, with almost the same theme, is Education for Global Consciousness; Social Studies for Responsible Citizenship, edited by Grace Kachaturoff and Guy Blackburn. This small booklett includes four different sections: Why Global Education?, How can it be imple mented?, Where can one find general sources of information?, a list of Institutes and Centers on Global education. The emphasis of the booklet is more on the practical side than the theoretical. Sponsored by the Michigan Council for the Social Studies, this book is an attempt to "provide a conceptual framework which will contribute to the improvement of social studies instruction in Global Educa tion at the elementary and secondary levels in our schools" (1978, p. iii). Of all the dissertations that were reviewed, Rbindranath Tagore's Philosophy of International Education by Asirvatham Periasawamy, was potentially the most relevant one, but actually it was not very inspiring. This rather unconventianal (in terms of design and organization) type of dissertation is a completely discriptive study of Tagor's life, philosophy, and philosophy of education 47 and the message of its content is fairly close to some aspects of the present study. Like the study at hand, Periasawamy's dissertation deals with the possible emergence of unity of the human race through introducing changes in its educational systems. In the author's own words, Tagore worked for one noble cause, the union of all sections of humanity in understanding and sympathy and in love and truth. . . . The main objective of Tagore's international education is to develop relations among the peoples and nations" (1976, p. 202). Unlike the present study, this dissertation narrows itself down to only changes in the curriculum of the university that follow Tagore's line of thought. For Tagore the context of international education is the world. He believed that his international education would lead people to be aware of one world society and the ultimate goal of such society would be to create an equality of people and not a uniformity among people of different cultures. . . . Ultimately they must accept the possibilities of living harmoniously in a pluralistic cultural society. (Periasawamy, 1976, p. 209) The scope of this study, however, tends to be broader than that of Periasawamy's. At any rate, because of the similarity between the content of the two studies, the dissertation was reviewed, although it was of limited value to the present investigation. Another dissertation dealing with the concept of world education is Bart Sobel's Morris Mitchell: Prophet 48 of World Education, an analysis of the philosophy and educational activities of Morris Mitchell whose book, World Education: An Emerging Concept, was reviewed before. The study, in some detail, basically covers the same philosophical issues as that of Mitchell's book; crises in the world, emerging concepts, and the brotherhood of the human race. Two other dissertations, Conceptualizing and Implementing Global Education; A Rationale Curriculum Materials, and Teaching Strategies for Elementary Schools by Anderson and Global Education in the Elementary Curriculum; the New American Educational Dream by Morris, fundamentally maintain the same theme, leaning more toward the practical side. Each tries to present pragmatic ways to introduce the concept of Global Education in the curriculum of the elementary school. The last part of this section is a review of a series of articles on "Anisa Model," an educational model though not directly related with either Baha'i Faith, or with the concept of "world unity." Still, it is worth mentioning because of its concern with the "wholeness of man." This concern is explained by Jordan and Shepard in more detail in "The Philosophy of the Anisa Model": ANISA makes of education an adventure in the growth of the human spirit and seeks to create a new ethos that reflects the^organic and spiritual wholeness of man. The intent of ANISA is therefore to move 49 from our present limits of understanding to a more complete picture of the potentialities of man and the conditions which foster his development. (1972, p. 28) Incorporated in 1969, ANISA (the American National Institute for Social Advancement) is a private organi zation with the goal of developing a new educational system. The word anisa also has a meaning in Arabic. The word anisa is Arabic and means "tree of life". It was selected to represent an effort to design a new educational system concerned with nurturance, shelter, continuing frution, and beauty. . . . The development of the ANISA Model has taken place with the assistance of a quarter of a million dollar grant from the New England Program in Teacher Education, Durham, New Hampshire, and has been carried out by the ANISA Project staff of twenty members, at the center for the study of Human Potential, School of Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. (Conway, 1973, p. 25) The first article by Jordan and Streets, "The ANISA Model: A New Educational System for Developing Human Potential," is an introduction to the philosophical, psychological, and educational foundations of the Model, as well as an explanation of some principles of the curriculum, organization, and staffing for the actual implementation of it. Another article, "The Philosophy of the ANISA Model" by Jordan and Shepart, deals solely with the philosophical basis of the model. It makes explicit reference to the ideas of Alfred North Whitehead, especially his "organic philosophy". 50 The philosophy of organism sheds light on that larger reality of man's existence by distinguishing him from a mere mechanism; for man, at the highest level of creation, represents a unity of all existence in that he incorporates the diverse qualities of lower-order mechanistic phenomena while transcending them all. His transcendence depends upon his ability to know and to love and to organize these capacities in terms of purpose or aim. Thought and feeling expressed in action under the direction of purpose reflect a nonmechanistic principle which characterizes the process of his becoming— process being the reality of man which education can no longer afford to ignore and the reality which is the central concern of ANISA. (Jordan and Shepard, 19 72, p. 29) Another article, "Being and Becoming: The ANISA Theory of Development" by Kalinowski and Jordan, is moslty concerned with the principles of educational psychology underlying the ANISA Model. Organizing human psychological potentialities into.five categories, the article shows how the Model built upon them. The psychological potentialities of man have been organized into five categories: psychomotor, perceptual, cognitive, affective, and volitional. We have identified what we believe to be the central process that underlie learning competence in each category and are the means through which these potentialities become actualized. The ANISA Model is functionally defined by specifi cations which have been written on each process. These specifications from the basis of the process aspect of the curriculum and are the foundations for the ANISA competency-based teacher preparation program. (1973, p. 20) The last article reviewed for the present study, "Perceptual Competence and-the ANISA Process-Curriculum" by Conway, describes mostly the nature of the "process- 51 curriculum" and its importance for the process of development upon which the ANISA Model is based. The importance of these articles for the present study was in their concern with the spiritual side of human beings, a concern philosophically close to the Baha'i Faith. Moreover, the content of the articles was inspiring in developing some tenets of an educational system based on the teachings of the Baha'i Faith. CHAPTER III PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE BAHA'I FAITH If the primary task of philosophy is to ask the right questions about the nature of reality (metaphisics) the ways of knowing (epistemology), and the essence of good (ethics)., (Morris & pai, 1976), then the Baha'i Faith, though a religion in nature, is intrinsically concerned with the philosophical task. It tries not only to answer these questions but to come up with addi tional responses that build up the main structure of ♦ its philosophical body. The pillars of this structure, however, are founded upon the most important principal of the Faith, the conception of "unity." This concept not only shows itself in almost all of the metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical issues, but in other teach ings of the Faith as well. It is the main purpose of this chapter to examine the basic tenets of the Baha'i metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics with focus on the indispensability of the principle of "unity" as the pivot around which other ideas revolve. 53 Metaphysics The four key elements that the Baha'i metaphysics is mainly concerned with are God, the Manifestations, man, and nature, and each in a rather renovated perspec tive, wherin man and nature constitute the world of creation. Contrary to the previous religious dichotomy between the world of God and that of man, the Baha'i Faith presents a new concept of "three worlds." In this format the question of metaphysics is studied. There are three well-defined worlds of spheres, separate and distinct, yet linked and indissoulubly bound: the world of God (the world of the Creator); the world of logos (the world of Manifestation); and the world of man (the world of the created). The world of Manifestation links the world of God with the world of man; and it is God not man, who determines Who that link shall be. (Balyuzi, 1963, p. 87) n the sections to come the fundamental traits of these worlds, how they can be related to each other, and the role of unity underlying these traits are analyzed. Unity in the World of God In the three world system offered by the Baha'i Faith, the conception of God is completely different from that maintained by other religions, for God is no more a creator of this.world, nor possesses any other attributes that used to be refered to. In fact, God is .5 4 * so out of reach, so different, so exalted, that the best thing man can do is to get to that point where he can confess that He is quite beyond his imagination, He is not this (whatever this may be), nor that. The highest stage in the knowledge of God, or the negation of all His names and attributes, first was introduced by the Bab, and then elaborated in the Bahali literature. The attributes and perfections that are ascribed to God are only symbols and reflections to deny His imperfections and not to assert any perfection. Abdu'l-Baha explained this matter fully when he said? As to the attributes and perfections such as will, knowledge, power, and other ancient attributes that ascribe to that Divine Reality, these are the signs that reflect the existence of beings in the visible plane and not the absolute perfections of the Divine Essence that cannot be comprehended .... These attributes and perfections that we recount for that Universal Reality are only in order to deny imperfections, rather than to assert perfections that the human mind can conceive. (Baha* i World Faith, 1956, pp. 343-344) If the exalted station of God according to the Baha'i Faith leads to no direct tie between Him and the world of creation, what then is responsible- for bringing about this universe? The position of the Fai.th„ is quite clear; the "First Will" is first thing that emanated from God and then through its power, the rest is brought into existence. Baha'u'llah in the Kitab-i-Iqan (the Book of Certitude) shed light on this fundamental principle. •55 No tie of direct intercourse can possibly bind Him to His creatures. He standth exalted beyond and above all separation and union, all proximity and remoteness. No sign can indicate His presence or His absence; inasmuch as by a word of His command all that are in heaven and on earth have come to exist, and by His wish, which is the Primal Will itself, all have stepped out of utter nothingness into the realm of being, the world of visible. (.1950, p. 98). This might resemble the early Greek or Plotinus concept of the "Universal Intellect" or what other ancient philosophers termed the "First Mind'1 (Abdu'l-Baha, 1908/ 1964). In brief, this "First Will," that is sometimes referred to as the "Primal Purpose" or the "Primal Will" or the "World of Manifestations" or the Realm of Divine Revelation," is essentially the creator of this cosmos. According to the Baha'i Faith, all the names, attributes, and the perfections that have been addressed to God by the followers of different religions are, in fact, referring to this second world, the First Will. And this cannot be but because of the inaccessible, unknow able, and hidden essence of the world of God. This unknowability of God, furthermore, leads to a whole new concept of unity of God that goes beyond the conventional belief in the oneness of God that is main tained by other religions. In fact, since we do not have any access to the nature of God, and also because of human limitations and His limitlessness, we are not •56" in any position to say if He is one or not. The Bab, in The Persian Bayan,argued that for asserting the oneness of God we haye to surpass Him, to be knowledgable of His nature, and to see all the boundaries that limit Him, and then to come to the conclusion of His being one. And since no one (neither man, nor His Manifesta tions). is in such an encompassing position, this question may be referred to the Realm of Divine Revelation. It seems that the issue of the oneness of God, in the Baha'i Faith takes three different shapes: (a) the unity of essence and attributes in God, (b) unity of God and His manifestations, and (c). the world of creation as the reflection of the unity of God. Unity of essence and attributes csf God. In one of His. Tablets Baha'u'llah made distinctions between the nature of the attributes of God in His own realm and in the realm of His Manifestations. The realm of God does not accept any multiplicity. There, all names and attributes are essentially united with His Essence and there can be no separation. In His own realm, God is even santified above all the names and attributes. These distinctions lie in the realm of the Manifestations where multiplicity of attributes comes into existence and one can distinguish between their love and power, or, their knowledge and sovereignty (Taherzadeh, 1974). 5-7 Despite the emphasis of the Baha'i literature on the essential unknowability of God, there are numerous writings that deal with the issue of God, trying to provide enough glimpses to prevent any misunderstanding on the part of the believers. For example, in the Lawh-i-Kullu't-Ta1 am (Tablet of All Food) Baha'u'llah mentioned four different spiritual worlds of God that make.: ■ the mystical relations between God and His Manifes tations more clear (Taherzadeh, 1974, pp. 58-59). The most exalted of these realms is the world of Hahut, or the Heaven of Oneness, where God is the Hidden, Exalted, Unknowable Essence. The doors to this world are even closed to the Manifestations. Moreover, here no distinction between the attributes and the essence of God is possible. The second is the world of Lahut, the Heavenly Court, the plane of Divinity. The realm of Lahut is perhaps the world of God in relation to His Manifestations and Chosen Ones. Immersed in the ocean of His Presence, They claim np station for Themselves on this plane and are as utter nothingness in relation to Him. In this realm no one is identified with God and the desig^- na! tion "He alone, and no one else beside Him, is God" becomes manifest here. (Taherzadeh, 1974, p. 58) The third spiritual world, Jabarut, is the All- Highest Dominion. Here, the perfect reflections of God's names and attributes takes place. Though different In essence, because of this perfect reflection, the identification with God, speaking with His voice, - >58 manifesting Him, and uniting with Him (though not with His Hidden Essence) is possible for God's Manifestations. This world appears to be the realm in which God’s Chosen Ones, in relation to created things, are invested with His authority. In the Writings of Baha’u’llah there are many statements concerning the dual station of the Manifestations of God, and His Chosen Ones. In relation to God, these Holy Souls appear as utter nothingness, but in relation to the world of creation They are endowed with all the attributes of God and are closely identified with Him. (Taherzadeh, 1974, p. 59) With regard to the fourth spiritual realm, Malakut, Taherzadeh explained; Another plane in the spiritual worlds of God is that Malakut, the Kingdom of God, often referred to by the Prophets of the past. In the Tablet of Kullu’t-Ta’am, Baha’u’llah has described it as the Heaven of Justice. (Taherzedeh, 1974, p. 59) Since the doors to the first and second spiritual worlds of God (Hahut and Lahut) are totally closed to the created world, the importance of the underlying concept of unity shows itself, for all practical purposes in human life, in a more prominent way in the third realm, the world of Jabarut. Here unity predominantly means the unity of the attributes of God and those of His Manifestations. Unity of God and His Manifestations. On many occasions in the Baha'i literature the state of the Manifestations is made analogous to a perfect mirror before the sun. As it is the quality of a mirror to 5 9/ reflect the light of the sun, the Manifestations, like wise, reflect all the attributes of God. Since a human i being is not capable of recognizing God in His Hidden, Exalted station, the Manifestations reflect these attri butes in a way that may be accessible to man. Here again the example of the sun and the mirror might clarify I ♦ the matter. The mirror reflects the sun totally but in ' a way that the human's eye can tolerate looking at it, J ! for the intensity of the light of the sun injurs the eye ! I and prohibits the seeing. Therefore, one may say that I i the sun is what one can see in the mirror, for a direct observation is not practical. In the like manner, the | God that we can have any access to is only the perfect I reflection in His Manifestations. Here, for the created world, God and the Manifestations become united in the J world of Jabarut. In the words ofBaha’u'llah, J Were any of the All-embracing Manifestations of God * to declare "I am God," He, verily, speaketh the truth, I and no doubt attacheth therto. For it hath been repeatedly demonstrated that through their revelation, their attributes and naems, the revelation of God, His names and His attributes, are made manifest in the world. (.1936/1976, p. 54). Still there is another form of the unity of God which might be of the greatest importance for the world of creation, where the Divine unity is reflected by every creature. 60 The world of creation as the reflection of the unity of God. Although the Manifestations act as Primary Mirrors to reflect all the perfections and attributes of God, this reflection shows itself in a world of creation j that is like a secondary mirror before the reflection \ i of the Primary Mirror. The only difference is that the | j f } Manifestations, being perfect mirrors, not only directly * stand in front of the Sun of Reality, but are intact reflections of all the names and attributes of God. j i Whereas, In the world of creation, only man has the | potent iality to reflect the reflections of the Primary I Mirror, and besides, the actualization of this potentiality depends on his constant endeavor. Other creatures, according to the degrees of their capacity, may reflect ] only a few of the Manifestations' perfections. Regarding J i i this subject, Baha'u'llah affirmed that every Manifestation of God acts as a perfect mirror. • i [The Manifestation of God] is a mirror of God, reflecting naught else but His Self His Beauty,. His Might and Glory .... All else besides them are to be regarded as mirrors capable of reflecting the glory of these Manifestations, Who are them selves the Primary Mirrors of the Divine Being. (1936/1976, p. 74). Concerning the ability of the world of creation to reflect the light of the Primary Mirrors, Baha'u'llah went on to state, Upon the inmost reality of each and every created thing He hath shed the light of one of His namesf and made it a recipient of the glory of His 61 attributes. Upon.-the reality of man, however, He hath focused the radiance of all His names and attri butes, and made it a mirror of His own Self. (p. 65) This reflection, according the the Baha'i Fiath, functions as a uniting force that binds together the apparently scattered elements of the universe. Since all of the physical realities (man as well as nature) echo thee,glory of one reality in one way or another, all the seeming differentiations which may be the source of all contradictions and incompatibilities are due to man's lack of appreciation of the symbolic forms of these realities. The whole universe reflecteth His glory, while He is Himself independent of, and transendeth His creatures. This is the true meaning of Divine Unity. He who is the External truth is the one Power Who exercieth undisputed sovereignty over the world of being, Whose image is reflected in the mirror of the entire creation. (Baha'ullah, 1936/1976, p. 166) One important note must be paid attention to concerning the Baha'i viewpoint on pantheism. The Faith rejects the convention of the existence of God in mater ial or any other form of substances. The capacity of reflect the attributes of God must not bring about the misconception of the substantial existence of God in things. Abdu'1-Baha in Foundations of World Unity elaborated on this matter. If by pantheism the capacity of phenomena to reflect the names (.and not to 62> retain the existence) of God is meant, then, the "true meaning of pantheism" is interpreted (1971, p. 58), otherwise, it is not compatible with what the Faith stands for. In brief, it is held that the unknowability of God prohibits man from making any valid statement con cerning either the essence or the attributes of Him. Therefore, the conception of the unity of God filters down to that of His Manifestations and the world of creation. In fact, it is the concept of unity in these two latter realms that is of great practical importance for building up the educational foundations that con stitute the main purpose of this study. Unity of the Manifestations Much of the Baha'i literature is devoted to the emphasis on one of the most important principles maintained by the Faith: the unity of the Manifestations of God. In fact, it is not an exaggeration to say that in almost all of the primary writings this matter, in one way or another, is touched upon (Mabani-i-Aqayed, 1973). This unity of the Manifestations, undoubtedly, does not refer to their physical realities, but to that divine reality which is the manifestation of God's Will. As a result, the Baha'i Faith maintains two distinct stations for the Manifestations: that of distinctions and that of oneness. Twofold station of the Manifestations. Nothing, according to the Baha'i Faith, seems to be more misleading for the followers of different religions than their inability to distinguish between ''.the physical [ station of the Manifestations], pertaining to the world of matter, and the spiritual, which is born of the substance of God Himself" (Baha'u'llah, Cited in Baha'i World Faith, 1956, j p, 103). The distinctions among them belong to their I ( physical stations. Each has a body, lives in a certain ; , . I interval of time, has His special appearance and charac ter, and behaves different from the others. On the ■ contrary, their spiritual station is the station of pure 1 Unity, different mirrors before the same sun. The shape, j position, and the place of different mirrors might be different, but when they reflect only one sun, then only light can be seen inside them. It is concerning this station that God addressed the Bab and declared, "no one hath, been or will ever be invested with pro.phethood other than Thee, nor hath any sacred Book been or will be reveal ed, unto any one except Thee" (The Bab, 1976, p. 159). Since what matters, the Baha'i Faith claims, is the reflection of the Sun inside the Mirrors, and not the shape of the place of the Mirrors, it has tried to focus attention on that essential unity which underlies the reality of these Holy Souls and not their apparent differences. 64 Manifestations as the Primary Mirrors. In order to make the non-material realities more tangible, the Baha'i literature utilizes a series of analogies using perceptible examples such as sun, light, mirror, and other natural phenomena. Inirelation to the world of creation, the Manifestations' are often allegorized to the Sun, the Sun of Truth, or the Sun of Reality. But, in relation to the World of God, they resemble perfect mirrors where all His attributes and names can reflect. According to the Baha'i Faith, this reflection does not imply any descending of the Sun into the Mirror. With regard to the same subject, Abdu'l-Baha tried to reject any kind of material connection between the World of God and that of the Manifestations.; , These Holy Manifestation or prophets of God are as mirrors which, have acquired illumination from the Sun of Truth, but the Sun does not descend from its high zenith and does not effect entrance within the mirror. In truth this mirror has attained complete polish and purity until the utmost capacity of reflection has been developed in it, therefore the Sun of Reality with its fullest effulgence and splen dor is revealed therein. (The Reality of Man, 1931/ 1969, p. 54). As it has been discussed before, it is this common station of pure reflection that constitutes the unity of the Manifestations. Moreover, as far as the human being is concerned, the Baha'i Faith emphasizes, since the Essence and Substance of God remain unknowable, this unity among the Manifestations, and this station -65 of the identification with the attributes of God must be considered the same as the unity of God (Baha'u'llah, 1936/1976). This leads to another principle underlying the foundations of the Baha'i system of belief: All of the attributes do refer to the realm of Divine Revelation and not to God as the Hidden, Exalted, Unknowable Essence. Therefore, on occasions wherever any kind of predication is addressed to God, it, in fact, refers to the Manifestations. For example, when Baha'u'llah declared, "There is no other God but Him, the All-Glorious, the Almighty, the All-Highest, the All-Wise, the All- Pervading, the All-Seeing, and All-Informed, the Sovereign Protector, the Source of eternal light" (1936/1976, p. 36), it is the Divine Revelation, (addressed to the world of creation) that is meant. In brief, the world of God, His Essence and attributes, is indivisible. It is in the realm of the Manisfestations that this multiplicity Of attributes takes place. The mission of the Manifestations. Although the multiplicity of the Attributes occurs in the realm of Divine Revelation, it does not deny the essential unity of the reality of the Manifestations. This unity is not only essential to their divine reality but it is the fundamental cause of their mission. The Baha'i Faith very strongly maintains this convention that the "Primal 66 Purpose .... unites this pluralistic universe into a single organic harmonious whole" (Afnan, 1977, p. 62), and bases the unity of the universe upon Its unity. Abdul-Baha with regard to the same subject considered the unity of man under the direct guidance of the Manifestations when he stated, "interaction, cooperation and interrelation amongst beings are under the direction and will of a motive Power which is the origin, the motive force and the pivot of all interaction in the universe" (Baha1i World Faith, 1956, p. 346). There are numerous occasions in the Baha'i literature where the primary message of the Manifestations is summarized and advances unity in the human race. Although apparent differences are abvious among the teachings of the Manifestations in different periods of time, the far reaching goal of each and every one of them has been to unite mankind. These differences in their teachings have not been because of any difference in their objectives, but due to the unequal stages of development of man in each period. This brings about another strong belief of the Faith: Unity of all reli gions and progressive revelation that is based on the principle that the human race, as a whole, has ever been, and forever will be in the process of gradual development, materially, intellectually, and spiritually. 1 67 On this path toward perfection, toward actualizing all the human's potentials, toward becoming a polished mirror to reflect the Godly attributes, the Faith sees a necessity for the teachings of the Manifestations. The volume of literature to show this necessity is huge. In it the following statement by Baha'u'llah may be a good example. Through the Teachings of this Day Star of Truth every man will advance and develop until he attalneth the station of which he can manifest all the potential forces with which his inmost true self hath been endowed. (1936/197 6, p. 68) This self-actualization must happen before the unity of mankind can be fulfilled. Every dispensation, according to the Baha'i Faith, has contributed its share to bringing man to the existing position where world citizenship is no more an esoteric concept. The necessity of a united world is a priority of many groups and societies. Although there still seems to be a long way to proceed, all of the religions have been united in the goal to advance man, at least partially, to reach the ideal stage where there be only "One Planet. . . One People." Unity of Religions and Progressive Revelation The world of creation, the Baha'i literature maintains, has gone, and will go, through stages of evo lutionary process, and this happens to religions as well. Although the reality of the Manifestations is the same 68; and they are all the embodiments of the "First Will" and the pure reflection of the attributes of God, their teachings, due to the different capacities of people of the different time period,are not the same. Baha'u'llah said, "know of a certainty that in every Dispensation the light of divine Revelation hath been vouchsafed unto men in direct proportion to their spiritual capacity" (193 6/1976, p. 8 71. The world of humanity is analogous to the body of man that must pass various stages of development to reach the point of maturity, and every religion is like a classroom that meets the specific demands of each age. In the same way that knowledge has no end, these classes, then, must come one after another, and every previous dispensation is like a necessary step for the next one, just as passing through stages of life is essential to attaining adulthood. For had the embryo not existed, how could he have reached his present state? Likewise had the reli gion taught by Adam not existed, this Faith would not have attained its present stage. Thus consider thou the development of God's Faith until the end that has no end. (The Bab, 1976, p. 89) Frequently in the Baha'i literature an analogy has been made between the Manifestations and the educators on one hand, and the human race and the students on the other. The mastery and knowledge of these teachers are all the same and in the highest level of perfection, yet due to the differences in the readiness of each class, 69 different subjects at the different stages of abstraction are taught. Here the question of the relativity of the religious truths arises. Are there a series of absolute truths outside the realm of human understanding, unchang- able, and repetitive in every dispensation, and if so, what happens to the progressive nature of the revelation? The response of the Baha’i Faith seems to be twofold. Undoubtedly, the Baha'i Faith stands very strongly for the existence of absolute truth (Truth from now on) independent of human existence: God, the First Will, the Manifestations. However, when things return to the realm of the human knowledge and understanding, truths becpme relative and subjective. Absolute vs. relative truths from religious perspectives. What has been explicitly stated in the Baha'i literature shows that the religious teachings are of two kinds, essential and ephemeral. The essential part deals with the Truths that are non-material in nature, unchanging, and permanent. The ephemeral teach ings, on the other hand, deal mostly with those laws and ordinances that are subject to the changing environ ment and vary due to the social characteristics of the time of each Manifestation. It is the essential part that constitutes the bases for the unity of all religions of different periods. Concerning this matter, Abdu'.l-Baha clarified the stance of the Faith. The . . . division [that] comprises social laws and regulations applicable to human conduct . . . . .is not the essential spiritual quality of religion. It is subject to change and transformation according to exigencies and requirements of time and place . . . . The essential ordinances established by a Manifes tation of God are spiritual; they concern moralities, the ethical development of man and faith in God. They are not amenable to change of transformation. Therefore, the fundamental basis of the revealed religion of God is immutable, unchanging throughout the centuries, not subject to the varying conditions of the human world. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, o. pp. 274-2 75) This essential part is, though unchanging and permanent in terms of the subjects that are dealt with, presented progressively in every dispensation. According to the Baha'i Faith, these essential concepts, such as God, the Manifestations, and the reality of man, are interpreted in an innovative manner in every successive dispensation, which gradually leads man to a better grasp of the reality of these concepts. Abdu'1-Baha concurred with this principle when he stated. Religion is the outer expression of the divine reality. Therefore it must be living, vitalized, moving and progressive. If it be without motion and non-progressive it is without the divine life; it is dead. The divine institutes are continuously active and evolutionary; therefore the revelation of them must be progressive and continuous. All things are subject to re-formation. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 22 7) Certainly this reformation does not deny the existence of an Absolute truth independent from the existence of man or beyond his comprehension. What it suggests seems to be simply the idea that these 71 absolute truths, as well as ephemeral ones, are presented, through the religious teachings, in a way to be sensible to humans. Therefore, when the "relativity of religious truths" is emphasized in Baha'i literature, it may mean either the relativity of their being presented (progres sive revelation), or the relativity of human perception of these Truths. One Baha'i writer explains the matter as, Even when maintaining the valid distinction between the social and spiritual nature of religion as dyna mic and static forms respectively, it is necessary to bear in mind that the spiritual nature of reli gious truth is also relative in nature, even if this means nothing more than its being relative to our own understanding of it. But in addition to the individual's relative understanding of them, the external principles of love and justice, just to name two of the more outstanding ones, reveal an expansionary and progressive nature as mankind's collective understanding of them increase. Baha'u.'llah has considerably amplified the concepts of both love and justice in His Writings and especially that of unity, whose principles were also present in previous dispensations. (McLean, 1978, p. 54) There exist a number of passages in the Baha'i literature that, if not put in context, might imply the. idea of relativity of truths even when man is not considered. The^previous passage by Abdu'l-Baha when he talked about "re-formationj1 5 and the following extracts from the writings of Shoghi Effendi may be expressive examples of this implication. 72 Its [Bah1i'sj declared, its primary purpose is to enable every adherent of these Faiths [past religions] to obtain a fuller understanding of the religion with, which he stands identified, and to acquire a clearer apprehension of its purpose. It is neither eclectic in the presentation of its truths, nor arrogant in the affirmation of its claims. Its teachings revolve around the fundamental principle that religious truth- is not absolute but relative, that Diyine Revelation is progressive, not final. Unequivocally and without least reservation it proclaims all established religious to be divine in origin, identical in their aims, complementary . , in their function, continuous in their purpose, indispensable in their value to mankind. (1938, p. 58) Nevertheless, when he supports this idea by bringing other quotations from Baha'u'llah, Shoghi Effendi made it clear that this relativity does not refer to the Truth independent of the human perception, but rather to the gradual revealing of this Truth, or to the relative comprehension of revealed Truth by man. For example, when Baha'u'llah said, "other knowledge We do as well possess, not a single letter of which we can disclose, nor do we find humanity able to hear even the barest refrence to their meaning" (Cited in Shoghi Effendi, 1938, p. 109), or when in the same book He stated that, "know verily that the veil hiding Our Countenance hath not been com-% . pletely liftedf w*e‘ have revealed Our Self to a degree corresponding to the capacity of the people of Our age" (p. 116), the principle of progressive revealing of the Truths is explicitly indicated. 73 In brief, what seems to count, the Baha'i Faith suggests, is the progressive and complementary nature of all religions. Aimed towards one goal, uniting the human race, all are progressive and complementary in nature, revealing gradually the religious truths to assist man in his process of development. It is this uniting nature of all relitions which is the focusing pointt of the Baha'i Faith, and all it tries to do revolves around the idea that apparent differences among the teachings ■ i of different religions are just due to the fact that \ people of the world were not at the same stage of spiritual,' intellectual, or material development. They were like t patients with different ailments, needing different j i prescriptions. The physician has been the same, the goal has always been healing. Religions as the cause of unity. There is no doubt that numerous historical evidences show how religious differences have contributed greatly in inflaming war and hostility among mankind. Religions have always been accused of tending to struggle for absolute power, and then misusing it. The Baha'i Faith accepts the fact that religions might have lead people to bring about a hostile environment wherein everybody becomes endangered. What it does not believe is the suggestion that evil is inherent in the relitions themselves. On the contrary, the Faith firmly stands for the conviction that all the undesirable ■73 consequences have nothing to do with the religious teach ings but with the misuses of them. Abdu'1-Baha brought about many examples to show how the words of the Manifestations have been misinter preted and abused by the followers to fulfill the intentions that were far from what the teachings were meant to be. He mentioned the words of Christ, "Put up the sword into sheath," that means the forbidance of warfare. But, surprisingly, the Christian wars, hostility, and inquisition spread afterward (Baha1i World Faith, 1956, p. 250). He also mentioned other misuses of the teachings of the Manifestations by the believers which have been, by and large, either due to their ignorance and blindj imitations, or to the powerful clergy who did what they wished under the name of reli- tion. That might be the reason why the Baha'i Faith has put so much emphasis on condemnation of all kinds of prejudices and encouraged the believers to indepen dently search, for truth. Besides, it holds it unnecessary to have any kind of clergy, lest religious hostility due to these factors arise. On many occasions Abdu'1-Baha shows preference to non-religion over a belligerent religion. Religion is not for enmity or hatred. It is not for tyrany or injustice. If religion be the cause of enmity and rancor, if it should prove the cause Of alienating men, assuredly non-religion would be 75 * better. For religion and the ..teachings which appertain to it are as a course of treatment .... if the outcome of a course of treatment . . .be productive of mere diagnosis and discussion of symp toms, the abolition of it is evidently preferable. In this sense, abandoning religion would be a step toward unity. (cited in Remey, 1917, p. 3 9) If the main purpose of all religions is to bring about unity, it is quite obvious that when religions do not serve this purpose, they better be disregarded (Baha* i World Faith, 1956). As it has been discussed, the concept | of unity of God, the Manifestations, and their dispensa- | tions, entails the unity of mankind which seems to be the j ultimate purpose of life in this world. Man as a unique > being in the world of creation must get to the point , i wherein exists two different, yet related, types of I unity: unity in his own existence and unity among all humans. The World of Creation The origin of the universe, according to the Baha'i Faith, is the First Will or the Primal Purpose, the first thing that emanated from God. Since neither the substance of God, nor that of the Primal purpose can ! be knowable to man, the literature does not show where the original composing elements of this cosmos could have come from. However, what is clear is that "absolute non-exis-= tence cannot become existence. If the beings were absorrut lutely non-existent, existence would not have come into' being" (Abdu'l-Baha, 1908/1964, p. 209) . It is not, however, 7 , 6 known what has been the form or type of those original beings. It goes back to the unknowability of essence or substance of God and of His Manifestations. At any rate, whatever the nature of the origin of these composing elements might be, the process of their composition or combination has not been accidental, but according to a "universal law" which has been dominated by the will of the primal purpose. "The Creator (Primal purpose) acts as a catalyzer only to make the synthetic action and reaction of matter and form in nature possible. It gives the process of creation meaning and direction" (Afnan, 1977, p. 100). The sustenance of the world of creation, according to the Bab, is completely dependent upon the Primal Purpose. Despite this complete dependency, the Baha'i Faith accepts the reality of this world. The unreality that sometimes is attributed to the existence of this world is only relative and by no means absolute. Compared to the significance and fuller reality that man is destined to achieve, this earthly existence might have been called unreal or insignificant. But it does not mean that this physical existence does not possess a real substantiality. On the contrary, unlike some schools of thought that are skeptical about the reality of the whole universe, the Faith maintains this reality 77 as one of its basic principle. In fact what the Baha'i Faith stands for are "degrees of reality" where every stage, though preserving its individual reality, might be taken as unreal compared to a higher stage of tran scendent reality. For instance, the reality of plants * a compared to that of animals, or the reality of animals j i compared to that of human beings could be considered as j possible examples to illustrate the case. The world of creation is classified into mineral, vegetable, and animal, which constitute nature, and man as a supreme being embodies ".the qualities of the mineral, 1 vegetable and animal plus an ideal endowment absolutely | i minus and absent in the lower kingdoms--the power of j intellectual investigation into the mysteries of outer phenomena" CAbdu'1-Baha, 1971, p. 48). However according | to the Bahai1 Faith, the difference between man and nature does not end here. In addition to his endowment with "physical and rational or intellectual reality," ] there exists a third reality in man, "the spiritual reality" (Abdu*1-Baha, 1971, p. 51). It is these two last realities that makes man "nobler than nature." In i a passage, Abdu'1-Baha compared man with nature. Nature is inert, man is progressive. Nature has no consciousness, man is endowed with it. Nature is without volition and acts perforce whereas man possesses a mighty will. Nature is incapable of 78; discovering mysteries or realities whereas man is especially fitted to do so. Nature is not in touch with the realm of God, man is attuned to its evidences. Nature is uniformed of God, man is conscious of Him. Man acquires divine virtues, nature is denied them. Man can volun tarily discontinue vices, nature has no power to modify the influence of its instincts. Alto gether it is evident that man is more noble and superior; that in him there is an ideal power surpassing nature. He has consciousness, volition, memory, intelligent power, divine attributes and virtues of which nature is complete deprive, bereft, and minus; therefore man is higher and nobler by reason of the ideal and heavenly force latent and manifest in him. (1971, p. 70). But these endowments are only praiseworthy because through their employment, the betterment of the human race can be accomplished. A great effort must be put forth, the Baha'i Faith demands, in order that the bonds of unity and accord be established among mankind. This issue of the unity of man, as the Baha'i Faith sees it, however, seems to have two separate, yet related, aspects. First, and probably the prerequisite stage, is the belief in the essential unity within the existence of man; the second, and final state, is the unity among men. Unless man is. able to achieve a harmony among the powers inside him, it seems doubtful he will reach the greater harmony, the harmony of the race. The Essential Unity in the Existence of Man The possession of all three realities, physical, intellectual, and spiritual is what distinguishes man 79 from nature, and each has its own manifestations. Physical reality is the commonality between man and animal. Composition, growth, and sense perception are the characteristics of this realm. The second reality of man is the source of scientific investigation that leads to the discovery of, the mysteries of outer phenomena. The outcome of this intellectual endowment is science which is especially a characteristic of man. This scientific power investigates and apprehends created objects . and the laws surrounding them. (Abdu'1-Baha, 1971, p. 48) The third reality and its characteristics (spiritual reality) is discussed by Abdu'1-Baha in the following passage. Yet there is third reality in man, the spiritual reality. Through its medium one discovers spiritual revelations, a celestial faculty which is infinite as regards the inte-lectual as well as physical realm. That power is conferred upon man through the breath of the Holy Spirit. It is an eternal reality, an indestructible reality, a reality belonging to the divine, supernatural kingdom; a reality whereby the world is illumined, a reality which grants unto man eternal life. This third, spiritual reality, it is which discovers past events and looks along the vistas of the future. It is the ray of the Sun of Reality. The spiritual world is enlightened through it, the whole of the Kingdom is being illumined by it. It enjoys the world of beautitude, a world which had not beginning and which shall have no end. (1971, p. 51) Although the Baha'i Faith looks at man as essen-; tially a spiritual being, it does not deny the necessary harmony among all realities of man. In fact, individual reality eyentuates when body and spiritual reality join 80 together. It is true, however, that the spirit, according to the Faith, does not have any material substance (this will be discussed in the coming section), but there must be an absolute accord between the mani festation of the spirit and the body of man. Spirit of man from Baha'i perspective. Since man is essentially a spiritual being, the concept of soul or spirit are almost always thought about interchangeably, except on specific occasions where different categories of the spiritual reality of man is the subject of discussion. The most important tenets of spirit seem to be: (a) its origin, (b) its connection with the body, (c) its growth, (d) its eternity, (e) its manifes tations, and (f) its domination. The origin of soul goes back to the spiritual worlds of God, where its nature is not knowable to man. Baha'u'llah, with regard to the unknowability and exalta tion of the soul, indicated that, "know, verily, that the soul is a sign of God, a heavenly gem whose reality the most learned of men hath failed to grasp .... It is the first among all created things to declare the excellence of its Creator" (1936/1976, p. 158). It is because of this lack of ability of man to understnad the reality of his soul that attention has been diverted to the functions.of the soul rather than to speculation on its nature. What can be derived from reviewing the Baha'i writings is that the soul is not a material substance and it becomes associated with the human embryo at the moment of its conception. But this association is far above material relation ship such as egress or regress, entry or exit, since the soul does not belong to the world of matter. The relationship is like that of light to a mirror. The light that appears in the mirror is not inside it. The radiance comes from a source outside. (Taherzadeh, I 1974/ p. 72). ,, I But, together they constitute the individual reality, and each needs the other to fulfill itself. The soul becomes the source of life and sustenance for the 1 body, and the body functions as a precious instrument j i through which the soul can acquire divine qualities and j pass its way toward perfection. j i The Baha'i's, view about the progress of the human soul is very optimistic. That is, as long as the body continues to function the soul continues to progress. As Abdu'1-Baha also affirms, with the human soul, there is no decline. Its only movement is towards perfection; growth and progress alone constitute the motion of the soul. Divine perfection is infinite, therefore the progress of the soul is also infinite. (The Reality of Man, 1969,p . 18) j Moreover, He analogized the progress of the spirit, through the instrumentality of the body, to the mental progress one can achieve through different experiences 82/ he undergoes during his life. As man travels from one place to another, and experiences different and sometimes contradictory events, he gets more opportunities to develop mentally, and emotionally. In like manner, the soul "must traverse all conditions; for its passage and movement through the conditions of existence will be the means of its acquiring perfections" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 313). . This growth and gradual perfection does not end with dying. Dying, as a matter of fact, is a meaningless concept in the Baha'i Faith. It is nothing more than fulfilling one step and going to another. Since there is no retreat or stop for the spirit on.its path towards perfection, death means that the body has served its purposes and the relationship between the body and the soul ceases to continue. The body returns to the world of the material, where it has originally come from, and the spirit continues its eternal path in other worlds. The eternity of the soul is one of the basic principles of the Faith, but the importance of the physical body as the only means to provide the necessary grounds for dependency has never been denied. In fact, their mutual necessity is the main source of what is distinguishing human reality from the rest of the nature. It is because of the manifestations of the spirit that all of the intellectual and scientific powers of man appear to make him a ruler of nature. The manifestations of the spirit seem to be of three types: it gives life and sustenance, it is the source of intellectual and rational power, and it is the source of joy and "all things good." For example, with regard to the first manifestation of the spirit, Baha1u'llah stated, "the soul of man is the sun by which his body is illumined, and from which it drawth its suste nance, and should be so regarded" (Bahai1 World Faith, 1956, p. 121). Moreover, it generates the intellectual power and all things associated with it. Abdu'1-Baha asserted that not only is the spirit eternal, but all of its manifestations are eternal too. The intelligence of man, his reasoning powers, his knowledge, his scientific achievements, all these, being manifestations of the spirit, partake of the inevitable law of spiritual progress and are, there fore, of necessity, immortal. (The Reality of Man, 19.69, p. 121 . One other important manifestation of the soul is to bring about "joy." The origin of sorrow and grief lies within the world of matter, whereas all serenity and bliss come from the world of spirit. 84 Joy gives us wings. In times of joy our strength is more vital, our intellect keener, and our under standing.’ ,less clouded .... But when sadness visits us we become weak, our strength leaves us. Our comprehension is dim and our intelligence veiled . . . . all the sorrow and the grief that exist come from the world of matter— the spiritual world bestows only the joy. (Abdu11-Baha, The Reality of Man, p. 12) Therefore, it seems that all the "desirable" things in the world originate from an unknowable entity and through its i passing and experiencing in this physical world the latter I receives its grace and bounty. Besides, as Baha1i litera- j i ture shows, it seems that the human soul is (or at least ! should be) _ a dominant force in individual reality, though ^ i the interdependence of the sOul and the body has never • . been rejected. j ! Based on the principle that the soullis the source of all good things in this world, the tendency of the Faith toward putting more emphasis on the necessity of the domination of the spiritual side of man seems to be a feasible consequence. In a comparison between the spiritual and material side of man, Abdu11-Baha saw a j very promising future if the former be dominant. If, on the contrary, the spiritual nature of the soul has been so strengthened that it holds the material side in subjection, then does the man approach the divine; his humanity becomes so glorified that the virtues of the celestial assembly are manifested in him; he radiates the mercy of God, he stimulates the spiritual progress of mankind, for he becomes a lamp to show light on their path. (The Reality of Man, 1931/1969, p. 13) ■85 Although this domination of the spiritual side is occa sionally emphasized in the Baha'i literature, the basic principle of the essential unity between the two remains intact. Unity of material and spiritual sides. Contrary to the two polar perspectives wherein man is either an essential spiritual being that must totally disregard the reality of this world, or a rational animal that should not bother with supernatural realities, the Baha.'.i Faith is committed to the principle that Both realms are already integrated in one universal construct; thus man can, by understanding the nature of this integration, attain fulfillment without being fragmented or rejecting part of himself and his experience. (Hatcher, 1977, p. 31) In addition to the unity between the two, the human soul functions as a uniting force to harmonize the physical, mental, and emotional operations of the body. Not only every individual being is united through the power of his soul, but this unity, according to Abdu'1-Baha's statements, functions over all the elements in nature. Therefore, the whole universe, including man, is in an organic nexus that is sustained by a greater power. By nature is meant those inherent properties and necessary relations derived from the realities of things. And these realities of things, though in the utmost diversity, are yet intimately connected one with the other. For these diverse realities an all-unifying agency is needed that shall link them all one to the other. For instance, the various organs and members, the parts and elements, that 8 6; constitute the body of man, though at variance, are yet all connected one with the other by that all- unifying agency known as the human soul, that causeth them to function in perfect harmony with absolute regularity, thus making the continuation of life possible. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 340) When man becomes conscious of this essential unity, he reaches a point of maturity where he can take his next step toward the unity of all members of the human race. Such a unity might sound too idealistic and far reaching, but its basic sketches are drawn in the Baha'i writings and is viewed as a practical objective for the world of humanity. Oneness of Mankind Being the ultimate goal of all religions, the oneness of mankind could become the practical objective of this era only because of what the previous dispensations have contributed. In the course of history, man has passed through stages where consecutively the unity of family, tribe, city, and the nation has each played its unifying part in advancing man toward the ultimate unity of the planet (Ferraby, 1957),. Undoubtedly, few things, if any, like the unity of human race are of this much concern and importance in the Baha'i writings. Reviewing the bulk of the writings, it is safe to say that there is no single issue other than the unity of man around which so much of the teaching revolve. Compared to the 87 issues which have been the center of focus for other religions, Abdu'1-Baha said, in every dispensation, the light of Divine Guidance has been focused upon one central theme .... In this Wondrous Revelation, this glorious century, the foundation of the Faith of God and the distinguishing feature of His Law is the consciousness of the one ness of mankind, (cited in Shoghi Effendi, 1938, p. 36) This unity, however, will not occur, unless man strives very hard to achieve it. The writings are full of encouraging statements to excite people to put forth all their efforts to get closer to this "divine goal." It sometimes goes further and becomes a religious obligation. As Baha'u'llah said, it is incumbant upon every man, in This Day, to hold fast unto whatsoever will promote the interests, and exalt the station, of all nations .... Consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship. (1936/1976, p. 94) Or, in more explicit language, Abdu11-Baha asked the world of humanity to investigate the essentials of divine religions, seek the realities underlying the oneness of the world of humanity and discover the source of fellowship and agreement which will unite mankind in the heavenly bond of love. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 229) The essential demand for world unity does not, However, remain only in the format of a vague and unspecific set of principles. The teachings go further and put forth practical and comprehensive sets of guidelines which can 88 facilitate the way of getting closer to the goal. For example, there are sets of conditions that must be met. Among them, emotional, cultural, educational, economical, and political are the most important. The composite of all of these prerequisites make a set of principles that the Baha'i Faith calls "Foundations of World Unity" which will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter. Unity in diversity. By unity, the Faith does not mean uniformity. In fact the whole world should function like a huge orchestra wherein though every body plays his or her special, notes, which are not necessarily the same as the others, there must be an absolute harmony from everyone's efforts. Diversity is essential if one is to hear a beautiful piece of music by the orchestra. In a very simple and beautifully written passage, Abdu'1-Baha makes an analogy between mankind and a garden; in both, diversity is necessary to provide magnificence. Consider the flowers of a garden. Though differing in kind, colour, form and shape, yet, inasmuch as they are refreshed by the waters of one spring, revived by the breath of one wind, invigorated by the rays of one sun, this diversity increaseth their charm, and addeth unto their beauty. How unpleasing to the eye if all the flowers and plants, the leaves and blossoms, the fruits, the branches and the trees of that garden were all of the same shape and colour! Diversity of hues, form and shape, enricheth and adorneth the garden, and heighteneth the effect there of. In like manner, when diverse shades of thought, temperament and character are brought together under the power of one central agency, the beauty and glory of human perfection will be revealed and made manifest. Naught but the celestial potency of the Word of God, 89, which ruleth and transcendeth the realities of all things, is capable of harmonizing the divergent thoughts, sentiments, ideas and convictions of the children of men. (cited in Ferraby, 1957, pp. 170-171) As a rule, the Baha'i Faith is dedicated to the well-being f- ■ ^material, intellectual, and spiritual) of the human race and whatever promotes it. Moreover, it believes that the source of this well-being lies in the unity of mankind. "The well-being of mankind, its peace and security, are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established" (Baha'u'llah, 1936/1976, p. 286). Therefore, the Faith sees no reason why it should not be obligatory and everybody's responsibility to put forth every effort to help humanity get one step closer to the point where all its dreams come to reality. Baha'i Metaphysics and Other Schools of Thought; A Comparison This section is, in fact, a quick review in which the similarities and distinctive differences between the Bahaii metaphysics on the one hand and that of the idealist, realist, experimentalist, and existentialist, on the other, are analyzed. No doubt, this comparison touches only general metaphysical perspectives and by no means is an attempt to be exhaustive, which indeed is far beyond the practicality and scope of the present study. It seems that there is a basic agreement between the idealist outlook of "ultimate reality" and that of . * 9 0 the Baha'i Faith. It might be safe to say that for both, the world of "Idea" beyond the perception of the human being which is only approachable and never attainable plays a crucial role. Therefore, as far as the world of ideas for idealism and the world of the "primal Purpose" for the Baha'i Faith are concerned, they are, more or less, along the same line of thought. The differences, however, rise when the world of matter is considered. The Faith maintains the reality of the world of matter as an undeniable fact, although, as it was discussed before, in some of the writings, the world of creation is called "unreal." This unreality is only a matter of degree, however, compared to the fuller realities (e.g., that of the Manifestations of God). Only in this sense could the created world seem unreal. But this thinking seems far from the idea of the Platonic cave. In other words, the world that we live in is not just an "image" or "manifestation" of the "World of Ideas" (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 45). As a matter of fact, it is not in .agreement with the Baha'i conviction to see the world of creation as a "manifestation" of the Primal Purpose. All the created things, the Faith maintains, are just emanation from the Creator and not His manifes tation. (Abdu'1-Baha, 1908/1964), and their relation to Him is, more the relation between a creator and his 91; artifacts. An artifact, however, may have signs of the creative power of its creator, but does not manifest him. The Baha'i metaphysics also has some commonalities with the realist outlook. In fact, if for Aristotle "form" and "matter" constitute the "essence" or "what-ness" of things, and for St. Thomas this "essence" joins with the "existence" to make "being" possible; for the Faith, a combination of "male state" (actuality) and "female state" (potentiality) constitute a being which is a com bination of both "form" and "matter." Besides, Baha'i metaphysics concurs with both scientific and religious realism on the matter that there exist "a world of things in motion, an enormous mechanism endowed with pattern, order, and harmonious movement" (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 55)*:, What is the point of difference between the Aristotle's God-less metaphysics on the one hand and that of the Faith or religious realism on the other, is the latter's belief in a "Pure Being" in whom .there is no division between essence and the existence. With all the similar ities between Thomism and the Baha'i Faith in terms of metaphysical issues, there remains one important differ ence : the Thomistic view of the "World of God" as the same as the Creator, as opposed to the Baha'i belief in the "three-world system" where the direct cause of creation is the "Primal Purpose," itself an emanation from God. 9 2 . The differences between the Baha'i Faith and Experimentalism comes in sharper focus when experimentalism rejects the question of duality betwenn the world we live in and a "super natural" and probably "higher in rank" reality that might exist beyond this world. John Childs asserted that reality is simply what we experience hence there is, for all the practical pur poses, no reality beyond man's experience. The Baha'i Faith rejects this position. Close to the convictions of idealism and Thomism, it is not compatible with any of the metaphysical beliefs of the Faith to accept the notion of experience as the ultimate measure of reality. There are, however, some similarities between the Faith and some of the expermentalist philosophers. 1T0 some extent, the Faith accepts what Kneller gave as the "principal- themes" of experimentalism: "(1) the reality of change, (2) the essentially social and biological nature of man, (3) the relativity of values, and (4) the use of critical intelligence" (1971, p. 13). The first two of the mentioned themes which are in the realm of metaphysics, when looked at in a special context,can be held compatible with the conviction of the Faith. The essentiality of the social and biological nature of man, also, according to the Baha'i Faith, cannot be denied. Man's social nature, however, must 93; be joined with a spiritual reality to constitute the "being of man." With regard to the notion of the "reality of change," as far as revealed reality or the human interpretation of reality is concerned, the Baha'i Faith accepts relativity and change of realities. This principle, however, does not hold when the domain of the Manifestations or God Himself is the subject of discussion. Surprisingly enough, the Baha'i Faith, in some respects, comes very close to existentialist viewpoints, especially the "theistic existentialist." Of course there is room to raise controversy over the first principle of existentialism that "existence precedes essence." The Baha'i believes in the existence of a Creator who might have had the "idea of man" in mind before actually creating him. But the latter may well remain with the theistic existentialists. However, what makes existentialism close to the Baha'i Faith might not be this first principle, but the concept of "free will" and "subjectivity of truth," which are concerns in the spheres of ethics and epistemology. Nevertheless, the Baha'i Faith holds that man is by and large responsible to make his essence. It might not go to the existentialist extreme where man is the only determining factor in making his essence. However, in Baha'i metaphysics, man's free will and his ability to make his essence play a dominant 9 4 role. Such an ability brings Baha’i metaphysics close to the existentialist metaphysics. With regard to the question of reality and how an existentialist sees reality as only the "human reality" and how it tries to avoid touching the question of exis tence of any reality beyond what the individual experiences, it seems quite compatible with what the Faith maintains so far as the human mind is concerned. The Faith, however, goes further and preserves the idea that there are : : realities, beyond whata human perceives, though the human understanding of these realities is always subjective. As Baha'u'llah Himself confirmed, to whatever heights the mind of the most exalted of men may soar, however great the depths which the detached and understanding heart can pertrate, such mind and heart can never transcend that which is the creation of their conceptions and the products of their own thoughts. (1936/1976, p. 317) The "subjectivity of truth," as will be discussed in more detail in the next section, however, is subject to some differences and does not bear exactly the same meaning in the Baha’i Faith and existential philosophy. As far as the matter of "precedence of existence" is concerned, it seems that although the Faith maintains the idea that there is some sort of connection between the body and the soul which is emanated from a divine and encompassing spirit, what a human being becomes is totally due to what he makes of himself. It is true §'5 that man is endowed with heavenly qualities. These qualities, however, are made manifest only if he chooses correctly. In fact, the endowment is not an actual endow ment but a potential one. In other words, man is like a mirror, standing before a divine sun. How much he can reflect the light depends on how clean he keeps the surface. The basic difference between the two perspectives lies in a "social factor." Where some existential philo sophers totally deny the constraints enforced on man by uncontrollable factors such as biological and socio cultural, the Faith seems to agree that some degree of restricting elements act upon man’s total freedom as a rule--though there are always exceptions. Epistemology The importance, glory, and the beauty of knowledge have, explicitly or implicitly, been occasionally adored in the Baha'i literature. The following statement by Abdu'l-Baha is just one example among numerous ones that emphasize the status of knowledge. "Knowledge is the most glorious gift of man, and the most noble of human perfections .... knowledge is light, life, felicity, perfection, beauty, and the means of approaching the Threshold of Unity" (cited in McLean, 1978, p. 38). The question of epistemology or how we know things, however, seems to be based on the following principles. First, i 9 6 there are evidences to show that, for the Baha'i Faith understanding or knowledge remains only in the domain of the modes or relations and does not touch the sphere of substance. Second, there, shoiiId be a unity among different epistemological approaches. They are complementary in nature and none can be complete by itself. Third, of all the things that are "knowable," man is the ultimate discoverer. Understanding the Modes but not the Substance Unlike the rationalistic view which holds that "substance in itself and through itself is conceived," and mode is the "reality that can be known through other than itself" (Afnan, 1977, p. 78), the Faith takes a rather opposite stance and believes that "the aspect we apprehend, either of nature or of God, can be only their 'mode,' 'appearance* or phenomena of their revelation, not their substance itself" (Afnan, 1977, p. 80). Baha'u'llah himself confirmed this idea When he said man is not able to know the substance of a stone, how then can he claim to understand the substance of his soul or God? "Man's understanding is limited to the field of attributes or 'modes' revealed by the substance. It can never penetrate further into the realm of their underlying substance" (Afnan, 1977, p. 80). 97 Sometimes in the Abdu11-Baha1s writings substance and essence seem to be exchangeable in terms of their unknowability. For example He said, "know that there are two kinds of knowledge: the knowledge of the essence of a thing, and the knowldege of its qualities. The essence of a thing is known through its qualities, other wise it is unknown and hidden" (1908/1964, p. 255), this statement might imply that through the qualities, the essence is finally and completely known. But His explana tions in the next sentences makes it clear that the essence or substance remains incomprehensible. "Our knowledge of things, even of created and limited things, is knowledge of their qualities and not of their essence .... For the substance or the essence of anything is not compre hended, but its qualities" (p. 255) . In more general form, the idea of unknowability of substance is logically conducive to the idea of unknow ability of both the substance and the attributes of God since they are one in His Own Realm. The only door open for knowing is to know His modes and attributes manifested in His Manifestations. Unknowability of God. Although on many occasions it is stated that the higher state of knowledge is the knowledge of God (Baha1u1llah, 1978), it must be kept in mind that this knowledge by no means refers to Qod in 98 His exalted and hidden realm. Indeed, whenever God is concerned, it means His Manifestations, which, in the realm of multiplicity, are the perfect mirrors to reflect His names and attributes. With regard to the same idea, the Bab said, "True knowledge, therefore, is the knowledge of God, and this is none other than the recognition of His Manifestation in each Dispensation" (1976,, p. 89) . In 1 I • - * chapter XXXVII of Some Answered Questions, Abdu'1-Baha j ! makes it clear that "the Divinity can only be comprehended ] through the Divine Manifestations," Otherwise, what we ! i I think of that "Hidden Essence" is subject to our imagina- 1 tion and far from what It truly is. This limited under- j standing of man, makes it almost impossible for humans to have a complete knowledge of non-natural entities. There- j \ fore, knowledge of man, according to the Baha'i Faith, is j I subjective and individual. | 1 Subjectivity of knowledge. What is quite explicit j in the Baha'i literature is its firm belief in the "sub jectivity of knowledge of the divine reality of the manifestations and God." In numerous places the writings support this principle. For example, Abdu'1-Baha stated: Now concerning the essence of Divinity: in truth it is on no account determined by anything apart from its own nature, and can in no wise be comprehended. For whatsoever.can be conceived by man is a reality that hath, limitations and is not unlimited; it is circumscribed, not all-embracing. It can be compre hended by man, and is controled by him. Similarly it is certain that all human conceptions are contingent 99 j < not absolute; that they have a mental existence, not a material one. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 341) It seems, however, -that this principle would not be applicable when knowledge of natural phenomena is con cerned, the degree of confidence in knowing things as they really are is much higher than when non-natural phenomena is concerned. It is true that as a rule man is not capable of even understanding the substance of natural things but he can know their modes and relations. It seems that man will be ultimately able to uncover these modes and relations. This ability, according to the Baha'i Faith originates from the human being's rational soul or power of intellect. The power of the rational soul can discover the realities of things, comprehend the peculiarities of beings, and penetrate the mysteries of existence. All sciences, knowledge, arts, wonders, institutions, discoveries, and enterprises, come from the exer cised intelligence of the rational soul. There was a time when they were unknown, preserved mysteries, and hidden secrets; the rational soul gradually discovered them and brought them out from the plane of the invisible and the hidden, into the realm of the visible. This is the greatest power of intelligence in the world of nature, which in its highest flight and soaring comprehends the realities, the properties, and the effects of the contingent beings. (Abdu' 1-Baha, 1908/19.64, pp. 252-253) This passage implies the idea that through his mental faculties man gradually progresses to the point where more and more natural mysteries become revealed to him. Indeed, this gradual process is quite evident in the course of the history of science where the old 100. mysterious and unknown phenomena are today's obvious facts. In brief, the stance of the Faith about knowledge can be divided into two categories: the knowledge of non-natural entities and that of the natural. The former remains subjective and without any objective criteria to determine if the knowledge in this domain is verifiable. The latter, however, preserves the hope, that natural knowledge can be objective and based on a set of standard criteria— e.g., scientific criteria. With regard to the knowledge that man has, or will have, of himself, the Faith seems to maintain the same position. Namely, as far as the physical nature of man is concerned there is a possibility ‘ of having objective knowledge. On the other hand, when man's spirit .and its manifestations are con cerned, knowledge is subjective. Man must strive hard and utilize all the means at his disposal to come more and more close to understanding the modes and relationships of these non-natural entities. This constant struggle, the Faith believes, would be more fruitful if man did not confine himself to only one or a few of the available epistemological approaches, but took advantage of each and every approach in accordance with what the situation demands. It is, therefore, one of the epistemological principles of the Baha'i Faith to believe in the necessity of harmony and unity among the modes of knowing. ,101. Unity in Different Modes of Knowing Through the Baha'i literature concerning the sub ject of human knowledge, four major epistemological approaches are dealt with: knowledge through sense perception, reason and logic, tradition or scriptual authority, and the medium of inspiration (Abdu' 1-Baha, 1908/1964). However, what seems to be very important is that although each one of these modes have their own realm of application, none is by itself capable of dis covering the reality of the relations among the natural phenomena, nor can any be a reliable medium to get closer to the understanding of the non-natural ones. What the Faith tends to lean toward is the position where all of these modes be united and be in agreement in such a way that they complement each other's deficiencies. As a rule, the closer one comes to achieving a harmony among these approaches, the closer he can claim to have reached reality. Complementary nature of epistemological approaches. In several lengthy discussions on different occasions Abdu'1-Baha tried to make clear the Baha'i stance with regard to the subject of "essential unity among different epistemological modes." Through His lectures, discourses, and writings, He explained why all of the four major modes of knowing (.sense perception, logic, tradition, > 102 * • - - ✓ and inspiration), when acting alone, are subject to errors (1908/1964, pp. 341-343). But when united together, and tested together, one can be almost certain of having a good grasp of reality. In one of His lectures in Green Acre, New England, in 1912, Abdu'1-Baha summed up the position of the Faith with regard to human knowledge in the following passage. Consequently it has become evident that the four criteria or standards of judgemnt by which the human mind reaches its conclusions are faulty and inaccurate. All of them are liable to mistake and error in conclusions. But a statement presented to the mind accompanied by proofs which the senses can perceive to be correct, which the faculty of reason can accept, which is in accord with tradi tional authority and sanctioned by the prompting of the heart, can be adjudged and relied upon as perfectly correct, for it has been proved and tested by all the standards of judgment and found to be complete. When we apply one test there are possibilities of mistake. (cited in Balyuzi, 1971, p. 242) The belief in the essential harmony among the different approaches might raise the question of applicability. That is, there might exist a great number of cases where this agreement simply cannot be reachable. The Baha'i response to this problem might be: Then you cannot be sure whether you have chosen the best means to discover the realities. Two points must be made clear here. First, what the Faith considers as "traditional authority" or what has simply been revealed through the Holy Books of past 103 religions is subject to various interpretations. In fact, because of the symbolic language of the past Manifestations, and also because of the fact that man's capacity to under stand the non-natural realities was much less than what it is today, then agreement with scriptual authority must be put into proper context. In other words, an agreement must be reached with "what has been meant" by scriptures ! and not with the literal meanings. Second, the emphasis j that the Faith puts on utilizing the intellectual powers, i reasoning faculty, and the scientific methods of inquiry 1 supports the idea that although "non-scientific" methods I (intuition, prayers and meditations, and mystical experi ences), are of great value, scientific inquiry and reason plays a crucial role in searching for truths as well. In brief, varieties of the epistemological approaches that have been presented throughout the Baha'i writings can be categorized into two groups: scientific and non-scientific methods. The scientific approaches are those that utilize deduction and induction as their i primary means to reach the truth. The non-scientific methods are those that include approaches such as medi tation and prayers, intuition, knowing one's self, and purity of heart as valid modes of knowing. What is impor tant is the fact that this dichotomy between the scientific and non-scientific approaches is only for the sake of 104 - formal classifications. In practice, according to the Baha'i Faith, such a dichotomy must not exist. Indeed, the most appropriate mode of knowing would be the state of absolute harmony among all of these approaches. Scientific Approaches Baha'i teachings encourage man to utilize his rational faculty and reasoning ability to seek for truth. Because the Faith maintains the position that cause and effect relationship is dominant in the world of nature, the importance of the path of reason and science becomes even more evident. The Faith believes that as far as the created world is concerned, everything is chained together through causation. "All that is created, however, is preceded by a cause" (Baha'u'llah, 1936/1976, p. 162). But this chain, according to Abdu'1-Baha does not go on indefinitely. "Thus such a chain of causation must of necessity lead eventually to Him who is the Ever-Living, the All-Powerful, who is Self-Dependent and the Ultimate Cause" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 343). The acceptance of causal relations in natural phenomena opens the door for all kinds of activities of the investigative faculties of man, among them reasoning and science being the two most significant ones. ,10 5 The path of reason. Undoubtedly, the bulk of the Baha'i literature on the importance of the reasoning faculty of man and its being the differentiating factor between the world of man and that of the nature is enormous. It is a God-given gift, an endowment from Heaven. "God's greatest gift to man is that of intellect, or understanding. The understanding is the power by which man acquires his knowledge of the several kingdoms of creation, and of various stages of existence, as well as much which is invisible" (Abdu'1-Baha, 1969, p. 10). On other occasions Abdu'1-Baha mentions the rational power of man as a part of man's spirit. "The human spirit consists of the rational, or logical, reasoning faculty, which apprehends general ideas and things intelligible and perceptible" (1908/1964, p. 370). By endowing this faculty with a divine connotation, the Faith maintains reason as an appropriate means for discovering the modes and relations among the natural phenomena and that of the non-natural as well. The Faith does not accept the dichotomy between the approaches when one deals with different realms. In other words, it takes the position that utilizing rational and scientific means in searching for divine realities is just as valid as using such modes as intuition and medi tation in seeking for the natural ones. Abdu'1-Baha confirmed this conviction when he stated: •106j God has endowed man with intelligence and reason whereby he is required to determine the verity of questions and propositions. If religious beliefs and opinions are found contrary to the standards of science they are mere superstitions and imagina-^- tions; for the anthithesis of knowledge is ignorance, and the child of ignorance is superstitions. Unques tionably there must be agreement between true religion and science. If a question be found contrary to reason, faith and belief in it are impossible and there is no outcome but wavering and vacillation. (cited in Hatcher, 1977, p. 38) Closely related with the reasoning faculty of man is his power of scientific investigation, by which, based on his observation and evaluation, he can discover laws and relations dominating the phenomenal world. Scientific investigations. Although the Baha'i Faith rejects the positivist point of view that only knowledge which can be by some means sensed is to be believed as true, it gives the scientific method of inquiry special credit. The mere fact that the Baha'i writers even go further and see no difference between the Baha'i approach to seeking for realities and that of science. For example, William Hatcher, a mathematician himself, in a rather lengthy article on science and religion comes up with two conclusions where he sees little, if any, difference between the modes that the Faith and science choose for their inquiry. \} . _ , We know turn to a more substantive task of elaborating just how the basic unity of science, and of science and religion, is viewed in the light of the Baha'i teachings. Our theses are, quite simply: Cl) that XOfZi the basic unity of science lies in its method of inquiry or epistemology, and (2) that the Baha'i Faith consciously accepts this epistemology as its own, accepting in its wake whatever redefinitions of the terms "religion" and "faith" are consequent to it. (196 9, p. 9) Of course, what the author meant by scientific inquiry might be to some extent different from a purely objective set of processes "Scientific inquiry brings into play a host of human faculties such as reason, intuition, and experience, and these on different levels of priority and objectivity" (p. 11). Therefore, knowledge grasped through scientific inquiry is by all means relative. "It is relative not only to time but to the whole body of our present knowledge which forms the context in which the statement has meaning in the first place" (p. 11). Of course, this relativity of knowledge has nothing to do with the notion that the world "out there" might be a fig ment of our imagination, but that only "our understnading of this objective reality (whatever it ultimately turns out to be) is relative because we are relative" (p. 12). Hatcher goes further and defines the individual's faith as "his total emotional .and psychological orientation resulting from the body of assumptions about reality which he has made (consciously or unconsciously)" ip. 14). And since he believes that science is just an organized body of knowledge and the scientific method is "the conscious 108 ; explicit organization of knowledge,1 1 it ultimately leads us to our individual "model of reality" which is relative both in terms of time and context. Based upon this definition of faith and science, wherein both are subject to change and modifications due to new experiences, the author comes to the conclusion that both faith and science are "part of the same process of knowing and living .... Faith must be rational, and reason always operates within the context of our basic assumptions, that is, our faith. Our assumptions, when made explicit, are the purely intel lectual components of our total faith" (p. 15). Other Baha'i writers (Baily, 1975? Hatcher, 1977; and McLean, 1978), utilizing different arguments, came more or less to similar conclusions on the importance and the necessity of using scientific inquiry in searching for models or reality, be they in the natural or non-natural realms. Non-Scientific Approaches With all the respect the Faith pays to the science, there have been numerous occasions where other modes of knowing have been also paid special attentions to, among them five seem to be of greatest importance. These five modes are meditation and prayers, intuition, knowing one's self, purity of heart, and symbolic language. Meditation and prayers. Meditations and prayers are considered to be valid approaches in seeking the 109 J answers to the mysteries of divine realities in the Baha'i Faith. "Meditation and mental activity alternate, causing traces of meditation to illumine thought processes and thought to aid understanding of knowledge acquired in meditation" (Ferraby, 1957, p. 132). With regard to the impact of prayers and meditation on a good grasp of reality Abdu'1-Baha declared: The spirit of man is itself informed and strengthened during meditation; through it affairs of which man knew nothing are unfolded before his view. Through it he receives Divine inspiration, through it he receives heavenly food. Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries. In that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things- in-themseIves. (cited in Ferraby, 1957, p. 133) Closely related to prayers and meditation as a means to gain a better understanding of reality is intuition and mystical experience which plays a crucial role in Baha'i epistemology. Intuition. intuition or direct grasp of knowledge has always been of great value in mystical and religious experience. The Bab said, "look not upon Him with any eye except His own. For whosoever looketh upon Him with His eye, will recognize Him; otherwise he will be veiled from Him. Shouldst thou seek God and His presence, seek thou Him and gaze upon Him" (cited in Taherzadeh, 1977, p. 3801. Mystical experiences, as the Bab stated, do not require any means but direct and intuitive grasp of the moment of i l l Q presence of reality. Abdu'1-Baha divides knowledge into two categories. "knowledge is of two kinds: one is sub jective, and the other is objective; that is to say, an intuitive knowledge and a knowledge derived from perception" (1908/1964, p. 180). Then He goes on and elaborates the matter. The knowledge of things which men universally have, is gained by reflection or by evidence: that is to say, either by the power of the mind the conception of an object is formed, or from beholding an object the form is produced in the mirror of the heart. The circle of this knowledge is very limited, because it depends upon effort and attainment. But the second sort of knowledge, which is the knowledge of being, is intuitive, it is like the cognisance and consciousness that man has of himself, (p. 180) Based on this distinction, Jack McLean (1978), a Baha'i scholar, came to the conclusion that "intuitive knowledge bridges the subject-object dichotomy. It con stitutes a border-line realm between affectivity or emotion and pure abstract reasoning" (p. 44). Furthermore, he saw a great deal of similarity between what the Faith means by intuitive knowledge and the tenets of existential knowledge and phenomenology. ^ Intuitive knowledge is existential knowledge in the . senseuthat. it is experienced directly in the immediate rather than being thought out conceptually within a framework of time. It is based on the assumption that the mind has the power to intuit truths directly through a form of nonanalytic reasoning. (p. 44) A very important source to bring about rich grounds for intuitive knowledge is the symbolic language and literature ill v. ' v / of the Manifestations. "Intuitive reason makes greater use of symbols and feelings than it does in working out abstract arguments. This is why all scriptures are so full of symbols. They are more apt to convey directly to the consciousness the truths of the revelation than abstract arguments" (p. 44). In the next few sections the importance of the symbolic language of the scriptures is discussed in more detail. What seems to be of great concern in the Baha'i Faith is to include, as much as possible, all the available epistemological approaches so that every individual, based upon the needs and specificity of every situation, is able to choose the best means to search for truth. Ruling out one or more modes of knowing or confining oneself to a few others seem not to be compatible with the harmony or agreement that the Faith seeks to synthesize. Knowing one1s self. Since man, according to the Baha'i Faith, is a potential mirror to reflect all the names and the attributes of God, introspection may function as another means to grasp knowledge not just about one's self but about the whole universe. On many occasions in the Baha'i literature man is encouraged to contemplate himself, since "God is his mystery and he is His mystery." That is why Baha'u'llah urged man to turn to himself if he wants to gain an understanding of a Divine Being. 112 Would ye apprehend with what wonders of my. munifi cence and bounty I have willed to entrust your souls, ye would, of a truth, rid yourselves of attachment to all created things, and would gain a true know ledge of your own selves— a knowledge which is the same as comprehension of Mine own Being. (1936/1976, p. 326) The importance of knowing one's self is so great that Baha'u'llah saw it as one reason why the Manifestations have revealed themselves to man. "The purpose of the one true God, exalted be His glory, in revealing Himself unto men is to lay bare those gems that lie hidden within the mine of their true and inmost selves" (cited in Ferraby, 1957, p. 137). Or, when He bitterly mentioned "true loss is for him whose days have been spent in utter ignorance of his true self" (cited in the Baha1i Revelation, 1955, p. 139), the seriousness of the matter becomes once more evident. This kind of knowledge might be closer to intui tive knowledge than to scientific investigation. However, in the Baha'i Faith, both the principle of "know thyself" and intuition become closely related with yet another mode of knowing which is called "purity of heart." Purity of heart. With all the vagueness that the words "purity of heart" might imply, its meaning, in the simplest form, is nothing more than having a mind empty from the thought of any object but what is the target of search. It might sound very close to what the scientific inquiry demands as "objectivity" of the observer, or what phenomenology requires in being "as free as possible from unexamined presuppositions." There should be no room in a pure heart for prejudice or attach ment. when one seeks for God, then purity of heart, as Abdu'1-Baha explained, means that thy mind becomes empty and pure from every mention and thought and thy heart attracted wholly to the Kingdom of God, forget all else besides God and come in communion with the Spirit of God, then the Holy Spirit will assist thee with a power which will enable thee to penetrate all things, and a Dazzling Spark which enlightens all sides, a Brilliant Flame in the zenith of the heavens, will teach thee that which thou dost not know of the facts of the universe and of the divine doc trines. (Baha'i World Faith, p. 3 69) As this passage shows, purity of heart will eventually lead to the point where intuitive knowledge is more possible to be grasped. Metaphor and symbolic language. In addition to these four non-scientific modes of knowing, there seems to be yet another mode which can be implied through the symbolic language that the Manifestations utilize to teach about the realities. This metaphorical language has a special value to the Baha'i perspective for the Faith tries to give fresh interpretations of what have been revealed by the previous Manifestations of God. Since the Baha'i Faith strongly believes in the educative purposes of the Manifestations and their dispensations and since the teachings must be educationally 1*14 ; profitable for different people with a wide range of capa cities and levels of readiness, the Manifestations utilize a symbolic language with vast potentialities to be inter preted differently by different people. Therefore, it seems that by using a metaphorical language, people can be taught, each in accordance with their own state of mental and spiritual preparation. There is evidence to show that the Faith accepts the notion that the Manifes tations have delibrately chosen a language to imply more than one meaning. For example, on numerous occasions when Abdu11-Baha, the Interpretor of the Teachings, was asked to reveal the "true" meaning of one of the writings of His father, Baha1u1llah, or of other Manifestations, He sometimes refered to His interpretation as "one possible" meaning of the writing. This implies that the writings might have other meanings as well. Besides, in chapter XVI of His book Some Answered Questions, Abdu'1-Baha emphasized how it is necessary to utilize "outward forms and symbols" to "convey intellectual conceptions." Then He illustrated His point by giving a few examples, among them, He refered to the "dove which descended upon Christ" and how it "was not a material dove, but it was a spiritual state, which, that it might be comprehensible, was expressed, by a sensible image" (1908/1964, p. 97). O T i s ) 'Abdu11-Baha Himself regularly used sensible examples to illustrate non-material or "intellectual cnceptions." All through Baha'i literature, on numerous occasions, sun, sky, stars, mirror, light, and many other sensible objects are used metaphorically to exemplify those realities that -are not perceptible by the senses. This opens room for at least one Baha'i scholar, poet and writer to divert attention to "The Metaphorical Nature of Physical Reality" (Hatcher, 1977). In this extermely creative piece of writing, Hatcher tried to show how man can and must utilize physical realities through the recognition of the metaphorical nature which lies behind them and-then get a better understanding of non-natural realities. In his own words, "the capacity of the physical world to reflect the divine attributes and the capacity of man to recognize this correlation are not coincidental; it is the explicit* function of the physical world to educate man" (pp. 36-37). This conclusion is actually based on the explicit words of Baha'u'llah who said, "Out of the wastes of nothingness, with the clay of My command I made thee to appear, and have ordained for thy training every atom in existence and the essence of all created things" (cited in Hatcher, 1977, p. 37). Therefore, the whole world can function as a very big classroom with all its elements as instructional 116 instruments. Man can get a better grasp of knowledge about the Manifestations if he contemplates the meaning behind the metaphors they use in their language of the meaning behind the metaphorical nature of the physical realities. Furthermore, recognition of the Manifestation implies more than perceiving the validity of His description of the universe and the pragmatic value of His ordir. nances? it involves perceiving the way in which the Manifestation metaphrizesjor:.dramatizes God for man. (Hatcher, 1977, p. 44) In brief, the epistemology of the Baha'i Faith can be summarized in an encompassing paradigm where four tenets seem to be more dominant. First, the Faith stands for the principle that the knowledge of the essence or substance of objects is not possible. Therefore, knowledge will be limited to the modes and the relationships. Second, the knowledge of non-natural phenomena will always be subjective, though the possibility of thei reality of these phenomena is unquestionable. Third, man is the ultimate discoverer of the realities of the modes and the relationships of the existing realities, though, this discovery might remain subjective in the realm of the non-natural entities. And finally, the Faith maintains the position that all of the epistemological approaches are complementary in nature, and none will be sufficient or reliable by itself. Baha'i Epistemology and Other Schools of Thought This section is an attempt to review very briefly the major differences and similarities between Baha'i epistemological approaches and those of the Idealist, Realist, Experimentalist, and Existentialist. Like the comparative section on metaphysics, there is no intention to bring forth any elaborated form of comparison. Rather, only the distinctive and generally held points are matters of concern. Generally speaking, the nature of Baha'i epis temology is not in disagreement with any of these mentioned schools of thought. The only point is that the Faith maintains the validity of all of these epistemological approaches, up to some extent. For example, the Baha'i doctrine of "knowing one's self" is compatible with the Idealist's notion of introspection as a path toward discovering the "Universal Mind." But when the Idealist approaches the extreme where all sense-data tend to loose their reliability, the Baha'i Faith comes to disagree with him. For, according to the Faith, sense-perception may also function as a valid means in the search for reality. In searching for natural realities, Realists employ a "spectator theory." In other words, they take .118, "pains to 'spectate' carefully and rigorously, checking out results, and, if . . . .observations are systematic enough, come up with generalizations, principles, and laws that tell us how our world is built and how it works" (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 132). Such an appraoch is of special value to the Faith. In fact, scientific investi gations are not only valid in the realm of natural pheno mena but in searching for the non-natural realities as well. However, the Baha'i Faith does not confine itself to the boundry of "experimented realities." Indeed, it tries to avoid the positivistic approach where only those realities should be the concern of man that can be experi mented upon. The Experimentalist's tentative and temporary truths are, by no means, contradictory to the Baha'i Faith, as long as the knowledge and the level of compre^ hension of man is the matter of concern. The very notion of "progressive revelation" is the best reason to show how the everchanging mind of man perceives different realities in different stages of development. Therefore, although the Faith believes in an absolute reality "out .there," the understanding of this reality is subject to change and modification. What makes the major difference between the Experimentalist epistemology and that of the Faith remains the fact that whereas for 119 the experimentalist, objective knowledge, scientific experiments, and the consequence of whether "it works or not," are to be determining factors in the modes of knowing, but the Baha'i Faith includes other modes as well. Moreover, this inclusion of other modes in Baha'i epistemology is a necessary element to make sure that one has chosen the most appropriate approach to seek for realities. The Existentialist's notion of the subjectivity of truth which is the basis for its epistemology tends to be very close to the Baha'i principle of the subjec tivity of knowledge. When Merleau-Ponty said "reality begins . . . only when we cease to live in the evidence of the object . . . and perceive the radical subjectivity of all our experience as inseparable from truth" (cited in Kneller, 1971, p. 79), the idea seems to be in complete agreement with the statement of Abdu'1-Baha when He said, "all human conceptions are contingent, not absolute; . . . . they have a mental existence, not a material one" (Baha* i World Faith, 1956, p. 341). However, there remains two major differences between the two. In the Baha'i episte mology, the subjectivity of knowledge is explicitly suggested when the object of knowledge is in the realm of divine or non-natural realities, and not when the natural phenomena are concerned. Whereas, for existential lism, the notion of the subjectivity of truth is held to 120, - * be true, no matter what the object of knowledge is. Second, the Faith maintains the idea that there exist absolute realities "out there," independent of a human's knowledge of them. In other .words, the existence of divine, realities, or their "out-thereness," has very little to do with the human's understanding of them. On the contrary, existentialism tries to avoid the question of the "out-thereness" of any kind of reality independent of human subjective knowledge of them. Aside from these two major differences, bothj.the Faith and existentialism seem to maintain the general idea (though to different extent) of the subjectivity of human knowledge. Ethics The issue of ethics takes a twofold pattern in the Bahaii Faith. On one hand, there is a general and divine ethical code which remains absolute and unchanging. On the other hand, the application of this general code, as well as a great deal of other moral and ethical issues, is subject to change, and from time to time will be revised, modified, and replaced by the Universal House of Justice. For instance, justice, love of humanity, purity, and charity are of special ethical value; a divine and absolute value. But how they are applied to the individual's day by day decision-making is something which '121 strongly depends on the specificity of each situation. Here, if the issue be of social importance, the decision will be made by the Universal House of Justice. And if the matter be of concern only to the individual, the choice will be that of the individual. Therefore, generally speaking, the whole issue of ethics from the feahaVi' perspective is divided into two separate, yet closely linked, categories: absolute and relative systems of determing what is "good" and what is not. The General Format of Absolute Values As a rule, it seems that the writings of Baha'u'Uah and Abdu'l-Baha tend to show that whatever leads mankind to be more united is good. And on the contrary, evil is what causes separation and enmity within the human race. All of the moral and ethical laws revealed by the Manifes tations are considered to be instrumental in facilitating the path toward what seems to be the intrinsically good, the state of absolute unity and harmony of mankind. In other words, the Manifestations of God do not invent the laws and obligations. Rather, based on their encompassing knowledge, they simply reveal what will eventually lead to the ultimate goal of every dispensation. One Baha'i writer analogized the revealed ethical law to the scientific law governing natural phenomena and discovered by the scientists. 12 2 Properly understood,, moral or spiritual law assumes the same objective authority as scientific law: just as scientific law describes relationships among pheno mena, spiritual and moral laws describe the relation ships among spiritual entities. In this sense moral law is not an arbitrary prescription; it is objective description .... The Manifestation does not create divine reality or the laws governing that reality. He revelas them to man and invites compliance with them. (Hatcher, 1977, p. 37) Of these moral and ethical issues and principles a few seem to be the center of more emphasis in the Baha'i literature. Among them one can mention the issue of jus tice and love of humanity, each extremely instrumental in achieving the goal of unity. Justice. Although there is not any material definition of the word justice in the Baha'i literature, there are many occasions wherein justice is explained by illustrations, bringing out its characteristics and setting forth its principles. Justice, according to the Faith, is a divine quality whose source lies within the religious principles revealed by the Manifestations. Baha'u'Uah stated: know verily that the essence of justice and the source thereof are both embodied in the ordinances prescribed by Him who is the Manifestation of the Self of God amongst men .... He doth verily incarnate the highest, the infallible standard of justice unto all creation. (1936/197 6, p. 175) Therefore, it seems that through pursuing the ordinances of each Manifestation in its dispensation justice is secured. In other words, Baha'i literature tends to 123: show ^ that the determining factor that safeguards "just acts" is observing the teachings of the Faith. Among other principles underlying justice are two basic pillars: reward and retribution. "O people of God I The trainer of the world is justice for it consists of two pillars, reward and retribution. These two pillars are two fountains for the life of the people of the world" (Baha'u'Uah, 1936/1976, p. 200). Apparently, here, by justice, something different is meant from the concept of legal punishment. Rather, a divine and spiritual quality is the basis for it (Ferraby, 1957, p. 115). To make the matter more clear, two other Baha'i principles must be taken into consideration. First, the faith maintains the position that the teachings revealed by the Manifestation are the source of justice. Second, one must follow these teachings neither for the expectation of any material reward (for example, Heaven), nor out of fear of any pun- ishment (Hell). Rather, observing the ordinances must be based upon a pure love of the Manifestation. Baha'u'Uah, with regard to the same subject, said, "the Tongue of My power hath, from the heaven of My omnipotent glory, addressed to My creation these words: 'Observe My com mandments, for the love of My Beauty'" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 127) 124 Therefore, the relation is like that of a lover and his Beloved. There is no reward greater than the satisfaction of the Beloved, and no punishment more painful than disappointing Him. Consequently, what is meant by the pillars of reward and retribution seems to be far from the apportionment of reward and retribution in the legalistic perspective. What makes even a bigger difference between the Baha'i and legalistic perspective of justice is the dissimilarity of the goals each seeks to fulfill. From the legalistic point of view, justice should be secured to safeguard a social order which might be necessary for a society to survive. The goal of the Baha'i Faith, however, is to secure justice far beyond just preserving the order of society. It seeks for its far reaching goal; the unity of mankind which is believed to be fulfilled by justice. Baha'u'Uah stated: The light of men is justice; quench it not with the contrary winds of oppression and tyrany. The purpose of justice is the appearance of unity among people. In this exalted Word, the sea of God's wisdom is moving: all the books of the world are mot sufficient to contain its interpretation. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 182) Therefore, like a great number of other issues emphasized by the Faith, the purpose, ultimately, turns to the con cept of unity among men. Another ethical issue which seems to be one of the most fundamental, unchanging, and absolute values in the Faith is love for humanity, a uni- ting force exceeding any other ethical command._____________ 125, Love of humanity. A huge bulk of the writings of Baha'u'Uah and Abdu'l-Baha is devoted to showing the abso lute essentiality of universal love as a source of indi vidual as well as social good. Unconditional and abundant love functions to bring about all good things in several I ways. It is the source of spiritual progress in every individual, it acts to generate a more pleasant social environment, and, finally, it leads mankind to the state i i of unity and agreement. The amount of Baha'i writings with regard to this subject is enormous, but the following passage from the Will and Testament of Abdu'l=Baha may i display the stance of the Faith. i i It is incumbent upon everyone to show the utmost love, rectitude of conduct, straightforwardness and sincere kindliness unto all the peoples and kindreds of the world, be they friends or strangers. So intense must be the spirit of love and loving-kindness, that the stranger may find himself a friend, the enemy a true brother. . . . the affections and loving kindness of the servants of the One True God must be bountifully and universally extended to all mankind. Regarding this, restrictions and limitations are in no wise j permitted. (Cited in The Baha'i Revelation, 1955, p. 313) In addition to these two firm principles which seem to be the essential parts of the format of the abso lute and unchanging values of the Baha'i Faith, there are a number of more specific human values which are the cen- . : ter of focus, wherever moral and ethical teachings are involved. In a passage Baha'u'Uah summed up the princi ples of 126 righteousness which beautifully shows what is expected from a righteous individual. Be generous in prosperity, and thankful in adversity. Be worthy of the trust of thy neighbor, and look upon him with a bright and friendly face. Be a treasure to the poor, and admonisher to the rich, an answerer of the cry of the needy,, a preserver of the sanctity of thy pledge. Be fair in thy judgment, and guarded in thy speech. Be unjust to no man, and show all meek ness to all men. Be as a lamp unto to them that walk in darkness, a joy to the sorrowful, a sea for the thirsty, a haven for the distressed, an upholder and defender of the victim of oppression. Let integrity and uprightness distinguish all thine acts. Be a home for the stranger, a balm to the suffering, a tower of strength for the fugitive. Be eyes to the blind, and a guiding light unto the feet of the erring. Be an ornament to the countenance of truth, a crown to the brow of fidelity, a pillar of the temple of right eousness, a breath of life to the body of mankind, an ensign of the hosts of justice, a humanary above the horizon of virtue, a dew to the soil of human heart, an ark on the ocean of knowledge, a sun in the heaven of bounty, a gem on the diadem of wisdom, a shining light in the firmament of thy generation, a fruit upon the tree of humanity. (Baha'i World Faith, 19 56, p. 136) With all these general moral guidelines which set forth the broad and unspecified ethical principles, the Faith strongly maintains the position that change is an undeniable reality, and every change demands a set of new values or at least a set of new applications of absolute values. This brings out the second tenet of the Baha'i ethical system: the relativity of values. 12 7- ' General Format of the Relativity of Values The specific laws regarding personal conduct are relatively few in the Baha'i Faith. The decision-making is either up to the individual or the Universal House of Justice; the legislative body whose members are elected for a specific period of time. This legislative body is in charge of legislating the matters that are not expressly revealed in the teachings. Therefore, based on the BahaVi belief in the everchanging and developing stages of human life, only the general format of the standards of ethics is set forth. It is either the individual that must make his choice based on the theme of the teachings, or it is the job of the Universal House of Justice to make a deci sion when the interest of a larger group is concerned. Consequently, as far as the matter of relativity of values is concerned, both the individual and the Universal House of Justice are involved, but in different ways. Freedom of man and relativity of values. The Baha'i Faith tends to take a moderate position with regard to the free will of man. There are things that are subject to man's free will, and all moral choices are considered to be among them. Abdu'l-Baha made it clear that "justice, equity, tyranny, and injustice . . . are, for the most part, left to the will of man" (1908/1964, p. 287). There are, however, other things which are not subject to the 128^ free will of man. For example, Abdu'l-Baha continued; "there are certain things to which man is forced and com pelled: such as sleep, death, sickness, decline of power . . . and he is not responsible for them. . . . But in the choice of good and bad actions he is free, and he com mits them according to his own will" (p. 287). Therefore, whenever moral and ethical decisions are involved, man is free to act according to his will. Consequently, although the general format of absolute values / is set forth by the Faith, when it comes to every single situation, it is up to the individual to make the final choice. This freedom of choice and taking responsibility for consequences are indeed two of the most distinguishing characteristics of man. On various occasions, the Bab, Baha'u'Uah, and Abdu'l-Baha confirmed the fact that believing or disbelieving in God and His ordinances is solely up to each individual's own free will. God is like the sun and the believers like mirrors. The disbelievers are like stones that cannot reflect the light of the sun, no matter how long the stone is exposed to the sunshine. Of course, God can turn the stone into the mirrors, but since, it is up to the individual's free choice either to accept the work of God or disregard it, each individual chooses his state of being, either a mirror, or a stone. (The Bab, 1976, p. 103) As_the passage shows, even the task of all the Manifesta tions is guidance and not coersion. "The task of these successive divine revelations, throughout the history of mankind, has been to 'warn' the people, 'guide' them in 129 the way of virtue and righteousness . . . and not to coerce" (Afnan, 1976, p. 54). Therefore, despite all these guidelines, the ultimate responsibility of making moral choices remains on the shoulders of each individual. Two other points closely related to the freedom of the individual in making choices must be mentioned here. First, making choices and taking responsibility for the consequences always go together. The Baha'i Faith has tried to warn people about the probable consequences of moral decisions though it does not restrict the freedom to make choices. There is neither any heaven to act as a reward, nor a hell for punishment. The soul of man is and ever will be in a constant process of development. By making right choices (choices that are compatible with the Baha'i teachings), there will be an acceleration in this process. Wrong choices will lead to slower (and probably more troublesome) chains of processes. But the Baha'i Writings say that there is no static existence in'the next world, no relegation to an external abode within some fixed state of existence. Whether in this world or the next, man is constantly changing, we hope in a positive way, and the point of transition called death does not end the process of spiritual development, nor does it end man's need to utilize the important and essential faculty of discernment with its accompanying tools of spiritual growth, even if he has in this life neglected his essential nature, it may be possible to develop such faculties in the next world through the bounty of God, through the prayers of others, and through his own supplications. (J. S. Hatcher, 1977, p. 54) 13 0, Therefore, the consequences of any moral choice will effect the individual's life, in one way or the other, either in this world or in the worlds to come. The second point deals with the way the Faith looks at ..the individual's submission to God's will. Although it might seem contradictory, the Faith maintains the position that this submission in not only compatible with, but indeed enhances the freedom of individual. Closely tied to mystical experiences, total servitude and submission leads to the state of absolute freedom from both internal as well as external confinements. It is with regard to this mystical experience of freedom that Baha'u'Uah stated, "the liberty that profiteth you is to be found nowhere except in complete servitude unto God, the Eternal I Truth. Whoso hath tasted of its sweetness will refuse to barter it for all the dominion of earth and heaven" (19 36/ 1976, p. 336). In brief, it seems that the individual's free will is of great value in the Baha'i Faith, especially when the matter of moral and ethical choices are involved. However, although man seems to be the ultimate determiner in making decisions, wherever matters of social interest tend to arise, it is .the task of the Universal House of Justice to establish standards for ethical issues, especially for those issues that have not been directly dealt with in the 1'31 teachings. Still, it remains up to the decision of the individual if and how he chooses to carry them out. The Universal House of Justice. The general tenets of the Universal House of Justice are established by Baha'u'Uah Himself, based on the belief in everchanging stages of spiritual and mental development of human beings. "Inasmuch as for each day and time a particular decree or order is expedient, affairs are therefore entrusted to the House of Justice, so that it may execute that which it deems advisable at the time" (Baha1u1llah, cited in Baha1i World Faith, p. 200). Although the members of this legislative institu tion are elected by the members of the Baha'i Faith for a certain period of time, its unique characteristics, according to the Baha'i belief, are divinity and infalli bility (Host, 1979, p. 25). In its decision-making, the council gets the necessary inspiration from the will of God. To this testified the word of Baha'u'Uah: It is incumbent upon the Trustees of the House of Justice, to take counsel together regarding those things which have not outwardly been revealed in the Book, and to enforce that which is agreeable to them. God will verily inspire them with whatsoever He willeth, and He verily, is the provider, the omniscient. (Cited in Shoghi Effendi, 1938, p. 23) In addition to its authority to legislate what has not been explicitly revealed in the Baha;i teachings, the Universal House of Justice has the power to modify or replace what 132 it has legislated. Therefore, it has a twofold function. "The first preserves the identity of His Faith, and guards the integrity of His law. The second enables it, even as a living organism, to expand and adapt itself to the needs of requirements of an ever-changing society" (Shoghi Effendi, 1938, p. 23). In brief, the Baha'i Faith takes a twofold position with regard to the problem of ethics. On one hand, it stands firmly for the belief that there is a general format of absolute values revealed by the Manifestations in each dispensation. On the other hand, the meanings and the implications of each of these broad guidelines remain rela tive not only to time but to the situation as well. How ever, there should be no incompatibility between the abso lute and the relative sets of values. In fact, the ideal state, according to the Faith, comes into existence when a harmony and agreement between these two start to develop. The most satisfactory stage of ethical maturity would be the point where the individual acts simultaneously accord ing to his free will and to the ethical teachings of the Faith. Baha'i Ethics and Other Schools of Thought; A Comparison The Baha'i ethics seems to be in a general agree ment with the Idealist with regard to the matter of 13 3 "imitation of the Absolute Self." If the ethical task of an idealist is "to go in search of the Infinite Person and the moral prescriptions contained therein" (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 234), the Baha'i ethics formulates the same thing, where the "Infinite Person" is the Manifestation. However, a difference arises when it comes to the issue of "hypo thetical imperatives" versus "categorical imperatives." The search of the Idealist for coming up with a general formula applicable to every ethical issue (categorical imperative) seems to be rather in vain from the Baha'i perspective. The mere fact of the existence of an insti tution such as the Universal House of Justice expresses the tendency toward believing in the importance of the specificity of each single issue. And it seems to be closer to the idea of the "hypothetical imperatives," where different rules might apply in different circumstan-. ces. Of course, this does not mean that the Baha'i ethics denies the existence of any absolute sets of ethical principles. What it claims is that in applying these abso lute principles there might be a great deal of relativity involved. The Baha'i ethical system seems to get even further from that of the Realist in some respects. Objective knowledge, according to the Faith would not be sufficient (though might be necessary) to establish the code of human conduct. When John Wild stated that man is capable of 134 ■ knowing the real existence and this knowledge can act as the only "reliable guide to human conduct, individual and social" (1948, p. 6), he, in fact, puts the knowledge of the human mind as the ultimate measure of any ethical sys tem. What seems to be the major difference between the Baha'i and the Realist ethics is the question of the sufficiency of human knowledge. The Faith absolutely has no disagreement with the fact that man's knowledge and intelligence is necessary to first, thoroughly understand ing the nature of the ethical principles, and second, applying them in accordance with the demand of each situa tion. What it tends to disbelive is the Realist's con viction of the sufficiency of this knowledge. The Faith assumes that the absolute and general format of the sets of values revealed by the Manifestations is necessary as well. If the Experimentalist's ethics can be summarized as "it all depends," then in some respects it comes close to the Baha'i ethics, and in some others, very far removed. As long as the Experimentalist measures an ethical act by the results it yields (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 251), there is not any major difference between him and a Baha'i. For an ethical act, for the Faith, is nothing but what leads to . love and unity among the ,human race . But when the Experimentalist leaves the criteria for judging open 135x to the will of either the individual or the group, then the disagreement between the two arises. For the end, accord ing to the Bab, is not arbitrary, but rather the achieve ment of a set of predetermined goals. Therefore, on one hand, the Experimentalist's ethical principle of "what works is good," comes very close to that of the Faith. On the other hand, as long as the experimentalist avoids answering the ultimate question of what "ought we to want," he is far from the Baha'i ethical principle. This twofold relation shows itself in any compari son between the Baha'i ethical system and that of the >Extentialist. For example, the Faith disagrees with Sartre when he said if "certain values exist prior to me, it is self-contradictory for me to want them and at the same [time] state that they are imposed on me" (1947, p. 53). For, according to the Faith, the mere existence of some general format of absolute values does not neces sarily mean any imposing of these values. Man is still free to choose to act accordingly or not. Therefore, as far as the freedom of choice of the individual in any ethical situation is concerned, there seems to be no major disagreement between the Baha'i Faith and existentialism. However, when the matter of the existence of any form of absolute values is involved., they take two different posi tions. For the Baha'i Faith understanding implications of ethical teachings seems to be a matter of individual choice, whereas the Existentialist tends to deny any com patibility between the existence of absolute values and the individual's freedom of choice. 13 7.: CHAPTER IV EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE BAHA'I FAITH Although the writings of Baha'u'Uah and Abdu'l- Baha present many basic principles and ideals for a Baha'i system of education, they do not offer a definite and detailed educational format. It is up to the Baha'i scholars and educators to develop and formulate a plan con sistent with the spirit of the Baha'i teachings (Shoghi Effendi, Baha'i Education, 1978, p. ix). In doing so, undoubtedly, not only the overall theme of Baha'i teachings must be taken into consideration, but a very intense atten tion must be paid to the Baha'i philosophical perspective. Among the issues every system of education is interested in is that of the nature of the individual human being, the individual's relationships to the society, and, finally, his relationship to the cosmos as a whole (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 8). Studying these issues is the job of any system of philosophy as well. Metaphysical, epistemo- logical, and ethical foundations of different philosophical systems will, consequently, lead to different educational implications. Metaphysical principles will influence the nature of the school's curriculum, the teacher's role and responsibilities, and the position of the student in 138 relation to both the teacher and the curriculum. The im pact of the epistemological foundations will be strongly felt in the realm of prefering one learning methodology over the other and the role of the teacher in the process of transfering knowledge. And finally, ethical conviction is instrumental in determining the ultimate goal of educa tion. Therefore, educational systems are strongly influ enced by one, or a combination of a few, philosophical viewpoints. In like manner, the details of the Baha'i educative process may be derived from their philosophical bases. It is the main objective of this chapter to examine the possi bility of deducing the basic traits of Baha'i education from its philosophical foundations. Besides, special con sideration will be devoted to probing into the concept of unity and its potentialities in terms of developing a sys tem of-education. The importance of unity was stressed in the philosophical bases of the Baha'i Faith. Now, the next task is to analyze how crucially this unity may function in the educational processes. In the sections to come an attempt will be made to stipulate the principles of Baha'i education deduced from Baha'i philosophy with special attention to the concept of unity. 13 9 Mission of Education Educative processes for the Baha’i Faith go far beyond schooling. Indeed, education, in its broadest term, begins with God Himself, when He chooses one of His names to be "The Educator." The mere fact that this world and all its manifestations function as an instructional means for the human soul and provide the necessary experiences for its progress, indicates how encompassing and important education is for the Faith. In fact, in a sense, education is nothing other than life itself, with all the means and the ends involved in it. No doubt, with this broad meaning in mind, it will be far beyond the scope of the present study to deal with education. The purpose here is to de rive those principles which, more or less, are of direct and special importance for formal education or schooling. An attempt will be made to examine those general principles which might shed light on the why's and the how's under lying various elements involved in formal education. Importance of Education in the Baha'i Faith Education, both in its broadest meaning and its rather limited function in terms of schooling, is the center of much attention in Baha'i teachings. Educating the children is a way of worship and among the noblest of causes. In one of His Tablets addressed to the mothers, Abdu'l-Baha said, "O ye loving mothers, know ye that in 140 God's sight, the best of all ways to worship is to educate the children and train them in all the perfections of humankind; and no nobler deed than this can be imagined" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 49). On anb.ther occasion, He counted education and training of the children to be "among the greatest of all services that can possibly be rendered by man to Almighty God" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 31). Still in other teachings even learning and acquiring knowl edge are shown to be Heavenly gifts to man. Abdu'l-Baha made it explicit when He stated, "it is clear that learning is the greatest bestowal of God; that knowledge and the acquirement thereof is a blessing from Heaven" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 38). More specifically, the Baha'i teachings show how education can be influential in changing some of the un desirable characteristics of human beings. Both in the social as well as the individual life of mankind education is instrumental in eliminating those behaviors which are not desirable and in fostering those which are of benefit. For example, in the individual's life, knowledge, "when applied, will largely, though not wholly, eliminate fear" (Baha'u'Uah, Baha' i Education, 1978, p. 7). In social life, proper education will reduce crime as well as resolve other social predicaments. With regard to the same subject Abdu'l-Baha suggested that instead of having so many penal institutions, energy and effort must be directed toward 141 inculcating those values that would prevent crime from happening in the first place. Observe how many penal institutions, houses of de tention and places of torture are made ready to receive the sons of men, the purpose being to pre vent them, by punitive measures, from committing terrible crimes— whereas this very torment and punishment only increaseth depravity, and by such means the desired aim cannot be properly achieved. Therefore must the individual be trained from his infancy in such a way that he will never undertake to commit a crime, will, rather direct all his energies to the acquisition of excellence, and will look upon the very commission of an evil deed as in itself the harshest of all punishments, considering the sinful act itself to be far more grievous than any prison sentence. For it is possible so to train the individual that, although crime may not be completely done away with, still it will become very rare. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 23) Of course changing undesired human behavior is just one, among many, objectives of education. The importance of education lies in its instrumentality to endow the indivi dual with a kind of broad knowledge and awareness which eventually leads to a perfect state that the Faith calls "wisdom." The bulk of Baha'i writings which emphasizes the exalted rank of educational process and its desirable outcome which should be wisdom is enormous. On several occasions the elevated position of education and wisdom has been underlined by making an analogy between them and the human eye. For instance Baha'u'Uah clearly stated that "the man of consummate learning and the sage endowed with penetrating wisdom are the eyes to the body of mankind. 142 > God willing, the earth shall never be deprived of these two greatest gifts" (Baha1i Education, 1978, p. 8). The underlying reason why education seems to be so important in the Baha'i teachings is derived from another Baha'i principle: the absolute essentiality of systematic educa tive processes to develop desirable changes in the human behavior. Necessity of education. The Baha’i Faith stands firmly against the naturalistic view that maintains it is possible for man to fully develop if only he is left alone to himself. Contrary to this idea, education is of abso lute necessity to advance man. It is a deliberate process which demands a great deal of effort and energy on the part of human beings. This indeed follows Baha*u*llah*s direct order to His followers to "bend . . . [their] energies to whatever may foster the education of man" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 126). The Baha'i teachings tend to show that natural and untrained states of the world of existence need a carefully chosen course of cultivation in order to achieve the desirable results. Abdu'l-Baha made an analogy between the need of the elements of nature for education and that of the human being. He explained how the earth is in the need of cultivation to produce nourishment for living creatures, how plants and animals would be more use ful with appropriate training. The same rule applies to man. Man, being left to himself and to the world of nature, 143 is incapable of fully developing his inherent potentiali ties (1908/1964, pp. 8-9). Based on the ultimate social and spiritual goal of the unity of the human race which constitutes one of the most crucial bases of the Baha'i philosophy, education becomes essential and has a substantial role. The Baha'i conviction of the notion that this far-reaching goal would not be fulfilled without systematic utilization of all the human potentials leads to the point where ail hopes are placed on educative processes. It is through education that the desirable qualities of mankind can be unfolded, the qualities that the Faith counts as indispensable to any approach towards the ultimate unity. In fact, according to the Faith, there is no inherent evil in the nature of man. All of the man-made disasters throughout history are due to the lack of proper training. Abdu'l-Baha confirmed this idea when he stated, "wars, religious, racial or polit ical, have arisen from human ignorance, misunderstanding, and lack of education" (cited in Rost, 1969, p. 1). Therefore, the Baha'i Faith claims that if man wishes to become fully developed, an appropriately chosen and care fully applied system of education is inevitable. And here, by education, something more encompassing than the conven tional schooling is meant. Education must be concerned with all three aspects of the human existence: physical, intellectual, and spiritual. .144 Three kinds of education. The Baha'i teachings show belief in three different, but closely related, kinds of education, which are called by Abdu'l-Baha "material, human, and spiritual" (1908/1964, p. 9). Then He elabo rated the matter by giving different illustrations. The explanations show that material education is primarily concerned with the physical and biological aspect of the human being. It leads to the "progress and development of the body, through gaining its sustenance, its material comfort and ease. This education is common to animal and man" (p. 9). Human education is similar to the kind of education provided by schooling. Its center of focus is those sub ject matters which are necessary for human civilization. Human education signifies civilization and progress: that is to say, government, administration, charitable works, trades, arts and handicrafts, sciences, great inventions and discoveries, and elaborate institutions, which are the activities essential to man as distinguished from the animal. (Abdu'l-Baha, 1908/1964, p. 9) The third kind of education is divine or spiritual. This, in fact, goes beyond the mere inculcation of religious principles. It is the training that one gets through those moments of the approximation of human under standing to the reality of the Manifestations. This kind of education might even occur through some moments of mystical experiences of the human spirit. Moral education and the sources of value-making tend to be associated with 14 5 ; spiritual education. In the following passage Abdu'l-Baha gives some of the traits of this kind of education. The third kind of education is that of the spirit. Through the breaths of the Holy Spirit, man is uplifted into the world of moralities and illumined by the lights of divine bestowals. The moral world is only attained through the effulgence of the Sun of Reality and the quickening life of the divine spirit.' (cited in Ferraby, 1957, p. 98) What seems to be of great importance is the Baha'i conviction of the essential harmony among all three kinds of education. The most ideal state is to provide every child with the optimum amount of all the three kinds of education in order to "avoid the extremes of religious fanaticism, scientific narrow-mindedness, and brainless athleticism." The ideal educator is the one who is compe tent enough to train the students. In the most ideal state such an educator is the Manifestation of God, the Universal Educator. The Universal Educators. The Manifestations of God are not only responsible for the spiritual training of man, but for his physical and intellectual education as well. On the path toward perfection, the Baha'i Faith believes, man needs perfect educators. It is through the direct or indirect influence of the teachings of these Manifestations that man acquires what is necessary for developing and advancing towards becoming a perfect mirror capable of reflecting God's names and attributes. 146^ Man's supreme values, that is, the basic ideas, and forms, which govern his understanding, shape his conduct, guide his development, and mold his rational life, all are acquired at the feet of the prophets as creators and supreme educators. (Afnan, 1977, p. 137) It is His omniscient position that makes the Manifestation a' perfect educator who can reveal His teachings according to the level of readiness of people to direct them toward the common and ultimate goal; the unity of the human race. It is the Baha'i's deep belief that this world and all its manifestations are to function as means to educate man. "Out of the wastes of nothingness, with the clay of My command I made thee to appear, and have ordained for thy training every atom in existence and the essence of all created things" (Baha'u'llah, cited in J. S. Hatcher, 1977, p. 37). But there is another factor involved. This physi cal world, acting as a universal classroom, is not to be fully utilized without a competent teacher. It is the job of the Manifestations to guide the students to the educa tional advantage of this physical world for their spiritual growth. Metaphorically, the Baha'i Writings depict physical reality as a classroom replete with teaching devices, the physical objects themselves, but the Writings also make clear that the student is not left to his own intuition to utilize his educational environment. He is provided with Teachers, Manifestations of God, who explain the objectives of education and the means by which they can be achieved. In short, each Manifestation relates physical experience to spiritual growth, though He wisely causes the student to parti cipate in discerning correlations. (J. S. Hatcher, 1977, p. 37) 14 7 This essential harmony and agreement between the physical world and the spiritual growth of mankind constitute the foundation for determining the ultimate goals of the Baha'i education. Goals of Education The ultimate goals of education are twofold for the Baha'i Faith. On one hand, there are spiritual goals which are to be approached through the means of education. On the other, there are goals which seem to be more related to what might be called the secular realm, among them the unity of the human race is the most important one. However, it must be kept in mind that the conventional dichotomy between the secular as opposed to the spiritual or reli gious domain tends to lose its creditability in the Baha'i Faith. The ultimate spiritual goal of the approximation to the "true son of God" (to be able to reflect all the names and the attributes of God) is closely related to and in constant mutual interaction with the ultimate so-called secular goal of unity within the human race. The principle of essential harmony between the world of matter and non matter implies the notion that spiritual and individual development must necessarily go hand in hand with the material and social progress of mankind; the point of unity among all human beings. 14 8 ; Spiritual goa1s. The single most important spiritual goal of education is "to know and love God." The capacity to know and love God is unique to man, a capacity that, according to Baha'u'llah, "must needs be regarded as the generating impulse and the primary purpose underlying the whole creation" (1936/1976, p. 65). The knowledge of God is even considered the highest knowledge. "We have decreed, 0 people, that the highest and last end of all learning be the recognition of Him Who is the Object of all knowledge" (Baha'u'llah, 1936/1976, p. 199). What seems to be worth mentioning here is that knowledge always comes before the love. First one must know God, and then love for Him will be as a natural consequence of that knowledge (Baha'u'llah, Baha'i World Faith, 1956, pp. 126- 127). This love will act like a universal love which embraces all aspects of life. The notion of love of God as a spiritual goal for the educational processes in the Baha'i Faith cannot be approached only for its own sake. Love of God will lead to that universal love which will eventually bring the true, detached, and compassionate love for all things in this world. Therefore, according to the Baha'i Faith, the more one knows and loves God, the more he finds new capacities for loving humanity as well as other created things. 14 9 If the love of God did not exist, the heart of men would be dead . . . spiritual union would be lost . . . the light of unity would not illumine humanity. . . . The love of the human world has shone forth from the love of God, and has appeared by the bounty and grace of God. (Abdu'l-Baha, 1908/1964, p. 315). Therefore, what basically constitutes the spiritual goal of the Baha'i education is the knowledge of God which, in turn, will bring about the love of God that eventually will lead to the love of humanity. To achieve this goal, a drastic change should be brought about in the educational system. There will be no more separation between the church and the state. Religious education will be offered side by side the other branches of knowledge. Although this idea might not sound very popular nowadays, the Baha'i system of beliefs asks for a total harmony between offering religious instruction and other necessary subject matters in the public school. Of course, there are many occasions where people are warned against religious fanaticism. Still, the fact remains that religious instruction plays, an important part as a means towards achieving the spiritual goal of education. The teachings of the Manifestations, according to the Baha'i Faith, are the major source of guidance for physical, intellectual, and spiritual development of human beings. It is on this idea that the Faith maintains the notion that religious instruction is fundamental in the school curriculum. In the following statement Baha'u'llah 150 made the Baha’i position clear in terms of the extent to which the religious training may be taken into considera tion. Schools must first train the children in the princi ples of religion, so that the Promise and the Threat, recorded in the Books of God, may prevent them from the things forbidden and adorn them with the mantle of the commandments; but this in such a measure that it may not injure the children by resulting in ignorant fanaticism and bigotry. (Baha’i Education, 1978, p. 6) Among the promises of God are the tranquility and the prog ress that will take place as the result of the unity of the human race. However, man will suffer unless he devotes all his energies and makes every effort to meet these imperatives in achieving the processes of unifying mankind. Therefore, it is the main job of the schools to introduce children to the basic principles underlying the process of achieving both the spiritual as well as the social goals for humanity. Another point which is worth emphasizing here is that, for the Baha’i Faith, the spiritual goal of education, though different, is closely related to its material or social goal. In other words, having individual members, each individually and spiritually developed, will contribute a great deal to the Baha'i social goal of bringing about a united planet. On the other hand, achieving more and more of this desirable state of society will provide a more appropriate environment for individual development. 151-" Therefore, social and spiritual goals, though different, are mutually supportive. Based on its philosophy which stands for the essential unity among the spiritual, the intellectual, and the physical aspects of man, the goals of education are to be derived. These goals ultimately serve to bring about a full development of the manyfold nature of man. A united world: the social goal. Closely related to the spiritual and individual goal of education is its social goal: the unity of mankind. With respect to this goal, the Faith has a lot in common with other schools of thought. For instance, the Baha’i social goal for educa tion seems in general agreement with the basic philosophy underlying Tagore’s principles of international education. Tagore worked for a noble cause, the union of all sections of humanity in understanding and sympathy and in love and truth. . . . The main objective of Tagore's international education is to develop relations among the people and nations. (Periasawamy, 1976, p. 202) It tends to be even closer to some more modern educational philosophers such as George Geng, Theodore Brameld, and Morris Mitchell. For example, the idea of "world per spective" for Geng refers "to one's relationship with other human beings of the world. . . . This implies that a person , with world. ' perspective. would not place him self, his family, his nation, or his race above those of other individuals" (cited in Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977, 152 p. 116). It sounds very similar to what Baha'u'llah stated with regard to the universal love for the whole world. "It is not his to boast who loveth his country, but it is his who loveth the world" (1936/1976, p. 111). The Baha'i social goal of a united world has many commonalities with the newly developed concepts of "World Education" and "education for global consciousness." For instance, among the goals for "global education;1 1 two are closely related to that of the Baha'i Faith. First, "stu dents must be able to understand problems with global implications," and the second, "students must develop a practical way of life based on planetary perspectives that will allow them to . . . plan for alternative futures" (Kachaturoff & Blackburn, 1978, p. 2). Among the major goals of the "World Education," one is'to make people more aware of their commonalities. This, in turn, will cause people to give up their egocentricity and can deepen the bonds of closeness between individuals. World Education must strive to curb divisive tenden cies and encourage people to cooperate for the common good. (Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977, p. 79) This goal is indeed in total agreement with the Baha'i social goal for education. Baha'u'llah stated: Bend your minds and wills to the education of the peoples and kindreds of the earth, that haply the dissensions that divide it may, through the power of the Most Great Name, be blotted out from its face, and all mankind become the upholders of one Order, and the inhabitants of one City. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 4) 153 Despite the important role that education should play in the process of promoting unity, it is only one institution, though perhaps the most fundamental one, among many others which is responsible for bringing about this ultimate and desired social goal. In his disserta-’ tion, after examining the nature and the possibilities of Baha'i education, Harry Rost came to the same conclusion. Many Baha'i teachings on education appear to have as their purpose the achievement of a one world civilization. . . . But education is only one of several agencies that can lead toward world peace and unity. (1969, p. 349) It must be emphasized here that unless the educational institutions do function in full cooperation with other social institutions, it is not likely that the achievement of the Baha'i social goal will take place. In Baha'i literature, some practical and comprehensive sets of guidelines are put forth in order to facilitate the process of achieving unity of the human race. These guidelines, which basically deal with the necessary functions of other social institutions that are involved in the process, depict the general format of what the Faith calls "Foundations of World unity." 154 ' Foundations of world unity. The hallmark of all social teachings of the Faith is "ye are all fruits of one tree and leaves of one branch" and the Baha'i Faith is committed to the principle that without meeting a certain number of demands, it is hard to accomplish what is called the "Oneness of Man," or "The Great Universal Peace." Utilizing the teachings of Baha'u'llah and Abdu'l-Baha, Shogi Effendi summarized the steps toward the world unity (1938, pp. 202-206) as the following. 1. A world commonwealth must be established, in which all nations, races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and in which the autonomy of its state members and the personal freedom and initiative of the individuals that compose them are definitely safeguarded. (p. 203) This commonwealth, in fact, functions as a legislative, executive, and adjucative body in a world metropolis that "will act as the nerve center of a world civilization, the focus toward which the unifying forces of life will converge and from which its energizing influences will radiate" (p. 203). The members of the legislative body are elected trustees of the whole world and responsible for passing laws and regulations to satisfy the needs of the people of the planet. This will also be the case with the adjucative and the executive bodies which are backed by a world tribunal and an international force to carry out the decisions. 2. In such a united system, there will exist a "mechanism of world inter-communication" to embrace "the whole planet, freed from national hindrances and re strictions, and functioning with marvellous swiftness and perfect regularity" (p. 203). Moreover, there will be a need for a world language not to replace the mother tongue but to be taught in the schools as an auxiliary, and to be invented or chosen from the existing languages. This language will be accompanied by "a world script, a world literature, a uniform and universal system of currency, of weights and measures" (p. 203) to facilitate the economical, as well as the emotional interrelations among the people of the world society. 3. Economy will be a global issue. The mere fact that some parts of the planet are naturally richer in terms of fertility or other resources, should not determine the wealth or destitution of the people that happen to live on that land. The economic resources of the world will be organized, its sources of raw materials will be tapped and fully utilized, its markets will be coordinated and developed, and the distribution of its products will be equally regulated. (p. 204) The sketches of the Baha'i economical system have been drawn in some details, though the latter is far beyond the scope of the present study. Very briefly, it seems to be close to a semi-socialist system, wherein, those goods 156 y and services that are absolutely necessary to meet the basic needs of the people (e.g., energy, health, education, water resources, etc.) will be in the hands of the public; the rest, will be privately run. At any rate, the result must lead to a situation where economic barriers and restrictions will be completely abolished, and the inordinate distinction between classes will be. obliterated. Destitution on the one hand and gross accumulation of ownership on the other will disappear. (p. 204) 4. Since there will be no national rivalries, hatred, or intrigue, the possibility of war, be it politi cal or economical, will be abolished. Instead, human energy will be diverted towards what will benefit the whole planet. The enormous energy dissipated and wasted on war, whether economic or political, will be consecrated to such ends as will extend the range of human inventions and technical development, to the increase of the productivity of mankind, to the extermination of disease, to the extension of scientific research, to the raising of the standard of physical health, to the sharpening and refinement of the human brain, to the exploitation of the unused and unsuspected resources of the planet, to the prolongation of human life, and to the furtherance of any other agency that can stimulate the intel lectual, the moral, and spiritual life of the entire human race. (p. 204) 5. Due to the fact that the Baha'i Faith is strongly committed to the principle of "non-violence," the means toward accomplishing its objectives are only non violent. Only through educating people is it possible to 157 create deep changes in the mental, emotional, and spiritual state of man. The whole theme of the teachings shows that unless man reaches the point where he can internalize the principles and the need for world unity, it is improbable that such a goal is attainable. Of course, there are a lot of supportive and encouraging statements on how the people will be endowed with all the spiritual bounty that will help them in achieving this divine goal. However, it is on the shoulders of the people to put forth every effort to fulfill their ambitious dream. The paradigm the Baha’i Faith offers to show the foundations and the tenets of a unified world must not imply the idea of "sameness," where every body looks the same or differences are completely abolished. In fact, there are numerous writings that emphasize the importance of diversity in the human race. Therefore, the faith is committed to the principle that it calls "unity in diversity." If the unity of mankind is a long-range and far- reaching goal for the Baha’i education, there are some more immediate and short-term goals which ultimately lead to the goal of unity. Among them education is considered as a purposeful enterprise for the betterment of man. The Faith puts all its hopes on the desirable outcomes of education in general, and to a lesser degree, on formal education in particular. Consequently, it will be a main 158 task of formal education to take a leading role in bringing about desirable changes both in each individual and in society as well. On many occasions in Baha'i writings, ignorance is considered the main source of all the predica ments of societies. "The root cause of wrongdoing is ignorance, and we must therefore hold fast to the tools of perception and knowledge" (Abdu'l-Baha, Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 23). In the same volume Abdu'l-Baha stated how lack of education, both spiritual and intellectual, acts as "the primary cause of oppression and injustice, of un righteousness, irregularity and disorder" (p. 14). It is through proper education that people can change the undesirable elements of the social structure (Abdu'l-Baha, cited in Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 15). The Faith is in total agreement with the advocates of the idea of "World Education" when they said, "people should decide to act depending on whether or not the action will promote world betterment. People must become aware of the impact of their behavior, not only on their lives, but also on the world's condition" (Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977, p. 96). Besides, both movements concur on the impor tant and leading role that education must take to encourage people to choose world betterment as a criterion for their actions. Therefore, on the path toward the ultimate goal, the short-term goal of considering education as a purposeful enterprise for the betterment of man is one of the most 159 fundamental, yet immediate, concerns of the Baha'i system of education. Education for women. Closely related to both the long-range and the short-term goals of the Baha'i education is the idea of education for the women. As far as the long- range goal, the ultimate unity of human race, is concerned, the Baha'i teachings show that unless women are educated equally to men, the achievement of such a goal is far from being fulfilled. Since men and women are the two wings of the world of humanity, without their full development flight is impossible. Women, the Baha'i Faith argues, must be given equal, and sometimes even more, opportunities for being educated (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 399). Much of the Baha'i literature focuses on giving either equal educa tion to boys and girls or giving priority to the education of the girls and this is an indication of the significance of the issue. With regard to the short-term goal of Baha'i educa tion— considering education as a purposeful enterprise for the betterment of man— the words of Abdu'l-Baha show how essential the role of educating girls can be. Woman's lack of progress and proficiency has been due to her need of equal education and opportunity. Had she been allowed this equality, there is no doubt she would be the counterpart of man in ability and capacity. The happiness of mankind will be realized when women and men coordinate and advance equally. For each is the complement and helpmeet of the other. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 241) 16.0; As these words indicate, happiness and progress of humanity are very much dependent on providing education for girls. Other examples by Abdu'l-Baha illustrate how equal education for boys and girls would prevent wars. He argued that equal education for boys and girls is a necessary con dition to achieve the state of equal rights for both sexes. And unless women do reach such a point, their contribution to solving world problems would not be fully significant. It is through the means of equal education, Abdu'l-Baha continued, that the equality of men and women will be realized, and women gain the opportunity of active partici pation in the world'affairs. Therefore, in the words of Abdu'l-Baha, "when women participate fully and equally in the affairs of the world, enter confidently and capably the great arena of laws and politics, war will cease; for women will be an obstacle and hindrance to it" (1925, p. 130). In response to why women would not allow war to happen, Abdu'l-Baha refers to their emotional state. Equality between men and women is conducive to the abolition of warfare for the reason that women will never be willing to sanction it. Mothers will not give their sons as sacrifices upon the battlefield after twenty years of anxiety and loving devotion in rearing them from infancy, no matter what cause they are called upon to defend. There is no doubt that when women obtain equality of rights war will entirely cease among mankind. (Abdu'l-Baha, 1925, p. 170) Another reason why education of the girls must be considered the priority of both parents and the society is 161 that the Baha'i Faith considers mothers as the first educator of the child and puts an enormous emphasis on that. Since education, in its broadest term, should play a crucial role in the reconstruction of both individuals and soci eties, mothers, who are to be the first educators, must be themselves well-educated. As Abdu'l-Baha stated, "the training and the culture of daughters is more necessary than that of sons, for these girls will come to the station * of motherhood and will mould the lives of the children. The first trainer of the child is the mother." He con tinued to urge parents to take full responsibility for their daughters when He said, "Beware! Beware! that ye fail not in this matter. Endeavor with heart, with life, to train your children, especially the daughters. No excuse is acceptable in this matter" (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 122). The matter gets so serious that in a letter to the women in charge of establishing schools for the girls, Abdu'l-Baha stated that schools for girls have the priority over the schools for boys. "The schools for girls taketh precedence over the schools for boys, for it is incumbent upon the girls of this glorious era to be fully versed in the various branches of knowledge, in sciences and the arts and all the wonders of this preeminent time" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 44). It is, in fact, the educational role of the mothers for their children that justifies 16 2 giving priority to educating girls. It is believed that an ignorant mother may transfer that ignorance to her child, whereas the educated one will have a positive effect on the upbringing of her child. That is why Abdu'l-Baha considers a girl's ignorance more harmful than that of a boy. "Ignorance is thus utterly to be blamed, whether in male or female; indeed, in the female its harm is greater" (Baha1i Education, 1978, p. 46). Therefore, in brief, the Baha'i Faith suggests that to achieve both the long-range goal of the unity of mankind and the short-term goal of improving man's life, the educa tion of women plays a very essential role and justifies either equal opportunities for both sexes or, very often, a priority for the education of girls. Perfectionism If the Baha'i system of education was to be singled out by only one of its characteristics, perfectionism might well be the term chosen. Not only man's perfection is to be acquired through education, the educative processes must be perfect in themselves. On numerous occasions the empha sis on the essentiality of perfectionism has been shown. For example, in the following statement Abdu'l-Baha urged individuals to be concerned about the importance of the perfect spiritual as well as intellectual education of the children. '16 & It is incumbent upon thee to nurture them from the breast of the love of God, to urge them towards spiritual matters, to turn unto God and to acquire good manners, best characteristics and praiseworthy virtues and qualities in the world of humanity, and to study sciences with the utmost diligence. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 383) The demanded perfection does not end here. "Strive then to the best of thine ability to let these children know that a Baha'i is one who embodieth all the perfection, that he must shine out like a lighted taper" (Abdu'l-Baha, cited in Rost, 1979, p. 74). Asking for perfection goes further where even suffering might be justified, too. On the path to acquire more and more perfection, the child might encounter hard working and troublesome experiences. But, according to Abdu'l-Baha, "men who suffer not attain no perfection. The plant most pruned by the gardener is that one which, when the summer comes, will have the most beautiful blossoms and the most abundant fruit" (cited in Ferraby, 1957, p. 152). The perfect educational system is the one that is able to provide the necessary means in order to achieve that perfect state which was desired by Abdu'1-Baha. You must become distinguished for loving humanity; for unity and accord; for love and justice. In brief, you must become distinguished in all the virtues of the human world; for faithfulness and sincerity; for justice and fidelity; for firmness and steadfastness; for philantropic deeds and ser vice to the human world; for love toward every human being; for unity and accord with all people; for re moving prejudices and promoting international peace, (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 73) 164; The demand for perfection goes so far that on some occasions death or non-existence are preferred over imper fection. In one meeting Abdu'l-Baha, discussing the matter of perfectionism, said, "The life of man is useful if he attains the perfections of man. If he becomes the center of the imperfections of the world of humanity, death is better than life, and non-existence better than existence" (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 84). The reason why perfection in all the secular branches of knowledge as well as the spiritual one is the center of focus in the Baha1i Faith goes back to the love of God for perfection. After a rather lengthy passage on how children must strive for perfection in all branches of knowledge, arts, and sciences, Baha'u1 llah stated, "as for what the Supreme Pen hath previously set down, the reason is that in every art, and skill, God loveth the highest perfection" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 7). Perfectionism, even in the secular branches of knowl edge, as Abdu'l-Baha stated, is regarded as a form of worship. The acquisition of sciences and the perfection of arts are considered acts of worship. If a man engageth with all his power in the acquisition of a science or in the perfection of an art, it is as if he has been worshiping God in churches and temples. (Cited in Rost, 1979, p. 128) In its ideal state, perfectionism leads to a total actualization of man1s potentialities, or what the Faith calls becoming "the supreme talisman." 165 Education toward actualization of man's potentials. Man is the supreme Talisman. Lack of a proper education hath, however, deprived him of that which he doth inherently possess. . . . The Great Being saith: Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Educationcan", _ alone, cause it>to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom. (Baha'u'llah, 1936/1976, pp. 259-260) This passage directly indicates at least two very funda mental educational principles of the Baha'i Faith. First, the potentialities of man are just enormous. Second, it is only through proper education (a combination of physical, intellectual, and spiritual education) that these hidden capacities will be realized. The bulk of the teachings focusing on this matter is enormous. On another occasion, Baha'u'llah made an analogy between the essence of man and that of steel. Unless the proper preparation is made, both are wasted. Man is even as steel, the essence of which is hidden: through admonition and explanation, good counsel and education, that essence will be brought to light. If, however, he be allowed to remain in his original condition, the corrosion of lusts and appetites will effectively destroy him. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p.5) On many other occasions Abdu'l-Baha underlined the point and emphasized how a perfect system of education, as well as demanding perfectionism in every individual's learning process, is absolutely essential in the actualiza tion of the human's potentials. The center of focus, as can be expected, is to be perfect in acquiring a "proper" education, which is a harmonious combination of all three 166 kinds of development; spiritual, human, and physical. In brief, it is only through offering a perfect education and being in all respects perfect in the process of gaining that education that man is able to actualize his heavenly potentialities and becomes a perfect mirror to thoroughly reflect God's names and attributes. Such an individual, as the Baha'i Faith sees it, is not only an integrated whole, fully developed, and personally at the highest stage of satisfaction, he is contributing to the betterment of society as well. Therefore, perfectionism, in a sense, functions as a crucial element in facilitating the path toward a perfect state of society: the state of perfect harmony and unity. In such a stage, development would not be confined to its rather limited implication (material development), but it would possess a broader meaning (spiritual as well as material development). This is what the Baha'i Faith calls the "Divine Civilization," a desired state for the fully developed planet. Unity of Material and Spiritual Progress Based on the philosophical conviction of the Faith in the essential unity between the material and spiritual sides of man, the process of , ' civilization should pre sent such a unity. Otherwise, the latter is not what the Faith calls the "true civilization." The spiritual and the material powers of man must both be manifested in this 167 ' world in order for there to be a state of complete progress where there be no trace of calamity and enmity. The main source of all the present distresses in the world of humanity, according to the Baha'i Faith, is the one-sided development of the material power of mankind. Mere prog ress in scientific and technological development will eventually end up in catastrophies which cannot be overcome easily. Unless combined with spiritual progress, material advancement cannot establish the happiness of mankind (Abdu'l-Baha, cited in Ferraby, 1957, p. 107). On another occasion, Abdu'l-Baha made an analogy between the real progress of humanity and the flight of a bird, where the material and spiritual powers act like two wings. Unless the two wings are equally developed, flight would not be possible (1969, p. 38). All through the Baha' teachings, He has tried to show the essential unity between the two aspects of progress as a source of human felicity. For instance, the following statement by Abdu'l-Baha may make the point clear. Although material civilization is one of the means for the progress of the world of mankind, yet until it becomes combined with Divine civilization, the desired result, which is the felicity of mankind, will not be attained. . . . Material civilization is like a lamp-glass. Divine civilization is the light itself and the glass without the light is dark. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 289) To achieve this Divine civilization education must take a leading role. It is the strong conviction of the 168 Baha'i Faith that through proper training and inculcation of spiritual values, it is possible to provide an adequate basis for developing both sides of the human being, spiritual and material, equally. By perfect education, and the actualization of the hidden potentialities of man, by tapping those spiritual powers that so far have not been fully developed, it is possible, the Baha'i Faith believes, to. bring about that kind of civilization which is far from the condition of the existing one. Psychological Foundations of Education Although the Baha'i Faith commits itself to en hancing the world unity based on its deep belief in the unity of human race, nevertheless, it stands firmly for the necessity of recognizing the diversity of human beings. The essential diversity among individuals is due to those differences which, according to the Faith, have come to existence out of two important sources: heredity and environment. It is the main task of this section to examine the degree of importance of each one of these two factors and their possible implications for the educative processes. Heredity and Environment In response to the question of the cause of the differences in the character of man, Abdu'l-Baha explained that the varieties occur because man "has the innate 169 character, the inherited character, and the acquired character which is gained by education" (1908/1964, p. 247). Abdu'l-Baha goes on to analyze each factor in more detail. For example, innate character results from the varieties of natural qualities which come together. "Varieties of natural qualities in man come from the difference of degree; all are excellent, but they are more or less so, according to the degree" (p. 247). However, there is no further explanation as to why it happens so, or according to what kind of a principle, if any, or if it takes place just haphazardly. What seems to be clear is that these innate characters are divine in creation and "purely good." The only difference is the difference in the degree of possess ing them. "So all mankind possess intelligence and capaci ties, but the intelligence, the capacity . . . of men differ" (p. 247). The overall theme of Abdu'1-Baha's explanations might imply the notion that innate character is to some degree similar to the inherited, character. However, His examples show that heredity might be respon sible for physical characteristics whereas innateness might have more to do with mental abilities. Further clarifica tion may be helpful. With regard to the issue of the inherited character, the position of the Faith is more clear. "The variety of inherited qualities comes from strength and weakness of constitution; that is to say, when the two parents are weak, 170 the children will be weak; if they are strong, the children will be robust” (Abdu'1-Baha, 1908/1964, p. 248). The writings of Abdu'1-Baha indicate the point that the in herited quality may be limited only to the domain of the physical characteristics, and does not necessarily extend to the spiritual sphere. "Hence it is evident that in herited character also exists, and to such a degree that if the characters are not in conformity with their origin, although they belong physically to that lineage, spiritually they are not considered members of the family" (p. 249). Therefore, what the writings tend to show are that physical characters are almost solely hereditary, whereas mental qualities, or what the Faith might call innate characters, may be subject to heredity but to a lesser degree. With regard to spiritual characters, the influence of heredity might be even less visible. The third source of the existing differences among individuals is the environment or what is sometimes called by the Faith,culture or education. According to Abdu'l- Baha, this third factor is of the greatest importance in bringing about the varieties and the differences among human characters. "The difference of the qualities with regard to culture is very great; for education has great influence." He continued and brought various examples to show how the acquired qualities through education function as determining factors in causing changes and differences. 171 Education must be considered as most important; for as diseases in the world of bodies are extremely contagious, so, in the same way, qualities of spirit and heart are extremely contagious. Education has a universal influence, and the differences caused by it are very great. (1908/1964, p. 249) Abdu'1-Baha's further explanation makes it clear that what accounts for the individual's characteristics should not be innate or inherited capacities but his acquired ones. In other words, although the Faith does not deny the possible influence of those qualities that a person is born with, nevertheless, it tends to put more emphasis on the indi vidual's own volition in acquiring his characteristics. The influence of the individual's volition is so great that it is able to be quite effective in changing many of the innate as well as the inherited qualities. What the Faith suggests is that there is absolutely nothing evil inborn in man. There are simply different degrees of different capacities (mental or physical) which are with every individual at the moment of birth. These capacities that the Faith calls "natural capacities" are purely good. The evil comes with the "acquired capacities" and through the volition of the individual. In an example Abdu'1-Baha explained how a natural capacity such as benefiting from some special kind of nourishment or being harmed by things such as poison can be perverted by man's own will. By gradually taking small amounts of harmful drugs, man starts getting addicted, to the point that the sustenance of life 172 itself will be totally dependent on taking what could be deleterious to life (1908/1964, p. 250). This example, as well as many others, indicates clearly what might be the position of the Faith with regard to the importance of the role of education as an influential means to acquiring desirable qualities and possibly channeling those qualities generally regarded as undesirable. Intrinsic differences and the role of education. What seems to be suggested by the Baha'i Faith is the notion that there are some qualities innate in man that although modifiable, cannot be obliterated. Therefore, although education might be highly influential in actual izing desirable potentialities and improving the unpleasant ones, it is incapable of changing what the Faith calls the "human gem." In one occasion Abdu11-Baha made an analogy between the alterability of the human gem and that of the Other elements of nature. No matter how much the shell is educated, it can never become the radiant pearl. The black stone will not become the world illuming gem. The calocynth and the thorny cactus can never by train ing and development become the blessed tree. That is to say, training doth not change the human gem, but it produceth a marvelous effect. By this effective power all that is registered latent of virtues and capacities in the human reality will be revealed. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, pp. 397-398) The analogy, however, seems to indicate that what cannot be changed through education are those characteristics which differentiate human beings from other creatures. 173 Unfortunately, the concept of "human gem" has not been specifically explained in the writings. Scattered examples and analogies might shed some light on the matter. On some occasions, the writings may imply that some human qualities like intelligence or some biological traits are to a great extent inherited and not easily subject to change by train ing (Baha'i World Faith, p. 249, 397). However, it is not clear if what was meant by the "human gem" is to be either intelligence or other human biological characteristics. What seems to be implied by the overall theme of the Baha'i writings, however, is the notion that intrinsic characters, though different in degrees in different individuals, are purely good. The job of education is to find proper channels to suitably utilize or actualize them. To make the point clear, Abdu'1-Baha gave an example about how the innate characteristics of an infant such as greed, anger and temper, which might not sound desirable on the surface, function as positive factors if properly channelled by means of education. In creation there is no evil; all is good. Certain qualities and natures innate in some men and apparently blameworthy are not so in reality. For example, from the beginning of his life you can see in a nursing child the signs of greed, of anger, and of temper. Then, it may be said, good and evil are innate in the reality of man, and this is contrary to the pure goodness of nature and creation. The answer to this is that greed, which is to ask for something more, is a praiseworthy quality provided that it is used suitably. So, if a man is greedy to acquire science and knowledge, or to become passionate, generous, 174 and just, it is most praiseworthy. If he exercises his anger and wrath against the blood-thirsty tyrants who are like ferocious beasts, it is very praiseworthy; but if he does not use these qualities in a right way, they are blameworthy. (Baha'i Education, 197 8, p. 21) As the passage implies, if only education could direct the innate capacities in human beings in more desirable channels, the issue of the role of education in dealing with intrinsic differences would have been resolved. The influential role of education, however, is more visible when the issues of environmental factors and acquired qualities are concerned. Environmental factors and the role of education. The bulk of the Baha'i writings on how education takes a crucial role in shaping the character of man is just enormous. From the religious perspective, the very notion of the coming of the Manifestations and their teachings indicates how education, be it spiritual or intellectual, is important. This importance is based on the strong belief of the Baha'i Faith in the instrumentality of educa tion in advancing the human race. It suggests that every effort be put in improving and expanding educational systems. Despite the fact that there are individual differences in terms of physical and intellectual capaci ties, every body is educable. Abdu'l-Baha confirms this idea when He said, "it is evident therefore that mankind differs in natal capacity and intrinsic intellectual endow ment. Nevertheless, although capacities are not the same, 175 every member of the human race is capable of education" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 249). On numerous occasions the importance of the factor of environmental differences has been taken into consideration and peoples have been encouraged to direct their attention toward the crucial role that education may play in bringing about all the desirable changes. But the difference of the qualities with regard to culture is very great? for education has great influence. Through education the ignorant become learned, the cowardly become valiant; through cultivation the crooked branch becomes straight, the acid, bitter fruit of the mountains and woods becomes sweet and delicious, and the five-petalled flower becomes hundred-petalled. . . . Education must be considered as most important. . . . Education has a universal influence, and the differences caused by it are very great. (Abdu11-Baha, 1908/1964, p. 249) Based on the Baha'i writings, it seems quite obvious that it is every intention of the Faith to suggest the idea that proper education may function as the source of bringing about all the changes that human society may necessitate. One important element involved is the develop mental stages that the child goes through due to the process of maturation. The Faith pays a special attention to the different levels of the child's ability in different stages of life and the specific role that education should play in each stage. 176' Developmental Stages and Educative Processes The Baha'i writings tend to indicate a rather firm belief in the developmental stages that a child passes through. Quite similar to the idea of the developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, the Faith stands for the notion that human development consists of a series of stages from birth to maturity (Lefrancois, 1975, p. 203). Of course, unlike the well-developed psychological theory of Piaget, the Baha'i writings have not dealt with the matter in detail. Yet, they give some indication of being in general harmony with the basic idea underlying developmental psy chology. For example, based on the writings of Shoghi Effendi, one Baha'i educator came to the conclusion that, "in infancy, man's perceptions are weak, but his power of perception reaches a higher - degree of maturity" (Rost, 1979, p. 62). Other writings by Abdu'1-Baha confirms the idea that a child's intelligence and his capacity to learn increases as he grows older. From the beginning to the end of his life man passes through certain periods or stages each of which is marked by certain conditions peculiar to itself. For instance during the period of childhood his conditions and requirements are characteristics of that degree of intelligence and capacity. (cited in Rost, 1979, pp. 62-63). 177 Other concrete examples of instructional methodol ogies and treatment of children also indicate the point that the younger the student, the less abstract the level of instruction must be. This, in its turn, shows the Baha'i conviction that there are different stages of mental capability at different ages. One important point that must be brought out here is that even though the child's cognitive ability is not in its full development in his early ages, nevertheless, he must undergo carefully chosen and adopted educative processes. In other words, education from the moment of birth must be taken extremely seriously. Education from Infancy With the ultimate goal of the unity of mankind in mind, the Baha'i Faith seems to be fully aware of the necessity of inculcating certain values and orientations in children when they are in the early stages of life. According to at least one Baha'i educator, the concept of world-mindedness must be introduced at early ages in order to be effective in bringing about those attitudes that are necessary for individuals to think of themselves as the citizen of one planet. "The greatest hope for establishing a world citizenry rests in the rais ing up of a generation in whom worldmindedness has been fostered since early childhood" (Morrison, 1971, p. 42). Other Baha'i literature also indicates that although 178; instruction in conventional subject matter tends to be postponed until five or six years of age, attitude develop ment and character building start much sooner. Based on the idea that love of God is the ultimate source for love of humanity, and also that love of humanity is an absolute necessity for reaching the goal of world unity, people are encouraged to cultivate the love of God in their children. Abdu*1-Baha urged, "from the very beginning, the children must receive divine education and must continually be reminded to remember their God. Let the love of God pervade their inmost being, comingled with their mother's milk" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 26). Not only the love of’God, but other moral and ethical values necessary to accelerate the process of achieving the unity of mankind are to be fostered from early child hood. In the following passage, Abdu'1-Baha emphasized the importance of cultivating the traits that ultimately benefit human beings. While the children are yet in their infancy feed them from the breast of heavenly grace, foster them in the cradle of all excellence, rear them in the embrace of bounty. Give them the advantage of every useful kind of knowledge. Let them share in every new and rare and wondrous craft and art. Bring them up to work and strive, and accustom them to hardship. Teach them to dedicate their lives to matters of great import, and inspire them to undertake studies that will benefit mankind. (cited in Rost, 197 9, p. 84). 179 Another reason why character building and attitude development are so much emphasized from the early ages is that the Faith is convinced that character rectification and refinement are extremely difficult after puberty (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 24). Therefore, the necessary foundations must be. laid in childhood. The desirable moral values should be fostered so that there will be no need for any punitive measure in the future. Must the individual be trained from his infancy in such a way that he will never undertake to commit a crime, will, rather, direct all his energies to the acquisition of excellence, and will look upon the very commission of an evil deed as in itself the harshest of all punishment. (Baha'i Education, 1978 p. 23) In like manner, if the necessary principles that are needed to facilitate the path toward V, world unity are fostered from early ages, the issue of internalizing such an abstract concept will be, to a great extent, resolved. Therefore, education from infancy, especially in the areas of attitude development and character building play a vital role in the Baha'i system of education whose ultimate goal does not fall short of total reconstruction of human individuals as well as societies from the present day to the point where total harmony and absolute unity is a rule rather than an exception. In brief, the psychological foundations of Baha'i education rest upon several principles. First, it looks at the human being as essentially a combination of inherited 180, characteristics, innate characteristics and acquired characteristics. Inherited characteristics seem to relate more to the physical and biological sides of man. Innate characteristics are those that the infant is born with and seem to refer to mental and intellectual qualities. These qualities (e.g., intelligence), although different in degree in different individuals, are held to be purely good. The third characteristic, the acquired ones, consist of varieties of types of qualities and capacities. The role of education, though of some degree of importance in the first and the second, seem to be of even greater sig nificance in the case of the acquired qualities. In fact, whereas the role of education is to be limited in the sphere of channeling and guiding the inherited and innate qualities, it takes a leading role in the domain of acquired qualities. Education is solely responsible for bringing about desirable changes and modifications. Baha'i educa tional psychology seems to be in general agreement with developmental psychology. Both consider the child's cogni tive ability to develop in stages, from very simple and concrete stages of cognition to gradual development at more complex and abstract levels. Third, the Faith puts a lot of emphasis on the importance of early childhood for atti tude development and character building. The essential values and attitudes necessary to achieve the goal of world 181 unity must be fostered in the early ages if they are to be effective. Instructional Methodologies The issue of instructional methodologies in the Baha'i Faith is directly associated with its epistemological foundations, where the absolute harmony among different modes of knowing is necessary. In like manner, Baha'i instructional methodology does not confine itself to one or a few approaches. On the contrary, it tends to utilize as many methods as possible in order to deal with the proper and effective education of the children. No matter what the nature of the subject matter is, there are some common traits that show themselves in almost all of the approved instructional processes. In the sections to come these common traits are examined. Classroom Management Even though classroom management by itself is not an instructional methodology, because of its importance in applying any kind of method of instruction, it is analyzed under this section. The Baha'i teachings indicate the possibility of having at least two types of classroom management; tracking according to ability and individualized instruction. Tracking. The idea of tracking or grouping students in accordance with their level of readiness or ability is 182 directly suggested by Abdu'1-Baha (Baha1i Education, 1978, p. 4 0). The reason underlying it may be to encourage more active involvement on the part of the students when some subjects are presented in discussion form. Individualized instruction. At least two basic principles of the Baha'i faith may imply the possibility or even the necessity of the individualized instruction. First, the very fundamental teaching of the "independent search for truth" may logically lead to the point where the educational system provides the environment so that the students can actually exercise such a principle. By devot ing time to individualized instruction, every student gets the opportunity to progress at his or her own pace, chooses his or her method of inquiry, and evaluates the outcome. By doing this, the students become familiar with the basic principles of the independent search for truth and may be able to function more effectively in out-of-school life. Second, the notion of metaphor and the significance of symbolic language of the Manifestations may call for individualized instruction. As has already been discussed under the epistemology of the Baha'i Faith, at least one reason why the Manifestations utilized symbolic language was to be able to communicate to different people with different mental and spiritual capacities. This practice may function as an instructional example for teachers con fronting a vast range of levels of readiness among their I s a ; ' students. A feasible approach to deal with the issue might be to individualize the instruction so that every student can proceed according to his own pace. Of course, it itiay be almost impossible for the teachers to create their own symbolic language and to exactly follow the Manifestations' approach. What was rather meant was to suggest plausible arrangements that are, at the same time, in complete agree ment with the Baha'i teachings. From Simple to Complex Based on the psychological conviction of the Faith wherein the child's cognitive ability develops as he grows and experiences, the presentation of subject matters must start from simple, easy, and more concrete tasks and then gradually goon to more complex and abstract levels. In fact, the idea of 'from simple to complex' is applicable not only when the age of the child is involved but when the subject matter is new as well. In other words, as Abd'ul- Baha directly suggested, the introduction of subject matter should begin through games and plays rather than by the means of more abstract methods such as reading texts. "Beginning in childhood they must receive instruction. They cannot be taught through books. Many elementary sciences must be clear to them in the nursery; they must learn them in play, in amusement" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 73). 184 After mastery at more concrete and simple levels, the students must be asked to work on more abstract levels. However, at every stage the teacher must be aware of the level of readiness of each student so that the suggested task be compatible with the stage of cognitive development of the child. In brief, there are several principles under lying the idea of from simple to more complex. These principles can be inferred from the Baha’i teachings and examples that deal with the issue. First, the younger the child is, the simpler and more concrete the method of instruction must be. Second, the more unfamiliar the nature of the subject matter, the less abstract and less complex the approach of presentation must be. Third, before start ing with the more complex levels, the child must first have the mastery of the concrete level before going to further complex levels (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 40). Outward Forms and Symbols to Convey Intellectual Abstractions Closely related to the method of from simple to complex is the idea of teaching intellectual conceptions through the utilization of sense-perceptible examples. In Some Answered Questions, Abdu'1-Baha devotes a whole chapter to the significance of this method. He categorizes human knowledge into two classes. First "is the knowledge of things perceptible to the senses— that is to say, things 18 5 which the eye, or ear, or smell, or taste, or touch can perceive, which are called objective or sensible" (1908/ 1964, p. 95). He continued to explain the next class of human knowledge which is called 1 1 intellectual." This kind of knowledge is "a reality of the intellect, it has no outward form and no place, it is not perceptible to the senses" (pp. 95-96). There is no way to sense these realities directly. The qualities associated with these realities might be perceptible, though not the realities themselves. The only way to make them tangible is through making analogies and examples that relate them to the world of senses. "In explaining these realities, one is obliged to express them by sensible figures, because in exterior existence there is nothing that is not material" (p. 9 6). This idea might act as a source of inspiration for the teachers who must deal with subject matters involving a high level of abstraction and intangible materials. In fact, this is what the Manifestations of God do when They want to inform people about those realities which are out of reach of the individual's senses. This might be one reason why metaphor and symbolic language are utilized by Them so widely. Here, Truth is the sun or the light, a human's capacity to reflect the heavenly attributes is the mirror, ignorance is the darkness, and so on. Of course, this might be only one, among many, explanations of the wide usage of symbolic language. 186. Baha'i literature seems to be interested in other possible explanations as well. As far as the educative processes are concerned, metaphor has, at least, another great significance. It enables the educator to communicate in accordance with the different capacities of different individuals. The Implications of Metaphor for Teaching Methodologies The obvious advantage of metaphor and symbols is to introduce unfamiliar, abstract concepts through a simpler and more tangible language. The utilization of metaphor has, however, other implications for instructional method ologies as well. For example, as has already been dis cussed, it provides the opportunity to instruct individuals at different levels of readiness. Individuals with lower levels of readiness may take advantage of the perceptability of the concepts, while the more capable ones may go deeper to tackle the hidden and abstract relationships underlying the surface symbols. Any analogical device, metaphor being one, contains three basic parts: "the tenore, that which is being described; the vehicle, that which is compared to the tenore; and the meaning, that area of similarity between the tenore and the vehicle" (J.S. Hatcher, 1977, p. 38). This very nature of analogy gives the students at different stages of development what their mental capacities allow them to grasp. Some may only examine the vehicle, 187 still others may go further to use the vehicle for a better grasp of the tenore. In any case, Hatcher supports the special value of the analogical process. The most important feature of analogy may lie in "its ability to educate— that is, when one is forced to examine the vehicle in order to understand the tenore, he is exercizing one of his most important capacities as a human being . . . ‘his faculty of discernment" (p. 39). Moreover, using analogy as a method of teaching may provide a suitable environment for encouraging creative thinking. It is the responsibility of the students to examine the vehicle and the tenore thoroughly and find out the nature of their relations. In doing so, the student must exercise his own volition and independent thinking processes. Closely related to this creative process is finding the opportunity for divergent thinking. When analogy and metaphor are involved, the possibility of having more than one "correct" answer is much higher. The students may come up with varieties of relations and mean ings in one analogy which might all be feasible responses. In other words, as Hatcher puts it, since analogy "offers a variety of meanings, it can be an expansive description rather than a limiting or restrictive one" (p. 38). In addition to all of these implications derived from using analogy as an effective instructional methodol ogy/ there will still remain at least another possible 188 associate to it: an independent and life-long search for truth. Independent Search for Truth Although the idea of the individual’s independent search for truth is primarily directed toward searching for spiritual truth, its implication even in the domain of secular truth can be valid as well. Baha'u'llah urged, "depend not on the sight of any one except yourself" (1936/1976, p. 106). This was addressed to the people who would deny the Manifestations of God after not finding what He would say, but only based upon the blind imitations of a clergyman. This admonition may as well apply to the people who would reject or accept any argument on the basis of appeal to the crowd. What the Faith suggests is that if people put aside their imitation and start investigating for truth, it is highly possible that they may come across the one reality which may bind them together and demolish the sources of disagreement. As Abdu*1-Baha said, man must seek the reality himself, forsaking imita tions and adherence to mere hereditary forms. . . . Reality is one reality; it does not admit multiplicity or division. If the nations of the world investigate reality, they will agree and become united. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 238) Therefore, the ultimate goal of the independent investiga tion for truth seems to be living in harmony and agreement. The goal for exercising the independent search for truth as 18 9 a method of instruction, might not, however, be the same. Still the process can be quite similar in both cases. Active Involvement of the Students in the Learning Process On many occasions, throughout the Baha'i writings on education, the necessity of active involvement of the Students in their learning has been repeatedly emphasized. Several approaches are suggested in order to encourage the mental as well as the physical contributions of the stu dents. Methods such as question-answer, both by the teacher and among the peers themselves; decision-making activities; and learning-by-doing have already been developed by Baha’i scholars and educators. The following sections tackle each approach briefly. Question-answer method. This method of instruction can be approached from two different angles. First, when the teacher raises the question and asks the class to respond to it, this technique may function both as a stimulation to the student's motivation, as well as a complete teaching strategy, Abdu'1-Baha Himself was attracted by this rather ancient style and has suggested it several times (Baha1i Education, 1978, p. 41). The teacher should try his very best to avoid giving away the answer before giving the students the opportunity to probe into the question and come up with their tentative responses. One point that is worth mentioning here is that teachers 19 0 are encouraged to respond positively to the right responses of the students. The very approval of the teacher may function as a positive reinforcer to encourage others to look for right responses to the next questions. Of course, this method would be worthwhile only when convergent questions (questions that have right or wrong answers) are involved. Second, students can discuss the question among themselves in small groups. Here, the students themselves are in charge of both raising the questions and responding to them (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 73). This approach, as Abdu'1-Baha suggested, may be useful in teaching almost any type of subject matter. Even teaching the principles of abstract subjects such as mathematics can be very effective when the open discussion and question-answer methods among the students themselves are employed. Undoubtedly, there is nothing new with these two approaches. They have been utilized for centuries even in ancient educational systems, both in the East as well as the West. However, the Baha'i Faith tends to give them more credit and incorporate them into its pedagogical system. Decision-making activities. Since moral education and character-building play rather important roles in the Baha'i system of education, appropriate instruction tech niques should be developed to deal with these concerns. The fact that the Faith puts its hope on the educational 191 system to bring up morally responsible individuals necessitates organizing effective strategies to meet the demand. Consequently, the process of decision-making, especially when moral choices are involved, tends to become of great significance. It is true that the Faith believes that by exposing children to the Baha'i moral and ethical system of belief, they become familiar with the basic principles underlying ethical and moral judgment. This mere familiarity, however, does not guarantee that they would act upon such a system of values. It is only through making real moral choices and first-hand experiences that one might be certain of at least some degree of effective ness and internalization of these values. This active involvement may, at least, consist of two different, yet related, approaches: making moral choices through related subject matters and making moral choices in real life. First, it is possible to introduce the principles of making moral choices through certain subject matters. Subject matters such as history, civics, and other branches of the humanities may function very effectively in stimu lating children's ability to judge. In dealing with such issues, the student learns more about the basis of value- j.udgment, the difference between absolute and relative systems of values, and other necessary steps required for making a responsible moral choice. By examining ethical codes and how they work for the individual as well as 192 society, along with their possible advantages and disad vantages, students gradually learn how to make moral choices based on criteria. This will lead them to the point where they feel more prepared for the second stage of their decision-making: making moral choices in the real life. After acquiring enough vicarious experiences through examining the moral choices involved in the materials of subject matter, the student is now better equipped to tackle first-hand experiences. It should be partly the job of formal education to provide basic exercises in making moral choices. By analyzing their processes of decision making, either through group discussion or individually, the students become acquainted with how and to what degree they really act upon taught values. For example, the stu dent must first internalize a certain value system so that in the future he will be able to develop attitudes such as considering himself a citizen of the world, or worldminded ness. The process of internalization of these primary attitudes would not be completed unless the student learns how to act and think in ways based upon the taught value system. And it is the task of formal education to provide a stimulating environment so that students are brought up more prepared to face the process of making moral choices more responsibly. Learning by doing. The Baha'i Faith strongly main tains the position that students must relate doing with 193 thinking, that purely verbalistic education is not adequate. While in the schools, students must learn marketable vocational skills. That is, they must be able to find physical and manual applications for their intellectual activities. Baha'u'llah confirmed this idea when He declared, "to acquire knowledge is incumbent on all, but of those sciences which may profit the people of the earth, and not such sciences as being in mere words, and end in mere words" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 189). In fact it is through first-hand experiences acquired by the means of physical and manual activities that the essential value of acquired knowledge is realized. It is the application and the usefulness of the knowledge that determines its value. Again, Baha'u'llah emphasized the point by saying, "it is made incumbent on every one of you to engage in some one occupation . . . occupy yourselves with that which will profit yourselves and others besides yourselves" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 195). Work, especially when done in a spirit of service to mankind must be considered equivalent to worship (Ferraby, 1957, p. 99). Consequently, this strongly positive attitude of the Faith toward the essentiality of work necessitates a drastic change in the method of teaching. Teaching strate gies must incorporate physical and manual activities with verbalistic approaches. Not only vocational skills must become an essential part of the school curriculum, but 194/ associating intellectual activities to their applications in the real life must be an indispensable part of the teaching style. In fact, the Baha'i Faith is in total agreement with the advocates of World Education with regard to the matter of the importance of work when they suggest: Students should develop a special skill. . . . Any one of these skills equips a person to be in a position to be of valuable help when living in communities, as well as providing a means of support when financial problems arise. Learning a skill is congruent with a functional approach to World Education, for education should prepare students to be socially productive individuals. (Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977, pp. 80-81) In brief, the instructional methodologies suggested by the Baha'i Faith are basically laid upon its psycho logical and epistemological foundations. In the same manner that the Baha'i epistemology encourages using many varieties of modes of knowing for the search for reality, its teaching methodologies advocate the same approach. It does not confine itself to only one or a few methods of instruction. On the contrary, the tendency is toward utilizing as many strategies as possible depending on the nature of the classroom. There are, however, certain suggested styles that tend to be dominant on most occasions. Among them one can see the significance of at least five approaches quite visibly. First, based on the belief in gradual development of mental capacities of the child, instruction must start from simple and concrete and then go to the more complex and abstract. Second, tangible and 195 perceptible symbols and examples must be used in order to convey the intellectual abstructions that do not have any material entity. Third, analogy and metaphor may be quite effective as instructional means. It gives the instructor the opportunity to function efficiently in dealing with a vast range of mental capabilities as well as encouraging creative and divergent thinking. Fourth, the Baha'i idea of the independent search for truth implies the idea of devoting enough time for individualized instruction where every student gets the opportunity of proceeding at his own pace. Fifth, and maybe the most important of all, is the notion of increasing the students' active involvement in the process of learning. This last instructional strategy consists of several approaches: decision-making activities, question-answer method, and relating learning and doing. Teachers Undoubtedly, teachers are among the most, if not the most, highly prestigious individuals in the Baha'i Faith. The importance of the role of teachers, both in educating individuals as well as taking part in the evolu tion of a new and finer civilization, has been repeatedly emphasized throughout Baha'i literature. From the Baha'i perspective, the task of teaching is comparable to the divine act of worshiping. Teachers' rewards are promised 196 to be both spiritual as well as material. Their stations are to be greater than that of the physical parents. The task of educating the children is equivalent to direct service to God. By assigning them to be among the heirs, the Faith has tried to symbolize their high stations. All of these highly praised stations demand, however, a teacher with special qualities; a teacher who is perfect in all respects and can function as a perfect example as well; a teacher who is responsible for physical, intellectual, and spiritual growth of the child; and, a teacher who is capable of dealing delicately and properly with the treasure of the society; the children. In the sections to come, both the station and the desired characteristics of the teacher, from the Baha'i perspective, are examined. The Station of the Teachers It must be kept in mind that since education for the Baha'i Faith is always a combination of secular and religious instruction, the teacher takes this dual role as well. But even if the teacher only deals with the instructions of mere secular subjects, his divine and spiritual station is preserved in the sight of the Faith. The task of educating the children is of such importance that whoever is involved in this crucial matter is praised and loved by God. The following example would indicate how Abdu'l-Baha treated a woman who was contributing to the 197 cause of educating the children. A woman who is a good Baha'i, working for the children in the school, came. She showed her hands to Abdu'l-Baha that he might see how she had scrubbed the floor. He kept her hands in his and said: 'hands which have labored in the cause of education are ever blessed. I am pleased with your hands. I love such hands very much because they have worked for the children. May you become a great educator and guide to humanity.' (cited in Rost, 197 9, p. 18) There are numerous other incidents that show how high the station of the individual is who devotes his life to educating children. Baha'u'llah gave His blessing to teachers who are faithful to the covenant of God when He said, "Blessed is that teacher who remaineth faithful to the Covenant of God, and occupies himself with the educa tion of children. For him hath the Supreme Pen inscribed that reward which is revealed in the Most Holy Book" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 9). This blessing is not, however, limited to the teachers who follow the principles of God. For example, in one of His addresses, Abdu'l-Baha praises all the teachers who contribute to the education of the children in arts, crafts, and sciences. 0 ye recipient of the favors of God! In this new and wondrous Age, the unshakable foundation is the teach ing of sciences and arts. According to explicit Holy Texts, every child must be taught crafts and arts, to the degree that is needful. . . . It followeth that whatever soul shall offer his aid to bring this about will assuredly be accepted at the Heavenly Threshold, and extolled by the company on high. (Baha'i Education, 1978, pp. 34-35) \L98' Therefore, though the writings show that the faithful teachers possess a special blessing of God, still, others have this special station as well. This highly praised station of teachers is supported by at least two principles of the Faith: their heavenly endowment and their spiritual rewards, and their being assigned among the heirs. Endowment and spiritual rewards for the teachers. Educating children is one of the greatest services to God. Abdu'l-Baha confirmed this idea when He stated, "among the greatest of all services that can possibly be rendered by man to Almighty God is the education and training of children" (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 159). Therefore, educa tion is granted a heavenly blessing and educators are promised to be rewarded spiritually. In one address to a meeting on the education of children Abdu'l-Baha wrote, "whoso is active in those meetings whether as a teacher of the children or a sponsor, will certainly become the recip ient of confirmation from the invisible Realm, and endless bounties will compass him about" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 28). In,the same address Abdu'l-Baha continues and brings a promise of a great reward. He said, "with great joy, therefore, encouragement is offered for this highly laudable endeavor, that ye may witness an exceeding great reward" (p. 28). In other occasions the Baha'i writings explain what the nature of these rewards may be. For example, ____________________________________________________________________________ 19 9 Abdu'l-Baha mentioned even material prosperity and success for teachers who devote themselves to the education of children. "Praise God, thou hast been enabled to serve in this field, education,- and it is certain that the confir mations of the Abha Kingdom will encompass thee, and thou shalt achieve prosperity and success" (Baha1i Education, 1978, p. 34). This reward, however, on most occasions tends to be non-material. For instance, addressing teach ers who had worked hard to establish schools in the cities and villages to teach the children in arts and sciences, Abdu'l-Baha stated, "since ye have striven hard toward this all-important end, it is my hope that ye will reap your reward from the Lord of clear tokens and signs, and that the glances of heavenly grace will turn your way" (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 118). Still, another example that symbolizes the exalted station of the teachers and acts as a non-material reward is the contention that their stations are even higher than that of the parents. For according to Baha'i princi ples, physical parents may only take responsibility for the material welfare of their children, whereas teachers are in charge of even a greater task; the mental and spiritual growth of the children. They are like their spiritual father. That is why Abdu'l-Baha emphasized that, "the spiritual father is greater than the physical one, for the latter bestoweth but this world's life, whereas the 200- former endoweth his child with life everlasting" (Balia1 i Education, 1978, p. 33). Teachers as heirs. Another Baha'i principle that combines both material and non-material rewards to signify the special station of the teacher is assigning the teacher among the heirs. Of course, according to the Most Holy Book (Kitab-i-Aqdas), Baha'is are free to make their will as they wish. It is only when they die without any will that the Baha'i regulations are applicable. In this case, the inheritance will be divided in certain proportions among seven classes of inheritors: children, spouse, father, mother, brother, sister, and teacher (Synopsis and Codification, 1973, p. 43). Therefore, as the law indi cates not only do teachers inherit material reward, they are listed next to the members of the family. Hence, their spiritual connection with the student is symbolized through their being among the heirs. The exaltation and the importance that the Baha'i Faith associates’ with teachers demands special qualities in them. The essential characteristics of a qualified teacher are, by and large, set forth throughout the Baha'i litera ture on education. The next section is devoted to the examination of these qualities and characteristics. 201- The Desired Qualities of a Teacher To be a qualified teacher in the Baha'i system of education seems to be a very demanding job. Teachers must strive hard to prove that they deserve the very high sta tion that they are assigned. On one hand, they are ex pected to be the teacher for all the spiritual, intellec tual, and the physical needs of the children. On the other hand, imitating the educational role of the Manifestations, they must function as a perfect example to the world. It is true that the Faith elevates the position of the teach ers to one of the most prestigious of all professions of society. But, at the same time, the expectation is so high that it sometimes seems beyond the ordinary power of the average individual. At any rate, it is the responsibility of those who choose teaching as their profession to live up to all the expectations that are specified for teaching. Teachers as spiritual, intellectual, and physical guides. Since the Baha'i system of education asks for a harmonious development of all the aspects of children, it is primarily the job of the teachers to meet such a demand. To accomplish such a task, teachers should be perfect in all respects. Not only must they be knowledge able in all branches of arts and sciences, their knowledge of moral and ethical principles is necessary. In one of His Tablets, Abdu'l-Baha summarized the perfectionism that is demanded of teachers in the following words: 202 Make every effort to acquire the advanced knowl edge of the day, and strain every nerve to carry forward the divine civilization. Establish schools that are well organized, and promote the fundamentals of instruction in the various branches of knowl edge through teachers who are pure and sanctified, distinguished for their high standards of conduct and general excellence, and strong in faith; educators with a thorough knowledge of sciences and arts. (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 100) In other situations teachers are expected to take the role of consultants. As Abdu'l-Baha stated, they must be "well-grounded in the science of pedagogy and familiar with child psychology." It is only then, He continued, that "in the scheme of human life the teacher and his sys tem of teaching plays the most important role, carrying with it the heaviest responsibilities and most subtle influence" (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 101). In another tablet, Abdu’l-Baha emphasized this point again and asked the teacher to be doctors to the child's character as well as instructor in conventional subject matters. Therefore must the mentor be a doctor as well: that is, he must, in instructing the child, remedy its faults; must give him learning, and at the same time rear him to have a spiritual nature. Let the teacher be a doctor to the character of the child, thus will he heal the spiritual ailments of the children of men. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 30) Moreover, teachers are responsible for preparing the children, through moral and spiritual instruction, for a united world. They must be fully aware of the essential ity of the concept of world unity and make every effort to provide whatever is necessary for achieving such a goal. 203j As Abdu'l-Baha advised teachers, they must be teachers of love in the school of unity. O thou spiritual teacher! In thy school, instruct thou God's children in the customs of the Kingdom. Be thou a teacher of love, in a school of unity. Train thou the children of the friends of the Merciful in the rules and ways of His loving-kindness. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 32) In this respect, the Baha'is are in absolute agreement with the advocates of the Project of World Education when they stated: World education demands in the teacher the following: traditional skills and interests; a love for people and an ability to communicate that love; a knowledge of proven methods in teaching reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic; a concern for accuracy and beauty, and a dedication to create a better world. But teaching requires new concerns and abilities: a wide knowledge of the world and its peoples, an involvement in human problems, and the skill to lead others to knowledge and involvement; a deep sense of the fundamental unity of mankind and at the same time of its vitalizing diversity. (Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977, p. 87) Teachers as perfect examples. Based on the strong belief of the Faith in the significance of the proper example and model for character-building in children, it is expected that teachers function as perfect examples for children to model. In fact, Shoghi Effendi urged both parents and teachers to live up to high moral and ethical standards so that the children would consider them as the proper models to follow (Rost, 1979, p. 93). Moreover, in Their approaches to teach mankind, the Manifestations always act as perfect examples (Hatcher, 1977, p. 43). 2 04 Therefore, teachers, to follow the Manifestations' approach, may utilize the same method. For the Manifestations are the Universal Educators and the procedure they use may be of great significance to teachers as particular educators. Relation to the students. The relationship of teachers to their students must be based upon a complete harmony of love and discipline. Numerous writings on the notable effect of love indicate the Baha'i principle that teachers must build their relations to their students upon a loving and caring attitude. Although the Faith maintains that children need a lot of discipline and instruction for their gradual development, it, however, denies the idea of harsh treatment or suppressive action. In fact, Abdu'l- Baha warned, "the child must not be oppressed or censured because it is undeveloped; it must be patiently trained" (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 239). The following example shows how He Himself treated children with utmost love and kindness. He called each child to him in turn, took them in his lap . . . kissing the little ones, pressing the hands and embracing the older ones, all with such infinite love and tenderness shining in his eyes and thrilling in the tones of his voice. . . . To each child he gave a little touch. . . There was no suggestion of haste and a hush fell upon the group— a quiet, vibrant, eloquent silence. (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 17) Other direct teachings show how the teacher must avoid discouraging a child's self-concept and self-esteem. A child's natural deficiencies must be overlooked and the 2 05. stress must be put on his capabilities and achievements. Abdu'l-Baha illustrated the matter. "If a pupil is told that his intelligence is less than his fellow-pupils, it is a very great drawback and handicap to his progress." What the teacher must do to encourage him, He continued, is to tell the students, "You are most capable and if you endeavor you will attain the highest degree" (1925, p. 73). In like manner, the teacher must be aware of the positive influence of encouragement and the negative effects of harsh punitive measures. In an advice to mothers dealing with treating their children, Abdu'l-Baha suggested: Whensoever a mother seeth that her child hath done well, let her praise and applaud him and cheer his heart; and if the slightest undesirable trait should manifest itself, let her counsel the child and punish him, and use means based on reason, even a slight verbal chastisement should this be necessary. It is not, however, permissible to strike a child, or vilify him, for the child's character will be totally perverted if he be subjected to blows or verbal abuse. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 50) This example, of course, can be generalized to the relation between the teacher and the student. On another occasion, Shoghi Effendi made the position of the Faith more clear when he stated, "love and kindness have far more greater influence than punishment upon the improvement of human character" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 63). One point that must be mentioned here is that with all the emphasis that the Baha'i education puts on the 206 importance of character-building, it is, however, made clear that neither the teacher, nor the parents, have the right to force the child to adopt a certain set of values or a system of belief, be it secular or religious. It is absolutely contrary to the Baha'i principles of freedom of thought or to the independent investigation for truth. With regard to this issue Shoghi Effendi suggested: The basic principle of the Cause is independent investigation of truth. This applies to us as much as to our children. They should be free to choose for themselves any religion they wish. To promise that they will belong to a certain Faith and not to another is therefore not only contrary to our precepts, but is also a futile promise to give. How can we make the future generations think as we do or follow our dictates. God has made them free. All that we can do is to open their eye and tell them of what we think to be the truth. (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 132) In addition to respect for the individual freedom of each child, teachers must be aware of still a different, yet closely related issue; allowing for individual differences. Individual differences and the teacher's role. The fundamental principle underlying the Baha'i epistemol- ogy stands for the essential harmony and unity among the different modes of knowing. This, in turn, suggests the notion that the teachers must be fully aware of the individual differences, both in terms of learning ability and the degree of effectiveness of each learning method for each student. In other words, students may show better progress when they are exposed to several teaching methodologies. Therefore, the teacher must not confine himself to one or a few instructional techniques. The wider the range of the methodologies, the greater is the opportunity for the students to find the way they may learn faster and better. In this regard, there is also a com plete agreement between the Baha'i perspective and that of World Education. Teachers in World Education must accept different- learning styles. Each person is a unique individual, and each person should be given the opportunities to develop and integrate his special resources. Teach ers of World Education must realize that integration and wholeness do not mean uniformity. (Mitchell, Grin, Sobel, 1977, p. 89). With all the attention that teachers must pay in providing those essentials such as love, care, patience, and freedom for students, there are, however, some measures of disci pline that must be considered so that a fuller development of the child becomes more certain. Teachers and discipline. The Baha'i belief in the natural deficiencies and the imperfect state of early ages leads into the idea of adopting some measures of discipline to overcome these imperfections. The following suggestions by Shoghi Effendi may give the necessary guidelines to deal with the issue of discipline. In fact Baha'i education, just like any other system of education is based on the assumption that there are certain natural deficiencies in every child, no matter how gifted, which his educators . . . should endeavour to remedy. Discipline of some sort, whether physical, moral or intellectual, is indispen sable, and no training can be said to be complete 208; and fruitful if it disregards this element. . . . The child should be trained, his natural inclina tions harmonized, adjusted and controlled, and if necessary suppressed or regulated, so as to insure his healthy physical and moral development. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 65) Therefore, what the teachings show is that a carefully chosen and well-adopted measure of discipline is necessary for the harmonized development of all three aspects of human nature. What seems of great significance, however, is the idea of applying this discipline in what the Faith calls the spirit of utmost love and kindness. Generally speaking, the concepts of unity and har mony play significant roles both in the station of the teachers and in the desired qualities the Baha'i Faith demand from them. As far as the teacher's high station is concerned, the concept of harmony shows itself in the spiritual rewards that are assigned to them as well as any material prosperity and success they achieve. By consider ing them among the heirs, this unity between the material and non-material reward is appropriately symbolized. With respect to the qualities that the teachers are expected to possess, the concept of unity is even more visible. For instance, the teacher himself should be a har monious whole in order to deal properly with the develop ment of the child's physical, intellectual and spiritual nature. The teachings show that unless the teacher himself is fully and harmoniously developed, he may not be able to 209 function as a perfect example for the students. Therefore, a . harmony and unity of the optimum level of development of the teachers' physical, mental, and spiritual qualities are of necessity. Even in treating the students, this essential har mony between teacher's love and care on one hand, and his discipline and regulation on the other, seems to be of utmost importance. In brief, not only must the teacher be a united whole, he must adopt harmonious as well as harmonizing approaches in his dealing with students. And above all, teachers must endeavor to bring up new genera tions well-equipped for both being active in uniting the human race as well as being able to live harmoniously in a united world. Basic Tenets of Universal Curriculum Next to the teacher, the school curriculum is very instrumental in fulfilling the goals of education. It has been the intention of the Baha'i writers to offer some fundamental and general principles of curriculum develop ment which are closely related to the pre-planned goals and objectives of the Faith. The ultimate goal of uniting mankind necessitates, the Baha'i Faith suggests, a univer sal curriculum which, although it must be concerned with individual differences and essential diversity, still must consist of common elements with world-wide implications. 21 o) As summarized by Jordan (1970, pp. 19-20), such a universal curriculum must at least include all sciences (Tablets of Abdu11-Baha, II, pp. 448-449) , agriculture (Baha1i Wor1d Faith, 1956, p. 377), art (Tablets of Abdu’l-Baha, II, pp. 449-450), music (Tablets of Abdu11-Baha, II, p. 512), literature and speech (Tablets of Abdu'l-Baha, II, pp. 501-502), and a universal auxilary language (Abdu'l-Baha, cited in The Bahaii Peace Program, 1930, p. 16). Various policies must be taken into consideration in assuming the achievement of Baha'i goals by means of the school curric ulum. The next sections briefly examine different elements of such a curriculum and the contribution they may make in achieving both the long-range goal of world unity and the short-term goal of improving the quality of man's life. Necessity of the Universal Curriculum Based on the Baha'i conviction of the necessity of the world unity, the teachings suggest ways to facilitate reaching such a goal. Among these suggestions is the essentiality of a universal curriculum which is an indis pensable component of the paradigm of a universal and obligatory system of education. The words of Abdu'l-Baha confirm this idea when He stated, "education is essential and all standards of training and teaching throughout the world of mankind should be brought into conformity and agreement; a universal curriculum should be established 211 ' and the basis of ethics be the same" ( . Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 241). In this respect, the Baha'i Faith, though among the first advocates of such a position, is by no means a single voice. There are other schools of thought which strongly support such an idea. Among them one can mention the advocates of "global interdependence," "world mindedness," and "world unity" (Kachaturoff & Blackburn, 1978); the supporters of "World Education" (Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977); and the followers of Tagore's philosophy of "international education" (Periasawamy, 1976). The common element among all of these groups is the adoption, in one way or the other, of some sort of universal curriculum in order to achieve world unity. The concept of a universal curriculum for the Baha'i Faith was not only meant to be applied all over the world independent of ethnic, cultural, and economic differences, it also firmly stands for the universality of a curriculum independent of sexual differences. In this regard, the Baha'i position is direct and explicit. Same curriculum for both sexes. The Baha'i belief in equal education for boys and girls leads to the notion of adopting the same curriculum for both sexes. This, in turn, is instrumental in achieving the state of equality between the sexes, which, consequently, will be an effec tive contribution to the unity of the human race. "Daughters and sons must follow the same curriculum of 212 > study, thereby promoting unity of the sexes" (Abdu'1-Baha, 1925, p. 170). Of course, only offering an equal curric ulum for the boys and the girls would not be enough. The teachings, on a number of occasions, encourage girls to take advantage of such an opportunity and strive hard to demonstrate their capacity and their equality with boys. But while this principle of equality [between men and women] is true, it is likewise true that woman must prove her capacity and aptitude, must show forth the evidences of equality. She must become proficient in the arts and sciences and prove her accomplishments that her abilities and powers have merely been latent . . . Woman must especially devote her energies and abilities toward the industrial and agricultural sciences, seeking to assist mankind in that which is most needful. By this means she will demonstrate capability and insure recognition of equality in the social and economic equation. (Abdu'l-Baha, 1925, p. 227) Therefore, the Baha'i Faith, by both offering women equal educational opportunities as well as encouraging them to grasp and utilize what they have been offered, tries to secure one of its most fundamental requirements for the fulfilling of world unity. Basic Components of the Universal Curriculum The Baha'i philosophy of education which is based upon the principle of harmonious development of body, mind, and spirit, asks for a kind of curriculum which can serve such a purpose. There seems to be at least four distinct components in the Baha'i curriculum that, combined to gether, are instrumental in developing different dimensions 213 of the human being. These components which can be embodied in a variety of subject matter may be categorized as character building and ethical orientation, emotional expressions, mental and intellectual cultivation, and overt behavior. Character building and ethical orientation. Since man, from the Baha'i perspective, is essentially a spiritual being, a great deal of emphasis has been put on the role of formal education in the spiritual development of mankind. Consequently, this idea shows itself in the necessity of offering certain subject matter that relates to ,this issue. The rejection of the separation of secular and religious instruction by the Baha'i Faith leads to incorporating courses of a spiritual, ethical, and religious nature into the curriculum. As Shoghi Effendi suggested, The Baha'i curriculum must include subject matters dealing with "the things of the spirit, the funda mentals of teaching the Faith, reading the Sacred Writings, . . . [and] learning the history of the Faith" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 56). Of course, as he con tinued, one must be aware that such instruction would not lead to the "spirit of religious bigotry," or "to narrow down the horizon of . . . spiritual understanding" (p. 65). To avoid such a narrowmindedness, courses for introducing the fundamental system of beliefs of other religions might be of great help. In fact, on different 214) occasions, all Baha’is have been encouraged to delve into the ethical principles of other religions (Abdu’l-Baha, 190 8/1964). Moreover, the fundamental principle of encouraging those mental attitudes that lead to more unity as well as discouraging those that might be the cause of enmity and hatred, the Faith argues, would prevent the development of religious bigotry. However, this still does not deny the significance that the Baha'i Faith associates with the spiritual development of students through properly chosen subject matter. Emotional Expressions. The attention that the Faith pays to the matter of emotional expression of the child manifests itself in numerous writings on the impor tance and divinity of art and music. It is difficult to find any passage dealing with education in general and curriculum in particular without art or music being mentioned as fundamental components. Their function, as the Faith sees them, is not confined to emotional expres sion, however, for they are most effective in the realm of spiritual development as well. This latter function is especially attributed to the role of music. In the following passage, Abdu'l-Baha underlined the spiritual effect of music to the spirit of children. The art of music is divine and effective. It is the food of the soul and spirit. Through the power and charm of music the spirit of man is uplifted. It has wonderful sway and effect in the hearts of children, for their hearts are pure and melodies 2151 have great influence on them. The latent talents with which the hearts of these children are endowed will find expression through the medium off ' music. . . . It is incumbent upon each child to know something of music, for without knowledge of this art, the melodies of instrument and voice cannot be rightly enjoyed. Likewise it is necessary that the schools teach it in order that the souls and hearts of the pupils may become vivified and exhilarated and their lives be rightened with enjoyment. (Baha’i Education, 1978, p. 74) Therefore, as the teachings suggest, art and music are absolutely indispensable parts of the curriculum. They can serve for both the purpose of spiritual development as well as a vehicle for emotional expression. Particularly, as Abdu'l-Baha stated, music can be effectively therapeutic in replacing sorrow by the joy. "In this dispensation, music is one of the arts that is highly approved and is considered to be the cause of the exaltation of sad and desponding hearts" (Baha1i World Faith, 1956, p. 378). Mental and intellectual development. Numerous passages in Baha'i writing on the importance and the divinity of secular branches of knowledge imply the essential role that science (in its broadest term) must play in the curriculum. Scientific knowledge, from the Baha'i perspective, is in fact a reflection of the Divine Knowledge of God in the material world. As Baha'u'llah Himself stated, "knowledge is one of the greatest benefits of God. To acquire knowledge is incumbent on all. These visible arts and present implements are from the results of His knowledge and wisdom" (Baha'i World Faith, 19 56, .216 p. 171). Therefore, Baha'i education must include a strong science-oriented program in the curriculum. This may be reflected by courses in mathematics, experimental sciences, social sciences, humanity and language. What is of great significance is the idea that the science curriculum must be goal-oriented. In other words, knowledge for the sake of knowledge is not supported by the Faith. The bulk of the writings stress how scientific knowledge must serve some goals. There seems to be at least two different purposes that science must serve; to immediately benefit society by improving the quality of life, and to function as a contribution toward world unity. On different occasions the Baha'i teachings point out the importance of the profitability of knowledge and the sciences. In the following passage the words of Baha'u'llah stress the point that knowledge must not start with words and end with words. It must have some positive effect— either immediate of long-range— on the environment. Knowledge is like unto wings for the being, and is as a ladder for ascending. To acquire knowledge is incumbent on all, but of those sciences which may profit the people of the earth, and not such sciences as being in mere words, and end in mere words. The possessors of sciences and arts have a great right among the people of the world. . . . Indeed, the real treasury of man is his knowledge. Knowledge is the means of honor, prosperity, joy, gladness, happiness, and exultation. (Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 189). 217 On another occasion, Abdu'l-Baha explained what He meant by profitability (1931/1969). He emphasized that profit ability is not measured by immediate impact only, but rather, knowledge such as that of the great philosophers which has influenced the minds of future generations and has caused desirable changes is to be considered as profit able as well. Nevertheless, He urged people to "study the sciences, [and] acquire more and more knowledge. Assuredly one may learn to the end of one's life! Use your knowledge always for the benefit of others" (1931/1969, p. 12). Although profitability of knowledge may function both as an immediate or a long-range goal, there remains still one far-reaching purpose that science must serve; unity of the world. In the words of Baha'u'llah: O people of Bahai The source of crafts, sciences and arts is the power of reflection. Make ye every effort that out of this ideal mine there may gleam forth such pearls of wisdom and utterance as will promote the well-being and harmony of all the kindered of the earth. (cited in Rost, 1979, p. 127) Man's mental ability, according to the Baha'i Faith, is immense. The problem arises when such an ability is not utilized for the good of humanity. Such mental capabili-* ties, as Abdu'l-Baha stated, are like heavenly gifts which must be directed toward bringing the people of this planet together. 218 How shall we utilize these gifts and expend these bounties? By directing our efforts toward the uni fication of the human race. We must use these powers in establishing the oneness of the world of humanity; appreciate these virtues by accomplishing the unity of the white and colored races; devote this divine intelligence to the perfecting of amity and accord among all branches of the human family. (1971, p. 72) To secure such a goal, the Faith directly suggests the introduction of at least one subject matter; a univer sal auxiliary language. This matter was first introduced by the founder of the Faith, Baha'u'llah, when He declared, "the day is approaching when all the peoples of the world will have adopted one universal language and one common script. . . . These things are obligatory and essential" (1936/1976, pp. 249-250). The reason is that the Faith maintains that lack of communication among the people of various nations constitutes a language barrier which is formidable (Abdu'l-Baha, 1912, pp. 57-58). Therefore, to abolish such an obstacle to unification, a universal auxiliary language must be either chosen from among the existing languages, or be invented. This language is not to replace the mother tongue, but to function as an inter national second language (Ferraby, 1957, p. 87). Of course, it will be the main responsibility of the school to make every effort to help students attain the mastery of this universally adopted language. "A world language will either be invented or chosen from among the existing languages and will be taught in the schools of all 219 the federated nations as an auxiliary to their mother tongue"' (Shoghi Effendi, 1938, p. 203)'. Such a language not.only.may be instrumental in the process of unifying mankind, it may serve to reduce the waste of time involved in the study of diverse languages. Such a common language is of absolute necessity in facilitating the process of sharing human knowledge throughout the world. In the words of Abdu'l-Baha: Today the greatest need of the world of humanity is discontinuance of the existing misunderstandings among nations. This can be accomplished through the unity of language . . . Therefore the question of an auxiliary international tongue has the utmost importance. Through this means, international education and training become possible; the evidence and history of the past can be acquired. The spread of the known facts of the human world depends upon language. . . . Through it, sciences and arts will be spread among the nations and it will prove to be the means of the progress and development of all races. (1912, pp. 57-58) It is evident that nowadays such an idea has supporters among other philosophies as well. For example the supporters of the paradigm of "World Education" basically follow the same line of reasoning. They suggest that language barriers may seriously hamper the spirit of world unity; that they are obstacles to the spread of human knowledge, and that unless an internationally accepted language is adopted throughout the world, such problems will not be easily resolved (Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977, p. 70). Therefore, courses in an internationally accepted language have a crucial place in the Baha'i curriculum. 22 0' Overt behavior. The Baha'i Faith emphathizes the acquisition of knowledge and scientific activities. It, however, expects knowledge to manifest itself profitably in action. To act upon one's learned principles is a determining factor in indicating how well that principle was learned. "Mere knowledge of principle is not suffi cient. We all know and admit that justice is good but there is need of volition and action to carry out and manifest it" (Abdu'l-Baha, 1971, p. 26). Therefore, the Baha'i curriculum must apply this principle by offering some special programs to teach students how they can put their learning into practice. Such a curriculum cannot separate learning from doing. In this regard, the Baha'i Faith is in total agreement with the advocates of "World Education" when they stated, "students must relate doing with thinking. . Purely verbalistic education is not ade quate. The separation of physical work and education creates artificial barriers" (Mitchell, Grin, & Sobel, 1977, p. 113). What seems to be an explicit principle in the teachings is the notion that thought, in one way or the other, must be manifest in some kind of action in order to be considered as worthwhile. Some men and women glory in their exalted thoughts, but, if these thoughts never reach the plane of action they remain useless: The power of thought is dependent on its manifestation in deeds. A philosopher's thought may, however, in the world of : ; ___________________ 221 progress and evolution, translate itself into the action of other people, even when he himself is unable or unwilling to show forth his grand ideals in his own life. (Abdu'l-Baha, 1969, p. 9). Therefore, the curriculum must not confine itself to the domain of intellectual activities, but encourages students to relate their mental and covert commitments to overt behavioral acts. This assertion leads to still another component of the curriculum; to teach students how to get involved in real physical and manual activities such as crafts and other manual skills. Consequently, the Baha'i curriculum must go beyond the conventional courses in academic activities, to include the area of manual skills as well. Student involvement in manual activities may have two separate purposes. First, it tends to relate the curriculum to real life and brings it out of its ivory tower where it is untouched by actual issues. Second, it gives the student a sense of participa tion in and a contribution to the community he lives in. Students are encouraged to learn marketable skills where they are actually involved in giving some kind of service to their society. Such activities by the students are highly praised in Baha'i teachings and are considered to be equal to worship. "In addition to this wide-spread education each child must be taught a profession, art, or trade, so that every member of the community will be enabled to earn his own livelihood. Work done in the 222 spirit of service is the highest form of worship" (Baha1i Education, 1978, p. 77). Hand in hand with offering courses in manual skills, a positive attitude toward work as a service to mankind is promoted. Baha'i teachings incorporate a high expecta tion for every individual to engage in some kind of bene ficial occupation. Rich or poor, young or old, people must feel that by their work they are giving service to mankind and therefore feel a sense of contribution that leads to satisfaction. Therefore, according to Baha'i teachings, the spiritual rewards gained by performing service to man kind are to be considered even higher than the material rewards. It is the awareness of the contribution that constitutes the reward. In this regard, Baha'u'llah addressed His followers: O My servants 1 Ye are the trees of My garden; ye must give forth goodly and wondrous fruits, that ye yourselves and others may profit therefrom. Thus it is incumbent on everyone to engage in crafts and professions, for therein lies the secret of wealth. . . . Trees that yield no fruit have been and will ever be for the fire. (cited in Ferraby, 1957, p. 99) Therefore, appropriate programs must be developed in order to familiarize students with the role and the nature of different professions as well as the services they can provide to humanity. All of the four previously mentioned components of the curriculum only reveal the general principles that must 223 be taken into consideration at the time of curriculum development for a Baha'i system of education. These com ponents might be provided for through offering a variety of courses. The process of development of such courses depends on many factors that need to be analyzed in each specific situation. Their general natures, however, may be discerned from the general principles which are, explicitly or implicitly, set forth by the teachings. A Possible Paradigm of Subject Matter Undoubtedly, the subjects that are offered by the Baha'i system of education must reflect the instructional role of the curriculum in achieving the Baha'i goals for education. Since the curriculum seems to be expected to include four different areas (spiritual, emotional, intellectual, and physical), it is the task of subjects to develop all the dimensions of human nature. Of course, there may be some overlap in the contribution of various subjects. The intent here, however, is to focus on the most dominant contribution that each specific academic course may make. In order to develop the spiritual dimension, the following might be studied: history of religions, religious principles of different dispensations, symbolic language of the Manifestations, progressive revelation, Holy Texts and Scriptures, the Manifestations' behaviors &24' as perfect spiritual examples, mysticism, vicarious experi ences of moral choices, first-hand experiences of moral judgment, basic principles underlying relative systems of values as well as the absolute ones, and, above all, a strong focus on the principle of world unity. Such studies may give a sense of connection and purposefulness to the apparently scattered elements involved in the subjects dealing with the spiritual development of students. These studies must relate the principles of ethical conduct and attitude-development to a more meaningful concept under lying them: the unity of the human race. Closely related to the subjects instrumental in spiritual development are the courses which encourage emotional expression. As the Baha'i teachings show, art and music may function very effectively in both spiritual development and in releasing the emotions. Aside from music which has been repeatedly emphasized, various areas of art such as painting, sculpturing, and performing arts are to be considered very seriously. These areas, though not mentioned independently in Baha'i literature, may be effectively utilized to give students a sense of harmony and integrity. Moreover, the arts, especially when it comes to the performing arts, may play an important role in attitude-development and character-building. Done appropriately, The Baha'i system of education cultivates those beliefs which are necessary for developing ideals •225 such as world-mindedness and the unity of mankind through the means of artistic expression by students. The science curriculum, to develop the mental and intellectual faculties of students, is also a center of focus in Baha'i schools. Such a curriculum may consist of courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, social sciences, history, geography, agriculture, language and concept development, the universal auxiliary language, formal logic, and scientific thinking and method of in- * quiry. Two points are worthy of mention here. First, the teachings show that science and religion must be complementary in the Baha’i curriculum, rather than con flicting systems of thought. Second, the courses must be inter-related and not be fragmented. They must be united, each acting as a part belonging to a greater whole in order to promote world unity. Therefore, it is important to arrange courses in such a way that their essential unity will not remain overlooked. The interdependence of all areas of science must be emphasized so that students become aware of not only the uniting elements that should be involved in science, but the essential unity that already exists among its different branches. The profitability that is expected from all human knowledge has implications for developing new courses in the Baha'i education. Since thought must be embodied in action, and learning must not be separated from doing, 226 different courses must be constructed to give the students useful skills. Therefore, at least two different series of courses must be developed; one to give vocational skills, the other to relate learned principles to overt behavior. To achieve the first purpose, different courses with a wide range of vocational potentialities must come into existence. Voca tional education is something that must be taken extremely seriously. Based on the demands of the market, courses may be provided so that students can engage in increasing their contribution to the community. Such courses may include varieties of vocational activities which are to be determined by considering the environmental demands. A second series of courses must be developed to relate the taught materials to real life situations. On one hand such courses may put into the practice certain ethical and moral principles, so that students may under stand how and if they are actually ready to act upon what was believed to be their adopted system of values. For instance, a practical course in ethics might be considered of such nature. On the other hand, certain courses must be developed to find applications for the materials dealing solely with mental and intellectual disciplines. For example, the following experiences might be useful in link ing abstract knowledge to its possible application in the student's life: applied mathematics, applied science, , 22 7/ journalism, visits to research laboratories in various fields of study, independent research projects, and other related activities. It is only through real experience, the Baha'i Faith believes, that the student will relate to the life of the community and it is the main responsibility of the schools to provide him all the necessary means so that he will be able to function effectively both in his own private life as an individual as well as a responsible member of the larger society. Generally speaking, the Baha'i curriculum tends to be encompassing in nature, offering a variety of possible activities and experiences for the student. Based on its perspective of human nature, which is complex and multi- dimensional, and also to reach its ultimate goal of the world unity, Baha'i education offers a curriculum which tends to meet its multifacet demands. On one hand the curriculum must be devoted , to the harmonious development of the spiritual, mental, and physical dimensions of human being. On the other hand, it must direct society toward more and more fulfillment of its ultimate goal. Therefore, such a curriculum must be on one hand "substantive" or "content-oriented." That is, it should be "substantive bodies of information, organized in advance and set out before the learner to be learned" (Morris & Pai, 197 6, p. 81). On the other hand, it is a "verbal," or "process- oriented" curriculum, where the emphasis has been put on 228^) the experiences that the student is to have, i.e., "dynamic, ongoing events deliberately contrived to take place in the life of the student" (Morris & Pai, 1976, p. 82). These two conventionally separate types of curricula must, Baha'i education suggests, come together, be comple mentary and function in a desirable and effective manner. General Administrational Policies The general administrational policies of Baha'i education are based upon two principles: universal educa tion and compulsory education (Rost, 1979, p. 118). Matters such as financial responsibility for education, the extent of coverage of education, schools discipline, and the process of setting the educational goals and ob jectives are all dependent upon the basic principles of universal and obligatory education. Although the details of specific administrational policies have not been set forth explicitly in the holy writings, the general themes, however, would allow educators and administrators to adopt an administrational system based upon those broad teachings. The following sections examine a few aspects of administra tional policies which can be derived from the Baha'i teachings. 2 29J Who Is Responsible for Educating the Children? The Baha'i teachings show that there are at least four different institutions responsible for securing the universal and compulsory education, each acting at differ ent levels of accountability. These institutions are the child's family, the Local Spiritual Assembly (LSA) which is elected locally, the National Spiritual Assembly (NSA) which is elected nationally, and the Universal House of Justice whose members are elected at the international level. Responsibilities of the parents. The principle of compulsory education leads to an absolute responsibility of the parents to make every effort to provide all the necessary means for the education of their children. It is not only a social responsibility, but a religious duty as well. Parents are expected to pay for the expenses if they are financially able to afford it. If the parents who can afford it avoid paying for their children's educa tion, it becomes the responsibility of the LSA to intervene and do whatever necessary to recover the required amount from them. If, however, some parents cannot financially support their child's education, the Universal House of Justice must establish suitable policies so that the expenses can be collected from the community (Baha'u'llah, cited in Baha'i World Faith, 1956, p. 200). What is 230 important is that society must be sure that the child's educational opportunities will not be jeopardized because of financial problems. Aside from monetary responsibility, parents in general and mothers especially are expected to play an important role in the educative processes of their chil dren. Of course, it is true that the Baha'i Faith tends to put such a task primarily into the hands of public systems of education in countries where such is available. However, public education, even when excellent, will not cover all the elements of the ideal, Baha'i curriculum and parents have a responsibility to supplement the instruc tion offered in the public schools. In communities where Baha'is are numerous, they may join together to provide a supplementary day program or even a complete alternative school. Even in Baha'i schools, parents cannot totally escape from the process of educating their children. They are expected to be most cooperative, involved, and committed to what is done by the schools. Most of the Baha'i writings on the necessity and the importance of the chil'd's education are found in addresses to the parents. This may indicate that parents not only are the first educators of their children, they remain significant figures even after children are put in the hands of teachers in formal education. k23'l> Responsibilities of the Local Spiritual Assembly. Each locally elected administrative body is most familiar with the possibilities and the limitations of its own environment. Its responsibilities may be divided into two categories: carrying out the universally adopted educa tional principles ' and setting forth those educational programs which its unique environment may necessitate. To secure the former, for instance, the LSA must make sure all the children at the age of five do actually attend „school. Baha'i Formal education starts when the child is five years old (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 38), and it is the responsibility of the LSA to provide the necessary means so that no child remains out of the school after he or she reaches this age. In like manner, the LSA must put into practice other educational policies of the Faith. In fact, it acts as an implementing body at the local level. Among these policies, at least one is repeatedly stressed by the teachings and some of its details have already: been drawn by Abdu'l-Baha. For example, there is the issue of school discipline. According to Abdu'l-Baha, Baha'i schools must be a place where although love plays a crucial role, a high degree of discipline and order is manifest. "It followeth that the children's school be a place of utmost discipline and order, that the instruction must be thorough, and provision must be made for the rectification and refinement of character" (Baha'i 23.2 - Education, 1978, p. 24). He even gave some suggestions regarding the school building and the children's clothing. "As to the organization of the schools: If possible the children should all wear the same kind of clothing. . . . The school must be located in a place where the air is delicate and pure" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 43). There fore, it is the job of every Local Spiritual Assembly to provide the necessary means so that school buildings may be constructed as Abdu'l-Baha suggested. Aside from the universally or nationally adopted policies, the LSA is in charge of those necessary modifi cations of local programs due to the specific demand of each community. For example, one may mention the LSA support for the development of some certain curricular activities which can enhance the achievement of some preplanned educational goals. The Baha'i appreciation for the diversity of people and their environment permits a variety of educational activities that the LSA may initi ate. What seems to be of great significance is-that the LSA is expected to harmonize the implementation of the universal principles that contribute to the achievement of the world unity on one hand and the specific demands of each community which provides diversity, on the other. Responsibilities of the National Spiritual Assem bly. There are at least two sets of responsibilities that the NSA must take into consideration: harmonizing the 23 3 ' activities of the LSA's, and enforcing specific regulations to insure the equal educational opportunities for all children regardless of their socio-economic status. With regard to the first responsibility, the NSA must make sure the scattered efforts of the local communities have a sense of purpose and unity. Undoubtedly, it is the primary responsibility of the LSA's to actually implement national and universal policies. However, there might be a need for directing and channeling such fragmented implementa tions so that the local educational institutions function more effectively in advancing societies toward the goal of unification of the human race. In regard to its second task, insuring equal educational opportunities, the NSA may initiate several policies. Among them, the following seem to be of great importance. The teachings show that although at least some portion of financial support for education rests with the parents of students, it is, however, the responsibility of the NSA to secure adequate financial support. This might be done in several ways. For example, the NSA is entitled to tax individuals. As Baha'u'llah explicitly stated, "men and women must place a part of what they earn by trade, agriculture or other business . . . to be spent in the education and instruction of the children. That deposit must be invested in the education of the children" (B aha1i Educ at ion, 1978, p. 5). Therefore, an "income tax" ,234 may act as one source for educational revenues. Voluntary contributions by individuals or institutions may also be considered as another source. What is important is that no child's education be endangered for financial reasons. Closely related to the issue of providing every means for securing equal educational opportunity is the problem of the orphans. On many occasions, throughout the Baha'i teachings on education, the urgency of orphans' education has been underlined. As far as the individual is concerned, it is a religious duty for people who can afford it to take responsibility of the education of orphans. However, the ultimate responsibility rests upon the NSA. As Abdu'l-Baha stated, "in this holy Cause the question of.orphans hath the utmost importance. The great est consideration must be shown towards orphans; they must be taught, trained and educated" (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 46). One point that must be mentioned here is that some of these issues regarding financial support are important only in the present economic situation of the world. Some of the related Baha'i teachings are applicable in such situations. In the economic system that the Baha'i Faith offers, some of these financial problems may not arise at all. Consequently, one must differentiate between the level of applicability of some parts of the teachings dealing with financial issues in the present economic 235 system and in what the Faith sketches for the future. Responsibilities of the Universal House of Justice. At the international level, the Universal House of Justice Acts as the highest administrative body in charge of guiding, coordinating, and unifying all Baha'i activities in general and the educational ones in particular (Rost, 1979, p. 138). Moreover, the two basic functions of the Universal House of Justice--interpreting the unclarified points in the Holy Texts and legislating new laws and ordinances— include determining educational goals and objectives based on the existing holy writings as well as initiating new principles which have not been explicitly set forth. Therefore, the two main educational responsi bilities of the Universal House of Justice are first, to set long-range as well as short-term educational objec-- ’ tives, and second, to unify the educational activities of different communities. Among the main objectives of the Universal House of Justice is the determination of the adequacy of educa tion for every child. The words of Abdu'l-Baha give some general guidelines regarding the extent compulsory educa tion involves all students. All students "must be educated according to their capacity, needs and desires, all mankind must be given a knowledge of science and philosophy— as much as deemed necessary" (Rost, 1979, p. 119). Such a guideline, however, does not specify the age or the grade level that must be covered by compulsory education. It is the job of the Universal House of Justice to determine the practical details. In response to the issue of choosing a field of study in line with the child's ability and interest, Abdu'1-Baha's statements might make the general perspective of the Faith clear. However, it does not deal with the details of the issue. Accordingly, children must first become skilled in the fundamentals such as learning a number of languages, and then continue the learning of other subject matters. Auid it is only after being exposed to a broad range of basic human knowledge that students pursue their unique interests. In Abdu'1-Baha's own words, Once they have become skilled in these fundamentals [languages], let them go on to learning the elements of other branches of knowledge, and once they have completed this study, let each one who is able and hath a keen desire for it, enroll in higher insti tutions of learning and study advanced courses in the sciences and arts. (Baha'i Education, 1978, p. 41) However, it is the job of the Universal House of Justice to determine to what extent basic human knowledge must be learned by compulsory education. Therefore, the overall theme of the Baha'i teach ings on education implies the idea that those common elements of Baha universal education that must be adopted regardless of where the students live are to be developed and supported by the Universal House of Justice. Whereas, when it comes to the essential diversities among the 23 7) students, it is the responsibility of the Spiritual Assemblies to initiate proper actions. In brief, the Universal House of Justice takes a unifying and coordinat ing role, whereas the National and Local Assemblies are to provide essential means for the implementation of the universal goals as well as adopting those policies which meet the specific demands of each situation. 23 S' CHAPTER V FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this study was to derive the educa tional implications of Bahai philosophy with a special consideration to the concept of unity. The study was basically a library or philosophical study. Findings The major findings of the present study may be divided into two general themes: philosophical and educational. The following are a brief review of the philosophical findings. 1. There are three distinct realms in the Baha'i metaphysical system— the world of God, the world of the Manifestations, and the world of created. The concept of unity plays a crucial role in all of these realms. 2. Unity in the world of God is shown in at least three different Baha'i principles. First, the Baha'i Faith maintains that there is an absolute unity of the essence and the attributes of God. In His Hidden, Exalted, Unknowable realm, there can be no separation between the essence and the attributes of God. Second, there is a unity between God and His Manifestations. Being a perfect 23 9 mirror, the Manifestation reflects all the attributes of God. It is this common power of reflection that makes the Manifestations united with the world of God. Third, the world of the created echos the unity of God. Such capacity of the natural phenomena, and above them of man, to reflect the attributes of God functions, according to the Baha'i Faith, as a uniting force that binds together the apparently scattered elements of the universe. 3. Unity in the world of the Manifestations is embodied in two different doctrines. First, although there are apparent differences among the Manifestations in terms of their times of appearance and other physical conditions, the Baha'i Faith holds that there is an essen tial unity underlying the reality of these Holy Souls. Though in His own realm there is no separation between the essence and the attributes of God, in the realm of the Manifestations the multiplicity of the attributes takes place. It is, however, their common station of pure reflection that constitutes the unity of the Manifesta tions. Second, unity plays an important role in terms of the Manifestations' missions. Although apparent differ ences are obvious among the teachings of the Manifesta tions in different periods of time, the far reaching goal of all of them has been uniting mankind. 4. In the realm of human beings unity is shown in two principles. First, there is unity in the existence 24 0; of man. His spiritual, intellectual, and physical dimen sions must be united in order to bring about an integrated whole. Second, there must be a unity of mankind. Such a unity functions as a long-range goal for all of the Baha'i social teachings. 5. There are at least four dominant tenets in the Baha'i epistemological system. First, the essence or sub stance of the objects remains unknowable. Therefore, knowledge is limited to the modes and the relationships. Second, the knowledge of non-natural phenomena will always be subjective, though the possibility of their reality is unquestionable. Third, man is the ultimate discoverer of the realities of the modes and the relationships of the existing realities although this discovery might remain subjective in the realm of the non-natural entities. Fourth, the Faith maintains that all of the epistemological approaches are complementary in nature and none will be sufficient or reliable by itself. 6. The concept of unity is of utmost significance in Baha'i epistemology. The seven epistemological approaches (reason, scientific investigation, meditation and prayers, intuition, knowing one's self, purity of heart, metaphor and symbolic language) do not contradict each other. They must unite in order to constitute what the Faith calls a reliable epistemological mode. 241 7. The Baha'i ethical system is based upon two foundations: absolute and relative values. On one hand, the absolute values are those that can be universally adopted, independent of time and situation. Such values, however, do not have any material definition. Their mean ings and applications are subject to change from time to time or place to place. For example, justice and love, although the centers of attention in all dispensations, have been evolved through time. Their applications change as the human situation changes. The relative values, on the other hand, are more specific and subject to more rapid change. Such values are relative not to time but to the situation as well. The most common values are those that directly relate to religious laws and regulations. Besides, when it comes to the individual decision-making, even the absolute values become relative. At any rate, although there are apparent differences between the absolute and the relative systems of values, the ideal state, according to the Baha'i Faith, is when harmony and agreement between the two are developed. The educational findings can be summarized as follows: 1. Education is of utmost importance in the Baha'i teachings. It is a way of worship, among the greatest of all services to God, and most important of all, it plays an indispensable role in developing desirable traits both in the individual and in societies. Besides, it must be a purposeful enterprise to function as an important institu tion, among other social institutions, to bring about unity of mankind. 2. Education must be all-embracing, dealing with spiritual, intellectual, and physical dimensions of human beings. Such an educational system is commited to a harmonious development of all aspects of human existence, avoiding the extremes of religious fanaticism, scientific narrow-mindedness, and brainless athleticism. 3. There are at least two types of goals for Baha'i education: spiritual and social. On one hand, the spiritual goal sets specific educational objectives to bring about the knowledge of God which, in turn, will entail the love of God that eventually will lead to the love of humanity. On the other hand, the Baha'i social goal of education deals with changing societies towards a more united world. Among the means that serve such a social goal is giving equal attention, and sometimes priority, to the education for girls. It is the Baha'i's deepest belief that unless women are equally developed, it is unlikely that the social goal of world unity will be achieved. 4. Among the most significant characteristics of Baha'i education is its concern about perfectionism. Not only man's perfection must be acquired through education, •243 the educative processes should be perfect in themselves. The demand for perfection goes so far that on some occa sions death or non-existence are preferred over imper fection. Perfectionism, both in the secular as well as spiritual education, is regarded as a form of worship. 5. The psychological foundations of Baha'i educa tion rest upon two pillars: heredity and environment. Hereditary factors consist of inherited elements (respon sible for physical differences) and innate elements (responsible for mental and intellectual differences). Environmental factors are due to the experiences one may encounter after his birth. The instrumentality of educa tion, though felt to some degree in bringing about desir able changes in hereditary characteristics, is more prominent when the environmental factors are involved. 6. The Baha'i Faith is in general agreement with the advocates of developmental psychology which maintains that human development consists of a series of stages from birth to maturity. According to the specific teachings of the Faith, a child's intelligence, his capacity to learn, and his grasp of more abstract levels of knowledge increases as he grows. Nevertheless, even though the child's cognitive ability is not in its full development in his early ages, he must undergo carefully chosen educa tive processes from infancy. ■244' 7. Baha'i instructional methodology does not confine itself to one or a few approaches. It utilizes as many methods as possible in order to properly and effec tively educate the children. Based on its psychological foundations, Baha'i education offers some general rules for its teaching methods. For example, the gradual development of the child's cognitive ability implies that the younger the child is the more concrete the presentation of subjects must be. As the child grows, gradual intro duction of more abstract teaching methods is permissible. Moreover, Baha'i teachings specifically show that even for adults when the subject is highly abstract, it is necessary to utilize sense-perceptible and concrete examples. Another suggested teaching method is to encour age active involvement of the students in their own learn ing processes. This can be done by utilizing strategies such as question-answer method, decision-making activities, and relating doing with thinking. 8. Teachers take an important role both in educat ing individuals as well as taking part in the evolution of a new and finer civilization. The task of educating children is equivalent to direct service to God. There fore, the teacher's station is to be greater than that of the physical parents. Such a highly praised station, however, demands a teacher with special qualities; a teacher-who is perfect in all respects and can act as a 245^ perfect example; a teacher who is responsible for spiritual, intellectual, and physical growth of the student; and a teacher who is capable of dealing delicately and properly with his students. 9. An essential part of Baha'i education is a universal curriculum which must be implemented all over the world independent of ethnic, cultural, and economic differences. Besides, it must be the same for girls and boys. Baha'i education, by both offering women equal edu cational opportunities as well as encouraging them to grasp and utilize what they have been offered, tries to secure one of its most fundamental requirements for the fulfilling of world unity. There is at least one other element in Baha'i universal curriculum which is absolutely necessary for achieving world unity: adopting a universally accepted auxiliary language to function as a second language for students all over the world. Besides, the Baha'i universal curriculum must offer subject matters that deal appropri ately with the growth of the child's physical, intellec tual, and spiritual dimensions. 10. There are at least four different institutions in charge of setting forth the administrational policies of Baha'i education: the child's family, the Local Spiritual Assemblies, the National Spiritual Assemblies, and the Universal House of Justice. Based upon the two fundamental principles of universal and compulsory ft” * - . 246' education, all of these four institutions, acting at different levels of accountability, must unite their efforts to deal effectively with administrative problems such as financial responsibility for education, the extent of coverage of education, schools discipline, and the pro cess of setting the educational goals and objectives. Conclusions On the basis of this examination of the role of the concept of unity in the Baha'i philosophical system and consequently in its education, the following conclusions may be drawn: 1. By unity there are at least two meanings in volved. On one hand, unity may mean something equivalent to the state of being one or oneness. On the other hand, it implies a whole or totality as combining all its parts into one, or the state of being united or combined into one. In either case, unity is the single most basic con cept to the philosophical and, consequently, the educa tional foundations of the Baha'i Faith. 2. The conception of the unity of God filters down to the unity of His Manifestations and, consequently, to the unity of mankind. The abstract and unknowable meaning of the unity in the world of God, takes a more con crete and understandable form when it comes down to the world of His Manifestations. Still such a unity becomes 247 more tangible when it reaches the ground of man. In fact, it is through the unity of the human race that man can really touch and feel the unity of God and that of His Manifestations. World unity functions as a perfect echo or reflection of that non-percep’ tible unity which belongs to the world of God. 3. The two fundamental principles of the unity in the realm of man (unity in the existence of man and unity of mankind) function supportively. On one hand, a har monious development of all aspects of human beings (physi cal, intellectual, and spiritual) is an essential element to get closer to the unity of all members of the human race. On the other hand, a more united world gives better opportunities to the individual to develop as an integrated and a united whole. Therefore, unity in the existence of man and the unity of mankind are mutually supportive of each other. 4. Baha'i epistemological approaches can be di- . videdinto two categories: scientific and non-scientific. The scientific methods encourage man to utilize his rational faculty and reasoning ability to seek for truth. Such methods may consist of using those modes of knowing which are basically founded upon the principle of causality, In this respect, the Faith is in a general agreement with the ways scientists choose to solve problems. Baha'i epistemology does not, however, confine itself to such a : 248) method. The second general category consists of non- scientific methods where approaches such as meditation, prayer, and intuition may function as reliable modes of knowing. What seems to be of utmost importance is that such a dichotomy should not exist in reality. These two general categories must be utilized harmoniously. They must be united in order to bring about a totality which is the most appropriate and reliable approach to seek for reality. 5. In its simplest form, the Baha'i ethical system claims that "good" is what causes unity and "evil" is what brings about discord and separation. At least two of the ethical principles which are extremely instrumental in achieving the goal of unity of human beings are justice and love of humanity. It is through proper interaction of the true meanings of these two that other ethical princi pals of the Faith takes form. 6. Metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical foundations of the Baha'i philosophical principles are the major sources for deriving Baha'i educational structures. Its metaphysical traits are influential in determining the nature of the school's curriculum, the teacher's roles and the responsibilities, and the position of the student in relation to both the teacher and the curriculum. The impact of Baha'i epistemology is evident in the domain of instructional methodologies and the role of teachers in 24 9 : the process of transfering knowledge.. Its ethical principles are instrumental in establishing both the long-range and the short-term goals of education. 7. As in the domain of the Baha'i philosophical convictions, the concept of unity plays an absolutely crucial role in the Baha'i educational system. Not only must there be unity of the elements involved in the educa tive processes, education must function as a uniting force, helping to unify both the diverse factors in the existence of man as well as the members of the human race. There fore, education is a goal-oriented, purposeful enterprise, devoted to bringing about desirable changes both in the individual and in societies. Education is not a passive endeavor only to reflect the characteristics of the society. It must function as a change agent. 8. Two important goals for Baha'i education (social goals and spiritual goals), though different in nature, are closeTy related to each other. On one hand, spiritually developed individuals contribute a great deal to the Baha'i social goal of bringing about a united planet. On the other hand, achieving more and more toward this desirable state of society will provide a more appropriate environment for spiritual development of the individual. Therefore, these two goals must unite in order to bring about a new social order in which social and individual development support each other. 25 0 ‘ 9. The encompassing role of education to deal with the material, intellectual, and spiritual sides of man is absolutely essential in providing what the Baha'i Faith calls a "true civilization," when there is a harmony and unity between the material and spiritual progress. It is the strong conviction of the Baha'i Faith that material progress, although one of the means for the advancement of human civilization, can be even harmful if not accom panied by divine or spiritual development of man. Here education must take a leading role in order to prevent an unbalanced development of one at the cost of the other. 10. In order to bring forth individuals who both appreciate and act upon the concept of world unity, Baha'i education must inculcate certain sets of values from early stages of the child's life. Therefore, character building and attitude development play an important role in the early life education. The Baha'i Faith is convinced that character rectification and refinement are extremely diffi cult after puberty. Therefore, the necessary foundations must be laid in childhood. The desirable moral values should be fostered so that there will be no need for any punitive measure in the future. If the necessary princi ples that are needed to facilitate the path toward world unity are fostered from early ages, the issue of internal izing such an abstract concept will be, by and large, resolved. 2 51-' 11. Baha'i epistemological and psychological principles as well as a few other direct suggestions in the Baha'i writings are the major sources for deriving the basic tenets of its instructional methodologies. For example, two basic principles imply the possibility or even the necessity of / ' individualized instruction: the principle of "independent search for reality" and the significance of using symbolic language. Other psycho logical convictions such as accepting the gradual develop ment of the child's mental capacity implies certain methods such as going from the concrete to the abstract either when the child is very young or when the subject is quite unfamiliar. At any rate, what is of utmost importance is that none of these methodologies is complete by itself. All must unite and be harmoniously developed to offer each student the most effective means to learn. 12. In order to fully and effectively participate in bringing about the world unity, teachers must be an integrated, united whole themselves. Therefore, the con cept of unity is embodied both in the teacher's existence and in his duty. Even in treating the students, this essential harmony between teacher's love and care on one hand, and his discipline and regulation on the other is traceable. In fact, not only must the teacher be a united whole, he must adopt harmonious as well as harmonizing approaches in his dealing with his students. 252 13. The concept of the unity in the Baha'i philosophy of education has direct implication for setting forth basic components of its universal curriculum. Based on the Baha'i philosophical systems and its goals for education, a universal curriculum must be designed. Such a curriculum, although concerned about individual differ ences, must consist of common elements with world-wide implications. To harmoniously develop the body, mind, and the spirit of the student, at least four distinct elements must be taken into consideration for organizing a universal curriculum. These elements which can be embodied in a variety of subject matter may be categorized into character building and ethical orientation, emotional expressions, mental and intellectual cultivation, and overt behavior. Such a curriculum may meet the multifacet demands of human nature as well as contributing to the achievement of the world unity. 14. The administrational- responsibilities of Baha'i education may be divided into two categories. The Univer sal House of Justice takes the responsibilities of those common elements of the Baha'i universal education that must be adopted regardless of where the students live, ^hereas, it is the. responsibility of the Local and National Spiritual Assemblies to deal with the issues associated with the essential diversities among the students. In brief,' the Universal House of Justice takes a unifying and "253' coordinating role, whereas the Spiritual Assemblies provide essential means for the implementation of the universal goals as well as adopting those policies which meet the specific demands of each situation. Re c ornmend a t i on s Since the present study examined possible educa tional traits of the Baha'i Faith in detail, most of the educational recommendations for any practical purpose can be found throughout the body of this investigation. However, there are a few points that are worth considering for the person who wants to get involved in developing a Baha'i educational organization. 1. It seems that one must have a good grasp of knowledge of related philosophical principles of the Faith before developing any kind of Baha'i system of education. Since the major elements of Baha'i education are essen tially derived from its philosophical foundations, such a knowledge is not only helpful but absolutely essential for designing a comprehensive educational structure. 2. In addition to the knowledge of philosophical principles, other related Baha'i viewpoints such as psychological, economical, and social tenets must be care fully studied. Moreover, there are many direct educational suggestions and guidelines that must be taken into con sideration before initiating any educational plans. .254J • —' 3. Since teachers seem to be the single most important factor in implementing educational goals and objectives, the process of selecting, training, and evaluating them must be properly examined. 4. The fact that the concept of unity plays an essential role in both Baha'i philosophy and education implies the idea that all of the personnel involved in the educative processes must be not only fully aware of such a concept but dedicated and committed to act upon it. Although an attempt was made in this study to stipulate the possibilities of developing a Baha'i system of education based on its philosophy and on the signifi cance of the concept of unity, the imposed limitations and delimitations allowed it only to cover some aspects of either the Baha'i philosophical system or its education. Therefore, it is recommended that future investigations in the following related topics be given consideration. 1. The present study was limited only to those philosophical aspects that are directly related to the field of education. Future examinations will be helpful to depict other Baha'i philosophical principles. It seems that the Faith has the potentiality to be philosophically analyzed like any other secular school of thought. 2. Of all of the educational elements of schooling that were not examined in this study, at least two seem to be possible fields of investigation: evaluation and 255 ^ teacher training programs. The problem of evaluation is of great importance in any educational system. The success or the failure of the whole program may depend on adopting an appropriate system of evaluation. In like manner, no educational system will be successful without having teachers who are able and willing to take the responsibil ity of its implementation. Therefore, teacher training programs must be seriously taken into consideration. 3. The present study was limited only to formal education or schooling. Therefore, the fields of nonformal and informal education were not even touched. Nonformal education includes "the myriad of means and approaches other than those of the formal school structure by which skills and work-related knowledge and attitudes are acquired, updated and adapted" (Agency for International Development, cited in LaBell, 1975, p. 103). The emphasis of Baha'i teachings on the importance of work and learning marketable skills implies the idea that more attention must be paid to nonformal education. Therefore, future studies on the possibilities and the nature of Baha'i nonformal education cans be well-grounded. 4. Informal education (the sets of learning experiences that one can undergo not necessarily through schooling) is yet another field for further investigation. Especially the role of family and the community in shaping the attitudes and value-orientations of the child may be 256 , examined in order to investigate the possibility of devel oping desirable characteristics from the early ages. 5. Based on the Baha’i teachings on the importance of manual skills for every child, the possibilities and the nature of Baha1i vocational schools may be a topic for further study. 6. Although the present study stipulated the general themes of Baha'i curriculum, there are still details that must be developed with more specificity. A thorough examination and development of an encompassing Baha'i curriculum must be taken into consideration by future investigations. REFERENCES V258^ REFERENCES Abdu'l-Baha. The promulgation of universal peace: Dis courses by Abdu'l-Baha during his visit to the United States in 1912 (Vol. 1). Chicago: Executive Board of Baha'i Temple Unity, 19 22. Abdu'l-Baha. The promulgation of universal peace: Dis courses by Abdu'l-Baha during his visit to the United States in 1912 (Vol. 2). Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 19 25. Abdu'l-Baha. Tablets of Abdu'l-Baha Abbas (6 vols.). Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 1930-40. (Ori ginally published, 1909-16). Abdu'l-Baha. (Some Answered Questions) (L. C. Barney, comp, and trans.). Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1964. (Originally published, 1908.) Abdu'1-Baha. Paris talks: Addresses given by Abdu'l-Baha in Paris in 1911-12. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1969. (Originally published, 1912.) Abdu'l-Baha. Foundations of World Unity. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 19 71. Afnan, R. M. Baha'u'llah and the Bab confront modern thinkers, Book III, Spinoza: Concerning God. New York: Philosophical Library Inc., 1977. Anderson, C. C. Conceptualizing and implementing global education: A rationale curriculum materials and teacher strategies for elementary schools (Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, 1976). Disser tation Abstracts International, 1977, 3_7, 7062A. (University Microfilm No. 77-9996) Bab, The. (Selections from the Writings of the Bab) (H. Taherzadeh, trans.). Haifa: Baha'i World Center, 1976. Baha'i education: A compilation. Wilmette: Baha'i Pub lishing Trust, 1978. Baha'i revelation, The: A selection from the Baha'i Holy Writings. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1955. 259- Baha'i World Faith: Selected writings of Baha'u'llah and Abdu11-Baha. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 19 56. Baha'u'llah. [The Kitab-i-Iqan. the Book of Certitude] (Shoghi Effendi, trans.). Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1956. (Originally published, 1931). Baha'u'llah. [Epistle to the Son of the Wolf] (Shoghi Effendi, trans.). Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976. (Originally published, 1953.) Baha'u'llah. [Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah] (Shoghi Effendi, comp, and trans.). Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976. (Originally published, 1936.) Baha'u'llah. [Tablets of Baha'u'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqda sJ (Taherzadeh, H. trans.). Haifa: Baha'i World Center, 1978. Baily, N. A. Science and the Baha'i Faith. World Order, 1975, 10 (1) , 41-48. Balyuzi, H. M. Baha'u'llah: A Brief Life, Followed by an Essay on the Manifestation of God Entitled the World Made Flesh. London: George Ronald, 196 3. Balyuzi, H. M. Abdu'l-Baha: the Center of the Covenant of Baha1u'llah. Oxford: George Ronald, 1971. Conway, P. W. Perceptual Competence and the ANISA Process- Curriculum. World Order, 1973-74, 8_(2) , 23-35. Encyclopaedia Britanica (Vol. 2). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britanica Inc., 1979. Ferraby, J. All Things Made New: A Comprehensive Outline of the Baha'i Faith. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1957. Hatcher, J. Metaphorical Nature of Physical Reality. World Order, 1977, 11(4), 31-58. Hatcher, W. Science and Religion. World Order, 1969, 3(3), 7-19. Johnson, V. E. Historical Analysis of Critical Transforma tion in the Evolution of the Baha'i Worlf Faith (Doc toral dissertation, Baylor University, 1974). Disser tation Abstracts International, 1975, 3_6, 1600A. (University Microfilm No. 75-20,564) 260} Jordan, D. The Dilemma of the Modern Intellectual. World Order, 1967, 1(3), 3-8. Jordan, D. In search of the Supreme Talisman: A Baha'i Perspective on Education. World Order, 1970, 5(1), 12-22. Jordan, D., & Shepard, R. P. The Philosophy of the ANISA Model. World Order, 1972, 7/1), 23-31. Jordan, D., & Stretts, D. T. The ANISA Model: A New Edu cational System for Developing Human Potential. World Order, 1972, 6/3), 21-31. Kachaturoff, G., & Blackburn, G. (Eds.). Education for Global Consciousness: Social Studies for Responsible Citizenship. Illinois: Michigan Council for the Social Studies Interstate Printers & Publishers, Inc., 1978. Kalinofski, M. F., & Jordan, D. The ANISA Theory of Development. World Order, 1973, 7/4), 17-26. Kneller, G. E. Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (@nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 19 71. LaBell, T. J. (Ed.). Educational Alternatives in Latin America: Social Change and Social Stratification. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1975. Lefrancois, G. R. Psychology for Teaching (2nd ed.). California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1975. Mabani-i-Aqayed: Oluhiat va Tawhid. Iran: Baha'i National Publishing Institute, 1973. McLean, J. The Knowledge of God: An Essay on Baha'i Epistemology. World Order, 1978, 12/3), 38-57. Mahmoudi, J. A Sociological Analysis of the Baha'i Move ment (Doctoral dissertation, University of Utah, 1966). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1967, ,27, 1121A- 1122A. (University Microfilm No. 66-9397) Mahmoudi, J. Irfan, Gnosis, or Mystical Knowledge. World Order, 1973, 7(4), 5-17. Mitchell, M. R. Grin, S..S., & Sobel, B. World Education: An Emerging Concept. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1977. ,261; Morris, D. N. Global Education in the Elementary Curricu lum: The New American Educational Dream (Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, 1978). Disser tation Abstracts International, 1978, 39_, 2051A-2052A. (University Microfilm No. 78-18, 162) Morris, V. C., & Pai, Y. Philosophy and the American School (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976. Morrison, G. Education for Worldmindedness. World Order, 1971, 5,(4) , • 32-42. Periasawamy, A. Rabindranath Tagore's Philosophy of International Education (Doctoral Dissertation, Loyola University of Chicago, 1976). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1976, 3/7, 2713A. (University Micro film No. 76-6321) Reality of Man, The: Excerpts from Writings of Baha'u'llah and Abdu'l-Baha. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1969, (Originally published, 1931.) Remey, C. M. Constructive Principles of the Baha'i Move ment . Chicago: The Baha'i Publishing Society, 1917. Rost, H. T. D. The Possible Nature and Establishment of Baha'.i Universities and Colleges Based Upon a Study of Baha'i Literature (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Dakota, 1969). Dissertation Abstracts Interna tional, 1970, 30, 4290A. (University Microfilm No. 69-20,616) Rost, H. T. D. The Brilliant Stars: The Baha'i Faith and the Education of Children. Oxford: George Ronald, 1979. Sartre, J. P. [Existentialism] (B. Frechtman, trans.). New York: Philosophical Library, 1947. Shoghi Effendi. The World Order of Baha'u'llah. New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 1938. Sobel, B. Morris Mitchell: Prophet of World Education (Doctoral dissertation, Boston University, 1972). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 3J3, 1334A. (University Microfilm No. 77-25,985) 262 Synopsis and Modifications of the Laws and Ordinances of the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Haifa: Baha'i World Center, 1973. Taherzadeh, A. The Revelation of Baha'u'llah: Baghdad, 1853-63 (Vol. 1). Oxford: George Ronald Publishers, 1974. | Taherzadeh, A. The Revelation of Baha'u'llah: Adrianopole, j 1863-68 (Vol. 2). Oxford: George Ronald Publishers, 1977. i Wild, J. Introduction to Realistic Philosophy. New York: j Harper, 1948. 1 Yntema, M. K. Harmony of Science and Religion, World Order, 1967, 2(1), 38-44.

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Creator Zaerpoor, Mahyad (author)

Core Title Educational implications of Baha'i philosophy with a special consideration of the concept of unity

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-495938

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